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Alexander Dennis Enviro500

The Alexander Dennis Enviro500 (previously known as the TransBus Enviro500) is a three-axle double-decker bus built by Alexander Dennis (formerly by TransBus International) in the United Kingdom. It was unveiled in 2002 and is one of the Enviro-series bus models made by TransBus/Alexander Dennis. The bus was sold on diesel or hybrid-electric powertrains and on Volvo chassis as a bodywork.

In 2014, the Enviro500 was superseded by the new Alexander Dennis Enviro500 MMC.

Design
The Dennis chassis for the Enviro500 (also known as the Trident E500 ) was modified from the Trident 3. It can be fitted with Cummins ISMe335 Euro III engine (later Cummins ISLe340 Euro IV/Euro V engine which uses AdBlue to reduce emission of nitrogen oxides through selective catalytic reduction process), or ISM-330 engine for the buses delivered to North America, and coupled to Voith DIWA864.3E 4-speed or ZF 5HP602 5-speed gearbox. Later Voith DIWA864.5 4-speed gearbox, ZF 6HP602 6-speed gearbox and Allison B500R 6-speed gearbox became available and gradually became the standard configurations.

Initially only the 12 m version of the Enviro500 was built, but in 2007 Alexander Dennis announced the production of the 12.8 m version, and an 11.3-metre-long variant followed in 2008.

Later Alexander Dennis developed the hybrid electric version of Enviro500, known as the Enviro500H, with Allison's parallel hybrid drive system; it was unveiled in late 2008.

The body of the Enviro500 was based on the original style of the single-deck Enviro300, and the upper-deck frontal design was similar to the design used on the Plaxton President body.

Hong Kong
The vehicle exceeded some design limitations in Hong Kong, the first city where the model was used, prompting the local Transport Department to make some exclusions in order to make the buses available to KMB on time.
 * The width of the bus is 2.55 m exceeding the limit of 2.5 m. The width of 2.55 m was approved by the European Union, becoming the current standard.
 * A fixed glass replaced the emergency door at the rear of the upper deck, but with more hammers available for emergency.
 * The front indicators are the smallest of all current models of Kowloon Motor Bus.

The facelifted version of the Enviro500 body, first built in late 2003, have revised frontal and rear designs. This version of Enviro500 bodywork was also available with Volvo B9TL chassis.

Kowloon Motor Bus The Enviro500 is the first model of second-generation low-floor buses for Kowloon Motor Bus, with straight staircase and plug door (only at the exit) fitted. All KMB's Enviro500s had a bronze band added to the champagne livery to differentiate them from the first-generation low-floor buses.

When TransBus announced the development of the Enviro500, KMB became the launch customer by changing the last 20 of an order for 100 Dennis Trident 3s to the Enviro500 in 2002. Later in the same year, KMB placed an order for a further 100. The first Enviro500 arrived in Hong Kong on 12 November 2002 and was registered in January 2003 with all in service by November 2003.

In 2003, KMB placed another order for 65 Enviro500s, quickly followed by a further 50. The bodywork of these buses received a number of minor modifications. The first 112 buses entered service between November 2003 and June 2005, and the remaining three buses were registered by its subsidiary Long Win Bus.

Due to the commencement of the KCR West Rail in late 2003 and KCR Ma On Shan Rail in late 2004, the Transport Department requested KMB to reduce its fleet size, so the registration of these four batches of KMB Enviro500 were delayed and some of them were stored before entering service.

The company received one prototype facelifted Enviro500-bodied Volvo B9TL in 2005, a further 85 buses were put into service between 2006 and 2008.

In 2005, KMB ordered a further 25 with modified bodywork and new Alexander Dennis badge, 24 of them (five had their electronic route destination displays supplied by Gorba instead of Hanover) entered service in early 2006. The last one, a Euro IV-engined prototype, with fleet number ATEU1 (originally ATE257), entered service on 24 May 2006. In 2009, it reemerged as a Euro V-engined bus.

In late 2005, KMB ordered 15 more buses which entered service in August 2006.

Later a batch of nine buses with Euro IV engines was ordered for delivery in 2009, which entered service in mid-2009. One of them was fitted with luggage rack after body assembly. It was quickly followed by another batch of 46 buses for delivery in 2010, 20 of them were eventually diverted to Long Win Bus, and 26 buses entered service with KMB in 2010–2011.

A batch of 35 buses with Euro V engines was ordered for delivery in 2010/11, 30 of them were eventually diverted to Long Win Bus, and 5 buses entered service with KMB in 2011.

In July 2008, one was written off (ATE180) after being burnt out in KMB's depot in Tin Shui Wai on 31 March 2008.

From December 2020 until June 2023, KMB has withdrawn its TransBus Enviro500 (2002 generation) out of service. The last TransBus Enviro500 with Mk1 bodywork (ATE231) was retired on June 15, 2023. The first batch of Enviro500s with Mk2 bodywork were retired on May 3, 2024.

Long Win Bus Long Win Bus registered three Enviro500 buses, which were originally ordered by Kowloon Motor Bus, in August 2005 to cope with the increased demand for bus services after the opening of Hong Kong Disneyland. All Enviro500s with Mk1 bodywork were retired on August 10, 2023.

In late 2005, Long Win Bus ordered five more which had luggage racks fitted when new, entering service in June/July 2006. All of them were retired on July 10, 2024.

Long Win Bus received ten Enviro500 bodywork on Volvo B9TL chassis between 2007 and 2008, one of them was built new as an airport coach.

A further batch of seven buses with Euro IV engines had been ordered for delivery in 2009. The first six buses entered service in mid-late 2009. The last one, which was fitted with coach seats, entered service in October 2009. These were followed by further five buses, with the first four being registered in December 2009; the last one, which was fitted with coach seats, entered service in April 2010. In 2010, Long Win Bus received 20 more Enviro500 buses with Euro IV engines.

A batch of 6 Enviro500 buses with Euro V engines was ordered for delivery in 2010/11. These, together with 30 diverted from KMB's order, were put into service between 2011 and 2013.

Due to a surplus in Long Win's fleet, 14 of the Euro IV buses have been transferred to KMB in 2020.

Citybus

Citybus ordered 10 Enviro500s with Euro IV engine and luggage racks, soon after its sister company New World First Bus's order. The first batch of chassis arrived Hong Kong in the third quarter of 2007 for body assembly in NWFB depot at Chong Fu Road. They entered service in December 2007/January 2008. A further batch of 18 Euro IV-engined buses, which were fitted with spiral staircase instead of straight staircase and no luggage rack, entered service in 2009.

MTR Kowloon-Canton Railway Corporation originally ordered 9 12 m Euro IV-engined Enviro500 buses in early 2007 for its Feeder Bus service. The first completed bus arrived Hong Kong on 24 November 2007, then registered in February 2008 and entered service in March 2008; the rest of them entered service in March/April 2008.

Due to a railway merger between MTR and KCR in late 2007, they are now operated by MTR Corporation for running MTR Bus (previously known as KCR Feeder Bus) routes.

Later a batch of 15 buses with Euro IV engines was ordered for delivery in 2009, they were first registered in April–August 2009. This was followed by another order for 9 buses in 11.3 m length which entered service in 2012.

New World First Bus New World First Bus ordered 18 Enviro500 buses with Euro IV engine in early 2007. 17 buses entered service in early/mid-2008, another one (fleet number 5504) was shipped to Australia in March 2008, after body assembly, for demonstration in several cities between April and May 2008, it finally entered service in June 2008.

In 2008 New World First Bus ordered 20 11.3 m examples with Euro IV engines for delivery in 2009. They entered service in July–October 2009. A further batch of 20 similar buses with Euro V engines entered service in early 2010.

In 2010, a batch of 24 12 m buses with Euro V engines was ordered for delivery in 2010–2011. They entered service in January–May 2011.

In 2011 New World First Bus ordered 13 12 m-long Enviro500s, all of them entered service in May 2012. These were followed by another 28 12 m-long buses which started to enter service in 2013.

In 2020, five Enviro500s (5550-5554) were planned to be converted into open-top buses for tourist routes H1, H1A and H2. as of June 2020, only 5550 has finished the conversion process.

Currently there are 123 Enviro500 buses in service with New World First Bus.

CLP Group

CLP Group ordered five Enviro500 buses with Euro IV engines for its staff shuttle bus service in 2008. The specification is similar with Citybus's Enviro500, but without wheelchair place and standees. They entered service in June 2009.

Republic of Korea (demonstration only)
Gyeonggi province test-ran a 79-seat with 12.86 m Enviro500 (North American version) between Seoul and its surrounding cities, which started in mid-November 2014.

United Kingdom
First Glasgow ordered a batch of 25 Enviro500s. They have since moved to First Aberdeen to replace older buses.

As of January 2018, the Enviro500 is no longer offered in the United Kingdom owing to poor sales. As of 2022, several Enviro500s have entered service with Kernow.

From August 2023 to May 2024, all 25 Enviro500s were gradually withdrawn from Kernow and Aberdeen. Most are now with Cambridge Buses for school services, having arrived there via Ensignbus.

Ireland
Dublin Bus operate a number of Enviro500s on the Volvo B9TL chassis, with a total of 70 bought across two batches between 2005 and 2007 with funding from the Department of Transport to increase capacity on the city's bus routes. A first batch of twenty Enviro500s entered service in December 2005 with Dublin Bus at Donnybrook garage, downsized from what was to be an order of 150 tri-axles. A further batch of fifty Enviro500s, with a slightly longer front overhang and Euro IV engines, entered service in 2007 at Phibsboro depot.

The first twenty buses of the 2005 batch were withdrawn and sold in December 2018.

North America
In 2004, Alexander Dennis started to explore the North American market for its Enviro500. The American version of the Enviro500 have modified bodies and redesigned fuel tanks, which enable the straight staircase to be moved forward. Alexander Dennis built four left hand drive Enviro500 (one 12 m bus and three 12.8 m buses) for demonstration in the United States and Canada.

Bus operators which evaluated the Enviro500 included Community Transit of Snohomish County, Washington (December 2005), Unitrans of Davis (January 2006, two weeks), OC Transpo of Ottawa (28 June to 12 July 2006 and February 2007), San Francisco Municipal Railway of San Francisco (November 2007 to January 2008) and the Réseau de transport de la Capitale of Quebec City (March 2013).

Dennis also built one 12-metre Enviro500 demonstrator for long-term loan. It was first loaned to Community Transit between 2007 and 2009 which put it into service on 1 August 2007, the bus was used on commuter routes between Seattle and various points in Snohomish County during its first year in operation. From September 2010, it was loaned to Strathcona County Transit on a one-year lease for the operator's one-year-long double-decker pilot project. The pilot is part of an exploration of different high-capacity bus types to carry more passengers on the high-demand commuter routes, which are between Strathcona County and Edmonton; an articulated bus is also being evaluated as an alternative and there is no commitment to put any Alexander Dennis model or any double-decker design into permanent service. This bus becomes the first double-decker to be used for regular transit service in Alberta.

In late 2008, Alexander Dennis announced the assembly of the American version of the Enviro500 by ElDorado National in Riverside, California,.

In 2011, Alexander Dennis unveiled a restyled Enviro500 body design for the North American market, which had the same front as the Enviro400. This was first used on the "Go-Anywhere" version developed for GO Transit, which has an overall height of 4.115 m. This height would become standard with the MMC model introduced in 2015.

Canada
BC Transit BC Transit, the first Canadian operator of double-decker transit buses, ordered nine Enviro500s, which were allocated to the Victoria Regional Transit System in Victoria, British Columbia with fleet numbers 9041–9049. These vehicles entered service in early 2005, joining the nineteen Trident 3 buses already in service since 2000. These were followed by another 26 (9501-9526) which entered service in 2008; sixteen of them (9501-9516) were originally allocated to Victoria and the other ten (9517-9526) to the Kelowna Regional Transit System in Kelowna. All units are currently allocated to Victoria.

In 2009, BC Transit received one hybrid-electric Enviro500H (now numbered 9527) for evaluation, and followed it up in 2011 by purchasing one Enviro500 demonstration vehicle built in 2007 but repowered with an EPA 2010-compliant Cummins ISL engine (now numbered 9528). Three more Enviro500s (9529-9531) entered service in 2013, built in 2008 and acquired second-hand from OC Transpo (see below). All of these vehicles are used in Victoria.

GO Transit

GO Transit, the regional transportation authority serving the Greater Toronto Area in Ontario, currently operates 127 12.8-metre-long Enviro500s in its fleet. Like its fleet of coach buses, they have only one door in the front. Earlier, it tested a double-decker Trident 3 on loan from Victoria in May 2002, which had an extra rear door. However, it did not place any orders until early 2008, when it introduced twelve commuter-type Enviro500s (numbered 8000–8011), Ten extra units (8012-8021) entered service in early 2009. Both of these batches have a height of 4.2 m, making them too high to meet bridge clearance (under overpasses etc.) requirements in the province.

After the introduction of the Go-Anywhere version of the Enviro500, In 2012, GO Transit ordered 25 of these new models (8101-8125), also 12.8 m long. The first bus was delivered on 3 April 2013 and the remaining 24 in May 2013. These were followed by seventy in 2014, delivered in two batches (8126-8165 and 8166–8195), and a further ten (8196-8205) in 2015.

OC Transpo

OC Transpo of Ottawa, Ontario, purchased three transit-type Enviro500s in 2008 as part of a one-year pilot project to investigate the use of double-deckers on high-capacity routes. Numbered from 1201 to 1203, they were operated on a variety of routes, but their height, which exceeded the requirements of the MTO, made them impractical for continued use. These three demo buses were sold to BC Transit in the summer of 2012 (see above).

OC Transpo subsequently ordered 75 Go-Anywhere Enviro500s (numbered 8001–8075) for delivery in 2012/13, the first one officially arriving on 23 August 2012. 73 of 75 these buses are in service as of 12 January 2019.

Strathcona County Transit

Strathcona County Transit ordered 14 transit-type Enviro500s (numbered 8001–8014) for their commuter service between Sherwood Park and Edmonton, Alberta, with the first arriving in late 2013 and subsequent buses arriving by the spring of 2014. They chose double-deckers over articulated transit and motor coaches after a year of testing between September 2010 and October 2011.

United States
Gray Line New York, owned by Coach USA ordered 20 open-top Enviro500 for its sightseeing operations in New York and put them into service in spring 2005, these were the first open-top Enviro500 built (another 13 would later be ordered). Gray Line also received three single-door Enviro500 in summer 2005 for operation in San Francisco.

Citizens Area Transit (now RTC Transit) of Las Vegas had its first 50 Enviro500s enter service by October 2005. The service, marketed as "The Deuce", runs along the Las Vegas Strip. Certain high-traffic routes, such as along Maryland Parkway and Nellis Boulevard, have also used these buses. They offer extra ventilation grilles outside the engine compartment to cope with Southern Nevada's dry desert climate and high summertime temperatures. Las Vegas's Enviro500s have the largest air conditioning system ever created for a transit vehicle, with eight fans fitted on the air conditioning unit. As of October 2006, CAT had firm orders for another 41 of the type worth $29.8 million; these were delivered in late 2007. A further 40 had also been ordered for delivery in 2008; these were 12.8 m long and had a second staircase to speed loading and unloading. All these vehicles were used for regular fixed-route operations, not for sightseeing operations.

Les Cars Rouges, a sightseeing company, ordered 16 open-top Enviro500 for sightseeing operations in the US, delivery of these buses started in early 2007. Eight of the Enviro500 are destined for San Francisco, and the rest of them are destined for Washington, D.C.

Community Transit signed a five-year contract on 2 July 2009 with Alexander Dennis to deliver up to 120 Enviro500 coaches after the trial of an Enviro500 demonstrator. The company introduced a fleet of 23 12.8 m Enviro500s in 2011.

Unitrans (the student-run transit service of University of California, Davis, known for years for its operation of former London Transport double-decker buses) ordered two Enviro500 which were delivered in early 2010; these are the first batch of Enviro500s with the bodywork assembled by ElDorado National.

SLO Transit ordered one Enviro500 which entered service in late 2010.

Hele-On Bus introduced one 12.8m Enviro500 in the first half of 2011.

Australia
An Enviro500 with Kiwi Bus Builders bodywork was unveiled in 2011. This bus was the first Enviro500 with bodywork constructed by other bodybuilders, it was built for Rockleigh Tours in Melbourne. The chassis was narrowed to comply with Australian Design Rules.

Competitors

 * BCI Enterprise
 * Neoplan Centroliner
 * Wright Eclipse Gemini
 * Wright Explorer

title: Alexander Dennis Enviro500


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3 Maccabees

3 Maccabees, also called the Third Book of Maccabees, is a book written in Koine Greek, likely in the 1st century BC in either the late Ptolemaic period of Egypt or in early Roman Egypt. Despite the title, the book has nothing to do with the Maccabean Revolt against the Seleucid Empire described in 1 Maccabees and 2 Maccabees. Instead it tells the story of a persecution of the Jews under Pharaoh Ptolemy IV Philopator (222–205 BC) in Ptolemaic Egypt, some decades before the Maccabee uprising in Judea. The story purports to explain the origin of a Purim-like festival celebrated in Egypt. 3 Maccabees is somewhat similar to the Book of Esther, another book which describes how a king is advised to annihilate the Diaspora Jews in his territory, yet is thwarted by God.

In 3 Maccabees, King Ptolemy IV Philopator attempts to enter the Second Temple in Jerusalem, but is rebuffed by divine power. He grows to hate Jews, and orders the Jews of Egypt assembled in his hippodrome to be executed by elephants. However, God protects the Jews, and Ptolemy's elephants trample his own men instead. Ptolemy experiences a change of heart and lets the Jews go free; the Jews establish a festival in celebration.

3 Maccabees is considered part of the Biblical Anagignoskomena (deuterocanon) in the Eastern Orthodox Church and some Oriental Orthodox Churches: the Armenian Apostolic Church, the Syriac Orthodox Church, and the Assyrian Church of the East. Jews, Catholics, and Protestants do not regard it as canonical, though some (the Moravian Brethren as an example) include it in the apocrypha section of their bibles. The split dates back to the Apostolic Canons approved by the Eastern Church's Council in Trullo in 692 AD but rejected by the Western Church's Pope Sergius I. Trullo established that the first three books of Maccabees were canonical in the Chalcedonian Eastern Church.

Contents

According to the book, after Ptolemy IV Philopator's victory against Antiochus III in 217 BC at the Battle of Raphia, he visited Jerusalem and the Second Temple, wishing to see the inner sanctuary. However, he is miraculously prevented from entering the building. This leads him to hate the Jews. Upon his return to the capital of Alexandria, he orders that all the Jews in the kingdom are to be registered, be made to pay a poll tax, and be reduced to the status of slaves. Those Jews who agree to abandon their faith and be initiated into the cult of Dionysus are to be spared. After most Jews persist in their faith, the king orders them rounded up and put to death in his hippodrome.

The attempt to register all the Jews before their execution is thwarted by the sheer number of the Jews. Ptolemy then attempts to have the Jews killed by crushing by elephant and orders 500 elephants to be intoxicated in order to enrage them. However, the execution is repeatedly thwarted. God first causes Ptolemy to oversleep, then causes him to miraculously forget his anger against the Jews. Ptolemy finally attempts to lead the elephants and his own army into the hippodrome to destroy the Jews personally, but after an impassioned prayer by Eleazar, God sends two angels who prevent this.

Ptolemy abruptly forgets his anger with the Jews and honors them with various immunities and a banquet, with several dates being established as commemorative festivals. The Jews request and receive permission to return home and to kill all the Jews who chose to abandon their faith in order to be spared. The book includes a letter, ostensibly by Ptolemy, to this effect. Finally, the Jews return home.

Authorship and date
The author of this book was likely an Alexandrian Jew who wrote in Greek as part of Hellenistic Judaism. The author is prone to rhetorical constructs and has a bombastic style. His Greek is excellent and native, including rare and poetic words; he also seems familiar with Hebrew literature, if possibly in translation. The themes and style of the book are similar to those of 2 Maccabees, the Letter of Aristeas, and the Book of Esther, suggesting the author had read them. Similar to 2 Maccabees, the author was likely influenced by the "pathetic" (in the sense of pathos) style of Greek argumentation that sought to appeal to emotion and sentiment, with stories such as brides and grooms being dragged away from their homes. The author seems interested and fluent in Ptolemaic court politics and protocol.

The precise date of authorship is unknown, but the widest plausible range keeping with the text is considered to be between 100 BC and 70 AD. Scholars generally advocate for one of three periods of Egyptian history: the late Ptolemaic period (100–30 BC), the early Roman period (30–20 BC), and the later Roman period (c. 40 AD).

Advocates for the early Roman period include Moses Hadas, Victor Tcherikover, and Matan Orian. They argue that the work was written perhaps around 25–15 BC. This is because the story attacks the idea of a census (laographia, a rare word before the Romans came) and its related poll tax, saying it would reduce the Jews to the status of slaves, and the Romans conducted such a census in Roman Egypt in 24 BC. Additionally, publishing a story where a Ptolemaic king acted rashly and was thwarted while the Ptolemies still ruled would be very bold, suggesting a publication date after the Roman absorption of Egypt in 30 BC. The work could then function as an esoteric criticism of Roman policies without naming them directly.

Advocates for the later Roman period include Heinrich Ewald, Hugo Willrich, and John J. Collins. They hold that the book was written as a polemic against Emperor Caligula, thus dating from around 40 AD. The work includes an incident at the Second Temple and an attack on Egyptian Jews; something similar happened in this period albeit with the order reversed, with anti-Jewish riots in Alexandria in 38 AD and Caligula attempting to install a statue of himself in the Temple around 39–40 AD. Arguments against this theory are that Caligula's actions do not match Ptolemy in the book that closely; for example, Ptolemy does not claim he is a divinity and attempt to self-deify himself as Caligula did. The riots in Alexandria came from common people rather than government ministers, as in 3 Maccabees. The author does not appear to have knowledge of Roman activities of the later 1st century that caused opposition from Jews such as desecration of sanctuaries.

Scholars who favor the late Ptolemaic period include Elias Bickerman, Hugh Anderson, and Sara Raup Johnson. On the topic of the census, they propose that it is entirely possible that a Ptolemaic census had also threatened to reduce the status of Jews to that of native Egyptians (the least prestigious caste in Ptolemaic society) by making Alexandrian Jews pay a tax usually only levied on rural populations. Even if laographia is truly felt to be a reference to the Roman census, that is only an argument for a slight post-publication modification of a few passages, in this view. The rest of the work fits snugly into traditions of works of Hellenistic Judaism which inspired the author such as 2 Maccabees, which date to around 100 BC, so 3 Maccabees should fit into that same cultural milieu and era as well. More generally, while the threatened extermination of Jews may seem extreme and thus fit better in the Roman period of declining Jew–Gentile relations, the work is still ultimately an endorsement of the status quo of the Hellenistic era. The tone is largely positive, with glad thanksgivings for God's deliverance rather than thundering apocalyptic proclamations. Even as the royal court persecutes them, the author writes that "The Jews continued to maintain goodwill and unswerving loyalty towards the [Ptolemaic] dynasty." The Jews are eventually given legal immunities by the king and return to contented loyalty to the Greek government, a sentiment considered by supporters of a Ptolemaic-era origin to be a poor fit for the Roman era of distant governors unsympathetic to the Jews.

Manuscripts and title
3 Maccabees was preserved due to inclusion in the Septuagint, the Greek Jewish Scriptures. While Hellenistic Judaism waned with time and the work was not included in the Masoretic canon of the Tanakh (Hebrew scriptures) used by later Jews, early Christians preserved the Septuagint as the basis for the Christian Old Testament, ensuring that the work was not lost. The lists of books in early manuscripts of the Septuagint were not yet standardized, however. The Codex Vaticanus lacks the books of Maccabees and the Codex Sinaiticus includes only 1 and 4 Maccabees; only the Codex Alexandrinus includes all of 1, 2, 3, and 4 Maccabees. The 8th-9th century Venetus, while written much later than Alexandrinus, largely agrees with it, so there are few textual variations.

Lucian of Antioch made a number of changes to his version of the Septuagint, resulting in variant readings. Lucianic versions became the standard in Syria, Asia Minor, and Constantinople, with the version of 3 Maccanees in the Syriac Peshitta notably Lucianic in character, as well as being a rather free translation that included several expansions. There also exists also a paraphrastic Armenian version that dates to 400–600 AD. Robert Hanhart published a critical edition of the Greek text in 1960, with a second edition in 1980.

The original title of the book, if any, is unknown. The Septuagint is what gave the work the title "3 Maccabees", despite being something of a misnomer. Presumably, this was due to the apparent links to 2 Maccabees and to distinguish it from the other books of Maccabees in the Septuagint. Similarities with stories in 2 Maccabees include the High Priest Simon II appearing, the father of Onias III who is discussed in 2 Maccabees, and fends off an attempt by Philopator to enter the Temple of Jerusalem; the suffering of Egyptian Jews is described in a similar manner to the martyrdom of Eleazar and the woman with seven sons; Eleazar himself reappears in this story; and two angels appear in the finale of the story to stop a king's anti-Jewish actions, similar to the story of Heliodorus. The book may also have been referred to by Pseudo-Athanasius as "Ptolemaica" (Ptolemaics).

Historicity
The contents of the book have a legendary character and it is not generally considered reliable as history; it is closer to a romance or historical novel, similar to the Book of Judith or Greek romances. Some parts of the story, such as the names of the Jews taking up all the paper in Egypt or the king granting the Jews a license to murder apostates, are clearly fictional. Additionally, the Book of Daniel, generally agreed to have been written around 165 BC, does not mention any such attack by the Ptolemies (referred to there as the "king of the south") against the Temple in its chapter 11 recounting of history as known to the author; as Daniel comprehensively chronicles threats against the Temple, this suggests the story of Ptolemy IV attempting to raid the Temple was invented for literary purposes. No other ancient sources or histories describe such an alleged persecution under Philopater. German historian Emil Schürer called the book almost entirely fictitious and a work of the poorest sort.

That said, while many elements of the story are dubious, many scholars accept that memories of a genuine persecution might be being described in 3 Maccabees, if distorted. Josephus writes that many (but certainly not all) Jews were put to death in Alexandria under the reign of Ptolemy VIII Physcon (146–117 BC) due to their support for his rival Cleopatra II, and this execution was indeed carried out by intoxicated elephants. This may be the historical center of the account in 3 Maccabees; the author transferred it to an earlier time period and added an ahistorical connection to Jerusalem if this theory is correct. Even Josephus's account may be heavily embellished, however: no independent evidence exists for such a persecution either, so he may have simply been building from the same legend as 3 Maccabees. Hugo Willrich claimed that the root of the story was a persecution by Ptolemy X Alexander I in 88 BCE, but based the claim on a questionable reading of Jordanes writing centuries later; this theory has not found acceptance among others. Moses Hadas suggests that the book could be describing and opposing a loss of civil rights in the Roman era, and the book was closer to describing troubles the Egyptian Jewish community had after the loss of the reasonably amenable late Ptolemaic rulers and the transition to Roman rule. As described in the speculation on the date of authorship, it is possible that the book was actually describing a contemporary Roman persecution, but moved the setting earlier in time. Another possibility is that the persecution which inspired the work was the best-attested one: that of Antiochus IV in Judea chronicled in 2 Maccabees, and the Egyptian author was telling a "what if it happened here?" story.

The book's opening, a retelling of the Battle of Raphia, is generally agreed to be loosely accurate, if not to the quality of Polybius's version. It may have been based on a lost history of Ptolemy of Megalopolis, Philopater's governor of Cyprus, and seems to have been based on an account written from the Ptolemaic point of view. The account of Ptolemy's visit to the Temple is considered based on the story of Heliodorus in 2 Maccabees rather than any historical event; archaeological evidence has been found suggesting Philopater indeed visited towns in Coele-Syria in the era to offer sacrifices to the local temples, but no other evidence of a controversy related to such visits exists, or if the visits even extended to Jerusalem.

A possible interpretation that gives credit to the historicity of 3 Maccabees might go something like this: Ptolemy Philopater was more open-minded than many Greeks in that he attempted to integrate non-Greeks into his army and administration, notably native Egyptians. Doing so required creation of a syncretic religion to unify everyone, Greek and non-Greek alike. As a devotee of Dionysus, perhaps he attempted to ensure the loyalty of recruited non-Greeks by initiating them into the Dionysian Mysteries in exchange for citizenship (3:21). Some Jews obeyed but most refused the offer (2:31-33, 3:22-23). The king was angry and threatened Jews who were already citizens with loss of their status if they did not join, a potential catastrophe that would be remembered for centuries. The Jews tried bribery (2:32). While nothing like the attempted mass execution at the hippodrome thwarted by angels occurred, some Jews in the provinces were possibly executed (3:12-30), before eventually the initiative stopped. Still, this is speculative. Notably, other Greek writings indicate that the cult of Dionysus, as a mystery cult, restricted entry rather than opening it widely to all; it was a status symbol that people had to petition to be initiated in. If Ptolemy Philopater really had thrown open the cult to everyone, it would have been an unusual move.

Another theory about the historical basis of the book was advanced by Adolf Büchler in 1899. He held that the book describes the persecution of the Jews in the Fayum region of Egypt, rather than in Alexandria. The Jews in Coele-Syria abruptly changed allegiance from the Ptolemies to the Seleucids in 200 BC as a consequence of Seleucid victory in the Fifth Syrian War. Büchler argues that this put Egyptian Jews under suspicion now that the Temple in Jerusalem was led by a High Priest who answered to the rival Seleucids, triggering a persecution in Egypt.

Theology
Despite clearly being familiar with 2 Maccabees, the author does not appear to agree with some of its tenets. While describing suffering and evil, the book makes no reference to a future resurrection of the innocent nor future retribution for villains. While two angels appear in response to a prayer, the author specifically writes that the angels were invisible to the Jews, perhaps suggesting a reluctance to ascribe power or authority to angels rather than God, or a reconciling of conflicting stories. The author may have been theologically conservative, keeping to classic traditions of Judaism in opposition to the influence of Greek thought on Judaism, such as Greek beliefs on the immortality of the soul that 2 Maccabees includes.

One of the main goals of the book may have been to explain the reason behind the Purim-esque festival celebrated by Egyptian Jews. In this theory, the origins of the festival had been muddied by time, and the author expanded existing stories of persecution into a story of how God saved the Jews of Egypt.

The author shows a high regard for the power of prayer; the work frequently depicts the Jews praying for aid, and God answering their prayers. Simon, the Jews collectively, and Eleazar all pray to God in situations of dire need, and these prayers are answered directly.

The author's concluding story sharply condemns apostasy in Judaism: 300 Jews who had left the faith during the initial registration are slain by pious Jews. The story may be partially based on Esther 9, where 300 people are also killed, but there the enemies are gentiles which had sought to destroy the Jews; here, they are merely Jewish civilians, and after the crisis has already passed.

Influence
3 Maccabees was not influential. No Jewish writers of the ancient era appear to reference it or be familiar with it, even those who wrote in Greek. The book was not translated into the Latin Vulgate, hence the Western Church's rejection of including it even as a member of the deuterocanonical books. While the book was kept in the Greek-speaking Eastern Church's scripture, it is only very rarely referenced or alluded to. Theodoret briefly summarizes 3 Maccabees in one of his writings, but this is the rare exception; the work had little influence on Christianity. 3 Maccabees is included in the deuterocanon of the Eastern Orthodox Church and some Oriental Orthodox Churches: the Armenian Apostolic Church, the Syriac Orthodox Church, and the Assyrian Church of the East. The Apostolic Canons approved by the Eastern Church's Council in Trullo in 692 verified 1, 2, and 3 Maccabees were deuterocanonical, but the Council was rejected by the Western Church's Pope Sergius I.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: 3 Maccabees


text:
Robert Burghersh, 1st Baron Burghersh

Robert de Burghersh, 1st Baron Burghersh, was born between 1252 and 1256, at Burghersh, in Sussex, England, and died in 1306.

He married Maud de Badlesmere (born between 1260 and 1270; died 1306), of Kent, England, the daughter of Gunselm de Badlesmere, Justiciar of Kent, around 1282.

Lord Robert Burgersh was the son and heir of Reynold de Burghersh, and was Constable of Dover Castle, and Lord Warden of the Cinque Ports from 1299 until his death. He was summoned to Parliament from 12 November 1303 until 13 July 1305, 'whereby he is held to have become Lord Burghersh'.

He had at least three children with Maud:
 * Stephen de Burghersh (d. 1310), who succeeded him
 * Henry de Burghersh, Bishop of Lincoln
 * Bartholomew de Burghersh, later created Baron Burghersh in his own right.

title: Robert Burghersh, 1st Baron Burghersh


text:
Leżajsk County

Leżajsk County (powiat leżajski) is a unit of territorial administration and local government (powiat) in Subcarpathian Voivodeship, south-eastern Poland. It came into being on January 1, 1999, as a result of the Polish local government reforms passed in 1998. Its administrative seat and largest town is Leżajsk, which lies 41 km north-east of the regional capital Rzeszów. The only other town in the county is Nowa Sarzyna, lying 11 km north-west of Leżajsk.

The county covers an area of 583.01 km2. As of 2019 its total population is 69,479, of which the population of Leżajsk is 13,853, that of Nowa Sarzyna is 5,834, and the rural population is 49,792.

Neighbouring counties
Leżajsk County is bordered by Biłgoraj County to the north-east, Przeworsk County and Łańcut County to the south, Rzeszów County to the south-west, and Nisko County to the north-west.

Administrative division
The county is subdivided into five gminas (one urban, one urban-rural and three rural). These are listed in the following table, in descending order of population.

Notable residents

 * Moe Drabowsky, American major league baseball pitcher

title: Leżajsk County


text:
Edward Capell

Edward Capell (11 June 1713 – 24 February 1781) was an English Shakespearian critic.

Biography
He was born at Troston Hall in Suffolk.

Through the influence of the Duke of Grafton he was appointed to the office of deputy-inspector of plays in 1737, with a salary of £200 per annum, and in 1745 he was made a Groom of the Privy Chamber through the same influence. In 1760 appeared his Prolusions, or, Select Pieces of Ancient Poetry, a collection which included Edward III, placed by Capell among the doubtful plays of Shakespeare.

Shocked at the inaccuracies which had crept into Sir Thomas Hanmer's edition of Shakespeare, he projected an entirely new edition, to be carefully collated with the original copies. After spending three years in collecting, and comparing scarce folio and quarto editions, he published his own edition in 10 vols 8vo (1768), with an introduction written in a style of extraordinary quaintness, which was afterwards appended to Johnson's and Steevens's editions.

Capell published the first part of his commentary, which included notes on nine plays with a glossary, in 1774. This he afterwards recalled, and the publication of the complete work, Notes and Various Readings of Shakespeare (1779–1783), the third volume of which bears the title of The School of Shakespeare, was completed, under the superintendence of John Collins, in 1783, two years after the author's death. It contains the results of his unremitting labour for thirty years, and throws considerable light on the history of the times of Shakespeare, as well as on the sources from which he derived his plots.

Collins asserted that Steevens had stolen Capell's notes for his own edition, the story being that the printers had been bribed to show Steevens the sheets of Capell's edition while it was passing through the press. Besides the works already specified, he published an edition of Antony and Cleopatra, adapted for the stage with the help of David Garrick in 1758. His edition of Shakespeare passed through many editions (1768, 1771, 1793, 1799, 1803, 1813). Capell died in the Temple on 24 February 1781.

title: Edward Capell


text:
Karasumi

Karasumi is a food product made by salting mullet roe pouch and drying it in sunlight. A theory suggests that it got its name from its resemblance to the blocks of sumi (inkstick) imported from China (Kara) for use in Japanese calligraphy. Karasumi is a high priced delicacy and it is eaten while drinking sake. It is a softer analog of Mediterranean Bottarga.

It is a speciality of Nagasaki and along with salt-pickled sea urchin roe and Konowata one of the "three chinmi of Japan".

The town of Donggang in Taiwan specializes in the delicacy. Mullet fishing in Taiwan can be traced back to when the island was under Dutch colonial rule.

title: Karasumi


text:
User talk:Gdans

Please stop vandalizing Wikipedia. You might be blocked from editing if it continues. ✏ Sverdrup 10:14, 9 Oct 2004 (UTC)

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If you have a problem with any page not being of a neutral point of view, then add a NPOV tag to it and discuss the issue on the talk page.

The two main policies of Wikipedia are NPOV and notability; I think Ken Bigley is notable, and the article on him NPOV. Causing offence to anyone is not considered important (apart from the usual decency sort of thing)

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title: User talk:Gdans


text:
Talk:Min entropy

Is this nonsense? Wetman 10:16, 9 Oct 2004 (UTC)

 * I very much doubt it. Google throws up about 650 hits for the exact term. What's so offensive about it, other than the obvious poor quality of the exposition?

title: Talk:Min entropy


text:
Talk:The Easybeats

Untitled
they formed in 194? looks like the date got truncated. could somebody who knows fix this? clarkk 10:17, 9 Oct 2004 (UTC)

The first paragraph does not read well. Pop band; rock and roll band; rock act; international pop hit - as opposed to international hit (The Seekers) - what exactly is the best ?!

The article is full of good intentions. But it needs better shape, a brief discography, better wiki linkage, and a decent editor. I do not know enough to contribute fully... but someone out there does !

Derek R Bullamore 22:31, 18 April 2006 (UTC)

A matter of opinion, I suppose, but the BeeGees were an Australian pop band that had their first hit in '66 I think. "Best" is debatable. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 99.253.80.69 (talk) 22:08, 25 December 2010 (UTC)

External links modified
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"They are regarded as the greatest Australian pop band of the 1960s..."
That's an ENORMOUS statement to be making without a single supporting reference! The Bee Gees could easily be considered "...the greatest Australian pop band of the 1960s", so the claim seems dubious to me. Perhaps "considered by many" would be more appropriate? Either way a reference needs to be provided, otherwise the statement will have to change. Furthermore, the claim of them "...echoing the Beatles' success in Britain" is also a pretty big statement to be making without a reference. What does it mean exactly? It could be read to mean that they were as popular as the Beatles, which clearly wasn't the case. I think something needs to change there too. Discussion? FillsHerTease (talk) 03:46, 17 May 2016 (UTC)

 * Good point! Not sure why I hadn't seen this before... I put tags after this statement in the lede. Ckruschke (talk) 11:50, 18 May 2016 (UTC)Ckruschke

External links modified
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I have just modified 1 one external link on The Easybeats. Please take a moment to review my edit. If you have any questions, or need the bot to ignore the links, or the page altogether, please visit this simple FaQ for additional information. I made the following changes:
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Hostile Audience in Orange?
What happened in Orange ? Why was some of the audience ‘hostile’ enough to stop the contest. 2001:44B8:3102:BB00:24A6:BBD8:8BC1:F418 (talk) 02:17, 9 August 2020 (UTC)

title: Talk:The Easybeats


text:
User talk:Haddalm

re:Maya ruins of Belize
Please read the deletion policy before marking any more articles for deletion. Additionally, calling articles "worthless garbage" goes against the civility guideline. Please don't do that. Regards, • Benc • 10:22, 9 Oct 2004 (UTC)

Hello, "Haddalm" and welcome to Wikipedia. A few tips for you:

. -- Infrogmation 11:42, 9 Oct 2004 (UTC)
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title: User talk:Haddalm


text:
Malfunkshun

Malfunkshun is an American rock band formed in 1980 by brothers Andrew and Kevin Wood. Combining glam influences with distortion, they were one of the earliest grunge bands, forming alongside the U-Men and Melvins. Their definitive lineup consists of the brothers and drummer Regan Hagar. After interactions with fellow grunge act Green River, Andrew would become the frontman for successor Mother Love Bone. Malfunkshun dissolved without having released much material, although they recorded demos and appeared in the landmark grunge compilation Deep Six.

Andrew struggled with drug dependence for several years, eventually dying from a heroin overdose in 1990. Mother Love Bone disbanded as a result and was succeeded by Pearl Jam. Malfunkshun's demos with Andrew were later compiled and released as Return to Olympus on Loosegroove Records, which was founded by Hagar and fellow Mother Love Bone member Stone Gossard. Malfunkshun reformed in 2005 and is currently touring and recording new material.

1980s: Andrew Wood era
Bainbridge Island, Washington brothers Andrew and Kevin Wood, decided to skip an Easter dinner at their grandmother's house and stayed at home instead - and recorded their first demo, titled "Malfunkshun". A bit later they found drummer David Hunt (1964–2009) and bassist Dave Rees, and became a four-piece. Hunt and Rees played with Malfunkshun for only one show; after they left, Andrew took over bass and drummer Regan Hagar was recruited from the band Maggot Brains, establishing the band's definitive power trio lineup.

During performances, each band member had an alter ego. Andrew's was L'Andrew the Love Child, Kevin was Kevinstein and Regan became Thundarr. Kevin's stage persona wasn't as carved-in-stone as Andrew's or Regan's, referred to sometimes as "the Axe-Handler" and even an early Malfunkshun poster hand-drawn by Andrew names him "Led Springsteen". Using makeup and flashy glam-style clothing in a nod to KISS, and other favorite bands, Malfunkshun was known for their dynamic live shows. Andrew was unpredictable and would wander the crowd during shows with his wireless bass, and even stop shows to eat cereal, and throw the rest out to the crowd. Andrew became increasingly involved with drugs and in 1985 he checked into drug rehab, during which time Malfunkshun was put on hold.

When Andrew returned from rehab, the band started up again and contributed "With Yo' Heart (Not Yo' Hands)" and "Stars-n-You" to the Deep Six compilation by C/Z Records. Notwithstanding their densely distorted sound, Sub Pop never took much interest in the band. Although they were beginning to gain popularity they rarely headlined their own shows.

Dissolving, but never formally disbanding, Malfunkshun took a back seat to the jam sessions Andrew and Hagar had begun with Green River members Stone Gossard and Jeff Ament. These sessions were the beginnings of Lords of the Wasteland, which would become Mother Love Bone after the addition of Greg Gilmore and Bruce Fairweather. Kevin formed Fire Ants in 1992 with his brother Brian, bassist Dan McDonald, and former Nirvana drummer Chad Channing. Later Brian joined Ben Shepherd of Soundgarden, to form Hater. The brothers later formed Devilhead. Hagar moved on, playing in Satchel, with Shawn Smith, and in Brad, also with Shawn Smith and with Stone Gossard.

A grouping of Malfunkshun demos and recordings from 1986 to 1987 were released on Stone Gossard and Regan Hagar's Loosegroove label in 1995, as Return to Olympus, which was the largest major label release of the band's material.

2005–present: Documentary and reformation
In 2005, a documentary entitled Malfunkshun: The Andrew Wood Story, debuted at the Seattle International Film Festival. The documentary is available on DVD in a boxed set with the reissued CD entitled Return to Olympus and the never before released Andrew Wood CD entitled Melodies and Dreams. This boxed set is a digipak set of 3 discs (1 DVD/2 CD's) entitled Malfunkshun: The Andrew Wood Story released on July 19, 2011, by Universal Music Enterprises.

On October 24, 2006, surviving members Kevin Wood and Regan Hagar, with vocalist Shawn Smith and bassist Cory Kane, began writing new music using lyrics written by Andrew before his death, for the release of a new album, after which they planned to go on tour. The band had originally intended to use the name Malfunkshun, soon changing it to Subfunkshun or the Subfunkshun Project, and eventually settling on From the North (Von Nord).

On February 19, 2011, Malfunkshun announced on their website that Jeff Loftis would be taking over vocals for both Malfunkshun and From the North. On March 14, 2011, Kevin and Jeff recorded the song "Jezebel Woman" and on March 19, 2011, recorded "Until the Ocean". They have posted both songs on YouTube under the name "Malfunkshun 2011". On May 15, 2011, Malfunkshun posted on their website, that Regan officially stepped down as the drummer, and on May 24, 2011, Malfunkshun posted on their website naming Mike Stone as Regan's replacement on drums, however Miles Freeborn substituted for Stone in March 2012 and has remained the band's drummer ever since. On May 9, 2012, Malfunkshun announced on their website that Rob Day had joined the band in place of Guy McIntosh, who had briefly replaced Cory Kane on bass for the band's autumn/winter tour dates.

Members

 * Current members
 * Kevin Wood – guitar (1980–1988, 2006–present)
 * Jeff Stark – lead vocals (2015–present)
 * Bradley BT Leach – drums (2015–present)
 * Paul Lamb – bass guitar, keyboards (2016–present)

 * Former members
 * Andrew Wood – lead vocals, bass guitar (1980–1988; died 1990)
 * Dave Rees – bass guitar (1980–1981)
 * David Hunt – drums (1980–1981; died 2009)
 * Regan Hagar – drums (1980–1988, 2006–2011)
 * Thorsten Rock – guitar (2006–2008)
 * Cory Kane – bass guitar (2006–2011)
 * Shawn Smith – lead vocals (2006–2011; died 2019)
 * Mike Stone – drums (2011–2012)
 * Guy McIntosh – bass guitar (2011–2012)
 * Jeff Loftis – lead vocals (2011–2013)
 * Rob Day – bass guitar (2012–2016)
 * Miles Freeborn – drums (2012–2015)
 * Tony West – lead vocals (2014–2015)

Albums

 * Return to Olympus (Loosegroove Records, 1995).
 * Monument (Wammybox Records, 2017).

EPs

 * Glow (Wammybox Records, 2021).

Compilation contributions

 * "With Yo' Heart (Not Yo' Hands)" and "Stars-N-You" on Deep Six (C/Z Records, 1986).
 * "My Only Fan" and "Shotgun Wedding" on Another Pyrrhic Victory: The Only Compilation Of Dead Seattle God Bands (C/Z Records, 1989).

title: Malfunkshun


text:
Lubaczów County

Lubaczów County (powiat lubaczowski) is a unit of territorial administration and local government (powiat) in Subcarpathian Voivodeship, south-eastern Poland, on the border with Ukraine. It came into being on January 1, 1999, as a result of the Polish local government reforms passed in 1998. Its administrative seat and largest town is Lubaczów, which lies 81 km east of the regional capital Rzeszów. The county contains three other towns: Oleszyce, 7 km west of Lubaczów, Narol, 26 km north-east of Lubaczów, and Cieszanów, 12 km north of Lubaczów.

The county covers an area of 1308.37 km2. As of 2019 its total population is 55,438, out of which the population of Lubaczów is 12,018, that of Oleszyce is 2,974, that of Narol is 2,071, that of Cieszanów is 1,913, and the rural population is 36,462.

Neighbouring counties
Lubaczów County is bordered by Jarosław County and Przeworsk County to the west, Biłgoraj County to the north, and Tomaszów Lubelski County to the north-east. It also borders Ukraine to the east.

Administrative division
The county is subdivided into eight gminas (one urban, three urban-rural and four rural). These are listed in the following table, in descending order of population.

title: Lubaczów County


text:
Talk:Gundestrup cauldron

Capacity
I took it that the cauldron is basically a 69 cm sphere that has had chopped off a sphere cap 27 cm tall, thus it having a volume of 133.1685783 litres... But I really haven't got any first hand reason to say it is so... Some sources approach this data claiming it had a capacity fo 28 gallons (127 liters I guess) or of 130 litres... But... Anyone out there can quote sources for this data?Undead Herle King 21:04, 25 May 2007 (UTC)

 * A correction of the data entered in one part of the equations furthers complicates my calculations giving that 113.6062735 litres was its capacity, not 133... Furthermore with this correction to the formula for the sphere cap volume's and considering that indeed 21 centimeters of its height were a cylinder and 21 centimeters a sphere cap gives a volume of 116.6245587 litres... The correction being that I had calculated the radius of the base circle for the sphere cap with 27 cm (the height) as hypotenuse and the square circle's radius as a cathetus (the rest being the sphere's radius minus the height); When the hypotenuse would had to be the sphere's radius (34.5 cm)... Anyway seeing how easily I could misscalculate this I'm even more doubtful of what non-expert pages claim... Any precise data out there?Undead Herle King 21:24, 25 May 2007 (UTC)

Related
Does User:Wiglaf's entry Pre-Roman Iron Age relate to this in any way? Wetman 10:28, 9 Oct 2004 (UTC)
 * of course, via La Tene. dab 10:47, 9 Oct 2004 (UTC)

The region where this cauldron was found is thought to preserve the name of the Cimbri. Since the cauldron is contemporary with the Cimbri, it is itching in my fingers to type that it was a Cimbric cauldron. Too bad, my original research alarms starts ringing at the mere thought of it :o).--Wiglaf 18:53, 11 September 2005 (UTC)
 * Oops, I see that I have been beaten to it already: possibly commissioned by the celtic Scordisci and fallen into the hands of Cimbri who invaded the Middle lower Danube in 120 BC. This text assumes that the Cimbri took it and that some of them brought it back.--Wiglaf 19:03, 11 September 2005 (UTC)
 * I vaguely remember typing that -- I think I found it on the web somewhere :) dab (ᛏ) 21:38, 11 September 2005 (UTC)
 * Do you know the origin of the name Cimbri, and possibly the origin of Himmer? I'd love to add a linguistic note to the names :).--Wiglaf 07:15, 12 September 2005 (UTC)
 * In spite of your categorization, I'm not even sure we know they were Germanic not Celtic. so, no. The Cimmerians/Sugambri/Cumbria connection is of course popular, but not very credible (British Israelism). If they were Celtic, at least the connection with Cumbria/Cymru may be worth a thought. I am sort of enamoured of the idea, recently, that Proto-Celtic expansion, while still connected with Urnfield, of course, was related by the apparent tumults further east, the apparent Iranian migration that pushed the Cimmerians over the Caucasus. It is not inconceivable that Germanic tribes would adopt the names of Celtic or Iranian tribes with whom they were allied, or whom they had defeated, much like the "Hittites" adopted the Assyrian Nesa as an ethnonym. So who knows, maybe the names of the Cimbri and the Cimmerians are related after all, via some complicated amalgamation due to a 8th century BC Migration period. dab (ᛏ) 07:25, 12 September 2005 (UTC)
 * The reason why I recategorized them as Germanic is that I did some googling and the more reliable sites I could find (Britannica, Encarta and Columbia ) all called them Germanic or German. If we identify the Germanic tribes with the Nordic Bronze Age, then the Jastorf culture could have been Germanic superstrate culture with a Celtic substrate. On the other hand, the Celts were probably a group that the Germanic tribes admired and wanted to emulate. One way of emulating them would be to claim Celtic tribal names.--Wiglaf 07:37, 12 September 2005 (UTC)
 * Sure, but where would the 'emulation' begin to be 'assimilation' to the point of being Celtic? On some occasions, where they bordered on one another, and possibly mixed, Celtic and Germanic tribes would have been almost impossible to tell apart. Since we don't have any scrap of the Cimbrian language, we can't tell. I suppose the idea is that since they were allied with the Teutons, who were probably Germanic, they would have been Germanic too. It would be safer to say that they were part of a 2nd century BC "Celto-Germanic continuum". dab (ᛏ) 07:46, 12 September 2005 (UTC)
 * Yes, and we have the Ambrones, who were a Cimbric subgroup with a clearly Celtic name. Perhaps the name Cimbri might give a clue. Grimm's law which probably gave Himmer had not affected the name Cimbri, and so it should be considered a Celtic name (if Grimm's law already had come into effect). I guess Celto-Germanic is a good term, but that would probably make the Jastorf culture Celto-Germanic and not Germanic.--Wiglaf 07:52, 12 September 2005 (UTC)
 * Jastorf would be the kernel of "Celto-Germanic" syncretism, although I imagine in 600 BC it would still be clearly (pre-)Germanic. A real continuum would begin to form with Germanic expansion to the Rhine and into Celtic territory, I don't know, 200 BC to 100 AD? The Cimbri seem to be a perfect example of this. Since in their time, the Germanic sound shift was clearly complete, they would have been either 'true' Celts, or Germans who had 'taken over' a formerly Celtic tribe, or at least their name. Is there no Germanic etymology for Himmer? Maybe, if rumors of the Cimmerians played such a major role in the 8th century, the name may have been adopted several times. But it seems unbelievable that the Gundestrup cauldron has anything to do with the Himmer name. Or could the Germanic sound shift have remained active as long as 100 BC? I don't really think so. dab (ᛏ) 09:13, 12 September 2005 (UTC)
 * No, I have never suggested that the cauldron is connected to the name Himmer (it was only found in Himmerland). Perhaps, I should have moved the discussion to Talk:Cimbri.--Wiglaf 09:20, 12 September 2005 (UTC)
 * yesby, but if we speculate that the cauldron was brought to Himmerland by Cimbri, and that Himmer is related to Cimbri, naturally a connection between the toponym and the cauldron is suggested. dab (ᛏ) 09:42, 12 September 2005 (UTC)
 * Dab, I have tried to find an alternative etymology for Himmer, and when I could not, I asked you about it. The connection is plausible, because if we assume that speakers of Celtic and Proto-Germanic lived in close contact at this time, Grimm's law would probably have been a transparent feature. Celtic kim- would perhaps have been recognisable as Germanic him-.--Wiglaf 09:51, 12 September 2005 (UTC)

this is really interesting. Check out this map of "Thraco-Cimmerian" bronze finds -- with remote outposts just about reaching Jastorf. It appears that the Proto-Celts were influenced by the "Thraco-Cimmerians" just like the Proto-Germans were influenced by the Celts. dab (ᛏ) 10:09, 12 September 2005 (UTC)
 * It is of course possible that the name is related to the Cimmerians. IIRC, Croatia and Serbia take their name from Iranian tribes. Here is another interpretation from Nordisk familjebok, which analyses the name as kimme meaning "rim" and referring to the Cimbrians as the "coast people". According to Pliny the Elder, there were still Cimbrians in the northernmost Jutland (i.e. in the area of Himmerland) in the 1st century.--Wiglaf 10:14, 12 September 2005 (UTC)

Elephants on Plate C?
The article currently states that on plate C (Right)...
 * "The group is surrounded by elephants and griffins similar to those on plate B.".

However I do not see how this can be true, I couldn't find a picture of plate B on Wiki, but here is one from a website, now anyone who compares these two plates will instantly know that the animals represented are not the same. There are Griffins on plate C alright, but those other animals are clearly not Elephants. The Elephants on plate B have many distinguishing features that make them elephants, they have large Tusks and a Trunk, for one, the animals on B do not. They also have different feet, the elephants on B have flat feet (the type you would expect on Elephants), whereas the creatures on C have long claws and paws, like some kind of predator. If I was to hazard a guess, I'd say the Plate C animals are probably some kind of dogs. For these reasons I think that that reference to Elephants on C is wrong, and should be removed. --Hibernian 13:33, 9 October 2007 (UTC)

X-ray fluorescence analysis (XRF)
Hello! Has there been a X-ray fluorescence analysis effected on the Gundestrup cauldron? --Bullenwächter (talk) 14:22, 21 October 2008 (UTC)
 * I don't know, but I know that Taylor and Bergquist opted not to perform any alloy or lead isotope analysis because they thought it likely that the cauldron had been made from melted coinage (they seem to have confirmed that), and that these coins would have originated in multiple mines, making isolation of a source mine impossible. Fuzzypeg★ 22:06, 21 October 2008 (UTC)

Silversmiths from India?
Davemon, from your recent edits you obviously haven't read the cited article, and are inserting ideas you've got from somewhere else, who knows where. Taylor doesn't in the cited articles speculate that the silversmiths were Indian. Thracian, not Indian. He also doesn't claim that the Celtic attributions of these depictions (such as the antlered figure as a depiction of Cernunnos) are wrong. Indeed, the Cernunnos attribution is very widely agreed upon, since the figure is holding both a torc and a ram-horned serpent, key features of many Cernunnos depictions. Rather, Taylor suggests that these deities are "pancultural". I note that these edits coincide with a request for guidance at WP:ORN in which I mentioned Taylor's theories, and you are trying to distance Taylor from the traditional Celtic interpretations. Please don't rewrite Taylor's theories when you clearly aren't familiar with them! Fuzzypeg★ 04:39, 1 December 2008 (UTC)

 * Ah, apologies, this was part of a huge removal of interpative bias from the article, and I may have got a little carried away. I'll elaborate on the indian origin theory separately. There are still some bias problems with the article. The Cernunnos reading of the gundestrup cauldron figure is a theory, the language used in the article needlessly naturalises this position. This is POV pushing. In describing the cauldron We can identify the horned figure as "the horned figure" without recourse to any singular cultural interpretation. That is a less biased approach.  We should be separating the neutral description of the artifact from interpretation of the pictoral imagery from interpretation of the physical technologies, rather than confusingly messing them up. You'll notice that my edits co-incide with several others, including on The Sorcerer ((cave art), Herne, Cernunnos and The Horned God all of which trying to clear up very similar bias-issues. Thanks for your help. --Davémon (talk) 10:34, 1 December 2008 (UTC)

 * I'm concerned that your edits are removing emphasis from the Celtic interpretations of these figures, which have a huge weight of literature behind them. I myself added the Taylor material to the article, and as far as I'm aware he hasn't argued against the traditional Celtic attributions himself, although he does state that these attributions aren't definite. The most certain of these attributions is the antlered figure attributed to Cernunnos, and this is still treated by many authors as the stereotypical representation of Cernunnos. I hoped to indicate something of this figure's fame in the article, while still not making the attribution seem definite, by putting quotation marks around the name "Cernunnos". I might have a go at making this even clearer.
 * However Taylor is just one author (although a well-respected one) among many, and I'm a bit worried that his view is being made to dominate the whole article. He and Bergquist provide some good solid evidence regarding construction and origin of manufacture, but I wouldn't naturalise the rest of his theories without solid evidence of their widespread acceptance. As far as I know, the theory that these deities are Celtic remains strong. Fuzzypeg★ 23:56, 1 December 2008 (UTC)
 * My intention wasn't to naturalise the indian-craftsmen theory, but to remove any interpretative language from the general discussion of the object at all. Most expert sources are unwilling to definately pin down the meaning of the imagery. Hence, in my opinion, "horned figure" or "antlered figure" is preferable to "Cernunnos" when broadly discussing the object. --Davémon (talk) 17:25, 2 December 2008 (UTC)

WP:REDFLAG. What is this "Indian origin" hypothesis? If this isn't Taylor's suggestion, whose is it? Thrace isn't exactly in India, now. This stuff was introduced by Fuzzypeg in October If the cauldron has been made in Thrace, why does the article keep talking about India, Indian deities etc.? User:Dbachmann 13:44, 2 December 2008
 * Taylor says that the artisans who made the cauldron may have been ethnic Indians living in Thrace. Unfortunately I do not have the source(s) at hand to directly quote it. --Davémon (talk) 17:25, 2 December 2008 (UTC)
 * No, Taylor says the artisans who made the cauldron were Thracians, not Indians, but that they were influenced by Indian iconography. His theory for how such influence could occur over such large geographical distances is described in the article. My intention was not to naturalise his view, and indeed Davemon's recent edits have largely been to make Taylor's theory more prominent in the article, more naturalised, and the more traditional interpretations of Celtic origin relegated to the status of superseded and disproven theory. I've partially reverted Davemon's edits twice, but I'd be happy to do a fuller revert and make sure Taylor's theories of Indian origin are fully attributed, and possibly segregated. I wouldn't treat Taylor as a fringe theorist, since he is a well-respected academic expert on the Cauldron, who has published on the subject in Antiquities, but considering that his Indian origin theories appeared in Scientific American rather than an academic journal, and I haven't been able to gauge how this theory has been received, I wouldn't want to naturalise it. Fuzzypeg★ 22:08, 2 December 2008 (UTC)
 * I've done some further reverting (keeping recently added material but undoing the rearrangements that gave precedence to Taylor), and I've made further changes to clearly attribute the Indian origin theories to him. We may decide we want to further segregate his theory, but hopefully there's no longer such a pressing problem. Fuzzypeg★ 00:30, 3 December 2008 (UTC)

guys, I appreciate that Taylor speculated there may have been a connection with Indian iconography. Fine. Let's mention that at some point in the article body. Let's not take that as an excuse to spam the entire article with tangents about Indian iconography or Hindu deities. WP:DUE. It's an interesting hypothesis, but it's a marginal (not to say fringe) idea. The focus here lies on the connection Thrace-Gaul-Himmerland and Celtic polytheism. WP:DUE. I am not saying this because I dislike the idea, and I do think the argument would be compelling if there was any independent evidence of Indian influence on Thracian art. It's just that in all discussions of the Gundestrup cauldron I have seen, the focus is clearly on Gaul vs. Thrace. --dab (𒁳) 10:36, 3 December 2008 (UTC)

 * Agreed. Can we also stop using interpretative language when describing the iconography, and keep matters of cultural-identification separate from the objects description? I've reverted Fuzzypegs edits which reinstated these interpretations because the identification of the figures as supernatural entities is not entirely agreed and this interpretation doesn't need to be forced onto readers wp:npov "Readers should be allowed to form their own opinions." Using the names  "Kernunnos" or "Antlered God" to describe the seated figure isn't allowing for the reader to decide for themselves what the subject matter is ( a shaman, a guy in a funny hat, shiva, budda, etc. etc.) it's favouring the most popular interpretation of the iconography, and that is bias. Neutral descriptions of the figures do not favour Taylor, Olmsted or anyone else.  --Davémon (talk) 14:26, 3 December 2008 (UTC)

this isn't a deep dispute, but for the record, I consider it questionable style to call "come to the talkpage" in reaction to an edit by a user who at the time of the edit had made the most recent talkpage posting.. It happens too often that I am called an edit-warrior while I am busy having a monologue on talk. I am also nonplussed how you can say that "this has nothing to do with Indians" in the edit summary of an edit re-instating talk of evident Indian origin, as in  probably copied from Indian work through several steps of transmission; the elephants, for example, are highly distorted, and their oddly-placed ears evidently[!] derive from decorative hats in the Indian models. wth man - I'm all for "doesn't need to be forced onto readers", but this cuts both ways. Let's find an encyclopedic discussion, and see how much space is devoted to Celtic mythology, and how much to Indian iconography, and style this article accordingly within WP:DUE. --dab (𒁳) 17:04, 3 December 2008 (UTC)

 * I think your input has largely been very helpful. Sorry for getting up your nose. However, rather than just reverting, we should be looking at the text and making sure it fits our NPOV-ideal and editing more delicately. Indeed, the "evident" is probably incorrect language as much as the identification of the images as gods in the titles and description of the object. Beware, popularity doesn't make neutrality! Just because a whole bunch of people believe the object is 'celtic' doesn't mean this article should be describing it in those terms. Lets keep the description of the object and the interpretation of the object separate, and make reference to it in neutral terms, not culturally ascribed ones, and then describe the theories applied to it. I think that way we can achieve good NPOV. --Davémon (talk) 18:30, 3 December 2008 (UTC)

fwiiw, I am willing to accept as reasonable the summary of Cunliffe, (1994) and Greene (1992), viz. both post-dating Taylor, and both in respectable publications, as given here, ''The imagery shown on the cauldron appears to come from a variety of cultures including: Celtic, Greek, Indian, and Iranian mythology. (Cunliffe: 402) There are many pictures shown on the cauldron which include what some scholars believe to be Gods, people, and animals. (Green: 109) Some of the more exotic animals depicted even include leopards. (ibid.) There is even a dolphin-rider which appears on the cauldron. (Cunliffe: 402) Scholars believe that the larger human like figures were actually depictions of divine beings or Gods due to their increased and seemingly symbolic stature. (Green: 109) Thematically speaking, the pictorial depictions on the Gundestrup cauldron appear to fit the history of Eastern influences along the Euro-Asian steppe axis. (Cunliffe: 402) '' "Eastern influences along the Euro-Asian steppe axis" sounds about right. This does, ultimately, connect to India, but only as the most remote region participating, besides all of Eastern Europe, Central Asia and Greater Persia. All this talk of "Indian craftsmen", "decorative hats in the Indian models", Lakshmi, Vishnu, Hariti etc., besides the obligatory Siberian shamans, seems comparatively cranky. And, no surprise there, the cranks did pick up on it. What I conclude from this is that the Thracians were very close culturally to the Scythians (not exactly controversial. In the 2nd century BC, the journey from Thrace to the Sarmatian homeland was about 300 km by sea, or a couple of days' sail), who were, of course, Iranians. Indo-Aryan and Iranian mythology remained closely related in the Iron Age, and via Thrace, "Thraco-Cimmerian" and Celtic transmission, there has been a strong Scythian, and hence Iranian, influence on Central and even Western Europe. This is fascinating, but it is counter productive to go over board with it to the point of implausibility. --dab (𒁳) 17:25, 3 December 2008 (UTC)

 * I like the careful separation of description and scholarly interpretation at shadowdrake, although I'd argue to describe the object first, then give interpretations. I can not comment on the accuracy of the summation of the sources. As Donald Mackenzie in "| Buddhism in Pre-christian Britian" shows, alternative-thinkers were writing about yoga and buddha in the Gundestrup cauldron back long before Taylor was published (1928). Davémon (talk) 18:30, 3 December 2008 (UTC)

 * House Shadow Drake is interesting but hardly what I'd call scholarly. Some of their more doubtful stuff has been removed in recent years, but they used to have some very unconvincing items in their folklore section, and they wouldn't grace me with a reply when I contacted them to ask for further information...
 * I'm happy with how the article's heading, though, and if one of us could get our hands on the cited works of Cunliffe (1994) and Green (1992) I'm sure we could improve it even further. Fuzzypeg★ 04:29, 4 December 2008 (UTC)

Plate B
Why is there no photo of plate B and no discussion of the female figure? —Preceding unsigned comment added by 71.141.240.243 (talk) 17:25, 25 August 2009 (UTC)

Observations
1. The pictured Gundestrup vessel is a reconstruction, not the original, which has never been put together (for what should be completely obvious reasons). 2. a "1928 book", and that too by a journalist, is not a source of much worth. 3. there is no consensus whatsoever as to the origin of the artwork, and Taylor's suggestion, though valid in an of itself, does not belong in the introduction to this article. It leads (as it were) the reader to assume that Taylor's suggestion is representative. While a suggestion of strong Thracian element is reasonable (pretty much everyone agrees on this), the "with influence by Indian iconography" is utterly inappropriate precision. Perhaps whoever added that had no knowledge of the mass of literature on the vessel? In addition to "India" (which is what in 100BC?), the three Gauls, Lower Danube area, Black Sea area (other than Thrace), Scythia/Samartia, Balkans have all at one time or another been suggested for the lesser elements. Even the Baltic area+Scandinavia itself (originally posited by eminence grise Sophus Müller), though a dated proposition, is not out of the question. Its not as the Gauls didn't get around (cf. Galatia)

Raven totem helmet on cauldron
I added an images of this 4th century BC Celtic helmet discovered in Satu Mare, Romania, which is obviously very similar with the one on the cauldron. If you look at this quality picture of the warriors on the cauldron, it is quite obvious. I didn't get the chance to put sources yet, and I'll look for some, but I don't think this is OR. I think is very relevant. We just need sources. --Codrin.B (talk) 00:00, 8 March 2011 (UTC)

 * Sorry, Codrin.B, but I've just performed a small clean-up of uncited or undue material in the article, and noticed this. Two years on we've still no scholarly citation for this comparison, so I've removed the image and caption as WP:OR. Haploidavey (talk) 13:04, 21 June 2013 (UTC)

Interpretations section and its gallery
The gallery seems to offer undue weight and prominence to Taylor's interpretation. I've no argument against the source or its broad conclusions, but Taylor's comparisons and proposals are speculative. The image captions invite the reader to make comparisons, to note iconographic similarities and draw specific conclusions. I don't know if they're Taylor's conclusions; or if he referred to these specific images, but even if they are - and he did - we should not seem to be arguing for a particular viewpoint (Taylor's), or offering it undue weight. Imho, the gallery distorts the section, and should be removed. Apart from the business of due weight and proportion, the central figure on the so-called "Pashupati" seal is amenable to a whole range of modern interpretations. Few modern sources support it as an ancestral or proto-Shiva (Pashupati); the second, third and fourth images would be problematic even without those assertive, instructional captions, as they inevitably nudge the unwary reader towards Taylor's interpretation and no other. Haploidavey (talk) 12:12, 21 June 2013 (UTC)

Interior Plate A
Whilst the usual interpretation is that the horned man / god is holding a serpent by the head, it strikes me that this might also be a sword belt - Balteus in Latin.

58.172.244.207 (talk) 08:48, 13 February 2016 (UTC) Ian Ison
 * Never seen that in a source, and why would he? Johnbod (talk) 11:54, 13 February 2016 (UTC)

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connections with jiroft, indus valley civilization and BMAC
garuda

guntestrup cauldron

INdus valley civilization, BMAC

jiroft

griffin

Guntestrup

Indus valley civilization

vegetal motif containing mountain tulip and pipal leaf

guntestrup

indus valley civilization

unicorn

guntestrup

indus civilization

spearing/using sword a bull/ unicorn

guntestrup

indus civilization

lord of animals

guntestrup

jiroft

indus valley civilization

female hair tied/ wrapped in cloth

guntestrup

jiroft

jiroft

indus valley civilization

indus valley civilization

head band

guntestrup

indus valley civilization

horned diety grabing snake

guntestrup

jiroft

Thracian plate

Thracian plate Letnitsa treasure

octopus star, indus valley civilization, surkotada, near BMAC

jiroft man on a horse carrying a spear

BMAC motif of egg and dart

jiroft beard and hair style

priest king indus civilization 115.135.130.182 (talk) 19:38, 2 December 2018 (UTC)
 * Yes, but don't forget the 1,000+ year gap between the IVC & the cauldron. Many of these motifs had been widespread around Eurasia for a long time, and some, like the Master of Animals appear earlier elsewhere. Johnbod (talk) 21:31, 2 December 2018 (UTC)

order
can anybody share some information about the possible order of the plates? i see three overview photographs with utterly contradicting plate-orders (bge, decf, bfa) but nothing about who chose for these particular orders or by what reasoning. in the article a theory by sophus müller is shared (and defied by taylor), but not which order müller proposes except the alternation of male-female-figures. anybody? Raaskal (talk) 15:23, 30 January 2019 (UTC)
 * The cauldron was discovered disassembled, so the original order is ultimately unknowable. I don't remember too much in the literature on this - it may not even have been important to the makers. It seems as if it has been reassembled different ways in the recent past, but I don't know too much about that. Compare the Torrs Pony-cap and Horns btw - I think that has been displayed 3 different ways in recent decades. Johnbod (talk) 16:05, 30 January 2019 (UTC)
 * I understand, those 3 different ways explain the 3 different photos. still i am curious about müller's order, -and the other orders- even when its/their academical ground is shaky. for even these are part of the - though very recent - iconographical history of the cauldron. Raaskal (talk) 12:41, 4 February 2019 (UTC)
 * I'm sure the arguments are recorded somewhere in the literature, perhaps not in English though. Johnbod (talk) 13:15, 4 February 2019 (UTC)

Use??
What was it used for? — Preceding unsigned comment added by 47.138.92.180 (talk) 22:22, 29 August 2020 (UTC)

title: Talk:Gundestrup cauldron


text:
Districts of Germany

In 13 German states, the primary administrative subdivision higher than a Gemeinde (municipality) is the Landkreis or Kreis. Most major cities in Germany are not part of any Kreis, but instead combine the functions of a municipality and a Kreis; such a city is referred to as a kreisfreie Stadt or Stadtkreis.

(Land-)Kreise stand at an intermediate level of administration between each state (Länder) and the municipalities (Gemeinden) within it. These correspond to level-3 administrative units in the Nomenclature of Territorial Units for Statistics (NUTS 3).

Previously, the similar title Imperial Circle (Reichskreis) referred to groups of states in the Holy Roman Empire. The related term Landeskommissariat was used for similar administrative divisions in some German territories until the 19th century.

Types of districts
The majority of German districts are "rural districts" (German: Landkreise, ), of which there are 294. Cities with more than 100,000 inhabitants (and smaller towns in some states) do not usually belong to a district, but take on district responsibilities themselves, similar to the concept of independent cities. These are known as "urban districts" (German: kreisfreie Städte or Stadtkreise)—cities which constitute a district in their own right—and there are 106 of them, bringing the total number of districts to 400. , approximately 26 million people live in these 107 urban districts.

In North Rhine-Westphalia, there are some cities with more than 100,000 inhabitants which are not urban districts, these being Recklinghausen, Gütersloh, Siegen, Paderborn, Bergisch Gladbach, Neuss and Moers. Nevertheless, these cities take over many district responsibilities themselves, although they are still part of a larger rural district. Midsize towns can perform particular administrative functions of the district as well, especially to provide common services to the local citizens. The classification as "midsize" town is usually based on a town's registered population, but varies from state to state.

A special type of rural districts includes the three Kommunalverbände besonderer Art (Municipal unions of special kind), a fusion of a district-free town with its adjacent rural district: besides the Regionalverband Saarbrücken (Saarbrücken regional association), from 1974 until 2007 called "Stadtverband Saarbrücken" (Saarbrücken town association), there is the Hanover Region since 2001 and the Städteregion Aachen (Aachen region of towns) since 2009. Aachen, Hanover and Göttingen retain certain rights of an urban district (Kreisfreie Stadt); Saarbrücken has not explicitly determined a similar provision in its legislation.

Responsibilities
According to common federal and state laws, the districts are responsible for the following tasks:

 * Planning local public transport (in most states)
 * The building and upkeep of "district roads" (Kreisstraßen)
 * Other building plans which cover more than one local authority's area
 * Caring for national parks
 * Social welfare
 * Youth welfare
 * The building and upkeep of hospitals
 * The building and upkeep of state schools of secondary education
 * Household waste collection and disposal
 * Car registration
 * Electing the Landrat or Landrätin, the chief executive and representative of the district

Districts can perform additional functions, based on varying local laws in each region:

 * Financial support for culture
 * The building of pedestrian zones and bicycle lanes
 * Financial support for school exchanges
 * The building and upkeep of public libraries
 * Revitalisation of the economy
 * Encouraging tourism
 * The management of state-run adult education colleges (Volkshochschulen)

All these tasks are carried out by local (municipal) authorities operating together. Urban districts have these responsibilities and also those of the municipalities.

District council
The district council (German: Kreistag, ) is the highest institution of a rural district and is responsible for all fundamental guidelines of regional self-administration. This council is elected directly every five years, except in Bavaria where it is elected every six years. Usually the administrative seat of a rural district is located in one of its largest towns. However, district council and administrative seat of some rural districts are not situated within the district proper, but in an adjacent district-free city. Most of those rural districts are named after this central city as well (e.g. Bamberg and Karlsruhe). Moers is the biggest city in Germany (and at present time the only one with more than 100,000 inhabitants) that is neither an urban district, nor the district seat of its rural district.

District administration
The highest administrative position of a rural district is an officer known as Landrat or Landrätin, who is responsible for the district's day-to-day administration and acts as its representative for official purposes. In parts of northern Germany, Landrat is also the name of the entire district administration, which in southern Germany is known as Kreisverwaltung or Landratsamt.

In urban districts similar administrative functions are performed by a mayor, in most greater cities usually by the Lord Mayor.

Rural districts in some German states have an additional administrative committee called Kreisausschuss. This committee is generally led by the Landrat and includes a number of additional voluntary members. It takes over certain administrative functions for the district, following decisions of the district council. However, the exact role and regulations of this panel vary greatly between different states.

The city where the office of the district's administration is located is called Kreisstadt ("district city"), or Kreishauptort ("district main community") if it is not a city. Often the district is named after its district city.

Linguistically, any city within a district could be called a "Kreisstadt", especially those that aren't district-free to distinguish them from district-free cities. This term has to be distinguished from the legal term "Kreisstadt" that only denotes the location of the administrative office. In everyday language, district cities are also called Kreishauptstadt ("district capital").

title: Districts of Germany


text:
Kitchen sink

Kitchen sink may refer to:
 * A sink in a kitchen for washing dishes, vegetables, etc.
 * Freaks of Nature (film), a 2015 comedy horror film, also known as Kitchen Sink
 * Kitchen Sink, a 1989 horror short directed by Alison Maclean
 * Kitchen Sink (TV series), cookery series on Food Network
 * "Kitchen Sink", a song by Twenty One Pilots from their album Regional at Best
 * Kitchen Sink (album), an album by Nadine Shah, 2020
 * Kitchen Sink Press, an independent comic book publisher
 * Kitchen sink realism, a British cultural movement in the late 1950s and early 1960s
 * Kitchen sink syndrome, also known as "scope creep" in project management
 * Kitchen sink regression, a usually pejorative term for a regression analysis which uses a long list of possible independent variables

title: Kitchen sink


text:
Łańcut County

Łańcut County (powiat łańcucki) is a unit of territorial administration and local government (powiat) in Subcarpathian Voivodeship, south-eastern Poland. It came into being on January 1, 1999, as a result of the Polish local government reforms passed in 1998. Its administrative seat and only town is Łańcut, site of the famous Łańcut Castle, lying 17 km east of the regional capital Rzeszów.

The county covers an area of 452 km2. As of 2019 its total population was 80,898, out of which 22% in urban areas.

Neighbouring counties
Łańcut County is bordered by Leżajsk County to the north, Przeworsk County to the east, and Rzeszów County to the west.

Administrative division
The county is subdivided into seven gminas (one urban and six rural). These are listed in the following table, in descending order of population.

Places of interest

 * Markowa Ulma-Family Museum of Poles Who Saved Jews in World War II, the first museum in Poland, dedicated to the rescue of Jewish population in occupied Poland during World War II. Opened in March 2016, the Ulma Family Museum of Poles Saving Jews in World War II was designed by Mirosław Nizio, known for his modern design of architectural objects and interiors.
 * Łańcut Castle Museum, located in one of the most beautiful aristocratic residences in Poland, the Łańcut castle. The castle, along with pavilions and farm buildings is surrounded by historic and picturesque English park. The complex is of great historic importance for Polish and European cultural heritage.
 * Pottery Centre in Medynia Głogowska, shows the pottery tradition of te region. It is located in a beautiful 19th-century wooden building. Shows, workshops and lectures are organised here. There is also an exposition of pottery and clay sculptures from the early 20th century. The pottery fair is organised every year in July.
 * Łańcut synagogue, built in 1761 is one of the most spectacular synagogues preserved in Central Europe. The temple was financed by Stanisław Lubomirski, the leading protector of Jews in Łańcut. The synangoue is located on the Chassidic Route linking 30 towns in Eastern Poland with the most valuable monuments of Jewish culture in south-eastern Poland.
 * Orthodox art in the Łańcut castle (located in the eastern wing of the stable), the biggest collection of Ukrainian Orthodox art in Poland. The collection not only includes icons, but also flags, processional crosses, books, textiles and liturgical vessels.

Twin towns — Sister cities
Łańcut County is twinned with: "News (in Polish)"

title: Łańcut County