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John Force

John Harold Force (born May 4, 1949) is an American NHRA drag racer. He is a 16-time NHRA and 1 time AHRA Funny Car champion driver and a 22-time champion car owner. Force owns and drives for John Force Racing (JFR). He is one of the most dominant drag racers in the sport with 157 career victories. He graduated from Bell Gardens High School and briefly attended Cerritos Junior College to play football. He is the father of drag racers Ashley Force Hood, Brittany Force, and Courtney Force. His oldest daughter Adria Hight is the CFO of JFR.

Current drivers racing for Force's team are Austin Prock, and daughter Brittany. Mike Neff was crew chief for John two separate times. Effective July 2013 Jimmy Prock replaced Mike Neff as crew chief, and Mike Neff became crew chief for Robert Hight. Neff, who was once the crew chief for rival driver Gary Scelzi, raced in a 4th Funny Car for JFR from October 26, 2007, following the death of Eric Medlen, until the end of the 2009 season. However, in 2010, after a 2009 season in which Force did not win a single race, Force parked his 4th car, and named Neff as his new crew chief instead. This decision resulted in Force winning his 15th NHRA Championship. His nickname among several of the drivers, as well as several announcers within the sport of drag racing is "Brute Force", a nickname he earned by his dominating wins during his run of ten straight NHRA championships. Force, his daughters, Courtney, Ashley, and Brittany, granddaughter Autumn Hight (granddaughter) and her father Robert Hight are collectively known as "The First Family of Drag Racing".

Early life
Force was born to Harold and Betty Ruth Force in the Los Angeles suburb of Bell Gardens, California. As a child he lived in logging camps, Indian reservations, migrant farms, and trailer parks. He survived childhood polio with therapy and perseverance of his mother and family. He played football in high school and attended Cerritos College. John is one of six children. John has five siblings, Walker, Louie, Tom (now deceased), and Cindy Hem (married to late husband Skip Hem) were all older than John. Dana (Baby Force) Marino is ten years younger than John. Walker and Cindy still live near John in Southern California. Walker Force and Louie Force have worked with John over the years, but Walker Force is the only sibling now working at JFR. Younger sister Dana (Marino) did not grow up in the same house or spend any time with the family in the early years of the Force Family Racing activities. Dana now attends some of the NHRA events as she is a part-time Intern-Journalist with "The Motorsports Report" based in Las Vegas, Nevada, and resides an hour south in Kingman, AZ. She is a realtor by trade, but is Aunt Dana to Adria, Ashley, Courtney and Brittany. Much of the family still attends NHRA National events to cheer on John, Robert Hight (Adria's husband), Brittany and Austin Prock (JFR Crew Chief Jimmy Prock's son) when the events are closer to their homes in Pomona, Las Vegas, Sonoma, and Phoenix.

1978–2004
In 1971, Force drove the Jack Chrisman-built Night Stalker Mustang, his first funny car. Early in his career, he drove a Corvette, a Monza and then in the 1980s switched to an Oldsmobile Cutlass through the end of the 1993 season. He drove a Chevrolet for 1994, quickly changing to a Pontiac in 1995 and 1996. Force was a Ford driver and team owner from 1997 until 2014, when he returned to Chevrolet.

1985-Travel back in time to an era when John Force was trying to find his place in a drag racing world in Spokane, Wash., at the ADRA World Finals in the latter years of the old American Hot Rod Association. It was part of the syndicated Pro Drag Superstars series. Both Johnny West and John Force were tied at 1650 Points. John Force beat Johnny West in the finals with a time of 5.87 seconds at 252.10 miles per hour 1/4 mile run in the Coca-Cola Wendy's Funny Car. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SW-6Jk_gTgk

Between 1987 and 1996, Force won sixty-seven of 203 NHRA national events, four of nine Big Bud Shootouts, and six World Championships. In 1996, with Austin Coil tuning, Force went to the final round in sixteen of nineteen national events, taking thirteen wins, one of the best records ever in Funny Car history. His domination would continue, with ten NHRA FC World Championship wins from 1993 to 2002, including six straight 1997-2002; his success was so amazing, he was accused of cheating (and was willing to strip off his firesuit to prove he was not). Between 1997 and 2006, Force went to the final in 105 of 228 events and took sixty-one tour wins. On top of that, he had ten of the quickest or fastest passes in Funny Car.

In 1992, the honor of putting Force on the trailer would go to Cruz Pedregon, driving the Larry Minor McDonald's-sponsored Olds to the championship.

Force's points finishes were 23rd, 8th, 26th, 16th, 20th, 4th, 13th, and 5th from 1978 to 1985. Force then had Castrol Motor Oil jump on as his main sponsor, and was even more successful. From 1986 to 1995, he finished 4th, 4th, 6th, 1st, 1st, 2nd, 1st, 1st, and 1st. He then had fellow driver and arch-rival Cruz Pedregon's younger brother, Tony, come aboard to drive John's 2nd car. From 1996 to 2000, John finished 1st all 5 years. In 2001, John had longtime friend and fellow drag racer Gary Densham drive a third car. In that same year, John once again finished as the champion, which he followed up with an astronomical 10th straight world title in 2002. In 2003, for the 1st time since 1992, John didn't win the title. It was not all lost however, because teammate Tony Pedregon won his 1st world title. At the end of the season, Tony Pedregon went on to join brother Cruz in their own racing organization, and Gary Densham went on to race independently. John found quick and personal talent in two young-guns. Eric Medlen, son of long-time JFR crewmember John Medlen, came on to race. John's other driver, Robert Hight, was his son-in-law and crewmember. Both had a lot of success in their season, but John topped both in 2004 with a 13th world title.

In 2000, Force was sponsored by BP's Castrol brand, continuing the relationship between Force and Castrol that began in 1985 and lasted through 2014. After winning his fourth Funny Car title in 1994, Force earned the nickname of "Brute Force" from drivers, and even announcers such as Steve Evans. This nickname hearkens back to his early days on the track, when he drove his own unsponsored car, named "Brute Force". Force had a cameo in a 2004 episode of King of the Hill ("Dale Be Not Proud"), in which Dale Gribble donates a kidney to Force, after which it appears he does not need it.

2005
In 2005, Force won 5 events, but only finished third in the championship standings, 32 points behind champion Gary Scelzi, and 24 points behind Ron Capps, both of Don Schumacher Racing [DSR].

2006
In 2006, Force won his 14th NHRA World Funny Car Championship, defeating Capps in the quarter-finals of the Automobile Club of Southern California NHRA Finals which mathematically eliminated Capps and teammate Robert Hight from the championship. Force went on to win the event, his third of the season and 122nd of his career.

2007

After the death of Eric Medlen, and John Force's crash in Ennis, Texas at the 2007 O'Reilly NHRA Fall Nationals, Force started 2007 poorly, suffering a DNQ ending a 20+ year consecutive qualifying streak. He rebounded, winning the O'Reilly NHRA Thunder Valley Nationals in Bristol, Tennessee, then proceeded on to three more final rounds, winning another race in Sonoma, California, putting him fourth in points and allowing him to make the first cut in NHRA's new point system, the Countdown to the Championship aka the "Countdown to Eight". He stumbled again in the next two races but, again, rebounded until his crash.

On September 23, 2007, Force was injured in a crash at the O'Reilly Auto Parts Fall Nationals in Ennis, Texas as he crossed the finish line against Kenny Bernstein. Bernstein's Funny Car drifted into Force's lane, clipping the final timing cone and a foam block which shot into Force's lane. Initially, it was thought that the block ruptured Force's left rear tire, causing it to come apart, violently shaking the chassis until it broke apart. However, it was determined by NHRA after a thorough review, that the block went behind Force's tire and was not the cause of the wreck. Injuries sustained were a broken ankle, abrasion of his right knee, a dislocated left wrist, and badly mangled fingers and toes, and Force had to be airlifted to Baylor University Medical Center in Dallas. Phil Burkart Jr. was added as Force's replacement for the remainder of the 2007 season, starting at Las Vegas.

2008
2008 was a subpar season for Force who finished 7th, out of the top five for the first time since early in his career. However, after the death of driver Scott Kalitta, he was instrumental in the development of some of the safety precautions that were implemented throughout the rest of the season, and along with retired six-time world champion Kenny Bernstein [4 Funny Car titles, 2 Top Fuel titles] and seven-time Top Fuel champion Tony Schumacher, with backing from NHRA's Track Safety Committee, assisted in developing a sensor that monitors the engines of Top Fuel dragsters and Funny Cars. Should the engine backfire at any time during a race, the fuel pump is automatically shut down, and the parachutes are deployed. The idea was to either minimize or eliminate the circumstances that led to Kalitta's death. This safety device became mandatory and was put into place at the start of the 2009 season. Also, a brake handle that, instead of needing to be pulled back toward the driver, was set up to be pushed away from the driver was made an optional setting for the Funny Car division. This change happened because when the 2008 season began, Force's right arm was still in a cast, due to broken fingers, and he needed a different way of using the brakes on the car, rather than the traditional handbrake that needed to be brought back toward the driver; also, in the 2007 accident in Texas, Force had lost some grip in his right hand, and had some problems putting enough pressure on the handbrake to unlock it from position to apply the brakes. This led to the development of the forward application handbrake, which has given several drivers in the Funny Car class quicker access to the brakes. Though Force only finished seventh in the points in 2008, he became influential within the NHRA for innovations in driver safety.

2009
2009 once again saw Force finish outside of the top five. John finished 9th, daughter Ashley finished 2nd, and Mike Neff placing 10th. However, he would win his 16th overall championship as a car owner, with teammate Robert Hight's championship, placing Force as the winningest car owner in NHRA history.

2010
The start of the 2010 season saw Force celebrate 25 years with the same sponsor, as well as 34 years in the NHRA. On February 14, Force won the season opener at Auto Club Raceway at Pomona in the 50th Winternationals in California defeating Ron Capps. After 13 events, Force had 4 wins, and lead the Funny Car points standings with 933, 58 ahead of teammate Robert Hight.

Going into the Auto Club of Southern California Finals in Pomona, CA on November 14, 2010, Force needed some help to win the championship. He started the day 38 points behind 28-year-old Matt Hagan, who ran for team rival Don Shumacher and his team. In order to capture the championship he needed to finish two rounds ahead of Hagan. With Bob Tasca III taking Hagan out in the first round, Force won his first round over Gary Densham and second-round win over Bob Bode, securing the championship. He then went on to victory beating Melanie Troxel in the semi-finals and in the final, defeated Jeff Arend. John Force now has the distinction of being the oldest NHRA champion in history. Long-time crew chief Austin Coil resigned from John Force Racing on November 16, 2010.

2011
As of February 7, 2011, JFR has already flip-flopped cars between John, Robert, Ashley, and Mike. Ashley Force Hood announced that she was expecting her 1st child, and would sit out the 2011 Full Throttle Drag Racing Season. John Force would drive Force Hood's new Ford Mustang with Dean Antonelli and Ron Douglas tuning, sponsored by Castrol Motor Oil. Robert Hight will remain in the Auto Club of Southern California Ford Mustang. Mike Neff, after co-crew chiefing John Force's car with Austin Coil, will drive Force's car from John's 2010 championship season. Neff's Ford Mustang will be sponsored by Castrol Oil. As of February 7, 2011, JFR started testing for the 2011 season. Out of the 11 testers so far, Force is 1st, Hight was 5th, and Neff was 6th. As of July 31, Force is 7th in the points standings, while teammate Mike Neff is leading, and Robert Hight is in second.

2012
2012 saw John welcome a fourth driver to his stable, former Top Alcohol Dragster champion, and daughter Courtney, who was in the running for the Auto Club Rookie of the Year Award, she will be driving the Traxxas Ford Mustang in her rookie season, and she has done something that only sister Ashley has done, beat her father in the first meeting between the two, taking John out of the Arizona Nationals in Phoenix in just the first round. Although Force was unable to retain the championship, finishing in fifth, he saw Courtney win something he never did, the NHRA Road to the Future Rookie of the Year award, and Courtney's second-place finish in the season helped cement John Force Racing's legacy for several years to come.

2013
During the start of the 2013 season, Ashley announced her retirement from full-time competition, this left the Force team short a driver. Rather than find another driver to take Ashley's place within the Castrol GTX Funny Car, John did something he had never done before, field a Top Fuel car, with daughter Brittany behind the wheel. On July 26, 2013 it was announced that after the 2014 racing season Ford Motor Company would no longer be a part of John Force Racing. It was also announced that after the 2014 racing season, primary sponsor Castrol would be leaving JFR after a 29-year business relationship

During the penultimate race of the 2013 season, Force beat his daughter Courtney in the final round to win the race and his 16th NHRA Funny Car Championship.

2014
He won at the season opener in Pomona California as well wins in Norwalk Ohio & Seattle Washington as he would finish 2nd points.

2015

In 2015 John announced a partnership with Chevrolet. He competed in the 2015 racing season with a new sponsorship deal from Peak Antifreeze.

2016
Debuted the new Chevrolet Camaro SS body in May at the Kansas Nationals in Topeka Kansas. John won four races during the 2016 season at The Mile High Nationals at Bandimere Colorado, The Sonoma Nationals in Sonoma California, The Toyota Nationals in LasVegas Nevada and The Carolina Nationals in Charlotte NC. Finished the season fourth in Funny Car Championship points.

2017
John's daughter Brittany & Robert Hight both won the championship in Top Fuel & Funny Car respectively. Advance Auto Parts joined team, sponsoring Courtney Force and rest of JFR teams.

2018
Won at the Denver event for his only win of the season.

2019
On August 4, 2019, John Force won his 150th race at the Magic Dry Organic Absorbent NHRA Northwest Nationals in Seattle, Washington, edging out Ron Capps and breaking a 25 race winless streak, having last won in Colorado the year prior, also against Capps. John expressed extreme relief after winning, his first words to the camera being obscenities (which NHRA had to censor, as the broadcast was on network television). Force was not present in the winners' circle, having ridden his pitbike to the stands to watch Austin Prock, a driver on his Top Fuel team and son of a Force Racing mechanic, win his first race and was still celebrating with fans while Prock was being interviewed.

Force further celebrated the 2019 season by winning the U. S. Nationals.

Daughter Courtney Force retired from driving.

2020
He was the runner-up at the season opener in Pomona California but after 2 events him & his teams didn't run again in the 2020 season due to the COVID-19 pandemic but would return in the following year.

2021
In his return after missing most of the previous year because of the COVID-19 pandemic he won 3 events. He won at the Charlotte 4 Wide, Epping, & Topeka events. At Dallas for the first time since 2018 John Force was set on fire in a crash that echoed his win in 1996 where his Castrol car caught fire at this track.

2022
He gained a win of the season at the 4-Wide Nationals in Charlotte, NC.

2023
Force had a pair of runner-up finishes & finished in the Top 10 in points once again.

2024
He won the Saturday Final at the Arizona Nationals in Chandler, AZ. The race was originally part of the Lucas Oil Winternationals in Pomona, CA that was abandoned after the semifinals, resulting in a double finals situation at Firebird Motorsports Park. Force won the first final on Saturday, while Austin Prock, his teammate and son of John Force Racing crew chief Jimmy Prock, won the Sunday final.

Force then doubled at New England Dragway in the first New England Nationals since 2022 (the 2023 race was rescheduled to Bristol the following week) by winning the Mission Foods Challenge for semifinalists at the previous round (Joliet) in defeating Blake Alexander on a holeshot that counts towards bonus points in the Countdown, then defeating Prock in the main elimination tournament's final round for his 157th victory.

In June 2024, Force suffered a traumatic brain injury in a fiery crash at Virginia Motorsports Park after his engine exploded at the end of a run. Having been admitted into ICU, he is expected to recover.

Championships

 * 1984 AHRA Funny Car Champion
 * 1985 ADRA Funny Car WORLD FINALS Champion
 * 1990 NHRA Funny Car Champion
 * 1991 NHRA Funny Car Champion
 * 1993 NHRA Funny Car Champion
 * 1994 NHRA Funny Car Champion
 * 1995 NHRA Funny Car Champion
 * 1996 NHRA Funny Car Champion
 * 1997 NHRA Funny Car Champion
 * 1998 NHRA Funny Car Champion
 * 1999 NHRA Funny Car Champion
 * 2000 NHRA Funny Car Champion
 * 2001 NHRA Funny Car Champion
 * 2002 NHRA Funny Car Champion
 * 2003 NHRA Champion Owner (Tony Pedregon, Funny Car)
 * 2004 NHRA Funny Car Champion
 * 2006 NHRA Funny Car Champion
 * 2009 NHRA Champion Owner (Robert Hight, Funny Car)
 * 2010 NHRA Funny Car Champion
 * 2013 NHRA Funny Car Champion
 * 2017 NHRA Champion Owner (Brittany Force, Top Fuel)
 * 2017 NHRA Champion Owner (Robert Hight, Funny Car)
 * 2019 NHRA Champion Owner (Robert Hight, Funny Car)
 * 2022 NHRA Champion Owner (Brittany Force, Top Fuel)

Achievements

 * Selected as "Driver of the Year" for all of American motor racing in 1996 by a national panel of motorsports journalists, the first drag racer ever so honored.
 * 153 wins in 259 final rounds as of June 13, 2021 (first driver with 100 wins)
 * First NHRA drag racer to achieve 1,000 career elimination round wins (1,000th win: first round, 2008 NHRA Midwest Nationals at World Wide Technology Raceway at Gateway near St. Louis, Missouri), where he defeated Ron Capps for the 1,000th round win.
 * First driver to set an official NHRA Funny Car elapsed time under five seconds in the quarter mile (October 16, 1993, Texas Motorplex, 4.996).
 * 16-time NHRA champion driver, and 21-time champion owner.
 * Ranked #2 on the NHRA Top 50 Drivers, 1951–2000, behind Don Garlits
 * With daughter Ashley, first father/daughter pair to compete against each other, during the first round of the NHRA Southern Nationals in Atlanta in 2008, which saw Ashley win.
 * Only driver to have won more than ten championships in his division, beating the record once held by retired NHRA Pro Stock Champion Bob Glidden, who had 10 championships
 * Most event #1 qualifications in NHRA history, with 161 (as of May 15, 2021)
 * Force received the Lee Iacocca Award at Bristol Dragway on June 19, 2012
 * Most consecutive championship seasons - 10 (1993-2002)

Awards
He was inducted into the Motorsports Hall of Fame of America in 2008.

Driving Force
John was featured on A&E's reality show Driving Force with his wife (Laurie) and three of his daughters (Ashley, Courtney, and Brittany).

title: John Force


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Chomérac

Chomérac (Tchaoumeïra) is a commune in the Ardèche department in southern France.

It is located approximately 10 km away from both the Rhône valley to the east and Privas (capital of the department) to the west.

Geography
Chomérac is located on the eastern foothills of the Massif Central, 10 km away from the Rhône, in a large valley incised in cretaceous marls by the Payre and Vérone rivers, south east of the Jurassic limestone plateau of Les Grads and north of the Miocene basaltic plateau Les Coirons.

History
As a natural pathway from Rhône valley to the Massif Central mountains, Chomérac has been inhabited for a very long time. First settlements records are found in caves and date back from the Middle Paleolithic. There are also evidences for Roman settlements and artefacts in the village (tegulae, villa and Roman road).

Chomérac was severely affected by the French Wars of Religion. In 1621, the village belonged to the catholic Duke of Ventadour. Besieged, it was occupied by the Protestant Monsieur de Blacons on 14 October 1621. Alternately besieged by both parties, the stronghold changed side six times, up until the siege of 1628, when the Catholics decisively took over the village from the Huguenots. This position was beneficial in 1629, during the siege of Privas led by the king Louis XIII and the Cardinal Richelieu.

Economy
Industry started early in Chomérac, thanks to silk manufacturers (up to 15 silk throwing mills in the 19th century) and the marble quarry, which delivers to the whole region and even abroad.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

authors: My heart's in the mountains and my trousers are on fire

title: Chomérac


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Sulima (coat of arms)

Sulima is a Polish coat of arms. It was used by several szlachta families in the Kingdom of Poland and the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth. Notable people using the symbol were Zawisza Czarny—a famous Polish knight—and the Sułkowski family.

Etymology
According to Maria Kowalska Bobowski, the term comes from the personal name Sulima, or Sulim. From 1394, the latter term was present in the sources Sulima with erysipelas, undoubtedly a member of this family.

Wladyslaw Semkowicz derived the name of Sulima from the village of nest Sulimów in Wielkopolska Sulina, under Kleck in the district of Gniezno, parish Dębnica. Another village with a similar name, Sulimów (now Sulmów), was in the district of Sieradz, parish Goszczanów. It was recorded in written records until 1391. From Łęczyca, goods of different families of the arms known from a later period. From about 30 km in a straight line to Sieradz Ostrowska near Uniejów, the village associated with Sulimami already in 13th in.

Another theory suggests that Sulima derived from the family name Sulimów, or the kind of medieval polearms known as sulicy.

Description
The coat of arms consists of a shield split horizontally into two regions that are red and yellow. The bottom region is usually depicted as red, or blue in some cases, with three white stones and crosses adorning it. The top region is depicted as yellow—sometimes described as gold—or less commonly white—sometimes described as silver—adorned with the top half of a right-facing eagle with its wings pointing outwards. More ornate depictions of the coat of arms include various mantling, including a helmet on top of the shield with an additional eagle on the helmet.

Variations used by individual families may change the color scheme, use a different eagle, or otherwise incorporate the entire design as part of a larger coat of arms.

History
The earliest recorded uses of the Sulima coat of arms are found on three wax seals attached to documents from c. 1352. One of them was owned by the curator of the collegiate church of St. Michael's Castle, Francis. In its initial form, the coat of arms consisted of only the undivided shield, but its colors remain unknown.

Among several images of the seal from the 14th century, the seal of Stanisław Gamrat from Klimontów impressed under the act of Union of Horodło in 1413.

Around the same time, Zawisza Czarny used Sulima. Fighting with the Turks and performing various missions at the side of king Sigismund, he colored the eagle black in his coat of arms (a cognomen Czarny means "black" in Polish). Associated with the figure of Zawisza is also the first colored version of Sulima. It ended up in St. Christopher's Fraternal Book on Arlberg in Tyrol (pol. Księga bracka św. Krzysztofa na Arlbergu w Tyrolu) as a donation to the fraternity for caring for travelers crossing the Alps. The arms of the eagle, the top field, and an added girdle on the eagle were silver. The bottom field was red with golden stones, with an arrangement of two stones, then one. Presumably, the Western illustrator was inspired by the eagles of Silesia (girdle and color), Germany (color) and Poland (color of the field).

In the 15th century, appearances of Sulima were featured in three Western rolls of arms. Among them is the Burgundian Armorial Toison d'Or by Jean Le Fèvre de Saint-Remy from around 1435. Armorial repeats the color scheme of Fraternal Book, but the upper field is thinner, coming closer to a third of the shield instead of the usual half. That version lacks any jewels, nor does it have any mantling. Two other Western armorials, Codex Bergshammar and Armorial Lycenich from the 1420s–1430s, scaled down the top field.

At the same time in Poland, images of Sulima already had a clear division between two fields. The seals of Władysław from Oporów and bishop of Wrocław demonstrated this design from 1435 to 1441. Similar patterns were also preserved at the castle in Oporów.

The decoration of the reliquary of St. Barbara from the years 1484–1493 has decorative fringes; the emblem is red, and the field is gold.

Subsequent elements of the full coat of arms next to labrów and jewel, appeared on the bell of the Dmosin. Dating back to 1,500 years, the foundation of a family member Oporowski occurred. This is the first presentation of Sulima Labrami and the jewel in Poland. Additionally, the helmet had a crown.

The first performance Sulima with a gold top field comes from the portrait of Peter Gamrat from the years 1541–1545. However, the top field is more like a head. Division two-pole and gold upper field shows while so-called Herbal Arsenalski from about 1535–1555. In addition, the stones are all silver. Although the silver tincture upper field appears in the 16th century, the tincture of gold became present in more coat of arms. Much of the merits of a new compendium of heraldic from 1584—Herby rycerstwa polskiego by Bartosz Paprocki. It shows the image of the coat of arms full, but does not identify the color of stones. In addition, due to an engraver's error, the eagle jewel and emblem is facing to the left, which was later replicated.

This coat of arms is found on several gothic tombstones, among others in Gniezno and Koło, as an architectural detail in several churches and in a castle in Oporów near Kutno, as well as a symbol of the founders of the various ecclesiastical jewels, precious chalices, and books.

The decline of the 14th century had the first written mention of Sulima. In 1397, the name of the family and the coat of arms appeared in court records Łęczyca voivodeship (record de cleynodio Sulima). In that same year, it mensions of a kindred Sulimów in court records Konin. Since then, it was translated in various writings heraldic, sometimes with a terse description of the coat of arms in Latin or Polish, for example, Pol Horla and trzi kamene (1423), eagle with three stones (1568), or three stones s pools eagle v black box (1580).

Sulima was also the first Polish armorial Gem attributed to Jan Długosz during the 1460s. Dlugosz describes the coat of arms without the distribution of the field. It is possible that it was omitted from this description, or based on older depictions.

The earliest mention of proklamie, another name for the coat of arms, comes from 1424.

The black eagle was a symbol of strength and the emblem of the Roman emperors as well as the Germans.

According to legend, given by Leopold von Ledebur progenitor, Sulimitów was added to the coat of arms of three precious stones to show the community of blood with his two brothers, from whom he had to distinguish by name and emblem.

Jan Dlugosz hypothesized, repeated later by other heralds (Paprocki, Bielski, Okolski, Niesiecki), that Sulimczycy were knights migrated from Germany. This would testify about the black eagle, allegedly referring to the heraldry of kings and emperors of the Reich. Niesiecki even gives an example of Prussian family Slomff that in one of the fields, the czterodzielnego coat of arms had half a black eagle and writes about them as relatives to Sulimczyków. Criterion imino clearly shows that the names of the earliest mentioned Sulimitów were purely Polish (e.g. Strzeszko, Budzisław, Wierzchosław).

Some of the common names there are for families of assumed to coat the road adoption. The first (not counting Rodywiła) documented an adopted (year 1506) was a councilor Jan Baytel (Beutel) of Toruń. In 1522, Sulimitą became Stanislaw Vitreator (Glazier - Szklarzewski), while four years later, Fedor Dawiłowicz of Vitsyebsk, children, and brothers—Saul Emanuel and Jerzy Zylajewiczami. They were adopted by Peter and John Służewski Gamrat. With the adoption came a coat of Felix of Trynczy in 1540, and it made the gem varieties (see variant versions aristocratic and alternative representations of the coat of arms). New Sulimitów admitted to the family until the end of the First Republic. Anthony, Christopher, and Valentine Deymów were knighted and given Sulima in 1768, George Trublajewicza a year later, and Melchior, Gaspar, and John Szajowskich (Szajewskich) in 1776.

Several families of foreign origin used Sulima, including Tatar and Armenian.

Stanislaw Dziadulewicz lists Tartar origin family kniaziowską Ułanowiczów (who have come from Jasiek Kazkowicza, an older line of princes Kryczyńskich; name comes from the village Ułanowicze taken in the period 1640–1650 Adam). He mentioned that in 1819, Ignatius Ułanowicz Sulima (who wrote the Ullanowicz and using the nickname "on Solms") filed an application to the Senate of the Polish Kingdom to grant him the title of earl because of his father in various transactions, the official took the title and that was registered even in metric as Count. The Commission of the Senate in 1824 recognized the evidence and awarded it. The Zablocki family name is of Tatar origin, and lists the service Tartars Polish.

Louis Corvinus, of Armenian origin, was supposed to be part of the Jaśkiewiczów family. With this family were to be among others: Jan, court physician of King Stanisław August Poniatowski, Jagiellonian University professor; Joseph, the judge rights of Armenian in Lviv 1765, king's secretary; Gabriel and Francis Xavier, secretaries of the king.

Published in 1855, a book of Russian heraldry Alexander Borisovich varnish "Heraldry Russian". The author cites the names there of the Russian nobility, which took over some of the Polish coat of arms. Among them is Sulima. The paint does not explain how such a takeover occurred. What is certain is that few Polish families settled in Russia. Native Russian families could receive the Polish coats of arms on the principle of assimilation images of their own. Sulima had the varnish to seal the family: Bantysz-Kamienski, Guriew and Sabłukow (of unspecified variety). Herb Sulima, one of the 271 Polish nobility coats of arms, has been absorbed by the Russian heraldry.

Notable bearers

 * Zawisza Czarny
 * Władysław Oporowski
 * Igor Stravinsky
 * Piotr Gamrat
 * Popiel family
 * Sułkowski family
 * Radomski family
 * Felix Dzerzhinsky

title: Sulima (coat of arms)


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North Carolina State Board of Education

The North Carolina State Board of Education, established by Article 9 of the Constitution of North Carolina, supervises and administers the public school systems of North Carolina. The board sets policy and general procedures for public school systems across the state, including teacher pay and qualifications, course content, testing requirements, and manages state education funds.

The North Carolina State Board of Education consists of the Lieutenant Governor, State Treasurer, and 11 members appointed by the Governor and confirmed by the General Assembly for eight-year terms (three at-large, eight from designated educational districts across the state). The North Carolina Superintendent of Public Instruction serves as the board's secretary. In 2009, Gov. Beverly Perdue asked the board "to redefine the duties of its chair to include the responsibilities of the newly created Chief Executive Officer, who will manage operations of the public school system." Superintendent June Atkinson sued the governor and the judge ruled that the superintendent had the constitutional authority to run the system.

History
In 1868 North Carolina ratified a constitution which provided for a system of public schools to be led by a Superintendent of Public Instruction and a State Board of Education. Under this framework, the board comprised the governor, lieutenant governor, secretary of state, state treasurer, state auditor, superintendent of public works (an office eliminated in 1873), attorney general, and the superintendent of public instruction. It was tasked by the constitution to "make all needful rules and regulations in relation to Free Public Schools and the Educational Fund of the State." In 1901 the legislature created an equalizing fund to subsidize education expenses in counties with fewer resources. The board was responsible for the fund until the duty of administering it was transferred to a new commission in 1927.

In 1943 the North Carolina General Assembly amended the constitution to modify the board's membership to comprise the governor, lieutenant governor, state treasurer, superintendent, and a delegate from each of the state's congressional districts. From 1943 to 1954, by informal arrangement, the lieutenant governor served as the board's chairman. The new constitution of 1971 established that the board was to "supervise and administer a free public school system and the educational funds provided for its support [...] and shall make all needed rules and regulations in relation, thereto". The document further revised the board's membership to consist of the lieutenant governor, state treasurer, and 11 gubernatorial appointees (one from each of the state's eight education districts and three others). The superintendent was removed from the board and made its chief administrator and secretary.

Current members
Below is a table of the current board members.

The Secretary to the State Board
Catherine Truitt (Superintendent of Public Instruction since 2021)

Notable former members

 * Bill Cobey (2013–2018)
 * Phil Kirk (1997–2003)
 * Howard Nathaniel Lee (2003-2009)
 * Dennis A. Wicker
 * Patricia Willoughby (2001-2019)

title: North Carolina State Board of Education


text:
Talk:Bob cut

Bob as in bob
Please dear English friends. I sit in Gothenburg and has just started to write on Swedish Wikipedia. I have heard that the word bob in bob cut is from the bob you use to fish small fish in lakes. You know, it could be a cork but usually it is painted red at the top and white at the bottom, sits mid on the fishing line and lays on the water. It is drawn by the fish under the water when that fish bites. My sours tell me that the haircut was named after the look as a fishing bob the guys got when cut there hair like this, Is this right?

I don't mean to trouble the author but I should inform you that this article has been vandalized by User:203.166.96.235. 209.213.71.78 21:05, 18 Feb 2005 (UTC)

Wrong picture
The photo used to illustrate this article does not show a woman with bobbed hair but, rather, a hairstyle that was popular during the same period, where the hair was pinned up to resemble a bob for women who wanted to look fashionable without cutting their hair. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 24.18.231.55 (talk • contribs)

 * I'll put in a picture of Louise Brooks instead. Daniel Case 15:42, 2 May 2007 (UTC)

 * I've removed the inaccurate photo. For anyone who doesn't know what a bob cut looks like: http://images.google.com/images?hl=en&ie=ISO-8859-1&q=bob+cut&btnG=Search+Images&gbv=2. By the way, the text of the article is pretty inaccurate too. Could use a complete re-write. Softlavender (talk) 06:17, 26 June 2008 (UTC)

 * This article is kind of confusing. There should be a photo of what the bob cut originally looked like and maybe some examples of the so called "variations". Also, why is it even called a bob cut? 207.179.152.149 (talk) 19:16, 26 June 2008 (UTC)

 * The link on the Louise Brooks picture seems to have broken. I have substituted the photo from the Louise Brooks article even though it doesn't show much of her hair.  If anyone finds a better picture, feel free to substitute. –Shoaler (talk) 19:17, 3 September 2008 (UTC)

 * The picture accompanying the article is a brilliant illustration of how some women kept their hair long but pinned it up to achieve the right "short-hair" head profile. But as someone else pointed out, it's not a bob cut.  Can the caption be changed? RLamb (talk) 08:24, 22 November 2009 (UTC)

 * I honestly don't think that either picture that's added to this article shows a bob cut at all. I see two women wearing hats that hide most of their hair. While they're good to show that some women of a certain era wore their hair short, they don't serve to demonstrate the bob cut. There needs to be pictures of women with their hats off with actual bob cuts. Rubberpuphfx (talk) 11:07, 13 May 2012 (UTC)
 * Well those two photos illustrate the history section. It's trying to show how women's hair fashion could have evolved from full-length Victorian locks to the bob cut. Obviously for such a radical change to occur, there had to be some intermediary stage.  Women like Polaire defied convention and began to chop their hair short way back in the 1890s.  She doesn't have what I would think of as a bob cut, but she clearly pioneered short hair for stylish women (and showed it off on her 1910 US tour).  She's part of the history of short hairstyles and so of the bob cut.RLamb (talk) 20:20, 13 May 2012 (UTC)

POV
The part that talks about Rihanna's bob described her song Umbrella as an "international smash hit". While the song certainly was a hit, "international smash hit" is peacock wording and sounds more like an opinion than a fact; perhaps it would be better to just write it as "international hit", without the "smash" part. Also, I don't think too many people are aware that her inspiration for her bob was Aeon Flux, that needs cited with a source. --Crackthewhip775 (talk) 23:27, 28 August 2008 (UTC)

Image copyright problem with File:Louise Brooks in Pandora's Box.jpg
The image File:Louise Brooks in Pandora's Box.jpg is used in this article under a claim of fair use, but it does not have an adequate explanation for why it meets the requirements for such images when used here. In particular, for each page the image is used on, it must have an explanation linking to that page which explains why it needs to be used on that page. Please check

 * That there is a non-free use rationale on the image's description page for the use in this article.
 * That this article is linked to from the image description page.

This is an automated notice by FairuseBot. For assistance on the image use policy, see Media copyright questions. --00:19, 6 January 2009 (UTC)

Louise Brooks
I think the article should give more prominenece to Louise Brooks. Although Coleen Moore was the first film star to be associated with the bob, it was Brooks who give it (as herself) iconic status: see, for example, the biography of her by Barry Paris. LymeRegis (talk) 09:39, 23 October 2009 (UTC)

Pictures
Both pictures show women wearing hats over the bob cut, and neither clearly depicts the hairstyle AldezD (talk) 20:02, 26 June 2013 (UTC)

Origin of the word 'bob'
Please add text and references regarding the origin of the word or term 'bob'/'bobbed' cut. Was it invented by a hairdresser named Bob, or from where did it origin? -- Katana (talk) 16:48, 1 August 2013 (UTC)
 * I believe it derives from ME 'bob' meaning a bunch or cluster (ODE), later anythng shortened, e.g. a bob tail, but I don't have a source that I feel good about… --D Anthony Patriarche, BSc (talk) 04:15, 30 May 2020 (UTC)

Request merge
Hi Lob and dice bob are variants of bob. --Panam2014 (talk) 09:40, 17 October 2016 (UTC) opinion ? --Panam2014 (talk) 21:12, 3 November 2016 (UTC)

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title: Talk:Bob cut


text:
Talk:Plautia Urgulanilla

Untitled
Where does all this genealogy come from? Wetman 16:29, 13 Oct 2004 (UTC)

I think it comes from I, Claudius Kuralyov 01:36, 25 Nov 2004 (UTC)

 * Most of it comes from Tacitus. I, Claudius based a lot of its infomation on Tacitus, Suetonius and Dio.--Sophie-Lou 16:43, 29 April 2006 (UTC)

According to Etruscan language, she was ethnic Etruscan. Is that true? if so, it should be noted here, too. —Preceding unsigned comment added by Mountolive (talk • contribs) 22:26, 25 February 2008 (UTC)

Giantess…?
In I, Claudius, Graves makes a lot of her being very ugly, of huge size, with massive hands and feet - it is noted her name is the feminine form of Hercules, and suggested that her size and strength allowed her to pick up, carry and throw through a window her sister-in-law. Is there any historic basis for this depiction, or was it a fiction for the book, perhaps drawn from her name? Was she perhaps a sufferer of acromegaly/ Whatever, as Graves’s book is probably the way in which most people are introduced to her, it would seem that some indication one way or the other would be helpful. Jock123 (talk) 08:43, 25 July 2012 (UTC)

title: Talk:Plautia Urgulanilla


text:
Michael Walker (economist)

Michael Angus Walker (born 1945, in Corner Brook, Newfoundland) is a Canadian economist. He is best known as the founder of the Fraser Institute. He is a journalist, broadcaster and consultant.

Biography
Walker earned a BA from St. Francis Xavier University, and went on to earn a Ph.D. from the University of Western Ontario. He worked at the Bank of Canada and the Department of Finance Canada. He then taught at the University of Western Ontario and Carleton University. Under his leadership, a series of conferences were started in the mid-1980s to measure economic freedom and rank countries accordingly.

A prominent spokesman in the media for free market causes, he founded the Fraser Institute in 1974. He was its executive director until 2005, and remains a Senior Fellow. He considers himself a libertarian. In 2010 he received an honorary doctorate degree from Universidad Francisco Marroquín.

title: Michael Walker (economist)


text: User talk:83.235.250.66

title: User talk:83.235.250.66


text:
Bose gas

An ideal Bose gas is a quantum-mechanical phase of matter, analogous to a classical ideal gas. It is composed of bosons, which have an integer value of spin and abide by Bose–Einstein statistics. The statistical mechanics of bosons were developed by Satyendra Nath Bose for a photon gas and extended to massive particles by Albert Einstein, who realized that an ideal gas of bosons would form a condensate at a low enough temperature, unlike a classical ideal gas. This condensate is known as a Bose–Einstein condensate.

Introduction and examples
Bosons are quantum mechanical particles that follow Bose–Einstein statistics, or equivalently, that possess integer spin. These particles can be classified as elementary: these are the Higgs boson, the photon, the gluon, the W/Z and the hypothetical graviton; or composite like the atom of hydrogen, the atom of 16O, the nucleus of deuterium, mesons etc. Additionally, some quasiparticles in more complex systems can also be considered bosons like the plasmons (quanta of charge density waves).

The first model that treated a gas with several bosons, was the photon gas, a gas of photons, developed by Bose. This model leads to a better understanding of Planck's law and the black-body radiation. The photon gas can be easily expanded to any kind of ensemble of massless non-interacting bosons. The phonon gas, also known as Debye model, is an example where the normal modes of vibration of the crystal lattice of a metal, can be treated as effective massless bosons. Peter Debye used the phonon gas model to explain the behaviour of heat capacity of metals at low temperature.

An interesting example of a Bose gas is an ensemble of helium-4 atoms. When a system of 4He atoms is cooled down to temperature near absolute zero, many quantum mechanical effects are present. Below 2.17 K, the ensemble starts to behave as a superfluid, a fluid with almost zero viscosity. The Bose gas is the most simple quantitative model that explains this phase transition. Mainly when a gas of bosons is cooled down, it forms a Bose–Einstein condensate, a state where a large number of bosons occupy the lowest energy, the ground state, and quantum effects are macroscopically visible like wave interference.

The theory of Bose-Einstein condensates and Bose gases can also explain some features of superconductivity where charge carriers couple in pairs (Cooper pairs) and behave like bosons. As a result, superconductors behave like having no electrical resistivity at low temperatures.

The equivalent model for half-integer particles (like electrons or helium-3 atoms), that follow Fermi–Dirac statistics, is called the Fermi gas (an ensemble of non-interacting fermions). At low enough particle number density and high temperature, both the Fermi gas and the Bose gas behave like a classical ideal gas.

Macroscopic limit
The thermodynamics of an ideal Bose gas is best calculated using the grand canonical ensemble. The grand potential for a Bose gas is given by:
 * $$\Omega=-\ln(\mathcal{Z}) = \sum_i g_i \ln\left(1-ze^{-\beta\epsilon_i}\right).$$

where each term in the sum corresponds to a particular single-particle energy level εi; gi is the number of states with energy εi; z is the absolute activity (or "fugacity"), which may also be expressed in terms of the chemical potential μ by defining:
 * $$z(\beta,\mu)= e^{\beta \mu}$$

and β defined as:
 * $$\beta = \frac{1}{k_{\rm B}T}$$

where kB is the Boltzmann constant and T is the temperature. All thermodynamic quantities may be derived from the grand potential and we will consider all thermodynamic quantities to be functions of only the three variables z, β (or T), and V. All partial derivatives are taken with respect to one of these three variables while the other two are held constant.

The permissible range of z is from negative infinity to +1, as any value beyond this would give an infinite number of particles to states with an energy level of 0 (it is assumed that the energy levels have been offset so that the lowest energy level is 0).

Macroscopic limit, result for uncondensed fraction

Following the procedure described in the gas in a box article, we can apply the Thomas–Fermi approximation, which assumes that the average energy is large compared to the energy difference between levels so that the above sum may be replaced by an integral. This replacement gives the macroscopic grand potential function $$\Omega_m$$, which is close to $$\Omega$$:
 * $$\Omega_{\rm m} = \int_0^\infty \ln\left(1-ze^{-\beta E}\right)\,dg \approx \Omega.$$

The degeneracy dg may be expressed for many different situations by the general formula:
 * $$dg = \frac{1}{\Gamma(\alpha)}\,\frac{E^{\,\alpha-1}}{ E_{\rm c}^{\alpha}} ~dE$$

where α is a constant, Ec is a critical energy, and Γ is the gamma function. For example, for a massive Bose gas in a box, α = 3/2 and the critical energy is given by:
 * $$\frac{1}{(\beta E_{\rm c})^\alpha}=\frac{Vf}{\Lambda^3}$$

where Λ is the thermal wavelength, and f is a degeneracy factor (f = 1 for simple spinless bosons). For a massive Bose gas in a harmonic trap we will have α = 3 and the critical energy is given by:
 * $$\frac{1}{(\beta E_c)^\alpha}=\frac{f}{(\hbar\omega\beta)^3}$$

where V(r) = mω2r2/2 is the harmonic potential. It is seen that Ec is a function of volume only.

This integral expression for the grand potential evaluates to:
 * $$\Omega_{\rm m} = -\frac{\textrm{Li}_{\alpha+1}(z)}{\left(\beta E_\text{c}\right)^\alpha},$$

where Lis(x) is the polylogarithm function.

The problem with this continuum approximation for a Bose gas is that the ground state has been effectively ignored, giving a degeneracy of zero for zero energy. This inaccuracy becomes serious when dealing with the Bose–Einstein condensate and will be dealt with in the next sections. As will be seen, even at low temperatures the above result is still useful for accurately describing the thermodynamics of just the uncondensed portion of the gas.

Limit on number of particles in uncondensed phase, critical temperature
The total number of particles is found from the grand potential by
 * $$N_{\rm m} = -z\frac{\partial\Omega_m}{\partial z} = \frac{\textrm{Li}_\alpha(z)}{(\beta E_c)^\alpha}.$$

This increases monotonically with z (up to the maximum z = +1). The behaviour when approaching z = 1 is however crucially dependent on the value of α (i.e., dependent on whether the gas is 1D, 2D, 3D, whether it is in a flat or harmonic potential well).

For α > 1, the number of particles only increases up to a finite maximum value, i.e., Nm is finite at z = 1:
 * $$N_{\rm m, max} = \frac{\zeta(\alpha)}{(\beta E_{\rm c})^\alpha},$$

where ζ(α) is the Riemann zeta function (using Liα(1) = ζ(α)). Thus, for a fixed number of particles Nm, the largest possible value that β can have is a critical value βc. This corresponds to a critical temperature Tc = 1/kBβc, below which the Thomas–Fermi approximation breaks down (the continuum of states simply can no longer support this many particles, at lower temperatures). The above equation can be solved for the critical temperature:
 * $$T_{\rm c}=\left(\frac{N}{\zeta(\alpha)}\right)^{1/\alpha}\frac{E_{\rm c}}{k_{\rm B}}$$

For example, for the three-dimensional Bose gas in a box ($$\alpha=3/2$$ and using the above noted value of Ec) we get:
 * $$T_{\rm c}=\left(\frac{N}{Vf\zeta(3/2)}\right)^{2/3}\frac{h^2}{2\pi m k_{\rm B}}$$

For α ≤ 1, there is no upper limit on the number of particles (Nm diverges as z approaches 1), and thus for example for a gas in a one- or two-dimensional box (α = 1/2 and α = 1 respectively) there is no critical temperature.

Inclusion of the ground state
The above problem raises the question for α > 1: if a Bose gas with a fixed number of particles is lowered down below the critical temperature, what happens? The problem here is that the Thomas–Fermi approximation has set the degeneracy of the ground state to zero, which is wrong. There is no ground state to accept the condensate and so particles simply 'disappear' from the continuum of states. It turns out, however, that the macroscopic equation gives an accurate estimate of the number of particles in the excited states, and it is not a bad approximation to simply "tack on" a ground state term to accept the particles that fall out of the continuum:
 * $$N = N_0+ N_{\rm m} = N_0 + \frac{\textrm{Li}_\alpha(z)}{(\beta E_{\rm c})^\alpha}$$

where N0 is the number of particles in the ground state condensate.

Thus in the macroscopic limit, when T < Tc, the value of z is pinned to 1 and N0 takes up the remainder of particles. For T > Tc there is the normal behaviour, with N0 = 0. This approach gives the fraction of condensed particles in the macroscopic limit:
 * $$\frac{N_0}{N} =

\begin{cases} 1 - \left(\frac{T}{T_{\rm c}}\right)^\alpha &\mbox{if } \alpha > 1 \mbox{ and } T < T_{\rm c}, \\ 0 & \mbox{otherwise}. \end{cases} $$

Limitations of the macroscopic Bose gas model
The above standard treatment of a macroscopic Bose gas is straightforward, but the inclusion of the ground state is somewhat inelegant. Another approach is to include the ground state explicitly (contributing a term in the grand potential, as in the section below), this gives rise to an unrealistic fluctuation catastrophe: the number of particles in any given state follow a geometric distribution, meaning that when condensation happens at T < Tc and most particles are in one state, there is a huge uncertainty in the total number of particles. This is related to the fact that the compressibility becomes unbounded for T < Tc. Calculations can instead be performed in the canonical ensemble, which fixes the total particle number, however the calculations are not as easy.

Practically however, the aforementioned theoretical flaw is a minor issue, as the most unrealistic assumption is that of non-interaction between bosons. Experimental realizations of boson gases always have significant interactions, i.e., they are non-ideal gases. The interactions significantly change the physics of how a condensate of bosons behaves: the ground state spreads out, the chemical potential saturates to a positive value even at zero temperature, and the fluctuation problem disappears (the compressibility becomes finite). See the article Bose–Einstein condensate.

Approximate behaviour in small gases

For smaller, mesoscopic, systems (for example, with only thousands of particles), the ground state term can be more explicitly approximated by adding in an actual discrete level at energy ε=0 in the grand potential:
 * $$\Omega = g_0\ln(1-z) + \Omega_{\rm m}$$

which gives instead N0 = $10,000$. Now, the behaviour is smooth when crossing the critical temperature, and z approaches 1 very closely but does not reach it.

This can now be solved down to absolute zero in temperature. Figure 1 shows the results of the solution to this equation for α = 3/2, with k = εc = 1, which corresponds to a gas of bosons in a box. The solid black line is the fraction of excited states 1 − N0/N for N = $g_{0}z⁄1 − z$ and the dotted black line is the solution for N = 1000. The blue lines are the fraction of condensed particles N0/N. The red lines plot values of the negative of the chemical potential μ and the green lines plot the corresponding values of z. The horizontal axis is the normalized temperature τ defined by
 * $$\tau=\frac{T}{T_{\rm c}}$$

It can be seen that each of these parameters become linear in τα in the limit of low temperature and, except for the chemical potential, linear in 1/τα in the limit of high temperature. As the number of particles increases, the condensed and excited fractions tend towards a discontinuity at the critical temperature.

The equation for the number of particles can be written in terms of the normalized temperature as:
 * $$N = \frac{g_0\,z}{1-z}+N~\frac{\textrm{Li}_\alpha(z)}{\zeta(\alpha)}~\tau^\alpha$$

For a given N and τ, this equation can be solved for τα and then a series solution for z can be found by the method of inversion of series, either in powers of τα or as an asymptotic expansion in inverse powers of τα. From these expansions, we can find the behavior of the gas near T = 0 and in the Maxwell–Boltzmann as T approaches infinity. In particular, we are interested in the limit as N approaches infinity, which can be easily determined from these expansions.

This approach to modelling small systems may in fact be unrealistic, however, since the variance in the number of particles in the ground state is very large, equal to the number of particles. In contrast, the variance of particle number in a normal gas is only the square-root of the particle number, which is why it can normally be ignored. This high variance is due to the choice of using the grand canonical ensemble for the entire system, including the condensate state.

Thermodynamics
Expanded out, the grand potential is:
 * $$\Omega = g_0\ln(1-z)-\frac{\textrm{Li}_{\alpha+1}(z)}{\left(\beta E_{\rm c}\right)^\alpha}$$

All thermodynamic properties can be computed from this potential. The following table lists various thermodynamic quantities calculated in the limit of low temperature and high temperature, and in the limit of infinite particle number. An equal sign (=) indicates an exact result, while an approximation symbol indicates that only the first few terms of a series in $$\tau^\alpha$$ is shown.

It is seen that all quantities approach the values for a classical ideal gas in the limit of large temperature. The above values can be used to calculate other thermodynamic quantities. For example, the relationship between internal energy and the product of pressure and volume is the same as that for a classical ideal gas over all temperatures:
 * $$U=\frac{\partial \Omega}{\partial \beta}=\alpha PV$$

A similar situation holds for the specific heat at constant volume
 * $$C_V=\frac{\partial U}{\partial T}=k_{\rm B}(\alpha+1)\,U\beta$$

The entropy is given by:
 * $$TS=U+PV-G\,$$

Note that in the limit of high temperature, we have
 * $$TS=(\alpha+1)+\ln\left(\frac{\tau^\alpha}{\zeta(\alpha)}\right)$$

which, for α = 3/2 is simply a restatement of the Sackur–Tetrode equation. In one dimension bosons with delta interaction behave as fermions, they obey Pauli exclusion principle. In one dimension Bose gas with delta interaction can be solved exactly by Bethe ansatz. The bulk free energy and thermodynamic potentials were calculated by Chen-Ning Yang. In one dimensional case correlation functions also were evaluated. In one dimension Bose gas is equivalent to quantum non-linear Schrödinger equation.

title: Bose gas


text: Template:Physics-stub

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Fir Domnann

The Fir Domnann were a people named in Irish legendary history.

The name Fir Domnann is based on the root dumno-, which means both 'deep' and 'the world'. The suffix -on- often occurs in Gaulish and British divine names. The tribal name Dumnonii, found in Britain, would therefore mean 'people of the god of the world'. Old Irish fir means 'men', and so Fir Domnann had the same meaning as the British tribal name, leading to conjecture that these tribes had a common origin. For example, O'Rahilly's historical model proposed that the Domnann were a P-Celtic, pre-Goidelic people who, along with the Galeóin, invaded the south-east coast of Ireland from Britain. O'Rahilly's theory of P-Celtic preceding Goidelic in Ireland is not widely accepted by experts today, but the idea of some connection between the British and Irish tribes of the same name remains.

In early Irish literature, the Fir Domnann were located in Cóice Laigean (Leinster). A probably 7th-century Irish poem credits their ruler, Mess-Telmann, with the over-kingship of the province and with wielding power from the royal site of Leinster at Dún Áilinne. The place-name Inber Domnann, now Malahide Bay inlet in north County Dublin on the east coast of Ireland, preserves the tribal name. Yet the area with the strongest placename associations with the Fir Domnann is in north-west Mayo: the Iorrais Domnann, from which the historical barony of Erris takes its name, and the nearby Mag Domnann and Dún Domnann.

title: Fir Domnann


text:
Turncoat

A turncoat is a person who shifts allegiance from one loyalty or ideal to another, betraying or deserting an original cause by switching to the opposing side or party. In political and social history, this is distinct from being a traitor, as the switch mostly takes place under the following circumstances:
 * In groups, often driven by one or more leaders.
 * When the goal that formerly motivated and benefited the person becomes (or is perceived as having become) either no longer feasible or too costly even if success is achieved.

From a military perspective, opposing armies generally wear uniforms of contrasting colors to prevent incidents of friendly fire. Thus the term "turn-coat" indicates that an individual has changed sides and his uniform coat to one matching the color of his former enemy. For example, in the English Civil War during the 17th century, Oliver Cromwell's soldiers turned their coats inside out to match the colors of the Royal army (see Examples below).

Historical context
Even in a modern historical context "turncoat" is often synonymous with the term "renegade", a term of religious origins having its origins in the Latin word "renegare" (to deny). Historical currents of great magnitude have periodically caught masses of people, along with their leaders, in their wake. In such a dire situation, new perspectives on past actions are laid bare and the question of personal treason becomes muddled. One example would be the situation that led to the Act of Abjuration or Plakkaat van Verlatinghe, signed on July 26, 1581, in the Netherlands, an instance where changing sides was given a positive meaning.

The first written use of the term meaning was by J. Foxe in Actes & Monuments in 1570: "One who changes his principles or party; a renegade; an apostate." Cited 1571*

"Turncoat" could also have a more literal origin. According to the Rotuli Chartarum 1199–1216 two barons changed fealty from William Marshal, 1st Earl of Pembroke, to King John. In other words, they turned their coats (of arms) from one lord to another, hence turncoat.

Process
A mass-shift in allegiance by a population may take place during military occupation, after a nation has been defeated in war or after a major social upheaval, such as a revolution. Following the initial traumatic times, many of the citizens of the area in question quickly embrace the cause of the victors to benefit from the new system. This shift of allegiance is often done without much knowledge about the new order that is replacing the former one. In the face of fear and insecurity, the prime motive for a turncoat to draw away from former allegiances may be mere survival.

Often the leaders are the first to change loyalties, for they have had access to privileged information and are more aware of the hopelessness of the situation for their former cause. This is especially apparent in dictatorships and authoritarian states when most of the population has been fed propaganda and triumphalism and has been kept in the dark about important turns of events.

Aftermath
As time goes by, along with the embracing of life under the new circumstances comes a need of burying and rewriting the past by concealing evidence. The fear of the past coming to upset the newly found stability is always present in the mind of the turncoat. The past is rewritten and whitewashed to cover former deeds. When successful, this activity results in the distortion and falsification of historical events.

Even after the death of a turncoat his family and friends may wish to keep uncomfortable secrets from the past out of the light. There is a fear of loss of prestige as well as a wish to honor the memory of a family member from the part of those who have experienced the positive side of the person.

In certain countries, individuals and organizations have actively investigated the past to bring turncoats to justice to face their responsibilities.

Examples
There were many turncoats in history, including:

 * The English Civil War during the 17th century. The siege of Corfe Castle was won by Oliver Cromwell's soldiers when they turned their coats inside out to match the colors of the Royal army.
 * During the revolution of the British American colonies when U.S. Continental Army Major General Benedict Arnold defected to the side of the British in May 1779.
 * Canada during the War of 1812. Some Canadians felt republicanism was a better system of government than the democratic British monarchy and fought on the side of the invading Americans.
 * Germany and Austria after World War II when many former enthusiastic members of the Nazi Party embraced the newly created nations of West Germany or East Germany and sought to erase or at least minimize their former role as Nazis. During the decades that followed, many former Nazis regained prestige and held high posts in the new republics. Kurt Waldheim, an Austrian Nazi, even held the highest post as Secretary-General of the United Nations from 1972 to 1981 and as President of Austria from 1986 to 1992.
 * France after the downfall of the Vichy Regime, when many collaborationists, whether home-grown fascists or Nazi sympathizers, played down their role in the former government and its institutions.
 * Russia and the former Communist Eastern European countries after the fall of the USSR, where many former communists suddenly became fervent supporters of capitalism. As a result, many former apparatchiks abandoned the Communist Party in favor of positions in the new government structures.
 * In Spain after the Spanish Civil War (1936–1939), and again during the Spanish transition to democracy (1975 onwards).

title: Turncoat


text:
Talk:Michael Shermer

First wife and daughter
I don't have time to fully research it, but this article needs to mention Shermer's first wife Kim Ziel Shermer and their daughter Devin. Bhami (talk) Bhami (talk) 03:39, 10 November 2022 (UTC)

 * The basic factual information has been added to the article using an existing source. Cedar777 (talk) 17:08, 12 November 2022 (UTC)

title: Talk:Michael Shermer


text:
Gryf coat of arms

Gryf (Polish for "Griffin"), also known as Jaxa, is a Polish coat of arms that was used by many noble families in medieval Poland and later under the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, branches of the original medieval Gryfita-Świebodzic family as well as families connected with the Clan by adoption at ennoblement or even by error.

Legend
Leszek III, legendary Prince of Poland, 805?, had 14 sons, of whom the oldest was Popiel I his successor to the throne. Leszek assured special parts of the realm to the remaining sons within his lifetime, obligating them by oath not to make the sovereignty of Popiel contentious. This ensured the safety and liberty of the country with a united army.
 * The other sons:
 * Barnim and Bogdal kept the principality of Pomerania.
 * Kazimierz and Władysław, the principality of Kashubia
 * Vratislav, the island Rügen, with Przybysław.
 * Cieszymierz and Otto, the Lusatia (Łużyce),
 * Ziemowit and Zemornyst, the land of Brandenburg (Brenna & Stodorania).
 * Jaxa with another brother, the Meissen county (Miśnia), in Lusatia (Łużyce)

All these sons united under one war flag given by Leszek. The Lechites originally had a young lion on its war flag, then around 550, the white eagle appeared as a realm flag. The combination of both animal pictures into one figure has developed. Hence a lion's body and an eagle's head, which appears on and above the Gryf shield.

Notable bearers
Notable bearers of this coat of arms have included:

 * Gryfici (Świebodzice)
 * Jaksa Gryfita
 * Andrzej Gryfita
 * House of Branicki
 * Jan Klemens Branicki
 * Jan Klemens Branicki, Marshall of the Crown Tribunal
 * Stefan Mikołaj Branicki, Voivode of Podlasie
 * Grzegorz Branicki
 * Anna Branicka
 * House of Mielecki
 * Mikołaj Mielecki
 * Zofia Mielecka
 * Kazimierz Małachowski
 * Janisław I Ossowski, Archbishop of Gniezno and Primate of Poland
 * Józef Leśniewski, general
 * Abraham z Jaxów Chamiec, first known owner of Międzyrzec Podlaski
 * Bogdan Jaksa-Ronikier, writer and publicist
 * Aleksander Krzysztof Chodkiewicz, Bishop of Kieś and Canon of Wilno
 * Zygmunt Rożen, knight
 * Mateusz Michał Bąkowski, Stolnik of Halicz
 * Szymon Konarski, heraldist
 * House of Otwinowski
 * Erazm Otwinowski poet and Socinian activist
 * Franciszek Jaxa Otwinowski, member of the Sejm
 * August Otwinowski, Burgrave of Kraków

Related coat of arms

 * Chodkiewicz Coat of Arms
 * Coat of arms of Latvia
 * Coat of arms of Ainaži

title: Gryf coat of arms


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Parc Astérix

Parc Astérix is a theme park in France based on the comic book series Asterix by Albert Uderzo and René Goscinny. In 2023, the park welcomed over 2.8 million visitors, making it the 2nd most visited park in France behind Disneyland Paris and the 8th most visited park in Europe.

It is especially renowned in France for its large variety of roller coasters, which exceeds the amount of most other parks in mainland France. Park Astérix has begun incorporating rides and themes from historic cultures like the Gauls, the Romans, Ancient Greece and recently Ancient Egypt, but always in the visual style of the related comic books, and most usually reusing characters, scenes and sounds from the Astérix media. The park is located approximately 35 km north of Paris, 32 km from Disneyland Paris and 20 km from the historic Château de Chantilly, in the commune of Plailly, in the department of Oise. Opened in 1989, the park is operated by Compagnie des Alpes and located right by the A1 motorway (Paris ↔ Lille ↔ Brussels), having its own highway exit and interchange.

Conception and inauguration
Largely funded by the Barclays financial company, with 20 other investors including Compagnie Générale des Eaux, the Havas group, Union des Assurances de Paris and the Picardy region, the park cost 850 million French francs to build and generated 1,200 jobs. The location was chosen due to the transport network: a private interchange connects it with the nearby A1 autoroute and a bus shuttle service connects it with Paris Métro Line 7 at La Courneuve's 8 Mai 1945 station. Jack Lang, then Minister of Culture, inaugurated the park on 30 April 1989 after two years of work.

The opening of Disneyland Paris in 1992 caused Parc Astérix's attendance to fall 30% and its revenue by 19%. However, attendance soon stabilised to around 2 million visitors per year.

Recent developments
In October 2005, Parc Astérix ran La Fête des Druides ("The Festival of the Druids"), as a way of "thumbing their noses" at Halloween. Season 2007 saw the Parc Astérix opening for the first time during the Christmas holidays. In 2009, for the park's 20th anniversary, it opened during the weekends in September and October and ran a Halloween event called Peur sur le Parc Astérix ("Fear at Parc Astérix"). In May 2018, the park's then Head of Construction, Thomas Dubosc, announced on television the construction of Toutatis, a new multi-launch roller coaster manufactured by Intamin, scheduled to be opened in 2021 yet only opened for season 2023 due to COVID-19 and woodcutting delays. In January 2021, the park announced it was closing its dolphin and sea lion enclosure, the Delphinarium, in order to focus on rides and other shows.

Attractions
The park features many attractions and shows including:

 * Tonnerre 2 Zeus, a large wooden roller coaster built by Custom Coasters International (1997);
 * Goudurix, a large steel multi-looping coaster, built by Vekoma (1989);
 * Trace du Hourra, a 900-metre large bobsled roller coaster with an 80 km/h top speed (2001);
 * Romus et Rapidus, a scenic river rapids ride (1989);
 * Oziris, an inverted roller coaster, built by Bolliger & Mabillard (2012);
 * Attention Menhir, a 4D cinema show (2019);
 * L'Oxygénarium, a large twisting water slide with round inflatable dinghies (1999);
 * La Galère, a swinging ship ride (1989);
 * Menhir Express, a Menhir-themed log flume ride with a 13-metre final drop (1995);
 * Grand Splatch, a large capacity Shoot the Chute articulated around the park's feature rock statue(1989);
 * Le Défi de César, a Madhouse ride (2008);
 * Le Delphinarium, one of the largest dolphin enclosures in Europe;
 * Pégase Express, a launched steel roller coaster that reverses the ride direction after a pause halfway through the ride, built by Gerstlauer (2017).
 * Toutatis, a launched steel roller coaster with a similar ride direction reversal halfway through (2023), current holder of the "Tallest and fastest roller coaster in France" record, and manufactured by Intamin.

Management and Personnel
The park scheduled recruiting around 2,000 people for the 2023 season, which is a record number compared to previous years.

Attendance
In 2023, Parc Astérix achieved a record yearly attendance of over 2.8 million visitors, the season was marked by the opening of the new roller-coaster Toutatis.

Incidents

 * In July 2004, an 11-year-old boy was hit by lightning at the foot of the Trace du Hourra bobsleigh, despite 3 lightning rods located less than 20m from him. The park had continued operating despite weather warnings.
 * On 5 July 2006, a 6-year-old Belgian child drowned on the Descente du Styx river rapids ride, sucked in by the water pumps used to create the flow in the bottom of the ride's canal. The ride underwent various security measures; it was renamed to Romus et Rapidus in order to cast off the bad memory and unfortunate implications of the tragic accident. In Greek and Roman mythologies, the Styx is the river of the Underworld that has to be crossed by the dead.

title: Parc Astérix


text:
Wikipedia:Articles for deletion/2000 Leading Intellectuals of the 20th Century

2000 Leading Intellectuals of the 20th Century
Not notable. About 90% of Google hits are copies from Wikipedia. Seems to serve only as a vanity item for David Nolan. Gzornenplatz 16:38, Oct 13, 2004 (UTC)

 * Delete. How can we expand this? It's not important at all. Ashibaka ✎ 18:34, 13 Oct 2004 (UTC)
 * Delete: It's an ad. Geogre 18:57, 13 Oct 2004 (UTC)
 * Delete. It's a book. Wikipedia is not a list of non-notable books. --Ianb 18:58, 13 Oct 2004 (UTC)
 * Definitely Delete RadicalSubversiv E 19:25, 13 Oct 2004 (UTC)
 * Delete unless the article can give us some notability. RickK 21:46, Oct 13, 2004 (UTC)
 * Delete. Obvious advertising. The publisher's site's "flagship" title, "Dictionary of International Biography" costs $245 and has an Amazon sales rank of 2,715,889. Although the publisher of that volume is listed as "Melrose Press," not "International Biographical Centre." (OK, turns out they're the same... ). Anyway, I'm sure this is one of these deals where there is a flagship volume that actually is purchased by a) libraries and b) people listed therein, and scores of subsidiary, narrower volumes which are purchased only by b) the people listed therein.  One giveaway is that their site invites you to "submit your biography." Another giveaway as to the nature of the International Biographical Centre is their description of another of their tomes, below. [[User:Dpbsmith|Dpbsmith (talk)]] 19:30, 14 Oct 2004 (UTC)
 * One Thousand Great Americans Not only is the USA known for its power and strength but perhaps more importantly for its compassion, its generosity and its tolerance throughout the world... This book reflects those ties and presents the extraordinary and limitless talent that is so abundant in the United States of America.
 * P. S. Take a look at the biographies listed in their [Hall of Fame]. [[User:Dpbsmith|Dpbsmith (talk)]] 19:34, 14 Oct 2004 (UTC)

 * Delete, non-notable. Gazpacho 03:58, 15 Oct 2004 (UTC)


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Ashley Force Hood

Ashley Corinne Force Hood (born November 29, 1982) is a former NHRA Funny Car drag racer for John Force Racing. She is the daughter of 16-time NHRA Top Fuel Funny Car national champion John Force and Laurie Force. She is married to Daniel Hood, who works for John Force Racing. She was on hiatus from racing in 2011 as the couple expected their first child. Since their child's birth, Force Hood has announced her retirement from competitive racing.

Force was selected as the NHRA POWERade Drag Racing Series' Rookie of the Year (Funny Car division) in November 2007. On April 27, 2008, Force earned her first NHRA Professional-category win, defeating her father in the final round at the NHRA Summit Southern Nationals held at the Atlanta Dragway in Commerce, Georgia, becoming the first woman to earn a win in TF/FC.

Drag racing career
As a Top Alcohol Dragster rookie in 2004, she won three of the season's final five races, including the 50th annual Mac Tools U.S. Nationals at Indianapolis, and the season-ending Automobile Club of Southern California event at Pomona, where she shared the winners' circle with her father—NHRA's first father-daughter winners. She finished the year fourth in national driver points.

2007
In 2007, Force moved into the Professional ranks, driving a Castrol-sponsored Mustang Top Fuel Funny Car for her father's team, John Force Racing.

Force and her father made NHRA history in Atlanta in April when they became the first father and daughter to race each other. She won the round with an elapsed time of 4.779 seconds, and a top speed of 317.05 mph. She advanced to the semifinals, which tied her for the best ever Funny Car event finish for a female.

In October 2007, at The Strip at Las Vegas Motor Speedway, she became the first female to compete in a national series TF/FC final round, but was defeated on a holeshot by Tony Pedregon.

2008
Early in the 2008 racing season, Force worked her way to the final round of eliminations in three consecutive meetings: Houston, Las Vegas, and Atlanta. She made her first final round appearance of the year on March 30 at Houston, but lost to Del Worsham. At Las Vegas, she was defeated in the final by Tim Wilkerson, yet became the first female racer ever to lead the NHRA Funny Car point standings. On April 27, 2008, at Atlanta, Force's opponent in the final was her father, John, who was seeking to score the 1000th round win of his career. The younger Force claimed her first-ever NHRA Funny Car win that day, the first for a woman, with a 4.837-second elapsed time, the second quickest of the weekend in the Funny Car class.

2009
Force garnered the second event win of her career on March 29, 2009 at the O'Reilly NHRA Spring Nationals; in the finals she beat her former instructor Jack Beckman.

Beckman beat Force in the first round of eliminations at the next race at Las Vegas. She then gathered her fourth career #1 qualifier at the Southern Nationals, in which Beckman beating Force in the final. Force compiled her fifth career #1 qualifier at the Thunder Valley Nationals

At the U.S. Nationals, Force beat teammate Robert Hight to earn her the distinction of not only being the first female Funny Car driver to win at Indianapolis, but the first female driver to win in two different classes. She finished the 2009 season 2nd in points, becoming the highest women finisher in Funny Car history.

2011
On January 25, during a John Force Racing press conference, it was announced Force Hood would become the President of John Force Entertainment, a subsidiary of John Force Racing which will focus on development of media projects and products. At the same press conference, Force-Hood announced she and her husband were expecting their first child in August, and she would be on hiatus for the season. John Force will drive her Castrol GTX Ford in competitions for the 2011 season. Mike Neff, a former driver who assumed the duties of Force's crew chief following the sudden departure of veteran crew chief Austin Coil, will take over driving the Castrol GTX High Mileage Ford for Force, while sister Courtney became a fourth driver in the Traxxas Ford Mustang.

2012
On January 28, Force Hood assumed the title of President for John Force Entertainment, but has not declared her career as a driver over

2014
Force Hood did test driving for John Force Racing, driving her sister Courtney's Funny Car in a testing session at Las Vegas Motor Speedway. The testing allowed her to renew her NHRA Funny Car licence, which expired at the end of the 2012 season. Her renewal of the Funny Car license allows her to test or be a reserve driver if the necessity arrives.

Television
Force was featured with her family on A&E's reality show Driving Force.

Personal life
She has two sisters, Courtney and Brittany, and an older half-sister, Adria. On December 13, 2008, Ashley married the parts manager of the Castrol GTX Funny Car team, Daniel Hood, in Lake Tahoe and now goes by Ashley Force Hood. On August 18, 2011, Force and Hood had their first son, Jacob John Hood.

Force attended Esperanza High School in Anaheim, CA, where she was a cheerleader. In 2003, Force graduated from California State University, Fullerton (CSUF) with a B.A. in communications with an emphasis in television and video. In 2007, she was voted as the Hottest Athlete by an AOL Sports Poll, beating out favorites Tom Brady and Danica Patrick.

Force Hood and her husband are owners of two American Bobtail cats, Simba and Gizmo, featured on Animal Planet's Cats 101 on September 18, 2010.

Force Hood is now a director and owns her own production studio John Force Entertainment. She can be found on YouTube and she makes a new video every week for her fans.

title: Ashley Force Hood


text:
Cummins

Cummins Inc. is an American multinational corporation that designs, manufactures, and distributes engines, filtration, and power generation products. Cummins also services engines and related equipment, including fuel systems, controls, air handling, filtration, emission control, electrical power generation systems, and trucks.

Headquartered in Columbus, Indiana, Cummins sells in approximately 190 countries and territories through a network of more than 600 company-owned and independent distributors and approximately 7,200 dealers. Cummins reported a net income of $2.15 billion on sales of $28 billion in 2022.

History

The Cummins Engine Company was founded in Columbus, Indiana on February 3, 1919, by mechanic Clessie Cummins and banker William Glanton Irwin. The company focused on developing the diesel engine, which was invented 20 years earlier. Despite several well-publicized endurance trials, it was not until 1933 that their Model H engine, used in small railroad switchers, proved successful. The Cummins N Series engines became the industry leader in the post-World War II road-building boom in the United States, with more than half of the heavy-duty truck market using Cummins engines from 1952 to 1959. In the 1960s, the company opened an assembly plant in Shotts, Scotland (closed in 1996). By 2013, Cummins had operations in 197 countries and territories.

Cummins Engine Business
Cummins Engine Business Unit consists of aftermarket support, mid-range, heavy-duty, and high-power engines. Its markets include heavy and medium-duty trucks, buses, recreational vehicles (RV), light-duty automotive, and several industrial uses, including construction, mining, marine, oil, gas, railroad and military equipment.

One of the most popular engines built is the 5.9-liter I6 engine used in the Dodge Ram heavy-duty pickups starting in 1988. In 2007, a 6.7-liter version of the Cummins straight-six engine became optional on the RAM pickup. In 2008, Cummins was a named defendant in a class-action suit related to 1998-2001 model year Dodge Ram trucks, model 2500 or 3500, originally equipped with a Cummins ISB 5.9 liter diesel engine built using a pattern 53 Block. The case has been settled, but some qualified Chrysler owners may receive $500 for repairs to the block, which was alleged to crack and create a coolant leak.

In April 2013, Cummins utilized technology developed by Westport Innovations to ship large natural gas-fueled engines to truck manufacturers in the United States as trucking companies began converting portions of their fleets to natural gas and the natural gas distribution network in the United States began to expand.

Cummins has a technical center in Darlington, England, for developing products for the European, Middle Eastern, and Asian markets.

Cummins Power Systems Business (formerly Cummins Power Generation)
Cummins Power Systems Business Unit consists of alternators, automatic transfer switches, commercial power systems, consumer systems, engines, and paralleling systems.

All of the above stem from the Cummins Onan Corporation, whose products remain in service today.

This Business Unit was formed recently, following a merge of the Power Generation Unit and High Horsepower Sub-Division.

On August 22, 2017, United Rentals announced it had acquired all mobile power generation assets from Cummins. To maintain fleet and customer service continuity, some Cummins employees joined United Rentals.

Cummins Component Business
Cummins Component Business Unit consists of emission solutions, filtration (Fleetguard), fuel systems, turbo technologies (Holset), and electronics. The Cummins Turbo Technologies unit designs and manufactures turbochargers and related products on a global scale, for diesel engines above 3 liters. Its Emission Solutions unit develops and supplies catalytic exhaust systems and associated products to the medium and heavy-duty commercial diesel engine markets. Cummins Filtration designs, manufactures and distributes heavy-duty and light-duty air, fuel, hydraulic and lube filtration, chemicals and exhaust system technology products for diesel and gas-powered equipment. In contrast Cummins Electronics designs engine control units and sensors for Cummins diesel engines.

Cummins Distribution Business
Cummins Distribution Business consists of engine and power generation distribution as well as service and parts. The distribution unit of Cummins consists of 17 Cummins owned distributors and 10 joint ventures, covering 90 countries and territories through 234 locations.

Cummins Turbo Technologies
The Holset Engineering Co. was a British company that produced turbochargers, primarily for diesel and heavy-duty applications.

In 1973 the company was purchased by Cummins after briefly being owned by the Hanson Trust. Holset now operates facilities in China, India, Brazil, the Netherlands, the United Kingdom, and the United States.

In 2006, the division officially changed its name to Cummins Turbo Technologies to be identified more closely with its parent company. The turbocharger products still use the Holset brand name.

Cummins Power Systems
In 1986, Cummins began the acquisition of Onan and completed it in 1992. Since then, Onan has evolved into Cummins Power Generation (now Cummins Power Systems), a wholly-invested division of Cummins. The Onan name continues to be used for modern versions of their traditional engine-driven generators for RV, marine, commercial mobility, home standby, and portable use.

Cummins Inc. (NYSE: CMI) announced that it will be unifying its brand strategy across its Power Systems business segment, which provides high-speed engines from 760 – 4400 HP and power generation equipment from 2–3,500 kW, including standby and prime power gen sets, alternators, switchgear and other components. Currently, the portfolio features the Cummins, Cummins Power Generation and Cummins Onan brands. With immediate effect, the branding will be consolidated under the Cummins brand. The Cummins Power Generation and Cummins Onan brands will be retired and the Onan name synonymous with mobile gensets, will be repositioned as a generator product line under the newly unified Cummins brand in the RV market.

Cummins Inc. will also be permanently changing all “Fun Roads” branding to Cummins RV moving forward as well and the Fun Roads brand will also be retired. As Onan will now be repositioned as an RV product line, with the new rv.cummins.com website and social media platforms serving as tools for RVers across the country to find relevant information like product specs and a sales and service locator.

“Looking to unify Cummins into one cohesive, unified brand, we decided that consolidating both products (engines and generators) into the Cummins RV family only strengthens the brand and more uniformly speaks to our manufacturers and consumers,” said Jodie Wilson. “The brand changing will not affect product or service offerings, but will help us to continue on our promise of delivering dependability across the globe.”

Rebranding occurred globally on all marketing activities, as product branding changed across all manufacturing plants beginning July 2017.

President Joe Biden visited the Cummins plant in Fridley, Minnesota on April 3, 2022. It was part of his "Investing in America" tour. Cummins had announced a US$1 billion initiative to produce clean energy technology, including electrolyzers for hydrogen cells in Fridley.

Cummins Emission Solutions
Exhaust and emissions after-treatment company Nelson Industries was purchased in 1999, due to the increasing importance of exhaust after-treatment systems for meeting future emissions standards. The division changed its name to Cummins Emission Solutions to be identified more closely with their parent company.

China operations
Cummins has some joint ventures with Chinese manufacturers, such as Dongfeng Cummins, a joint venture with Dongfeng Automobile Company, as well as Guangxi Cummins Industrial Power with LiuGong. One of the most successful joint ventures is the joint venture with Foton called Beijing Foton Cummins Engine Company. This joint venture developed the ISG/X12 engine platform in the mid 2010s. The ISG/X12 in China has surpassed 240,000 units per year making it the highest volume heavy duty engine in the Cummins product line. The ISG/X12 is the foundation for all Cummins future engine platforms.

Other entities were Cummins Beijing, Chongqing Cummins Engine, Xi’an Cummins Engine, Wuxi Newage Alternators, Xiangfan Fleetguard, Wuxi Cummins Turbo Technologies.

India operations
Cummins India is the Indian subsidiary of Cummins. Cummins India is publicly traded on the Bombay Stock Exchange (BSE) and the National Stock Exchange of India (NSE). Cummins began its India operations on 17 February 1962 in a joint venture with the Kirloskar Group. The ownership structure of the joint venture was divided as follows: In 1996 Cummins Inc. bought Kirloskar shares. Now it is a Cummins Inc. subsidiary. As of 2013, the Cummins group had revenues over $1.5 billion, 20 factories and 9000 employees in India.
 * Cummins - 50%
 * Kirloskar Group - 25.5%
 * Retail Investors - 24.5%

Cummins conducts a significant part of its R&D in India at the Cummins Research and Technology centre that was established in 2003. Cummins has built a technical centre in Pune which houses over 2500 engineers, called CTCI (Cummins Technical Centre India).

Cummins India has made significant contributions to local skill development by establishing the MKSSS's Cummins College of Engineering for Women, a women-only engineering college in Pune.

Applications

 * IS (Interact Series) - family of engines used for on-highway applications, trucks, buses and RVs
 * ISF 2.8-liter I4 - used in GAZ GAZelle (Business and Next series) and Foton Tunland light trucks
 * ISB 4.5-liter I4 - used in some buses and trucks (such as from Alexander Dennis and DAF respectively; the latter branded as Paccar)
 * ISV 5.0-liter V8 - used in the 2016 and newer Nissan Titan XD truck, up to 2019 model year
 * ISB 5.9-liter I6, 190 HP - used in first, second, and third-generation Ram 2500 and 3500 trucks until 2007
 * ISB 6.7-liter I6 - used in third, fourth and fifth generation Ram 2500-5500 trucks, school buses, some Alexander Dennis buses, medium-duty trucks, such as Freightliner and International. Also used by Kenworth, Peterbilt and DAF called the Paccar PX6 or PX7. Scania has a version called the DC07.
 * ISC 8.3-liter I6 - discontinued
 * ISL 8.9-liter - I6 - used for a variety of applications, and a very common engine for buses outside of Europe.
 * ISL G 8.9-liter - I6 natural-gas-powered, used for a variety of applications
 * ISM 11-liter I6 - used for a variety of vocational applications in lesser regulated areas
 * ISG 12-liter I6 - used primarily in Chinese HD trucks
 * ISX 12-liter I6 - used in heavy-duty trucks
 * ISX G 12-liter I6 - natural-gas-powered; used in heavy-duty trucks
 * ISD 12.4-liter I6 - used in tractor applications in lesser regulated areas
 * ISX 15 liter I6 - used in heavy-duty trucks
 * V555 9.1-liter V8 - used in heavy machinery and large trucks
 * V903 14.8-liter V8 - used in Bradley fighting vehicles and other military applications
 * QS (Quantum Series) - family of engines used for off-highway applications, such as marine, rail/industrial, construction, power generation and agriculture
 * QSF 2.8-liter I4
 * QSF 3.8-liter I4
 * QSB 4.5-liter I4
 * QSB 6.7-liter I6
 * QSL 9-liter I6
 * QSG 12-liter I6
 * QSX 15-liter I6
 * QSK 19-liter I6
 * QSK 23-liter I6
 * QST 30-liter V12
 * QSK 38-liter V12
 * QSK 45-liter V12
 * QSK 50-liter V16
 * QSK 60-liter V16
 * QSK 78-liter V18
 * QSK 95-liter V16
 * X Series (Next-Generation) - evolution of IS engine family
 * X12
 * X15 Performance 15-liter I6
 * X15 Efficiency 15-liter I6

Concept vehicles

 * Cummins Aeos - An electric-powered conventional truck.

Clean Air Act violations
In 1998, the EPA announced fines totaling $83.4 million against Cummins and six other diesel engine manufacturers, the largest fine to date. The fines came after manufacturers evaded testing by deliberately deactivating emissions controls during highway driving to give the appearance of being in full regulatory compliance during standard laboratory testing. The manufacturers also agreed to spend more than $1 billion to correct the problem. The trucks used engine ECU software to engage pollution controls during the 20-minute lab tests to verify compliance with the Clean Air Act, but then quietly disabled the emissions controls during normal highway cruising, thereby emitting up to three times the maximum allowed NOx pollution.

In December 2023, Cummins was fined $1.675 billion by the U.S. Justice Department for violations of the Clean Air Act. Cummins was found to have installed devices designed to bypass or disable emissions controls on 960,000 Dodge and Stellantis RAM pickup truck diesel engines between 2013 and 2023. It will also pay $325 million in remedies and recalls.

Carbon footprint
Cummins reported Total CO2e emissions (Direct + Indirect) for the twelve months ending 31 December 2020 at 595 Kt (-94 /-13.7% y-o-y). The company plans to reduce total emissions (Direct + Indirect) 50% by 2030 from a 2018 base year and also aims to reach net-zero by 2050.

title: Cummins


text:
Eldridgeville

Eldridgeville is a small village in Toledo District, Belize.

title: Eldridgeville


text:
Mopti Region

Mopti ( Fulfulde: 𞤁𞤭𞥅𞤱𞤢𞤤 𞤃𞤮𞥅𞤩𞤼𞤭𞥅, transliterated Diiwal Moobti) is the fifth administrative region of Mali, covering 79,017 km2. Its capital is the city of Mopti. During the 2012 Northern Mali conflict, the frontier between Southern Mali which is controlled by the central government and the rebel-held North ran through Mopti Region.

Geography
Mopti Region is bordered by Tombouctou Region to the north, Ségou Region to the southwest, and Burkina Faso to the southeast.

The population in the 2009 census was 2,037,330. The region contains a number of ethnic groups including Fulani, Malinke, and Bambara.

The Niger River crosses the region, and is joined by the Bani, an important tributary, at the city of Mopti.

The region is separated into several areas: the Inland Niger Delta around Mopti, the Bandiagara cliffs and the plain of Bankass along the Burkina Faso frontier. Mount Hombori, the highest point in Mali at 1153 meters, is in the Mopti Region, near the city of the same name.

In terms of its climate, Mopti Region is considered part of the Sahel.

The largest towns of the region are Mopti, Sévaré (which lies within Mopti Commune), Djenné, Bandiagara, Bankass, Douentza, and Youwarou.

Transportation and economy
An airport at Mopti provides air service for the region, while the Niger River provides transportation to Koulikoro and Ségou to the west and Tombouctou and Gao to the east.

The region is well-irrigated and its agriculture is well-developed, with particularly successful fishing. Mopti serves as an important commercial crossroads between Mali's north, south and bordering nations. Tourism is also well-developed, notably in the cities of Djenné and Mopti (the former of which boasts the Great Mosque of Djenné, the largest mud structure in the world) and in Dogon country.

History
Though Mopti's location, once a Bozo village named Sanga, had long been inhabited, rapid expansion began under Seku Amadu's Massina Empire around 1820. Expansion continued under the Toucouleur Empire of El Hadj Umar Tall as well as the French colonial administration.

Culture
The region is a melting pot, made up of various ethnic groups which live in harmony with one another. Common languages of the area include Fulani, Dogon, Songhai, Bozo, Bambara and Tamashek.

Both the city of Djenné and the Bandiagara Escarpment have been named World Heritage Sites by UNESCO.

Administrative subdivisions
Mopti is divided into 8 Cercles encompassing 108 communes:

There are more than 1,000 villages in Mopti Region occupied by ethnic Dogon, Songhay, Fula, and other peoples.

title: Mopti Region