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Digital watermarking

A digital watermark is a kind of marker covertly embedded in a noise-tolerant signal such as audio, video or image data. It is typically used to identify ownership of the copyright of such a signal. "Watermarking" is the process of hiding digital information in a carrier signal; the hidden information should, but does not need to, contain a relation to the carrier signal. Digital watermarks may be used to verify the authenticity or integrity of the carrier signal or to show the identity of its owners. It is prominently used for tracing copyright infringements and for banknote authentication.

Like traditional physical watermarks, digital watermarks are often only perceptible under certain conditions, e.g. after using some algorithm. If a digital watermark distorts the carrier signal in a way that it becomes easily perceivable, it may be considered less effective depending on its purpose. Traditional watermarks may be applied to visible media (like images or video), whereas in digital watermarking, the signal may be audio, pictures, video, texts or 3D models. A signal may carry several different watermarks at the same time. Unlike metadata that is added to the carrier signal, a digital watermark does not change the size of the carrier signal.

The needed properties of a digital watermark depend on the use case in which it is applied. For marking media files with copyright information, a digital watermark has to be rather robust against modifications that can be applied to the carrier signal. Instead, if integrity has to be ensured, a fragile watermark would be applied.

Both steganography and digital watermarking employ steganographic techniques to embed data covertly in noisy signals. While steganography aims for imperceptibility to human senses, digital watermarking tries to control the robustness as top priority.

Since a digital copy of data is the same as the original, digital watermarking is a passive protection tool. It just marks data, but does not degrade it or control access to the data.

One application of digital watermarking is source tracking. A watermark is embedded into a digital signal at each point of distribution. If a copy of the work is found later, then the watermark may be retrieved from the copy and the source of the distribution is known. This technique reportedly has been used to detect the source of illegally copied movies.

History
The term "Digital Watermark" was coined by Andrew Tirkel and Charles Osborne in December 1992. The first successful embedding and extraction of a steganographic spread spectrum watermark was demonstrated in 1993 by Andrew Tirkel, Gerard Rankin, Ron Van Schyndel, Charles Osborne, and others.

Watermarks are identification marks produced during the paper making process. The first watermarks appeared in Italy during the 13th century, but their use rapidly spread across Europe. They were used as a means to identify the paper maker or the trade guild that manufactured the paper. The marks often were created by a wire sewn onto the paper mold. Watermarks continue to be used today as manufacturer's marks and to prevent forgery.

Applications
Digital watermarking may be used for a wide range of applications, such as:

 * Copyright protection
 * Source tracking (different recipients get differently watermarked content)
 * Broadcast monitoring (television news often contains watermarked video from international agencies)
 * Video authentication
 * Software crippling on screencasting and video editing software programs, to encourage users to purchase the full version to remove it.
 * ID card security
 * Fraud and Tamper detection.
 * Content management on social networks

Digital watermarking life-cycle phases

The information to be embedded in a signal is called a digital watermark, although in some contexts the phrase digital watermark means the difference between the watermarked signal and the cover signal. The signal where the watermark is to be embedded is called the host signal. A watermarking system is usually divided into three distinct steps, embedding, attack, and detection. In embedding, an algorithm accepts the host and the data to be embedded, and produces a watermarked signal.

Then the watermarked digital signal is transmitted or stored, usually transmitted to another person. If this person makes a modification, this is called an attack. While the modification may not be malicious, the term attack arises from copyright protection application, where third parties may attempt to remove the digital watermark through modification. There are many possible modifications, for example, lossy compression of the data (in which resolution is diminished), cropping an image or video, or intentionally adding noise.

Detection (often called extraction) is an algorithm which is applied to the attacked signal to attempt to extract the watermark from it. If the signal was unmodified during transmission, then the watermark still is present and it may be extracted. In robust digital watermarking applications, the extraction algorithm should be able to produce the watermark correctly, even if the modifications were strong. In fragile digital watermarking, the extraction algorithm should fail if any change is made to the signal.

Classification
A digital watermark is called robust with respect to transformations if the embedded information may be detected reliably from the marked signal, even if degraded by any number of transformations. Typical image degradations are JPEG compression, rotation, cropping, additive noise, and quantization. For video content, temporal modifications and MPEG compression often are added to this list. A digital watermark is called imperceptible if the watermarked content is perceptually equivalent to the original, unwatermarked content. In general, it is easy to create either robust watermarks imperceptible watermarks, but the creation of both robust  imperceptible watermarks has proven to be quite challenging. Robust imperceptible watermarks have been proposed as a tool for the protection of digital content, for example as an embedded no-copy-allowed flag in professional video content.

Digital watermarking techniques may be classified in several ways.

Robustness
A digital watermark is called "fragile" if it fails to be detectable after the slightest modification. Fragile watermarks are commonly used for tamper detection (integrity proof). Modifications to an original work that clearly are noticeable, commonly are not referred to as watermarks, but as generalized barcodes.

A digital watermark is called semi-fragile if it resists benign transformations, but fails detection after malignant transformations. Semi-fragile watermarks commonly are used to detect malignant transformations.

A digital watermark is called robust if it resists a designated class of transformations. Robust watermarks may be used in copy protection applications to carry copy and no access control information.

Perceptibility
A digital watermark is called imperceptible if the original cover signal and the marked signal are perceptually indistinguishable.

A digital watermark is called perceptible if its presence in the marked signal is noticeable (e.g. digital on-screen graphics like a network logo, content bug, codes, opaque images). On videos and images, some are made transparent/translucent for convenience for consumers due to the fact that they block portion of the view; therefore degrading it.

This should not be confused with perceptual, that is, watermarking which uses the limitations of human perception to be imperceptible.

Capacity
The length of the embedded message determines two different main classes of digital watermarking schemes:

 * The message is conceptually zero-bit long and the system is designed in order to detect the presence or the absence of the watermark in the marked object. This kind of watermarking scheme is usually referred to as zero-bit or presence watermarking schemes.
 * The message is an n-bit-long stream $$\left(m=m_1\ldots m_n,\; n\in\N\right.$$, with $$\left.n=|m|\right)$$ or $$M=\{0,1\}^n$$ and is modulated in the watermark. These kinds of schemes usually are referred to as multiple-bit watermarking or non-zero-bit watermarking schemes.

Embedding method
A digital watermarking method is referred to as spread-spectrum if the marked signal is obtained by an additive modification. Spread-spectrum watermarks are known to be modestly robust, but also to have a low information capacity due to host interference.

A digital watermarking method is said to be of quantization type if the marked signal is obtained by quantization. Quantization watermarks suffer from low robustness, but have a high information capacity due to rejection of host interference.

A digital watermarking method is referred to as amplitude modulation if the marked signal is embedded by additive modification which is similar to spread spectrum method, but is particularly embedded in the spatial domain.

Evaluation and benchmarking
The evaluation of digital watermarking schemes may provide detailed information for a watermark designer or for end-users, therefore, different evaluation strategies exist. Often used by a watermark designer is the evaluation of single properties to show, for example, an improvement. Mostly, end-users are not interested in detailed information. They want to know if a given digital watermarking algorithm may be used for their application scenario, and if so, which parameter sets seems to be the best.

Cameras
Epson and Kodak have produced cameras with security features such as the Epson PhotoPC 3000Z and the Kodak DC-290. Both cameras added irremovable features to the pictures which distorted the original image, making them unacceptable for some applications such as forensic evidence in court. According to Blythe and Fridrich, "[n]either camera can provide an undisputable proof of the image origin or its author". A secure digital camera (SDC) was proposed by Saraju Mohanty, et al. in 2003 and published in January 2004. This was not the first time this was proposed. Blythe and Fridrich also have worked on SDC in 2004 for a digital camera that would use lossless watermarking to embed a biometric identifier together with a cryptographic hash.

Reversible data hiding
Reversible data hiding is a technique which enables images to be authenticated and then restored to their original form by removing the digital watermark and replacing the image data that had been overwritten.

Watermarking for relational databases
Digital watermarking for relational databases has emerged as a candidate solution to provide copyright protection, tamper detection, traitor tracing, and maintaining integrity of relational data. Many watermarking techniques have been proposed in the literature to address these purposes. A survey of the current state-of-the-art and a classification of the different techniques according to their intent, the way they express the watermark, the cover type, granularity level, and verifiability was published in 2010 by Halder et al. in the Journal of Universal Computer Science.

title: Digital watermarking


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Prophecy of the Popes

The Prophecy of the Popes (Prophetia Sancti Malachiae Archiepiscopi, de Summis Pontificibus, "Prophecy of Saint-Archbishop Malachy, concerning the Supreme Pontiffs") is a series of 112 short, cryptic phrases in Latin which purport to predict the Catholic popes (along with a few antipopes), beginning with Celestine II. It was first published in 1595 by Benedictine monk Arnold Wion, who attributed the prophecy to Saint Malachy, a 12th-century Archbishop of Armagh.

Given the accurate description of popes up to around 1590 and lack of accuracy for the popes that follow, historians generally conclude that the alleged prophecy is a pseudepigraphic fabrication written shortly before publication. The Catholic Church has no official stance, though some Catholic theologians have dismissed it as forgery.

The prophecy concludes with a pope identified as "Peter the Roman", whose pontificate will allegedly precede the destruction of the city of Rome.

Publication and content
The alleged prophecy was first published in 1595 by a Benedictine named Arnold Wion in his Lignum Vitæ, a history of the Benedictine order. He attributed it to Saint Malachy, the 12th‑century Archbishop of Armagh. He explained that the prophecy had not, to his knowledge, ever been printed before, but that many were eager to see it. Wion includes both the alleged original prophecy, consisting of short, cryptic Latin phrases, as well as an interpretation applying the statements to historical popes up to Urban VII (pope for thirteen days in 1590), which Wion attributes to historian Alphonsus Ciacconius.

Origin theories
According to an account put forward in 1871 by Abbé Cucherat, Malachy was summoned to Rome in 1139 by Pope Innocent II to receive two wool palliums for the metropolitan sees of Armagh and Cashel. While in Rome, Malachy purportedly experienced a vision of future popes, which he recorded as a sequence of cryptic phrases. This manuscript was then allegedly deposited in the Vatican Secret Archives, and forgotten about until its rediscovery in 1590, supposedly just in time for a papal conclave occurring at the time.

Several historians have concluded that the prophecy is a late 16th‑century forgery. Saint Bernard of Clairvaux, a contemporary biographer of Malachy who recorded the saint's alleged miracles, makes no mention of the prophecy. The earliest known reference to them dates to 1587. Spanish monk and scholar Benito Jerónimo Feijóo y Montenegro wrote in his Teatro Crítico Universal (1724–1739), in an entry called Purported prophecies, that the high level of accuracy of the verses up until the date they were published, compared with their high level of inaccuracy after that date, is evidence that they were created around the time of publication. The verses and explanations given by Wion correspond very closely to a 1557 history of the popes by Onofrio Panvinio (including replication of errors made by Panvinio), which may indicate that the prophecy was written based on that source. In 1694, Claude-François Menestrier argued the additional interpretive statements were not written by Ciacconius, as the prophecy was not mentioned in any of Ciacconius' works, nor were the interpretive statements listed among his works.

One theory to explain the prophecy's creation, put forward by 17th-century French priest and encyclopaedist Louis Moréri, among others, is that it was spread by supporters of Cardinal Girolamo Simoncelli in support of his bid to become pope during the 1590 conclave to replace Urban VII. In the prophecy, the pope following Urban VII is given the description "Ex antiquitate Urbis" ("from the old city"), and Simoncelli was from Orvieto, which in Latin is Urbevetanum, old city. Moréri and others proposed the prophecy was created in an unsuccessful attempt to demonstrate that Simoncelli was destined to be pope. However, the discovery of a reference to the prophecy in a 1587 letter has cast doubt on this theory. In this document the entourage of the Cardinal Giovanni Girolamo Albani interprets the motto "De rore coeli" ("From the dew of the sky") as a reference to their master, on the base of the link between "alba" ("dawn") and Albani, and the dew, as a typical morning atmospheric phenomenon.

Interpretation
The interpretation of the entries for pre-publication popes provided by Wion involves close correspondences between the mottos and the popes' birthplaces, family names, personal arms, and pre-papal titles. For example, the first motto, Ex castro Tiberis (from a castle on the Tiber), fits Celestine II's birthplace in Città di Castello, on the Tiber.

Efforts to connect the prophecy to historical popes who were elected after its publication have been more strained. For example, Clement XIII is referred to as Rosa Umbriae (the rose of Umbria), but was not from Umbria nor had he any but the most marginal connection with the region, having been briefly pontifical governor of Rieti, at the time part of Umbria.

One writer notes that among the post-publication (post-1595) popes there remain "some surprisingly appropriate phrases", while adding that "it is of course easy to exaggerate the list's accuracy by simply citing its successes", and that "other tags do not fit so neatly". Among the reported "successes" are "Light in the sky" for Leo XIII (1878–1903), with a comet in his coat of arms; "Religion depopulated" for Benedict XV (1914–22) whose papacy included World War I and the Russian Revolution; and "Flower of flowers" for Paul VI (1963–78), with fleur-de-lys in his coat of arms.

Peter Bander, then Head of Religious Education at Wall Hall teacher training college, wrote in 1969: "If we were to place the works of those who have repudiated the Prophecies of Malachy on scales and balance them against those who have accepted them, we would probably reach a fair equilibrium; however, the most important factor, namely the popularity of the prophecies, particularly among the ordinary people (as distinct from scholars), makes them as relevant to the second half of the twentieth century as they have ever been."

-, p. 10.

M. J. O'Brien, a Catholic priest who authored an 1880 monograph on the prophecy, provided a more scathing assessment: "These prophecies have served no purpose. They are absolutely meaningless. The Latin is bad. It is impossible to attribute such absurd triflings ... to any holy source. Those who have written in defence of the prophecy ... have brought forward scarcely an argument in their favour. Their attempts at explaining the prophecies after 1590 are, I say with all respect, the sorriest trifling."

-.

Petrus Romanus
In recent times, some interpreters of prophetic literature have drawn attention to the prophecy due to its imminent conclusion; if the list of descriptions is matched on a one-to-one basis to the list of historic popes since publication, Benedict XVI (2005–13) would correspond to the second to last of the papal descriptions, Gloria olivae (the glory of the olive). The longest and final verse predicts the Apocalypse:

"In persecutione extrema S.R.E. sedebit. Petrus Romanus, qui pascet oves in multis tribulationibus, quibus transactis civitas septicollis diruetur, & judex tremendus judicabit populum suum. Finis."

This may be translated into English as:

"In the final persecution of the Holy Roman Church, there will sit [i.e., as bishop].

Peter the Roman, who will pasture his sheep in many tribulations, and when these things are finished, the city of seven hills [i.e. Rome] will be destroyed, and the dreadful judge will judge his people. The End."

Several historians and interpreters note the prophecy leaves open the possibility of unlisted popes between "the glory of the olive" and the final pope, "Peter the Roman". In the Lignum Vitae, the line In persecutione extrema S.R.E. sedebit. forms a separate sentence and paragraph of its own. While often read as part of the "Peter the Roman" entry, other interpreters view it as a separate, incomplete sentence explicitly referring to one or more popes between "the glory of the olive" and "Peter the Roman".

Popes and corresponding mottos
The list can be divided into two groups; one of the popes and antipopes who reigned prior to the appearance of the prophecy c. 1590, for whom the connection between the motto and the pope is consistently clear. The other is of mottos attributed to popes who have reigned since its appearance, for whom the connection between the motto and the pope is often strained or totally absent and could be viewed as shoehorning or postdiction.

The list has most commonly been divided between mottos 74 and 75, based on the mottos that were explained by Wion and those that were not. Lorenzo Comensoli Antonini divides the list between mottos 73 and 74, based on the loose connection between Urban VII and the motto "From the dew of the sky", and the reference to the prophecy in a 1587 letter, prior to Urban VII's papacy.

René Thibaut divides the table at a different point, between the 71st and 72nd motto, asserting that there is a change in style at this point. He uses this distinction to put forward the view that the first 71 mottos are post-dated forgeries, while the remainder are genuine. Hildebrand Troll echoes this view, noting that mottos 72–112 use a symbolic language related to the character of the pope and his papacy, in contrast to the more literal mottos for earlier popes.

Popes and antipopes 1143–1590 (pre-publication)
The text on the silver lines below reproduces the original text (including punctuation and orthography) of the 1595 Lignum Vitae, which consisted of three parallel columns for the popes before 1590. The first column contained the motto, the second the name of the pope or antipope to whom it was attached (with occasional errors), and the third an explanation of the motto. There are some indications that both the mottos and explanations were the work of a single 16th-century person. The original list was unnumbered.

Popes 1590 to present (post-publication)
For this group of popes, the published text only provides names for the first three (i.e., those who were popes between the appearance of the text c. 1590, and its publication in 1595) and provides no explanations.

In fiction
The Prophecy of the Popes is referred to in several works of fiction, including several works of apocalyptic fiction.
 * Steve Berry's novel, The Third Secret (2005), features the fictional Pope Peter II (originally Cardinal Valendrea), who is elected Pope after the death of the fictional Pope Clement XV.
 * In James Rollins' sixth Sigma Force novel, The Doomsday Key (2009), Saint Malachy's "Doomsday Prophecy", and the conflicts between the Christians and pagans are important plot points.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Prophecy of the Popes


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Peacemaker

Peacemaker or The Peacemaker may refer to:

Individuals and groups

 * UN Peacemaker, a project of the UN to support international peacemakers and mediators
 * Peace makers, a list of contemporary individuals and organizations involved in peacemaking
 * Peacemakers, an American pacifist organization
 * Great Peacemaker, the traditional founder of the Haudenosaunee confederacy
 * "The Peacemakers", the title of the 1993 Time Person of the Year, referring to and represented by Yasser Arafat, Yitzhak Rabin, F.W. de Klerk, and Nelson Mandela
 * Edward VII, called the "Peacemaker"
 * Alexander III of Russia, called the "Peacemaker"
 * Conservator of the peace

Film and television

 * The Peacemaker (1997 film), an action film directed by Mimi Leder, starring George Clooney and Nicole Kidman
 * Peacemaker (1990 film), a science fiction film directed by Kevin S. Tenney
 * The Peacemaker (1956 film), a Western film directed by Ted Post, starring James Mitchell
 * The Peacemaker (1922 film), a British silent drama film
 * Peacemakers (TV series), a TV series starring Tom Berenger
 * Peacemaker (TV series), a TV series starring John Cena

Literature and printed media

 * Peace Maker (pamphlet), an 1842 pamphlet advocating polygamy
 * Peacemaker (novel), a 2007 novel by James Swallow
 * Peacemaker (C. J. Cherryh novel), a 2014 novel set in C. J. Cherryh's Foreigner universe
 * The Peacemaker (newspaper), a pacifist newspaper published in Australia from 1939 to 1971
 * The Peacemaker (novel), a 1934 novel by C. S. Forester
 * "The Peacemaker" (short story), a 1983 Nebula award-winning short story by Gardner Dozois
 * The Peacemaker, a 1618 anti-duelling pamphlet by Thomas Middleton
 * Peacemakers (book), a 2001 book by Margaret MacMillan
 * Peacemakers Manual, a 2007 book by Egon Ranshofen-Wertheimer

Music

 * Roger Clyne and the Peacemakers, a rock music band

Albums

 * The Peacemaker (1998), and The Peacemaker 2 (2004), albums by hip hop DJ Tony Touch
 * Peace Maker, an album by Eamon McGrath
 * Peacemaker (Texas Hippie Coalition album), 2012, or the title song
 * Peacemaker (Vera Sola album), 2024

Songs

 * "Peacemaker", a Karl L. King song
 * "Peacemaker", a song by power metal band Sonata Arctica
 * "Peacemaker", a song on Iced Earth's 2014 album Plagues of Babylon
 * "Peacemaker", a song on Green Day's 2009 album 21st Century Breakdown
 * "The Peacemaker", a 1973 song by Albert Hammond

Other works of art, literature, and entertainment

 * Peacemaker (comics), the name of multiple superhero comic book characters from DC Comics
 * Peacemaker (Transformers), a character in the Transformers franchise
 * PeaceMaker, a 2007 video game designed to promote peace in the Middle East
 * Peacemaker Kurogane, a manga and 2003 anime
 * The Peacemakers, an 1868 painting by George Peter Alexander Healy
 * The Peacemakers (mural), a mural created by the Bruton sisters for the 1939 Golden Gate International Exposition in San Francisco

Weapons

 * Colt Single Action Army, a handgun
 * Convair B-36 Peacemaker, a bomber aircraft
 * An early name for the LGM-118 Peacekeeper, or MX Missile
 * A cannon that exploded aboard the USS Princeton

Other

 * Peacemaker (ship), a 1989 Class-A tall ship (barquentine rig)
 * Peacemaker, a submarine designed in the 1880s by Josiah Tuck
 * SS Empire Peacemaker
 * Myrotvorets (Peacemaker), a Ukrainian website which reveals personal information of people who are considered to be "enemies of Ukraine"

title: Peacemaker


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George C. Marshall Institute

The George C. Marshall Institute (GMI) was a nonprofit conservative think tank in the United States. It was established in 1984 with a focus on science and public policy issues and had an initial focus in defense policy. Starting in the late 1980s, the institute advocated for views in line with environmental skepticism, most notably climate change denial. The think tank received extensive financial support from the fossil fuel industry.

Though the institute officially closed in 2015, the climate-denialist CO2 Coalition is viewed as its immediate successor. GMI's defense research was absorbed by the Center for Strategic and International Studies.

History
The George C. Marshall institute was founded in 1984 by Frederick Seitz (former President of the United States National Academy of Sciences), Robert Jastrow (founder of NASA's Goddard Institute for Space Studies), and William Nierenberg (former director of the Scripps Institution of Oceanography). The institute's primary aim, initially, was to play a role in defense policy debates, defending Ronald Reagan's Strategic Defense Initiative (SDI, or "Star Wars"). In particular, it sought to defend SDI "from attack by the Union of Concerned Scientists, and in particular by the equally prominent physicists Hans Bethe, Richard Garwin, and astronomer Carl Sagan." The institute argued that the Soviet Union was a military threat. A 1987 article by Jastrow argued that in five years the Soviet Union would be so powerful that it would be able to achieve world domination without firing a shot. When the Cold War instead ended in the 1991 collapse of the Soviet Union, the institute shifted from an emphasis on defense to a focus on environmental skepticism, including global warming denial.

The institute's shift to environmental skepticism began with the publication of a report on global warming by William Nierenberg. During the 1988 United States presidential election, George H. W. Bush had pledged to meet the "greenhouse effect with the White House effect." Nierenberg's report, which blamed global warming on solar activity, had a large impact on the incoming Bush presidency, strengthening those in it opposed to environmental regulation. In 1990 the institute's founders (Jastrow, Nierenberg and Seitz) published a book on climate change. The appointment of David Allan Bromley as presidential science advisor, however, saw Bush sign the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change in 1992, despite some opposition from within his administration.

In 1994, the institute published a paper by its then chairman, Frederick Seitz, titled Global warming and ozone hole controversies: A challenge to scientific judgment. Seitz questioned the view that CFCs "are the greatest threat to the ozone layer". In the same paper, commenting on the dangers of secondary inhalation of tobacco smoke, he concluded "there is no good scientific evidence that passive inhalation is truly dangerous under normal circumstances."

In 2012, the institute took over the responsibility for running the Missilethreat.com website from the Claremont Institute. Missilethreat.com aims to inform the American people of missile threats, thereby encouraging the deployment of a ballistic missile defense system. Since the closure of the institute, the Missilethreat.com website has been maintained by the Center for Strategic and International Studies.

Publications
Politicizing Science: The Alchemy of Policymaking is a book by the George C. Marshall Institute, edited by Michael Gough. The book, published in 2003, encourages a disinterested objectivity on the part of scientists and policymakers: Ideally, the scientists or analysts who generate estimates of harm that may result from a risk would consider all the relevant facts and alternative interpretations of the data, and remain skeptical about tentative conclusions. Ideally, too, the agency officials and politicians, who have to enact a regulatory program, would consider its costs and benefits, ensure that it will do more good than harm, and remain open to options to stop or change the regulation in situations where the underlying science is tentative.

Global warming
Starting in 1989 GMI was involved in what it terms "a critical examination of the scientific basis for global climate change policy." This was described by Sharon Begley as a "central cog in the denial machine" in a 2007 Newsweek cover story on climate change denial.

In Requiem for a Species, Clive Hamilton is critical of the Marshall Institute and contends that the conservative backlash against global warming research was led by three prominent physicists—Frederick Seitz, Robert Jastrow, and William Nierenberg, who founded the institute in 1984. According to Hamilton, by the 1990s the Marshall Institute's main activity was attacking climate science. Naomi Oreskes and Erik M. Conway reach a similar conclusion in Merchants of Doubt (2010), where they identified a few contrarian scientists associated with conservative think-tanks who fought the scientific consensus and spread confusion and doubt about global warming. The book Climate Change: An Encyclopedia of Science and History, noting that GMI received funding from the automobile and fossil fuel industries and espouses "a mix of conservative, neoliberal, and libertarian ideological positions", states that GMI has "supported authors opposed to the hypothesis of anthropogenic warming and proposed mitigation policies ... stressing the free-market and the dangers of government regulation, which they said would hurt the US economy."

GMI was one of only a few conservative environmental-policy think tanks to have natural scientists on staff. Noted climate change deniers Sallie Baliunas and (until his death in 2008) Frederick Seitz (a past president of the National Academy of Sciences from 1962 to 1969) served on its board of directors. Patrick Michaels was a visiting scientist and Stephen McIntyre, Willie Soon and Ross McKitrick were contributing writers. Richard Lindzen served on the institute's Science Advisory Board.

In February 2005 GMI co-sponsored a congressional briefing at which Senator James Inhofe praised Michael Crichton's novel State of Fear and attacked the "hockey stick graph".

William O'Keefe, chief executive officer of the Marshall Institute, questioned the methods used by advocates of new government restrictions to combat global warming: "We have never said that global warming isn't real. No self-respecting think tank would accept money to support preconceived notions. We make sure what we are saying is both scientifically and analytically defensible."

Accusation of conflict of interest
Matthew B. Crawford was appointed executive director of GMI in September 2001. He left the GMI after five months, saying that the institute was "fonder of some facts than others". He contended a conflict of interest existed in the funding of the institute. In Shop Class as Soulcraft, he wrote about the institute that "the trappings of scholarship were used to put a scientific cover on positions arrived at otherwise. These positions served various interests, ideological or material. For example, part of my job consisted of making arguments about global warming that just happened to coincide with the positions taken by the oil companies that funded the think tank."

In 1998 Jeffrey Salmon, then executive director of GMI, helped develop the American Petroleum Institute's strategy of stressing the uncertainty of climate science.

Naomi Oreskes states that the institute, in order to resist and delay regulation, lobbied politically to create a false public perception of scientific uncertainty over the negative effects of second-hand smoke, the carcinogenic nature of tobacco smoking, the existence of acid rain, and on the evidence connecting CFCs and ozone depletion.

Funding sources
Exxon-Mobil was a funder of the GMI until it pulled funding from it and several similar organizations in 2008. From 1998 to 2008, the institute received a total of $715,000 in funding from Exxon-Mobil.

title: George C. Marshall Institute


text:
Roderick O'Flaherty

Roderick O'Flaherty (Ruaidhrí Ó Flaithbheartaigh; 1629–1718 or 1716) was an Irish historian.

Biography
He was born in County Galway and inherited Moycullen Castle and estate.

O'Flaherty was the last de jure Lord of Iar Connacht, and the last recognised Chief of the Name of Clan O'Flaherty. He lost the greater part of his ancestral estates to Cromwellian confiscations in the 1650s. The remainder was stolen through deception, by his son's Anglo-Irish father-in-law, Richard "Nimble Dick" Martin of Ross. As Martin had given service to some captured Williamite, officers he was allowed to keep his lands. It was therefore arranged that to protect from confiscation 200,000 acres of Connemara lands held by O'Flahertys, Joyces, Lees, and others that were transferred into Martin's name with the trust they would be returned. However, Martin betrayed his former friends and neighbours and kept all of their lands.

Uniquely among the O'Flaherty family up to that time, Roderick became a highly regarded historian and collector of Irish manuscripts. His friends and associates included his teacher Dubhaltach MacFhirbhisigh; Daibhidh Ó Duibhgheannáin; John Lynch; Edward Lluyd; Samuel Moleneaux and his father William. O'Flaherty's published works included Ogyia and Iar Connacht.

He is often associated with his elaborate history of Ireland, Ogygia, published in 1685 as Ogygia: Seu Rerum Hibernicarum Chronologia & etc., in 1793 translated into English by Rev. James Hely under the full title Ogygia, or a Chronological Account of Irish Events (Collected from Very Ancient Documents Faithfully Compared with Each Other & Supported by the Genealogical & Chronological Aid of the Sacred and Profane Writings of the Globe).

Ogygia is the island of Calypso, used by O'Flaherty as an allegory for Ireland. Drawing from numerous ancient documents, Ogygia traces Irish history back to the ages of mythology and legend, before the 1st century. The book credits Milesius as the progenitor of the Goidelic people. O'Flaherty had included in his history what purported to be an essay on the understanding of the ancient Ogham alphabet. Based on the 1390 Auraicept na n-Éces, he stated that each letter was named after a tree, a concept widely accepted in 17th century Ireland.

Ogygia was immediately criticised for its scholarship by George Mackenzie of Rosehaugh (1636–91), Dean of Faculty (1682) at Aberdeen. The arguments about O'Flaherty's work continued well into the 18th century, culminating in the 1775 The Ogygia Vindicated by the historian Charles O'Conor, in which he adds explanatory footnotes to the original work.

Thomas Molyneux visited O'Flaherty on 21 April 1709 and left the following eyewitness account: "I went to vizit old Flaherty, who lives, very old, in a miserable condition at Park, some 3 hours west of Gallway, in Hiar or West-Connaught. I expected to have seen here some old Irish manuscripts, but his ill fortune has stripp'd him of these as well as his other goods, so that he has nothing now left but some few of his own writing, and a few old rummish books of history printed. In my life I never saw so strangely stony and wild a country. I did not see all this way 3 living creatures, not one house or ditch, not one bit of corn, nor even, I might say, a bit of land, for stones: in short nothing appear'd but stones and sea, nor could I conceive an inhabited country so destitute of all signs of people and art as this is."

O'Flaherty died in poverty at Páirc, near Spiddal. He was survived by his daughters, and a son, Micheal Ó Flaithbheartaigh.

title: Roderick O'Flaherty


text:
Monte Kwinter

Monte Kwinter (March 22, 1931 – July 21, 2023) was a Canadian politician in Ontario. He was a Liberal member of the Legislative Assembly of Ontario from 1985 until 2018. He represented the ridings of Wilson Heights from 1985 to 1999, and York Centre from 1999 to 2018. Kwinter was a cabinet minister in the government of David Peterson from 1985 to 1990 and also in Dalton McGuinty's government from 2003 to 2007. Kwinter was the oldest person ever to be an MPP in Ontario, although at his death, Raymond Cho (politician), was seven months shy of surpassing him.

On January 26, 2013, Kwinter became the oldest person to ever serve in the Ontario legislature at the age of 81 years 310 days, surpassing previous record holder Lex MacKenzie, who was 81 years and 309 days old when he left provincial politics in 1967.

On July 20, 2017, Kwinter announced that he would not be seeking re-election in the upcoming 2018 election and that "the time has come to let the next generation serve, and I look forward to offering my support to our future York Centre Liberal MPP."

Background
Monte Kwinter was born in Toronto on March 22, 1931. He was educated at the Ontario College of Art, Syracuse University, the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, the Institute of Contemporary Art, Boston, and the Université de Montréal. He has a degree in fine arts, specializing in industrial design.

Kwinter worked in real estate before entering political life, eventually owning his own firm within the field. He was also a founding member of the Toronto Regional Council of B'nai Brith Canada, served on the board of directors of the Upper Canadian Zoological Society, and the Canadian National Exhibition, was chair of the Toronto Harbour Commission, chair of the Toronto Humane Society, vice-president of the Ontario College of Art, and served as an executive member on the League for Human Rights of B'nai B'rith Canada.

Kwinter was also involved in the Liberal Party of Canada as a fundraiser and organizer and worked on John Turner's 1984 leadership campaign.

Peterson government
Kwinter was elected to the Ontario legislature in the provincial election of 1985 as a Liberal, defeating incumbent Progressive Conservative David Rotenberg and New Democrat city councillor Howard Moscoe in the North York riding of Wilson Heights (which has a large immigrant population and a prominent Orthodox Jewish community; Kwinter was himself Jewish).

Kwinter had been a strong advocate for the completion of the controversial Spadina Expressway in Toronto but abandoned this position soon after winning election.

On June 26, 1985, he was appointed Minister of Consumer and Commercial Relations and Minister of Financial Institutions.

Kwinter was easily re-elected in the provincial election of 1987, and was named Minister of Industry, Trade and Technology in September of that year. In June 1989, Kwinter was implicated in the Patti Starr corruption scandal. Starr, who was head of the National Council of Jewish Women, misused her position by having the organization make political contributions to the riding associations of prominent Liberal MPPs. Kwinter's riding of Wilson Heights was among those who received these illegal contributions. On August 2, when Peterson shuffled his cabinet in the wake of the scandal, Kwinter was one of only two ministers who retained their positions despite the scandal. Eight other ministers lost their positions.

Opposition
The Liberals were upset by the New Democratic Party in the 1990 provincial election, although Kwinter himself was again re-elected without difficulty, although one contender was better known as the alter-ego of Ed the Sock.

Kwinter faced a more serious challenge in the 1995 election, which was won by the Progressive Conservatives; Tory candidate Sam Pasternak came within 3,000 votes of upsetting him. Kwinter was not a prominent figure in the Legislative Assembly during his time in the opposition, though he was nevertheless regarded as a strong community representative.

Despite having a reputation for being on the right wing of the Ontario Liberal Party, Kwinter supported left wing candidate Gerard Kennedy in the party's 1996 leadership convention.

The Progressive Conservative government of Mike Harris reduced the number of provincial ridings from 130 to 103 in 1996, forcing several incumbent Members of Provincial Parliament (MPPs) to compete against one another for re-election. In some cases, MPPs from the same party were forced to compete against one another for their riding nominations. Kwinter was challenged for the Liberal nomination in the new riding of York Centre by fellow MPP Anna-Marie Castrilli, who had unsuccessfully competed for the party's leadership in 1996.

Castrilli's challenge to Kwinter was extremely controversial, and was marked by serious divisions in the local riding association. Kwinter was subjected to a number of incidents of anti-Semitic abuse during this period, and on one occasion received hate mail at his legislative office. Castrilli was not involved in these incidents, but they were regarded by many as reinforcing the unpleasant character of the nomination battle.

Liberal leader Dalton McGuinty tried to convince Castrilli to run in a different riding, but was unsuccessful. Rumours began to circulate that Kwinter was planning to defect to the Progressive Conservatives in the event that he was defeated. As it happened, there was never an opportunity to test this speculation—Kwinter was able to defeat Castrilli, who defected to the Tories herself shortly thereafter.

Kwinter's nomination difficulties proved to be his only real challenge of the 1999 campaign, and he was again returned by a significant margin in the general election. The Progressive Conservatives were again victorious across the province, and Kwinter remained on the opposition benches.

In 2002, Kwinter publicly opposed the Liberal Party's position on tax credits for parents who send their children to private and non-Catholic denominational schools. The party opposes such credits as a detrimental to the public system. Kwinter referred to the distinction between publicly funded Catholic Separate Schools and non-Catholic denominational schools as one of discrimination, though he also opposed funding for non-denominational private schools.

McGuinty government
Kwinter was again re-elected in the 2003 election without difficulty. The election was won by the Liberals, and there was considerable media speculation as to whether or not Dalton McGuinty would appoint the septuagenarian Kwinter to cabinet again. Ultimately, Kwinter's public disagreements with party policy were not enough to sideline his career: he was appointed Ontario Minister of Public Safety and Security (essentially a retitled Solicitor-General's position) on October 23, 2003.

Kwinter put forward a plan to combat marijuana grow-ops in Ontario that would permit local utilities to cut off electrical power to those in the illegal industry. There were many who opposed this plan on the grounds that innocent citizens could see their power cut off without warning in the event of an administrative or legal error.

Kwinter was re-elected in the 2007 provincial election despite a stronger challenge from the Progressive Conservative Party due to its support for extending funding to Jewish and other religious day schools. Kwinter broke with the Liberal platform and cabinet solidarity by supporting the Progressive Conservative's proposal. The Liberal government was re-elected however Kwinter was dropped from Cabinet in the post-election cabinet shuffle. While no official reason was given for the demotion the Jewish Tribune claimed that it was a result of the position he took on school funding during the election campaign though it did not name its source for this claim.

Following the cabinet shuffle Premier McGuinty appointed Kwinter to the position of chair Ontario investment and trade advisory council and the Parliamentary Assistant to the Minister of Economic Development and Trade (Investment Attraction and Trade).

Kwinter retained his seat in the 2011 provincial election against Progressive Conservative candidate Michael Mostyn by 3,188 votes.

Wynne government
Kwinter's riding association nominated him to run as the Liberal candidate in the next provincial election which occurred on June 12, 2014. He defeated PC candidate Avi Yufest by 6,066 votes.

From June 2014 to June 2016, he served as Parliamentary Assistant to the Minister of Citizenship, Immigration and International Trade. As of June 2016, he served as Parliamentary Assistant to the Minister of International Trade.

In October 2016, it was reported that Kwinter was living in a nursing home, Kensington Place, while recovering from an illness. In March 2017, Kwinter reappeared in public after his months long recovery from shingles. Requiring the use of a wheelchair and aid from a caregiver, Kwinter intended to return to his role and run in the 2018 election, but later chose to retire from politics at the 2018 election, when the Wynne government was soundly defeated. Ramon Estaris lost that election, placing third to one-term MPP, Roman Baber.

Death
Monte Kwinter died on July 21, 2023, at the age of 92.

title: Monte Kwinter


text: Category:1360 deaths

title: Category:1360 deaths


text: Category:1360s deaths

title: Category:1360s deaths


text:
User talk:Rifleman

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Mediation Cabal/Cases/2006-11-18 Singapore Changi Airport
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title: User talk:Rifleman


text:
Talk:The Return (2003 film)

Symbolism
Subtext is always open to interpretation 'course, but without a reference the symbolism section seems like original research. An encyclopedia isn't the place to theorize how movies could be explained either way, and have thus added an unreferenced tag to the section. Igorrr 10:26, 11 November 2006 (UTC)

Awards
Should the mention of the European Discovery of the Year at the European Film Awards include its full name of the Fassbinder Award? Perhaps as "European Discovery of the Year (Fassbinder Award)" ? Immutable 09:44, 21 November 2006 (UTC)

Copy-and-Pasted Text
"test of manhood of almost mythic proportions" That phrase also appears several places on the web as a description of this film. Whose words are these? If it's copy from another web site or a press release of some sort, it needs appropriate attribution. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 76.85.196.203 (talk) 20:11, 22 August 2009 (UTC)

Ending details
I am taking out the text that says Andrei breaks the boat and pushes it out to sea. In the movie it is clear that he is nowhere near the boat when he starts yelling and running towards it. Is that OR? It's just what's in the film. Probably the boys did not secure it when they dragged it ashore, and the boat was old and leaky to begin with. That bit is my interpretation, and I won't put in the article, but it explains what I see much more closely than what was originally written in the article. --Kbh3rd talk 05:36, 5 February 2016 (UTC)

Photos at end of film
A sentence was recently added claiming that the photos make it clear that the boys were alone on the trip without their father. This theory is unfounded and would take away from the poignant significance of Ivan’s display of emotion and longing for his father. 136.34.204.88 (talk) 04:06, 3 March 2022 (UTC)

title: Talk:The Return (2003 film)


text:
Cinemaware

Cinemaware was a video game developer and publisher. It had released several titles in the 1980s based on various film themes. The company was resurrected in 2000, before being acquired by eGames in 2005.

Cinemaware Corp. (1986–1991)
The company was founded in January 1986 by Phyllis and Robert “Bob” Jacob. Cinemaware's first title was Defender of the Crown, a strategy computer game originally released for the Commodore Amiga. Bob Jacob was a film buff, and Cinemaware released other games based on classic film genres which were made as an attempt to emphasize action, graphics, and ease of play. Its games generally debuted on the most graphically powerful home computers of the era, the Amiga, Apple II GS, and Atari ST, and then ported to others, such as the Commodore 64, PC (running under MS-DOS), and the Nintendo Entertainment System. Defender of the Crown is the most ported Cinemaware game.

Cinemaware expanded to sports games, with its "TV Sports" line, which featured elements of sports telecasts such as studio announcers. The "TV Sports" line covered basketball, ice hockey, and football. Some of the titles were only known by the generic name "TV Sports" in Europe such asTV Sports: Boxing and TV Sports: Baseball, which were released in the United States by Data East as ABC Wide World of Sports Boxing and Bo Jackson Baseball, respectively. In 1989, the company debuted its Spotlight Software label in order to release foreign titles for the American market, most notably Speedball.

By 1990, the NEC owned 15% of Cinemaware. Cinemaware went bankrupt in 1991. While porting S.D.I. to another system, one of the company's owners demanded the programmers add more features, increasing the programming time and delaying the product's release. Coupled with falling sales of their other titles amid an economic downturn, the company suffered. The company also suffered from software piracy, threatening to stop publishing Amiga games at several points because of the ease by which video games could be copied. Many of their games, including Wings, were cracked and spread amongst gamers before release.

Releases
Cinemaware's titles include the following:

 * Defender of the Crown (swashbuckling movies; 1986, Apple II GS, Amiga, Atari ST, Commodore 64, ZX Spectrum, Amstrad CPC, MS-DOS, Macintosh, CD-I)
 * S.D.I. (Cold War era space drama; 1986, Amiga, Atari ST, Amstrad CPC, ZX Spectrum, MS-DOS, Macintosh)
 * The King of Chicago (inspired by mob movies; 1987, Apple II GS, Amiga, Atari ST, MS-DOS, Macintosh)
 * Sinbad and the Throne of the Falcon (Sinbad and Arabian nights movies; 1987, Apple II GS, Amiga, Atari ST, Commodore 64, MS-DOS)
 * The Three Stooges (The Three Stooges short subjects; 1987, Apple II GS, Amiga, Commodore 64, MS-DOS)
 * Rocket Ranger (1950s science fiction serials; 1988, Apple II GS, Amiga, Atari ST, Commodore 64, MS-DOS)
 * TV Sports: Football (1988, Amiga, Atari ST, Commodore 64, MS-DOS, TG-16)
 * Lords of the Rising Sun (Japanese Samurai movies; 1988, Amiga, Atari ST, MS-DOS, TG-16, CD-I)
 * Disney's Cartoon Arcade (1989 Viewmaster Interactive Vision)
 * It Came from the Desert (1950s science fiction/monster movies; 1989, Amiga, Mega Drive, TG-16, MS-DOS)
 * TV Sports: Baseball (1989, Amiga, TG-16)
 * TV Sports: Basketball (1990, Amiga, MS-DOS, TG-16)
 * Antheads: It Came from the Desert 2 (1990, Amiga)
 * Wings (World War I movies; 1990, Amiga)
 * TV Sports: Boxing (1991, Amiga, MS-DOS)

Cinemaware Inc. (2000–2005)
Lars Fuhrken-Batista later bought the Cinemaware trademark and associated intellectual property, founding Cinemaware Inc. in 2000. Cinemaware developed recreations of its past titles, updated for Microsoft Windows and the Apple Macintosh. Dubbed the "Digitally Remastered" editions, these games feature the same gameplay as the originals, but with updated graphics. They also ported some of their older games to handheld systems, such as the Game Boy Advance. On their website, they have also released disk images of their original titles for use with emulators and some are emulated via Macromedia Shockwave.

The new Cinemaware developed newer versions of their classic games. Their first game in this endeavor was Robin Hood: Defender of the Crown, featuring an improved 3D engine and was released in September 2003 for Windows, PlayStation 2, and Xbox. Since the 1.02 patch for Robin Hood: Defender of the Crown in December 2003, Cinemaware has made no official announcements for its other games. One developer made a statement in the website's forums in October 2004 stating Cinemaware is still working on these projects, but no other announcements have been made since.

Releases

 * Robin Hood: Defender of the Crown (2003, PS2, Xbox, Windows)
 * Defender of the Crown (2002, GBA)
 * The Three Stooges (GBA, PlayStation)
 * Wings (2003, GBA)
 * [Torrente (video game)]]  (2003, Windows)
 * Defender of the Crown: Digitally Remastered Edition (Windows, Macintosh)
 * The Three Stooges: Digitally Remastered Edition (2002, Windows, Mac)
 * Wings: Digitally Remastered Edition (postponed, Windows, Mac)
 * Lords of the Rising Sun: Digitally Remastered Edition (postponed, Windows, Mac)
 * Wings Remastered (2014, Windows, Mac)

Acquisition
On October 6, 2005, Cinemaware was acquired by predominantly family-oriented game publisher eGames, Inc., and Lars Furken-Batista became Vice President of Development. Shortly after the acquisition, eGames announced the launch of Cinemaware Marquee, a publishing label to be used to bring new games to the U.S. market. Their first published game was Space Rangers 2, a critically acclaimed space adventure. Under their new label, they have brought Darwinia from Introversion Software, Moscow to Berlin from Monte Cristo, and Neighbours from Hell: On Vacation and Buccaneer's Bounty from German publisher Ascaron to the American market. In 2007, eGames released an Adobe Flash version of Defender of the Crown, allowing more users to play the game. The website was titled Defender of the Crown: Heroes Live Forever.

Cinemaware rights acquisition by Starbreeze (2016)
In May 2016, Swedish game developer and publisher Starbreeze acquired all Cinemaware intellectual property rights from Cinemaware.

 * The Cinemaware brand
 * Defender of the Crown
 * Wings
 * The King of Chicago
 * Sinbad and the Throne of the Falcon
 * Lords of the Rising Sun
 * Rocket Ranger
 * It Came from the Desert
 * Antheads: It Came from the Desert 2
 * S.D.I.
 * TV Sports: Basketball
 * TV Sports: Baseball
 * TV Sports: Boxing
 * TV Sports: Football
 * TV Sports: Hockey

The rights include all brands, websites, existing products, and licenses including the Cinemaware label.

Cinemaware rights acquisition by Nordcurrent (2024)
In January 2024, Lithuanian game developer and publisher Nordcurrent acquired all Cinemaware intellectual property rights from Starbreeze. The company states that this aligns with the company's vision to establish its division Nordcurrent Labs in the PC and console games publishing sector.

title: Cinemaware


text:
František Udržal

František Udržal (3 January 1866 in Dolní Roveň, Kingdom of Bohemia – 25 April 1938 in Prague) was a Czechoslovak politician.

A member and leader of the powerful Agrarian Party, his political career started as member of the local Diet of Bohemia, then of parliament of Austria-Hungary, then of parliament of Czechoslovakia. He served seven years as minister of defense and four years as prime minister of Czechoslovakia (1 February 1929 – 24 October 1932) in two periods (1 February 1929 – 7 December 1929 and 7 December 1929 – 24 October 1932).

title: František Udržal


text:
City and South London Railway

The City and South London Railway (C&SLR) was the first successful deep-level underground "tube" railway in the world, and the first major railway to use electric traction. The railway was originally intended for cable-hauled trains, but owing to the bankruptcy of the cable contractor during construction, a system of electric traction using electric locomotives—an experimental technology at the time—was chosen instead.

When opened in 1890, the line had six stations and ran for 3.2 mi in a pair of tunnels between the City of London and Stockwell, passing under the River Thames. The diameter of the tunnels restricted the size of the trains, and the small carriages with their high-backed seating were nicknamed padded cells. The railway was extended several times north and south, eventually serving 22 stations over a distance of 13.5 mi from Camden Town in north London to Morden in south London.

Although the C&SLR was well used, low ticket prices and the construction cost of the extensions placed a strain on the company's finances. In 1913, the C&SLR became part of the Underground Group of railways and, in the 1920s, it underwent major reconstruction works before its merger with another of the Group's railways, the Charing Cross, Euston and Hampstead Railway, forming a single London Underground line called the Morden-Edgware line. In 1933, the London Passenger Transport Board was created by amalgamation of the C&SLR with the rest of the Underground Group, bus and other transport companies. This was a public authority but not nationalised until 1948 with the creation of the British Transport Commission. Today, its tunnels and stations form the Bank Branch of the Northern line from Camden Town to Kennington and the southern leg of the line from Kennington to Morden.

Establishment
In November 1883, notice was given that a private bill was to be presented to Parliament for the construction of the City of London & Southwark Subway (CL&SS). The promoter of the bill, and engineer of the proposed railway, was James Henry Greathead, who had, in 1869–70, constructed the Tower Subway using the same tunnelling shield/segmented cast iron tube method proposed for the CL&SS. The railway was to run from Elephant and Castle, in Southwark, south London, under the River Thames to King William Street in the City of London. The tracks were to be in twin tunnels 10 ft in diameter, running for a distance of 1.25 mi.

The bill received royal assent as the  (47 & 48 Vict. c. clxvii) on 28 July 1884. Section 5 of the Act stated:

"The works authorised by this Act are as follows: A subway commencing ... near ... Short Street at the ... junction ... with Newington Butts and terminating at King William Street ... The subway shall consist of two tubes for separate up and down traffic and shall be approached by means of staircases and by hydraulic lifts."

In 1886, a further bill was submitted to Parliament to extend the tunnels south from Elephant and Castle to Kennington and Stockwell. This received assent on 12 July 1887 as the  (50 & 51 Vict. c. cv), allowing the construction of the extension to be added to the work on the original route, which had begun in 1886. The tunnels on this section were of a slightly larger diameter – 10 ft and extended the line by a further 1.75 mi. Before the railway opened, a further bill received assent, granting permission to continue the line south to Clapham Common. The act was given royal assent on 25 July 1890 as the  (53 & 54 Vict. c. cxiv), also effecting a change of the company's name.

Haulage and infrastructure
Because of the small diameter of the tunnels as well as the difficulty of providing sufficient ventilation, the use of steam power, as used on London's other underground railways, was not possible for a deep-level tube railway. Like Greathead's earlier Tower Subway, the CL&SS was intended to be operated by cable haulage with a static engine pulling the cable through the tunnels at a steady speed. Section 5 of the 1884 act specified that:

"The traffic of the subway shall be worked by ... the system of the Patent Cable Tramway Corporation Limited or by such means other than steam locomotives as the Board of Trade may from time to time approve."

The Patent Cable Tramway Corporation owned the rights to the Hallidie cable-car system first invented and used in San Francisco in 1873; trains were attached to the cable with clamps, which would be opened and closed at stations, allowing the carriages to disconnect and reconnect without needing to stop the cable or to interfere with other trains sharing the cable. There were to be two independent endless cables, one between City station and Elephant and Castle moving at 10 mph, and the other between Elephant and Castle and Stockwell, where the gradient was less, at 12 mph. However, the additional length of tunnel permitted by the supplementary acts challenged the practicality of the cable system.

It is reported that this problem with the CL&SS contributed to the bankruptcy of the cable company in 1888. However, electric motor traction had been considered all along, and much engineering progress had been made since the tunnel's construction had begun in 1886. So, CL&SS chairman Charles Grey Mott decided to switch to electric traction. Other cable-operated systems using the Hallidie patents continued to be designed, such as the Glasgow Subway which opened in 1896.

The solution adopted was electrical power, provided via a third rail (This is now a fourth rail) beneath the train, but offset to the west of centre for clearance reasons. Although the use of electricity to power trains had been experimented with during the previous decade, and small-scale operations had been implemented, the C&SLR was the first major railway in the world to adopt it as a means of motive power. The system operated using electric locomotives built by Mather & Platt collecting a voltage of 500 volts (actually +500 volts in the northbound tunnel and −500 volts in the southbound) from the third rail and pulling several carriages. A depot and generating station were constructed at Stockwell. Owing to the limited capacity of the generators, the stations were originally illuminated by gas. The depot was on the surface, and trains requiring maintenance were initially hauled up via a ramp although, following a runaway accident, a lift was soon installed. In practice, most rolling stock and locomotives went to the surface only for major maintenance.

To avoid the need to purchase agreements for running under surface buildings, the tunnels were bored underneath public roads, where construction could be carried out without charge. At the northern end of the railway, the need to pass deep beneath the bed of the River Thames and the medieval street pattern of the City of London constrained the arrangement of the tunnels on the approach to King William Street station. Because of the proximity of the station to the river, steeply inclined tunnels were built to the west of the station. Because of the narrow street under which they ran, they were bored one above the other rather than side by side as elsewhere. The outbound tunnel was the lower and steeper of the two. The tunnels converged immediately before the station, which was in one large tunnel and comprised a single track with a platform on each side. The other terminus at Stockwell was also constructed in a single tunnel but with tracks on each side of a central platform.

Opening

The railway was officially opened by Edward, Prince of Wales (later Edward VII) on 4 November 1890, and was opened to the public on 18 December 1890. Initially, it had stations at:
 * Stockwell
 * The Oval (now Oval)
 * Kennington
 * Elephant & Castle
 * Borough
 * King William Street

At the opening the Prince of Wales gave the following speech: "...thanks for having given me an opportunity of being present to inaugurate a work which I have but little doubt will be of the greatest use to the community, and which will especially be a great boon to this great metropolis. It must be a matter of deep thought to all of us, the ever-increasing growth of this city, and the consequent increasing difficulties of the means of access. This, the first electric railway in England, will, I hope, do much to relieve the congestion of traffic which exists in the City. Business men who have great distances to come will by this means find an easy way of leaving the City and of enjoying the fresh air of the country. The railway will also be a material boon to the working man who is obliged to work all day in a not always pleasant atmosphere; for it will enable him also to get a little fresh air. From a scientific point of view it is a great advantage that you should have two tunnels. This is very different from the large tunnel of the Metropolitan Railway, for here you have no smoke, while you have ample ventilation. You have also a new system, by which you abolish all tickets. All classes of the community are obliged to travel at the same fare, which is the small sum of twopence, and are by a very simple arrangement able to save a great deal of time and trouble. I have been immensely struck by what I have seen today, and I am sure that the greatest credit redounds upon those who have contrived this scheme, and have carried it to such perfection..."

The original service was operated by trains composed of an engine and three carriages. Thirty-two passengers could be accommodated in each carriage, which had longitudinal bench seating and sliding doors at the ends, leading onto a platform for boarding and alighting. It was reasoned that there was nothing to look at in the tunnels, so the only windows were in a narrow band high up in the carriage sides. Gate-men rode on the carriage platforms to operate the lattice gates and announce the station names to the passengers. Because of their claustrophobic interiors, the carriages soon became known as padded cells. Unlike other railways, the C&SLR had no ticket classes or paper tickets; when the railway began operations, a flat fare of two pence, collected at a turnstile, was charged. Despite the cramped carriages and competition from bus and tram services, the railway attracted 5.1 million passengers in 1891, its first year of operation. To alleviate overcrowding, the fleet of rolling stock was enlarged.

Extensions to Clapham Common and Angel, 1890–1901
Shortly before it opened to the public, the C&SLR gave notice of its intention to submit another private bill to Parliament, to construct a new line from its northern terminus at King William Street towards Islington. Because of the awkward arrangement of King William Street station, the extension was not to be connected directly to the existing running tunnels but was to be linked via a pedestrian subway through which passengers could make interchanges between the separate lines. The bill was rejected on the grounds that the extension failed to make a connection to the existing line. In November 1891, the C&SLR published details of a revised bill for the extension to Islington. The company had recognised the deficiencies of its King William Street station and, just a year after the line had opened, planned to construct a new pair of tunnels to bypass the problematic northern section.

Near Borough station the new tunnels would branch off via a new station to form an interchange with the SE&CR and the LB&SCR at London Bridge mainline station. The tunnels would then pass to the east of London Bridge, north through the City of London to Angel. Following a delay, during which a joint select committee reviewed the proposals of several new underground railways, the  (56 & 57 Vict. c. ccvii) received royal assent on 24 August 1893. The act also incorporated another bill of 1893 to grant an extension of time to build the southern extension to Clapham.

Construction of the two authorised extensions was delayed while funds were raised and plans were finalised. Between 1895 and 1898, three further bills were put before Parliament to keep the permissions alive and obtain additional approvals:
 * 1895: an extension of time for the 1890 act and to allow for a new approach tunnel to be built into King William Street station. Approved as the  (58 & 59 Vict. c. xix) on 14 April 1895.
 * 1896: an extension of time for the 1893 act and changes to the construction of Bank station. Approved as the  (59 & 60 Vict. c. cclii) on 14 August 1896.
 * 1898: an extension of time for the 1896 act, plans to add sidings to the southern extension at Clapham Common and plans to sell King William Street station and its approach tunnels to the newly proposed City and Brixton Railway (C&BR). Approved as the  (61 & 62 Vict. c. xi) on 23 May 1898.

The new tunnels permitted by the 1895 act enabled the track layout at King William Street station to be modified to a single central platform with a track each side. This was opened as a temporary measure while funds for the extensions were raised. Finance was eventually obtained and construction proceeded so that the King William Street section closed and the first section of the northern extension opened on Monday 26 February 1900, with stations at:
 * London Bridge
 * Bank
 * Moorgate Street

The southern extension opened on at mid-day on Sunday 3 June 1900 with stations at:
 * Clapham Road
 * Clapham Common

Like the original Stockwell station and the rearranged King William Street, Clapham Road and Clapham Common were constructed with a single station tunnel, with a central platform served by tracks on each side.

Work continued on the rest of the northern extension. The  (63 & 64 Vict. c. v), approved on 25 May 1900, gave permission to enlarge the station tunnel at Angel to a diameter of 9.2 m and the rest of the extension opened on 17 November 1901, with stations at:
 * Old Street
 * City Road (closed 1922)
 * Angel

Extension to Euston, 1901–1907
Despite the technical innovations of the railway and the large passenger demand, the C&SLR was not particularly profitable and the rapid series of extensions aimed at improving profits had placed a strain on the finances. The dividends were low and declining (2$1/8$% in 1898, 1$7/8$% in 1899 and 1$1/4$% in 1900) and the company had been accused of extravagance for the abandonment of King William Street station. In an attempt to work around this poor reputation and make it easier to raise funds, the next bill for an extension of the line was submitted in November 1900 by a notionally separate company, the Islington and Euston Railway (I&ER), albeit one that shared its chairman with the C&SLR.

The proposed railway was to run from the as yet unfinished C&SLR station at Angel to the main-line stations at King's Cross, St Pancras and Euston. The I&ER bill coincided with a rash of other railway bills encouraged by the successful opening of the Central London Railway (CLR) in 1900 and was considered alongside these by another parliamentary joint committee in 1901. The bill was approved, but the time taken for the committee's review meant that it had to be resubmitted for the 1902 parliamentary session.

In the 1902 session, the bill was considered again but was subject to opposition from one of London's other underground railways, the Metropolitan Railway (MR), which considered the proposed extension to be a threat to its service between King's Cross and Moorgate. The I&ER also submitted a petition to allow the C&SLR to take over the powers of the railway if approved. The committee reversed its earlier decision and rejected the bill. In November 1902, the C&SLR submitted a bill in its own name for the Euston extension as well as the authority to take over the dormant powers of the C&BR. At Euston, the railway would have an interchange with the planned but not yet built Charing Cross, Euston and Hampstead Railway (CCE&HR).

The intention for C&BR powers was to adapt them to provide a new station at King William Street, which would have pedestrian subway connections to the C&SLR's Bank station and the District Railway's (DR's) Monument station. A third pair of tunnels would be constructed under the Thames to connect with the original abandoned tunnels north of Borough station and then the C&BR route would be constructed as previously approved with connections to the existing C&SLR route at London Bridge and Oval. This time, the bill was approved and received royal assent as the  (3 Edw. 7. c. clxxiii) on 11 August 1903. Although the C&BR proposals were never implemented, the Euston extension was quickly built and opened on 12 May 1907, with stations at:
 * King's Cross
 * Euston

Cooperation and consolidation, 1907–1919
By 1907, Londoners had seen the network of deep tube underground railways expand from the original C&SLR line of 1890 with its six stations to a network of seven lines serving more than 70 stations. These companies, along with the sub-surface Metropolitan Railway and District Railway, criss-crossed beneath the city streets, competing with one another for passengers as well as with the new electric trams and motor buses. In several cases pre-opening predictions of passenger numbers had proven to be over optimistic. The reduced revenues generated from the lower numbers of passengers using the lines made it difficult for the operators to pay back the capital borrowed and pay dividends to shareholders.

In an effort to improve their collective situations, most of the underground railways in London: the C&SLR, the CLR, the Great Northern & City Railway and the Underground Electric Railways Company of London (UERL, which operated the Baker Street and Waterloo Railway (BS&WR), the Great Northern, Piccadilly and Brompton Railway (GNP&BR), the CCE&HR and the DR) began, from 1907, to introduce fare agreements. From 1908, they began to present themselves through common branding as the Underground. The Waterloo & City Railway, operated by the main-line London and South Western Railway, was the only tube railway that did not participate in the arrangement.

In 1912, the C&SLR submitted another bill for parliamentary consideration seeking to increase its capacity by enlarging its tunnels to the larger diameter used for the tunnels of the more recently built railways to allow larger, more modern rolling stock to be used. A separate bill was published at the same time by the London Electric Railway (LER, a company formed by the UERL in 1910 through a merger of the BS&WR, GNP&BR and CCE&HR), which included plans to construct tunnels to connect the C&SLR at Euston to the CCE&HR's station at Camden Town. Together, the works proposed in these bills would enable the CCE&HR's trains to run over the C&SLR's route and vice versa, effectively combining the two separate railways.

On 1 January 1913, the UERL purchased the C&SLR, paying two shares of its own stock for three of the C&SLR's, a discount reflecting the struggling financial position of the older company. Both bills were enacted on 15 August 1913, as the  (3 & 4 Geo. 5. c. cx) and the London Electric Railway Act 1913 (3 & 4 Geo. 5. c. xcvii).

The proposed extension and tunnel enlargement works were delayed by World War I and it was not until after the war that works could begin.

Reconstruction, connections and extension, 1919–1926
In February 1919, with the war over, the C&SLR submitted a new bill that included provisions for an extension of time for the tunnel enlargement works approved in the act of 1913. The resulting act was passed on 19 August 1919 as the  (9 & 10 Geo. 5. c. ci). In 1920, under special wartime provisions, the LER was granted an extension of time to carry out the works for its own 1913 act. Although the permissions to carry out the works had been renewed, the Underground companies were not in a position to raise the funds needed to pay for the works. Construction costs had increased considerably during the war years and the returns produced by the companies could not cover the cost of repaying borrowed capital.

The projects were made possible when the government introduced the Trade Facilities Act 1921 by which the Treasury underwrote loans for public works as a means of alleviating unemployment. With this support, the Underground companies were able to obtain the funds and work began on enlarging the tunnels of the C&SLR.

The tunnels were enlarged by removing several of the cast iron segments from each tunnel ring, excavating a void behind to the required new diameter and reinstalling the segments with additional packing spacers. The northern section of the C&SLR between Euston and Moorgate was closed from 8 August 1922, but the rest of the line remained open with enlargement works taking place at night. A collapse on 27 November 1923 caused when a train hit temporary shoring on the incomplete excavations near Elephant & Castle station filled the tunnel with soil. The line was briefly operated in two parts, but was completely closed on 28 November 1923.

The Euston to Moorgate section reopened on 20 April 1924, along with the new tunnels linking Euston to Camden Town. The rest of the line to Clapham Common reopened on 1 December 1924. At the same time as the tunnels were being enlarged, the stations were modernised, with longer platforms, a new tiling scheme on platform and passageway walls and new frontages to the surface buildings. Some stations also received escalators to replace the original lifts.

While the reconstruction works were underway, the C&SLR submitted a bill in 1922 that contained proposals to extend the line south from Clapham Common through Balham and Tooting to Morden in tunnel. From Morden, the line was to continue on the surface to Sutton sharing part of the route of an unbuilt railway planned from Wimbledon to Sutton. (See Wimbledon and Sutton Railway for full details.)

The bill was enacted as the City and South London Railway Act 1923 (13 & 14 Geo. 5. c. ci) on 2 August 1923. Parallel negotiations with the Southern Railway over the proposals curtailed the extension at Morden, where a large new depot was constructed. The Morden extension opened on 13 September 1926, with stations designed by Charles Holden at:
 * Clapham South
 * Balham (opened on 6 December 1926)
 * Tooting Bec (originally Trinity Road)
 * Tooting Broadway
 * Colliers Wood
 * South Wimbledon
 * Morden

Also on 13 September 1926, a further connection between the CCE&HR and the C&SLR was opened when tunnels were brought into service from the CCE&HR's Charing Cross station (now Embankment) to Kennington station, the latter having been rebuilt with four platforms. An intermediate station was constructed at Waterloo. Thus fully integrated, combined services operated over the C&SLR and CCE&HR routes using new Standard Stock trains. On tube maps, the combined lines were then shown in a single colour, although the separate names continued in use into the 1930s. Before the introduction of 'Northern line' on 28 August 1937, the names 'Edgware, Highgate and Morden line' and 'Morden-Edgware line' were used in the mid-1930s.

Move to public ownership, 1924–1933
Despite the modernisation of the C&SLR and other improvements made to other parts of the network, the Underground railways were still struggling to make a profit. The Underground Group's ownership of the highly profitable London General Omnibus Company (LGOC) since 1912 had enabled the Group, through the pooling of revenues, to use profits from the bus company to subsidise the less profitable railways. However, competition from numerous small bus companies during the early years of the 1920s eroded the profitability of the LGOC and had a negative impact on the profitability of the whole Group.

In an effort to protect the Group's income, its managing director/Chairman, Lord Ashfield, lobbied the government for regulation of transport services in the London area. During the 1920s, a series of legislative initiatives was made in this direction, with Ashfield and Labour London County Councillor (later MP) Herbert Morrison, at the forefront of debates as to the level of regulation and public control under which transport services should be brought. Ashfield aimed for regulation that would give the existing Group protection from competition and allow it to take substantive control of the LCC's tram system; Morrison preferred full public ownership. Eventually, after several years of false starts, a bill was announced at the end of 1930 for the formation of the London Passenger Transport Board, a public corporation that would take control of the Underground Group, the Metropolitan Railway as well as all buses and trams within an area designated as the London Passenger Transport Area. The Board was a compromise – public ownership but not full nationalisation – and came into existence on 1 July 1933. On this date, the C&SLR and the other Underground companies were liquidated.

Legacy
The technologies of deep tube tunnelling and electric traction pioneered and proved by the C&SLR shaped the direction of subsequent underground railways built in London. The C&SLR demonstrated that an underground railway could be constructed without the need to purchase large and expensive tracts of land for the shallow cuttings of sub-surface steam operated railways. Instead, it became possible to construct a tunnel at deep level without adversely affecting conditions on the surface.

The C&SLR thus encouraged the construction of a network of underground railways in London far larger than might have been the case otherwise. The size and depth of the tunnels used on the deep tube lines, including the Northern line, does have drawbacks: the tunnels have a limited loading gauge and the lines suffer from overheating in the summer.

During World War II, the disused tunnels between Borough and King William Street stations were converted for use as an air-raid shelter, with entrances to the shelter at King William Street and at six sites south of the Thames (of nine planned). In the 1960s the disused tunnels were used to assist the ventilation of London Bridge station and all the entrances bar that at 9 London Bridge Street were infilled with concrete. It is now only possible to access the tunnels from Three Castles House or a passage from the Jubilee line at London Bridge.

Most of the C&SLR's six original station buildings were rebuilt or modified during the improvements to the line in the 1920s or during more recent modernisations. Only the building at Kennington retains its original exterior and the dome over the lift shaft, a feature of all the original stations.

Locomotives

 * See C&SLR Locomotives for more information

Preserved stock
A number of the C&SLR's vehicles have been preserved.

Locomotive 35 had been placed on display on a pedestal at the Metropolitan line's Moorgate station following the C&SLR's reconstruction. It was badly damaged during an air raid, and was eventually removed. Carriage number 39 survived for over two decades after withdrawal as a summer house at Watlington, Oxfordshire.

title: City and South London Railway


text:
2000 SG344

 is a small Aten asteroid first observed in 2000. It is assumed to have a diameter of approximately 37 m – or roughly twice that of the Chelyabinsk meteor – and an assumed mass of 7.1 kg (71,000 tonnes), but the size is only known within about a factor 2. It is the largest object known to have a better than 1/1000 chance (0.1%) of impacting Earth and has the fourth highest cumulative Palermo rating at −2.79. The next good chance to observe the object will be in May 2028 when it passes 0.02 AU from Earth.

Because of its very Earth-like orbit and because it would have been near the Earth in 1971 (coinciding with the Apollo program), there was speculation that might not be an asteroid but a man-made object such as an S-IVB booster stage from a Saturn V rocket which would make it about 15 meters in diameter and much less massive. (cf. J002E3, the S-IVB booster of Apollo 12 which was mistaken for an asteroid.)

Possible impacts with Earth
Until December 2004, it was considered to have the highest (though still very low) likelihood of any near-Earth object to impact Earth in the next 100 years. It is ranked a zero on the Torino scale of impact risk because of its small size (the scale is 0–10) and is listed on Sentry Risk Table. It was briefly surpassed in December 2004 by 99942 Apophis (which at the time was known only by its provisional designation ). Smaller asteroids such as and  have a greater chance of impacting Earth.

Based on 31 observations of made from May 1999 to October 2000, there is about a 1 in 360 chance that it will collide with Earth between 2069 and 2121. The greatest chance of impact is on 16 September 2071 with a 1 in 1000 chance of impact. Assuming the object is a rocky asteroid and that it reaches Earth's surface without exploding in the atmosphere, the impact energy released would be an estimated 1.0 megatons of TNT, comparable to the Tunguska and Chelyabinsk events, which could create an impact crater approximately 100 ft wide.

Proposed NASA mission
In 2008, NASA considered this asteroid as a possible target for a crewed mission (Artemis 2) using the Orion spacecraft, prior to a projected 2030 push to Mars. Those plans were since abandoned. will be observable in May 2028 at an apparent magnitude of 19.

title: 2000 SG344


text:
Tocos do Moji

Tocos do Moji is a municipality (município) in the state of Minas Gerais in Brazil. The population is 4,109 (2020 est.) in an area of 115 km2.

title: Tocos do Moji


text:
Dystrophic calcification

Dystrophic calcification (DC) is the calcification occurring in degenerated or necrotic tissue, as in hyalinized scars, degenerated foci in leiomyomas, and caseous nodules. This occurs as a reaction to tissue damage, including as a consequence of medical device implantation. Dystrophic calcification can occur even if the amount of calcium in the blood is not elevated, in contrast to metastatic calcification, which is a consequence of a systemic mineral imbalance, including hypercalcemia and/or hyperphosphatemia, that leads to calcium deposition in healthy tissues. In dystrophic calcification, basophilic calcium salt deposits aggregate, first in the mitochondria, then progressively throughout the cell. These calcifications are an indication of previous microscopic cell injury, occurring in areas of cell necrosis when activated phosphatases bind calcium ions to phospholipids in the membrane.

Calcification in dead tissue

 * 1) Caseous necrosis in T.B. is most common site of dystrophic calcification.
 * 2) Liquefactive necrosis in chronic abscesses may get calcified.
 * 3) Fat necrosis following acute pancreatitis or traumatic fat necrosis in breasts results in deposition of calcium soaps.
 * 4) Infarcts may undergo D.C.
 * 5) Thrombi, especially in veins, may produce phleboliths.
 * 6) Haematomas in the vicinity of bones may undergo D.C.
 * 7) Dead parasites like schistosoma eggs may calcify.
 * 8) Congenital toxoplasmosis, CMV or rubella may be seen on X-ray as calcifications in the brain.

Calcification in degenerated tissue

 * 1) Dense scars may undergo hyaline degeneration and calcification.
 * 2) Atheroma in aorta and coronaries frequently undergo calcification.
 * 3) Cysts can show calcification.
 * 4) Calcinosis cutis is condition in which there are irregular nodular deposits of calcium salts in skin and subcutaneous tissue.
 * 5) Senile degenerative changes may be accompanied by calcification.
 * 6) The inherited disorder pseudoxanthoma elasticum may lead to angioid streaks with calcification of Bruch's membrane, the elastic tissue below the retinal ring.

title: Dystrophic calcification