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Smile (musical)

Smile is a musical with music by Marvin Hamlisch and book and lyrics by Howard Ashman. It was originally produced on Broadway in 1986. The musical is based loosely on the 1975 comedy film of the same title, from a screenplay by Jerry Belson.

Original film
The original 1975 film was directed by Michael Ritchie with a screenplay by Jerry Belson. It starred Barbara Feldon as Brenda DiCarlo, Nicholas Pryor as Andy DiCarlo (Brenda's husband in the film), Bruce Dern as Big Bob Freelander, Geoffrey Lewis as Wilson Shears, Joan Prather as Robin Gibson, Annette O'Toole as Doria Hudson, Melanie Griffith as Karen Love, and choreographer Michael Kidd as Tommy French. The movie was filmed on location in Santa Rosa, California with the pageant festivities at Veteran's Memorial Auditorium.

Production and premiere
The original production opened on Broadway on November 24, 1986 at the Lunt-Fontanne Theatre and closed on January 3, 1987 after 48 performances. It was directed by Howard Ashman with musical staging by Mary Kyte. It received a Tony Award nomination for Best Book of a Musical as well as Drama Desk Award nominations for Outstanding Featured Actor in a Musical (Michael O'Gorman) and Outstanding Costume Design (William Ivey Long).

Smile is considered a "lost" musical because no official cast recording was ever made. However, there does exist a demo CD by Broadway Original cast for Samuel French Publishing, which is a primary source for groups performing the show. Because of that, demos by original cast are audible at their merchandizing site, but they have never been released publicly. Some of the songs from the show, "Disneyland," "Smile," and "In Our Hands," received their first recordings on Bruce Kimmel's Unsung Musicals album, released by Varèse Sarabande. "Disneyland" was sung by Jodi Benson, who originated it in the show. On a subsequent volume "Maria's Song" was also recorded. In November 2008, the record label PS Classics rectified this loss, releasing the album Howard Sings Ashman. The second disc is comprised completely of songs from Smile, sung by Ashman and Marvin Hamlisch, with Hamlisch at the piano. They also put a transcript of a taped conversation between Ashman, Hamlisch and Bob Fosse discussing the development of the musical on their website.

Subsequent activity
After the Broadway production of Smile flopped, Ashman and Hamlisch revised the show for stock productions. Book changes include the change of Shawn's roommate from Connie-Sue to Maria, and the addition of some material for Bob. The score was further revised, gaining a completely re-structured opening number (though retaining most of the original melody and words), a new song for Brenda ("Very Best Week of Your Lives") that completely replaced the Orientation Sequence musically, a new song for Bob ("Bob's Song"), a new number for the winner of the pageant ("There Goes the Girl") and a completely new melody and lyric set for Robin's letters home and a slight decrease in the time given to them. The ending was also re-worked giving Bob a significant musical section new to the revised version.

Many of the small lyric changes to the licensed version actually originated before the Broadway production. When reading Lincoln Center's photocopy of the Broadway rehearsal script to Smile, many of the licensed lyrics are printed but scratched out and replaced with what was sung at the Lunt-Fontanne, handwritten.

An hour-long recording of the licensed version was made for Samuel French (the licensing agent) to distribute to groups interested in performing Smile. It uses many of the original Broadway cast, including Marsha Waterbury, Jodi Benson, Anne Marie Bobby, Tia Riebling and Dick Patterson. Director and author Howard Ashman played the role of Big Bob in Jeff McCarthy's absence. This recording is often referred to incorrectly as an unreleased cast recording when it is in fact a demo.

A private "industry" reading was scheduled for November 19, 2010, reflecting the revisions.

A production of Smile was presented by Awkward Stage Productions in Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada. Awkward Stage's production featured all the adult characters being played by puppets (a la "Avenue Q" style puppetry). Awkward Stage Productions' version of Smile was presented at the Firehall Arts Centre as part of the Vancouver International Fringe Festival September 8–18 2011, as well as at the Norman Rothstein Theatre in Vancouver, October 26–30, 2011.

The Smile reunion concert was presented at 54 Below, New York City, New York, on September 22, 2014. The concert featured Jodi Benson, Mana Allen, Anne Bobby, Cheryl-Ann Rossi, and other original Broadway casts.

Summary
Smile chronicles the backstage troubles of the fictional 1985 California Young American Miss beauty pageant held in Santa Rosa, California. The main characters include Robin Gibson and Doria Hudson, two contestants who befriend and help each other throughout the week; Brenda DiCarlo Freelander, an ex-Young American Miss second-runner-up coordinating the pageant; and Brenda's husband Big Bob, an RV salesman trying to help her through the week.

Story
Synopsis follows the plot of the revised licensed version.

Act 1
The show opens with Dale Wilson Shears, chairman of the fictitious Young American Miss Foundation, explaining to the audience the qualities of an ideal Young American Miss. The contestants begin to enter and, throughout the course of the song, prepare for their journey to the pageant in Santa Rosa, waving goodbye as the number ends. ("Typical High School Senior"). In Santa Rosa, pageant coordinator Brenda Dicarlo Freelander and head judge Big Bob Freelander are photographed for a Jaycee newsletter. Brenda receives a letter that Wilson Shears himself will be attending the pageant. When the girls arrive, Brenda gives them an orientation presentation of what to expect during the upcoming week ("The Very Best Week of Your Lives"). The audience learns that Brenda is a former Young American Miss herself. The story then switches over to the dorms, where two sets of roommates, Maria and Shawn and Doria and Robin, are getting ready for bed. Doria, an experienced contestant, talks about her passion for pageants with Robin while the latter writes a postcard to her mother ("Dear Mom #1"). When Robin is finished, Doria relates the memory of her first pageant, a television broadcast of the Miss Anaheim pageant in Disneyland, and sings of her dream to someday go there in person ("Disneyland").

The next morning, Little Bob is caught staring at the pageant applications by his father. Oblivious to Little Bob's less-than-wholesome interest in the girls, Big Bob praises him for taking an interest in the pageant. The girls enter and begin to learn a difficult dance routine under famed choreographer Tommy French ("Shine"). During the song, several girls break away from the dance and give short speeches to Social Clubs, the local sponsors of the event. The girls exit and Brenda vows that she will stay cool under the watchful eye of Wilson Shears and the national foundation, unlike her own Young American Miss finals eighteen years ago.

Robin, who has no experience in pageants, is worn out and wants to leave ("Dear Mom #2"). Meanwhile, Shawn has become angry over the attention Mexican-American Maria is garnering from the judges and sponsors. Shawn voices her wishes to get Maria out of the competition to Valerie, another contestant. The scene shifts to Big Bob in a meeting with the other judges. He asks them to look beyond the appearance of the girls and look into their hearts, and how nobody does this. ("Bob's Song"). Late that night, Little Bob and his friend Freddy are seen sneaking around the building where the pageant will be held. Their plan, to sell nude photos of the girls to local kids, is revealed. The scene changes to the next morning, as the girls complain of various ailments brought on by the intense dance workouts, a lack of sleep, and the subpar food as Brenda passes out the day's schedule ("Nerves"). Private interviews with the judges are held. Robin, who is fatherless but refuses to play for sympathy, panics and runs out of the room when asked about her family. The girls, led by Tommy, rehearse for the upcoming Preliminary Night competition. However, the rehearsal is abruptly cut short when Tommy and Brenda argue over a large ramp extending into the audience. Although featured in Tommy's plans, the ramp made unusable many seats that had already been sold. Brenda offers to deduct the cost of the seats from Tommy's check, which prompts him to strike the ramp. When the girls try to rehearse without it, one of the contestants falls. Seeing Brenda's lack of sympathy, Tommy tells her to deduct the money and proceed with the ramp. Preliminary night begins and the girls compete in three categories: Vim and Vigor, Scholastic Achievement, and Creative Talent. ("Young and American"). Sandra-Kay Macaffee, Robin Gibson, and Maria Gonzales win respectively in each category.

The girls return to the dorms and Doria, who believes she has no chance of winning the competition now, begins to pass on her knowledge of pageantry. The girls begin to sing of their anxiety for the pageant the next night, later joined by Brenda and Big Bob ("Until Tomorrow Night"). Shawn catches Little Bob and Freddy taking pictures of her in the shower and, though initially angry, strikes up a deal with them. The song ends in state of high anticipation.

Act 2
In the dressing room just before the pageant Robin writes a third letter to her mother ("Dear Mom #3"). The girls anxiously sing of the pageant as they make their final preparations and are introduced to the event's MC, radio and television personality Ted Farley ("Opening Act 2"). The girls, preparations complete, exit. The "pageant" opens with Ted Farley greeting the audience and introducing the previous year's winner, Joanne Marshall. The two dance briefly and the girls enter, carrying parasols ("Smile"). As they sing, each girl gets a chance to open her parasol and perform a brief quip. When Robin's turn comes, her parasol breaks and she runs offstage. Encouraged by Tommy French, she runs on and ad-libs a quip before the dance moves on. The girls continue their dance as a slideshow of their photographs appear on a large screen. Each girl has a chance to pose in front of her photograph, concluding with Maria. However, to Maria's shock and horror, the photo she sees is not a posed glamour shot, but a nude photo taken in the shower. Maria runs off and the action switches backstage. As Ted continues the show, Brenda attempts to persuade Maria to go back on stage and perform. Maria refuses and leaves.

Dale Wilson-Shears confronts Brenda about the catastrophe on stage as the girls perform an (off-stage) number ("Get The Girls"). After realizing that Maria was a finalist in the competition, she crosses her name off of the list and marches onto the pageant stage. After she gives an impassioned defense of the pageant and its honor, Ted announces the four finalists: Shawn, Sandra-Kay, Robin, and Doria. The girls sing as Ted introduces the finalists ("We Wish We Were You"). Backstage, Bob informs Brenda that the judges do not want to pick a winner in light of what happened. He and Brenda fight and Brenda fires Bob. The four finalists then give their final remarks before the winner is announced. ("In Our Hands"). Robin finally reveals to the judges that she is fatherless, and Big Bob finds out that his son is the one who took that picture. Ted and Joanne announce the first runner-up of the pageant, Doria Hudson. After a brief moment, the winner is announced as Sandra-Kay, Bakerfield's Young American Miss. Ted sings as Sandra-Kay walks the runway ("There Goes The Girl")

Wilson Shears congratulates Brenda on saving the pageant and offers her a spot on the National Committee. Brenda tries to reconcile with Bob, but to no avail. Bob, alone on stage, wonders how he can reconcile with his family. In their dorm room, Doria tries to convince Robin to join her in the Miss Sunbelt Pageant. Robin ultimately decides to go home to find her own destiny. When she sees that Robin has left without her, Doria takes a winner's stance in her runner-up tiara and roses, once again singing of Disneyland, the only place she can feel loved and accepted ("Finale")

Musical numbers
Broadway Production

 * Act I
 * "Overture" – Orchestra
 * "Prologue/Typical High School Senior" – Contestants
 * "Orientation/Postcard #1" – Brenda, Robin and Contestants
 * "Disneyland" – Doria
 * "Shine" – Contestants, Tommy and Brenda
 * "Postcard #2" – Robin
 * "Nerves" – Contestants
 * "Young and American (Preliminary Night)" – Contestants
 * "Until Tomorrow Night" – Doria, Contestants, Brenda and Big Bob

 * Act II
 * "Postcard #3/Dressing Room Scene" – Robin, Doria, Ted and Contestants
 * "Smile" – Ted and Contestants
 * "We Wish We Were You" — Contestants
 * "In Our Hands" – Contestants
 * "Pretty as a Picture" – Ted, Big Bob, Robin and Contestants
 * "Disneyland (Reprise)" – Doria

Original Broadway characters and cast
The original Broadway cast included 16 contestants, a number of incidental roles, and the principal roles listed below.

Accolades

 * Tony Award for Best Book of a Musical - nominated
 * Drama Desk Award for Outstanding Featured Actor in a Musical (O'Gorman) and Drama Desk Award for Outstanding Costume Design (William Ivey Long) - nominated

title: Smile (musical)


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Moret Law

The Moret Law was a form of freedom of wombs, which was implemented by Spain in Cuba and Puerto Rico, and named after Segismundo Moret who was Spain's Minister of Overseas Territories at the time. This law implemented the abolition of slavery incrementally in Spain's Caribbean colonies. It drew from older Later American manumission traditions such as the way favorite slaves have been previously liberated under certain conditions.

History
Latin America was one of the last holdouts of slavery in the Americas but after the United States Civil War in 1865, international pressure forced Spain to end slavery. Slavery was never formally abolished in Spain itself, but had gradually declined into insignificance there by the early-mid nineteenth century. The Moret Law was approved in Spain on July 4, 1870 for application in Cuba and later Puerto Rico, with other colonies following. This development was mainly attributed to the efforts of Moret, Roman Baldorioty de Castro, Luis Padial, and Julio Vizcarrondo. Spain also passed the law with the desire to preempt the independence movement in the colonies.

The law granted freedom to children born to enslaved mothers after September 18, 1868, a date chosen to honor of the liberal revolution that swept Spain in 1869. The Moret Law was made to not only grant a free womb for enslaved women, but it was also made to ensure that children were not separated from their mothers if they were under 14 years old. The women use the Moret Law for their benefits and to help influence other enslaved women in the neighborhoods where they reside. It also freed slaves who served in the Spanish army (particularly those who fought in the Ten Years' War in Cuba), slaves over 60 years old (along with slaves who turned 60 thereafter), and slaves who were owned by the Spanish government. The Spanish government compensated slave owners 125 pesetas for each slave emancipated under the Moret Law. Slavery was abolished for Puerto Rico (but not for Cuba) in 1873 and finally, without exceptions, in 1886.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Moret Law


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SS1

SS1 may refer to:

Transportation

 * SS 1, a British car of the 1930s and predecessor to the Jaguar
 * China Railways SS1, an electric locomotive model used in China
 * Moore SS-1, a glider
 * Reliant Scimitar SS1, a sports car made by Reliant during the 1980s
 * Strada statale 1 Via Aurelia, a major road in Italy

Military and space

 * USS Holland (SS-1), the first submarine of the U.S. Navy
 * SpaceShipOne, a spaceplane that completed the first privately funded crewed space flight
 * Pindad SS1, an Indonesian assault rifle
 * SS-1 Scud, the NATO reporting name for a series of Soviet missiles

Other uses

 * SS1 (classification), a Les Autres sport classification
 * Sky Sports 1, a British satellite sports channel
 * Space Ship One (album), an album by Paul Gilbert
 * "SS1", a simple and quick way to refer to the seventh season of Fall Guys.

title: SS1


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The Jerky Boys 2

Jerky Boys 2 is the second comedy album released by prank call artists, the Jerky Boys. The album was released on August 16, 1994, and was the final Jerky Boys album released on the Select Records label, distributed by Atlantic Records. Like their debut album, it also went Platinum. This album was also nominated for a Grammy Award at the 1995's Grammy's for Best Comedy Album, but lost to Sam Kinison's Live From Hell.

Track listing

 * 1) "Pablo Honey" (0:39)
 * 2) "Drinking Problem" (1:44)
 * 3) "Pet Cobra" (0:57)
 * 4) "Sol's Warts" (1:46)
 * 5) "Breast Enlargement" (2:17)
 * 6) "Roofing" (2:39)
 * 7) "Gay Hairdresser" (2:00)
 * 8) "Volunteer" (1:50)
 * 9) "Terrorist Pizza" (2:40)
 * 10) "Pico's Mexican Hairpiece" (2:38)
 * 11) "A Little Emergency" (1:05)
 * 12) "Sparky The Clown" (1:56)
 * 13) "Security Service" (3:48)
 * 14) "Sol's Nude Beach" (2:25)
 * 15) "Diamond Dealer" (1:55)
 * 16) "Sol's Naked Photo" (1:25)
 * 17) "The Mattress King" (1:52)
 * 18) "Ball Game Beating" (2:52)
 * 19) "Sporting Goods" (1:10)
 * 20) "Scaffolding" (1:05)
 * 21) "Sex Therapy" (1:45)
 * 22) "Sol's Phobia" (2:56)
 * 23) "Cremation Services" (1:42)
 * 24) "Pizza Lawyer" (2:41)
 * 25) "Fava Beans" (1:34)
 * 26) "Husband Beating" (1:23)
 * 27) "*Bonus Track" (0:06)

Trivia
English rock band Radiohead named their 1993 debut album, Pablo Honey, after the first call on this album (apparently having heard it on a bootleg tape), well before release of this material on CD.

California Punk band Nofx released a live album called "I Heard They Suck Live!!", in which the guitar player (El Hefe), impersonates a part of "Sol's Warts" in between songs.

title: The Jerky Boys 2


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Grande-Terre

Grande-Terre Island (île de Grande-Terre / île de la Grande-Terre ; Gwanntè or Granntè) is the name of the eastern-half of Guadeloupe proper, in the Lesser Antilles. It is separated from the other half of Guadeloupe island, Basse-Terre, by a narrow sea channel called Rivière Salée (in English, Salt River). Pointe de la Grande Vigie, in Grande-Terre, is the northernmost point of Guadeloupe island. To the east lies La Désirade, and to the south lies Marie Galante.

Despite its name, Grande-Terre (literally "Large Land" in French) is smaller than Basse-Terre Island. It was called like that, in contrast with the much smaller Petite Terre Islands ("Small Land" Islands), two very small islands located about 10 km south-east of the Grande-Terre (see map to the left).

Grande-Terre's indented coastline is surrounded by coral reefs and the island itself is a limestone plateau. Its surface is a series of rolling hills, white sand beaches and cliffs. The island's beaches consist of both white and black sands, as well as beaches of golden sand. Of the two islands, Grande-Terre is home to the majority of Guadeloupe's farmlands and tourist resorts.

The island has a land area of 586.68 km2. At the 2006 census the population of Grande-Terre was 197,603 inhabitants living in 10 communes (municipalities). The population density was 337 inhabitants per km2 (872 inh. per sq. miles). The most populated communes are, in descending order of population, Les Abymes (part of the Pointe-à-Pitre urban area), Le Gosier (part of the Pointe-à-Pitre urban area), Pointe-à-Pitre (part of the Pointe-à-Pitre urban area), Le Moule, Sainte-Anne, and Morne-à-l'Eau.

History
Historically, Grande-Terre Island was called "cibuqueira", ("Gum tree island", in the Caribbean language) and the island of Basse-Terre, "Caloucaera" (Karukera), a word meaning "the island of beautiful waters" in the Caribbean language.

title: Grande-Terre


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.cx

.cx is the country code top-level domain for Christmas Island. It is administered by the Christmas Island Internet Administration, through the Christmas Island Domain Administration Limited. The Christmas Island Internet Administration is a community-owned non-profit company which also provides Internet service to the island's residents. .cx is a member of the Council of Country Code Administrators, a group of country-code domains making use of common registry and/or dispute resolution services.

The top-level domain was formerly administered by Planet Three Limited, a company with offices in the United Kingdom and Australia, which went bankrupt and ceased operations, voluntarily transferring management to the Christmas Island Internet Administration (called Dot CX Limited at the time). The local (shire) government of Christmas Island endorsed the transfer, but the Commonwealth of Australia (which has international authority over Christmas Island as an external territory) did not immediately approve it. Australia has since published a memorandum of understanding which recognises the Christmas Island Internet Administration as the legitimate manager of .cx.

The domain achieved a certain degree of notoriety when it was used for the shock site goatse.cx, to the point the Christmas Island Internet Administration was forced to take down the website following complaints by Christmas Islanders.

title: .cx


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Martin Böttcher

Martin Böttcher (17 June 1927 – 20 April 2019) was a German composer, arranger and conductor.

The beginning
Böttcher (on foreign records and articles often written "Bottcher" or "Boettcher", the latter being the correct transliteration of the German umlaut "ö") began taking piano lessons at an early age. But his first passion was flying, and he wanted to become a test pilot. Not yet seventeen years old, he got his military training in the German Luftwaffe. However, due to lack of fuel, he never went into action.

As a prisoner of war, Böttcher managed to get hold of a guitar and taught himself to play it. Following his release from captivity, he went to Hamburg. There he started his musical career with the then Nordwestdeutscher Rundfunk, in the dance and entertainment orchestra which had been newly founded by Willi Steiner, and which was held in high esteem in England.

He also gained important experience as an arranger for film composers, among them Michael Jary and Hans-Martin Majewski, for whom he arranged part of the music for Love '47.

Early years
In 1950, Böttcher, who liked to work on new sounds, recorded the first trick guitar pieces in Germany in the style of Les Paul. In 1954, Böttcher left the music stand and turned to manuscript paper. His talent did not escape the attention of the German film industry, which was just gaining new momentum at that time.

Thanks to film producer Artur Brauner, Böttcher made his cinematic debut in 1955, composing the music for the military satire The Captain and His Hero. His second film score turned out to be a milestone in German film history. Teenage Wolfpack directed by Georg Tressler and starring Horst Buchholz, met with tremendous success. Mr. Martin's Band comprised the top German jazz musicians, among them Horst Fischer, Fatty George, Bill Grah, Ernst Mosch and Hans 'James' Last.

Böttcher also composed for Hans Albers and for Heinz Rühmann's 'Father Brown' movies. Max the Pickpocket (1962) contained the track "Hawaii Tattoo" (recorded by "The Waikikis"), which Böttcher had written under the pseudonym of Michael Thomas. Within a short time, this theme became famous all over the world, and even received attention in the American Billboard charts.

The hit writer
Martin Böttcher found his greatest success in the 1960s composing the score for ten of the Karl May films, the first being Der Schatz im Silbersee with the famous "Old-Shatterhand-Melodie". The films starred, among many others, American actor Lex Barker and British actor Stewart Granger. The audience was enthusiastic about the wistful melodies, the fanfare-like music accompanying attacks, and the cheerful hillbilly tunes. Martin Böttcher's main themes from these films reached top positions in the German charts and sold thousands of records. The music for the Winnetou films is a landmark in German film music history. The success of these films, accompanied by Böttcher's music, made possible the "Spaghetti Westerns" with the music of Ennio Morricone.

With the German film industry declining at the end of the 1960s Martin Böttcher increasingly focused on working for German TV, which benefited from his talents in many films and series produced for TV.

In the 1970s Martin Böttcher wrote a number of successful scores, among them music for the TV series Sonderdezernat K1 and numerous episodes of Der Alte and Derrick, which are also known outside Germany. He again came in contact with the works of Karl May when he wrote the score for the 26-episode series Kara Ben Nemsi Effendi. The writer of Der Illegale (a TV mini-series), Henry Kolarz, said, "Even if I spoilt it, Böttcher's music is much too good for everything to go wrong."

Throughout the following years Martin Böttcher composed yet more evergreen themes for TV-series, such as It can't always be caviar (1977), Schöne Ferien  (Beautiful holidays) or Forsthaus Falkenau''. In the 1990s, among others, Air Albatros took off - a very special project for the composer, as he could pay a musical tribute to his passion for flying. And when Pierre Brice mounted his horse again as Winnetou for the ZDF television station, he was, of course, accompanied by a score by Martin Böttcher.

Even the Americans became aware of him as an arranger and orchestra director. When they heard his renditions of the world-famous themes "Tara's Theme" and "Theme from 'A Summerplace'", Martin Böttcher was made an honorary member of the Max Steiner Society.

In 1998, the composer once more conquered the German charts. A band from Cologne, the "Superboys", scored a hit with a vocal version of the "Winnetou-Melodie" from the second Winnetou film. Their song "Ich wünscht' du wärst bei mir" ("Wish U Were Here") even reached the top of the ZDF television charts. Another cover version by the Czech group Těžkej Pokondr called "Vinetu" even received double-platinum in their country in March 2000.

The "master of tunes" was honoured in a very special way in 2002: as a jury member (Europäischer Förderpreis - a European talent award) Martin Böttcher represented Germany at that year's European Biennale for Film Music in Bonn.

Selected filmography

 * The Captain and His Hero (1955)
 * Teenage Wolfpack (1956)
 * Lemke's Widow (1957)
 * Thirteen Old Donkeys (1958)
 * My Ninety Nine Brides (1958)
 * The Woman by the Dark Window (1960)
 * Pension Schöller (1960)
 * The Black Sheep (1960)
 * You Don't Shoot at Angels (1960)
 * The Forger of London (1961)
 * Our House in Cameroon (1961)
 * Max the Pickpocket (1962)
 * The Inn on the River (1962)
 * He Can't Stop Doing It (1962)
 * Street of Temptation (1962)
 * Treasure of the Silver Lake (1962)
 * The Black Abbot (1963)
 * Apache Gold (1963)
 * Mission to Hell (1964)
 * The Phantom of Soho (1964)
 * Last of the Renegades (1964)
 * The Shoot (1964)
 * Among Vultures (1964)
 * The Oil Prince (1965)
 * The Desperado Trail (1965)
 * Old Surehand (1965)
 * Winnetou and the Crossbreed (1966)
 * Long Legs, Long Fingers (1966)
 * Zärtliche Haie (1967)
 * Creature with the Blue Hand (1967)
 * The Monk with the Whip (1967)
 * The Valley of Death (1968)
 * Dr. Fabian: Laughing Is the Best Medicine (1969)
 * Holidays in Tyrol (1971)
 * Willi Manages The Whole Thing (1972)
 * Bread and Stones (1979)

Awards

 * On 9 October 1995 the Deutsche Filmmusikpreise (German film music awards) were awarded at the Bonner Bundeskunsthalle. Martin Böttcher was honoured with the prize for his "outstanding contribution to German film history, which shows in an abundant musical oeuvre"; he was the very first person to receive this prize (in later years also Mikis Theodorakis and Ennio Morricone were among the recipients).
 * The continuous success of the Karl May melodies was the reason why, at the Karl May Festival in Bad Segeberg in 1997, Schacht Music Publishers honoured the tremendously successful composer with a "special award".
 * On 15 April 2000 Martin Böttcher received the "Edgar Wallace Award in Gold" for his merits in German crime movies.
 * On 25 January 2004 Martin Böttcher was awarded in St. Moritz the German Bundesverdienstkreuz (Federal Cross of Merit) for his lifetime achievement.
 * On 28 May 2009 Martin Böttcher was honoured in Berlin with the Deutsche Musikautorenpreis (German music authors’ award), category "composition for films".
 * On 27 June 2013 Martin Böttcher was honoured in Munich with the Look & Listen – Telepool-BR-Music-Award.

Literature

 * Reiner Boller: Winnetou-Melodie - Martin Böttcher - Die Biographie. Gryphon Verlag, 2003, 200 Seiten, mit einem Vorwort von Pierre Brice. ISBN 3-89602-444-2

title: Martin Böttcher


text:
Cucurbit

Cucurbit may refer to:-

 * A plant of the family Cucurbitaceae
 * The lower part of an alembic
 * Cucurbit flute, Chinese musical instrument

title: Cucurbit


text:
File:Jerky Boys 2.jpg

Summary
Album cover of Jerky Boys 2

title: File:Jerky Boys 2.jpg


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Cucumis

Cucumis is a genus of twining, tendril-bearing plants in the family Cucurbitaceae which includes the cucumber (Cucumis sativus), true melons (Cucumis melo, including cantaloupe and honeydew), the horned melon (Cucumis metuliferus), and the West Indian gherkin (Cucumis anguria).

30 species occur in Africa, and 25 occur in India, Southeast Asia, and Australia. However, Cucumis myriocarpus was introduced to Australia from Sub-Saharan Africa, and is regarded as an invasive species.

Species
, Plants of the World Online accepted 61 species:

 * Cucumis aculeatus Cogn.
 * Cucumis aetheocarpus (C.Jeffrey) Ghebret. & Thulin
 * Cucumis africanus L.f.
 * Cucumis althaeoides (Ser.) P.Sebastian & I.Telford
 * Cucumis anguria L.
 * Cucumis argenteus (Domin) P.Sebastian & I.Telford
 * Cucumis asper Cogn.
 * Cucumis baladensis Thulin
 * Cucumis bryoniifolius (Merxm.) Ghebret. & Thulin
 * Cucumis canoxyi Thulin & Al-Gifri
 * Cucumis carolinus J.H.Kirkbr.
 * Cucumis cinereus (Cogn.) Ghebret. & Thulin
 * Cucumis clavipetiolatus (J.H.Kirkbr.) Ghebret. & Thulin
 * Cucumis costatus I.Telford
 * Cucumis debilis W.J.de Wilde & Duyfjes
 * Cucumis dipsaceus Ehrenb. ex Spach
 * Cucumis engleri (Gilg) Ghebret. & Thulin
 * Cucumis ficifolius A.Rich.
 * Cucumis globosus C.Jeffrey
 * Cucumis gracilis (Kurz) Ghebret. & Thulin
 * Cucumis hastatus Thulin
 * Cucumis heptadactylus Naudin
 * Cucumis hirsutus Sond.
 * Cucumis humifructus Stent (as Cucumis humofructus)
 * Cucumis hystrix Chakrav.
 * Cucumis indicus Ghebret. & Thulin
 * Cucumis insignis C.Jeffrey
 * Cucumis javanicus (Miq.) Ghebret. & Thulin
 * Cucumis jeffreyanus Thulin
 * Cucumis kalahariensis A.Meeuse
 * Cucumis kelleri (Cogn.) Ghebret. & Thulin
 * Cucumis kirkbridei Ghebret. & Thulin
 * Cucumis leiospermus (Wight & Arn.) Ghebret. & Thulin
 * Cucumis maderaspatanus L.
 * Cucumis meeusei C.Jeffrey
 * Cucumis melo L.
 * Cucumis messorius (C.Jeffrey) Ghebret. & Thulin
 * Cucumis metuliferus E.Mey. ex Naudin
 * Cucumis myriocarpus Naudin
 * Cucumis omissus Thulin
 * Cucumis picrocarpus F.Muell.
 * Cucumis prophetarum L.
 * Cucumis pubituberculatus Thulin
 * Cucumis pustulatus Naudin ex Hook.f.
 * Cucumis queenslandicus I.Telford
 * Cucumis quintanilhae R.Fern. & A.Fern.
 * Cucumis reticulatus (A.Fern. & R.Fern.) Ghebret. & Thulin
 * Cucumis rigidus E.Mey. ex Sond.
 * Cucumis ritchiei (C.B.Clarke) Ghebret. & Thulin
 * Cucumis rostratus J.H.Kirkbr.
 * Cucumis rumphianus (Scheff.) H.Schaef.
 * Cucumis sacleuxii Paill. & Bois
 * Cucumis sagittatus Wawra & Peyr.
 * Cucumis sativus L., cucumber
 * Cucumis setosus Cogn.
 * Cucumis silentvalleyi (Manilal, T.Sabu & P.Mathew) Ghebret. & Thulin
 * Cucumis thulinianus J.H.Kirkbr.
 * Cucumis umbellatus I.Telford
 * Cucumis variabilis P.Sebastian & I.Telford
 * Cucumis zambianus Widrl., J.H.Kirkbr., Ghebret. & K.R.Reitsma
 * Cucumis zeyheri Sond.

title: Cucumis


text:
Talk:Hungerford

Reverting revision by anonymous user at 213.122.52.49
This revision unlinked the specific article on the Hungerford Massacre from this page, and replaced it with some info from that page inline. I suspect that this wasn't deliberate vandalism, and may well have been done for some good reason. However no comment was left to explain that reason, and the effect of the change actually reduces the amount of information available to the reader. So reluctantly I've decided to revert the change in the hope this will cause the originator to explain what (s)he was trying to achieve and hopefully move forward from there. -- Chris j wood 18:00, 3 Oct 2004 (UTC)

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Talk:Catherine Oxenberg

Kerry connection
A Google search on "india oxenberg" & "kerry" reveals only 3 hits. Of these, only 1 alleges that Kerry is India's father, and that's a letter to the editor. Not only is there no evidence, there's not even an allegation floating around. What is your basis for "some" believing this Xed? Wolfman 18:01, 3 Oct 2004 (UTC)

Catherine Oxenberg dated John Kerry before Indias birth. She has never revealed who the father is. Kerry has never hidden his desire to be president.

 * how about responding to the point I made? and, that's a cute pic -- but as you know, india looks just like her mother, long face & all. Wolfman 18:20, 3 Oct 2004 (UTC)
 * big chin too. maybe she got that from her father--Xed 18:23, 3 Oct 2004 (UTC)

Interesting ebay member page shes got - username: catox
 * what's interesting about it? got a link? Wolfman 22:34, 3 Oct 2004 (UTC)
 * I don't think you can link directly to it. You have to search for the user name. --Xed 22:39, 3 Oct 2004 (UTC)
 * I did, I got her user feedback page. Didn't see anything interesting there.  She also has no items currently for sale.  What am I supposed to be looking for? Wolfman 22:50, 3 Oct 2004 (UTC)

Date of dating
Since he divorced Thorne in 88 and married Heinz in 95, it was presumably within that period that the relationship took place - discounting adultery and pedophilia (Oxenberg was 9 in 1970 when he married Thorne). Kerry is believed to have started a relationship with Heinz after 92 (at the Earth Summit) - so that may narrow it down further to between 88 and 92. India was born in 91. --Xed 20:24, 3 Oct 2004 (UTC)

 * Nice speculation. How about some actual evidence? Wolfman 21:53, 3 Oct 2004 (UTC)
 * Thanks. Deduction dear Watson--Xed 22:42, 3 Oct 2004 (UTC)
 * Cool, I like this game. I deduce that Bush was a cokehead who skipped out on the Guard.  Mind if I include those as fact in his article? Wolfman 22:49, 3 Oct 2004 (UTC)
 * I don't see why not. Why d'you bring that up?--Xed 22:54, 3 Oct 2004 (UTC)
 * Because there is ample precedent (that I agree with) in Talk: GW Bush for not including such "deductions". Your deduction game is no different, and I had hoped you would see this as a "reduction to absurdity" of your argument.  Apparently, you see nothing absurd at all about including such nonsense.  That makes my head hurt.  In this case, at least, you can presumably go find out the dates.  This seems to have been a fairly public relationship, though unfortunately for us before the internet age.  Got access to Lexis/Nexis?  That should have it. Wolfman 22:59, 3 Oct 2004 (UTC)
 * You've certainly reduced yourself to absurdity. I can't claim to have helped you in that matter. As for the dates, are you insinuating he committed adultery? Because outside of those dates - that's what it would be.--Xed 23:02, 3 Oct 2004 (UTC)
 * My, aren't you precious. Wolfman 23:14, 3 Oct 2004 (UTC)

I have no definitive information on the dates. Apparently, neither do you. For the moment, I don't object to your language. But, for the record, formally separated people do often date publicly, and it's generally not looked upon as 'cheating'. Wolfman 23:11, 3 Oct 2004 (UTC)
 * That's strange - before you were sure it was the 80s. --Xed 23:22, 3 Oct 2004 (UTC)
 * Absolutely not! Point me to such a claim.  You cannot.  I have always acknowledged that I have not been able to find a definitive date.  What I've read leads me to deduce it was the late 80's, but that's not good enough to put in as fact. Wolfman 23:39, 3 Oct 2004 (UTC)
 * You say in the edit history - "from what i can find, they dated in the 80's" - what did you find? where did you find it? --Xed 23:43, 3 Oct 2004 (UTC)
 * selective quote to misrepresent certainty: I actually said "from what i can find, they dated in the 80's, can you support the 90's claim?"  My uncertainty is clear because (a) 'what I can find' indicates it's not definitive (b) 'can you support the 90's claim' indicates it's not definitive.  Also, a couple edits later I state "nothing definitive".  What little I can gather is only implied by wording I have seen about the relationship.   I use Google. Wolfman 23:51, 3 Oct 2004 (UTC)
 * Sorry, I missed your answer. What did you find to support the 80s claim? And where did you find it?--Xed 00:00, 4 Oct 2004 (UTC)
 * Yes, you missed it. I used Google, so can you.  Since I found nothing definitive, I did not bookmark the suggestive (but undefinitive) passages I did find.Wolfman 00:25, 4 Oct 2004 (UTC)
 * "from what i can find, they dated in the 80's" - what page contained this information?--Xed 00:30, 4 Oct 2004 (UTC)
 * are you hard of thinking? read what i just wrote again. Wolfman 00:32, 4 Oct 2004 (UTC)

Some facts
Some opponents of Kerry have posted a story from the Boston Globe of August 22, 1989, talking about women Kerry dated, which says, "More recently, there was Catherine Oxenberg." (The story is available from the Globe only if you pay for it, and I sure am not shelling out real money to track down this lunacy. I read the excerpt for free courtesy of http://www.auctionlandusa.com/kerryhtml/romeo_89globe.htm ("NoJohnKerry.org").)

The Globe story, saying "there was Catherine Oxenberg" (emphasis added), suggests that whatever was going on had stopped by the time of the story -- August of 1989. India was conceived in approximately September of 1990. It looks like this particular speculation will have to be retired. JamesMLane 00:51, 6 Oct 2004 (UTC)
 * "more recently, there was" doesn't explicitly say that the affair was over. For instance, you could say, "After a string of different women, Jack dated Jill. More recently, there was Joan, whom he is now happily married too." All the "there was" phrase means in the story is that Oxenberg came after Fairchild, and this event happened in the past. Additionally, the Boston Globe in 1989 was unable to see into the future and tell if they resumed dating.  --Xed 18:32, 6 Oct 2004 (UTC)

 * Correct, which is why I said the wording "suggests" that they had stopped dating. I think the key point is that no one has pointed to any evidence or shred of a suggestion that they were at all involved in or about September of 1990.  A photo of them together at an event in that month wouldn't be enough evidence to support a suggestion about India's paternity, but we don't even have anything remotely close to that much evidence. JamesMLane 02:46, 7 Oct 2004 (UTC)
 * But the article doesn't just suggest it - it states it as a fact.--Xed 02:49, 7 Oct 2004 (UTC)

 * No, it says that they dated in 1989, which is factual and which is all that is justified by our source. By your own logic about interpreting the Globe story, the statement that they dated in 1989 doesn't mean that they stopped in 1989.  If you interpret the current text of the article to assert definitively (as opposed to suggesting) that they stopped dating before the end of 1989, because it uses the past tense, then you'd have to interpret the Globe article the same way. JamesMLane 03:03, 7 Oct 2004 (UTC)
 * The statement that they dated in 1989 DOES mean that they stopped in 1989, since we are not looking at it from the perspective of 1989. -Xed 14:23, 13 Oct 2004 (UTC)
 * Have you found a reference indicating that they dated after 1989? Wolfman 15:05, 13 Oct 2004 (UTC)
 * There isn't even a reference that they dated in 1989, which is why I would prefer it to say just 'after JKs marriage ended' -- Xed 15:12, 13 Oct 2004 (UTC)
 * There is a reference that they dated in 1989. The Globe story, as I quoted above, says, ""More recently, there was Catherine Oxenberg."  That story was published in August of 1989.  If the dating wasn't in 1989 it was even earlier, but I think "recently" suggests that it was within at least the preceding eight months.  On that basis I'm restoring the "in 1989".  If you don't think "recently" implies that, feel free to change it to "in 1989 or earlier".  As to whether they dated at any time after 1989, there's as much evidence that Kerry dated her in 1990 as there is that Bush dated her in 1990 (or, for that matter, that Bush dated Kerry in 1990). JamesMLane 16:59, 15 Oct 2004 (UTC)

Xed's current wording seems alright to me. It is factual, but the phrasing and placement do not raise any suggestion of a connection to India. Wolfman 16:37, 15 Oct 2004 (UTC)
 * It's almost identical in meaning to a previous wording to a previous version I edited. You rejected it at the time. - Xed 16:41, 15 Oct 2004 (UTC)
 * when i decide i'm wrong, i change my mind. what do you do Xed?  or, would you prefer that i dispute this as well?  Wolfman 17:00, 15 Oct 2004 (UTC)

Dates: I see JML has put it back to 1989, that's fine with me too. Wolfman 17:06, 15 Oct 2004 (UTC)

 * But Xed has now deleted this information without explaining why.  I'm restoring it.  If no other solution can be found, I'd be amenable to the somewhat more awkward method of simply quoting our source (the Globe) in full, with the date, so that readers have all the information.  I still think that a simple "in 1989" is accurate and preferable, though. JamesMLane 17:28, 15 Oct 2004 (UTC)
 * It's certainly not accurate. We only know they dated within a certain period. There is no specific information tying it down to 1999. - Xed 17:33, 15 Oct 2004 (UTC)

 * We know that they dated at some point before August 24, 1989. We have zero zip nada zilch no information that they dated at any time thereafter. JamesMLane 17:38, 15 Oct 2004 (UTC)

Jewish
What is the evidence that Catherine Oxenberg is Jewish?--Jbull 03:38, 26 January 2006 (UTC)

Her father, Howard, is Jewish. Not sure what Catherine considers herself. 64.168.78.154 (talk) 19:27, 17 March 2008 (UTC)

Page needs a pic
I'm of the opinion that all pages of celebrities need pictures to illustrate said celebrity; this page is no different. I'm sure there's a promo photo out there somewhere that can be used to this end. -- Cyde Weys 13:07, 31 January 2006 (UTC)

Accent?
Why does she speak in this pseudo British/Australian/SouthAfrican accent if she was born in NYC and grew up in the U.S.? Because her mother - who probably speaks English with a Slavic accent - lives in England? Anyway, it should be noted in the article that she has a strange accent. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=IL5auOsFhY0 Rashnan (talk) 18:34, 24 March 2009 (UTC)
 * She didn't "grow up in the U.S. She was raised in London. "Strange accent" seems to be a matter of opinion.Mk5384 (talk) 01:05, 25 May 2010 (UTC)

Succesion to the British throne
Does being the 1388th person in a line of succesion really merit inclusion?Mk5384 (talk) 01:06, 25 May 2010 (UTC)
 * I think it does. I'm not sure that the number should be mentioned in the introduction but the fact that she is somewhere in the line should be mentioned. Surtsicna (talk) 19:31, 25 May 2010 (UTC)
 * Very well. Timothy Geithner is fifth in the line of succession to the U. S. Presidency, yet this is not even mentioned.Mk5384 (talk) 09:44, 26 May 2010 (UTC)
 * Perhaps that should be mentioned in the article about Timothy Geithner. Surtsicna (talk) 19:34, 26 May 2010 (UTC)
 * No, it really shouldn't. It also isn't mentioned in the articles for Eric Holder, Janet Napolitano, et al. There has never been a situation where even the 3rd person in line assumed the U.S. Presidency. Therefore, being 5th through 17th in line to succeed are of little consequence. Being 1388th is absurd.Mk5384 (talk) 23:10, 26 May 2010 (UTC)
 * Upon further investigation, many persons, much higher in line than Ms. Oxenberg do not have their positions in line to the throne mentioned in their articles. Being 1388th in line is trivial in the most extreme fashion, and as such, I have removed it.Mk5384 (talk) 23:16, 26 May 2010 (UTC)

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Set and setting

Set and setting, when referring to a psychedelic drug experience or the use of other psychoactive substances, means one's mindset (shortened to "set") and the physical and social environment (the "setting") in which the user has the experience. Set and setting are factors that can condition the effects of psychoactive substances: "Set" refers to the mental state a person brings to the experience, like thoughts, mood and expectations; "setting" to the physical and social environment. This is especially relevant for psychedelic experiences in either a therapeutic or recreational context.

History
According to the 2018 book How to Change Your Mind by Michael Pollan, the concept of set and setting was observed by the "Johnny Appleseed" of LSD, Al Hubbard, visiting mushroom ceremonies in Mexico. The terms were used at least as early as 1958 by Ludwig von Bertalanffy and popularized by Timothy Leary in 1961, and became widely accepted by researchers in psychedelic therapy. Norman Zinberg also extensively discussed this in Drug, Set, and Setting: The Basis for Controlled Intoxicant Use (1984).

Due to the importance of setting in early psychedelic therapy, Hubbard introduced a "treatment space decorated to feel more like a home than a hospital", which came to be known as a "Hubbard Room". In 1966, Timothy Leary conducted a series of experiments with dimethyltryptamine (DMT) with controlled set and setting. The aim was to see whether DMT, which had then been mostly thought of as a terror-inducing drug, could produce pleasant experiences under a supportive set and setting. It was found that it could.

Set and setting has also been investigated from a religious perspective.

The concept of set and setting has more recently been extended beyond psychedelics. Zinberg "sought to integrate the ideas of set and setting into a theory of harm reduction which examined not only psychedelic use but also drugs such as alcohol, cocaine, and heroin" and, more recently, the concept has been used to understand the circumstances of opioid overdoses.

Practice
Social support networks have shown to be particularly important in the outcome of the psychedelic experience. They are able to control or guide the course of the experience, both consciously and subconsciously. Stress, fear, or a disagreeable material, social, cultural environment, including situations of racism or discrimination, may result in an unpleasant experience (bad trip). Conversely, a relaxed, curious person in a warm, comfortable and safe place is more likely to have a pleasant experience. "Of course, the drug dose does not produce the transcendent experience. It merely acts as a chemical key — it opens the mind, frees the nervous system of its ordinary patterns and structures. The nature of the experience depends almost entirely on set and setting. Set denotes the preparation of the individual, including his personality structure and his mood at the time. Setting is physical — the weather, the room's atmosphere; social — feelings of persons present towards one another; and cultural — prevailing views as to what is real. It is for this reason that manuals or guide-books are necessary. Their purpose is to enable a person to understand the new realities of the expanded consciousness, to serve as road maps for new interior territories which modern science has made accessible."

Research has shown that a curated music playlist can be part of a favourable setting. Set and setting are critical in the design of psychiatric facilities and modalities of psychedelic-assisted psychotherapies.

title: Set and setting


text:
Roman citizenship

Citizenship in ancient Rome (civitas) was a privileged political and legal status afforded to free individuals with respect to laws, property, and governance. Citizenship in ancient Rome was complex and based upon many different laws, traditions, and cultural practices. There existed several different types of citizenship, determined by one's gender, class, and political affiliations, and the exact duties or expectations of a citizen varied throughout the history of the Roman Empire.

History
The oldest document currently available that details the rights of citizenship is the Twelve Tables, ratified c. 449 BC. Much of the text of the Tables only exists in fragments, but during the time of Ancient Rome the Tables would be displayed in full in the Roman Forum for all to see. The Tables detail the rights of citizens in dealing with court proceedings, property, inheritance, death, and (in the case of women) public behavior. Under the Roman Republic, the government conducted a census every five years in Rome to keep a record of citizens and their households. As the Roman Empire spread so did the practice of conducting a census.

Roman citizens were expected to perform some duties (munera publica) to the state in order to retain their rights as citizens. Failure to perform citizenship duties could result in the loss of privileges, as seen during the Second Punic War when men who refused military service lost their right to vote and were forced out of their voting tribes. Women were exempt from direct taxation and military service. Anyone living in any province of Rome was required to register with the census. The exact extent of civic duties varied throughout the centuries.

Much of Roman law involving the rights and functions of citizenship revolved around legal precedents. Documents from Roman writer Valerius Maximus indicate that Roman women were in later centuries able to mingle freely about the Forum and to bring in concerns on their own volition, providing they acted in a manner that was becoming of their family and station.

Much of our basis for understanding Roman law comes from the Digest of Emperor Justinian. The Digest contained court rulings by juries and their interpretations of Roman law and preserved the writings of Roman legal authors.

The Edict of Caracalla
The Edict of Caracalla (officially the Constitutio Antoniniana in Latin: "Constitution [or Edict] of Antoninus") was an edict issued in AD 212 by the Roman Emperor Caracalla, which declared that all free men in the Roman Empire were to be given full Roman citizenship and all free women in the Empire were given the same rights as Roman women, with the exception of the dediticii, people who had become subject to Rome through surrender in war, and freed slaves.

By the century previous to Caracalla, Roman citizenship had already lost much of its exclusiveness and become more available between the inhabitants throughout the different provinces of the Roman Empire and between nobles such as kings of client countries. Before the Edict, however, a significant number of provincials were non-Roman citizens and held instead the Latin rights.

The Bible's Book of Acts indicates that Paul the Apostle was a Roman citizen by birth – though not clearly specifying which class of citizenship – a fact which had considerable bearing on Paul's career and on the religion of Christianity.

Types of citizenship
Citizenship in Rome could be acquired through various means. To be born as a citizen required that both parents be free citizens of Rome. Another method was via the completion of a public service, such as serving in the non-Roman auxiliary forces. Cities could acquire citizenship through the implementation of the Latin law, wherein people of a provincial city of the empire could elect people to public office and therefore give the elected official citizenship.

The legal classes varied over time, however the following classes of legal status existed at various times within the Roman state:

Cives Romani
The cives Romani were full Roman citizens, who enjoyed full legal protection under Roman law. Cives Romani were sub-divided into two classes:

 * The non optimo iure who held the ius commercii and ius conubii (rights of property and marriage)
 * The optimo iure, who held these rights as well as the ius suffragii and ius honorum (the additional rights to vote and to hold office).

Latini
The Latini were a class of citizens who held the Latin rights (ius Latii), or the rights of ius commercii and ius migrationis (the right to migrate), but not the ius conubii. The term Latini originally referred to the Latins, citizens of the Latin League who came under Roman control at the close of the Latin War, but eventually became a legal description rather than a national or ethnic one. The Latin rights status could be assigned to different classes of citizens, such as freedmen, cives Romani convicted of crime, or colonial settlers.

Socii
Under Roman law, citizens of another state that was allied to Rome via treaty were assigned the status of socii. Socii (also known as foederati) could obtain certain legal rights of under Roman law in exchange for agreed upon levels of military service, i.e., the Roman magistrates had the right to levy soldier from such states into the Roman legions. However, foederati states that had at one time been conquered by Rome were exempt from payment of tribute to Rome due to their treaty status.

Growing dissatisfaction with the rights afforded to the socii and with the growing manpower demands of the legions (due to the protracted Jugurthine War and the Cimbrian War) led eventually to the Social War of 91–87 BC in which the Italian allies revolted against Rome.

The Lex Julia (in full the Lex Iulia de Civitate Latinis Danda), passed in 90 BC, granted the rights of the cives Romani to all Latini and socii states that had not participated in the Social War, or who were willing to cease hostilities immediately. This was extended to all the Italian socii states when the war ended (except for Gallia Cisalpina), effectively eliminating socii and Latini as legal and citizenship definitions.

Provinciales
Provinciales were those people who fell under Roman influence, or control, but who lacked even the rights of the foederati, essentially having only the rights of the ius gentium (rules and laws common to nations under Rome's rule).

Peregrini
A peregrinus (plural peregrini) was originally any person who was not a full Roman citizen, that is someone who was not a member of the cives Romani. With the expansion of Roman law to include more gradations of legal status, this term became less used, but the term peregrini included those of the Latini, socii, and provinciales, as well as those subjects of foreign states.

Citizenship for different social classes
Individuals belonging to a specific social class in Rome had modified versions of citizenship.
 * Roman women had a limited form of citizenship. They were not allowed to vote or stand for civil or public office. The rich might participate in public life by funding building projects or sponsoring religious ceremonies and other events. Women had the right to own property, to engage in business, and to obtain a divorce, but their legal rights varied over time. Marriages were an important form of political alliance during the Republic. Roman women mostly remained under the guardianship of their father (pater familias) or their closest male agnate.
 * Client state citizens and allies (socii) of Rome could receive a limited form of Roman citizenship such as the Latin rights. Such citizens could not vote or be elected in Roman elections.
 * Freedmen were former slaves who had gained their freedom. They were not automatically given citizenship and lacked some privileges such as running for executive magistracies. The children of freedmen and women were born as free citizens; for example, the father of the poet Horace was a freedman.
 * Slaves were considered property and lacked legal personhood. Over time, they acquired a few protections under Roman law. Some slaves were freed by manumission for services rendered, or through a testamentary provision when their master died. Once free, they faced few barriers, beyond normal social stigma, to participating in Roman society. The principle that a person could become a citizen by law rather than birth was enshrined in Roman mythology; when Romulus defeated the Sabines in battle, he promised the war captives that were in Rome they could become citizens.

Rights
Roman citizens enjoyed a variety of specific privileges within Roman society. Male citizens had the rights to vote (ius suffragi) and hold civic office (ius honorum, only available to the aristocracy). They also possessed ius vitae necisque, "the right of life and death." The male head of a Roman family (pater familias) had the right to legally execute any of his children at any age, although it appears that this was mostly reserved in deciding to raise newborn children.

More general rights included: the rights to property (ius census), to enter into contracts (ius commercii), ius provocationis, the right to appeal court decisions, the right to sue and to be sued, to have a legal trial, and the right of immunity from some taxes and other legal obligations, especially local rules and regulations.

With regards to the Roman family, Roman citizens possessed the right of ius conubii, defined as the right to a lawful marriage in which children from the union would also be Roman citizens. Earlier Roman sources indicate that Roman women could forfeit their individual rights as citizens when entering into a manus marriage. In a manus marriage, a woman would lose any properties or possessions she owned herself and they would be given to her husband, or his pater familias. Manus marriages had largely stopped by the time of Augustus and women instead remained under the protection of their pater familias. Upon his death, both the men and women under the protection of the pater familias would be considered sui iuris and be legally independent, able to inherit and own property without the approval of their pater familias. Roman woman however would enter into a tutela, or guardianship. A woman's tutor functioned similarly to a pater familias, but he did not control the property or possessions of a woman and was generally only needed to give his permission when a woman wanted to perform certain legal actions, such as freeing her slaves.

Officially, one required Roman citizenship status to enrol in the Roman legions, but this requirement was sometimes overlooked and exceptions could be made. Citizen soldiers could be beaten by the centurions and senior officers for reasons related to discipline. Non-citizens joined the Auxilia and gained citizenship through service.

Following the early 2nd-century BC Porcian Laws, a Roman citizen could not be tortured or whipped and could commute sentences of death to voluntary exile, unless he was found guilty of treason. If accused of treason, a Roman citizen had the right to be tried in Rome, and even if sentenced to death, no Roman citizen could be sentenced to crucifixion.

Ius gentium was the legal recognition, developed in the 3rd century BC, of the growing international scope of Roman affairs, and the need for Roman law to deal with situations between Roman citizens and foreign persons. The ius gentium was therefore a Roman legal codification of the widely accepted international law of the time, and was based on the highly developed commercial law of the Greek city-states and of other maritime powers. The rights afforded by the ius gentium were considered to be held by all persons; it is thus a concept of human rights rather than rights attached to citizenship.

Ius migrationis was the right to preserve one's level of citizenship upon relocation to a polis of comparable status. For example, members of the cives Romani maintained their full civitas when they migrated to a Roman colony with full rights under the law: a colonia civium Romanorum. Latins also had this right, and maintained their ius Latii if they relocated to a different Latin state or Latin colony (Latina colonia). This right did not preserve one's level of citizenship should one relocate to a colony of lesser legal status; full Roman citizens relocating to a Latina colonia were reduced to the level of the ius Latii, and such a migration and reduction in status had to be a voluntary act.

Romanization and citizenship
Roman citizenship was also used as a tool of foreign policy and control. Colonies and political allies would be granted a "minor" form of Roman citizenship, there being several graduated levels of citizenship and legal rights (the Latin rights was one of them). The promise of improved status within the Roman "sphere of influence" and the rivalry with one's neighbours for status, kept the focus of many of Rome's neighbours and allies centered on the status quo of Roman culture, rather than trying to subvert or overthrow Rome's influence.

The granting of citizenship to allies and the conquered was a vital step in the process of Romanization. This step was one of the most effective political tools and (at that point in history) original political ideas.

Previously, Alexander the Great had tried to "mingle" his Greeks with the Persians, Egyptians, Syrians, etc. in order to assimilate the people of the conquered Persian Empire, but after his death this policy was largely ignored by his successors.

The idea was not to assimilate, but to turn a defeated and potentially rebellious enemy (or their sons) into Roman citizens. Instead of having to wait for the unavoidable revolt of a conquered people (a tribe or a city-state) like Sparta and the conquered Helots, Rome tried to make those under its rule feel that they had a stake in the system. The ability of non-Roman born individuals to gain Roman citizenship also provided increased stability for those under Roman rule, and the system of sub-division within the different types of citizenship allowed for Roman rulers to work cooperatively with local elites in the provinces.

Romanitas, Roman nationalism, and its extinction
With the settlement of Romanization and the passing of generations, a new unifying feeling began to emerge within Roman territory, the Romanitas or "Roman way of life", the once tribal feeling that had divided Europe began to disappear (although never completely) and blend in with the new wedge patriotism imported from Rome with which to be able to ascend at all levels.

The Romanitas, Romanity or Romanism would last until the last years of unity of the pars occidentalis, a moment in which the old tribalisms and the proto-feudalism of Celtic origins, until then dormant, would re-emerge, mixing with the new ethnic groups of Germanic origin. This being observed in the writings of Gregory of Tours, who does not use the dichotomy Gallo-Roman-Frankish, but uses the name of each of the gens of that time existing in Gaul (arverni, turoni, lemovici, turnacenses, bituriges, franci, etc.), considering himself a Arverni and not a Gallo-Roman; being the relations between the natives and the Franks seen not as Romans against barbarians, as is popularly believed, but as in the case of Gregory, a relationship of coexistence between Arverni and Franks (Franci) as equals.

It must also be remembered that Clovis I was born in Gaul, so according to the Edict of Caracalla that made him a Roman citizen by birth, in addition to being recognized by the emperor Anastasius I Dicorus as consul of Gaul, so his position of power was reinforced, in addition to being considered by his Gallo-Roman subjects as a legitimate viceroy of Rome; understanding that the Romanitas did not disappear in such an abrupt way, observed its effects centuries later with Charlemagne and the Translatio imperii.

title: Roman citizenship


text:
Talk:Substitutability

The article Liskov substitution principleis the only article (apart from automatically generated lists of deadend article that points to this article. Quotation from the Liskov article :

"Thus, the notion of "subtype" is based on the notion of substitutability; that is, if S is a subtype of T, then objects of type T in a program may be substituted with objects of type S, without altering any of the desirable properties of that program (e.g., correctness)."

Does repeating "if S is a subtype of T, then objects of type T in a program may be substituted with objects of type S, without altering any of the desirable properties of that program" really justify this page's existence?

 * No. I don't think it does. Here's the text I've already placed on your talk page. I was reading your comments on substitutibility and I think that you are correct. I am tempted to either speedily delete it or (perhaps even better) move it to wiktionary. --Jpittman 23:21, 3 Oct 2004 (UTC)

Well User:Lachaume has done a nice job on generalizing the article - so no need for VfD or wiktionary. --Cje 15:31, 17 Oct 2004 (UTC)

Why is the property of substitutability interesting? This quote from the Liskov substitution principle says why, and I think it is one of the coolest things I've ever read about LSP / substitutability: "A function using a class hierarchy violating the principle uses a reference to a base class, yet must have knowledge of the subclasses. Such a function violates the open/closed principle because it must be modified whenever a new derivative of the base class is created."

I agree with whoever suggests to merge this page with the Liskov substitution principle one, by the way. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 203.114.192.114 (talk) 14:09, 5 December 2008 (UTC)

 * ME TOO in fact I'm going to remove the link to this page from the LSP page because the link in that context is utterly useless. Wiktionary indeed. There's not actually even anything here to merge to LSP. REDIRECT --76.247.105.43 (talk) 19:33, 22 March 2009 (UTC)

title: Talk:Substitutability


text:
Talk:Roman citizenship

Sexual orientation?
"according to their place of origin, and their sexual orientation." - I think this needs to be rewritten; I believe the intent was to say "gender", unless user seriously meant to say that rights were dependent based on sexual proclivities? --Gnostiko (talk) 17:03, 10 June 2018 (UTC)

Miscellaneous
Please don't punish me. I used the info from the website at the bottom of the page. I tried to keep it simple without breaking copyright laws. What I was doing was trying to include info on what had to happen to become a Roman citizen, since few websites would have that kind of info.- B-101 18:16, 3 Oct 2004 (UTC)

This page is a good start but could use a lot of work. Perhaps I can find the time soon. cpro 18:19, 27 January 2006 (UTC)

I welcome all improvements. What are you planning to include? Flamarande 18:53, 27 January 2006 (UTC)

I think some of your revisions border on non-NPOV, with respect to the editorial comments. Ultimately the problem is that we are trying to encapsulate 1000 years of roman history in a few paragraphs. cpro 16:25, 10 February 2006 (UTC)

They border on non-NPOV? Your added info is very good and the vast majority of it remains there, but sometimes you were simply repeating yourself and the edicts about slavery by emperor Claudius while known to me, are simply not mentioned in his article. I don´t deny that we are trying to encapsulate 1000 years in a few pargraphs, but to write various articles with this small amount of data is a bit of exageration and will lead to no-where. Flamarande 15:35, 11 February 2006 (UTC)

something small. It's a good article, but needs some tidying up. I'm changing it that only under certain circumstances could a person lose their citizenship (by adding the word not), sorry if I'm mistaken in that edit. To the orginal person, please do keep trying. Gbinal 10:47, 13 February 2006 (UTC)

Historical Development of Roman citizenship
I know that Roman Citizenship developed over time, but don't have the knowledge or resources to expand it. There was also development after the Edict of Milan

Missing a Section on manner of determining citizenship
I was looking for something that directly spelled out the acquisition and determination of citizenship? How did that happen.InformationvsInjustice (talk) 02:03, 7 October 2016 (UTC)

Expansion and Levels
I've added (some?) of the various levels of citizenship and rights, listing citizenship based on what rights they have, and some of the Latin names for the given rights. The listing is not complete, and I haven't yet expanded to include "bundles" of rights (such as jus privatum and jus publicum. I'd recommend that anyone who wants to tinker with this look at Civitas in A Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities as a starting point. - Vedexent (talk) - 11:32, 28 July 2007 (UTC)

Explanation Of Latin States
This article has the potential to be very interesting, especially to US readers as the debate over immigration from Latin America becomes so heated. As a novice to the topic, this article needs a definition of what "Latin states" are. thanks. Scarykitty (talk) 23:47, 19 March 2008 (UTC)

Merging Civitas & Roman Citizenship
I think it would be a great idea to merge these two articles because then you can read about the full history of Roman Citizenship without having to jump to another article so I say go for it.. Agent008
 * Just spotted this discussion, as someone doing work on a specific civitas - that is, an administrative area or centre. My immediate thought (I am not an expert) is that the parts of the civitas article which refer to the general concept of citizenship could be merged with this article, but that there needs to be a separate article on civitas in the sense of an area of local government administration.  Ghmyrtle (talk) 18:15, 15 May 2008 (UTC)

Patria Potestas
Should it be mentioned? I noticed it was mentioned in the context of women, but as some Roman Jurists noted it was a very unique aspect of Roman society, because it applied to all of your children.--ScriptusSecundus (talk) 01:49, 12 January 2010 (UTC)

There seem to be some doubts about slavery in ancient Rome. Don't be afraid to correct me (with proper sources) if I'm wrong in any of this. Flamarande (talk) 08:07, 1 August 2010 (UTC)
 * It is known that a slave could by his own freedom. However could someone else do it for him? I mean the more specific details. Someone paid the owner of a slave. Was he specifically buying the freedom or was he buying the slave (who de jure became his slave) to release him afterwards?
 * How do you think Romans treated their slaves? Do believe that they always treated all house slaves fairly and only punished them if the slaves did something wrong? AFAIK:
 * If the Roman master wished he could sleep with a slave if the slave wanted or not (and that is rape). I don't believe that a slave could refuse this.
 * A Roman master could beat his slave whenever he wanted (beat, whip, maim).
 * A Roman master could even kill his slave whenever he wanted (I vaguely remember that Claudius passed some laws about this issue).
 * Many slaves seem to have suffered from maltrunition (they eat poorly).
 * This article is on Roman citizenship, but as this includes a brief paragraph on slavery we have to get to the point without overbloating the article with info on slavery. Slavery in Rome evolved over a very long period but it is sufficient to say that slaves were by and large at the mercy of their owners until certain clauses were slowly brought in under the emperors, that they could attain their freedom and that their experiences varied massively.

 * To your questions:
 * Yes slaves could be bought and given their freedom, for example a male slave becoming a freedman could then buy the freedom of a family member/friend who had been also enslaved while a Roman could buy the freedom of a valued slave from another family and give them freedom thereby gaining them as a 'client' freedman.
 * How was the specific procedure? Was the freedman legally the owner of the family member until he released him, or not? could you buy the fredom of someone else or could you buy a slave from the original owner and then release him? Flamarande (talk) 09:21, 2 August 2010 (UTC)
 * 2/3/4/5

 * Slaves were property, and good house slaves (educated, skilled or even just trusted) a commodity that the owner would not want to destroy. It is easy to see that a degree of pragmatism and a touch of propriety would have been enough for most owners to not abuse the slaves in their household unless they believed it necessary. Good slaves could be very expensive and thus the owner would not want to see this money wasted, while much needed skills could and did erode boundaries between owner and slave. Tombs and literature show the surprisingly close relationships that some Romans had towards their slaves and ex-slaves (freedmen) (look at Cicero and Tiro for example).
 * They were expensive to buy and maintain and therefore it was simply not good business for them to be abused to the point where they would not or could not do the tasks set to them. Alongside this we have the occasional glut of slaves taken in conquests lowering the value of the labourer and thus removing from the least moral of owners a reason for decent treatment. However, just because one can be brutal does not mean one will, look to today's world for comparison and how we treat our animals, most people are humane or even doting on their pets and work animals while a minority are repulsively inhumane. The same must be said of Romans and slaves.
 * We are not talking about pets which we keep simply for our company or otherwise (and there are lots of ppl out there who beat their pets), we are talking about human slaves in a slave-holding society 2000 years ago. Don't forget that a minority of Romans had several slaves by the dozen (and by the hundreds) and that AFAIK were not afraid to have them punished. There is a diff if you write: "slaves could be punished" or "slaves were at the mercy of their owners". The first insinuates that the slaves were only be punished if they did something wrong and had a relatively fair treatment. The second is way more honest description. Flamarande (talk) 09:21, 2 August 2010 (UTC)
 * Take gladiators for an example of value halting excess (to be differed from condemned criminals sent to die), also slaves, but who enjoyed fame, food and the best medical care available alongside the dangers of wounding or death. Contrary to popular belief gladiatorial fights did not inevitably end in death, with most fights going until one was defeated either by being knocked down, disarmed or wounded. Owners could gain a fortune from good gladiators but nothing from a dead one. We know that some citizens actually sold themselves into slavery to fight as gladiators for a fixed period in order to make money.
 * We are not talking about experienced gladiators which form a minority which has to be trained. We are talking about "common" house slaves. Flamarande (talk) 09:21, 2 August 2010 (UTC)
 * The degree to which a slave was abused or not and the existence he/she led depended on a range of factors including: what they did (how they were used), where they did it (farm/mine/house/army servant ETC), who they did it for (temperament and mentality of owner), their intelligence or special skills (education, crafts, physical strength) and a host of other differentials. Some slaves lived better lives than poor free citizens eventually becoming free themselves while others laboured in godawful conditions till death.
 * 6
 * As to food, it is far too vague and broad a question. Some slaves would have eaten well, some would not. Some owners (even on the farms) would have ensured they were sufficiently fed to work while others would have not, this involves a lot of guesswork and could take an entire thesis to pin down (obviously way beyond the limits of this short article). Gaius Octavius Princeps (talk) 01:30, 2 August 2010 (UTC)
 * Face it: slaves could be beaten, raped, whipped, maimed, starved and even killed by their Roman owners without any problems (for the owners). It was not forbidden. Flamarande (talk) 09:21, 2 August 2010 (UTC)

Latin Right citizens and Right to vote
Currently the article states the following: ''Client state citizens and allies (socii) of Rome could receive a limited form of Roman citizenship such as the Latin Right. While such citizens could vote in Roman elections, it was impractical''

However, Latin Right citizens didn't have the right to vote in Roman elections, impractical or not. Gugganij (talk) 23:41, 8 July 2011 (UTC)

 * Hm, yes, this has been somewhat muddled, hasn't it? There were citizens eligible to vote for whom it was impractical to travel to Rome to do so, and provincial areas (as in the Narbonensis or Cisalpina) tended to be placed in certain voting tribes. But you should feel free to sort this out. Cynwolfe (talk) 00:07, 9 July 2011 (UTC)
 * Guggani is absolutely right. The issue is clear-cut, not muddled. Impracticality is not the issue. They didn't have suffrage as one of the legal terms "civitas SINE suffragio". Str1977 (talk) 22:10, 22 April 2015 (UTC)

Joining the Legions
When we say "only citizens could join the legions", is that specifically the Cives Romani? Or does that include the Latini, Socii, and Provinciales? Cythraul (talk) 00:20, 3 March 2017 (UTC)

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A Section Is Needed on How Citizenship Was Acquired
Which of the factors were determinative: 1) Place of Birth, 2) Father was a Roman, 3) Mother was a Roman, 4) Naturalization process needed? Senate decree? Money paid? Also the concept of losing citizenship could be addressed. (PeacePeace (talk) 23:58, 2 March 2018 (UTC))

14) Why does it only go up to Caracalla? We should go into what happened to the status/importance of citizenship in the later empire, and how it's importance diminished as the principate gave way to the dominate. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 190.44.103.196 (talk) 09:35, 15 January 2019 (UTC)

thiccness is thicc — Preceding unsigned comment added by 150.101.48.3 (talk) 23:49, 10 May 2020 (UTC)

Wiki Education assignment: Roman Women
— Assignment last updated by Branskk (talk) 01:21, 22 September 2022 (UTC)

adding a "History" section with the intention to start a larger discussion on the evolution of Roman citizenship. Also adding a part on how citizenship was acquired.

My biggest change will be to the overall structure of this article so that it flows better. The bullet points in the lead section will be moved to its own section on the types of citizenship, followed by the aforementioned History section, within which the Edict of Caracalla section will be added as a subsection. After the History section will be Types of Citizenship, where the bullets from the original lead section will be moved to. Keeping the Rights section with a few additions to other rights, as well as a slight discussion on the rights that women lost under a manus marriage. — Preceding unsigned comment added by Stardust456 (talk • contribs) 23:55, 27 October 2022 (UTC)

Romanitas Section
I did a lot of editing on the article as a whole for the Wiki Education project but I left this section untouched except for moving it to its current position. The contents here are outside my historical field of study and I am unfamiliar with what they are trying to discuss. I left the section as is in a hope to spark some debate about its contents and to get feedback on it as a whole. There are no sources cited and it feels disconnected from the rest of the article. Can anyone help expand on this article and make it flow into the larger discussion of the article as a whole? — Preceding unsigned comment added by Stardust456 (talk • contribs) 17:00, 7 November 2022 (UTC)

title: Talk:Roman citizenship


text:
Washington State Route 504

State Route 504 (SR 504, designated as the Spirit Lake Memorial Highway) is a state highway in southwestern Washington state in the United States. It travels 52 mi along the North Fork Toutle River to the Mount St. Helens area, serving as the main access to the Mount St. Helens National Volcanic Monument. The highway begins at an interchange with Interstate 5 (I-5) and SR 411 in Castle Rock and terminates at the Johnston Ridge Observatory near Spirit Lake.

The Cowlitz County government built the Spirit Lake Highway in 1903 and paved it in the early 1930s before it was transferred to state control, becoming Secondary State Highway 1R (SSH 1R) in 1937. SSH 1R initially ended at the boundary of Columbia National Forest (now Gifford Pinchot National Forest), but was extended in 1961 to the timberline of the mountain. It was renumbered to SR 504 in 1964 and remained popular with loggers and tourists, requiring bridges and sections to be rebuilt.

A major section of SR 504 was destroyed in the May 18, 1980, eruption of Mount St. Helens and its subsequent lahar on the North Fork Toutle River. The state government rebuilt most of the highway from 1988 to 1997, relocating it further north and connecting to new interpretive centers at Coldwater Ridge and Johnston Ridge. A part of the old alignment near the Toutle River Sediment Dam is signed as a spur route. Continued volcanic activity at Mount St. Helens, particularly in the mid-2000s, has resulted in closures and evacuations along the highway at various times.

Route description

SR 504 begins as an extension of Huntington Avenue at an interchange with I-5 northeast of Castle Rock. The street continues southwest into downtown Castle Rock as SR 411 and I-5 Business. SR 504 travels northeasterly through a small commercial area before ascending into the hills above Salmon Creek, passing several farms and wineries along the way. The highway follows a minor stream heading southeast into the wetlands around Silver Lake, where the Mount St. Helens visitor center and Seaquest State Park lie. SR 504 continues along the north side of the lake and passes through the town of Toutle at the confluence of the Toutle River's two forks.

The highway crosses over the river on the Coal Bank Bridge and continues along the north side of the North Fork Toutle River, following the narrow valley to the east of Beigle Mountain. Near the Riverdale Raceway, SR 504 intersects the east end of SR 505, which provides connections to I-5 and Toledo. The highway continues northeast into Kid Valley, home to camping sites and a few homes, and follows the south side of the narrower valley as the river meanders north and south around various mountains. At a third crossing of the river, SR 504 intersects a short spur route on Sediment Dam Road that leads to a viewpoint overlooking the Toutle River Sediment Dam. The highway continues along the northeast side of the earthen dam and its reservoir, climbing uphill and running through cuts in the cliffs.

Further southeast along the river, SR 504 passes the privately owned Eco Park resort, a youth camp, and a heliport near the Hoffstadt Bluffs Viewpoint. The highway then crosses over Hoffstadt Creek on a 2,340 ft steel truss bridge that sits 370 ft above the valley floor; it is the longest of 13 bridges on SR 504. The bridge also marks the western extent of the "blast zone," where trees were felled during the 1980 eruption of Mount St. Helens, located 12 mi away. The area has large forests of young fir, pine, and cottonwood trees planted by Weyerhaeuser in the 1980s as part of a regeneration and restoration project. The company also operates the Charles W. Bingham Forest Learning Center, a museum that overlooks the North Fork Toutle River and also includes a rest area.

SR 504 continues further into the mountains, crossing Bear Creek and traveling around Elk Rock to a viewpoint on its southeast side. From the Elk Rock area, the highway forms the northern boundary of the Mount St. Helens National Volcanic Monument and encounters more mountainous terrain that results in several hairpin turns between other scenic viewpoints. After crossing several branches of Maratta Creek, SR 504 reaches a partial cloverleaf interchange with an access road that serves the Coldwater Science and Learning Center, a visitor center that overlooks the mountain and open from autumn to spring. The highway heads west before completing a hairpin turn to travel south around the end of Coldwater Lake. Beyond milepost 45, SR 504 is closed during the winter months due to hazardous conditions for drivers and potential avalanches. It typically reopens in time for the May 18 anniversary of the 1980 eruption.

The highway continues into the National Volcanic Monument and turns east before reaching the border between Cowlitz and Skamania counties. SR 504 follows South Coldwater Creek upstream through a narrow valley to its headwaters near Spirit Lake, passing several trailheads, and turns west to continue its ascent. The treeless landscape is home to winter herds of Rocky Mountain elk and deer. The highway turns east once again near the Loowit Viewpoint and reaches the Johnston Ridge Observatory, the volcano's main visitor center open from spring to autumn and situated at an elevation of 4,314 ft. SR 504 terminates downhill from the observatory at its parking lot, located 5.5 mi north of the Mount St. Helens crater.

SR 504 is maintained by the Washington State Department of Transportation (WSDOT), which conducts an annual survey on state highways to measure traffic volume in terms of annual average daily traffic. Average traffic volumes on the highway in 2016 ranged from a minimum of 500 vehicles near Coldwater Lake to a maximum of 14,000 vehicles at the I-5 interchange in Castle Rock. SR 504 is the main route for a majority of the 3 million annual visitors to the Mount St. Helens area. It is designated by the state government as the Spirit Lake Memorial Highway, a state scenic byway, and a National Forest Scenic Byway by the United States Forest Service.

Early history and state acquisition
The Spirit Lake Highway was completed in 1903 by the Cowlitz County government, connecting Castle Rock to the shore of Spirit Lake by following the North Fork Toutle River. The 47 mi highway was initially unpaved and characterized as rough and narrow, and several sections were improved or bypassed in the 1910s. It was added to the state highway system in 1937 as Secondary State Highway 1R (SSH 1R), terminating at the western boundary of the Columbia National Forest near Spirit Lake. The state government paved sections of the highway in the late 1930s and early 1940s, with only a short section at the east end remaining unpaved by 1944. The remaining section of the highway within Columbia National Forest was improved and paved by the federal Bureau of Public Roads in the late 1930s for $1.2 million (equivalent to $ in dollars).

Expanded logging and a planned ski resort on Mount St. Helens hastened the construction of a modern highway linking Spirit Lake to the timberline on the mountain's northern slopes in the 1950s. Despite support from the state government, the Forest Service, and Bureau of Public Roads, the highway project was put on hold for several years due to funding shortfalls. The state legislature approved funds for the 5 mi extension of SSH 1R into the national forest, which began in late 1959. The SSH 1R designation was extended onto the new timberline highway, which opened to traffic on September 29, 1962.

During the 1964 state highway renumbering, SSH 1R was designated SR 504 under the modern "sign route" (now state route) system. The state highway department completed construction of a new bridge over the Toutle River at Kid Valley in November 1965, replacing a narrower truss bridge. By the 1970s, several new campgrounds, trailheads, and recreation areas had been established along the highway by the Forest Service and logging companies like Weyerhauser to serve tourists visiting the Mount St. Helens area. A major flood in December 1977 left eight sections of the highway washed out and only passable by one lane of traffic until repairs were completed the following year.

1980 eruption and rebuilding

In March 1980, Mount St. Helens was struck by an earthquake swarm that indicated potential eruptive activity for the volcano, which had been dormant for over a century. The Forest Service established a roadblock on SR 504 approximately 4 mi west of Spirit Lake on March 28 because of potential avalanche risks. In the following days, the roadblock was moved to 15 mi west of the lake and later 30 mi west as the risk of an imminent eruption grew. Many local residents and sightseers violated the roadblock, which was planned to be moved further west by an order from Governor Dixy Lee Ray to take effect on May 19. An exception was made on May 17, allowing for the retrieval of belongings from various buildings during a four-hour period that was monitored by local authorities in case of a mass evacuation.

On May 18, 1980, the north face of Mount St. Helens slid away and triggered a massive eruption that created a lahar that devastated the North Fork Toutle River. The lahar destroyed about 25 mi of SR 504, including seven of the highway's eight major bridges, leaving only the Kid Valley bridge standing because of its sufficient clearance. The remaining section between Toutle and Kid Valley was buried in up to 6 ft of sediment, but was able to re-open by September with temporary Bailey bridges and other structures. Several vehicles on the highway were swept away by the lahar, including those carrying some of the eruption's 57 victims.

The highway was closed beyond the town of Toutle, controlled by a roadblock and an existing turnaround loop installed by Weyerhaeuser. Access to Kid Valley was restored by early September using a temporary Bailey bridge over the Toutle River. The highway was extended to the debris and sediment dam and Weyerhaeuser's Camp Baker site in 1987 at a cost of $11 million (equivalent to $ in dollars). In 1982, the federal government designated the area around the volcano as the Mount St. Helens National Volcanic Monument and the state government designated SR 504 as the Spirit Lake Memorial Highway to honor the victims of the eruption. A visitor center was also opened at Silver Lake in 1987 to serve the growing number of tourists to the area, but the highway would remain closed beyond the sediment dam.

Preliminary plans for a replacement for the highway to serve the north side of Mount St. Helens were approved by the state government in 1986. The highway would include 23 mi of new road built at a higher elevation between Kid Valley and the newly formed Coldwater Lake, crossing over various creeks with ten major bridges. The project's $118 million cost (equivalent to $ in dollars) was paid from emergency funds from the Federal Highway Administration. Construction of the new highway and its scenic viewpoints began in 1988 and the first section to the Coldwater Ridge visitor center was completed on October 16, 1992. The expected influx of tourists and their potential impact on the recovering habitat around the volcano alarmed scientists looking to preserve areas for sensitive research. After finding that elk herds were leaving areas with improved highway access, the Forest Service established restricted zones within the national monument that prohibited off-trail hiking, pets, fires, and camping.

Two additional visitor centers, Weyerhaeuser's Forest Learning Center and the former Hoffstadt Bluffs Visitor Center, opened in 1995 at milepost 33 and 1996 at milepost 27, respectively. In May 1997, SR 504 was extended 7.5 mi to its current terminus at the newly opened Johnston Ridge Observatory, named for volcanologist David A. Johnston. Construction of the extension included underground blasting to compact soil and provide one of the highway's bridges with a stable foundation. It replaced an original plan to build a forest road that would be used by shuttle buses between Coldwater Ridge and the Johnston Ridge facility.

21st century
A long-proposed extension of SR 504 to the eastern side of the Mount St. Helens area gained traction in the early 2000s, sparking outcry from scientists and environmentalists. The 7 to 17 mi route, connecting Coldwater Lake to the existing Forest Highway 99 near Windy Ridge and beyond to Forest Highway 25, was supported by officials from Cowlitz and Lewis counties as a tourist draw and a potential evacuation route. WSDOT studied several options for the proposed highway, which enjoyed mixed public support, and estimated a cost of $18.5 million to construct one option and $44 million for another (equivalent to $ and $, respectively, in dollars). The proposed highway was rejected by state legislators due to its cost, despite attempts at salvaging the cheaper proposal by converting it into a toll road.

From 2004 until 2006, increased volcanic activity at Mount St. Helens caused a surge in tourist traffic on SR 504, along with periodic shutdowns of the Johnston Ridge section. An evacuation of the area was ordered in early October 2004 due to seismic activity, indicating a possible buildup of magma, forcing 2,500 visitors to leave the Coldwater and Johnston centers for several days. The evacuation was later cancelled and other restrictions were relaxed after steam eruptions diffused pressure inside the volcano. A minor mudslide in March 2007 blocked a section of SR 504 near Kid Valley and was removed after a week-long cleanup by WSDOT crews.

A mudslide and debris flow, known as the 2023 South Coldwater Slide, occurred on May 14, 2023, destroying the 85 ft Spirit Lake Outlet Bridge and severing SR 504 northeast of Johnston Ridge Observatory at milepost 49. Twelve people were airlifted from the area beyond the mudslide; the observatory's seasonal reopening was postponed and the highway east of Coldwater Lake was closed to all traffic. WSDOT contractors cleared debris over the highway by July and created a temporary gravel road to access Johnston Ridge for vehicle retrieval and to prepare for reopening in 2024, but the interim roadway was washed out in November due to a collapsed culvert caused by heavy rainfall and erosion unrelated to the earlier landslide. WSDOT announced in early 2024 that because of the costs and difficulties in making repairs to the bypass based on a limited construction window due to weather and elevation, as well as the steepness of the terrain, the highway and access to the observatory is to remain closed until 2026.

Spur route
SR 504 has a short spur route east of Kid Valley that runs along Sediment Dam Road. It follows a 0.87 mi section of the former highway and terminates near the Toutle River Sediment Dam at a viewpoint and WSDOT maintenance facility An average of 50 vehicles use the road on a daily basis, according to annual daily traffic data measured by WSDOT in 2016.

title: Washington State Route 504


text:
Talk:List of Greek monarchs

Untitled
Otto wasn't titled "King of the Hellenes" but rather "King of Hellas". Pages leading here should address this. Etz Haim 18:20, 3 Oct 2004 (UTC)

title: Talk:List of Greek monarchs


text: Template:PD-USGov-Military-Army

title: Template:PD-USGov-Military-Army