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Zygmunt Krasiński

Napoleon Stanisław Adam Feliks Zygmunt Krasiński (19 February 1812 – 23 February 1859) was a Polish poet traditionally ranked after Adam Mickiewicz and Juliusz Słowacki as one of Poland's Three Bards – the Romantic poets who influenced national consciousness in the period of Partitions of Poland.

Krasiński was the most famous member of the noble Krasiński family. He was born in Paris to Count Wincenty Krasiński and Maria Urszula Radziwiłł, a member of the aristocratic Radziwiłł family, he became the close companion of his father after his mother's early death from tuberculosis. He was educated by tutors prior to attending the Warsaw Lyceum, where he graduated in 1827. He then started to study law and administration at the Royal University of Warsaw, but was expelled from the university in 1829.

In 1829 Krasiński left Poland to study in Geneva. He met Mickiewicz, who dazzled the young writer and played an important part in shaping his literary techniques. In Rome, Krasiński received news about the November Uprising and broke off his trip with the intention of returning to Poland to fight, but in the end, did not participate. In 1833 he travelled from Saint Petersburg to Italy, where he would stay until April 1834. This period saw the creation of probably his most famous work, the tragic drama Nie-Boska komedia (The Undivine Comedy). By 1850 his health had worsened, but that did not stop his constant travels around Europe. Through letters and audiences with European figures, including Napoleon III of France, he sought to gain support for the Polish cause. To avoid political repercussions, he published his works anonymously, which led to him being known as the Anonymous Poet of Poland.

Krasiński's early works were influenced by Walter Scott and Lord Byron and extolled medieval chivalry. In 1845 he published Psalmy przyszłości (Psalms of the Future). He is best known for The Undivine Comedy as well as for the large body of well-received letters. His writings explore conservatism, Christianity, the necessity of sacrifice and suffering to moral progress, and providentialism. The Undivine Comedy and another major work, Irydion (1834), explore the concept of class struggle, contemplating social revolution, and predicting the destruction of the nobility. His later writings showed his opposition to romantic militant ventures. He wrote letters, poetry, and "treatises in the philosophy of history", such as Psalms of the Future and Przedświt (poemat) (Predawn). The Undivine Comedy is perhaps the most important Polish drama of the Romantic period.

Childhood
Napoleon Stanisław Adam Feliks Zygmunt Krasiński was born in Paris on 19 February 1812 to Count Wincenty Krasiński, a Polish aristocrat and military commander, and Countess Maria Urszula Radziwiłł, a member of the House of Radziwill, a Polish-Lithuanian noble family. He spent his first years in Chantilly, where Napoleon Bonaparte's Imperial Guard Regiment was stationed, and the Emperor attended his baptism. In 1814 his parents moved to Warsaw, then part of the Duchy of Warsaw, ruled by Frederick Augustus I of Saxony, as a client state of the First French Empire. Krasiński's cultivated and doting father employed prominent tutors, including Baroness Helena de la Haye, Józef Korzeniowski (1797–1863), and Piotr Chlebowski, to educate Zygmunt. Following the stabilization brought by the end of the Napoleonic Wars, which saw the end of the Duchy of Warsaw and the creation of Congress Poland, the Krasiński family spent most summer holidays on their estates in Podole and Opinogóra. On 12 April 1822 Zygmunt's mother died of tuberculosis, and the 10-year-old boy became a precocious close companion to the family head, who instilled in Zygmunt a reverence for chivalry and honor. Zygmunt's fascination with his father's personality, and their mutual hopes for a free Poland, led to an excessive, onerous mutual idealization. Over the years, their "intimate and difficult" relationship would be very influential on Zygmunt, whom Victor Erlich described as "weak and hypersensitive", compared to his "affectionate but domineering" father.

In September 1826 Zygmunt entered the Warsaw Lyceum (a secondary school which Chopin had attended in 1823–1826), graduating in autumn 1827. He began studies in law and administration at the Imperial University of Warsaw. On 9 March 1829 an incident occurred, stemming from Krasiński's attendance at classes instead of at a patriotic demonstration during the funeral of Marshal Piotr Bieliński (politician). Krasiński had boycotted the funeral at the urging of his father, who the previous year had clashed politically with Bieliński, who was widely seen as a national hero. Krasiński was one of only two students to remain in class. On 14 March 1829 he was publicly criticized by a fellow student, Leon Łubieński; this led to an altercation serious enough to involve the university administration and to eventuate in Krasiński's expulsion.

From late May to mid-June 1829 Krasiński, accompanying his father, took his first journey abroad, visiting Vienna, capital of the Austrian Empire. In October 1829 he left Poland again, this time to study abroad. Travelling through Prague, Plzeň, Regensburg, Zürich, and Bern, 17-year-old Krasiński arrived on 3 November 1829 in Geneva.

Literary travels
Much of Krasiński's time in Geneva was divided between attendance at university lectures, being tutored, and his social life. He soon became fluent in French. His Geneva stay helped shape his personality. Soon after arrival in Geneva, at the beginning of November 1829, Krasiński met Henry Reeve, a physician's son who was in Switzerland to study philosophy and literature. The talented young Englishman, who composed overwrought romantic poetry, greatly inspired young Krasiński. They became fast friends and exchanged letters discussing their love of classical and romantic literature.

At the beginning of 1830, Krasiński developed romantic feelings for Henrietta Willan, the daughter of a wealthy English merchant and tradesman. This relationship inspired future works by Krasiński. On 11 August 1830 Krasiński met Adam Mickiewicz, a principal figure in Polish Romanticism, and Poland's greatest poet. Krasiński's wide-ranging conversations with Mickiewicz, who dazzled Krasiński with the breadth of his knowledge, were vital in inspiring Krasiński's to improve his literary techniques. From 14 August to 1 September 1830 they traveled together to the High Alps; Krasiński described this in his diary; being a prolific writer of letters, he wrote about this trip as well in a letter to his father, which was dated 5 September 1830.

Around early November 1830 Krasiński left Geneva and traveled to Italy, visiting Milan, Florence, and Rome. In Rome, receiving news about the outbreak of the November Uprising in Poland, he broke off his trip and returned to Geneva. He had been finishing a historical novel, Agaj-Han, recounting the story of Tsaritsa and warlord Marina Mniszech, considered his most significant work of that period. On the advice of his father, who opposed rebellion against the Russian Empire (he had become a Russian general), he did not go to Poland to participate in the Uprising – to his later everlasting regret. In May 1832 he set out for Poland, on the way again visiting Italy (Milan, Verona, Vicenza, Padua, Venice), then Innsbruck and Vienna, finally by mid-August 1832 arriving in Warsaw. During that trip, in Venice, he consulted with ophthalmologist Friedrich Jäger regarding his surfacing eye disease, which would continue over the years to come, becoming one of the reasons for his growing introspection.

Having reunited with his father shortly afterward, they traveled together to Saint Petersburg, where in October he received an audience with the Russian Tsar Nicholas I. The elder Krasiński tried to arrange a diplomatic career for his son with the Russian Empire, but Zygmunt was not interested and was content to travel abroad again. In March 1833 he left Saint Petersburg and, visiting Warsaw and Kraków, traveled once more to Italy, where he would stay until 19 April 1834. This period saw the creation of what is likely his most famous work, the drama The Undivine Comedy (Nie-Boska komedia), written probably between summer and fall 1834.

In Rome, Krasiński fell in love with Joanna Bobrowa. Though the relationship lasted for a few years, it did not result in marriage (in any case, Bobrowa was already married). With her and her husband Teodor, in the spring of 1834, Krasiński took another trip to Italy. That summer he met his father in Kissingen, then traveled to Wiesbaden and Ems. Autumn saw him visit Frankfurt and Milan, and by November he returned to Rome. In spring the following year he visited Naples, Pompeii, Sorrento, then Florence. In this period he finished another major work, the drama Irydion, which he had begun earlier, around 1832 or 1833. Departing Florence in June 1835, he met Bobrowa in Kissingen, then traveled with her to Ischl and Trieste, and then on alone to Vienna, which he reached in January 1836. Then he went to Milan and Florence, and again to Rome. In Rome, in May that year, he would meet and befriend another major Polish literary figure, Juliusz Słowacki. In summer 1836 he returned to Kissingen and visited Gräfenberg, where he once more met his father. In November he returned to Vienna, where he stayed until June 1837. That summer he visited Kissingen and Frankfurt am Main, then returned by September to Vienna.

Worsening health prevented him from resuming his travels until May 1838, when he traveled to Olomouc and Salzbrunn, then returned to Poland, in June visiting family estates in Opinogóra Górna. Shortly after, he traveled to Warsaw and then Gdańsk. September marked the end of his romance (which his father had opposed) with Joanna Bobrowa. On 1 September 1838, together with his father, he again departed for Italy (Venice, Florence, Rome, and Naples). In Rome he once again met Juliusz Słowacki.

Later life
For over a decade, Krasiński's muse was Countess Delfina Potocka (likewise a friend of composer Frédéric Chopin), with whom he conducted a romance from 1838 to 1848. In the first half of 1839 he traveled to Sicily, meeting Potocka in Switzerland, and his father in Dresden. He spent much of that time traveling with Potocka and writing poems and other works dedicated to her. In July 1840 his father informed the 28-year-old of plans that he had made for Zygmunt to marry Countess Eliza Branicka (1820–1876). The marriage eventuated on 26 July 1843 in Dresden. The couple would have four children: sons Władysław and Zygmunt, and daughters Maria Beatrix and Elżbieta.

As usual, much of Krasiński's time was divided between traveling and writing. The year 1843 also saw the publication of his poem Przedświt (poemat) (Predawn). In 1845 he published another major work, Psalmy przyszłości (Psalms of the Future). Tirelessly continuing his travels through Central Europe, in January 1848, in Rome, he met another Polish literary figure, the struggling poet Cyprian Norwid (sometimes considered a fourth Polish bard), whom he would aid financially. He also met Mickiewicz again and endorsed Prince Adam Jerzy Czartoryski's political faction. A conservative, Krasiński was critical of the revolutionary upheavals known as the Spring of Nations.

In 1850 his health worsened, but that did not stop his constant travels, including to France. Through letters and audiences with European figures, including Napoleon III, whom he met in 1857 and 1858, he sought to gain support for the Polish cause. In 1856, in Paris, he took part in the funeral of Adam Mickiewicz. On 24 November 1857, in a major blow to Krasiński, his father died.

Krasiński died in Paris on 23 February 1859. His body, like his father's, was transported to Poland and laid to rest in the family crypt at Opinogóra. Today the former family estate of the Krasiński family is the home of a Museum of Romantism.

Themes
Key themes in his writings include conservatism, Messianist Christianity, the necessity of sacrifice and suffering to moral progress, and providentialism. His relation to his father, who strongly influenced – indeed, controlled – many aspects of his life, is also seen as a major influence in his writings.

Some of Krasiński's work contains antisemitic motifs. Political scientist Stephen Bronner argues that the Comedy is probably "the first work in which a Jewish conspiracy against a Christian society figured as the prominent theme". According to theatre critic Agata Adamiecka-Sitek, this aspect of the piece is still a sensitive topic in Poland, as the piece is "both canonical and profoundly embarrassing for Polish culture, on par perhaps with The Merchant of Venice in the western theatre canon". He differed from his major peers, Mickiewicz and Słowacki, in his vision of the future. Accepting the likelihood of democratic social revolution, he was much less sanguine about it than they; and so were his works, when they touched on the future. All Three Bards agreed the future would see major, likely violent changes. For Krasiński, the future held little hope for a better, new world, though his later works suggested the possibility of salvation – and of restoration of Polish independence – through a return to conservative Christian values.

Works
Krasiński's early works, particularly his historical novels, such as Agaj-Han, were influenced by Walter Scott and Lord Byron and extolled medieval chivalry. They are also deeply pessimistic. This gloomy atmosphere is visible in Krasiński's best-known work, the drama Nie-boska komedia (The Undivine Comedy), which he wrote around 1835, when he was in his early twenties. In the 19th century, a greater Polish Romantic poet, Adam Mickiewicz, discussed The Undivine Comedy in his Collège de France lectures, calling it "the highest achievement of the Slavic theater". A century later, another Polish poet and lecturer on the history of Polish literature, Nobel laureate Czesław Miłosz, called The Undivine Comedy "truly pioneering" and "undoubtedly a masterpiece not only of Polish but... of world literature", and remarked how surprising it was that such a brilliant drama could have been created by an author barely out of his teens. The American academic Harold B. Segel noted that the play "has steadily gained prestige in the twentieth century and is widely regarded in Poland as one of the greatest dramatic works to emerge from the Romantic period", and that it had been staged outside Poland and was likely the most internationally known Polish romantic drama.

The Undivine Comedy discussed the concept of class struggle before Karl Marx had coined the phrase. The Undivine Comedy appears to have been inspired by the author's reflections on the Polish November 1830 Uprising and on the French July 1830 Revolution. It contemplated social revolution, predicted the destruction of the nobility, and commented on societal changes wrought by western Europe's burgeoning capitalism. The play was critical both of the aristocracy and of the revolutionaries, the former depicted as cowardly, and the latter, as destructive; neither morally superior. Also addressed were such themes as the poet's identity, the nature of poetry, and Romantic myths of perfect love, fame, and happiness. In another prose drama, Irydion, Krasiński again took up the theme of societal decay. He condemned the excesses of revolutionary movements, arguing that motives such as retribution had no place in the Christian ethic; many contemporaries, however, saw the play as an endorsement of militant struggle for Poland's independence, while Krasiński's intent was to advocate for organic work as a means to society's advancement. His later writings more clearly showed his opposition to romantic militant ventures and his advocacy of peaceful, organic educational work; this was particularly so in his Psalms of the Future, which expressly criticized the concept of revolution. Krasiński began writing Irydion before The Undivine Comedy, but published it after the latter. Miłosz commented that, while Irydion is a work of considerable talent, especially in its insightful analysis of the decadence of Roman Empire, it is not on a par with The Undivine Comedy; and Segel wrote that Irydion "attracts no great attention today".

Krasiński's later work includes a body of poetry, but his lyrical poetry is not particularly notable; indeed, he himself remarked that he was not a particularly gifted poet. More memorable are his "treatises in the philosophy of history", especially Predawn and Psalms of the Future, influenced by philosophers including Georg Hegel, Friedrich Schelling, August Cieszkowski, and Bronisław Trentowski. Krasiński's rejection of Romantic ideals and democratic slogans which he felt inspired futile bloody rebellions, brought a polemical reply from fellow poet Juliusz Słowacki in the form of the poem, Odpowiedź na Psalmy przyszłości (A reply to "Psalms of the Future").

Lastly, he was a prolific writer of well-received letters, some of which survived and were published posthumously. Polish literature scholars Maria Janion and Kazimierz Wyka wrote that the body of his letters is, next to his dramas, his other major literary achievement; similar praise was offered by literature critic Jan Zbigniew Słojewski who argued that those letters are one of the crowning achievements of Polish Romanticism. Theater critic Jan Kott referred to the series of letters written by Krasiński to Potocka as "the greatest (yet unwritten) novel of the Polish Romantic period".

Most, if not all, of his works, were published anonymously or under pseudonyms, to protect his family – particularly his father, a politician and administrator in Russian-controlled Congress Poland – from retribution by the Russian Empire, as his works were often outspoken and contained thinly veiled references to the political situation of contemporary Europe (in particular, of the partitions of Poland). Due to his decision to publish anonymously, to the end of his life he was able to travel freely between his family manor in Russian-controlled lands and centers of Polish emigré life in Western Europe (the Great Emigration), while others, including Mickiewicz and Słowacki, were forced to remain in exile in the West, banned from returning to Polish lands by the occupying powers. This led to his being known as the Anonymous Poet of Poland (the title of English writer Monica Mary Gardner's 1919 monograph, The Anonymous Poet of Poland: Zygmunt Krasinski).

Critical assessment
Polish literary scholar Zbigniew Sudolski writes, in the Polish Biographical Dictionary, that Krasiński has traditionally been ranked with Mickiewicz and Słowacki as one of Poland's Three National Bards. Of the three, however, Krasiński is considered the least influential. Miłosz wrote that Krasiński, popular in the mid-19th century, remains an important figure in the history of Polish literature but is not on a par with Mickiewicz and Słowacki.

Modern scholars generally agree that while Krasiński was in his time admired for his poetry, it did not age well. Polish historian of literature, Mieczysław Giergielewicz, observes the contradiction regarding Krasiński's dramas and poems, the former which gained popularity with the critics, but not the public, while for the later, a reverse was true. He subsequently notes that over time, assessment of his dramas (and letters) overshadowed that of his poetry, which proved to be much less enduring. Segel likewise agreed that both Krasiński's poetry, as early as during the turn-of-the-century Young Poland period, came to be criticized as "vehicles for [an] embarrassing messianism" and as "amateur and shallow Romantic philosophizing". Krasiński's popularity further waned under the People's Republic of Poland, when his conservative religious themes met with disapproval by the communist authorities; new editions of his works were not published in the 1940s and 1950s.

Today most of Krasiński's Romantic tales and poetry are still considered relatively weak. On the other hand, he has come to be recognized as "a superb prose stylist and easily the outstanding epistolary artist of Polish romanticism", and his Undivine Comedy remains one of the most important dramas, if not the most important Polish drama, of the Romantic period.

title: Zygmunt Krasiński


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Aldbourne

Aldbourne  is a village and civil parish about 6 mi north-east of Marlborough, Wiltshire, England, in a valley on the south slope of the Lambourn Downs – part of the North Wessex Downs Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty. From here an unnamed winterbourne flows south to join the River Kennet 4 mi away near Ramsbury. The 2011 Census recorded the parish population as 1,833. The parish includes the hamlets of Upper Upham and Woodsend and part of the hamlet of Preston, which straddles the boundary with Ramsbury. The village of Snap became deserted in the early 20th century.

Early periods
Evidence of prehistoric activity on the chalk downs includes a barrow cemetery north-west of the village, a Bronze Age cross dyke to the north, and a field system in the valley around Snap.

There are extensive prehistoric or Romano-British field systems around Upper Upham. The west and north-east boundaries of the modern parish follow Roman roads, respectively the road from Cirencester to Cunetio (Mildenhall) and Ermin Street. Domesday Book in 1086 recorded a large settlement at Aldeborne, with 156 households, four mills and a church. Lewisham Castle is a small medieval ringwork about a mile and a half south-west of the village. It is not certain whether it was in fact a castle.

The Wiltshire Victoria County History traces the ownership of estates including Aldbourne manor, which was unusually large until it was broken up in the 17th century. Landowners include Rotrou IV, Count of Perche and descendants in the 12th century; William Longespée, 3rd Earl of Salisbury and descendants in the 13th and 14th; and trustees for the City of London for a short time in the 17th. An estate at Upham was given by Longespée to Lacock Abbey in 1249, and after the dissolution was bought in 1540 by John Goddard, whose descendants went on to be lords of the manor of Swindon.

Aldbourne was the wealthiest parish in Selkley hundred in the Middle Ages, and in 1377 the parish had 332 taxpayers. The population peaked around 1,600 in the mid-19th century, fell to 980 by the 1921 census, and has gradually risen since then.

In the English Civil War a Royalist force led by Prince Rupert fought a Parliamentarian force in a skirmish at Aldbourne Chase on 18 September 1643, two days before the First Battle of Newbury.

Fustian, a heavy cotton cloth, was woven in the village from at least the late 17th century. The industry was affected by a fire in 1760 and declined after the 1790s.

Since 1800
A Baptist chapel opened in 1841 in Back Lane and was rebuilt as New Zoar Chapel in 1868. It was sold in 1914 and demolished some time after 1931; its burial ground survives.

A Primitive Methodist chapel opened in West Street about 1840 and a new chapel was built on the site in 1906. Wesleyan Methodists built a chapel in Lottage Road in 1807, which was rebuilt in 1844. In 1968 the two congregations combined to build Aldbourne Methodist Church in Lottage Road. The chapel in West Street was demolished in 1982.

The Swindon, Marlborough and Andover Railway (later the Midland and South Western Junction Railway) opened between Swindon and Marlborough in 1881, alongside the Roman road in the west of the parish, just over the parish boundary. There was a station and small goods yard at Ogbourne. The line became part of the Great Western Railway in 1923 and closed in 1961, then dismantled.

During the Second World War, U.S. Army paratroopers of Easy Company, 2nd Battalion, 506th Parachute Infantry Regiment, 101st Airborne Division were based at Aldbourne from late 1943 to mid-1944, in preparation for the Normandy landings in June 1944 and Operation Market Garden in September. Both Easy Company and the village featured in the 2001 HBO miniseries Band of Brothers, though scenes for Aldbourne were filmed at the village of Hambleden, near the Oxfordshire town of Henley-on-Thames.

Two disused village pumps survive in the village.

Bell foundry
For at least 130 years Aldbourne had a bell foundry. Master-founders at Aldbourne included Robert Cor (active 1694–1724), William Cor (active 1696–1722), Oliver Cor (active 1725–1727), John Cor (active 1728–1750), John Stares (active 1744–1746), Edward Read (active 1751–57), Edne Witts (active 1759–1774), Robert I Wells (active 1760–81), Robert II Wells (active 1781–1793) and James Wells (active 1792–1826). Bells cast by the Cor and Wells families survive at parish churches including Alvescot, Ashbury, Berwick St John, Blewbury, Church Hanborough, East Challow, Drayton, East Lockinge, Faringdon, Farnborough, Great Coxwell, Horspath, Longworth, Marcham, Marsh Baldon, St Nicolas Newbury, Northleach, Uffington, Seend, Sutton Courtenay, West Hanney and others. The ten bells at St Nicolas in Newbury include the only surviving full set of eight bells cast by James Wells of Aldbourne (in 1803); the tenor bell weighing 21cwt (slightly heavier than a ton) is the heaviest bell cast at Aldbourne.

Parish church
The medieval Church of England parish church of St Michael, overlooking the village green, is a Grade I listed building described by Nikolaus Pevsner as "large and interesting". The nave and aisles were rebuilt in the first half of the 13th century, reusing fragments from a Norman church: one scalloped capital in the north arcade, and voussoirs in three of the arches in the south arcade. The south doorway of the nave is also from the 12th century, although parts of its stonework were replaced in the 19th. The chancel is Early English, with north and south chapels, and a sanctuary with lancet windows.

The Perpendicular Gothic three-stage tower was added in 1460 at the expense of Richard Goddard of Upham House. Until then the church probably had a central tower. It is ashlar, has angled buttresses and transomed three-light bell openings, with gargoyles above. There are transepts with three-light windows, a tall south porch – originally two-storey – and a bay between the porch and south transept. There was also a north porch until the building was restored by William Butterfield in 1863–1867; the work included new roofs for the nave and chancel, with the 15th-century roofs kept as a ceilings. The outside walls are of flint and limestone with some chequer-work and sarsen. They are crenellated. The roofs are lead and slate.

The font is probably from the 15th century, and the hexagonal carved wooden pulpit from about 1600. There are eight bells: two from the early 15th century, two from the 17th, and four cast locally in the 18th, one of them recast in 1915. Details of the gravestones and burial plots in the churchyard were recorded digitally in 2017–2018.

In 1956 the incumbent was authorised to hold both Aldbourne and Baydon, and the two benefices were united in 1965. Ramsbury was added in 1973, and today the church is one of six in the Whitton grouping.

Notable buildings
Court House, in its own grounds north of the church, has at its core a 16th-century farmhouse in flint and chalkstone; additions were made in brick in the 18th century and later. North of the house is an 18th-century carriage house and stables, with a small central clock-tower. A bell foundry was established in the grounds, probably in 1694, and continued to operate there until the 1760s. From 1809 to 1956 the house was used as the vicarage.

The Old Manor (formerly the Old Rectory), set behind brick walls on the south side of The Square, is a five-bay brick house from about 1740, with two further bays added on each side in the early 19th century.

Upham House, in the hamlet north-west of Aldbourne village, was built in 1599 for the Goddard family. The main part of the house, built in gritstone and flint, has a five-bay south-east front. It was Grade II* listed in 1966 and is now three dwellings.

West Leaze, on Ogbourne Road was built for Labour Party politicians Hugh and Ruth Dalton in 1929 as one of the most radical 20th century concrete houses to be built. It was designed by Irish born architect Frederick Edward Bradshaw MacManus who was working in the office of Sir John Burnet.

Governance
The parish has an elected parish council. It is within the area of the Wiltshire Council unitary authority, which performs the major local-government functions, and the Aldbourne and Ramsbury electoral ward, which includes the adjacent parishes of Baydon, Froxfield and Ramsbury. The 2011 Census gave a ward population of 5,231. For Westminster elections, the parish is in the East Wiltshire constituency.

Amenities
An open space in the centre of the village known as The Square has had a pond since at least the 18th century. Aldbourne has two public houses, the Blue Boar and the Crown, and a volunteer-run sports and social club. There is a Co-op supermarket and a village shop that includes a post office and a cafe. Aldbourne has had a village library since the 1930s, housed for the last few decades in South Street.

The village primary school, St Michael's C of E (Aided) School, was built in 1963 on the site of a national school that opened in 1858.

Aldbourne Heritage Centre, next to the Crown Inn, is a museum run by the Aldbourne Community Heritage Group. It displays a changing array of exhibits from Aldbourne's history, ranging from Stone Age flints and medieval documents to 19th and 20th-century photographs.

Aldbourne Band is a brass band that has won numerous national competitions.

People
Aldbourne people are nicknamed "Dabchicks" after the little grebe.

Johnny Morris (1916–1999), narrator and TV presenter known for the Animal Magic children's programmes, was employed as a manager at an Aldbourne farm in the 1940s before becoming a full-time freelance broadcaster in the 1950s; he lived in Aldbourne until late in life.

Margaret Longhurst (1882–1958), the first female keeper in a major British museum, retired here and is remembered in the village's heritage centre. Aldbourne was the home of the novelist Mavis Cheek in 2003–2015. Earlier residents included Jankel Adler (1895–1949), a Jewish Polish painter and printmaker who lived his last few years at Whitley Cottage, where he had a studio; Ruth Dalton (1890–1966), a Labour politician; and Anthony Marreco (1915–2006), a barrister and founding director of Amnesty International.

The author and historian Gerald Brenan and his American wife, the poet and novelist Gamel Woolsey, lived in Aldbourne from the late 1930s to 1953. Gerald's long-time friend John Hope-Johnstone, a photographer with links to the Bloomsbury Group, lived in a cottage attached to their house until his death in 1970.

Hilda Hanbury (1872–1939), known for voluntary work, bought Upham House at Upper Upham in 1909 and restored and enlarged the house and its gardens. She became Lady Currie when her husband James Currie was knighted in 1920, and stood unsuccessfully for the Liberals at Devizes in the 1922 general election.

The classicist and educator Mary Creighton Bailey moved to Aldbourne after retirement, and died there. Composer David Gow and his wife Margaret lived in Aldbourne, having moved from Axford.

Television
In 1971, Aldbourne was the filming location for the Doctor Who story The Dæmons, starring Jon Pertwee. The village in the story was called Devil's End. In 1992, Reeltime Pictures filmed a direct-to-video documentary called Return to Devil's End in Aldbourne, featuring Christopher Barry (director of the 1971 story) with cast members Jon Pertwee, Nicholas Courtney, Richard Franklin and John Levene.

Aldbourne was the filming location of the 2014 E4 television drama Glue, portraying the village of Overton. The village was also used as the filming location for Vodafone's Christmas advertisement in 2018.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Aldbourne


text:
All Cannings

All Cannings (pronounced "Allcannings") is a village and civil parish in the English county of Wiltshire, about 4 mi east of Devizes. The parish includes the nearby smaller settlement of Allington. In 2011 the parish had a population of 649.

The southern part of the parish lies in the Vale of Pewsey, and in the north the parish extends some 3 mi onto the Marlborough Downs and includes Tan Hill, which is (by a small margin) the second highest hill in Wiltshire. Etchilhampton Water, a tributary of the River Avon, forms part of the southern boundary of the parish. Moor Brook flows south through Allington and All Cannings villages to join it.

History
Prehistoric sites in the north of the present parish include Rybury Camp, a Neolithic causewayed enclosure overlaid by a late Bronze Age or early Iron Age hillfort, occupying some 2 hectares on a prominent ridge near Tan Hill. All Cannings Cross is an Iron Age site further south, which was investigated by Ben and Maud Cunnington from 1911; they made important finds of pottery. The Wansdyke earthwork crosses the parish in the far north.

The name is believed to be a derivation of "Old Canning". A village probably existed on the current site by the tenth century, as the invading Danes at that time referred to Canning marsh.

In 1086, Domesday Book recorded land held by St Mary's Abbey, Winchester at Caninge, with 58 households and a mill; and land held by Amesbury Abbey at Allentone, with 32 households.

There was a church from early in the 13th century and the earliest features in the current Church of England parish church are late Norman. By the 14th century the village had a water mill, but this had disappeared by the 18th century. In 1499, the Winchester abbey was granted the right to hold an annual fair near Wansdyke on Tan Hill (at the time known as Charlborough Down) which became a large sheep and horse fair, with amusements including horse racing. The fair continued to be held until World War II.

The Wiltshire Victoria County History traces the ownership of All Cannings manor from 1536, when it was granted to Edward Seymour, later Duke of Somerset. The land was sold as separate farms from 1909. Allington was held alongside Lydiard Tregoze until 1300, when it was allotted to John la Warr, 2nd Baron De La Warr (d.1347). Again the Victoria County History has the later owners, culminating in breakup and sale in 1907.

The Kennet and Avon Canal was built across the parish, passing just north of the village, and opened in 1810. The parish population peaked in the middle of the 19th century with the 1841 census showing 663 inhabitants.

The ancient parish had three tithings, All Cannings being the largest. Allington, a narrow strip to the west, was deemed a separate civil parish in 1881 and was united with All Cannings parish in 1934; its population in 1931 was 70. The third tithing was Fullaway (or Fullway), a small detached part between Stert and Urchfont, which was made a civil parish in 1857 and annexed to Stert parish in 1894, having a population around that time of 11.

Parish church
The Church of England parish church of All Saints (St Anne until c.1928), which stands at the south end of the village, took its present form in the 14th and 15th centuries and was restored in the 19th. It is a Grade II* listed building.

The church has a cruciform plan, which may reflect a Norman church on the same site; when the crossing was rebuilt in the 14th century, two short 12th-century columns and capitals were reused. The nave was re-roofed in 1638 and renewed in 1843. The chancel was rebuilt in 1678 and again in 1868–9, this time in Bath stone on a slightly narrower plan, to designs of Henry Weaver of Devizes. The elaborate interior decoration of the chancel is described by Historic England as Tractarian, with marble shafts decorating the four pairs of side windows, and an alabaster reredos with a relief of the Last Supper.

The three-stage central tower is mid-15th century and probably replaced an earlier one. It has a square stair-tower at its northeast corner, with a clock face on its north side. The Beauchamp Chapel, east of the south transept, is a chantry probably built by Richard Beauchamp, 6th Baron Amand (d. 1508).

The carved stone font is 15th-century, and its tall wooden cover is dated 1633. Monuments in the church include, at the west end of the south aisle, a large pedimented tablet to William Ernle (d. 1581) of Etchilhampton and his wife Jone; and at the same end of the north aisle, to Sir John Ernle, 5th baronet (d. 1734) – who was rector from 1709 – and his wife Elizabeth. Among the peal of six bells, two were cast by Roger Purdue of Salisbury bell foundry in 1626 and one by Thomas Rudhall in 1771.

The parish war memorial, a stone wheel-head cross unveiled in 1920, stands in the churchyard by its main entrance.

St Andrew's church at Etchilhampton, built in the 14th century, was always a chapelry of All Cannings, and the parish became known as All Cannings with Etchilhampton. The benefice was united with Bishop's Cannings in 1977 and today the All Cannings and Etchilhampton churches are part of the Cannings and Redhorn group. Parish registers from 1578 are held in the Wiltshire and Swindon History Centre, Chippenham.

Others
There was a church at Allington before 1100 but it fell into disuse, possibly in the 14th century.

Bethel Strict Baptist chapel opened at Allington in 1828 and is still in use. A Wesleyan Methodist chapel was registered in 1890 and closed sometime before 1959.

Modern long barrow
In 2015 the first long barrow in thousands of years, inspired by those built in the New Stone Age, was built on land just outside the village. The project was instigated by Tim Daw, a local farmer and a steward at Stonehenge.

The barrow was designed to have a large number of private niches within the stone and earth structure, to receive cremation urns. The structure received significant media attention as it was being built, and was fully subscribed within eighteen months.

Notable buildings
All Cannings village has several groups of cottages, mostly thatched, the oldest bearing a 1647 datestone.

Rustic Farmhouse is a timber-framed house under a thatched roof, from the late 16th century. Cliff Farmhouse is another timber-framed house from the late 16th century or early 17th, originally T in plan but now L, partly rebuilt.

The former rectory, close to the church, was rebuilt in the mid-17th century and extended in the early and late 19th; the older core has a sarsen lower floor and brick upper, and limestone dressings. It was sold in 1969.

Education
All Cannings had a Sunday school by 1808 and a day-school by 1818. 100 pupils were enrolled in the day-school but attendance was much less as many of the children worked in the fields during the week.

By 1833 the village had two-day-schools: the parish school with 105 pupils and a private school with 12 pupils. The Rector had the parish school built that year on land given by the Lord of the Manor, Alexander Baring.

The private school had closed by 1858. The parish school was reorganised in 1961 and moved into a new building in 2000.

Rock Against Cancer concerts
The Kings Arms public house hosts an annual "Rock Against Cancer" event called Concert at the Kings. Artists at the 2012 event included:

 * Bob Harris (compere)
 * Mike and the Mechanics
 * Brian May
 * Kerry Ellis
 * Madeline Bell
 * Midge Ure
 * Tom Robinson
 * Chris Thompson
 * Patti Russo
 * The Sweet
 * Strawbs

Early concrete housing
In 1868 Francis Baring, 3rd Baron Ashburton, and his tenant farmer Simon Hiscock decided to each build a pair of semi-detached workers cottages. They had two adjacent plots of the same size. The tenant built his pair of brick, his Lordship of concrete – the only major difference is that, in the absence of internal shuttering, the concrete chimneys are straight rather than bent to combine into a single chimney stack.

Both pairs of cottages still stand largely unaltered, although one of the concrete houses had an extension added in June 2006.

It is assumed that this was a trial into the efficacy of using shuttered reinforced concrete as a building method. It seems to have been successful as two more pairs were then built, followed by a more elaborate villa style pair of cottages and finally a large farmhouse. This experiment is little acknowledged outside the area. While these houses may not be the very first concrete houses built, they were built within a couple of years of the first one.

Notable people

 * David Curwen (1913–2011) built miniature railway steam locomotives at All Cannings.
 * Andy Scott (born 30 June 1949), guitarist with band The Sweet, and as of June 2020, the last surviving member of their 'classic lineup', lives in a converted barn at the village.

title: All Cannings


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Spätlese

Spätlese (literal meaning: "late harvest"; plural form is Spätlesen) is a German wine term for a wine from fully ripe grapes, the lightest of the late harvest wines. Spätlese is a riper category than Kabinett in the Prädikatswein category of the German wine classification and is the lowest level of Prädikatswein in Austria, where Kabinett is classified in another way. In both cases, Spätlese is below Auslese in terms of ripeness. The grapes are picked at least seven days after normal harvest, so they are riper and have a higher sugar content. Because of the weather, waiting to pick the grapes later carries a risk of the crop being ruined by rain. However, in warm years and from good sites much of the harvest will reach Spätlese level.

The wines may be either sweet or dry; it is a level of ripeness that particularly suits rich dry wines from Riesling, Weißer Burgunder, and Grauer Burgunder grapes for example, as at Auslese levels the alcohol levels may become very high in a dry wine, leaving the wine unbalanced, making wines with at least some residual sweetness preferable to most palates. However, most German wines are traditionally dry, and the amount of sugar is not the only factor balancing a wine. Dry German wines can be very balanced, and usually get higher ratings from German wine journalists than a comparable wine with more sugar.

Many Spätlese wines will age well, especially those made from the Riesling grape.

Characteristics

 * Greater intensity and strength than Kabinett
 * High level of acidity that curbs any overt sweetness
 * Fleshy and intensely flavored
 * Often tastes of apple, pear and honeysuckle
 * Elegant nose with highly detectable aromas

Requirements
The minimum must weight requirements for Spätlese are as follows:
 * In German wine, 76 to 90 degrees Oechsle, depending on the region, 1g of moist cloyster (wine growing zone) and grape variety.
 * In Austrian wine, 19 degrees KMW, corresponding to 95 °Oechsle.

Chaptalisation may not be used. The requirements are part of the wine law in both countries. Many producers, especially top-level producers, regularly exceed the minimum requirements.

The Spätlese courier at Schloss Johannisberg
Legend has it that the introduction of the Spätlese category took place in the Rheingau winery Schloss Johannisberg in 1775, and happened by mere circumstance. Since 1718, permission to start harvest at Johannisberg was announced in writing from the Prince-Bishop of Fulda by means of a so-called autumn courier – Herbstkurier. In 1775, for some reason, the courier sent out by the abbey at Fulda was delayed for 14 days. According to some, the abbey's messenger was robbed on the way to bring the official harvest picking order. By the time the order finally arrived noble rot had set in, but the harvest was carried out anyway, although no high hopes were staked on the wine from the rotten grapes. But rather than a failed product, the wine turned out to be surprisingly good. Schloss Johannisberg began actively seeking to produce late harvest – Spätlese – wines affected by noble rot. The delayed courier therefore became referred to as the Spätlesereiter.

In 1778 Thomas Jefferson tasted a bottle of Spätlese that was given to him and was so impressed that he advised friends who were in Europe to go to the Rheingau to experience the wines and bring a case back to America.

Additional Prädikat levels
Terminology for different levels of late harvest wines, based on grape selection, were then introduced starting with Auslese ("Select harvest") being introduced in 1787, and additional levels added later. The key to these developments was selection of bunches and grapes by level of ripeness and botrytis, thus giving different wines from the same vineyard.

Therefore, the initial Spätlese terminology was for any late harvest wine, and the initial 1775 Spätlese wine was made from grapes that were affected by noble rot to the extent that they appeared unpalatable, and gave a very sweet wine. Such a wine would not really correspond to a modern-day Spätlese. Grapes of this character, vinified by themselves would rather give a Beerenauslese in modern terminology, and if bunches of such botrytis-affected grapes were mixed with more or less healthy bunches, it seems likely that the wine would be classed in the upper end of the Auslese range.

Later history
In the 1971 German wine law, the Spätlese Prädikat was given its present interpretation. In the early post-World War II era, the semi-sweet wines that Germany for long has been associated with became more common, since new methods by stopping fermentation and using Süssreserve were introduced. The Spätlese wines represents the "high end" of these semi-sweet, rather than fully sweet, wines, since they are not allowed to be chaptalized.

From the 1980s, and even more from the 1990s, production of dry wines became much more common in Germany. Thus, wines designated "Spätlese trocken" in many cases came to represent the best dry wines from many wineries. From the early 2000s, the new designations Grosses Gewächs and Erstes Gewächs have become more common, with the result that remaining Spätlese trocken wines rather represents the second-best dry wines.

In Austria, which largely abandoned the semi-sweet wine category in the wake of the 1985 diethylene glycol scandal in order to concentrate more on dry wines, Spätlese wines are much less common than in Germany.

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Alton, Wiltshire

Alton is a civil parish in Wiltshire, England. The parish includes the adjacent villages of Alton Barnes and Alton Priors, and the nearby hamlet of Honeystreet on the Kennet and Avon Canal. It lies in the Vale of Pewsey about 6 mi east of Devizes.

The north of the parish is on the Marlborough Downs and includes part of Milk Hill, which is the highest point in Wiltshire at 295 m. The Woodborough Stream, a tributary of the Hampshire Avon, rises at Alton Priors and separates the two villages as it flows south.

History
The area has prehistoric sites including the Knap Hill earthwork and Adam's Grave, a Neolithic long barrow. A hoard of Roman coins was discovered at Alton Barnes.

The boundaries of Alton Barnes parish were established in the early 10th century, and the ancient parish became a civil parish in 1866. Alton Priors was a chapelry of Overton parish, now West Overton, and became a separate civil parish in 1866. In 1934 the civil parishes of Alton Barnes and Alton Priors were abolished and merged to form the new civil parish of Alton.

In 1086, Domesday Book recorded two landholdings within Swanborough Hundred at Awltone: one corresponding to Alton Barnes, held by Edward of Salisbury, with 14 households and a mill; and another held by Winchester Abbey with 50 households and two mills. The association of the latter with the abbey led later to the name Alton Priors. The Wiltshire Victoria County History traces the later ownership of the manors: Alton Barnes was granted in 1385 by William of Wykeham to New College, Oxford which he had recently founded, and it remained in their ownership in 1970. Alton Priors remained with the abbey until the dissolution, then passed through several hands until the estate was bought by New College in 1912.

The Ridgeway, an ancient trackway, passes through Alton Barnes (although this section is not part of the Ridgeway National Trail, which begins further north). The Wansdyke, an early medieval earthwork, crosses the north of the parish on the Marlborough Downs.

Alton Barnes Manor Farmhouse (18th-century) and the Manor House at Alton Priors (c. 1830) are Grade II listed.

Governance
Alton is a civil parish with an elected parish council. It is in the area of the Wiltshire Council unitary authority, which is responsible for all significant local government functions, and is represented in the council by Paul Oatway. For Westminster elections, the parish is within the East Wiltshire constituency.

Parish churches
Both villages had a Church of England parish church; Alton Barnes church continues in use.

St Mary, Alton Barnes
The Church of St. Mary the Virgin in Alton Barnes is partly Saxon, built in the 10th and 11th centuries, although Domesday Book mentions no church. It has only a chancel, nave and west tower. The nave has characteristic Anglo-Saxon features: typically tall, narrow proportions and (visible at the west end) long-and-short quoins. The round-headed north doorway, now blocked and glazed, is another early feature.

The south door was added in the 14th century. The original chancel was as wide as the nave, but it was demolished and replaced with a brick one in 1748. The two bells are dated 1626 and 1788, and were rehung in the west gable in 1904.

There was a Saxon chancel arch but this was removed in 1832. There was a Victorian restoration in 1875, and a further restoration in 1904 directed by the local architect Charles Ponting. Pevsner assesses the nave as "over-restored" but praises its roof. The building was designated as Grade I listed in 1964.

All Saints, Alton Priors
Alton Priors' church was built in the 12th century and retains its original Norman chancel arch. The nave has two 14th-century ogee-headed windows and the west window is 15th-century. As at Alton Barnes, the original chancel has been demolished and replaced with one built of brick. There is a distinctive brass plaque to local landowner William Button (1526–1591), with complex artwork and inscription. All Saints was declared redundant in 1972 and was placed in the care of the Churches Conservation Trust. It is a Grade II* listed building.

Parish
Alton Priors was anciently a chapelry of Overton parish. In 1913, Alton Priors was annexed to Alton Barnes to form the parish of Alton Barnes with Alton Priors. The benefice was united with Stanton St Bernard in 1928, with the parsonage house at Stanton St Bernard to be sold, taking effect on the next vacancy (which occurred in 1932). At the same time, Honeystreet hamlet was brought into the parish from Woodborough and West Stowell hamlet was transferred to Wilsford.

A team ministry was established for the area in 1975, and today the parish is part of the Vale of Pewsey group, alongside 15 others.

Notable buildings
The former Alton Barnes glebe house, now called the Old Rectory, stands west of the church. Built in vitrified brick with dressings in red brick and stone, it has two storeys with an attic. The five-bay east range is from the 1720s or 1730s, the rear block was added in 1785 and further alterations were made around the 1830s. Augustus William Hare, orator and writer, lived here c.1829 to 1833 during his rectorship, until his early death.

At Alton Priors, the limestone T-plan house known as the Manor House was built c.1830 in the north of the village; it is surrounded by an earlier walled garden and probably replaced an earlier house. The original manor house, now The Priory, stands by the stream that separates the two Altons; built in Flemish brickwork in the late 17th century, it was much reduced in size in the early 19th century. What remains is a four-bay block of two storeys with attic, and a single-storey kitchen wing.

Canal
The Kennet and Avon Canal, opened in 1810, crosses the parish. A wharf at Honeystreet served the local area and a rural industrial area developed around it, including a firm of barge builders – Robbins, Lane, and Pinniger – who continued until the 1950s.

The Barge Inn was built at Honeystreet in 1858, replacing an earlier building, to cater for those living and working on the canal. It was designated as Grade II listed in 1987. In 2010, following the closure of the business, local volunteers successfully applied for funding to aid its reopening from the Village SOS lottery fund. In 2011 the project was the subject of episode 2 of Village SOS on BBC One. The group ceased to run the pub in October 2012, but it is still open, albeit in private hands, as of February 2024.

Notable people
William Button (by 1503–1547, landowner) is buried in Alton Priors church, as is his son, also William (1526–1591). Both were Members of Parliament, as were two more family members: Ambrose (c.1549–c.1608) and Sir William Button, 1st Baronet (c.1584–1655).

Distinguished rectors of Alton Barnes include Richard Steward (c. 1593–1651, royalist churchman), rector from 1630; William Crowe (1745–1829, poet) from 1787; and Augustus William Hare (1792–1834, writer) from 1831.

In popular culture
The Barge Inn at Honeystreet was a filming location for a 1998 episode of Inspector Morse, an adaptation of The Wench Is Dead. In 2013 the white horse, Adam's Grave and the Barge Inn featured in an episode of Walking Through History, presented by Tony Robinson on Channel 4.

Amenities
The Barge Inn at Honeystreet is the sole pub in the parish. Alton Barnes has a village hall, the Coronation Hall, which was built in 1953 and extended in 2000.

The nearest primary school is at Woodborough. A Parochial school was opened at Alton Barnes in 1837 and closed in 1976 owing to falling pupil numbers.

Alton Barnes White Horse
There is a chalk hill figure of a horse dating from 1812 (51.37255°N, -1.84789°W), a little more than 1000 m north of Alton. It is based on another white horse hill figure in Wiltshire, the Cherhill White Horse.

The figure is the third largest white horse in Wiltshire. The Pewsey White Horse can be seen from Milk Hill (the location of the horse). The figure is featured in Staying Out for the Summer, a music video for a song of the same name by Dodgy.

For April Fool's Day in 2003 and 2014, the horse was temporarily transformed into a zebra, on the latter occasion by applying black stripes, made from plastic sheeting, across the horse.

Crop circles
Since the late 1970s Wiltshire has become known for crop circles (patterns created by flattening a crop, usually of cereal). In 1990 a pattern at Alton was used on the cover of the Box Set compilation by rock band Led Zeppelin.

title: Alton, Wiltshire


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systemic bias identity

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Juliusz Słowacki

Juliusz Słowacki (Jules Slowacki; 4 September 1809 – 3 April 1849) was a Polish Romantic poet. He is considered one of the "Three Bards" of Polish literature — a major figure in the Polish Romantic period, and the father of modern Polish drama. His works often feature elements of Slavic pagan traditions, Polish history, mysticism and orientalism. His style includes the employment of neologisms and irony. His primary genre was the drama, but he also wrote lyric poetry. His most popular works include the dramas Kordian and Balladyna and the poems Beniowski, Testament mój and Anhelli.

Słowacki spent his youth in the "Stolen Lands", in Kremenets (Krzemieniec; now in Ukraine) and Vilnius, Lithuania (Polish: Wilno). He briefly worked for the government of the Kingdom of Poland. During the November 1830 Uprising, he was a courier for the Polish revolutionary government. When the uprising ended in defeat, he found himself abroad and thereafter, like many compatriots, lived the life of an émigré. He settled briefly in Paris, France, and later in Geneva, Switzerland. He also traveled through Italy, Greece and the Middle East. Eventually he returned to Paris, where he spent the last decade of his life. He briefly returned to Poland when another uprising broke out during the Spring of Nations (1848).

Youth
Słowacki was born on 4 September 1809 at Kremenets (in Polish, Krzemieniec), Volhynia, formerly part of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth but then in the Russian Empire and now in Ukraine.

His father, Euzebiusz Słowacki, a Polish nobleman of the Leliwa coat of arms, taught rhetoric, poetry, Polish language, and the history of literature at the Krzemieniec Lyceum in Kremenets; from 1811 he held the chair (katedra) of rhetoric and poetry at Vilnius Imperial University. He died in 1814, leaving Juliusz to be raised solely by his mother, Salomea Słowacka (née Januszewska). In 1818 she married a professor of medicine, August Bécu. She ran a literary salon where young Juliusz was exposed to diverse influences. It was there in 1822 that the 13-year-old met Adam Mickiewicz, the first of the Three Bards of Polish literature. Two years later, in 1824, Mickiewicz was arrested and exiled by the Russian authorities for his involvement in a secret patriotic Polish student society, the Philomaths; Słowacki likely met with him on Mickiewicz's final day in Wilno.

Słowacki was educated at the Krzemieniec Lyceum, and at a Vilnius Imperial University preparatory gymnasium in Wilno. From 1825 to 1828 he studied law at Vilnius Imperial University. His earliest surviving poems date to that period, though he presumably wrote some earlier, none of which have survived. In 1829 he moved to Warsaw, where he found a job in Congress Poland's Governmental Commission of Revenues and Treasury. In early 1830 he debuted his literary career with the novel Hugo (poem), published in the periodical Melitele. That year, the November Uprising began, and Słowacki published several poems with patriotic and religious overtones. His Hymn (1830 poem), first published in Polak Sumienny (The Conscientious Pole) on 4 December 1830, and other works such as Ode to Freedom (poem) (Oda do Wolności), won acclaim and were quickly reprinted several times.

In January 1831 he joined the diplomatic staff of the revolutionary Polish National Government, led by Prince Adam Jerzy Czartoryski. Initially he served as a copyist. On 8 March 1831 he was sent on a courier mission to Dresden (some sources say this was not an official mission but a private journey ). Many others left Warsaw around that time, in the aftermath of the Battle of Olszynka Grochowska and in expectation of a Russian advance on Warsaw. In Dresden, Słowacki was well received by the local Polish émigré community, and even welcomed as "the bard of fighting Warsaw." In July 1831 he volunteered to deliver messages from the National Government to its representatives in London and Paris, where he heard about the fall of the Uprising. Details of his mission (what letters he was carrying, and to whom) are not known.

Emigration
Like many of his countrymen, Słowacki decided to stay in France as a political refugee. In 1832 he published his first collections of poems and his first two dramas (Mindowe (drama) and Maria Stuart (drama)). He also met Mickiewicz again; reportedly, Mickiewicz approached his younger colleague and shook his hand. However, Słowacki's poems, written in the 1820s, were unpopular among his Polish compatriots, as they failed to capture the sentiment of a people living under foreign occupation. Słowacki was also angered by Mickiewicz, who not only stole the limelight with his Księgi narodu polskiego i pielgrzymstwa polskiego (Books of the Polish nation and pilgrimage), but his part three of Dziady (1832) cast Słowacki's stepfather, professor Bécu, in the role of a villain. In a letter to his mother Słowacki wrote that immediately after reading that work he was ready to challenge Mickiewicz for a duel; that did not come to pass but from that moment on, Słowacki would see Mickiewicz as his main rival. Few days later, antagonized by worsening reception of his works among the Polish émigré community in Paris, including sharp criticism from Mickiewicz, Słowacki left on a trip to Geneva, Switzerland. The French authorities denied him the right to return to France as part of a larger program to rid the country of the potentially subversive Polish exiles who had settled there.

From 1833 to 1836, he lived in Switzerland. The third volume of his poems, published in 1833 and containing works from the period of the Uprising, was far more nationalist in tone and won more recognition in his homeland. At the same time, he wrote several works featuring Romantic themes and beautiful scenery, such as W Szwajcarii (In Switzerland), Rozłączenie (Separation), Stokrótki (Daisies) and Chmury (Clouds).

In 1834 he published Kordian, a Romantic drama relating to the soul-searching of the Polish people in the aftermath of the failed insurrection; this work is considered one of his best creations. In 1836, Słowacki left Switzerland and embarked on a journey that started in Italy. In Rome he met and befriended Zygmunt Krasiński, the third of the Three Bards. Krasiński is considered the first serious literary critic of Słowacki's work. Słowacki would dedicate several of his works, including Balladyna, to Krasiński and they would exchange a number of letters. From Rome, Słowacki went to Naples and later, to Sorrento. In August he left for Greece (Corfu, Argos, Athens, Syros), Egypt (Alexandria, Cairo, El Arish) and the Middle East, including the Holy Land (Jerusalem, Bethlehem, Jericho, Nazareth) and neighboring territories (Damascus, Beirut). It was a journey Słowacki described in his epic poem Podróż do Ziemi Świętej z Neapolu ("Travel to the Holy Land from Naples"); his other works of that period inclucded the poem Ojciec zadżumionych (The Father of the Plague-stricken), Grób Agamemnona (Agamemnon's Grave), Rozmowa z piramidami (A talk with the pyramids), Anhelli and Listy poetyckie z Egiptu (Poetic Letters from Egypt). In June 1837 he returned to Italy, settling briefly in Florence, and moved back to Paris in December 1838.

In 1840 Mickiewicz was elected to the position of professor of Slavic literature at Collège de France; it was one of the events that cemented his position over Słowacki in the Polish émigré community. The rivalry between the two Bards for primacy would continue till the ends of lives. In 1841 Słowacki traveled briefly to Frankfurt, but Paris would become his main home till his death. In 1840 and 1841 he wrote two notable dramas: Mazepa (drama), the only of his dramas that was put on stage during his lifetime, and Fantazy, published posthumously, well received by critics. Over the next few years Słowacki wrote and published many works, including Testament mój (My Last Will), in which he described his faith that his works would endure after his death.

Between 1841 and 1846, he published Beniowski, considered by some his best lyrical poetry. Starting as a story of a historical figure, it developed into a discussion of the poet's own life and opinions. In 1842 he joined the religious-philosophical group, Koło Sprawy Bożej (Circle of God's Cause), led by Andrzej Towiański. This group included, among others, Mickiewicz. Towiański's influence is credited with a new, mystical current in Słowacki's works, seen in works such as the Beniowski and the drama Ksiądz Marek (drama) (Father Mark). Słowacki left the Circle a year later, in 1843.

In the summers of 1843 and 1844 Słowacki traveled to Pornic, a resort on the Atlantic coast in Brittany. It was there, in 1844, that he wrote Genezis z Ducha (Genesis from the Spirit). This work introduced his philosophical system that would have a visible influence on his works in his last decade. Around 1839 Słowacki put his capital into the Parisian stock market. He was a shrewd investor who earned enough from the investments to dedicate his life to his literary career; he was also able to pay the costs of having his books published.

Last years
In the late 1840s Słowacki attached himself to a group of like-minded young exiles, determined to return to Poland and win its independence. One of his friends was the pianist and composer Frédéric Chopin. Others included enthusiasts of his work, such as Zygmunt Szczęsny Feliński, Józef Alojzy Reitzenheim and Józef Komierowski. Despite poor health, when he heard about the events of the Spring of Nations, Słowacki traveled with some friends to Poznań, then under Prussian control, hoping to participate in the Wielkopolska Uprising of 1848. He addressed the National Committee (Komitet Narodowy) in Poznań on 27 April. "I tell you", he declared as the rebels faced military confrontation with the Prussian Army, "that the new age has dawned, the age of holy anarchy." But by 9 May, the revolt was crushed.

Arrested by the Prussian police, Słowacki was sent back to Paris. On his way there, he passed through Wrocław, where in mid-June he was reunited with his mother, whom he had not seen for almost twenty years. He returned to Paris in July 1848. His poem Pośród niesnasków Pan Bóg uderza... (Among the discord God hits...), published in late 1848, gained new fame a century later when it seemed to foretell the 1978 ascent of Karol Wojtyła to the throne of St. Peter as Pope John Paul II. His final dramas (Zawisza Czarny (drama), Samuel Zborowski (drama)), attempted to explain history of Poland through Słowacki's genesic philosophy. In March 1849, Słowacki, his health failing, was visited three times by another Polish writer and poet, Cyprian Norwid, who later wrote about his visits in ''Czarne kwiaty. Białe kwiaty (Black Flowers. White Flowers''). Up to his final days, Słowacki was writing poetry; a day before his death he dictated passages of his final work, Król-Duch (King-Spirit). This grandiose, visionary-symbolic poem, "summary of the entire Romantic culture", Słowacki's masterpiece, weaving together Poland's history and its contemporary political and literary thought, was never finished.

Słowacki died in Paris on 3 April 1849 from tuberculosis, and on 5 April he was buried in the Montmartre Cemetery in Paris. He never married. Only about 30 people attended his funeral. Krasiński, although estranged from Słowacki in the last few years, wrote of the funeral:There were 30 compatriots at the funeral – nobody rose to speak, nobody uttered even one word to honour the memory of the greatest master of Polish rhymes

Słowacki's tombstone at Montmartre was designed by his friend and executor of his last will, painter Charles Pétiniaud-Dubos; it did not weather the passage of time well however, and in 1851 a new, similar tombstone was put in place, this one designed by Polish sculptor Władysław Oleszczyński. In 1927 Słowacki's remains were moved to Wawel Cathedral in Poland, but an empty grave still remains at Montmartre.

Work
Słowacki was a prolific writer; his collected works (Dzieła wszystkie) were published in 17 volumes. His legacy includes 25 dramas and 253 works of poetry. He wrote in many genres: dramas, lyrical poems, literary criticism, letters, journals and memoirs, fragments of two novels, and a political brochure; he was also a translator. His letters to his mother are among the finest letters in all Polish literature.

Although the majority of his works were in Polish, he tried his hand at several works in French language (Le roi de Landawa, Beatrix Cenci). Many of his works were published only posthumously, often under arbitrary titles, as Słowacki never named them himself. He also left notes on works that he never began or never completed. Słowacki is also considered the father of modern Polish drama.

Polish literary historian Włodzimierz Szturc divides Słowacki's work into four periods: Wolter's circle (pseudoclassicism), Christian ethic, Towiański's ethic and genesic ethic. Other scholars offer slightly different periodizations; for example dividing his works into a classical period, a Swiss period, a Parisian period and a genesis period. Philologist Jarosław Ławski combines Towiański's period with the genesic ones, speaking of a "mystical" period. Overall, Słowacki's early work was influenced by Byron and Shakespeare, and included works that was often historical in nature, like (as in Maria Stuart or Mindowe), or exotic, Oriental locales (as in Arab (poem)). His work took on a more patriotic tone following the failed November Uprising of 1830–1831. His final works are heavy in mystical and philosophical undertones. In the 1840s he developed his own philosophy, or mystical system, with works such as Król-Duch and Genesis z Ducha being an exposition of his philosophical ideas ("genesic philosophy") according to which the material world is an expression of an ever-improving spirit capable of progression (transmigration) into constantly newer forms. As Ławski notes, his philosophical works can transcend clear boundaries of simple literary genres.

Słowacki's works, situated in the period of romanticism in Poland, contain rich and inventive vocabulary, including many neologisms. They use fantasy, mysticism and symbolism and feature themes related to Poland's history, essence of Polishness, and relation to a larger universe. Ławski, enumerating the main characteristics of Słowacki's writings, notes first that he was a "creationist", in the sense of creating new meanings and words (many of his characters bear names he invented himself, such as Kordian ). Second, he notes that Słowacki was not only inspired by works of others, from poets and writers to scholars and philosophers, but that his texts were often a masterful, ironic-grotesque polemic with other creators. For example, Słowacki was so impressed by Antoni Malczewski's Maria (1825 novel) that he wrote a sequel to it, Jan Bielecki (novel). Likewise, Kordian is seen as building on William Shakespeare's Hamlet, and as Słowacki's response to Mickiewicz's Dziady. This Ławski calls "ivy-like imagination", comparing Słowacki's approach to that of an ivy, growing around works of others and reshaping them into new forms in a sophisticated literary game. Third, Słowacki was a master of irony; he used it not only on others, but on himself, and even on irony itself – the "irony of irony".

Legacy
After his death, Słowacki acquired the reputation of a national prophet. He is now considered to be one of the "Three Bards" (wieszczs) of Polish literature. Słowacki was not a very popular figure in Paris, nor among his contemporaries. He wrote many dramas, which can be seen as his favorite genre, yet he was a playwright who never saw any of his work performed on stage (only Mazepa was staged during his lifetime, and not in his presence). His works, written in Polish, dense with Slavic myths, philosophy and symbols, were difficult to translate to other languages. Słowacki's unpopularity among other Polish émigrés can be attributed to his unwillingness to pander to contemporary tastes; and in particular, his refusal to comfort his compatriots, shaken by the loss of Polish statehood and the failure of the November Uprising. Słowacki's ironic and sometimes pessimistic attitude was not appreciated by his contemporaries, nor was his denial of Polish uniqueness.

Whereas Mickiewicz followed the Messianic tradition and in Konrad suggested that Poland's fate was in the hands of God, Słowacki's Kordian questioned whether his country was not instead a plaything of Satan. However, the same work has God and the Angels watching over Poland and the Earth. In Anhelli, Słowacki's describes the tragic fate of Polish exiles in Siberia, painting a gloomy vision of Poland's destiny; the same topic was taken by Mickiewicz in the Books of the Polish Nation and of the Polish Pilgrimage as a call for Poles to spread hope and spirituality across Europe. While a small circle of his friends talked about his wit, perseverance and inspiration, in popular memory he was a "sickly man of weak character", egocentric, bitter due to his failed rivalry with Mickiewicz. Mickiewicz himself wrote of Słowacki's work as a "beautiful church, but without God inside".

After his death, Słowacki gained a cult-like status in Poland; in particular, in the cultural center of Kraków. Several obituaries and longer articles appeared in the Polish press upon Słowacki's death. His works, many of them published posthumously for the first time, found growing acceptance among a new generation; an 1868 work noted that "Słowacki took the fancy of the Polish youth. He was its singer, its spiritual leader in the full meaning of the term". Through undoubtedly a poet of the romantic era, he was increasingly popular among the positivists and the authors of the Young Poland period in the late 1800s and early 1900s. His works were popularized by other writers, such as Adam Asnyk and Michał Bałucki, and his dramas were shown in theaters. He became a major literary figure for the new generation of Polish writers. He also became respected abroad; a 1902 English language book edited by Charles Dudley Warner noted that "the splendid exuberance of his thought and fancy ranks him among the great poets of the nineteenth century".

In 1927, some eight years after Poland had regained independence, the Polish government arranged for Słowacki's remains to be transferred from Paris to Wawel Cathedral, in Kraków. He was interred in the Crypt of the National Bards, beside Mickiewicz. Słowacki's interment at Waweł Cathedral was controversial, as many of his works were considered heretical by Polish Catholic-Church officials. It took almost two decades and the backing of Józef Piłsudski, for whom Słowacki was a favorite poet, to obtain the Church's agreement to interring Słowacki at Wawel Cathedral. At the 1927 ceremony, Piłsudski commanded:

Several streets and schools in modern Poland bear Juliusz Słowacki's name. Three parks are dedicated to him: in Bielsko-Biała, in Łódź and in Wrocław. There are several monuments of Juliusz Słowacki, including ones in Warsaw (2001) and Wrocław (1984).

Among the most notable landmarks bearing his name is the Juliusz Słowacki Theatre in Kraków, and the Juliusz Slowacki Museum in Kremenets, Ukraine, opened in 2004 at his family's former manor house. In 2009 the Polish Sejm (parliament) declared that year, the two-hundredth anniversary of Słowacki's birth, to be the Year of Juliusz Słowacki. The oldest monument to Juliusz Słowacki, unveiled in 1899, is in Miloslaw Park.

In 2014, his 205th birthday was honored with a Google Doodle.

Drama

 * Balladyna (1834, published 1839, performed 1862)
 * Fantazy (1841, published 1866, performed 1867)
 * Horsztyński (1835, published 1866, performed 1871)
 * Kordian (1833, published 1834, performed 1899)
 * Ksiądz Marek (Father Marek, 1843, published same year, performed 1901)
 * Książę niezłomny (The Constant Prince, after Pedro Calderón de la Barca, 1843, published 1844, performed 1874)
 * Lilla Weneda (1839, published 1840, performed 1863)
 * Maria Stuart (1830, performed 1862)
 * Mazepa (1839, published 1840, performed in Hungarian 1847, performed in Polish 1851)
 * Sen srebny Salomei (The Silver Dream of Salomea, 1843, published 1844, performed 1900)
 * Samuel Zborowski (1845, published 1903, performed 1911)

Poetry

 * Anhelli (1838)
 * Arab (1830)
 * Lambro, powstańca grecki (Lambro, a Greek insurgent, 1833)
 * Beniowski (1841–1846)
 * Genezis z Ducha (Genesis from the Spirit, 1844)
 * Godzina myśli (An Hour of Thought, 1832–1833)
 * Hugo. Powieść krzyżacka (Hugo. Teutonic Order Novel, 1830)
 * Król-Duch (The Spirit King, portions published 1847, published in full 1925)
 * Ojciec zadżumionych (The Father of the Plague-stricken, 1838)
 * Podróż do ziemi świętej ("Voyage to the Holy Land", 1866)
 * Testament mój (My Last Will, 1839–1840)
 * W Szwajcarii (In Switzerland, 1835, published 1839)
 * Wacław (1838)

title: Juliusz Słowacki


text:
Fudoki

Fudoki (風土記) are ancient reports on provincial culture, geography, and oral tradition presented to the reigning monarchs of Japan, also known as local gazetteers. They contain agricultural, geographical, and historical records as well as mythology and folklore. Fudoki manuscripts also document local myths, rituals, and poems that are not mentioned in the Kojiki and the Nihon Shoki chronicles, which are the most important literature of the ancient national mythology and history. In the course of national unification, the imperial court enacted a series of criminal and administrative codes called ritsuryō and surveyed the provinces established by such codes to exert greater control over them.

Kofudoki
In the narrower sense, Fudoki refer to the oldest records written in the Nara period, later called Kofudoki (古風土記) (Old-Fudoki). Compilation of Kofudoki began in 713 and was completed over a 20-year period. Following the Taika Reform in 646 and the Code of Taihō enacted in 701, there was need to centralize and solidify the power of the imperial court. This included accounting for lands under its control. According to the Shoku Nihongi, Empress Genmei issued a decree in 713 ordering each provincial government (ja:国衙) to collect and report the following information:
 * Names of districts and townships
 * Natural resources and living things
 * Land fertility
 * Etymology of names for geographic features, such as mountains, plains, and rivers
 * Myths, legends, and folktales told orally by old people

Names
Empress Genmei ordered in 713 that place names in the provinces, districts, and townships be written in two kanji characters with positive connotations. This occasionally required name changes. For example, Hayatsuhime (速津媛) became Hayami (速見) and Ishinashi no Oki (石無堡) became Ishii (石井).

Manuscripts
At least 48 of the Gokishichidō provinces contributed to their records but only that of Izumo remains nearly complete. Partial records of Hizen, Bungo, Harima and Hitachi remain and a few passages from various volumes remain scattered throughout various books. Those of Harima and Hizen are designated National Treasures.

Below is a list of extant manuscripts and scattered passages.

Kinai

 * Yamashiro Province: Yamashiro no Kuni Fudoki 山城国風土記
 * Yamato Province: Yamato no Kuni Fudoki 大和国風土記
 * Settsu Province: Settsu no Kuni Fudoki 摂津国風土記

Tōkaidō

 * Iga Province: Iga no Kuni Fudoki 伊賀国風土記
 * Ise Province: Ise no Kuni Fudoki 伊勢国風土記
 * Shima Province: Shima no Kuni Fudoki 志摩国風土記
 * Owari Province: Owari no Kuni Fudoki 尾張国風土記
 * Mikawa Province: Mikawa no Kuni Fudoki 参河(三河)国風土記
 * Suruga Province: Suruga no Kuni Fudoki ja:駿河国風土記
 * Izu Province: Izu no Kuni Fudoki 伊豆国風土記
 * Kai Province: Kai no Kuni Fudoki 甲斐国風土記
 * Sagami Province: Sagami no Kuni Fudoki 相模国風土記
 * Shimōsa Province: Shimousa no Kuni Fudoki 下総国風土記
 * Kazusa Province: Kazusa no Kuni Fudoki 上総国風土記
 * Hitachi Province: Hitachi no Kuni Fudoki ja:常陸国風土記

Tōsandō

 * Ōmi Province: Ōmi no Kuni Fudoki ja:近江国風土記
 * Mino Province: Mino no Kuni Fudoki 美濃国風土記
 * Hida Province: Hida no Kuni Fudoki 飛騨国風土記
 * Shinano Province: Shinano no Kuni Fudoki 信濃国風土記
 * Michinoku Province: Michinoku no Kuni Fudoki 陸奥国風土記

Hokurikudō

 * Wakasa Province: Wakasa no Kuni Fudoki 若狭国風土記
 * Echizen Province: Echizen no Kuni Fudoki 越前国風土記
 * Echigo Province: Echigo no Kuni Fudoki 越後国風土記

San'indō

 * Tango Province: Tango no Kuni Fudoki ja:丹後国風土記
 * Inaba Province: Inaba no Kuni Fudoki 因幡国風土記
 * Hōki Province: Hōki no Kuni Fudoki 伯耆国風土記
 * Izumo Province: Izumo no Kuni Fudoki ja:出雲国風土記
 * Iwami Province: Iwami no Kuni Fudoki 石見国風土記

San'yōdō

 * Harima Province: Harima no Kuni Fudoki ja:播磨国風土記
 * Mimasaka Province: Mimasaka no Kuni Fudoki 美作国風土記
 * Bizen Province: Bizen no Kuni Fudoki 備前国風土記
 * Bitchū Province: Bitchū no Kuni Fudoki 備中国風土記
 * Bingo Province: Bingo no Kuni Fudoki ja:備後国風土記

Nankaidō

 * Kii Province: Kii no Kuni Fudoki 紀伊国風土記
 * Awaji Province: Awaji no Kuni Fudoki 淡路国風土記
 * Awa Province (Tokushima): Awa no Kuni Fudoki 阿波国風土記
 * Sanuki Province: Sanuki no Kuni Fudoki 讃岐国風土記
 * Iyo Province: Iyo no Kuni Fudoki 伊予国風土記
 * Tosa Province: Tosa no Kuni Fudoki 土佐国風土記

Saikaidō

 * Chikuzen Province: Chikuzen no Kuni Fudoki 筑前国風土記
 * Chikugo Province: Chikugo no Kuni Fudoki 筑後国風土記
 * Buzen Province: Buzen no Kuni Fudoki 豊前国風土記
 * Bungo Province: Bungo no Kuni Fudoki ja:豊後国風土記
 * Hizen Province: Hizen no Kuni Fudoki ja:肥前国風土記
 * Higo Province: Higo no Kuni Fudoki 肥後国風土記
 * Hyūga Province: Hyūga no Kuni Fudoki 日向国風土記
 * Ōsumi Province: Ōsumi no Kuni Fudoki 大隅国風土記
 * Satsuma Province: Satsuma no Kuni Fudoki 薩摩国風土記
 * Iki Province: Iki no Kuni Fudoki 壱岐国風土記

Parks
In 1966 the Agency for Cultural Affairs called on the prefectural governments to build open-air museums and parks called Fudoki no Oka (風土記の丘) near historic sites such as tombs (kofun) and provincial temples. These archaeological museums preserve and exhibit cultural properties to enhance public understanding of provincial history and culture.

title: Fudoki


text:
Talk:Brunost/Archive 1

Cheese or not?
"Gjetost"(goat cheese) or "brunost" (brown cheese) is not REALLY a cheese, by normal definitions, but a milk product. Rather, gjetost and brunost is made of the left over materials from normal cheese production. Real cheese is in Norwegian named "gulost" (yellow cheese).
 * The "normal definition" of cheese is surprisingly expansive. For instance, ricotta cheese, like gjetost, is made from whey. Sneftel 07:10, 7 January 2006 (UTC)

"Gjetost" is dano-norwegian gibberish, and the official word from the official Norwegian dictionary is "Geitost". see Bokmålsordboka for more info

Not being Norwegian, I find the whole dispute between bokmål and landsmål or nynorsk or whatever it's called these days somewhat amusing. Nonetheless I think the comment above is likely to offend somebody, being blatantly of the POV of bokmål proponents. (No need to use the word "official" twice there.) A whole wiki article could be written up about about this issue as it is somewhat interesting. Having been in northern Sweden, "gjetost" was the usual spelling I came across (at least on the packages it was sold in). 130.94.162.64 01:14, 4 November 2005 (UTC)

 * Of course the comment is offensive. That's why it's not in the main article. However, in essence the poster is correct - the term gjetost is used very infrequently in Norway, while geitost is the term found in most writing, on products, and in dictionaries. -- Ranveig 18:45, 6 November 2005 (UTC)

 * I just don't like the attitude of whoever anonymously and unilaterally changed the name of the article and posted that comment (about "dano-norwegian gibberish"). It's "I'm right and everyone else is not only wrong but an idiot to boot."  That attitude comes across pretty clearly no matter what language you speak.  Yes, I know that comment isn't in the article, but it's what I found when I tried to figure out why the title had such an odd spelling. 130.94.162.64 03:52, 8 November 2005 (UTC)

 * Mainly correct in facts, but the appropriate Norwegian spelling of the animal is "gjet" = goat, hence "gjetost", I think.
 * What would happen to the good old song, known to so many children, should one change to the modern "geit" - the rhyme would simply disappear: "Å jeg vet en seter, med så mange gjeter ..." Kittybrewster 12:26, 18 February 2006 (UTC)
 * That depends on your pronunciation of seter. In my dialect, it rhymes perfectly with geiter PRB 08:56, 28 February 2006 (UTC)

 * The official spelling of goat is «geit» in both standards of Norwegian. Old songs are of course kept as they are until their wording becomes old-fashioned enough to sound like gibberish. I think we're still a long way away from that with the song you mentioned. :-) -- Ranveig 13:50, 18 February 2006 (UTC)

 * Well, the problem with the "official spelling of goat is geit" argument is that we're not really discussing what the official name for "goat" is at all. We're discussing whether the word "gjetost" is used by any significant number of people, (regardless of what goats are called according to government officials) to describe what most people call "geitost". Case in point; Gamalost. "Gamal" is not the official word in either nynorsk or bokmål, but TINE sells it by that name. And it is commonly known by that name. So is anyone going to advocate removing the "gamalost" entry based on the "geit+ost" logic?

 * Hmm, well, speaking however from a North American perspective, maybe it's just coincidence but I've only ever seen it spelt "Gjetost" . . . so I'm not sure if I can agree that it's an inarguable idea to have changed the name of the article. In the case of Geitost versus Gjetost, I think it's simply not so cut and dry as to which term is the common usage, and my own (albeit potentially myoptic) experience points rather strongly in the favour of Gjetost. Phil Urich 05:32, 28 February 2006 (UTC)

 * If you can show that there is precedence in the use of gjetost rather than geitost in English, then it should b changed back. Geitost is however the correct for in both Bokmål and Nynorsk, as stated above. Most Norwegian-americans left migrated before the norwegianisation-reforms of bokmål, thus do they often tend to use arhcaic spelling. In modern Norwegian gjetost is in fact "dano-norwegian-gibberish", althougt I would not use such an expression.--Njård 07:41, 28 February 2006 (UTC)

 * "official word from the official Norwegian dictionary"
 * Norway has an official dictionary? — who regulates it? Does it cover all dialects?
 * To add to the current discussion, I've only come across it spelt gjetost (ROI), once gjetöst, but that source also claimed it was from Sweden.
 * Njál 01:44, 1 April 2006 (UTC)

 * Norway has an official language council, it regulates both [Nynorsk] and [Bokmål]. The dialects are only used in spoken form or informal writing (Chating, notes, SMS-messenges etc. between friends and family) and has because of this no standard spelling. The ö in Gjetöst, as in your example is not even a nowegiab letter, nor would a swede spell it like that, it is pronounced and written OST in both countries.--Njård 08:44, 1 April 2006 (UTC)

 * True. But quite apart from the fact that it does not actually have any powers over Wikipedia (and quite apart from the fact that we Norwegians seem to always think that if the government says something, it must be correct), it does not describe the reality of the Norwegian language, merely how they would like it to be. And Wikipedia is all about how things *really* are. Including what words and terms subversive elements of the population, with utter disregard for official policy, may use. Oh, and as previously mentioned, geitost/gjetost are independent terms that may develop along their own paths. They are not in any way automatically linked to the words that were once used to create it. So trying to disect the word will not yield much useful knowledge or insight.
 * This discussion really made me laugh, although I can see it strikes many as important—and it is. "Gjetost" and "geitost" are definitively not independent terms, but synonymous words from different historical periods of time. If it's a Norwegian cheese, when referring to the Norwegian name of that cheese, the correct Norwegian and official spelling should also used—and not some ancient relic of a word. Anything else would just be cheesy... As for how things really are, that's about as close as it gets.
 * I don't speak "Bokmål" myself. I speak a Norwegian dialect. But well over 80 percent of Norwegians have aggreed to write "Bokmål". That's called a consensus. A thing I believe Wikipedians have a certain amount respect for. It simply isn't possible to make one generic language to accommodate every Norwegian dialect, and that's why there's a competing language to "Bokmål" (i.e. "Nynorsk"), and also why they both are officially monitored (not governed). The same thing goes for English (except for official monitoring). Why else can you hear Americans everywhere rant at strange slang-words with "Speak English!"
 * Incidentally, when Norwegians refer to English or American artefacts by their English names, they do so with modern English (American or Oxford), and not so with Old English—even though that more closely resembles the Old Norse, which, also incidentally, had a profound effect on how modern English is both written and spoken today. Things change, they say, and things change for a reason. I'm pretty sure most English speakers are pretty happy about not having to speak Old English anymore (except for the odd Tolkien buff), as we Norwegians are happy for not having to speak Old Norse. Very happy! The syntax was terribly difficult. –Kebman 17:45, 7 December 2006 (UTC)

Geitost??
Geitost is a sub-genre of brunost. Why is brunost redirected here? The english word for nn:Geitost is Chèvre cheese, which has little to do with brunost. This article is about brunost, not geitost. --Tannkremen 00:01, 16 February 2007 (UTC)
 * I agree Acidburn24m 01:42, 16 February 2007 (UTC)
 * Yup, I definitely agree too, brunost (brown cheese) is the superior category, while geitost is a type of brunost. Who came up with this nonsense? I hope no Norwegian? Anyway, the article should be called either brunost or brown cheese. Oh and by the way, comparing this article to the Norwegian one I find lots of inconsistencies and what I'm guessing are plain errors too. Someone should take a look at the Norwegian article and clean up the English one. Jonmagne 04:34, 19 February 2007 (UTC)

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title: Talk:Brunost/Archive 1