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Breakwater (structure)

A breakwater is a permanent structure constructed at a coastal area to protect against tides, currents, waves, and storm surges. Breakwaters have been built since Antiquity to protect anchorages, helping isolate vessels from marine hazards such as wind-driven waves. A breakwater, also known in some contexts as a jetty or a mole, may be connected to land or freestanding, and may contain a walkway or road for vehicle access.

Part of a coastal management system, breakwaters are installed parallel to the shore to minimize erosion. On beaches where longshore drift threatens the erosion of beach material, smaller structures on the beach may be installed, usually perpendicular to the water's edge. Their action on waves and current is intended to slow the longshore drift and discourage mobilisation of beach material. In this usage they are more usually referred to as groynes.

Purposes
Breakwaters reduce the intensity of wave action in inshore waters and thereby provide safe harbourage. Breakwaters may also be small structures designed to protect a gently sloping beach to reduce coastal erosion; they are placed 100-300 ft offshore in relatively shallow water.

An anchorage is only safe if ships anchored there are protected from the force of powerful waves by some large structure which they can shelter behind. Natural harbours are formed by such barriers as headlands or reefs. Artificial harbours can be created with the help of breakwaters. Mobile harbours, such as the D-Day Mulberry harbours, were floated into position and acted as breakwaters. Some natural harbours, such as those in Plymouth Sound, Portland Harbour, and Cherbourg, have been enhanced or extended by breakwaters made of rock.

Types
Types of breakwaters include vertical wall breakwater, mound breakwater and mound with superstructure or composite breakwater.

A breakwater structure is designed to absorb the energy of the waves that hit it, either by using mass (e.g. with caissons), or by using a revetment slope (e.g. with rock or concrete armour units).

In coastal engineering, a revetment is a land-backed structure whilst a breakwater is a sea-backed structure (i.e. water on both sides).

Rubble
Rubble mound breakwaters use structural voids to dissipate the wave energy. Rubble mound breakwaters consist of piles of stones more or less sorted according to their unit weight: smaller stones for the core and larger stones as an armour layer protecting the core from wave attack. Rock or concrete armour units on the outside of the structure absorb most of the energy, while gravels or sands prevent the wave energy's continuing through the breakwater core. The slopes of the revetment are typically between 1:1 and 1:2, depending upon the materials used. In shallow water, revetment breakwaters are usually relatively inexpensive. As water depth increases, the material requirements—and hence costs—increase significantly.

Caisson
Caisson breakwaters typically have vertical sides and are usually erected where it is desirable to berth one or more vessels on the inner face of the breakwater. They use the mass of the caisson and the fill within it to resist the overturning forces applied by waves hitting them. They are relatively expensive to construct in shallow water, but in deeper sites they can offer a significant saving over revetment breakwaters.

An additional rubble mound is sometimes placed in front of the vertical structure in order to absorb wave energy and thus reduce wave reflection and horizontal wave pressure on the vertical wall. Such a design provides additional protection on the sea side and a quay wall on the inner side of the breakwater, but it can enhance wave overtopping.

Wave absorbing caisson
A similar but more sophisticated concept is a wave-absorbing caisson, including various types of perforation in the front wall.

Such structures have been used successfully in the offshore oil-industry, but also on coastal projects requiring rather low-crested structures (e.g. on an urban promenade where the sea view is an important aspect, as seen in Beirut and Monaco). In the latter, a project is presently ongoing at the Anse du Portier including 18 wave-absorbing 27 m high caissons.

Wave attenuator
Wave attenuators consist of concrete elements placed horizontally one foot under the free surface, positioned along a line parallel to the coast. Wave attenuators have four slabs facing the sea, one vertical slab, and two slabs facing the land; each slab is separated from the next by a space of 200 mm. The row of four sea-facing and two land-facing slabs reflects offshore wave by the action of the volume of water located under it which, made to oscillate under the effect of the incident wave, creates waves in phase opposition to the incident wave downstream from the slabs.

Membrane Breakwaters
A submerged flexible mound breakwater can be employed for wave control in shallow water as an advanced alternative to the conventional rigid submerged designs. Further to the fact that, the construction cost of the submerged flexible mound breakwaters is less than that of the conventional submerged breakwaters, ships and marine organisms can pass them, if being deep enough. These marine structures reduce the collided wave energy and prevent the generation of standing waves.

Breakwater armour units
As design wave heights get larger, rubble mound breakwaters require larger armour units to resist the wave forces. These armour units can be formed of concrete or natural rock. The largest standard grading for rock armour units given in CIRIA 683 "The Rock Manual" is 10–15 tonnes. Larger gradings may be available, but the ultimate size is limited in practice by the natural fracture properties of locally available rock.

Shaped concrete armour units (such as Dolos, Xbloc, Tetrapod, etc.) can be provided in up to approximately 40 tonnes (e.g. Jorf Lasfar, Morocco), before they become vulnerable to damage under self weight, wave impact and thermal cracking of the complex shapes during casting/curing. Where the very largest armour units are required for the most exposed locations in very deep water, armour units are most often formed of concrete cubes, which have been used up to ~195 tonnes for the tip of the breakwater at Punta Langosteira near La Coruña, Spain.

Preliminary design of armour unit size is often undertaken using the Hudson's equation, Van der Meer and more recently Van Gent et al.; these methods are all described in CIRIA 683 "The Rock Manual" and the United States Army Corps of Engineers Coastal engineering manual (available for free online) and elsewhere. For detailed design the use of scaled physical hydraulic models remains the most reliable method for predicting real-life behavior of these complex structures.

Unintended consequences
Breakwaters are subject to damage and overtopping in severe storms. Some may also have the effect of creating unique types of waves that attract surfers, such as The Wedge at the Newport breakwater.

Sediment effects
The dissipation of energy and relative calm water created in the lee of the breakwaters often encourage accretion of sediment (as per the design of the breakwater scheme). However, this can lead to excessive salient build up, resulting in tombolo formation, which reduces longshore drift shoreward of the breakwaters. This trapping of sediment can cause adverse effects down-drift of the breakwaters, leading to beach sediment starvation and increased coastal erosion. This may then lead to further engineering protection being needed down-drift of the breakwater development. Sediment accumulation in the areas surrounding breakwaters can cause flat areas with reduced depths, which changes the topographic landscape of the seabed.

Salient formations as a result of breakwaters are a function of the distance the breakwaters are built from the coast, the direction at which the wave hits the breakwater, and the angle at which the breakwater is built (relative to the coast). Of these three, the angle at which the breakwater is built is most important in the engineered formation of salients. The angle at which the breakwater is built determines the new direction of the waves (after they've hit the breakwaters), and in turn the direction that sediment will flow and accumulate over time.

Environmental effects
The reduced heterogeneity in sea floor landscape introduced by breakwaters can lead to reduced species abundance and diversity in the surrounding ecosystems. As a result of the reduced heterogeneity and decreased depths that breakwaters produce due to sediment build up, the UV exposure and temperature in surrounding waters increase, which may disrupt surrounding ecosystems.

Construction of detached breakwaters
There are two main types of offshore breakwater (also called detached breakwater): single and multiple. Single, as the name suggests, means the breakwater consists of one unbroken barrier, while multiple breakwaters (in numbers anywhere from two to twenty) are positioned with gaps in between (50-300 m). The length of the gap is largely governed by the interacting wavelengths. Breakwaters may be either fixed or floating, and impermeable or permeable to allow sediment transfer shoreward of the structures, the choice depending on tidal range and water depth. They usually consist of large pieces of rock (granite) weighing up to 10–15 tonnes each, or rubble-mound. Their design is influenced by the angle of wave approach and other environmental parameters. Breakwater construction can be either parallel or perpendicular to the coast, depending on the shoreline requirements.

Notable locations

 * UK – The Sound, Plymouth; Sea Palling, Norfolk; Elmer, West Sussex; Brixham, Devon; South Gare, North Yorkshire
 * United States – Long Beach, California; Santa Monica, California; Winthrop Beach, Massachusetts; Colonial Beach, Virginia; Rockland, Maine
 * Japan – Central Breakwater, Tokyo; Ishizaki (檜山石崎郵便局), Hokkaido Prefecture; Kaike, Tottori Prefecture
 * India – Offshore Breakwater at Udangudi for captive coal jetty; Marine Drive, Mumbai; Vizhinjam International Seaport Thiruvananthapuram, Trivandrum
 * UAE - Palm Islands, Dubai; Corniche, Abu Dhabi
 * Hong Kong – Kai Tak Airport; Hong Kong International Airport
 * Kuwait - Sabah Al Ahmad Sea City
 * Australia - Newcastle, NSW

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Breakwater (structure)


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Dubois

Dubois, DuBois, or Du Bois may refer to:

People

 * W. E. B. Du Bois, American sociologist
 * Mary Silvina Burghardt Du Bois, American domestic worker, mother of W.E.B. Du Bois
 * Nina Gomer Du Bois, American civil rights activist, wife of W.E.B. Du Bois
 * Yolande Du Bois, American educator, daughter of W.E.B Du Bois

United States

 * Mount Dubois, California
 * Dubois, Idaho
 * Du Bois, Illinois
 * Dubois, Indiana
 * Dubois County, Indiana
 * Du Bois, Nebraska
 * DuBois, Pennsylvania
 * Dubois, Wyoming

Others

 * Bal du Bois, debutante ball in Richmond, Virginia
 * Dubois (surname), a Norman-French surname (include a list of people with the surnames Dubois and Du Bois)
 * 206241 Dubois, an asteroid

title: Dubois


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User:JohnWest

Hello!

title: User:JohnWest


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Junrei

Junrei (巡礼) is the word most commonly used for either of two major types of pilgrimages in Japan, in accordance with Buddhism or Shinto. These pilgrimages can be made as a visit to a group of temples, shrines, or other holy sites, in a particular order, often in a circuit of 33 or 88 sites. Other pilgrimages may center on a pilgrimage to a single site. One of the most popular pilgrimages for Buddhists in Japan is visiting the 88 temples on Shikoku. In certain contexts, Junrei can be used to refer to other pilgrimage practices in world religions foreign to Japan, such as the Hajj.

Pilgrimages can be organized by tour bus companies, taking only a couple of weeks to complete, although many pilgrims prefer to take the two- or three-month-long journeys on foot in the traditional manner. Pilgrims on the Shikoku junrei are referred to as henro (遍路) and traditionally wear straw hats and white clothing.

Traditional observances
There are a number of rules traditionally observed while on a junrei.

 * Say the name of Kōbō-Daishi following one's devotion it is preceded every thing. (Kōbō-Daishi is Kūkai's posthumous name)
 * Pilgrimage as the ascetic.
 * Must not kill any living things.
 * Must not say immoral things to women.
 * Have some medicines for your unexpected bad condition.
 * Must not drink any alcohol.
 * Do not quarrel with your partner.
 * Do not have a lot of money.
 * Do not have unnecessary baggage.
 * Pay attention to your food hygiene.
 * Go to an inn before it gets dark.
 * Must not go out of an inn during the night.

title: Junrei


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Kadomatsu

Kadomatsu (門松) are traditional Japanese decorations made for the New Year. They are a type of yorishiro, or objects intended to welcome ancestral spirits or kami of the harvest. Kadomatsu are usually placed in pairs in front of homes and buildings.

Construction and placement
Historically, kadomatsu was often made with pine wood, but these days bamboo is more common. The central portion of the kadomatsu is formed from three large bamboos, though plastic kadomatsu are available. After binding all the elements of the kadomatsu, it is bound with a straw mat and newly woven straw rope. Kadomatsu are placed in pairs on either side of the gate, representing male and female.

Usage
In modern times, kadomatsu are placed after Christmas until January 7 (or January 15 during the Edo period) and are considered temporary housing (shintai) for kami. Designs for kadomatsu vary depending on region but are typically made of pine, bamboo, and sometimes ume tree sprigs which represent longevity, prosperity and steadfastness, respectively. "The fundamental function of the New Year ceremonies is to honor and receive the toshigami (deity), who will then bring a bountiful harvest for farmers and bestow the ancestors' blessing on everyone." After January 15 (or in many instances the 19th) the kadomatsu is burned to appease the kami or toshigami and release them.

Other information
The kadomatsu is included in Unicode as the emoji.

title: Kadomatsu


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Percy Fawcett

Percy Harrison Fawcett (18 August 1867 – disappeared 29 May 1925) was a British geographer, artillery officer, cartographer, archaeologist, and explorer of South America. Fawcett disappeared in 1925 (along with his eldest son, Jack, and one of Jack's friends, Raleigh Rimell) during an expedition to find an ancient lost city which he and others believed existed in the Amazon rainforest.

Early life
Percy Fawcett was born on 18 August 1867 in Torquay, Devon, England, to Edward Boyd Fawcett and Myra Elizabeth (née MacDougall). The Fawcetts were a family of old Yorkshire gentry (Fawcett of Scaleby Castle) who had prospered as shipping magnates during the late 18th and 19th century in the East Indies. Fawcett's father had been born in India, and he was a Fellow of the Royal Geographical Society (RGS), while his elder brother, Edward Douglas Fawcett (1866–1960), was a mountain climber, an Eastern occultist, and the author of philosophical books and popular adventure novels.

During the 1880s, Fawcett was schooled at Newton Abbot Proprietary College, alongside Bertram Fletcher Robinson, the future sportsman, journalist, writer and mutual friend of Sir Arthur Conan Doyle. Thereafter, he attended the Royal Military Academy, Woolwich, as a Cadet, and was commissioned as a lieutenant of the Royal Artillery on 24 July 1886. That same year, Fawcett met his future wife, Nina Agnes Paterson, whom he married in 1901 and had two sons, Jack (1903–1925?) and Brian (1906–1984), and one daughter, Joan (1910–2005). On 13 January 1896, Fawcett was appointed Adjutant of the 1st Cornwall (Duke of Cornwall's) Artillery Volunteers, and was promoted to captain on 15 June 1897. He later served in Hong Kong, Malta, and Trincomalee, Ceylon.

Fawcett joined the RGS in 1901 with the aim of studying surveying and mapmaking. Later, he worked for the British Secret Service in North Africa while pursuing the surveyor's craft. He served for the War Office on Spike Island in County Cork from 1903 to 1906, where he was promoted to major on 11 January 1905. He became friends with authors Sir Henry Rider Haggard and Sir Arthur Conan Doyle; the latter used Fawcett's Amazonian field reports as inspiration for his novel The Lost World.

Early expeditions
Fawcett's first expedition to South America was in 1906 (he was seconded for service there on 2 May ) the RGS sent him to Brazil to map a jungle area at the border with Bolivia. The RGS had been commissioned to map the area as a third party unbiased by local national interests. Fawcett arrived in La Paz in June. While on the expedition in 1907, he claimed to have seen and shot a 62 ft long giant anaconda, a claim for which he was ridiculed by scientists. He reported other mysterious animals unknown to zoology, such as a small cat-like dog about the size of a foxhound, which he claimed to have seen twice, and the giant Apazauca spider, which was said to have poisoned a number of locals.

Fawcett made seven expeditions between 1906 and 1924. He was mostly amicable with the locals through gifts, patience, and courteous behaviour. In 1908 he traced the source of the Rio Verde (Brazil) and in 1910 made a journey to Heath River (on the border between Bolivia and Peru) to find its source, having retired from the British Army on 19 January. In 1911, Fawcett once again left his home and family to return to the Amazon and chart hundreds of miles of unexplored jungle, accompanied by his trusted, longtime exploring companion, Henry Costin, and biologist and polar explorer James Murray. After a 1913 expedition, Fawcett supposedly claimed to have seen dogs with double noses. These may have been double-nosed Andean tiger hounds.

Based on documentary research, Fawcett had by 1914 formulated ideas about a "lost city" he named "Z" (Zed) somewhere in the Mato Grosso region of Brazil. He theorized that a complex civilization once existed in the Amazon region and that isolated ruins might have survived. Fawcett also found a document known as Manuscript 512, written after explorations made in the sertão of the state of Bahia, and housed at the National Library of Rio de Janeiro. It is believed to be by Portuguese bandeirante João da Silva Guimarães, who wrote that in 1753 he had discovered the ruins of an ancient city that contained arches, a statue, and a temple with hieroglyphics; the city is described in great detail without providing a specific location. This city became a secondary destination for Fawcett, after "Z".

Fawcett carried with him in Brazil a jade statue of a human figure, with inscriptions on its chest and feet, that he claimed to have supernatural powers over tribes in the Amazon basin. He told Ramiro Noronha, a Brazilian general, "by showing the statue, he could exercise an irresistible power over the natives."

At the beginning of the First World War, Fawcett returned to Britain to serve with the British Army as a reserve officer in the Royal Artillery, volunteering for duty in Flanders and commanding an artillery brigade despite being nearly fifty years old. He was promoted from major to lieutenant-colonel on 1 March 1918, and received three mentions in despatches from Field Marshal Sir Douglas Haig, in November 1916, November 1917, and November 1918. He was also awarded the Distinguished Service Order in June 1917.

After the war, Fawcett returned to Brazil to study local wildlife and archaeology. In 1920, he made a solo attempt to search for "Z" but ended it after suffering from a fever and shooting his pack animal.

Final expedition
In 1924, with funding from a London-based group of financiers known as The Glove, Fawcett returned to Brazil with his eldest son Jack and Jack's best and longtime friend, Raleigh Rimell, for an exploratory expedition to find "Z". Fawcett left instructions stating that if the expedition did not return, no rescue expedition should be sent lest the rescuers suffer his fate.

Fawcett was a man with years of experience traveling and had taken equipment such as canned foods, powdered milk, guns, flares, a sextant and a chronometer. His travel companions were both chosen for their health, ability, and loyalty to each other; Fawcett chose only two companions in order to travel lighter and with less notice to native tribes, as some were hostile towards outsiders.

On 20 April 1925, Fawcett's final expedition departed from Cuiabá. In addition to his two principal companions (his son Jack, born in 1903, and his friend Raleigh Rimmel ), he was accompanied by two Brazilian laborers, two horses, eight mules, and a pair of dogs. The last communication from the expedition was on 29 May when Fawcett wrote, in a letter to his wife delivered by a native runner, that he was ready to go into unexplored territory with only Jack and Raleigh. They were reported to be crossing the Upper Xingu, a southeastern tributary river of the River Amazon. The final letter, written from Dead Horse Camp, gave their location and was generally optimistic.

In January 1927, the RGS declared and accepted the men as lost, close to two years after the party's last message. Soon after the Society's declaration, there was an outpouring of volunteers to attempt to locate the lost explorers. Many expeditions attempting to find Fawcett failed. At least one lone searcher died in the attempt.

Many people assumed that local Indians killed Fawcett's party, as several tribes were nearby at the time: the Kalapalos, the last tribe to have seen them; the Arumás; the Suyás; and the Xavantes, whose territory they were entering. According to explorer John Hemming, Fawcett's party of three was too few to survive in the jungle and his expectation that his Indian hosts would look after them was likely to have antagonized them by failing to bring any gifts to repay their generosity.

Twenty years later, a Kalapalo chief called Comatzi told his people how the unwelcome strangers were killed, but others have thought they became lost and died of starvation, and the bones provided by Comatzi turned out not to be those of Fawcett. Edmar Morel and Nilo Vellozo reported that Comatzi's predecessor, Izarari, had told them he had killed Fawcett and his son Jack, seemingly by shooting them with arrows after Fawcett allegedly attacked him and other Indians when they refused to give him guides and porters to take him to their Chavante enemies. Rolf Blomberg reported that Izarari had told him that Rimell had already died of fever in a Kurikuro camp. A somewhat different version came from Orlando Villas-Bôas, who reported that Izarari had told him that he had killed all three men with his club the morning after Jack had allegedly consorted with one of his wives, when he claimed that Fawcett had slapped him in the face after the chief refused his demand for canoes and porters to continue his journey.

The Kalapalo have an oral story of the arrival of three explorers which states that the three went east, and after five days the Kalapalo noticed that the group no longer made campfires. The Kalapalo say that a very violent tribe most likely killed them. However, both of the younger men were lame and ill when last seen, and there is no proof that they were murdered. It is plausible that they died of natural causes in the Brazilian jungle.

In 1927, a nameplate of Fawcett's was found with an Indian tribe. In June 1933, a theodolite compass belonging to Fawcett was found near the Baciary Indians of Mato Grosso by Colonel Aniceto Botelho. However, the nameplate was from Fawcett's expedition five years earlier and had most likely been given as a gift to the chief of that tribe. The compass was proven to have been left behind before he entered the jungle on his final journey.

Dead Horse Camp
Dead Horse Camp, or Fawcett's Camp, was his last known location. From Dead Horse Camp, he wrote to his wife about the hardships that he and his companions had faced, his coordinates, his doubts in Rimell, and Fawcett's plans for the near future. He concludes his message with, "You need have no fear of any failure..."

One question remaining about Dead Horse Camp concerns a discrepancy in the coordinates Fawcett gave for its location. In the letter to his wife, he wrote: "Here we are at Dead Horse Camp, latitude 11 degrees 43' South and longitude 54 degrees 35' West, the spot where my horse died in 1920" (-11.71667°N, -54.58333°W). However, in a report to the North American Newspaper Alliance he gave the coordinates as -13.71667°N, -54.58333°W. The discrepancy may have been a typographical error. However, he may have intentionally concealed the location to prevent others from using his notes to find "Z". It may have also been an attempt to dissuade any rescue attempts; Fawcett had stated that if he disappeared, no rescue party should be sent because the danger was too great.

Henry Costin's opinion
Explorer Henry Costin, who accompanied Fawcett on five of his previous expeditions, expressed his doubt that Fawcett would have perished at the hands of native indigenous people, as he typically enjoyed good relations with them. He believed that Fawcett had succumbed to either a lack of food or exhaustion.

Rumours and unverified reports
During the ensuing decades, various groups mounted several rescue expeditions, without success. They heard only various rumours that could not be verified.

While a fictitious tale estimated that 100 would-be-rescuers died on several expeditions attempting to discover Fawcett's fate, the actual toll was only one—a sole man who ventured after him alone. One of the earliest expeditions was commanded by American explorer George Miller Dyott. In 1927, he claimed to have found evidence of Fawcett's death at the hands of the Aloique, but his story was unconvincing. From 1930 to 1931, Aloha Wanderwell used her seaplane to try to land on the Paraguay River to find him. After an emergency landing and living with the Bororo tribe for six weeks, Aloha and her husband Walter flew back to Brazil, with no luck.

Fawcett's alleged bones
In 1951, Orlando Villas-Bôas, activist for indigenous peoples, received what were claimed to be the actual remaining skeletal bones of Fawcett and had them analysed scientifically. The analysis supposedly confirmed the bones were Fawcett's, but his son Brian (1906–1984) refused to accept this. Villas-Bôas claimed that Brian was too interested in making money from books about his father's disappearance. Later scientific analysis confirmed that the bones were not Fawcett's. As of 1965, the bones reportedly rested in a box in the flat of one of the Villas-Bôas brothers in São Paulo.

In 1998, English explorer Benedict Allen went to talk to the Kalapalo people, said by Villas-Bôas to have confessed to having killed Fawcett and his party. An elder of the Kalapalo, Vajuvi, claimed during a filmed BBC interview with Allen that the bones found by Villas-Bôas were not really Fawcett's. Vajuvi also denied that his tribe had any part in the disappearance of the expedition. No conclusive evidence supports the latter statement.

Villas-Bôas story
Danish explorer Arne Falk-Rønne journeyed to Mato Grosso during the 1960s. In a 1991 book, he wrote that he learned of Fawcett's fate from Villas-Bôas, who had heard it from one of Fawcett's murderers. Allegedly, Fawcett and his companions had a mishap on the river and lost most of the gifts they had brought along for the Indian tribes. Continuing without gifts was a serious breach of protocol; since the expedition members were all more or less seriously ill at the time, the Kalapalo they encountered decided to kill them. The bodies of Jack and Rimell were thrown into the river; Fawcett, considered an old man and therefore distinguished, received a proper burial. Falk-Rønne visited the Kalapalo and reported that one of the tribesmen confirmed Villas-Bôas's story about how and why Fawcett had been killed.

Fawcett's signet ring
In 1979, Fawcett's signet ring was found in a pawnshop. A new theory is that Fawcett and his companions were killed by bandits and the bodies were disposed of in a river while their belongings were despoiled.

Russian documentary
In 2003, a Russian documentary film, The Curse of the Incas' Gold / Expedition of Percy Fawcett to the Amazon (Проклятье золота инков / Экспедиция Перси Фоссета в Амазонку), was released as a part of the television series Mysteries of the Century (Тайны века). Among other things, the film emphasizes the recent expedition of Oleg Aliyev to the presumed approximate place of Fawcett's last whereabouts and Aliyev's findings, impressions, and presumptions about Fawcett's fate. The film concludes that Fawcett may have been looking for the ruins of El Dorado, a city built by more advanced people from the other side of the Andes, and that the expedition members were killed by an unknown primitive tribe that had no contact with modern civilization.

Commune in the jungle
On 21 March 2004, The Observer reported that television director Misha Williams, who had studied Fawcett's private papers, believed that he had not intended to return to Britain but rather meant to found a commune in the jungle, based on theosophical principles and the worship of his son Jack. Williams explained his research in some detail in the preface to his play AmaZonia, first performed in April 2004.

In popular culture
In 2005, The New Yorker staff writer David Grann visited the Kalapalo and reported that it had apparently preserved an oral history about Fawcett, among the first Europeans the tribe had ever seen. The oral account said that Fawcett and his party had stayed at their village and then left, heading eastward. The Kalapalos warned Fawcett and his companions that if they went that way they would be killed by the "fierce Indians" who occupied that territory, but Fawcett insisted upon going. The Kalapalos observed smoke from the expedition's campfire each evening for five days before it disappeared. The Kalapalos said they were sure the fierce natives had killed them. The article also reports that a monumental civilisation known as Kuhikugu may have actually existed near where Fawcett was searching, as discovered recently by archaeologist Michael Heckenberger and others. Grann's findings are further detailed in his book The Lost City of Z (2009).

In 2016, James Gray wrote and directed a film adaptation of Grann's book, with Charlie Hunnam starring as Fawcett.

In Charles MacLean's 1982 novel The Watcher, the protagonist believes himself to be a reincarnation of Percy Fawcett, and has visions of his supposed past life, experiencing a scene in the jungle seen through Fawcett's eyes.

Episode 133 of British horror podcast The Magnus Archives features a fictional account given by Fawcett describing the events which occurred on his final expedition.

In 2022, Vox released a 6 minute and 54 second long short documentary film onto YouTube as part of their 'Atlas' video series investigating Fawcett's journeys in the Amazon, discussing his mistakes, and the reality of the 'Lost Cities' through modern technology.

Works

 * Fawcett, Percy and Brian Fawcett (1953), Exploration Fawcett, Phoenix Press (2001 reprint), ISBN 1-84212-468-4
 * Fawcett, Percy and Brian Fawcett (1953), Lost Trails, Lost Cities, Funk & Wagnalls ASIN B0007DNCV4
 * Fawcett, Brian (1958), Ruins in the Sky, Hutchinson of London

title: Percy Fawcett


text:
Wikipedia:Articles for deletion/Aaron Peskin

Aaron Peskin
Copyvio? Vanity? He's an SF Supervisor running for re-election, and the sole content of the article is taken from his campaign website. --Jpgordon 06:15, 26 Sep 2004 (UTC)

 * Delete. It was a copyvio from here, non-notable anyway [[User:Xezbeth| Xezbeth ─┼─ ]] 10:21, 26 Sep 2004 (UTC).
 * Comment: SF supervisors not holding important posts (eg Chairman of the Board) may be notable. Chris Daly is notable though doesn't have a proper article yet.Dbiv 23:22, 28 Sep 2004 (UTC)
 * Has policy changed to allow listing here for copyvio? Otherwise keep. anthony (see warning) 12:58, 2 Oct 2004 (UTC)


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Creston

Creston may refer to:

Canada

 * Creston, British Columbia, a town in the Regional District of Central Kootenay
 * Creston (electoral district), a provincial electoral district
 * Creston Formation, a formation cropping out in Newfoundland
 * Creston, Newfoundland and Labrador a town in Burin peninsula

United States

 * Creston, California, an unincorporated place in San Luis Obispo County
 * Creston, Illinois, a village in Ogle County
 * Creston, Indiana, an unincorporated place in Lake County
 * Creston, Iowa, a city in Union County
 * Creston station
 * Creston, Kentucky, an unincorporated community
 * Creston, Louisiana, an unincorporated community on Black Lake in Natchitoches Parish
 * Creston, Nebraska, a village in Platte County
 * Creston, New Jersey, an unincorporated community in Hamilton Township, Mercer County
 * Creston, North Carolina, an unincorporated community in Ashe County
 * Creston, Ohio, a village in Medina and Wayne counties
 * Creston, Oregon
 * Creston, South Dakota, an unincorporated community
 * Creston, Washington, a town in Lincoln County
 * Creston, West Virginia
 * Creston Township (disambiguation)
 * Creston Subdivision, a railroad line owned by CSX Transportation in the U.S. State of South Carolina
 * Creston (Amtrak station)

Elsewhere

 * Creston (Macedonia), a town in ancient Macedonia, Greece

People

 * Paul Creston (1906–1985), American composer of classical music
 * René-Yves Creston (1898–1964), Breton artist, ethnologist and French Resistance activist during World War II

Other uses

 * Creston (apple), an apple cultivar
 * Creston Electric Instruments, a producer of electric guitars and basses

title: Creston


text:
Talk:Mnemosyne

Pronunciation
Since the article goes out of its way to give a pronunciation, it should be correct: "pronounced: mnay-moh-su-nay in 4 syllables" I've always pronounced it with the emphasis on the antepenultimate syllable: "Mne-MO-sy-ne." Have I been wrong? It's never too late to learn. Wetman 06:17, 26 Sep 2004 (UTC)

 * I don't know about the stress, since I've yet to encounter this word before. But I'm taking a beginning ancient Greek class, and there I learned that omega is used when the 'o' sound is long, and omicron is used when the 'o' sound is short.  If my teacher is correct, then there's no way that Mνημοσυνη can be mnay-moh-su-nay; instead, it should be the short sound of 'o'.  As in: mnay-muh-su-nay.  Maybe this word is an exception to the rule, but if that is an omicron (Mνημοσυνη) and not an omega (Mνημωσυνη), then it should definitely be "muh" instead of "moh".  I'm changing it to reflect this, but as I said before, I've never encountered the word before, and I'm merely going off of the rules of Greek pronunciation.  If you know for certain that this word is an exception to the rule, please change it back.  Eric Herboso 05:15, 14 Dec 2004 (UTC)

 * I have always pronounced it "Knee Moss Oh Knee". 70.20.205.113 07:52, 29 October 2007 (UTC)

 * It's actually pronounced 'Ne-mohs-ih-nee' according to most references.

Sooo, if Zeus had kids by her and she was known for all this other stuff, she obviously wasn't deposed like the other Titans in the titanomachy then?

 * Well, she was actually one of the Titans chained under the Earth, but she came back known as the goddess of memory, and mother of the nine muses. She also invented words and was responsible for the naming of all objects. So, yes, she wasn't very deposed.

Sister of the Furies
Wasn't she also the sister of the Furies? 70.20.205.113 07:52, 29 October 2007 (UTC)

Appearance in oral literature and cult of Asclepius
I added two sections, one about people invoking her at the beginning of oral epics and another about her use in the cult of Asclepius. I also moved the "See Also" section below the genealogy chart. No one has said anything on here in nearly a decade, so I'm not really expecting a response. I'd be happy to talk more about what I did though. A Hypophalangial Pianist (talk) 16:55, 20 September 2016 (UTC)

Unclear sentences
1. The article mentions the "possession of Mnemosyne".

What is that?

2. "In Orphism, the initiated were taught to instead drink from the Mnemosyne, the river of memory".

What is the meaning of "initiated"?

3. "like the poets, I must needs begin my narrative".

Is the passage correct? The grammar does not look proper.

ICE77 (talk) 02:46, 28 January 2018 (UTC)

title: Talk:Mnemosyne


text:
Kago

A kago (駕籠) is a type of litter used as a means of human transportation by the non-samurai class in feudal Japan and into the Meiji period (1868–1911).

Description and use
The basket of a was roughly 3 ft long, and attached to bamboo uprights which were suspended by a large overhead single crossbeam. A roof of some type covered the top and screens could be used to cover the sides as protection from sun or rain. A would be carried by a team of four men, who would take turns carrying the  on their shoulders; five or six miles could be traveled in one hour. One man would support the weight of the large overhead pole at each end and walked until he tired and switched with a rested carrier. The should not be confused with the more elaborate, which were used by the samurai class and wealthy individuals.

title: Kago


text:
File:Honolulu and Diamond Head.jpg

East Honolulu and Diamond Head (on the left). Photo taken by User:Ivan (me). From.

title: File:Honolulu and Diamond Head.jpg


text:
Richard John Cartwright

Sir Richard John Cartwright (December 4, 1835 – September 24, 1912) was a Canadian businessman and politician.

Cartwright was one of Canada's most distinguished federal politicians during the late 19th and early 20th centuries. He was a cabinet minister in five Liberal governments. He served in the Canadian Parliament for 43 years and 5 months, being an MP from 1867 to 1904 then a Senator until his death in 1912. Prior to Confederation, he had served 4 years, 1 month and 15 days in the Legislative Assembly of the old Province of Canada. Thus, he was a legislator for more than 47 and a half years. He was a vigorous and trenchant orator, and was known as 'the Rupert of debate'. In particular, his debates with his Conservative counterpart, Sir George Eulas Foster, are the stuff of Canadian Parliamentary legend.

He was a progressive. A free trader, he stood against the Conservatives' high-tariff policy. Often propounding on the inalienable right of Canadian freeman to vote for and in support of their patriotic convictions independent of any party, he favoured proportional representation via Single Transferable Voting. He supported the fight of western farmers for accessible terminal grain elevators in 1910.

Early life
He was born and raised in Kingston, Upper Canada in a United Empire Loyalist family, the son of Harriet Dobbs Cartwright and the grandson of Richard Cartwright, a Loyalist who was expelled from the U.S. at the time of the War of Independence. His father, Robert Cartwright, was an Anglican minister. His uncle, John Solomon Cartwright, was his father’s twin brother and a notable businessman, lawyer, banker, and politician, being a member of the last Legislative Assembly of Upper Canada and then a member of the first Legislative Assembly of the Province of Canada.

Richard Cartwright was a major landowner in the area, and became prominent in Kingston's financial community as president of the Commercial Bank of Canada. He suffered a major blow when his bank failed in 1867.

Early political career
Cartwright entered politics when he was elected as a Conservative Party member and supporter of John A. Macdonald in the Province of Canada's legislative assembly in 1863. In 1867, the Province of Canada became part of the new Canadian Confederation.

In 1867, Cartwright was elected to the newly formed House of Commons of Canada, again as a Tory. He was MP for the riding of Lennox, Ontario.

Crosses floor to join Liberals
In the year 1869, he broke with the Conservatives over Macdonald's appointment of Sir Francis Hincks as Minister of Finance, and crossed the floor to join the Liberal Party of Canada.

Cabinet Minister for Mackenzie
With the Liberal party's victory in the 1874 election, Cartwright was appointed Minister of Finance by Prime Minister Alexander Mackenzie. He supported free trade, but sought limited tariffs as a means of generating government revenue.

Knighted
Cartwright was not elected in the 1878 general election but was successful in a Nov. 2, 1878 by-election in Huron Centre.

He sat in the opposition bench. (The Liberals were defeated in the 1878 election.)

In recognition of his service, he was awarded a knighthood in 1879.

From the 1887 election, he represented the riding of Oxford South.

In 1887, he called for the House of Commons to consider proportional representation.

In the 1890s, the Liberals moved away from support for unrestricted reciprocity with the United States, and Cartwright's influence in the party diminished.

Cabinet Minister for Laurier
With the victory of Wilfrid Laurier's Liberals in the 1896 election, Cartwright returned to Cabinet. Laurier denied Cartwright the finance ministry as a way of assuring Canada's business community that the government was not going to adopt free trade. Instead, he appointed Cartwright Minister of Trade and Commerce. Cartwright also served as a Canadian member of the Anglo-American Joint High Commission to resolve diplomatic problems between Canada and the United States in 1898. Cartwright was appointed to the Imperial Privy Council in 1902.

Senator
In 1904, he was elevated to the Senate of Canada, but remained Trade and Commerce minister until the fall of the Laurier government in the 1911 election. In this position he introduced, in 1908, a limited system of old age annuities. Additionally, he served as Leader of the Government in the Senate from 1909 until 1911, and as Leader of the Opposition in the Senate from 1911 until his death in 1912.

Legacy
In the Kingston, Ontario, area, Cartwright Street and Cartwright Point are named for him and his family, in recognition of their longstanding contributions to the region. He is honoured with commemorative plaques in Kingston on King Street (at his former residence) and in Memorial Hall, City Hall.

His memories were preserved in his book Reminiscences, published in 1912.

Family
Sir Richard Cartwright's eldest son, Lieutenant Colonel Robert Cartwright, studied at the Royal Military College of Canada in Kingston, Ontario from 1878 to 1881, where he won several academic prizes. He was a railway engineer in Manitoba. He served in the suppression of the 1885 Riel rebellion and in the Boer war in South Africa, where he was mentioned in dispatches four times. He served as assistant adjutant-general at militia headquarters and as a musketry officer during World War I.

Archives
There is a Cartwright Family Fonds with the Ontario provincial archives, consisting of documents from 1799 to 1913. The documents were generated by Richard Cartwright, his sons John Solomon Cartwright and the Reverend Robert David Cartwright, Robert's wife Harriet (Dobbs) Cartwright and their son, Sir Richard Cartwright.

Electoral record

 * Liberal
 * Sir R. J. Cartwright
 * align="right"|acclaimed
 * }

title: Richard John Cartwright


text:
Talk:Victor de Broglie (1785–1870)

Untitled
Shouldn't this be at Victor, duc de Broglie or Victor, Duc de Broglie (depending on how the capitalization of titles issues has been resolved)? john k 06:23, 26 Sep 2004 (UTC)
 * I do think so. But this now request an admin WP:Move. Tazmaniacs 20:59, 30 August 2007 (UTC)

 * No, not unless that is actually the most common English form of his name, which is doubtful. — Llywelyn II   02:52, 15 June 2016 (UTC)

Sources for future article expansion
More at eb9, which was the actual source for several passages in the EB11 article.

These sources for the EB11 article should not be listed until they have actually been examined and used to directly verify points in the running text: — Llywelyn II   02:52, 15 June 2016 (UTC)
 * Thureau-Dangin, Paul (title?)
 * Duvergier de Hauranne, Jean (title?)
 * Thureau-Dangin, Paul (title?)
 * Duvergier de Hauranne, Jean (title?)

title: Talk:Victor de Broglie (1785–1870)


text:
Field of sets

In mathematics, a field of sets is a mathematical structure consisting of a pair $$( X, \mathcal{F} )$$ consisting of a set $$X$$ and a family $$\mathcal{F}$$ of subsets of $$X$$ called an algebra over $$X$$ that contains the empty set as an element, and is closed under the operations of taking complements in $$X,$$ finite unions, and finite intersections.

Fields of sets should not be confused with fields in ring theory nor with fields in physics. Similarly the term "algebra over $$X$$" is used in the sense of a Boolean algebra and should not be confused with algebras over fields or rings in ring theory.

Fields of sets play an essential role in the representation theory of Boolean algebras. Every Boolean algebra can be represented as a field of sets.

Definitions
A field of sets is a pair $$( X, \mathcal{F} )$$ consisting of a set $$X$$ and a family $$\mathcal{F}$$ of subsets of $$X,$$ called an algebra over $$X,$$ that has the following properties:

 : $$X \setminus F \in \mathcal{F} \text{ for all } F \in \mathcal{F}.$$  as an element: $$\varnothing \in \mathcal{F}.$$  Any/all of the following equivalent conditions hold:  : $$F \cup G \in \mathcal{F} \text{ for all } F, G \in \mathcal{F}.$$ : $$F \cap G \in \mathcal{F} \text{ for all } F, G \in \mathcal{F}.$$ : $$F_1 \cup \cdots \cup F_n \in \mathcal{F} \text{ for all integers } n \geq 1 \text{ and all } F_1, \ldots, F_n \in \mathcal{F}.$$ : $$F_1 \cap \cdots \cap F_n \in \mathcal{F} \text{ for all integers } n \geq 1 \text{ and all } F_1, \ldots, F_n \in \mathcal{F}.$$

 * Assuming that (1) holds, this condition (2) is equivalent to: $$X \in \mathcal{F}.$$

In other words, $$\mathcal{F}$$ forms a subalgebra of the power set Boolean algebra of $$X $$ (with the same identity element $$X \in \mathcal{F}$$). Many authors refer to $$\mathcal{F}$$ itself as a field of sets. Elements of $$X$$ are called points while elements of $$\mathcal{F}$$ are called complexes and are said to be the admissible sets of $$X.$$

A field of sets $$( X, \mathcal{F} )$$ is called a σ-field of sets and the algebra $$\mathcal{F}$$ is called a σ-algebra if the following additional condition (4) is satisfied:

Any/both of the following equivalent conditions hold:

: $$\bigcup_{i=1}^{\infty} F_i := F_1 \cup F_2 \cup \cdots \in \mathcal{F}$$ for all $$F_1, F_2, \ldots \in \mathcal{F}.$$

: $$\bigcap_{i=1}^{\infty} F_i := F_1 \cap F_2 \cap \cdots \in \mathcal{F}$$ for all $$F_1, F_2, \ldots \in \mathcal{F}.$$

Stone representation
For an arbitrary set $$Y,$$ its power set $$2^Y$$ (or, somewhat pedantically, the pair $$( Y, 2^Y )$$ of this set and its power set) is a field of sets. If $$Y$$ is finite (namely, $$n$$-element), then $$2^Y$$ is finite (namely, $$2^n$$-element). It appears that every finite field of sets (it means, $$( X, \mathcal{F} )$$ with $$\mathcal{F}$$ finite, while $$X$$ may be infinite) admits a representation of the form $$( Y, 2^Y )$$ with finite $$Y$$; it means a function $$f: X \to Y$$ that establishes a one-to-one correspondence between $$\mathcal{F}$$ and $$2^Y$$ via inverse image: $$S = f^{-1}[B] = \{x \in X \mid f(x)\in B \}$$ where $$S\in\mathcal{F}$$ and $$B \in 2^Y$$ (that is, $$B\subset Y$$). One notable consequence: the number of complexes, if finite, is always of the form $$2^n.$$

To this end one chooses $$Y$$ to be the set of all atoms of the given field of sets, and defines $$f$$ by $$f(x) = A$$ whenever $$x \in A$$ for a point $$x \in X$$ and a complex $$A \in \mathcal{F}$$ that is an atom; the latter means that a nonempty subset of $$A$$ different from $$A$$ cannot be a complex.

In other words: the atoms are a partition of $$X$$; $$Y$$ is the corresponding quotient set; and $$f$$ is the corresponding canonical surjection.

Similarly, every finite Boolean algebra can be represented as a power set – the power set of its set of atoms; each element of the Boolean algebra corresponds to the set of atoms below it (the join of which is the element). This power set representation can be constructed more generally for any complete atomic Boolean algebra.

In the case of Boolean algebras which are not complete and atomic we can still generalize the power set representation by considering fields of sets instead of whole power sets. To do this we first observe that the atoms of a finite Boolean algebra correspond to its ultrafilters and that an atom is below an element of a finite Boolean algebra if and only if that element is contained in the ultrafilter corresponding to the atom. This leads us to construct a representation of a Boolean algebra by taking its set of ultrafilters and forming complexes by associating with each element of the Boolean algebra the set of ultrafilters containing that element. This construction does indeed produce a representation of the Boolean algebra as a field of sets and is known as the Stone representation. It is the basis of Stone's representation theorem for Boolean algebras and an example of a completion procedure in order theory based on ideals or filters, similar to Dedekind cuts.

Alternatively one can consider the set of homomorphisms onto the two element Boolean algebra and form complexes by associating each element of the Boolean algebra with the set of such homomorphisms that map it to the top element. (The approach is equivalent as the ultrafilters of a Boolean algebra are precisely the pre-images of the top elements under these homomorphisms.) With this approach one sees that Stone representation can also be regarded as a generalization of the representation of finite Boolean algebras by truth tables.

Separative and compact fields of sets: towards Stone duality

 * A field of sets is called separative (or differentiated) if and only if for every pair of distinct points there is a complex containing one and not the other.
 * A field of sets is called compact if and only if for every proper filter over $$X$$ the intersection of all the complexes contained in the filter is non-empty.

These definitions arise from considering the topology generated by the complexes of a field of sets. (It is just one of notable topologies on the given set of points; it often happens that another topology is given, with quite different properties, in particular, not zero-dimensional). Given a field of sets $$\mathbf{X} = ( X, \mathcal{F} )$$ the complexes form a base for a topology. We denote by $$T(\mathbf{X})$$ the corresponding topological space, $$( X, \mathcal{T} )$$ where $$\mathcal{T}$$ is the topology formed by taking arbitrary unions of complexes. Then

 * $$T(\mathbf{X})$$ is always a zero-dimensional space.
 * $$T(\mathbf{X})$$ is a Hausdorff space if and only if $$\mathbf{X}$$ is separative.
 * $$T(\mathbf{X})$$ is a compact space with compact open sets $$\mathcal{F}$$ if and only if $$\mathbf{X}$$ is compact.
 * $$T(\mathbf{X})$$ is a Boolean space with clopen sets $$\mathcal{F}$$ if and only if $$\mathbf{X}$$ is both separative and compact (in which case it is described as being descriptive)

The Stone representation of a Boolean algebra is always separative and compact; the corresponding Boolean space is known as the Stone space of the Boolean algebra. The clopen sets of the Stone space are then precisely the complexes of the Stone representation. The area of mathematics known as Stone duality is founded on the fact that the Stone representation of a Boolean algebra can be recovered purely from the corresponding Stone space whence a duality exists between Boolean algebras and Boolean spaces.

Sigma algebras and measure spaces
If an algebra over a set is closed under countable unions (hence also under countable intersections), it is called a sigma algebra and the corresponding field of sets is called a measurable space. The complexes of a measurable space are called measurable sets. The Loomis-Sikorski theorem provides a Stone-type duality between countably complete Boolean algebras (which may be called abstract sigma algebras) and measurable spaces.

A measure space is a triple $$( X, \mathcal{F}, \mu )$$ where $$( X, \mathcal{F} )$$ is a measurable space and $$\mu$$ is a measure defined on it. If $$\mu$$ is in fact a probability measure we speak of a probability space and call its underlying measurable space a sample space. The points of a sample space are called sample points and represent potential outcomes while the measurable sets (complexes) are called events and represent properties of outcomes for which we wish to assign probabilities. (Many use the term sample space simply for the underlying set of a probability space, particularly in the case where every subset is an event.) Measure spaces and probability spaces play a foundational role in measure theory and probability theory respectively.

In applications to Physics we often deal with measure spaces and probability spaces derived from rich mathematical structures such as inner product spaces or topological groups which already have a topology associated with them - this should not be confused with the topology generated by taking arbitrary unions of complexes.

Topological fields of sets
A topological field of sets is a triple $$( X, \mathcal{T}, \mathcal{F} )$$ where $$( X, \mathcal{T} )$$ is a topological space and $$( X, \mathcal{F} )$$ is a field of sets which is closed under the closure operator of $$\mathcal{T}$$ or equivalently under the interior operator i.e. the closure and interior of every complex is also a complex. In other words, $$\mathcal{F}$$ forms a subalgebra of the power set interior algebra on $$( X, \mathcal{T} ).$$

Topological fields of sets play a fundamental role in the representation theory of interior algebras and Heyting algebras. These two classes of algebraic structures provide the algebraic semantics for the modal logic S4 (a formal mathematical abstraction of epistemic logic) and intuitionistic logic respectively. Topological fields of sets representing these algebraic structures provide a related topological semantics for these logics.

Every interior algebra can be represented as a topological field of sets with the underlying Boolean algebra of the interior algebra corresponding to the complexes of the topological field of sets and the interior and closure operators of the interior algebra corresponding to those of the topology. Every Heyting algebra can be represented by a topological field of sets with the underlying lattice of the Heyting algebra corresponding to the lattice of complexes of the topological field of sets that are open in the topology. Moreover the topological field of sets representing a Heyting algebra may be chosen so that the open complexes generate all the complexes as a Boolean algebra. These related representations provide a well defined mathematical apparatus for studying the relationship between truth modalities (possibly true vs necessarily true, studied in modal logic) and notions of provability and refutability (studied in intuitionistic logic) and is thus deeply connected to the theory of modal companions of intermediate logics.

Given a topological space the clopen sets trivially form a topological field of sets as each clopen set is its own interior and closure. The Stone representation of a Boolean algebra can be regarded as such a topological field of sets, however in general the topology of a topological field of sets can differ from the topology generated by taking arbitrary unions of complexes and in general the complexes of a topological field of sets need not be open or closed in the topology.

Algebraic fields of sets and Stone fields
A topological field of sets is called algebraic if and only if there is a base for its topology consisting of complexes.

If a topological field of sets is both compact and algebraic then its topology is compact and its compact open sets are precisely the open complexes. Moreover, the open complexes form a base for the topology.

Topological fields of sets that are separative, compact and algebraic are called Stone fields and provide a generalization of the Stone representation of Boolean algebras. Given an interior algebra we can form the Stone representation of its underlying Boolean algebra and then extend this to a topological field of sets by taking the topology generated by the complexes corresponding to the open elements of the interior algebra (which form a base for a topology). These complexes are then precisely the open complexes and the construction produces a Stone field representing the interior algebra - the Stone representation. (The topology of the Stone representation is also known as the McKinsey–Tarski Stone topology after the mathematicians who first generalized Stone's result for Boolean algebras to interior algebras and should not be confused with the Stone topology of the underlying Boolean algebra of the interior algebra which will be a finer topology).

Preorder fields
A preorder field is a triple $$( X, \leq, \mathcal{F} )$$ where $$( X, \leq )$$ is a preordered set and $$( X, \mathcal{F} )$$ is a field of sets.

Like the topological fields of sets, preorder fields play an important role in the representation theory of interior algebras. Every interior algebra can be represented as a preorder field with its interior and closure operators corresponding to those of the Alexandrov topology induced by the preorder. In other words, for all $$S \in \mathcal{F}$$: $$\mathrm{Int}(S) = \{ x \in X : \text{ there exists a } y \in S \text{ with } y \leq x \}$$ and $$\mathrm{Cl}(S) = \{ x \in X : \text{ there exists a } y \in S \text{ with } x \leq y \}$$

Similarly to topological fields of sets, preorder fields arise naturally in modal logic where the points represent the possible worlds in the Kripke semantics of a theory in the modal logic S4, the preorder represents the accessibility relation on these possible worlds in this semantics, and the complexes represent sets of possible worlds in which individual sentences in the theory hold, providing a representation of the Lindenbaum–Tarski algebra of the theory. They are a special case of the general modal frames which are fields of sets with an additional accessibility relation providing representations of modal algebras.

Algebraic and canonical preorder fields
A preorder field is called algebraic (or tight) if and only if it has a set of complexes $$\mathcal{A}$$ which determines the preorder in the following manner: $$x \leq y$$ if and only if for every complex $$S \in \mathcal{A}$$, $$x \in S$$ implies $$y \in S$$. The preorder fields obtained from S4 theories are always algebraic, the complexes determining the preorder being the sets of possible worlds in which the sentences of the theory closed under necessity hold.

A separative compact algebraic preorder field is said to be canonical. Given an interior algebra, by replacing the topology of its Stone representation with the corresponding canonical preorder (specialization preorder) we obtain a representation of the interior algebra as a canonical preorder field. By replacing the preorder by its corresponding Alexandrov topology we obtain an alternative representation of the interior algebra as a topological field of sets. (The topology of this "Alexandrov representation" is just the Alexandrov bi-coreflection of the topology of the Stone representation.) While representation of modal algebras by general modal frames is possible for any normal modal algebra, it is only in the case of interior algebras (which correspond to the modal logic S4) that the general modal frame corresponds to topological field of sets in this manner.

Complex algebras and fields of sets on relational structures
The representation of interior algebras by preorder fields can be generalized to a representation theorem for arbitrary (normal) Boolean algebras with operators. For this we consider structures $$( X, (R_i)_I, \mathcal{F} ) $$ where $$( X,(R_i)_I ) $$ is a relational structure i.e. a set with an indexed family of relations defined on it, and $$( X, \mathcal{F} ) $$ is a field of sets. The complex algebra (or algebra of complexes) determined by a field of sets $$\mathbf{X} = ( X, \left(R_i\right)_I, \mathcal{F} ) $$ on a relational structure, is the Boolean algebra with operators $$\mathcal{C}(\mathbf{X}) = ( \mathcal{F}, \cap, \cup, \prime, \empty, X, (f_i)_I )$$ where for all $$i \in I,$$ if $$R_i$$ is a relation of arity $$n + 1,$$ then $$f_i$$ is an operator of arity $$n$$ and for all $$S_1, \ldots, S_n \in \mathcal{F}$$ $$f_i(S_1, \ldots, S_n) = \left\{ x \in X : \text{ there exist } x_1 \in S_1, \ldots, x_n \in S_n \text{ such that } R_i(x_1, \ldots, x_n, x) \right\}$$

This construction can be generalized to fields of sets on arbitrary algebraic structures having both operators and relations as operators can be viewed as a special case of relations. If $$\mathcal{F}$$ is the whole power set of $$X$$ then $$\mathcal{C}(\mathbf{X})$$ is called a full complex algebra or power algebra.

Every (normal) Boolean algebra with operators can be represented as a field of sets on a relational structure in the sense that it is isomorphic to the complex algebra corresponding to the field.

(Historically the term complex was first used in the case where the algebraic structure was a group and has its origins in 19th century group theory where a subset of a group was called a complex.)

title: Field of sets


text:
Talk:Rogue planet/Pre-merge

A rogue planet is an object which has equivalent mass to a planet and is not gravitationally bound to any star, and that therefore moves through space as an independent object. Several astronomers claim to have detected such objects, but those detections remain unconfirmed.

Some astronomers refer to these objects as "planets", usually because they believe such objects were planets that were ejected from orbiting a star. However, others believe that the definition of 'planet' should depend on current observable state, and not origin. Additionally, these objects may form on their own through gas cloud collapse like stars; in which case they would never have been planets.

Atmosphere hypothesis
In 1998, David J. Stevenson authored a paper entitled "Possibility of Life Sustaining Planets in Interstellar Space." In this paper, Stevenson theorizes that some wandering objects, that Stevenson refers to as "planets", drift in the vast expanses of cold interstellar space and could possibly sustain a thick atmosphere which would not freeze out due to radiative heat loss. He proposes that atmospheres are preserved by the pressure-induced far infrared radiation opacity of a thick hydrogen-containing atmosphere.

It is thought that during planetary system formation, several small protoplanetary bodies may be ejected from the forming system. With the reduced ultraviolet light associated with its increasing distance from the parent star, the planet's predominantly hydrogen and helium containing atmosphere would be easily confined even by an Earth-sized body's gravity.

It is calculated that for an Earth-sized object at a kilobar hydrogen atmospheric pressures in which a convective gas adiabat has formed, geothermal energy from residual core radioisotope decay will be sufficient to heat the surface to temperatures above the melting point of water. Thus, it is proposed that interstellar planetary bodies with extensive liquid water oceans may exist. It is further suggested that the bodies are likely to remain geologically active for long periods of time, providing a geodynamo-created protective magnetosphere and possible sea floor volcanism which could provide an energy source for life. The author admits these bodies will be difficult to detect due to the intrinsically weak thermal microwave radiation emissions emanating from the lower reaches of the atmosphere.

Proplyds of planetars?
Recently, it has been discovered that some extrasolar planets such as the planemo 2M1207b, orbiting the brown dwarf 2M1207, have debris discs. If some large interstellar objects are considered as stars (brown sub-dwarfs) then the debris could coalesce into planets, meaning the disks are proplyds. If these are considered planets, then the debris would coalesce as moons. The term planetar exists for those accretion masses that seem to fall between stars and planets.

Interstellar planets in popular culture
The short story A Pail of Air by Fritz Leiber, which first appeared on the radio show X Minus One in March 1956, is narrated by a boy living on Earth after it has been torn from the Sun's gravity and captured by a passing "dark star". Although Earth now orbits this "dark star", it shares many characteristics with an interstellar planet.

The homeworld of the Founders in Star Trek: Deep Space Nine is a rogue planet in a nebula; it has climatic conditions capable of supporting humanoid life.

In the episode Rogue Planet of Star Trek: Enterprise, Enterprise happens upon a rogue planet with an earth-like atmosphere. The planet was heated by volcanic vents that sent heat into the atmosphere, thus sustaining the ecology of the planet.

In the Warhammer 40,000 universe, the Temple of the Culexus Assassins of the Officio Assassinorum is located deep under the surface of a 'dead' rogue planet.

The planet Zonama Sekot in the Star Wars fictional universe was first introduced in the novel Rogue Planet and later expanded on in the New Jedi Order series. The planet, which is in fact a sentient life form itself, is home to life unlike any other in the galaxy, including organic spaceships.

In Space 1999 the Earth's Moon is knocked out of orbit by an explosion at its nuclear waste dump. The Moon then becomes a wandering planet.

The rogue planet of Worlorn is the scene of action in George R. R. Martin’s novel Dying of the Light.

title: Talk:Rogue planet/Pre-merge


text:
Kakemono

A kakemono (掛物), more commonly referred to as a kakejiku (掛軸), is a Japanese hanging scroll used to display and exhibit paintings and calligraphy inscriptions and designs mounted usually with silk fabric edges on a flexible backing, so that it can be rolled for storage.

The "Maruhyōsō" style of kakejiku has four distinct named sections. The top section is called the "ten" heaven. The bottom is the "chi" earth with the "hashira" pillars supporting the heaven and earth on the sides. The maruhyōsō style, also contains a section of "ichimonji" made from "kinran" gold thread. On observation, the Ten is longer than the Chi. This is because in the past, Kakemono were viewed from a kneeling (seiza) position and provided perspective to the "Honshi" main work. This tradition carries on to modern times.

There is a cylindrical rod called jikugi (軸木) at the bottom, which becomes the axis or center of the rolled scroll. The end knobs on this rod are in themselves called jiku, and are used as grasps when rolling and unrolling the scroll.

Other parts of the scroll include the "jikubo" referenced above as the jikugi. The top half moon shaped wood rod is named the "hassō" to which the "kan" or metal loops are inserted in order to tie the "kakehimo" hanging thread. Attached to the jikubo are the "jikusaki", the term used for the end knobs, which can be inexpensive and made of plastic or relatively decorative pieces made of ceramic or lacquered wood. Additional decorative wood or ceramic pieces are called "fuchin" and come with multicolored tassels. The variation in the kakehimo, jikusaki and fuchin make each scroll more original and unique.

The arrival of kakemono to the Spanish colonies in the Philippines and the Americas prompted local artists to imitate the format as a convenient way to provide portable art.

title: Kakemono


text:
James Lorimer Ilsley

James Lorimer Ilsley (3 January 1894 – 14 January 1967) was a Canadian politician and jurist. He was minister of finance from 1940 to 1946. He was finance minister during World War II; to fund the increase in wartime expenditure, he dramatically expanded the income tax by imposing it on millions of workers and citizens.

Early life
He was born in Somerset, Nova Scotia, the son of Randel Ilsley and Catherine Caldwell. Ilsley was educated at Acadia University and Dalhousie University and was admitted to the Nova Scotia bar in 1916. In 1919, he married Evelyn Smith. Ilsley then practised law in Yarmouth and Halifax, Nova Scotia until 1926.

Political career
He was elected to the House of Commons of Canada as a Liberal in the 1926 election. He survived the 1930 election that sent the Liberals into Opposition. When the Liberal Party returned to power in the 1935 election, Prime Minister William Lyon Mackenzie King brought Ilsley into Cabinet as Minister of National Revenue.

Finance minister
In 1940, he was promoted to Minister of Finance. He held that position for the duration of World War II during a period of massive expansion in expenditure due to the war effort, described as a "transformation of the Canadian tax system" by historian Colin Campbell. Under his direction, the minimum income required to pay income tax was push dramatically downward, effectively changing income tax from a "class tax" on the wealthiest 300,000 or so Canadians to a national tax imposed on millions of average workers, and directly deduced from their checks. The revenue generated from income tax during this era expand by nearly 1000%.

He also led the Victory Bond campaign, brought in wage and price controls in 1941, and deal with several currency crises. He was also known for his call for personal sacrifice by civilians during the war and led by example by giving up his car and riding the streetcar to Parliament Hill. In 1945, despite the taxes he had imposed on the general public, he was rated the most popular cabinet minister in the cabinet.

He was recognized for his service in 1946 when he was appointed to the Imperial Privy Council, and given the honorific of "Right Honourable".

Minister of justice
The same year, he became Minister of Justice. He served in that position until he retired from politics in 1948.

Later life
Illsley retired from politics in 1948. The next year, he was appointed to the Nova Scotia Supreme Court and became Chief Justice of Nova Scotia in 1950. He served in that capacity until his death in 1967 in Halifax at the age of 73.

J. L. Ilsley High School, opened in 1971 and located in Spryfield, Nova Scotia, bears his name.

title: James Lorimer Ilsley


text:
Fulton Chain of Lakes

The Fulton Chain of Lakes is a string of eight lakes located in the Adirondack Park in upstate New York, United States. The chain is the dammed-up Moose River, and the dam which creates the chain holds back nearly 6.8 e9USgal of water. The lakes are located in Herkimer and Hamilton Counties. Inlet, Old Forge, and Eagle Bay are towns on them. The chain begins near Old Forge and ends before it reaches Raquette Lake. The lakes are named for Robert Fulton, inventor of the steamboat, who proposed connecting the lakes to create an Adirondack canal. They are suitable for pontoon boats (the most popular type in the area), kayaks, and motorboats. The chain is part of the 740 mi Northern Forest Canoe Trail, which begins on First Lake and ends in Fort Kent, Maine.

Geography
The lakes in the chain have been given ordinal designations: First Lake, Second Lake, Third Lake, Fourth Lake, Fifth Lake, Sixth Lake, Seventh Lake, and Eighth Lake. The chain begins with a small lake not counted in the series called Old Forge Pond. In reality, First, Second and Third Lake are one long lake separated by narrow straits. At the east end of Fourth Lake, by Inlet in Hamilton County, a stream, or channel, allows access to the small Fifth Lake. A portage is necessary to arrive at Sixth Lake, which is also connected by a narrow strait to Seventh Lake. Another portage is required to gain access to Eighth Lake.

Beyond Eighth Lake is Raquette Lake and another string of lakes in Indian Lake, New York.

Expansions in 1798
The lakes were expanded from 2762 acre to 3481 acre in 1798 when the Moose River was dammed at Old Forge. The present dam at Old Forge holds back 6.8 e9USgal of water. This reservoir is managed by the HR-BR Regulating District. In the late 1800s, the State Water Power Commissioner made an agreement with Fulton Chain cottage owners and recreational users to maintain the water level during the summer season, an agreement still in effect.

Recreation
Prior to World War II, the town of Inlet boasted fourteen Adirondack hotels. The Woods Inn is now the only historic hotel remaining open year round. Boating is a popular activity in the Fulton Chain of Lakes because any aspects of the lakes are accessible by water. For example, the restaurants of The Woods Inn, Great Pines (Formerly Northwoods Inn), Daikers, and the Screamen Eagle are all accessible by boat, you can also get to Inlet and Old Forge by boat. A very popular type of boat in the Adirondacks is the pontoon boat because many people enjoy relaxing on the lakes. Also fishing boats because of the vast numbers of types of fish and areas of the lakes to be able to fish. The lakes sport decent populations of gamefish including northern pike, lake trout, rainbow trout, brook trout, landlocked (Atlantic) salmon, largemouth bass, smallmouth bass, yellow perch, brown bullhead, tiger muskie and various panfish. Tubing, skiing, knee boarding, and wake boarding are all common water recreational activities that are seen while on the Fulton Chain of Lakes. In addition to boating, snowmobiling is also very popular in the region during the Winter. Although the Fulton Chain of Lakes are not technically part of the snowmobile trails, once frozen many snowmobilers use them to access the same restaurants noted above.

Adirondack Canoe Classic
The Fulton Chain is the start of the Adirondack Canoe Classic, a three-day, 90 mi canoe race. This canoe race is for anyone from beginners to experts, it is a way to get the community together and to get everyone involved with something. Many kids (usually older kids) will go with their parents and form a team. Many people train very hard for this 90 mile race, however some teams just go out there for the comradery of it all and just to have fun with friends. However, it is a rigorous course and includes three days of physical activity and hard work for participants.

Hiking
Hiking is a popular activity in the Adirondack Park because of the high numbers and varieties of hikes available. Some of the varieties of hikes include anything from the High Peaks to the relatively flat hikes of Sis and Bub. Bald Mountain is one of the most popular mountains to hike not only by the Fulton Chain of Lakes but also in the Adirondacks as a whole due to the views of the entire chain. At the top of this mountain there is the Rondaxe Fire Tower that has been restored to allow hikers to climb to the top of it in order to enhance the views of the Fulton Chain of Lakes. Sis and Bub lakes is a relatively flat hike, it has some inclination however it is nothing too drastic. This hike is good for families with younger children because it is not very rigorous or challenging. Another hike is the Sis, Bub, and Moss Lake trail, it is a full loop that connects Sis and Bub lakes to Moss Lake, this hike is very suitable for families and is primarily flat.

Surrounding towns
Inlet is located at the “head of Fourth Lake” and this is where it gets its name from because it is near the inlet of the fourth of the eight lakes. Inlet is a small town that includes Kalil’s Grocery Store, a post office, a realtor’s office, restaurants, other stores and a baseball field. Many of the businesses in the town are family owned and run.

Eagle Bay is a small town that is also located on Fourth lake and includes a neighborhood full of cabins. The town includes restaurants, a laundromat, and a fire station. The neighborhood of Eagle Bay is a small, quaint place where the homes are on mainly square plots set back in the woods, however some of them are waterfront. There are two community beaches that are accessible to homeowners of the neighborhood, as well as boat slips that are available for purchase with the property.

Old Forge is the biggest of the three towns adjacent to the lakes and is also located at the beginning of the Fulton Chain of Lakes, by the Old Forge Pond. In Old Forge there are grocery stores, restaurants, souvenir stores, realtors offices, and a fire station. Old Forge is a well known town all throughout the Adirondacks and especially around the Fulton Chain of Lakes. There is also a motel located right above the Old Forge Pond. A well-known water park called Enchanted Forest Water Safari is a very popular tourist attraction in Old Forge and is the largest water park in New York state.

title: Fulton Chain of Lakes


text:
Arrowhead Springs, San Bernardino

Arrowhead Springs is a highly mountainous neighborhood in the 81 sqmi municipality of San Bernardino, California, officially annexed to the city on November 19, 2009. The neighborhood lies below the Arrowhead geological monument, which is California Historical Landmark #977.

The natural geologic formation of light quartz on the side of the mountains presides over San Bernardino and the rest of the San Bernardino Valley. The city of Lake Arrowhead, California and the adjacent lake, Lake Arrowhead Reservoir, take their names from the formation as does Arrowhead Water. The Native Americans of the San Bernardino Valley thought the Arrowhead pointed to the artesian hot springs below, which are the site of the historic Arrowhead Springs Hotel, Spa, & Bungalows. The region is also home to the Arrowhead Country Club and Golf Course.

The Arrowhead landmark itself is at 34.19417°N, -117.25972°W.

Arrowhead Springs Hotel and Spa
The historic Arrowhead Springs Hotel and Spa, located in the Arrowhead Springs neighborhood, encompasses 1916 acre directly beneath the Arrowhead geological monument that presides over the San Bernardino Valley. The present building was designed by architects Gordon B. Kaufmann and Paul R. Williams. The resort contains hot springs, in addition to mineral baths and steam caves located deep underground. It featured a Pacific Electric "Red Car" rail line connecting the hotel to San Bernardino and the Greater Los Angeles area. Long the headquarters for Campus Crusade for Christ, the site remained largely vacant and unused since their operations moved to Florida. In May 2016, the San Manuel Band of Mission Indians purchased the Arrowhead Springs property.

In 1924, architect Arthur B. Benton, designed a rustic concrete entrance archway encased in ornamental boulders. The archway stood 15 feet high with a 26-foot span. It appears the arch location was at 34.18278°N, -117.27389°W.

Future
The specific plan for the future of the site includes: a new 115-room annex to the existing 135-room hotel; a new 300-room lakefront hotel; new reservoirs and a reconfiguration of the 5 acre Lake Vonette; new vineyards, along with the Windy Point restaurant and wine-tasting site; a new 18-hole golf course; 36 new custom estates on fairway-adjacent lots; 200000 sqft of commercial space, 34 apartment suites built to condominium standards, and 266 condominiums, townhomes, and single-family attached homes in the new Village Walk mixed-use lifestyle center; 300 new condominiums, townhomes, and/or senior apartments in an upscale retirement village; a new 8600 sqft spa resort; 429 condominiums, townhomes, and single-family detached homes located adjacent to the golf course; commercial stables at a new polo club and equestrian center; extensive multi-purpose trails and watercourses; a 13.9 acre public botanical garden; 7.1 acre of private parks; a new 250000 sqft office complex; a new 25000 sqft conference center; and, 8000 sqft of commercial space and 285 condominiums, townhomes, and single-family attached homes in the Hilltown development. Existing facilities on the grounds include: a cinema; ten private bungalows previously owned by such people as Eleanor Roosevelt, Lucille Ball, the Marx Brothers, Judy Garland, Elizabeth Taylor, and Humphrey Bogart; an outdoor amphitheater; a wedding chapel; the Esther Williams Pool and Cabanas; the Hill Auditorium; several ballrooms; a guard house; tennis courts; and the Hacienda.

title: Arrowhead Springs, San Bernardino


text:
Hanging scroll

A hanging scroll is one of the many traditional ways to display and exhibit East Asian painting and calligraphy. The hanging scroll was displayed in a room for appreciation; it is to be distinguished from the handscroll, which was narrower and designed to be viewed flat on a table in sections and then stored away again.

Hanging scrolls are generally intended to be displayed for short periods of time and are then rolled up to be tied and secured for storage. The hanging scrolls are rotated according to season or occasion, and such works are never intended to be on permanent display. The painting surface of the paper or silk can be mounted with decorative brocade silk borders. In the composition of a hanging scroll, the foreground is usually at the bottom of the scroll while the middle and far distances are at the middle and top respectively.

The traditional craft involved in creating a hanging scroll is considered an art in itself. Mountings for Chinese paintings can be divided into a few types, such as handscrolls, hanging scrolls, album leaves, and screens amongst others. In the hanging scroll the actual painting is mounted on paper, and provided at the top with a stave, to which is attached a hanging cord, and at the bottom with a roller.

History
Scrolls originated in their earliest form from literature and other texts written on bamboo strips and silk banners across ancient China. The earliest hanging scrolls are related to and developed from silk banners in early Chinese history. These banners were long and hung vertically on walls. Such silk banners and hanging scroll paintings were found at Mawangdui dating back to the Han dynasty (206 BCE – 220 CE). By the time of the Tang dynasty (618–907), the aesthetic and structural objectives for hanging scrolls were summarized, which are still followed to this day. During the early Song dynasty (960–1279), the scrolls became well suited to the art styles of the artists, consequently hanging scrolls were made in many different sizes and proportions.

Originally introduced to Japan from China as a means of spreading Buddhism, it has found a place in Japanese culture and art and plays an important role in interior decoration.

Description
The hanging scroll provides an artist with a vertical format to display his art on a wall. It is one of the most common types of scrolls for Chinese painting and calligraphy. Horizontal hanging scrolls are also very frequently used and a common form. The hanging scroll is different from the handscroll in that the latter is not hung. The handscroll is a long narrow scroll for displaying a series of scenes in Chinese painting. This scroll is intended to be viewed section for section during the unrolling and flat on a table, which is in contrast to a hanging scroll that is appreciated in its entirety while guiding the eyes through the artwork.

Mounting styles
There are several hanging scroll styles for mounting, such as:
 * Yisebiao (一色裱, one color mount)
 * Ersebiao (二色裱, two color mount)
 * Sansebiao (三色裱, three color mount)
 * Xuanhezhuang (宣和裝, Xuanhe style), also known as Songshibiao (宋式裱, Song dynasty mount)

Arrangements and formats
Besides the previous styles of hanging scroll mountings, there are a few additional ways to format the hanging scroll.

 * Hall painting (中堂畫)
 * Hall paintings are intended to be the centerpiece in the main hall. It's usually quite a large hanging scroll that serves as a focal point in an interior and often has a complicated subject.

 * Four hanging scrolls (四條屏)
 * These hanging scrolls were developed from screen paintings. It features several narrow and long hanging scrolls and is usually hung next to each other on a wall, but can also be hung on its own. The subjects have related themes, such as the flowers of the four seasons, the Four Gentlemen (orchid, bamboo, chrysanthemum, plum blossom), the Four Beauties (ladies renowned for their beauty).

 * Panoramic screen (通景屏)
 * The panoramic screen consists of several hanging scrolls that have continuous images, in which the subject continues further in another scroll. These hanging scrolls cover large areas of a wall and usually do not have a border in between.

 * Couplet (對聯)
 * A couplet is two hanging scrolls placed side by side or accompanying a scroll in the middle. These are with poetic calligraphy in vertical writing. This style came to popularity during the Ming dynasty (1368–1644).

 * Thin strip painting (條幅畫)
 * Narrow strip paintings intended for smaller rooms and spaces.

Features and materials
Chinese mounting and conservation techniques are considered a traditional craft and are believed to have developed around 2,000 years ago. This craft is considered an art onto itself. Careful attention was and still is paid to ensure the quality and variety of the silk and paper to protect and properly fit the artwork onto the mounting, as it gives form to the art. The art is fixed onto a four-sided inlay, made from paper or silk, thus providing a border.

The artwork in the middle of the scroll is called huaxin (畫心; literally "painted heart"). There is sometimes a section above the artwork called a shitang (詩塘; literally "poetic pool"), which is usually reserved for inscriptions onto the work of art, ranging from a short verse to poems and other inscriptions. These inscriptions are often done by people other than the artist. Although inscriptions can also be placed onto the material of the artwork itself. The upper part of the scroll is called tiantou (天頭; symbolizing "Heaven") and the lower part is called ditou (地頭; symbolizing "Earth").

At the top of the scroll is a thin wooden bar, called tiangan (天杆), on which a cord is attached for hanging the scroll. Two decorative strips, called jingyan (惊燕; literally "frighten swallows"), are sometimes attached to the top of the scroll. At the bottom of the scroll is a wooden cylindrical bar, called digan (地杆), attached to give the scroll the necessary weight to hang properly onto a wall, but it also serves to roll up a scroll for storage when the artwork is not in display. The two knobs at the far ends of the lower wooden bar are called zhoutou (軸頭) and help to ease the rolling of the scroll. These could be ornamented with a variety of materials, such as jade, ivory, or horn.

Method and processes
Traditional scroll mounters go through a lengthy process of backing the mounting silks with paper using paste before creating the borders for the scroll. Afterwards, the whole scroll is backed before the roller and fittings are attached. The whole process can take two weeks to nine months depending on how long the scroll is left on the wall to dry and stretch before finishing by polishing the back with Chinese wax and fitting the rod and roller at either end. This process is generally called 'wet mounting' due to the use of wet paste in the process.

In the late 20th century a new method was created called 'dry mounting' which involves the use of heat activated silicone sheets in lieu of paste which reduced the amount of time from a few weeks to just a few hours. This new method is generally used for mass-produced artwork rather than serious art or conservation as mounting done this way tends not to be as robust as wet mounting whose scrolls can last for over a century before it requires remounting.

title: Hanging scroll


text:
Richard Cartwright

Richard Cartwright may refer to:

 * Richard Cartwright (Loyalist) (1759–1815), businessman, judge and political figure in Upper Canada
 * Sir Richard John Cartwright (1835–1912), Canadian Member of Parliament and Senator
 * Richard Cartwright (bishop) (1913–2009), Bishop of Plymouth in the Church of England
 * Richard Cartwright (philosopher) (1925–2010), American philosopher
 * Richard Cartwright (murderer) (1974–2005), executed in Texas in 2005

title: Richard Cartwright


text:
Grand Theft Auto Advance

Grand Theft Auto Advance (also marketed as Grand Theft Auto) is a 2004 action-adventure game developed by Digital Eclipse and published by Rockstar Games. The eighth entry in the Grand Theft Auto series, it was released for the Game Boy Advance in October 2004. The game takes place in Liberty City (a fictional parody of New York City), the same setting used for Grand Theft Auto III, to which it serves as a prequel. The story, set one year before Grand Theft Auto III, follows small-time criminal Mike's quest for revenge after his partner's supposed death, which leads him to become entangled in a world of organised crime, gang warfare, and corruption.

The game is played from a top-down perspective, similar to the style used in Grand Theft Auto and Grand Theft Auto 2; despite this, it is part of the series' "3D universe" canon, sharing continuity with the three-dimensional games of the franchise. It also features most gameplay elements of the 3D Grand Theft Auto games, including the vehicle-based side-missions, most weapons, the use of safe houses, and the style of the heads-up display. The game received mixed reviews from critics, and was followed by Grand Theft Auto: Liberty City Stories, another Grand Theft Auto III prequel, in 2005.

Gameplay
Grand Theft Auto Advance is an action-adventure game set in an open world environment and played from a top-down perspective. The game had to be adapted to the Game Boy Advance's hardware limitations. As a result, it does not have animated cutscenes, nor does it have Grand Theft Auto III's much-lauded pedestrian dialogue. All cutscenes are text-only with hand-drawn pictures of the characters' faces, with a thematic backdrop behind. The art style is consistent with that used for the cover and loading art of the three-dimensional releases in the series. Replacing the pedestrian dialogue, some soundbites taken from Grand Theft Auto III are played when the player hits someone's car. Short police radio voiceovers will announce the player's location and vehicle type when the player commits a crime.

The game does not feature radio channels. Like the Game Boy Color ports of Grand Theft Auto and Grand Theft Auto 2, each car has one fixed tune that is constantly repeated and cannot be changed. These include parts of some familiar Grand Theft Auto, Grand Theft Auto 2 and Grand Theft Auto III tunes, in instrumental versions. Despite this, billboards for the radio stations featured in Grand Theft Auto III can be seen throughout Liberty City.

Setting and characters
The game is set in 2000 within Liberty City, the same setting used in Grand Theft Auto III. As the setting had to be recreated for the Game Boy Advance, much of it was noticeably changed in its conversion, including elements that were impossible to interpret to from the game's top-view perspective. As a result of these changes, players familiar with the original setting have to explore it afresh in Grand Theft Auto Advance.

As a prequel to Grand Theft Auto III, the game features both new and returning characters. The protagonist is an original character named Mike, who in his quest to avenge the supposed death of his partner, Vinnie, crosses paths with several prominent criminals that offer him assistance. These include explosives expert and firearms trader 8-Ball, Yardies leader King Courtney, and yakuza co-leader Asuka Kasen, all previously featured in Grand Theft Auto III, although their characters received significant changes in appearance and lifestyle to reflect who they were one year prior.

Plot
Small-time criminal Mike works for the more connected criminal Vinnie in hopes of leaving Liberty City with him and retiring from their life of crime. Vinnie convinces Mike to do work for the Mafia in order to achieve this goal. However, after several jobs, Vinnie is seemingly killed in a car bomb explosion, which also destroys all their money. Mike vows revenge, and quickly falls out with the Mafia as he investigates Vinnie's murder. After carrying out some jobs for 8-Ball, an explosives expert and old acquaintance of Vinnie's, he points Mike to a bartender named Jonnie, who maintains connections with the city's criminal underworld and might help him find the answers he seeks. Jonnie hires Mike for several jobs while they investigate Vinnie's murder together, until the former is suddenly killed midway through the investigation.

While searching for the killer, Mike spots some Yardies leaving Jonnie's bar in a rush, and follows them to their leader, King Courtney. Courtney denies involvement in Jonnie's murder, claiming that his men were only sent to collect money Jonnie owed to him, and offers to help find the true culprit. After carrying out some jobs for him, Courtney points Mike to Colombian Cartel leader Cisco. When Mike confronts Cisco, however, he quickly realizes that the man is innocent, and that Courtney has been using him all along to eliminate his rivals. Mike then begins working separately for the Cartel and their main rivals, the yakuza, led by Asuka Kasen, in hopes either gang will aid his investigation. After Cisco is suddenly killed, Mike pursues the murderer, and is shocked to find a still-living Vinnie, who reveals that he faked his own death to flee Liberty City with their money, and killed both Jonnie and Cisco to ensure Mike never learned the truth. Enraged at his former partner's betrayal, Mike kills Vinnie and steals his money, despite Vinnie's warnings that every criminal in the city will now target him for his wealth.

While meeting with 8-Ball to tell him how his investigation ended, Mike is attacked by the Cartel, who mistakenly assumed that he had killed Cisco. Although Mike escapes the attack, 8-Ball is injured during the shootout and subsequently arrested by the police. After dealing with the Cartel's new leader, Mike learns that Courtney is after his money and meets with Asuka one final time to plan an ambush at Courtney's hideout. However, the yakuza fail to show up for the attack, leaving Mike to face Courtney on his own (in one of the instances, the yakuza will provide cover for Mike once he confronts King Courtney provided he gets into the hideout within the stipulated time). Mike fends off the waves of Yardie attacks and then gravely injures Courtney but before he can finish him off, the police raid Courtney's hideout, forcing Mike to make his escape. After evading the police, Mike goes to the airport and leaves Liberty City in Cisco's private plane. He reminisces his fallen friends and heads to Colombia to start a new life with his wealth.

Reception
Grand Theft Auto Advance received "mixed or average" reviews, according to review aggregator Metacritic.

The graphics of the game received mixed to positive commentary from critics, who likened it to other Game Boy Advance games. Craig Harris of IGN said that the game "does a good job of looking like the old GTA games." Loki of Game Chronicles said that the game uses "plenty of tricks" to give it a "3D feel," and that there's a "real sense of depth and perspective as you gaze down upon Liberty City." Conversely, 1UP staff said that the game has "flat visuals" that are a "poor leap" compared to previous games in the Grand Theft Auto series.

The game's music received mixed reactions. IGN's Craig Harris said that the songs on the radio stations in the vehicles are "pretty repetitive and aren't so great." 1UP.com's Scott Sharkey stated that the music is "pretty bad," and named the radio tracks "very short and repetitive." Jeff Gerstmann of GameSpot commented on the camera movements whilst driving, and that it "doesn't zoom out far enough to give you a good view of the road."

title: Grand Theft Auto Advance


text:
User:VeryVerily/Contributions graph

The contributions graph that was on my user page is made from the script below which I wrote in perl. It uses gnuplot to create the graph, and PNM tools to convert it to PNG format (without the latter you will still have a serviceable postscript file).

Instructions
Execute the script below with as input (either on standard input or as files on the command line) the raw HTML file with your list of user contributions (under "my contributions"). The caption assumes your time zone is set to 0 (UTC), although you could change that. If you have more than 5000 contributions, you will have to grab them in groups of 5000 (or less) due to Wikimedia limitations. The script will then create the following four files:

byhour-rep.dat byhour-nor.dat byhour.ps byhour.png

The first two are tables of hour of day vs. number of edits in that hour, with respectively repeats in the same hour of the same day counted and no repeats counted. The third is the graph as postscript, the fourth is the graph as a PNG file.

Script
($b, $x, @f) = ('byhour', '.dat', '-rep', '-nor'); @g = gmtime; $d = sprintf "%04d/%02d/%02d", 1900+$g[5], 1+$g[4], $g[3]; @w = <>; ($u)=(join' ',@w[0..60])=~/entSub\".*?User\:(\w+)/s; $u =~ s/_/ /g; $v[0] = [ @r = grep { /^\(.*?)\(/ and $_ = $1 and s/\:..\,// } @w ]; $v[1] = [ grep { $l ne $_ and $l = $_ } @r ]; for $i (0, 1) {       my %h; for (@{$v[$i]}) { $h{substr($_,0,2)}++; } $h{24}=$h{'00'};        open K, "> $b$f[$i]$x"; for ('00'..'24') { print K "$_ ",$h{$_}||0,"\n"; }        close K; } open K, "| gnuplot"; print K qq{ set nokey; set xlabel "$u, contributions by hour of day UTC, as of $d" set terminal postscript color solid 18 set output "$b.ps"; set xtics 1; set ytics 20; set format x "%02.f" plot "$b$f[0]$x" w l, "$b$f[1]$x" w l\n}; close K; system("pstopnm -stdout -xsize 400 $b.ps | pnmflip -r270 | pnmcrop | " .       "pnmtopng -transparent white >$b.png");

Good luck!
I'd rather not provide too much tech support, so you should know a bit about what you're doing if you're going to use this.

I'd be interested to hear from anyone who is using this script. You might also consider linking to this page if you do.

Happy graphing!

title: User:VeryVerily/Contributions graph