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International humanitarian law

International humanitarian law (IHL), also referred to as the laws of armed conflict, is the law that regulates the conduct of war (jus in bello). It is a branch of international law that seeks to limit the effects of armed conflict by protecting persons who are not participating in hostilities and by restricting and regulating the means and methods of warfare available to combatants.

International humanitarian law is inspired by considerations of humanity and the mitigation of human suffering. It comprises a set of rules, which is established by treaty or custom and that seeks to protect persons and property/objects that are or may be affected by armed conflict, and it limits the rights of parties to a conflict to use methods and means of warfare of their choice. Sources of international law include international agreements (the Geneva Conventions), customary international law, general principles of nations, and case law. It defines the conduct and responsibilities of belligerent nations, neutral nations, and individuals engaged in warfare, in relation to each other and to protected persons, usually meaning non-combatants. It is designed to balance humanitarian concerns and military necessity, and subjects warfare to the rule of law by limiting its destructive effect and alleviating human suffering. Serious violations of international humanitarian law are called war crimes.

While IHL (jus in bello) concerns the rules and principles governing the conduct of warfare once armed conflict has begun, jus ad bellum pertains to the justification for resorting to war and includes the crime of aggression. Together the jus in bello and jus ad bellum comprise the two strands of the laws of war governing all aspects of international armed conflicts. The law is mandatory for nations bound by the appropriate treaties. There are also other customary unwritten rules of war, many of which were explored at the Nuremberg trials. IHL operates on a strict division between rules applicable in international armed conflict and internal armed conflict.

International humanitarian law is traditionally seen as distinct from international human rights law (which governs the conduct of a state towards its people), although the two branches of law are complementary and in some ways overlap.

The Law of Geneva and The Law of The Hague
Modern international humanitarian law is made up of two historical streams:

 * 1) The law of The Hague, referred to in the past as the law of war proper; and
 * 2) The law of Geneva, or humanitarian law.

The two streams take their names from a number of international conferences which drew up treaties relating to war and conflict, in particular the Hague Conventions of 1899 and 1907, and the Geneva Conventions, the first of which was drawn up in 1863. Both deal with jus in bello, which deals with the question of whether certain practices are acceptable during armed conflict.

The Law of The Hague, or the laws of war proper, "determines the rights and duties of belligerents in the conduct of operations and limits the choice of means in doing harm". In particular, it concerns itself with

 * the definition of combatants;
 * establishes rules relating to the means and methods of warfare;
 * and examines the issue of military objectives.

Systematic attempts to limit the savagery of warfare only began to develop in the 19th century. Such concerns were able to build on the changing view of warfare by states influenced by the Age of Enlightenment. The purpose of warfare was to overcome the enemy state, which could be done by disabling the enemy combatants. Thus, "the distinction between combatants and civilians, the requirement that wounded and captured enemy combatants must be treated humanely, and that quarter must be given, some of the pillars of modern humanitarian law, all follow from this principle".

The Law of Geneva
Fritz Munch sums up historical military practice before 1800: "The essential points seem to be these: In battle and in towns taken by force, combatants and non-combatants were killed and property was destroyed or looted." In the 17th century, the Dutch jurist Hugo Grotius, widely regarded as the founder or father of public international law, wrote that "wars, for the attainment of their objects, it cannot be denied, must employ force and terror as their most proper agents".

Humanitarian norms in history
Even in the midst of the carnage of history, however, there have been frequent expressions and invocation of humanitarian norms for the protection of the victims of armed conflicts: the wounded, the sick and the shipwrecked. These date back to ancient times.

In the Old Testament, the King of Israel prevents the slaying of the captured, following the prophet Elisha's admonition to spare enemy prisoners. In answer to a question from the King, Elisha said, "You shall not slay them. Would you slay those whom you have taken captive with your sword and with your bow? Set bread and water before them, that they may eat and drink and go to their master."

In ancient India there are records (the Laws of Manu, for example) describing the types of weapons that should not be used: "When he fights with his foes in battle, let him not strike with weapons concealed (in wood), nor with (such as are) barbed, poisoned, or the points of which are blazing with fire." There is also the command not to strike a eunuch nor the enemy "who folds his hands in supplication ... Nor one who sleeps, nor one who has lost his coat of mail, nor one who is naked, nor one who is disarmed, nor one who looks on without taking part in the fight."

Islamic law states that "non-combatants who did not take part in fighting such as women, children, monks and hermits, the aged, blind, and insane" were not to be molested. The first Caliph, Abu Bakr, proclaimed, "Do not mutilate. Do not kill little children or old men or women. Do not cut off the heads of palm trees or burn them. Do not cut down fruit trees. Do not slaughter livestock except for food." Islamic jurists have held that a prisoner should not be killed, as he "cannot be held responsible for mere acts of belligerency". However, the prohibition against killing non-combatants is not necessarily absolute in Islamic Law. For example, in situations where an "enemy retreats inside fortifications and one-to-one combat is not an option", Islamic jurists have been unanimous as to the permissibility on the use of less discriminating weapons such as mangonels (a weapon for catapulting large stones) if required by military necessity but have differed with respect to the use of fire in such cases.

Codification of humanitarian norms
The most important antecedent of IHL is the current Armistice Agreement and Regularization of War, signed and ratified in 1820 between the authorities of the then Government of Great Colombia and the Chief of the Expeditionary Forces of the Spanish Crown, in the Venezuelan city of Santa Ana de Trujillo. This treaty was signed under the conflict of Independence, being the first of its kind in the West.

It was not until the second half of the 19th century, however, that a more systematic approach was initiated. In the United States, a German immigrant, Francis Lieber, drew up a code of conduct in 1863, which came to be known as the Lieber Code, for the Union Army during the American Civil War. The Lieber Code included the humane treatment of civilian populations in areas of conflict, and also forbade the execution of POWs.

At the same time, the involvement during the Crimean War of a number of such individuals as Florence Nightingale and Henry Dunant, a Genevese businessman who had worked with wounded soldiers at the Battle of Solferino, led to more systematic efforts to prevent the suffering of war victims. Dunant wrote a book, which he titled A Memory of Solferino, in which he described the horrors he had witnessed. His reports were so shocking that they led to the founding of the International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC) in 1863, and the convening of a conference in Geneva in 1864, which drew up the Geneva Convention for the Amelioration of the Condition of the Wounded in Armies in the Field. The Law of Geneva is directly inspired by the principle of humanity. It relates to those who are not participating in the conflict, as well as to military personnel hors de combat. It provides the legal basis for protection and humanitarian assistance carried out by impartial humanitarian organizations such as the ICRC. This focus can be found in the Geneva Conventions.

Geneva Conventions

The Geneva Conventions are the result of a process that developed in a number of stages between 1864 and 1949. It focused on the protection of civilians and those who can no longer fight in an armed conflict. As a result of World War II, all four conventions were revised, based on previous revisions and on some of the 1907 Hague Conventions, and readopted by the international community in 1949. Later conferences have added provisions prohibiting certain methods of warfare and addressing issues of civil wars.

The first three Geneva Conventions were revised, expanded, and replaced, and the fourth one was added, in 1949.

 * The Geneva Convention for the Amelioration of the Condition of the Wounded and Sick in Armed Forces in the Field was adopted in 1864. It was significantly revised and replaced by the 1906 version, the 1929 version, and later the First Geneva Convention of 1949.
 * The Geneva Convention for the Amelioration of the Condition of Wounded, Sick and Shipwrecked Members of Armed Forces at Sea was adopted in 1906. It was significantly revised and replaced by the Second Geneva Convention of 1949.
 * The Geneva Convention relative to the Treatment of Prisoners of War was adopted in 1929. It was significantly revised and replaced by the Third Geneva Convention of 1949.
 * The Fourth Geneva Convention relative to the Protection of Civilian Persons in Time of War was adopted in 1949.

There are three additional amendment protocols to the Geneva Convention:

 * 1) Protocol I (1977): Protocol Additional to the Geneva Conventions of 12 August 1949, and relating to the Protection of Victims of International Armed Conflicts. As of 12 January 2007 it had been ratified by 167 countries.
 * 2) Protocol II (1977): Protocol Additional to the Geneva Conventions of 12 August 1949, and relating to the Protection of Victims of Non-International Armed Conflicts. As of 12 January 2007 it had been ratified by 163 countries.
 * 3) Protocol III (2005): Protocol Additional to the Geneva Conventions of 12 August 1949, and relating to the Adoption of an Additional Distinctive Emblem. As of June 2007 it had been ratified by seventeen countries and signed but not yet ratified by an additional 68.

The Geneva Conventions of 1949 may be seen, therefore, as the result of a process which began in 1864. Today they have "achieved universal participation with 194 parties". This means that they apply to almost any international armed conflict. The Additional Protocols, however, have yet to achieve near-universal acceptance, since the United States and several other significant military powers (like Iran, Israel, India and Pakistan) are currently not parties to them.

Historical convergence between IHL and the laws of war
With the adoption of the 1977 Additional Protocols to the Geneva Conventions, the two strains of law began to converge, although provisions focusing on humanity could already be found in the Hague law (i.e. the protection of certain prisoners of war and civilians in occupied territories). The 1977 Additional Protocols, relating to the protection of victims in both international and internal conflict, not only incorporated aspects of both the Law of The Hague and the Law of Geneva, but also important human rights provisions.

Basic rules of IHL

 * 1) Protected persons are those hors de combat (outside of combat) or not taking part in hostilities in a situation of armed conflict, and shall be protected in all circumstances. Excluding from the list of protected persons in international armed conflict are civilians under their own national authority and neutral citizens living in belligerent territory and co-belligerent persons as long their state of nationality maintains diplomatic relations with a belligerent power.
 * 2) Protected persons who are wounded and sick shall be cared for and protected by the party to the conflict which has them in its power. The emblem of the "Red Cross", or of the "Red Crescent," shall be required to be respected as the sign of protection.
 * 3) Protected persons captured by a belligerent must be protected against acts of violence and reprisals. They shall have the right to correspond with their families and to receive relief.
 * 4) No protected person shall be subjected to torture or to cruel, inhuman, or degrading treatment or punishment.
 * 5) Parties to a conflict do not have an unlimited choice of methods and means of warfare.
 * 6) Parties to a conflict shall at all times distinguish between enemy combatants and protected persons. Attacks shall be directed solely against legitimate military targets.

Examples
Well-known examples of such rules include the prohibition on attacking doctors or ambulances displaying a red cross. It is also prohibited to fire at a person or vehicle bearing a white flag, since that, being considered the flag of truce, indicates an intent to surrender or a desire to communicate. In either case, the persons protected by the Red Cross or the white flag are expected to maintain neutrality, and may not engage in warlike acts themselves; engaging in war activities under a white flag or a red cross is itself a violation of the laws of war.

These examples of the laws of war address:
 * declarations of war;
 * acceptance of surrender;
 * the treatment of prisoners of war;
 * the avoidance of atrocities;
 * the prohibition on deliberately attacking non-combatants; and
 * the prohibition of certain inhumane weapons.

It is a violation of the laws of war to engage in combat without meeting certain requirements, among them the wearing of a distinctive uniform or other easily identifiable badge, and the carrying of weapons openly. Impersonating soldiers of the other side by wearing the enemy's uniform is allowed, though fighting in that uniform is unlawful perfidy, as is the taking of hostages.

Later additions
International humanitarian law now includes several treaties that outlaw specific weapons. These conventions were created largely because these weapons cause deaths and injuries long after conflicts have ended. Unexploded land mines have caused up to 7,000 deaths a year; unexploded bombs, particularly from cluster bombs that scatter many small "bomblets", have also killed many. An estimated 98% of the victims are civilian; farmers tilling their fields and children who find these explosives have been common victims. For these reasons, the following conventions have been adopted:

 * The Convention on Prohibitions or Restrictions on the Use of Certain Conventional Weapons Which May Be Deemed to Be Excessively Injurious or to Have Indiscriminate Effects (1980), which prohibits weapons that produce non-detectable fragments, restricts (but does not eliminate) the use of mines and booby-traps, prohibits attacking civilians with incendiary weapons, prohibits blinding laser weapons, and requires the warring parties to clear unexploded ordnance at the end of hostilities;
 * The Convention on the Prohibition of the Use, Stockpiling, Production and Transfer of Anti-Personnel Mines and on their Destruction (1997), also called the Ottawa Treaty or the Mine Ban Treaty, which completely bans the stockpiling (except to a limited degree, for training purposes) and use of all anti-personnel land mines;
 * The Optional Protocol on the Involvement of Children in Armed Conflict (2000), an amendment to the Convention on the Rights of the Child (1989), which forbids the enlistment of anyone under the age of eighteen for armed conflict; and
 * The Convention on Cluster Munitions (2008), which prohibits the use of bombs that scatter bomblets, many of which do not explode and remain dangerous long after a conflict has ended.

International Committee of the Red Cross

The ICRC is the only institution explicitly named under international humanitarian law as a controlling authority. The legal mandate of the ICRC stems from the four Geneva Conventions of 1949, as well as from its own Statutes.

The International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC) is an impartial, neutral, and independent organization whose exclusively humanitarian mission is to protect the lives and dignity of victims of war and internal violence and to provide them with assistance.

Violations and punishment
During conflict, punishment for violating the laws of war may consist of a specific, deliberate and limited violation of the laws of war in reprisal.

Combatants who break specific provisions of the laws of war lose the protections and status afforded to them as prisoners of war, but only after facing a "competent tribunal". At that point, they become unlawful combatants, but must still be "treated with humanity and, in case of trial, shall not be deprived of the rights of fair and regular trial", because they are still covered by GC IV, Article 5.

Spies and terrorists are only protected by the laws of war if the "power" which holds them is in a state of armed conflict or war, and until they are found to be an "unlawful combatant". Depending on the circumstances, they may be subject to civilian law or a military tribunal for their acts. In practice, they have often have been subjected to torture and execution. The laws of war neither approve nor condemn such acts, which fall outside their scope. Spies may only be punished following a trial; if captured after rejoining their own army, they must be treated as prisoners of war. Suspected terrorists who are captured during an armed conflict, without having participated in the hostilities, may be detained only in accordance with the GC IV, and are entitled to a regular trial. Countries that have signed the UN Convention Against Torture have committed themselves not to use torture on anyone for any reason.

After a conflict has ended, persons who have committed any breach of the laws of war, and especially atrocities, may be held individually accountable for war crimes through process of law.

Reparation for victims of serious violations of International Humanitarian Law acknowledges the suffering endured by individuals and communities and seeks to provide a form of redress for the harms inflicted upon them. The evolving legal landscape, notably through the mechanisms of international courts like the ICC, has reinforced the notion that victims of war crimes and other serious breaches of International Humanitarian Law have a recognized right to seek reparations. These reparations can take various forms, including restitution, compensation, rehabilitation, satisfaction, and guarantees of non-repetition, aimed at addressing the physical, psychological, and material damage suffered by victims.

Key provisions and principles applicable to civilians
The Fourth Geneva Convention focuses on the civilian population. The two additional protocols adopted in 1977 extend and strengthen civilian protection in international (AP I) and non-international (AP II) armed conflict: for example, by introducing the prohibition of direct attacks against civilians. A "civilian" is defined as "any person not belonging to the armed forces", including non-nationals and refugees. However, it is accepted that operations may cause civilian casualties. Luis Moreno Ocampo, chief prosecutor of the international criminal court, wrote in 2006: "International humanitarian law and the Rome statute permit belligerents to carry out proportionate attacks against military objectives, even when it is known that some civilian deaths or injuries will occur. A crime occurs if there is an intentional attack directed against civilians (principle of distinction) ... or an attack is launched on a military objective in the knowledge that the incidental civilian injuries would be clearly excessive in relation to the anticipated military advantage (principle of proportionality)."

The provisions and principles of IHL which seek to protect civilians are:

Principle of distinction
The principle of distinction protects civilian population and civilian objects from the effects of military operations. It requires parties to an armed conflict to distinguish at all times, and under all circumstances, between combatants and military objectives on the one hand, and civilians and civilian objects on the other; and only to target the former. It also provides that civilians lose such protection should they take a direct part in hostilities. The principle of distinction has also been found by the ICRC to be reflected in state practice; it is therefore an established norm of customary international law in both international and non-international armed conflicts.

Necessity and proportionality
Necessity and proportionality are established principles in humanitarian law. Under IHL, a belligerent may apply only the amount and kind of force necessary to defeat the enemy. Further, attacks on military objects must not cause loss of civilian life considered excessive in relation to the direct military advantage anticipated. Every feasible precaution must be taken by commanders to avoid civilian casualties. The principle of proportionality has also been found by the ICRC to form part of customary international law in international and non-international armed conflicts.

Principle of humane treatment
The principle of humane treatment requires that civilians be treated humanely at all times. Common Article 3 of the GCs prohibits violence to life and person (including cruel treatment and torture), the taking of hostages, humiliating and degrading treatment, and execution without regular trial against non-combatants, including persons hors de combat (wounded, sick and shipwrecked). Civilians are entitled to respect for their physical and mental integrity, their honour, family rights, religious convictions and practices, and their manners and customs. This principle of humane treatment has been affirmed by the ICRC as a norm of customary international law, applicable in both international and non-international armed conflicts.

Principle of non-discrimination
The principle of non-discrimination is a core principle of IHL. Adverse distinction based on race, sex, nationality, religious belief or political opinion is prohibited in the treatment of prisoners of war, civilians, and persons hors de combat. All protected persons shall be treated with the same consideration by parties to the conflict, without distinction based on race, religion, sex or political opinion. Each and every person affected by armed conflict is entitled to his fundamental rights and guarantees, without discrimination. The prohibition against adverse distinction is also considered by the ICRC to form part of customary international law in international and non-international armed conflict.

Women and children
Women must be protected from rape, forced prostitution and from any form of indecent assault. Children under the age of eighteen must not be permitted to take part in hostilities, cannot be evacuated to a foreign country by a country other than theirs, except temporarily due to a compelling threat to their health and safety, and if orphaned or separated from their families, must be maintained and receive an education.

Resolution 2664
The European Union has made significant changes to its sanctions policy to better safeguard humanitarian efforts, in response to UN Security Council Resolution 2664. This includes incorporating humanitarian exemptions into EU sanctions regimes, ensuring that aid can reach those in need without legal barriers. This shift has led to the inclusion of comprehensive humanitarian exemptions in new sanctions frameworks for Niger and Sudan, and the amendment of existing regimes to incorporate similar exemptions, thereby covering key humanitarian contexts in countries like Lebanon, Myanmar, and Venezuela.

Sex
IHL emphasises, in various provisions in the GCs and APs, the concept of formal equality and non-discrimination. Protections should be provided "without any adverse distinction founded on sex". For example, with regard to female prisoners of war, women are required to receive treatment "as favourable as that granted to men". In addition to claims of formal equality, IHL mandates special protections to women, providing female prisoners of war with separate dormitories from men, for example, and prohibiting sexual violence against women.

The reality of women's and men's lived experiences of conflict has highlighted some of the gender limitations of IHL. Feminist critics have challenged IHL's focus on male combatants and its relegation of women to the status of victims, and its granting them legitimacy almost exclusively as child-rearers. A study of the 42 provisions relating to women within the Geneva Conventions and the Additional Protocols found that almost half address women who are expectant or nursing mothers. Others have argued that the issue of sexual violence against men in conflict has not yet received the attention it deserves.

Soft-law instruments have been relied on to supplement the protection of women in armed conflict:

 * UN Security Council Resolutions 1888 and 1889 (2009), which aim to enhance the protection of women and children against sexual violations in armed conflict; and
 * Resolution 1325, which aims to improve the participation of women in post-conflict peacebuilding.

Read together with other legal mechanisms, in particular the UN Convention for the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW), these can enhance interpretation and implementation of IHL.

In addition, international criminal tribunals (like the International Criminal Tribunals for the former Yugoslavia and Rwanda) and mixed tribunals (like the Special Court for Sierra Leone) have contributed to expanding the scope of definitions of sexual violence and rape in conflict. They have effectively prosecuted sexual and gender-based crimes committed during armed conflict. There is now well-established jurisprudence on gender-based crimes. Nonetheless, there remains an urgent need to further develop constructions of gender within international humanitarian law.

Culture
IHL has generally not been subject to the same debates and criticisms of "cultural relativism" as have international human rights. Although the modern codification of IHL in the Geneva Conventions and the Additional Protocols is relatively new, and European in name, the core concepts are not new, and laws relating to warfare can be found in all cultures. Indeed, non-Western participants played important roles in the development of this area of law at the global level as early as the 1907 Second Hague Conference, and have continued to do so since.

ICRC studies on the Middle East, Somalia, Latin America, and the Pacific, for example have found that there are traditional and long-standing practices in various cultures that preceded, but are generally consistent with, modern IHL. It is important to respect local and cultural practices that are in line with IHL. Relying on these links and on local practices can help to promote awareness of and adherence to IHL principles among local groups and communities.

Durham cautions that, although traditional practices and IHL legal norms are largely compatible, it is important not to assume perfect alignment. There are areas in which legal norms and cultural practices clash. Violence against women, for example, is frequently legitimized by arguments from culture, and yet is prohibited in IHL and other international law. In such cases, it is important to ensure that IHL is not negatively affected.

title: International humanitarian law


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Princess Knight

Princess Knight, also known as Ribon no Kishi is a Japanese manga series written and illustrated by Osamu Tezuka. This manga follows the adventures of Sapphire, a girl who was born accidentally with a blue heart of a boy and a pink heart of a girl. She pretends to be a prince to prevent the evil Duke Duralumin from taking over the kingdom through his son, Plastic. The gender-bending main character was inspired by the all-female musical theater group Takarazuka Revue in which women performed both female and male roles.

The story was ordered by one editor of Kodansha's magazine Shōjo Club who wanted Tezuka to produce a manga aimed towards a female audience that could replicate the success of his former boy-aimed stories. The author then created Princess Knight, originally serialized in that magazine from 1953 to 1956. The manga's popularity resulted into a radio dramatization in 1955, three other serializations between 1958 and 1968, and a 52-episode television anime series by Mushi Production that aired on Fuji TV from 1967 to 1968. It has also influenced several stage musicals since the 1980s and inspired remakes of the work by other authors.

The series' arrival in the English-speaking market was delayed by NBC Enterprises executives' perception that it could be interpreted as "sex switch". However, still in the 1970s, the television series got a dubbed version produced by Joe Oriolo. Renamed Choppy and the Princess, it was released to American, Australian, and British television audiences, with home video releases to follow. The manga would only reach the anglophone public years later, in 2001 when Kodansha International published a bilingual edition of Princess Knight, which was followed by a newer version by Vertical in 2011.

One of Tezuka's most famous works and widely regarded as a classic, Princess Knight has been very influential in the manga and anime industry. Its portrayal of gender roles is ambiguously interpreted by critics; some claim it has pro-feminist ideals and others think it expresses misogynist ideals of the 1950s–60s Japanese society. Nonetheless, it would start a tradition of androgynous-like heroines and establish several trends in the shōjo genre. In fact, it is considered to be one of the first works in this genre that was narrative-focused and that portrays a female superhero.

Plot
Taking place in a medieval European-like fairy tale setting, Princess Knight is the story of Sapphire, who must pretend to be a male prince, so she can inherit the throne of Silverland as women are not eligible to do so. As she is born, her father, the King, announces his baby is a boy instead of a girl. The reason for this is that the next-in-line to the throne, Duke Duralumin is an evil man who would repress the people if his son, Plastic, were to become king. Duralumin and his henchman Baron Nylon often scheme to take over the kingdom and attempts to prove that Sapphire is really a girl. Sapphire can keep the façade because, when she was born, she received the blue heart of a boy as well as the pink heart of a girl. Because of this, God sent Tink, a young angel-in-training, down to Earth to retrieve Sapphire's extra heart. Sapphire would not let Tink remove her boy's heart, however.

Sapphire and Tink experience a variety of adventures, including encounters with Satan, a warlock who wants to steal Sapphire's special two-hearted soul and take over the kingdom. However, he is always frustrated by Tink and his fear of angels, and by his own daughter, Hecate, a demonic-shapeshifting witch who at first she appears to be evil like her father, but who covertly helps Sapphire foil her father's plans. Sapphire also dons a Zorro-style mask at night, fighting crime as the Phantom Knight, and gets involved with Franz Charming, the young prince of neighboring Goldland. Their relationship is multi-faceted; Franz is familiar with Sapphire as three entirely different people and has different feelings toward each. He is good friends with Prince Sapphire, in love with the unnamed princess, and despises the Phantom Knight, whom he believes is a rival for the Princess's affection.

As the story progresses, Duralumin stages a coup d'état to conquer Silverland, following the orders of Mr. X, a large man clad entirely in boxy red armor and the ruler of the X-Union, a neighboring, proto-fascist federation of nations that wants to conquer the three kingdoms (Silverland, Goldland, and Charcoal-land). The King and Queen are captured, but help Sapphire to flee. Duralumin is about to proclaim his son king and himself as regent when he is assassinated by Nylon, who has been driven near-insane by the Duke's constant abuse. The mentally deranged Nylon proclaims himself and welcomes Mr. X and his armies to Silverland. Mr. X, though, soon makes it clear that he has no intention of letting Nylon rule, even as a puppet monarch, and merely keeps him around as a churlish buffoon.

Sapphire and Franz try to prevent the King and Queen from being executed, but they are too late and the King and Queen are dropped in the sea. This culminates in the final battle, as Sapphire heads off to Silverland castle to confront Mr. X with the aid of three magic balls. Given to Sapphire by her parents, the balls represent the three kingdoms and are supposed to save Silverland: they are used at first to ring the kingdom's bells, magically giving to the people the will to fight the invaders.

Sapphire has the balls melted to form a magic ax, which she uses to rout Mr. X's troops, break up the castle's walls, and confront X himself. Sapphire ends up dueling Mr. X, with the help of Franz, and manages to wound him. Just as the enraged Mr. X is about to chop Sapphire and Franz in half, Tink calls on God for help, and a lightning bolt strikes X. As Sapphire seems to triumph, Mr. X rises from his apparent death and begins smashing the castle with his bare hands, eventually causing it to collapse onto himself. Nylon, who was swaying through the halls like a raving madman, is also crushed to death. Sapphire escapes the collapsing castle and stands triumphant in the sunlight. Tink has been mortally wounded by the castle's breakdown, and tells God that he is ready to sacrifice his life should Sapphire's parents be brought back from the dead. God then accepts to bring back the King and Queen to life, as Tink dies.

Sapphire and Franz end up getting married. Tink's spirit returns to heaven, where he has finally earned his wings.

Production and style
During the 1950s, Osamu Tezuka was already popular having written Kimba the White Lion (1950) and Astro Boy (1952). In late 1952, a Shōjo Club's editor asked Tezuka if he would be able to create a work similar to his previous ones but aimed toward girls. Tezuka agreed and his first idea was to transpose the all-female musical theater group Takarazuka Revue into manga. Takarazuka's "aesthetic is on full display in Princess Knight", argued Natsu Onoda Power, in her book God of Comics.

Born in Osaka, Tezuka lived in Takarazuka City between five and twenty-four, and with a mother who was fan of the revue, he often watched its performances during his childhood and youthhood. Takarazuka's costumes, sets, and lyrics, as well as its gender representation and sexual politics were used by Tezuka on creating Princess Knight. Sapphire is based on the dansō no reijin ("beauty in male dress") of Takarazuka, and Franz is modeled after one of the main actresses, Yachiyo Kasugano. Nobuko Otowa as Puck in Takarazuka's version of A Midsummer Night's Dream influenced Tink's character.

Early Disney films' animation technique influenced Tezuka's art style, especially his way of drawing childlike features and eyes. The very large eyes were also inspired by Takarazuka's performances. The coloring and layout was influenced by the film The Tales of Hoffmann. Some aspects of Princess Knight are also reminiscent of his previous shōjo manga, Kiseki no Mori no Monogatari, which featured a feathered hat and men in white maillots as well as adventure-driven storylines. It was also influenced by Western literature, Christianity, Greek mythology, and European fairy tales —because of this it has been described as a "trippy pop culture pastiche". Reviewers have perceived influences from Cinderella, Fantasia's "Pastoral", Pinocchio, Sleeping Beauty,  Snow White,  Betty Boop, Captain Blood, Dracula, "Eros and Psyche", Hamlet,  "The Sorcerer's Apprentice", Swan Lake,  The Scarlet Pimpernel, and William Tell.

Themes
Multiple critics have provided many possible interpretations on the presence of gender ambiguity and androgyny on Princess Knight. Patrick Drazen, author of the book Anime Explosion!, stated the androgyny in the series is "deceptive" as it addresses gender instead of sex, and more "specifically, gender-role expectations." "Tezuka's Gekiga: Behind the Mask of Manga"'s Philip Brophy summed up it as: "With its visualization of masculinity and femininity within one body it was able to depict conflicting selves within one-sexed body under pressure for social conformity, hence literally embodying the quest for identity and subjective agency". Ed Sizemore of Manga Worth Reading says Tezuka's central idea critiques "the false dichotomy that society creates among male and female." Rebecca Silverman of Anime News Network (ANN) and Sheena McNeil of Sequential Tart both wrote that Tezuka put feminist positionings on it and Chris Mautner of The Comics Journal highlighted the presence of Friebe, "a swashbuckling" swordswoman, as another depiction of women in a non-subservient position (in contrast to the usual depiction).

On the other hand, Silverman affirmed it shows gender stereotypes and "some of the more misogynist ideals of 1960s Japan," as exemplified by the fact her boy's heart gives her physical strength. Mautner also found "some" sexism in the work, given as an example the fact she loses her swordsmanship ability when she is without her boy's heart. Drazen and Mautner stressed that the manga had broken with some gender expectations but did not abandon them, as Sapphire marries Franz in the end. Power stated that by this attitude Sapphire shows "her true happiness comes from being in a traditional female role." For Paul Gravett, it demonstrated she "was no feminist rebel after all" and he wrote in Manga: Sixty Years of Japanese Comics that Tezuka "created an exquisite world of indecision." Power concluded that "The image of Sapphire must have sent complex, if not conflicting, messages" to readers. This conflicts led Brophy to say "It may be more accurate to depict her characterization as schizophrenic rather than androgynous".

Snow Wildsmith of ICv2 described the series as having "younger characters [who] do not want to stick to the roles their parents proscribed for them and most of the women are tired of being told that they are the lesser sex." Mautner wrote that "if there's a central theme in Princess Knight, however, it's not that of sex roles but of parental expectations and filial duty". Drazen also exposed that the series deals with "another classically Japanese pair of opposites: duty and desire." Drazen said "she doesn't resent her duty" of having to be a boy and have fun with it, but that "only in private does she live out her feminine desires." Mautner expressed a similar view, affirming that even if she likes to be a boy "possesses a strong desire to indulge her female side."

Publication
There have been four manga serializations of Princess Knight in Japan. The first serialization ran from January 1953 to January 1956 in Kodansha's magazine Shōjo Club, and was followed by a three tankōbon volumes release between December 30, 1954 and June 25, 1958. It was followed by several reissues; two volumes were published on October 11, and November 13, 1979 under the Osamu Tezuka Manga Complete Works line; on April 17, 1995 under KC Grand Collection line, and on November 12, 1999 under Manga Bunko line. In 2004, Geneon Universal Entertainment released a kanzenban edition of the manga that was republished by Fukkan.com in 2012. It was also released in a three-volume Kanzen Fukkoku-ban (完全復刻版) edition on January 13, 2009, followed by a "Special Box" on January 14, 2009, and in an Osamu Tezuka Bunko Complete Works edition on February 10, 2011.

The second serialization, a follow-up to the Shōjo Club version, ran in Nakayoshi from January 1958 to June 1958. The title was changed to The Twin Knights (双子の騎士) for publication in book form, but the serialization's name was still Princess Knight. It was first compiled by Suzuka Shuppan and released in a single tankōbon on May 15, 1960, which was republished by Mushi Pro Shōji on July 15, 1971. Kodansha published it in different lines and formats; on July 28, 1978 under the Osamu Tezuka Manga Complete Works line; on June 4, 1995 under the KC Grand Collection line; on November 12, 1999 under the Manga Bunko line; and on May 12, 2010 under the Osamu Tezuka Bunko Complete Works line.

The third serialization was a rewriting of the Shōjo Club version and ran from January 1963 to October 1966 in Nakayoshi, and was originally published into five tankōbon volumes by Kodansha between August 15, 1964 and June 15, 1966. It was followed by several rereleases and reissues; three volumes were published by Shogakukan in pocketbook format between March 10, and May 10, 1969; three volumes were published between June 13, 1977 and January 11, 1978 under the Osamu Tezuka Manga Complete Works line by Kodansha; in June 1982 it was published by Holp Shuppan; on December 14, 1994 it was released under KC Grand Collection line;  on October 9, 1999 under Manga Bunko Line;  and on October 9, 2009 under the Osamu Tezuka Bunko Complete Works line. A Kanzen Fukkoku-ban edition, along with a "Special Box", was published on May 29, 2009.

The fourth serialization was a science fiction story originally written by Tezuka, with the drawings done by Kitano Hideaki. It was serialized in the magazine Shōjo Friend in 1967, concurrently with its broadcast on television as animation. Kodansha encapsulated its chapters into two volumes released on May 3, 1967, and June 3, 1967. A tie-in to the anime series, Tezuka himself admitted that it was "a commercial flop, an ill-conceived" version.

Six volumes of Nakayoshi's 1963 Princess Knight were released between May 18, and July 27, 2001 in the United States in a bilingual (English/Japanese) edition by Kodansha International. A preview of the 1953 manga was released in the July 2007 issue of Viz Media's magazine, Shojo Beat. At the 2011 San Diego Comic-Con International, Vertical announced that it had licensed the 1963 version for an English-language translation in North America. Vertical published it in two parts; the first on November 1, 2011, and the second on December 6, 2011. In the following year, Vertical licensed The Twin Knights, which was released on July 30, 2013. Both series were rereleased by Vertical in ebook format; first, The Twin Knights on July 22, 2015, and then both Princess Knight volumes on August 12, 2015.

Anime adaptation
The Princess Knight anime series was produced by Mushi Production and had Osamu Tezuka as executive director, and Chikao Katsui and Kanji Akabori as chief directors. The series of 52 episodes was originally broadcast in Japan on Fuji TV from April 2, 1967 to April 7, 1968. In addition to the anime series, there is also 28-minute pilot film that was produced in November 1966 but was not broadcast on television. It was released as an extra when the series was released on LaserDisc in Japan. All episodes were released on LaserDisc by Pioneer on March 28, 1997. The episodes were also distributed in DVD format; Nippon Columbia released two box sets on December 21, 2001 and June 1, 2002. A single box set was released by Columbia on July 23, 2008, and another was released by Takarashijima on October 29, 2010. A "Best Selection" DVD series was first released by Columbia on September 25, 2003, and rereleased on July 23, 2008.

Mushi Production submitted the anime adaptation to NBC Enterprises that was declined because its executives felt the series theme could be interpreted as "sex switch." Animator Joe Oriolo, however, purchased the anime's distribution rights, and along with Burt Hecht dubbed its episodes into English. In 1972, after a limited release under the title Princess Knight, Oriolo and Hecht edited three episodes and made it into a film titled Choppy and the Princess that was licensed to independent television in the United States and was syndicated in the 1970s and 1980s. In October 2012, Nozomi Entertainment, a Right Stuf's publishing division, acquired its distribution's rights for North America. Featuring an English-language and a Spanish-language dub, it used the edited and cut version broadcast in the 1970s and 1980s. The first part was released on August 20, 2013 while the second one was published on October 22, 2013.

The show also aired in Australia in the 1970s, and was released on home media in Australia and the United Kingdom. Movie Makers released seven episodes under the title The Adventures of Choppy and the Princess and three individual episodes without the title. The distributor Tasley Leisures released six episodes under the title Choppy and the Princess, Adventures 1-6. The Starlite Group released seven The Adventures of Choppy and the Princess DVDs in the United Kingdom in 2006, with the film also being available from the same company. In August 2013, Hanabee Entertainment licensed the series for an Australian release; it was first released on DVD into two parts on September 18, and October 6, 2013 respectively, while a box set was released on September 6, 2014.

Theater
At various times in his career, Tezuka worked on short original animation films, or "theater anime", which included some of the Princess Knight story. Samples of this work were shown in the "300 Inch Theater", which was held at Tezuka Osamu World in the Kyoto Station Building from July 1999. In this film, the Phoenix (from the eponymous Tezuka manga) plays the role of storyteller, and introduces two pictures. The first part tells the story of Princess Knight, and the second part talks about Minamoto Yoshitsune, who made his mark in the history of Kyoto as a person who became entangled in a struggle by another's wicked design in spite of his desire for peace just like Sapphire.

Reception
Widely considered a classic, Princess Knight was very popular with girls in Japan by the time of its original release. One of the author's most popular works in Japan, it has been labeled as "a fascinating piece of anime history ... that's withstood the test of time" by Bamboo Dong of ANN. In 2005, Japanese television network TV Asahi conducted a "Top 100" online web poll and nationwide survey; Princess Knight placed 74th in the online poll and 71st in the survey. In 2006, TV Asahi conducted another online poll for the top one hundred anime, and Princess Knight did not make the general list, but ranked 77th in the "Celebrity List". After Vertical's statement that it would publish Princess Knight, critics Chris Butcher and Deb Aoki deemed it as one of the most anticipated manga announced at the Comic-Con. In the following year, it was considered one of the best new "kids/teen" manga by critics Carlo Santos and Shaenon Garrity at the Comic-Con. Aoki, for About.com, selected it as the second best new shōjo released in 2011 after Sailor Moon, stating it "can seem a little dated and quaint compared to its contemporary counterparts, but it's no less charming and fun to read." Gravett included Princess Knight on his book 1001 Comics You Must Read Before You Die.

Its art has been well received by critics, including Sizemore, Joseph Luster of Otaku USA, Wildsmith, Chris Kirby of The Fandom Post, and by Mautner, who stated, "Visually, Knight is a stunning achievement." On the other hand, Carlo Santos and Silverman of ANN said its art style may not appeal to modern readers, with Silverman deeming it a great "deterrent". Kirby wrote that Princess Knight is "a pleasure to look at, fun to read, and a piece of entertainment that excels at entertaining more than anything." Sizemore praised it as it "constantly delivering thrills at each turn," contrasting to Wildsmith, who considered the episodic nature of the series "chaotic and unfocused". Although also commended the formula, Santos stated the story in overall "has its weaknesses" and "allows itself ... logical loopholes." Luster asserted initially it focused too much in gags which "could easily become a tiresome formula", but the action in late chapters overcomes it. Sizemore called it "fun" but "deeply flawed in its storytelling." Shaun A. Noordin of The Star asserted, "The memorable characters, adventure, drama and comedy (not to mention a framework for exploring issues such as feminism, gender equality and identity) are all there, but the barrage of story arcs made it difficult for us to be invested in the narrative."

Impacts on industry
Princess Knight marks the first time Tezuka used his "story comic" format—which uses a narrative structure and cinematic techniques—in a shōjo manga. The series changed the concept of shōjo from gag comics or strips teaching "good behavior" to narrative-focused works, and thus is considered the first modern work of the genre. It also established elements that would be common in late works of the genre, including an idealized foreign (from a Japanese perspective) settings, a heroine with large eyes, and gender ambiguity with a certain amount of androgyny. In the 1970s, two trends were predominant in shōjo manga: the first featured "androgynous, masculine, or asexual protagonists searching for self and love" and the other had "more explicit romance involving an ordinary girl." Elements of both were already present in Tezuka's Sapphire.

The manga is considered to have started the genre of female superheroes, and regarded as a prototype for the magical girl genre. Martin Theron of ANN affirmed the series' "influence ... is immeasurable, and in a real sense every lead action heroine who has followed is a direct or indirect spiritual descendant of Princess Sapphire/Prince Knight." Indeed, Sapphire is one of the most recognizable heroines of Tezuka; between March 3–June 27, 2016, the Osamu Tezuka Manga Museum sponsored an art exhibit focused on the "Heroines of Osamu Tezuka," highlighting Sapphire and Pinoko of Black Jack. She was also considered the most iconic heroine in anime history by Thomas Zoth of Mania.com.

This work expanded the scope of Japanese popular culture by opening up the possibility of exploring a wider range of sexual orientations, which goes beyond clear gender binary homo- or heterosexuality. According to Brophy, "Shōjo manga's rich potential for complex representations of the human psyche in diverse sociocultural contexts was essentially constructed by Tezuka's androgynous character Sapphire." Featuring the first gender-ambiguous heroine, it influenced many works, specially shōjo, such as The Rose of Versailles, which possibilited Revolutionary Girl Utena, The Sword of Paros and Sailor Moon's Sailor Uranus.

Remakes
A remake of the original Princess Knight manga called Sapphire: Princess Knight was written by Natsuko Takahashi and illustrated by Pink Hanamori. Serialized from the May 2008 issue to the July 2009 issue in Nakayoshi, it was compiled into four tankōbon between September 5, 2008, and September 4, 2009.

To commemorate the 60th anniversary of the series, a reboot version of Princess Knight started to be published on the online manga magazine Puratto Home by Home-sha in July 2013. Called Re:Born: Kamen no Otoko to Ribon no Kishi (RE:BORN 仮面の男とリボンの騎士), it is a collaboration with Tezuka Productions and is illustrated by Shōko Fukaki with scenarios by Atsushi Kagurazaka. It lasted forty-one chapters, that were later released on three volumes, of which the first was released on July 25, 2014, along with a drama CD based on it, and the last was published on January 23, 2015.

Other adaptations
Because of the success of the first manga, a radio dramatization was created. A serial drama, the Princess Knight adaptation was broadcast on Radio Tokyo between April 4, 1955 and September 26, 1955. Almost thirty years later, a theater adaptation of the manga was created by the company Dengeki, running from July 5, 1984 to July 17, 1983. It played at Parco Space Part 3, was directed by Mitsumasa Shinozaki, written by Tsutomu Mukai, and starred Ran Ito. Another musical came in 1998; it was directed by Shunsaku Kawake, written by Kensuke Yokouchi, and starred Yoshihiko Inohara, Sae Isshiki and Ranran Suzuki. Yokouchi wrote another play and directed it himself; it was staged at Kanagawa Prefectural Youth Center in 2011, and starred Mikan Asakura. Yokouchi was also the screenwriter for two other stage adaptations in 2014 and 2016; both were directed by Masanari Ujigawa and staged at Rikkōkai Hall. The former starred Haruka Katayama and Aya Kamiki, while the latter featured Hirono Suzuki and Yui Itō.

In 2006, Princess Knight was adapted into a musical, Princess Knight: The Musical (リボンの騎士 ザ・ミュージカル), and performed in Japan by members of the popular idol groups Morning Musume and v-u-den with Ai Takahashi in the lead role. Directed by Shinji Ueda, with screenplay by Shinji Kimura and music by Masato Kai, it played at Shinjuku Koma Theater from August 1 to 27. The Up-Front Works record label Zetima released a music collection and a DVD of the musical on July 26, and November 29, 2006 respectively. Later, on December 25, its television broadcast was done by BS Japan.

In 2015, celebrating the 60th anniversary of Nakayoshi magazine, a musical directed by Yukio Ueshima, written by Sayaka Asai and with music composed by Shuhei Kamimura was staged. It starred Nogizaka46's Erika Ikuta and Reika Sakurai as Sapphire and Hecate respectively, while Keisuke Kaminaga and Tsunenori Aoki completed the main four in the poster, playing Prince Franz and the pirate Blood respectively. From November 12 to November 17, it ran at Tokyo's Akasaka ACT Theater and it was followed by exhibitions at Theater Brava in Osaka from December 3 to December 6.

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Egil Tynæs

Egil Kristian Tynæs (August 12, 1941 – June 2, 2004) was a Norwegian anthroposophical doctor, senior physician at the Municipal  Clinic in Bergen and a humanitarian aid worker. On June 2, 2004, in Badghis, Afghanistan Tynæs and four others (Afghans Fasil Ahmad and Besmillah, Belgian Helene de Beir, and Dutchman Willem Kwint) were killed in an ambush whilst working for the humanitarian organization Médecins Sans Frontières.

Tynæs worked in his everyday life as a senior doctor at the Municipal Polyclinic in Bergen, Norway. He undertook two assignments for Médecins Sans Frontières. He worked for MSF-Switzerland in 2002 in Baharak, Afghanistan and in 2004 for MSF-Netherlands in Badghis. There, he worked on a tuberculosis project and trained local medical staff. He was killed on the final date of his assignment.

Early years and study
Egil was born in Lillehammer in 1941. His parents had fled Germany when the conditions for anthroposophical activity and its medical education became worse and worse and eventually ended by being forbidden altogether. As his father came from Germany, he was forced into military service on the Eastern Front where he met his death in the Ukraine in 1943. He abstained from fleeing to Sweden for of fear of reprisals against his remaining family in Germany.

After the war Egil and his mother, Sissi Tynæs, moved from Lillehammer to Bergen, where she became one of the pillars and pioneers of Rudolf Steiner work in the town. Jörgen Smit was both Egil's godfather and class teacher at the Rudolf Steiner School in Bergen.

Egil went to high school in Bergen. He had decided early in life to become a physician and studied, in Münster, Germany, where he qualified as a doctor in 1970. During the time of his studies he also gained experience working on a biodynamic farm and a Camphill community in Wales. Thereafter he did his housemanship in the anaesthesiology department at Aarhus University Hospital and at Amtssygehus in Skanderborg, Denmark. It was in Denmark that he met his wife Kirsten and started a family of three children together with her in addition to becoming stepfather to her two oldest daughters.

His interest in anthroposophical medicine, however, led him to the surgical department of the Gemeinnützige Gemeinschaftskrankenhaus, Herdecke, a hospital that had been founded and developed to create an academic university environment where the contributions of spiritual science to the art of healing should be integrated and developed. The central force in this work was MD. Dr Gerhard Kienle. Here Egil fell ill with tuberculosis which forced him to resign after two years of work.

His work in Norway
The family moved to Bergen, where Egil set up a practice as a GP in 1978, practicing anthroposophic medicine. At the beginning of the 1980s, this was extended to include a therapeuticum in which anthroposophical therapists were active. In addition, he was the school physician at the Waldorf School in Bergen and was connected also to Rostadheimen, an educational institution for Special Needs.

In the early 90s he and Kirsten traveled for a year to Georgia to assist Georgian colleagues in the development of a therapeutic centre. Here again he fell ill with tuberculosis, which caused him to close his general practice in Bergen, qualify as a specialist in internal medicine and take up a post as senior doctor at Bergen's municipal outdoor clinic, where he ran its emergency department.

Egil and Kirsten kept an open house where they also organized study groups in anthroposophic medicine. He was one of the initiators of the foundation of the Norwegian Association for anthroposophic medicine (NLFAM), supporting the younger generation of doctors in understanding anthroposophic medicine.

Mission and death in Afghanistan
As a 62-year-old grandfather, Egil Tynæs chose to work in Afghanistan twice in two years. The report of Médecins Sans Frontières (MSF) in 2003, with whom he volunteered, states “Afghanistan is neither safe nor stable”; humanitarian agencies' cars have been “held up and shot at.” In March 2003, Red Cross engineer Ricardo Munguia was murdered by gunmen after they stopped the car he was travelling in.

However, MSF identified Afghanistan as the place with the greatest need for Dr Tynæs's skills, especially in treating tuberculosis. He felt it was the right thing to do and wrote: “those of us who live in the wealthy part of the world have a certain responsibility to people who live in poverty and are disadvantaged." He understood the situation having spent five months in Baharak in Afghanistan in 2002 with the Swiss branch of MSF.

There was a sense of trust that Egil was able to build with patients and the local population in spite of the cultural and linguistic differences. He was double the age of any other member of the team, his grey hair and beard familiar and reassuring in meetings with village elders.

After serving with MSF Switzerland's mission in Baharak, a town in northern Afghanistan, he returned in 2003 and helped build MSF in Norway while awaiting his next assignment. It came nearly a year later. It was Afghanistan again, this time the Badghis region in the North-west. The Dutch branch of MSF needed him to lead a local tuberculosis programme, carry out general medical duties and to train local medical staff in basic primary health clinics. By June 2004 the MSF team in Badghis had built up the polyclinic to deal with more than 1000 consultations a month. The TB programme was treating 45 patients and expanding and a mother and baby clinic had opened.

The mission having come to an end, Dr Tynæs and his team appeared happy at having achieved their goal. The next day, on a road near the polyclinic in Khairkhana, the land cruiser in which they were travelling was ambushed with gunfire and grenades killing Dr Tynæs and four other MSF staff.

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Talk:Egil Tynæs

Untitled
This was my first entry into the Wilkipedia

VfD
This article has survived VfD. The archived debate can be found here. --Slowking Man 00:28, Nov 1, 2004 (UTC)

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Database theory

Database theory encapsulates a broad range of topics related to the study and research of the theoretical realm of databases and database management systems.

Theoretical aspects of data management include, among other areas, the foundations of query languages, computational complexity and expressive power of queries, finite model theory, database design theory, dependency theory, foundations of concurrency control and database recovery, deductive databases, temporal and spatial databases, real-time databases, managing uncertain data and probabilistic databases, and Web data.

Most research work has traditionally been based on the relational model, since this model is usually considered the simplest and most foundational model of interest. Corresponding results for other data models, such as object-oriented or semi-structured models, or, more recently, graph data models and XML, are often derivable from those for the relational model.

Database theory helps one to understand the complexity and power of query languages and their connection to logic. Starting from relational algebra and first-order logic (which are equivalent by Codd's theorem) and the insight that important queries such as graph reachability are not expressible in this language, more powerful language based on logic programming and fixpoint logic such as Datalog were studied. The theory also explores foundations of query optimization and data integration. Here most work studied conjunctive queries, which admit query optimization even under constraints using the chase algorithm.

The main research conferences in the area are the ACM Symposium on Principles of Database Systems (PODS) and the International Conference on Database Theory (ICDT).

General references

 * David Maier, The Theory of Relational Databases. Copyright 1983 David Maier. Available at http://web.cecs.pdx.edu/~maier/TheoryBook/TRD.html
 * David Maier, The Theory of Relational Databases. Copyright 1983 David Maier. Available at http://web.cecs.pdx.edu/~maier/TheoryBook/TRD.html

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Wikipedia:Articles for deletion/Egil Tynaes

Egil Tynaes
Egil Tynaes was proposed for deletion. This page is an archive of the discussion about the proposed deletion. This page is no longer live. Further comments should be made on the article's talk page rather than here so that this page is preserved as an historic record. The result of the debate was was a consensus to keep the article.

Delete—tragic but nonnotable casualty in Afghanistan. Postdlf 00:19, 23 Oct 2004 (UTC) This page is now preserved as an archive of the debate and, like other '/delete' pages is no longer 'live'. Subsequent comments on the issue, the deletion or on the decision-making process should be placed on the relevant 'live' pages. Please do not edit this page.
 * Delete.Indrian 00:20, Oct 23, 2004 (UTC)
 * Merge with Doctors Without Borders or Attacks on humanitarian workers Wolfman 00:37, 23 Oct 2004 (UTC)
 * Egil Tynaes could find a mention in Attacks on humanitarian workers. utcursch 07:24, Oct 23, 2004 (UTC)
 * Keep—give the article time to grow. Tynaes work and death are significant Kingturtle 22:33, 23 Oct 2004 (UTC).
 * Delete unless individual notability is established. Gazpacho 13:46, 24 Oct 2004 (UTC)
 * Keep. Agree with Kingturtle.  Radman1 00:42, 26 Oct 2004 (UTC)
 * Keep, I agree with kingturtle as well. — siro  χ  o  00:49, Oct 27, 2004 (UTC)
 * Keep I agree with Kingturtle, give an article time to grow. --ShaunMacPherson 19:14, 27 Oct 2004 (UTC)
 * Keep Significant figure of MSF. Definitely notable. - Ta bu shi da yu 07:37, 28 Oct 2004 (UTC)
 * Keep: Agree with Kingturtle — Florescentbulb 01:12, 29 Oct 2004 (UTC)
 * So...is anyone who voted to keep going to expand it? Postdlf 02:58, 29 Oct 2004 (UTC)
 * Thats not the point, at all. Many more than those of us who voted keep contribute to Wikipedia.  This persons death was significant, and and encyclopedic count of his life and death can be given.  I won't expand it myself unless I get a chance to do more research, because I don't know very much about him.  — siro  χ  o  09:36, Oct 29, 2004 (UTC)
 * Keep. Better than nothing. anthony 警告 17:12, 29 Oct 2004 (UTC)


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Miriam Toews

Miriam Toews (born 1964) is a Canadian writer and author of nine books, including A Complicated Kindness (2004), All My Puny Sorrows (2014), and Women Talking (2018). She has won a number of literary prizes including the Governor General's Award for Fiction and the Writers' Trust Engel/Findley Award for her body of work. Toews is also a three-time finalist for the Scotiabank Giller Prize and a two-time winner of the Rogers Writers' Trust Fiction Prize.

Toews had a leading role in the feature film Silent Light, written and directed by Mexican filmmaker Carlos Reygadas, and winner of the 2007 Cannes Jury Prize, an experience that informed her fifth novel, Irma Voth (2011).

Toews lives in Toronto and is an adjunct professor at the University of Toronto in the Faculty of Arts & Science.

Early life
Toews grew up in Steinbach, Manitoba, Canada the second daughter of Mennonite parents, both part of the Kleine Gemeinde. Through her father, Melvin C. Toews, she is a direct descendant of one of Steinbach's first settlers, Klaas R. Reimer (1837–1906), who arrived in Manitoba in 1874 from Ukraine. Her mother, Elvira Loewen, is a daughter of the late C. T. Loewen, an entrepreneur who founded a lumber business that would become Loewen Windows. As a teenager, Toews rode horses and took part in provincial dressage and barrel-racing competitions and attended high school at the Steinbach Regional Secondary School. She left Steinbach at eighteen, living in Montreal and London before settling in Winnipeg. She has a B.A. in Film Studies from the University of Manitoba, and a Bachelor of Journalism degree from the University of King's College, Halifax.

Early work
Toews wrote her first novel, Summer of My Amazing Luck (1996), while working as a freelance journalist. The novel explores the evolving friendship of two single mothers in a Winnipeg public housing complex. The novel was developed from a documentary that Toews was preparing for CBC Radio on the subject of welfare mothers. It was shortlisted for the Stephen Leacock Memorial Medal for Humour, and the McNally Robinson Book of the Year Award. Toews won the latter prize with her second novel, A Boy of Good Breeding (1998).

Toews has written for CBC's WireTap, Canadian Geographic, Geist, The Guardian, The New York Times Magazine, Intelligent Life, and Saturday Night. In 1999, she won a National Magazine Award Gold Medal for Humour. She is the author of The X Letters, a series of personal dispatches addressed to the father of her son, which were featured on This American Life in an episode about missing parents.

Toews' father died by suicide in 1998. His death inspired Toews to write a memoir in her father's voice, Swing Low: A Life. The book was greeted as an instant classic in the modern literature on mental illness, and it won the Alexander Kennedy Isbister Award for Non-Fiction and the McNally Robinson Book of the Year Award.

A Complicated Kindness
Toews' third novel, A Complicated Kindness (2004), is set in East Village, a small religious Mennonite town much like her native Steinbach. The narrator is Nomi Nickel, a curious, defiant, sardonic sixteen-year-old who dreams of hanging out with Lou Reed in the 'real' East Village of New York City. She lives alone with her doleful father, after the departure of her older sister and the unexplained disappearance of her mother. Unlike her father, who is a dutiful member of the church, Nomi is rebellious by nature, and her questioning brings her into conflict with the town's various authorities, most notably Hans Rosenfeldt, the sanctimonious church pastor.

A Complicated Kindness was highly acclaimed nationally and internationally, with the character of Nomi Nickel invoking comparisons to J. D. Salinger's Holden Caulfield. It won the 2004 Governor General's Award for Fiction, described by the jury as "an unforgettable coming-of-age story... melancholic and hopeful, as beautifully complicated as life itself." It was also shortlisted for the Scotiabank Giller Prize and longlisted for the International Dublin Literary Award. The novel was selected for the 2006 edition of Canada Reads, the first book by a female writer to win the competition.

The Flying Troutmans
The Flying Troutmans (2008) is a road-trip novel narrated by 28-year-old Hattie, who takes charge of her teenage niece and nephew after her sister Min is admitted to a psychiatric ward. Overwhelmed by the responsibility, Hattie enacts an ill-conceived plan to find the kids' long-lost father in California.

The novel was awarded the 2008 Rogers Writers' Trust Fiction Prize. The jury described the novel as "a love song to young people trying to navigate the volcanic world of adult emotions." The novel was also longlisted for the Orange Prize for Fiction, and named a Globe and Mail Best Book.

Irma Voth and Silent Light
With her fifth novel, Irma Voth (2011), Toews returned to the Mennonite community to re-examine the ways in which religious communities can limit personal freedom, and how belonging can turn to estrangement when old and new value systems clash. The novel opens in an old order Mennonite settlement in Mexico's Chihuahuan Desert. Nineteen-year-old Irma Voth has been banished to a neighbouring farm by her strict, religious father after secretly marrying a non-Mennonite Mexican. Her new husband disappears into the drug trade and Irma is left alone to tend to the farm. Her world is transformed when a filmmaker from Mexico City arrives to make a film about Mennonites. Irma is hired as a translator for the film's female protagonist, and her involvement with the wildly creative film crew brings her into dangerous conflict with her father, while at the same time helping her better understand her place in the world. When her father's violence escalates and the tragedy that has haunted her family begins to surface, Irma receives the blessing of her mother to flee the encampment, and to take her two younger sisters with her, one of whom is an infant. They eventually settle in Mexico City, where the two older sisters must embrace the ways of the city in order to survive and raise their infant sister.

Toews has said that Irma Voth was inspired in part by her experience in playing a lead role in Silent Light, the 2007 film written and directed by Mexican filmmaker Carlos Reygadas. Reygadas invited Toews to do a screen test for the role of Esther, a conservative Mennonite wife, after reading her third novel, A Complicated Kindness, and seeing her author photo on the back flap of the book. The film was shot in Plautdietsch, a language neither the director nor Toews fully understood. Toews worked with her mother, a native speaker of Plautdietsch, to deliver her lines phonetically. The film won a number of international awards, including the Jury Prize at the Cannes Film Festival. Toews was nominated for Best Actress at Mexico's Ariel Awards for her performance, one of nine nominations for the film.

Filmed in the northern Mexican state of Chihuahua, the film depicts the same Mennonite community that features in Toews' novel. "Irma Voth and Silent Light provide interesting counterpoint views of a culture as seen through the eyes of an outsider. Of course, Reygadas and the fictional filmmaker in Irma Voth portray a society within its insular context, a culture out of time and place, while Toews and Irma Voth have learned to coexist in both worlds."

All My Puny Sorrows
All My Puny Sorrows (2014) recounts the tumultuous relationship of the Von Riesen sisters, Elfrieda and Yolandi, the only children of an intellectual, free-spirited family from a conservative Mennonite community. Yolandi, the novel's narrator, has always lived in her sister's shadow. Whereas Elfrieda is a gifted, beautiful, happily married, and much celebrated concert pianist, Yolandi feels like a failure, with a floundering writing career and teenage children from separate fathers. Yet it is Elfrieda who suffers from acute depression and a desire to die, much like her father before her, who killed himself by stepping in front of a train. When Elfrieda makes a second suicide attempt on the eve of an international concert tour, Yolandi makes it her mission to save her sister, even as Elf begs her to accompany her to a Swiss clinic and enable her death. Yolandi writes: "She wanted to die and I wanted her to live and we were enemies who loved each other."

Toews has said that the novel draws heavily on events leading up to the 2010 suicide of her only sibling Marjorie.

All My Puny Sorrows received starred reviews in Library Journal, Kirkus Reviews, and Publishers Weekly and was a Reference and Users Services Association Notable Book. It also appeared on a number of year-end best-book lists, including The Globe and Mail, The Boston Globe, The Washington Post, The New Republic, and The Daily Telegraph. The novel won the 2014 Rogers Writers' Trust Fiction Prize. The jury described it as "a haunting novel of tremendous feeling, beautifully written and profoundly humane... Miriam Toews, a dazzling literary alchemist who manages to summon all the joyous and heart-breaking humanity of her characters, has produced a work of astonishing depth. Reading it is an unforgettable experience." The novel was also awarded Italy's 2015 Sinbad Prize for Foreign Fiction. All My Puny Sorrows was shortlisted for the 2014 Scotiabank Giller Prize, the 2015 Folio Prize for Literature, and the 2015 Wellcome Book Prize. It was longlisted for the 2015 Andrew Carnegie Medal for Excellence in Fiction and the 2016 International Dublin Literary Award.

The novel's French translation, Pauvres petits chagrins, was selected for the 2019 edition of Quebec's Le Combat des livres, where it was defended by writer Deni Ellis Béchard.

A film adaptation of the book, directed by Michael McGowan, was released in 2021.

Women Talking
In a note at the start of Women Talking (2018), Toews describes the novel as "a reaction through fiction" to the true-life events that took place between 2005 and 2009 on the Manitoba Colony, a remote Mennonite community in Bolivia. Girls and women would regularly wake up in the mornings to discover they had been sexually violated. The attacks were dismissed as "wild female imagination", or else attributed to ghosts or demons. Eventually it was discovered that a group of colony men had been spraying an animal anesthetic into neighboring houses at night, rendering everyone unconscious, and raping the women (infants, elderly, and relatives included). The colony elders, deciding that the case was too difficult to handle themselves, called local police to take the perpetrators into custody.

Toews' novel centers on eight women of varying ages who, in the aftermath of such traumatic events, must determine what to do next. As they see it, they have three options: do nothing; stay and fight; or leave. The stakes are high, and they must come to a decision quickly. The colony men, who are away to post bail for the rapists, will soon be returning. Over the course of two days, in the privacy of a hayloft, the women have a series of fierce, philosophical debates. They discuss how they will heal, protect their children, educate their sons, keep their faith, and forgive. The colony's bishop, Peters, has told them that if they refuse to forgive their offenders, they will be denied entry into heaven.

The novel is presented as the minutes of the women's meetings, which are taken by August Epp, the colony schoolteacher (and the novel's narrator) who has returned to the community after being excommunicated. Unlike the women, he has experience of the outside world, and is able to read and write and speak English (the women speak only Plautdietsch, an unwritten dialect of East Low German). He performs his role of minute taker at the request of Ona Friesen, the object of his unrequited love and his childhood friend, who is one of the eight women in the hayloft. As time runs short for the women, and they begin to put their action plan into motion, August's story is also revealed.

The novel was a shortlisted finalist for the Governor General's Award for English-language fiction at the 2018 Governor General's Awards, and for the 2019 Trillium Book Award.

A film adaptation of the book, directed by Sarah Polley and produced by and featuring Frances McDormand, Rooney Mara, and Claire Foy was released in late 2022. At the 95th Academy Awards Polley won the Oscar for Best Adapted Screenplay for her adaptation of Toews's novel.

Fight Night
Toews' eighth novel, Fight Night, focuses on a multigenerational family of women living in Toronto: the feisty, tomboyish 9-year-old Swiv, her heavily pregnant mother (nicknamed Mooshie), and her spirited and extraordinarily lively grandmother Elvira. Recently expelled from school, Swiv helps her grandmother with bathing and chores, accompanies her around the city, and eventually travels with her to Fresno, California to meet members of their extended family. In exchange, Swiv learns about what it means to survive through the ups and downs of life, and of her grandmother's story of despair, betrayal, stolen agency, and joy. The novel's structure takes the form of a letter Swiv writes to her absent father about life in the close-knit (yet often dysfunctional) household. As Swiv records her thoughts and observations, Fight Night unspools the pain, laughter, and unconditional love in the three women's stories, as they speak to what it takes to fight – painfully, joyously, and ferociously – and survive in life.

Personal
Toews' father, Melvin C. Toews, suffered from bipolar disorder much of his life. He was an active and well-respected elementary school teacher who lobbied to establish Steinbach's first public library. After his death by suicide, the Steinbach Library Board opened the Melvin C. Toews Reading Garden on the grounds of the library he worked to create. Toews' older sister and only sibling, Marjorie, died by suicide in 2010, almost 12 years to the day after their father.

Toews' partner is Erik Rutherford, the screenwriter for the 2021 film Charlotte. Her daughter Georgia Toews and son Owen Toews are both writers. Georgia's debut novel Hey, Good Luck Out There was published in 2022, while Owen's Stolen City: Racial Capitalism and the Making of Winnipeg was published in 2019.

Selected awards and honours

 * 1996 John Hirsch Award for Summer of My Amazing Luck
 * 1998 McNally Robinson Book of the Year Award for A Boy of Good Breeding
 * 2000 Alexander Kennedy Isbister Award for Non-Fiction for Swing Low: A Life
 * 2000 McNally Robinson Book of the Year Award for Swing Low: A Life
 * 2004 Governor General's Award for A Complicated Kindness
 * 2004 Scotiabank Giller Prize shortlist for A Complicated Kindness
 * 2004 McNally Robinson Book of the Year Award for A Complicated Kindness
 * 2004 The Margaret Laurence Award for Fiction for A Complicated Kindness
 * 2005 Canadian Booksellers Association Libris Award for Fiction Book of the Year for A Complicated Kindness
 * 2006 Winner CBC Canada Reads 2006 for A Complicated Kindness
 * 2006 Honorary Doctorate of Literature, Brandon University, Brandon, Manitoba
 * 2008 Rogers Writers' Trust Fiction Prize for The Flying Troutmans
 * 2010 Writers Trust Engel/Findley Award
 * 2010 Honorary Doctorate of Civil Law, University of King's College, Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada
 * 2012 Canadian Authors Association Award for Fiction finalist for Irma Voth
 * 2013 Order of Manitoba
 * 2014 Rogers Writers' Trust Fiction Prize for All My Puny Sorrows
 * 2014 Scotiabank Giller Prize shortlist for All My Puny Sorrows
 * 2015 Folio Prize shortlist for All My Puny Sorrows
 * 2015 Wellcome Book Prize shortlist for All My Puny Sorrows
 * 2015 Canadian Authors Association Award for Fiction for All My Puny Sorrows
 * 2015 Sinbad Prize (Italy) for Foreign Fiction for I miei piccoli dispiaceri (All My Puny Sorrows)
 * 2016 Writers' Trust of Canada Fellowship
 * 2018 Governor General's Award shortlist for Women Talking
 * 2021 Giller Prize shortlist for Fight Night

title: Miriam Toews


text:
Smoked meat

Smoked meat is the result of a method of preparing red meat, white meat, and seafood which originated in the Paleolithic Era. Smoking adds flavor, improves the appearance of meat through the Maillard reaction, and when combined with curing it preserves the meat. When meat is cured then cold-smoked, the smoke adds phenols and other chemicals that have an antimicrobial effect on the meat. Hot smoking has less impact on preservation and is primarily used for taste and to slow-cook the meat. Interest in barbecue and smoking is on the rise worldwide.

Smoking with wood
Generally meat is smoked using hardwood or wood pellets made from hardwood; softwood is not recommended due to increased PAH from the resin. Wood smoke adds flavor, aroma, and helps with preservation. There are two types of smoking: cold smoking generally occurs below 90 F and has more preservative value. Hot smoking generally occurs above 160 F. Most woods are seasoned and not used green. There are many types of wood used for smoking; a partial list includes:

 * Woods with a mild flavor: Alder, apple, apricot, ash, birch, cherry, maple, peach, pear.
 * Woods with a medium flavor: Almond, hickory, pecan, post oak, pasania.
 * Woods with a strong flavor: Acacia, black walnut, chokecherry, grapevine, mesquite.
 * Other woods and organic matter: Avocado, bay, beech, butternut, carrotwood, camphor, castanopsis, chestnut, citrus woods, cottonwood, crabapple, fig, guava, gum, hackberry, kiawe, lilac, madrone, mulberry, olive, peat, plum, persimmon, pimento, tea, and willow.

African fish smoking
Close to 80% of all fish caught in most African nations is smoked. Traditionally the processing and smoking of fish has been done by women. The primary method of smoking is hot smoking, the flavor from hot smoking preferred by local consumers. Traditional smoking methods include using bamboo racks over smoky fires, mud ovens and placing the fish directly on smoldering woods and grasses. Modern methods of smoking include using re-purposed oil drums, brick ovens, and Chorkor ovens.

American barbecue (smoked)
American barbecue's roots start with the Native Americans who smoked fish and game to preserve food for leaner times. When Europeans first came to North America, they brought with them smoking techniques from Europe and Central Asia and combined those with the Native American techniques. American barbecue has distinct regional differences: North Carolina Piedmont style is pork shoulder with a vinegar & ketchup-based sauce; Eastern style is the whole hog with vinegar & pepper-based sauce; South Carolina is whole hog or shoulder with a mustard-based sauce; Western Tennessee and Memphis are famous for its dry rub ribs, but wet is also available; Kentucky is known for their mutton, pork shoulder and whole hog are also very popular; Kansas City barbecue is more about the sauce, often used with smoked pork, lamb, chicken, beef and turkey. Beef ribs, smoked sausage, brisket are the prevalent meats in Texas.

Bacon
Bacon originated with petaso, a Roman version of what is now called bacon. The etymology of the word bacon has four possibilities; the Franceis word bacon, the Althochdeutsch word bahho, the Old Low Franconian word baken, and the Common Germanic word bakkon. John Harris of Calne, England, was the first to commercialize production of bacon in the 1770s. Bacon is primarily pork, depending on the type; it can come from the belly, back, loin or side. The preparation of bacon varies by type, but most involve curing and smoking. Some of the types of bacon include American (a.k.a. side bacon or streaky bacon), buckboard (shoulder bacon), Canadian (back bacon), British and Irish (rasher), Australian (middle bacon), Italian (pancetta), Hungarian (szalonna), German (speck), Japanese (beikon), and Slovakian (oravská). Bacon can also be produced from beef, lamb, and wild game.

Country ham
Country ham is a popular ham originally developed by American Colonists who took traditional Native American fish smoking practices and used them for pork. Country hams traditionally were made in the American Southeast from Virginia to Missouri. Most country hams are trimmed, wrapped, cured in salt, sugar, pepper and various spices. In modern times, some preparations add nitrates for food safety. After curing the hams are smoked for at least 12 hours, then hung to dry for 9 to 12 months. Some traditional processes can take years from curing to being ready to consume.

Finnan haddie
Finnan haddie is a cold smoked haddock that originated in medieval times in the Scottish village of Findon. Traditionally the haddock is smoked with green wood and peat. Smoked finnan haddie is the colour of straw, newer commercial methods of drying without smoke produce a gold or yellow colour. Until the 1800s when regular rail service was established, finnan haddie remained a local dish, now it can be found in markets worldwide.

Katsuobushi
Katsuobushi is a key umami ingredient in Japanese cuisine, with bonito flakes among its many applications. Katsuobushi is made from skipjack tuna that is washed, quartered smoked with oak, pasania, or castanopsis wood, and cooled repeatedly for a month. Some producers will spray the fish with Aspergillus glaucus to promote further drying. After one to 24 months the fish will be katsu (hard) and ready for use. To make bonito flakes it is shaved very thinly using a Katsuobushi grater box.

Montreal-style smoked meat

A type of kosher-style deli meat product made by salting and curing beef brisket with spices. The brisket is allowed to absorb the flavours over a week, is then hot smoked to cook through, and finally is steamed to completion. The preparation method may be similar to New York pastrami, but Montreal smoked meat is cured in seasoning with more cracked peppercorns and savoury flavourings, such as coriander, garlic, and mustard seeds, and significantly less sugar.

Pastrami
Pastrami is most often made with beef brisket; it can be made with other cuts of beef. The meat is cured in a brine (most often dry), after drying, it is coated in spices and smoked. Smoking can be done by either cold smoking or hot smoking. Pastrami evolved from the Turkish Huns who would tenderize and dry meat under their saddles. Armenians saw what the Huns had done and created basturma that was spiced and air-dried meat. Romanians first started brining, spicing, and smoking the beef and created what is now called pastrami. When Romanian Jews immigrated to the United States, Canada, and Great Britain in the late 1800s, they carried that tradition of pastrami with them. The Romanians that immigrated to the United States, mostly settled in New York City area and developed the classic New York Pastrami. Those that immigrated to Canada mostly settled in Montreal used a different brining technique and spices and called it smoked meat. Pastrami is still produced in Southwest Asia and the Middle East and is called Pastirma, basterma or basturma. While customarily made with beef, in other regions it can be made with lamb, goat, buffalo, and camel. Corned or salt beef uses a similar brine and spices, but is not smoked.

Zhangcha duck
Zhangcha duck is a dish from Sichuan Province in southwestern China made from the Chengdu Ma duck. The duck is marinated in a pickling liquid then smoked with camphor and tea leaves. After smoking, the duck is deep fried, boned and served over rice.

Health concerns
One study has shown an association between the frequency of consumption of smoked foods and intestinal cancer. However, the study was restricted to a small Slovenian population in Hungary, where the local smoke curing process produces levels of contaminants roughly eight times as high as standard processes elsewhere. The use of soft woods is discouraged, as the resins in softwood increases the concentration of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) that are known carcinogens.

title: Smoked meat


text: Category:Revolvers

title: Category:Revolvers


text:
Holthausen

Holthausen may refer to the following places in Germany:

in Lower Saxony

 * Lingen-Holthausen, a quarter of Lingen
 * Meppen-Holthausen, a quarter of Meppen (Germany)

in North Rhine-Westphalia

 * Dortmund-Holthausen, a locality of Dortmund, district-free city of the Ruhr area
 * Düsseldorf-Holthausen, a locality of Düsseldorf, district-free city of the Rhein-Ruhr-Gebiet
 * Hagen-Holthausen, a locality of Hagen district free city
 * Hattingen-Holthausen, a locality of Hattingen
 * Herne-Holthausen, a locality of Herne, Germany
 * Laer-Holthausen, a locality of Laer, in the district of Steinfurt
 * Mülheim-Holthausen, a locality of Mülheim an der Ruhr district free city in the Ruhr area
 * Plettenberg-Holthausen, a locality of Plettenberg
 * Schmallenberg-Holthausen, a locality in Schmallenberg

People

 * Ferdinand Holthausen (1860–1956), German scholar of the English and old Germanic languages
 * Mike Holt, South African boxer of the 1950s and '60s (birth name Antione Michael Holthausen)

title: Holthausen


text:
Talk:Webley (company)

Merge
No to merge - Webley was an independant company until the merger to make Webley and Scott, this articel does need a dismabiguation to the alter Webley (& Scott) business. GraemeLeggett 13:19, 20 Jun 2005 (UTC)

title: Talk:Webley (company)


text:
Niko Nirvi

Niko Nirvi (born 16 February 1961 in Jokioinen, Finland ), pen name Nnirvi, is a long-term major icon in the Finnish gaming world. He is well known for writing computer game reviews since the 1980s in MikroBitti, C=Lehti and the computer game yearbooks that were predecessors of the Pelit magazine. He has worked for the latter since its founding in 1992, and holds a column in addition to making reviews and other reports.

Nirvi began his career as a game reviewer in 1986 on pages of MikroBitti. He had made a bet with his friend that he could get his review published in the magazine. He sent two reviews, Zoids and Uridium and the former was published (they already had one Uridium review). Nirvi wrote reviews and a regular column about new games for Mikrobitti and became the "game editor" of the magazine. He also wrote reviews for C=Lehti. When Pelit, that concentrated solely on gaming, was founded by the same publisher, Nirvi joined its ranks as an editor, and has written a regular column for each issue.

Nirvi's trademarks include signing with "Nnirvi" or a variation, and never showing his face in the magazine. Photos of him are always either covered or edited in a way that the face is unrecognizable. His personal picture in his articles is usually a gaming or movie character whose face is blurred (for example Master Chief) while the rest of the crew's articles feature their real faces. Wallu's drawings of Nirvi depict him as a bearded man with Spock's Vulcan ears. According to Nirvi, his avoidance of publicity started in 1988, when a MikroBitti reader asked for a photograph of him, which Nirvi instantly declined, and this avoidance has strengthened ever since. "I replied no, and then it started feeling like a good idea. Everyone can imagine what I look like on their own", Nirvi said in an interview in Suomen Kuvalehti in 2021. Nirvi does not even allow verbal descriptions of his appearance. However, he has sometimes been described as "a large, dark-haired man" and his colleague Jukka O. Kauppinen has described him as "hairy".

In 2012, Nirvi was awarded as Game Journalist of the Year at the FIGMA audience awards. Avoiding any publicity, Nirvi did not arrive to collect his award.

Nirvi's style is typically humorous and sometimes unorthodox. Some of Nirvi's most unconventional reviews were published in C=Lehti. The review of Domark's motorboat game Hydra was written as a nursery rhyme from the beginning to the end. The review of Battle Island contained just two words: "Paska Commando-klooni." ("shitty Commando clone.")

Personal opinions
Nirvi has made it clear that he does not like sports or sports related video games. He has been a big fan of Babylon 5, Star Wars and Star Trek. He has also stated that he has read The Lord of the Rings over ten times.

Nirvi has given several statements about the usefulness of computer gaming. At one interview he said that gaming is a completely useless hobby. On the first issue of Pelit (1992) he wrote that gaming helps people overcome their fears towards computers (that is typical for some old people). In another interview he declared that many strategy games can develop the players' intellectual capabilities: they can teach English, history and strategic thinking.

Nirvi's favorite games from the 1980s are Star Wars (Atari's arcade game), Ultima IV, Hack (the precursor of NetHack), Elite and Dungeon Master. In 2000 he stated that the best PC game ever is X-COM: UFO Defense.

title: Niko Nirvi


text:
Niederwenigern

Niederwenigern is a small borough of the city of Hattingen in North Rhine-Westphalia, Germany. It is situated on the river Ruhr, 4 km east of Kupferdreh (a borough of Essen) and 3 km west of the center of Hattingen. The population is about 6,000 and before 1926, it was an independent municipality. Niederwenigern has a large 19th-century Roman Catholic church, the St. Mauritius Church. There is also a Lutheran-Evangelical Protestant church. There is also a museum dedicated to Nikolaus Groß, a Catholic and trade union resistance fighter in the time of the Third Reich.

Niederwenigern has two kindergartens, two primary schools and some smaller shops for daily needs. Famous is the yearly "Mauritius Kirmes", a typical small fun fair celebrated at the end of September in relation to the saint's day of St. Mauritius. Its popularity is founded in the fact that a lot of (former) residents come back to Niederwenigern at this weekend to meet old friends. The fair lasts three days (Saturday through Monday).

title: Niederwenigern


text:
Things Here Are Different

Things Here Are Different is the first album by the American singer-songwriter Jill Sobule, released in 1990. It contains the singles "Living Color" and "Too Cool to Fall in Love".

Track listing
All songs written by Jill Sobule except as noted.
 * 1) "Living Color" – 4:04
 * 2) "Sad Beauty" – 3:32
 * 3) "Too Cool to Fall in Love" (Holland, Melamed, Sobule) – 3:51
 * 4) "Life Goes on Without You" – 4:20
 * 5) "Pilar (Things Here Are Different)" – 3:21
 * 6) "Evian" (Eaton, Jacobson, Sobule) – 3:16
 * 7) "So Kind" (Bunch, Sobule) – 3:46
 * 8) "Tell Me Your Dreams" (Eaton) – 4:01
 * 9) "Disinformation" – 3:38
 * 10) "Golden Cage" – 3:56
 * 11) "The Gifted Child" – 2:00

The single, "Too Cool to Fall in Love" peaked at No. 17 on the Billboard Adult Contemporary chart in fall 1990.

Personnel

 * Jill Sobule – guitar, vocals
 * Valentina Charlap-Evans – violin, viola
 * Carole Cowan – violin
 * Emily Faxon – violin
 * Eric Jacobson – synthesizer, piano, glockenspiel, keyboards, recorder, handclapping
 * Sid McGinnis – guitar
 * Michael Rhodes – bass guitar, guitar
 * Todd Rundgren – guitar
 * Steve Satten – trumpet
 * Susan Seligman – cello
 * Michael Shrieve – percussion, drums
 * Geraldo Velez – percussion, bongos, conga, handclapping

Production

 * Producer: Todd Rundgren
 * Engineer: Todd Rundgren
 * Mixing: Todd Rundgren
 * Mastering: Greg Calbi
 * Project coordinator: Lee Dannay
 * String arrangements: Eric Jacobson
 * Photography: Michael Miller
 * Make-up: Jeanine Greville-Morris
 * Stylists: Susan Tobman, Justin Ware

title: Things Here Are Different


text: Talk:Things Here Are Different

title: Talk:Things Here Are Different