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Battle of Nicopolis

The Battle of Nicopolis took place on 25 September 1396 and resulted in the rout of an allied Crusader army (assisted by the Venetian navy) at the hands of an Ottoman force, raising the siege of the Danubian fortress of Nicopolis and leading to the end of the Second Bulgarian Empire. It is often referred to as the Crusade of Nicopolis as it was one of the last large-scale Crusades of the Middle Ages, together with the Crusade of Varna in 1443–1444. By their victory at Nicopolis, the Turks discouraged the formation of future European coalitions against them. They maintained their pressure on Constantinople, tightened their control over the Balkans, and became a greater threat to Central Europe.

Background
There were many minor crusades in the 14th century, undertaken by individual kings or knights. Most recently there had been a failed crusade against Tunisia in 1390, and there was ongoing warfare in northern Europe along the Baltic coast. After the Battle of Kosovo in 1389, the Ottomans had conquered most of the Balkans and had reduced the Byzantine Empire to the area immediately surrounding Constantinople, which they blockaded from 1394 on.

In 1393 the Bulgarian tsar Ivan Shishman had lost Nicopolis — his temporary capital — to the Ottomans, while his brother, Ivan Stratsimir, still held Vidin but had been reduced to an Ottoman vassal. In the eyes of the Bulgarian boyars, despots, and other independent Balkan rulers, the crusade was a great chance to reverse the course of the Ottoman conquest and take back the Balkans from Islamic rule. In addition, the front line between Islam and Christianity had been moving slowly towards the Kingdom of Hungary. The Kingdom of Hungary was now the frontier between the two religions in Eastern Europe, and the Hungarians were in danger of being attacked themselves. The Republic of Venice feared that Ottoman control of the Balkan peninsula, which included Venetian territories like parts of Morea and Dalmatia, would reduce their influence over the Adriatic Sea, Ionian Sea, and Aegean Sea. The Republic of Genoa, on the other hand, feared that if the Ottomans were to gain control over River Danube and the Turkish Straits, they would eventually obtain a monopoly over the trade routes between Europe and the Black Sea, where the Genoese had many important colonies like Caffa, Sinop, and Amasra. The Genoese also owned the citadel of Galata, located at the north of the Golden Horn in Constantinople, to which Bayezid had laid siege in 1395.

In 1394, Pope Boniface IX proclaimed a new crusade against the Turks, although the Western Schism had split the papacy in two, with rival popes at Avignon and Rome, and the days when a pope had the authority to call a crusade were long past.

The two decisive factors in the formation of the last crusade were the ongoing Hundred Years' War between Richard II's England and Charles VI's France and the support of Philip II, Duke of Burgundy. In 1389, the war had ground to one of its periodic truces. Further, in March 1395, Richard II proposed a marriage between himself and Charles VI's daughter Isabella in the interests of peace and the two kings met in October 1396 on the borders of Calais to agree to the union and agree to lengthen the Truce of Leulinghem. The support of Burgundy, among the most powerful of the French nobles, was also vital. In 1391, Burgundy, trying to decide between sending a crusade to either Prussia or Hungary, sent his envoy Guy de La Trémoille to Venice and Hungary to evaluate the situation. Burgundy originally envisioned a crusade led by himself and the Dukes of Orléans and Lancaster, though none would join the eventual crusade. It was very unlikely that defense against the Turks was considered a particularly important goal of the crusade. Burgundy's interest in sponsoring the crusade was in increasing his and his house's prestige and power and, historian Barbara Tuchman notes, "since he was the prince of self-magnification, the result was that opulent display became the dominant theme; plans, logistics, intelligence about the enemy came second, if at all." In 1394, Burgundy extracted 120,000 livres from Flanders, sufficient to begin preparations for a crusade, and in January 1395 sent word to King Sigismund of Hungary that an official request to the King of France would be accepted.

In August, Sigismund's delegation of four knights and a bishop arrived in the court of Paris to paint a description of how "40,000" Turks were despoiling and imperiling Christian lands and beg, on Sigismund of Hungary's behalf, for help. Charles VI, having secured a peace with England through the marriage of his daughter, was able to reply that it was his responsibility to protect Christianity and punish Sultan Bayezid. French nobility responded enthusiastically to the declaration; Philip of Artois, Count of Eu, the Constable of France, and Jean Le Maingre, the Marshal of France, declared participation in the crusade the duty of every "man of valor".

Strength of forces
According to the Chronica Hungarorum, King Sigismund of Hungary was so delighted at the sight of the large army gathered around him in Buda, he exclaimed in joy: "Who would be so bold as to dare to resist us? If the enormous weight of the sky were to fall on us, with spears that we carry, we would also hold it up so that no harm would come to us."

The number of combatants is heavily contested in historical accounts. Historian Tuchman notes the Battle of Nicopolis was considered so significant that the number of combatants given by medieval chroniclers ranges as high as 400,000, with each side insisting that the enemy outnumbered them two-to-one, which for the crusaders offered some solace for their defeat and for the Turks increased the glory of their victory. The oft-given figure of 100,000 crusaders is dismissed by Tuchman, who claims that 100,000 men would have taken a month to cross the Danube at Iron Gate, while the crusaders took eight days.

The closest record to a first-person account was made by Johann Schiltberger, a German follower of a Bavarian noble, who witnessed the battle at the age of 16 and was captured and enslaved for 30 years by the Turks before returning home, at which time he wrote a narrative of the battle estimating the crusader strength at the final battle at 17,000, though he also overestimated Turkish forces as a wildly inflated 200,000. German historians of the 19th century attempting to estimate the combatants on each side came to the figures of about 7,500–15,000 Christians and about 12,000–20,000 Turks, while noting that, from the point of logistics, it would have been impossible for the countryside around Nicopolis to have supplied food and fodder for scores of thousands of men and horses. (Medieval armies acquired supplies by taking them from the surrounding area as they marched, as opposed to using the supply lines of modern armies.)

Composition of crusader forces
From France, it was said about 5,000 knights and squires joined, and were accompanied by 6,000 archers and foot soldiers drawn from the best volunteer and mercenary companies; totalling some 11,000 men. Next in importance were the Knights Hospitaller of Rhodes, who were the standard bearers of Christianity in the Levant since the decline of Constantinople and Cyprus. Venice supplied a naval fleet for supporting action, while Hungarian envoys encouraged German princes of the Rhineland, Bavaria, Saxony, and other parts of the empire to join. French heralds had proclaimed the crusade in Poland, Bohemia, Navarre, and Spain, from which individuals came to join.

The Italian city-states were too much engaged in their customary violent rivalries to participate, and the widely reported and acclaimed English participation never actually occurred. The report of 3,000 English knights comes from contemporary Antonio Fiorentino, and was taken as fact by historian Aziz S. Atiya and others following him. A thousand knights would have actually amounted to "four to six thousand men and at least twice as many horses", counting foot-soldiers and other retainers. However, there are no records of financial arrangements being made in England to send a force abroad, nor of any royal preparation needed to organize and dispatch such a force. Reports of Henry of Bolingbroke or other "son of the Duke of Lancaster" leading an English contingent must be false since the presence of Henry and every other such son, as well as almost every other significant noble in the land, is recorded at the King's wedding five months after the crusade's departure. Atiya also thought that the invocation of St. George as a war cry at Nicopolis signified the presence of English soldiers, for whom George was a patron saint; but Froissart, who mentions this, claims that the cry was made by the French knight Philippe d'Eu. Furthermore, there was no collection of ransom money in England to pay for captives, as there was in every other country that had sent men to the battle. Sporadic mention in contemporary accounts of the presence of "English" may be attributed to Knights Hospitaller of the English langue subgrouping, who joined their comrades for the crusade after leaving Rhodes (where the Hospitallers were based at the time) and sailing up the Danube. Possible reasons for the English absence include the increasing tension between the King and the Duke of Gloucester, which may have convinced the two that they had best keep their supporters close, and the antipathy caused by the long war between the English and French, resulting in the English refusing to consider putting themselves under a French-led crusade, regardless of the recently concluded peace.

Nevertheless, obviously inflated figures continue to be repeated. These include 6,000–12,000 Hungarians,  about 11,000 French, English and Burgundian  troops, about 12,000 Wallachians led by Mircea cel Batran (Mircea the Elder) the Prince of Wallachia, about 6,000 Germans and nearly 15,000 Dutch, Bohemian, Spanish, Italian, Polish, Bulgarian, Scottish and Swiss troops on the land, with the naval support of Venice, Genoa and the Knights of St. John. These result in a figure of about 47,000–49,000 in total; possibly up to 120,000 or 130,000 according to numerous sources, including the Ottoman historian Şükrullah who, in the 1460s, gives the figure of the crusader army as 130,000 in his Behçetu't-Tevârih.

Composition of Ottoman forces
The strength of the Ottoman forces is also estimated at 15–20,000; but inflated figures are common here as well. Numerous sources provide estimates of the size of the army as up to 60,000 including the Ottoman historian Şükrullah, who, writing in the 1460s, gives the figure of the Ottoman army as 60,000 in his Behçetu't-Tevârih; alternately described as roughly half of the Crusader army. The Ottoman force also included 1,500 Serbian heavy cavalry knights under the command of Prince Stefan Lazarević, who was Sultan Bayezid's brother-in-law and vassal since the Battle of Kosovo in 1389.

Journey
While Philip, Duke of Burgundy, had originally planned to lead the crusade along with John of Gaunt and Louis of Orleans, all three withdrew, claiming that the peace negotiations with England required their presence, though perhaps also because none dared leave the vicinity of the throne if their chief rivals stayed. However, Burgundy retained control of the enterprise he was funding by naming 24-year-old John, Count of Nevers, the Duke's eldest son, for nominal command. Burgundy, perhaps recognizing that his son, as well as Constable d'Eu and Marshal Boucicaut, who were both under 35, lacked the necessary experience, summoned Enguerrand VII, Lord of Coucy, the most experienced warrior and statesman of the realm, and prevailed on him to be "chief counselor" to Nevers during the crusade. The ambiguity of the crusaders' command structure would prove to be crucial in the outcome. While Nevers was given a long list of "counselors", as well as another list of prominent French lords on the crusade with whom Nevers could consult "when it seemed good to him", the concept of unity of command was not yet embraced by medieval warriors. Rules of discipline for the crusade were decreed at a War Council on 28 March 1396, which included the final provision, "Item, that [in battle] the Count and his company claim the avante garde", revealing that the chivalric code continued to require knights to prove their valor by leading the charge.

To Buda

The crusade set forth from Dijon on 30 April 1396, heading to Bavaria by way of Strasbourg via the upper Danube, from where they used river transport to join with Sigismund in Buda. From there the crusader goals, though lacking details of planning, were to expel the Turks from the Balkans and then go to the aid of Constantinople, cross the Hellespont, and march through Turkey and Syria to liberate Palestine and the Holy Sepulchre, before returning in triumph to Europe by sea. Arrangements were made for a fleet of Venetian vessels to blockade the Turks in the Sea of Marmara and for the Venetians to sail up the Danube to meet the crusaders in Wallachia in July.

Coucy was not with the crusader body as it traveled, having been detached on a diplomatic mission to Gian Galeazzo Visconti, the Duke of Milan. Furious at French political maneuvering that had removed Genoa from his influence, Gian Galeazzo had been attempting to stop the transfer of Genoese sovereignty to France and Coucy was dispatched to warn him that France would consider further interference a hostile act. The quarrel was more than political. Valentina Visconti, the wife of the Duke of Orleans and Gian Galeazzo's beloved daughter, had been exiled from Paris due to the machinations of Queen Isabeau the same month as the departure of the crusade. The Duke of Milan threatened to send knights to defend his daughter's honor but, in the wake of the disaster at Nicopolis, it was widely believed that he had relayed intelligence to Bayezid I of crusader troop movements. There is no firm evidence of this and it is likely that Gian Galeazzo became a scapegoat after the fact due to the existing animosity with France, though there remains the possibility that the Duke of Milan, who had murdered his own uncle to ensure his own power, did in fact betray the crusaders. Coucy, his diplomatic mission complete and accompanied by Henry of Bar and their followers, left Milan for Venice, from where he requisitioned a ship on 17 May to take him across the Adriatic Sea, landing in the Croatian port of Senj on 30 May before making his way overland to the rendezvous in Buda. Croatian forces led by Ban Nicholas II Garai moved towards Buda from the coastal town of Nin in June, following a session of the Croatian Parliament, and joined the royal Hungarian army led by Sigismund.

Coucy arrived well before Nevers, who had stopped in the upper Danube for receptions and festivities thrown by German princes. Nevers did not arrive in Vienna until 24 June, a full month behind the crusader vanguard led by d'Eu and Boucicaut. A fleet of 70 Venetian vessels loaded with provisions was sent down the Danube, while Nevers enjoyed yet more parties thrown by his brother-in-law Leopold IV, Duke of Austria. Nevers then asked his brother-in-law for a staggering loan of 100,000 ducats, which took time to arrange, and eventually arrived in Buda in July.

Buda to Nicopolis

Once the leaders had arrived, strategy had to be coordinated with Philibert de Naillac, Master of the Knights Hospitaller, and representatives of the Venetian fleet. Forty-four Venetian ships had carried the Hospitallers from Rhodes through the Aegean into the Sea of Marmara, and some continued into the Black Sea and up the Danube without engaging in battle. The fact that the Turks, who had an inferior naval presence, did not challenge the Venetians for control of the sea is seen as evidence that Bayezid and the majority of his forces were already on the European side.

The War Council in Buda was immediately the forum of a fierce dispute. The previous year, Bayezid had declared that he would attack Hungary by May, yet he had not appeared by end of July. Hungarian scouts sent out as far as the Hellespont could find no sign of him, causing the French to proclaim that he was a coward. Sigismund of Hungary assured the crusaders that Bayezid would come, and advised that it would be wiser to let the Turks make the long march to them, rather than make the same long march to find them. This strategy was rejected by the French and their allies. Coucy, acting as spokesman, stated, "Though the Sultan's boasts be lies, that should not keep us from doing deeds of arms and pursuing our enemies, for that is the purpose for which we came." Sigismund had little choice but to acquiesce, though chroniclers also write that Coucy's speech excited jealousy in D'Eu, who felt that he should have had the honor of spokesman due to his position as Constable of France.

The crusaders began to march down the left bank of the Danube, though part of the Hungarian army veered north to gather the forces of Transylvania and the Mircea the Elder-led forces of Wallachia. The remainder of the Hungarians brought up the rear of the crusader column. As the crusaders moved into Muslim-held territory, pillaging and mistreatment of the population reportedly grew. While crusaders had been reported to engage in periodic pillage and raping while passing through Germany, the indiscipline of the French reportedly reached new heights when they entered "schismatic" lands. Chroniclers also waxed eloquent on the immorality and blasphemy of the crusaders, writing detailed accounts of drunkard knights lying with prostitutes for days, despite writing from at best second-hand accounts. Tuchman cautions that such chroniclers were part of a contemporary tendency to blame the defeat of the crusade on the immorality of the crusaders, and that it is impossible to verify such claims.

At Orşova, where the Danube narrows at the Iron Gates gorge, the column crossed to the right bank using pontoons and boats over eight days. Their first target was Vidin, previously the capital of Western Bulgaria and then under Turkish control. The ruler of Vidin, Ivan Sratsimir of Bulgaria, having no desire to fight for his Turkish conquerors against an overwhelming force of crusaders, promptly surrendered. The only bloodshed was the execution of Turkish officers in the defending garrison, though the incident served to further convince the French that Turks were incapable of challenging the crusaders in the field.

The next target was Oryahovo (Rachowa), a strong fortress located 75 mi from Vidin. Frustrated by the lack of opportunity to show their bravery in deeds of arms, the French carried out a forced march at night to reach the castle before their allies, arriving in the morning just as the Turkish forces had come out to destroy the bridge across the moat. In fierce combat the French secured the bridge but were unable to push forward until Sigismund arrived. The forces combined and managed to reach the walls before night forced the combatants to retire. The next morning the inhabitants of Oryahovo agreed to surrender to Sigismund on the assurance that their lives and property would be spared. The French promptly broke Sigismund's agreement, pillaging and massacring the town after the gates were open, and later claiming that they had taken the town by conquest because their men-at-arms had topped the walls the night before. A thousand residents, both Turkish and Bulgarian, were taken hostage and the town set ablaze. The Hungarians took the French action as a grave insult to their king, while the French accused the Hungarians of trying to rob them of the glory of victory through combat.

Leaving a garrison to hold Oryahovo, the crusaders continued towards Nicopolis, assaulting one or two forts or settlements along the way, but bypassing one citadel from which messengers escaped to inform Bayezid of the Christian army. On 12 September the crusaders came within view of the fortress of Nicopolis on its limestone cliff.

Siege of Nicopolis
Nicopolis, located in a natural defensive position, was a key stronghold controlling the lower Danube and lines of communication to the interior. A small road ran between the cliff and river, while the fortress was actually two walled towns, the larger one on the heights on the cliff and the smaller below. Further inland from the fortified walls, the cliff sloped steeply down to the plain. Well-defended and well-supplied, the Turkish governor of Nicopolis, Doğan Bey, was certain that Bayezid would have to come to the aid of the town and was prepared to endure a long siege.

The crusaders had brought no siege machines with them, but Boucicaut optimistically stated that ladders were easily made and worth more than catapults when used by courageous men. However, the lack of siege weapons, the steep slope up to the walls and the formidable fortifications made taking the castle by force impossible. The crusaders set up positions around the town to block the exits, and with the naval blockade of the river, settled in for a siege to starve out the defenders. Nevertheless, they were convinced that the siege of the fortress would be a mere prelude to a major thrust into relieving Constantinople and did not believe that Bayezid I would arrive so speedily to give them a real battle.

Two weeks passed as the bored crusaders entertained themselves with feasts, games, and insulting the martial prowess of their enemy. Whether through drunkenness or carelessness, the crusaders posted no sentries, though foragers venturing away from the camps brought word of the Turks' approach. Bayezid was at this time already through Adrianople and on a forced march through the Shipka Pass to Tirnovo. His ally Stefan Lazarević of Serbia joined him on the way. Sigismund had sent 500 horsemen to carry out reconnaissance in force around Tirnovo, 70 mi to the south, and they brought word back that the Turks were indeed coming. Word also reached the besieged inhabitants of Nicopolis, who blew horns and cheered. Boucicaut claimed the noise of their celebration was a ruse as he believed that the Sultan would never attack; he further threatened to cut off the ears of anyone who discussed rumors of the Turks' approach as being damaging to the morale of the crusaders.

One of the few to concern himself with scouting the situation was de Coucy, who took a group of 500 knights and 500 mounted archers south. Learning of a large group of Turks approaching through a nearby pass, he separated 200 horsemen to carry out a feint retreat, drawing the pursuing Turks into an ambush where the rest of his men, waiting concealed, attacked their rear. Giving no quarter, de Coucy's men killed as many as they could and returned to the camp where his action shook the camp from its lethargy and drew the admiration of the other crusaders. Tuchman argues that it also increased the overconfidence of the French and again drew the jealousy of D'Eu, who accused Coucy of risking the army out of recklessness and attempting to steal glory and authority from Nevers.

Sigismund called a war council on the 24th, in which he and Mircea of Wallachia suggested a battle plan in which the Wallachian foot soldiers, who had experience in fighting the Turks, would be sent in the first attack to meet the Turkish vanguard; this was usually a poorly armed militia, normally used for pillage but used in battle to tire opponents before they met better quality Turkish forces. Sigismund claimed that this vanguard was not worthy of the attention of knights. Sigismund proposed that, once the shock of first clash had passed, the French form the front line to rush in, while the Hungarians and the other allies follow to support the attack and keep the sipahis (Turkish heavy cavalry) from sweeping around the crusaders' flanks. D'Eu denounced the proposal as demeaning to the knights, who would be forced to follow peasant footmen into battle. He reportedly stated, "To take up the rear is to dishonor us, and expose us to the contempt of all" and declared that he would claim front place as Constable and anyone in front of him would do him mortal insult. In this he was supported by Boucicaut; Nevers, reassured by the confidence of the younger French lords, was easily convinced.

With the French set on a charge, Sigismund left to make a battle plan for his own forces. Apparently within hours, he sent word to the camp that Bayezid was only six hours away. The crusaders, said to be drunk over dinner, reacted in confusion; some refused to believe the report, some rose in panic, and some hastily prepared for battle. At this point, supposedly because of a lack of spare guards, the prisoners taken at Rachowa were massacred. Even European chroniclers would later call this an act of "barbarism".

Battle
At daybreak on 25 September the combatants began to organize themselves under the banners of their leaders. At this point, Sigismund sent his Grand Marshal to Nevers to report that his scouts had sighted the Turkish vanguard and asked for the offensive to be postponed for two hours, when his scouts would have returned with intelligence as to the numbers and disposition of the enemy. Nevers summoned a hasty council of advisors, in which Coucy and Jean de Vienne, admiral of France and the eldest French knight on the crusade, advised obeying the wishes of the Hungarian king, which seemed wise to them. At this, D'Eu declared that Sigismund simply wished to hoard the battle honors for himself and declared his willingness to lead the charge. Coucy, who declared D'Eu's words to be a "presumption", asked for the counsel of Vienne, who noted, "When truth and reason cannot be heard, then must rule presumption." Vienne commented that if D'Eu wished to advance, the army must follow, but that it would be wiser to advance in concert with the Hungarians and other allies. D'Eu rejected any wait and the council fell into a fierce dispute, with the younger hawks charging that the elder knights were not prudent, but fearful. The argument seems to have been settled when D'Eu decided to advance.

D'Eu took control of the vanguard of the French knights, while Nevers and Coucy commanded the main body. The French knights, accompanied by their mounted archers, rode out with their backs to Nicopolis to meet the Turks, who were descending the hills to the south. The Knights Hospitaler, Germans, and other allies stayed with the Hungarian forces under Sigismund. The subsequent events are obscured by conflicting accounts. Tuchman notes, "Out of the welter of different versions, a coherent account of the movements and fortunes of the battlefield is not to be had; there is only a tossing kaleidoscope." The French charge crushed the untrained conscripts in the Turkish front line and advanced into the lines of trained infantry, though the knights came under heavy fire from archers and were hampered by rows of sharpened stakes designed to skewer the stomachs of their horses. Chroniclers write of horses impaled on stakes, riders dismounting, stakes being pulled up to allow horses through, and the eventual rout of the Turkish infantry, who fled behind the relative safety of the sipahis. Coucy and Vienne recommended that the French pause to reform their ranks, give themselves some rest and allow the Hungarians time to advance to a position where they could support the French. They were overruled by the younger knights who, having no idea of the size of the Turkish force, believed that they had just defeated Bayezid's entire army and insisted on pursuit.

The French knights thus continued up the hill, though accounts state that more than half were on foot by this point, either because they had been unhorsed by the lines of sharpened stakes or had dismounted to pull up stakes. Struggling in their heavy armor, they reached the plateau on the top of the slope, where they had expected to find fleeing Turkish forces, but instead found themselves facing a fresh corps of sipahis, whom Bayezid had kept in reserve. As the sipahis surged forward in the counterattack sounding trumpets, banging kettle drums and shouting the Tekbir, the French realized how desperate their situation was and some knights fled back down the slope. The rest fought on, "no frothing boar nor enraged wolf more fiercely", in the words of one contemporary chronicler. Admiral de Vienne, to whom was granted the honor as the eldest knight of carrying the French standard into battle, was wounded many times as he attempted to rally his countrymen before being struck down. Other notable knights who were slain include Jean de Carrouges, Philippe de Bar, and Odard de Chasseron. The Turks threatened to overwhelm Nevers, and his bodyguard threw themselves to the ground in submission to plead for the life of their liege lord. Notwithstanding the declaration of jihad, the Turks were as interested in the riches that could be gained by ransoming noble captives as anyone else, and took Nevers prisoner. Seeing Nevers taken, the rest of the French yielded.

The timeline of events is hazy, but it appears that as the French were advancing up the slope, sipahis were sweeping down along the flanks in an envelopment. Accounts tell of the Hungarians and other nationalities in confused combat on the plain and of a stampede of riderless horses, which Tuchman speculates pulled free from their tethers, at the sight of which the Transylvanians and the Wallachians concluded that the day was lost and abandoned the field. Sigismund, the Master of Rhodes, and the Germans fought to prevent the envelopment with "unspeakable massacre" on both sides. At this point, the Turks received a reinforcement of 1,500 Serbian knights under the command of Stefan Lazarević, which proved critical. Sigismund's force was overwhelmed. Convinced to flee, Sigismund and the Master managed to escape on a fisherman's boat to the Venetian ships in the Danube. Count Hermann of Cilli, governor of Habsburg Carniola and a cousin of Sigismund's deceased wife, led the force that allowed the escape and would later become the king's father-in-law. Bayezid and his vassal Stefan Lazarević recognized Nicholas II Garai, Lazarević's brother-in-law, fighting on Sigismund's side. A deal was made, and Sigismund's army surrendered, completing their defeat in detail.

Aftermath

Sigismund would later state to the Hospitaller Master, "We lost the day by the pride and vanity of these French. If they believed my advice, we had enough men to fight our enemies." Chronicler Jean Froissart would declare. "Since the Battle of Roncesvalles when [all] twelve peers of France were slain, Christendom received not so great a damage."

Captives and ransom
Bayezid toured the battlefield later that day, hoping to find the corpse of the King of Hungary. His rage was only heightened by the discovery of the massacred prisoners from Rahovo. He ordered all of the prisoners assembled before him the following morning (26 September). The Turks recognized Jacques de Helly, a French knight who had served under Murad I, and had him identify the chief nobles for ransom. Coucy, Bar, D'Eu, Gui de La Tremoïlle and several others were grouped with Nevers to be spared. Those judged to be under the age of 20 were taken as slaves by the Turks.

The rest, thought to number several thousand, were bound together in groups of three or four and had their hands tied to be marched naked before the Sultan. Ordered to proceed, a group of executioners proceeded to kill each group in turn, either by decapitation or by severing their limbs from the body. Nevers and the rest of the noble captives were forced to stand beside Bayezid and watch the executions. Jean Le Maingre, called "Boucicaut", was recognized in the line, and Nevers fell to his knees before the Sultan and indicated with intertwined fingers that they were like brothers. Thus convinced that Boucicaut was worth a noble ransom, he was spared and grouped with the other high nobles. The killing continued from early morning until late afternoon, at which point Bayezid, either himself sickened by the bloodshed or convinced by his ministers that he was unnecessarily enraging Christendom against him, called off the executioners. Leaving aside the more hyperbolic account, the number of dead is said to have ranged from 300 to 3,000, though the number of dead on the battlefield was much more.

Of those who fled the battlefield, few survived. So many attempted to swim to the boats in the Danube that several sank from the load; afterward, those on the boats pushed away those trying to board. Many who attempted to swim all the way across the river drowned. Sigismund, fearful of Wallachian treachery, sailed to the Black Sea and Constantinople before making his way home by sea. Those Crusaders who made it across the Danube and tried to return home by land found that the land they were traveling over had already been stripped of forage by the retreating force of Wallachians. Reduced to wandering through the woods in rags and robbed of whatever possessions they had, many of the starved survivors died along the way. Perhaps the most famous of the few who reached home after this journey was Count Rupert of Bavaria (Ruprecht Pipan), eldest son of the future King Rupert of Germany, who arrived at his doorstep in beggar's rags and died several days later from his trials.

The captives were forced to march the 350-mile length to Gallipoli, stripped of clothing down to their shirts and most without shoes, with hands tied and beaten by their captors. At Gallipoli, the noble captives were kept in the upper rooms of a tower while the 300 prisoners that were the Sultan's share of the common captives were kept below. The ship carrying Sigismund passed within half a mile of the tower as it went through the Hellespont, for which the Turks lined the captives along the shore and mockingly called out for Sigismund to come and rescue his comrades. Sigismund, while in Constantinople, had made overtures to ransom the captives, but Bayezid was aware that Hungary's wealth had been depleted in the crusade and that richer ransoms could be had from France. After two months in Gallipoli, the prisoners were transferred to Bursa, the joint Ottoman capital located in Asia, where they awaited word of their ransom.

In the first week of December, rumors of unimaginable defeat arrived in Paris. As no certain news was to be had, rumor-mongers were imprisoned in the Grand Châtelet and, if convicted of lying, sentenced to death by drowning. The King, Burgundy, Orleans and Duc de Bar all sped envoys to Venice and Hungary to bring word back. On 16 December merchant ships brought word to Venice of defeat at Nicopolis and the escape of Sigismund.

Jacques de Helly, the knight who had identified the nobles after the battle, had been charged by Bayezid, under his vow to return, to inform the King of France and Duke of Burgundy of his victory and demands for ransom. On Christmas, de Helly rode into Paris and, kneeling before the king, recounted the expedition, the battle, defeat and Bayezid's massacre of the prisoners. He also carried letters from Nevers and the other noble captives. Those for whom he did not carry letters were assumed to be dead, and weeping members of the court gathered around de Helly to seek more information about loved ones. According to the Monk of St. Denis, "affliction reigned in all hearts" and Deschamps wrote of "funerals from morning to eve". 9 January was declared a day of mourning throughout France and that day "it was piteous to hear the bells toiling in all the churches in Paris."

A delegation with rich gifts for Bayezid left Paris on 20 January 1397 to negotiate the ransoms. De Helly, bound by his oath to return, had already departed with letters for the captives. Gian Galeazzo's help became vital, as he had extensive contacts in the Ottoman court. Envoys were sent informing him of belated approval by the King allowing the fleur-de-lis to be added to the Visconti escutcheon, Galeazzo's first wife having been from the French royal house, and to make every effort to gain his assistance. Meanwhile, those envoys sent in early December had reached Venice and, having learned of the fate of the captives, were attempting to make their way to Bursa. Venice, which was the French conduit to the Muslim east due to her trade network, became the center for exchange of news, cash and ransomed captives.

On 13 February 1397, de Coucy, ill and perhaps suffering from battle wounds, died. Released on their own accord to seek funds in the Levant, Boucicaut and Guy de Tremoille reached Rhodes, where de Tremoille fell ill and died around Easter. French negotiators in the Sultan's court finally reached agreement on a ransom of 200,000 gold florins in June. Comte d'Eu died on 15 June. With a down payment of 75,000, the prisoners were released on 24 June on their promise to stay in Venice until the rest of the ransom was paid. However, the nobles found it unthinkable to travel in less than their accustomed splendor and borrowed nearly as much as the ransom amount in reprovisioning themselves. Arriving in Venice in October after stopping in various islands to recover and borrow money, the financial transactions required to both provide the ransom and pay for the travel arrangements and living expenses of the nobles were tremendously complicated. A three-sided transaction between Burgundy, Sigismund and Venice took 27 years to settle. A plague outbreak in Venice required the nobles to move temporarily to Treviso, but still claimed Henri de Bar.

The last of the Crusader leaders (Nevers, Boucicaut, Guillaume de Tremoille and Jacques de la Marche), along with seven or eight other knights, re-entered France in February 1398. They were greeted by minstrels, parties and parades as they journeyed across the kingdom, though Tuchman notes, "the receptions probably represented not so much popular enthusiasm as organized joy, in which the 14th century excelled."

Broader ramifications
With a historian's hindsight Johan Huizinga remarked upon "the lamentable consequences of statecraft recklessly embarking on an enterprise of vital import in the spirit of a chivalrous adventure", though participants and contemporary chroniclers did not analyse the event in these terms.

After this defeat, Western Europe made no further moves to stop the Turkish advance in the Balkans until the 1440s. England and France soon renewed their war. Wallachia continued its stance against the Ottomans, repelling expeditions in 1397 and 1400. In 1402 Sultan Bayezid I was defeated and captured by Timur (Tamerlane), and Mircea cel Batran and the Kingdom of Hungary took advantage of the resulting anarchy to campaign against the Ottomans. The Hungarians, Poles and Wallachians were defeated at the Battle of Varna in 1444, and Constantinople finally fell in 1453 to the Turks, followed by the Despotate of Morea in 1460, the Empire of Trebizond in 1461, and the Principality of Theodoro in 1475, which brought an end to the last vestiges of the Eastern Roman Empire, as well as the final remaining pockets of Greek resistance against the Ottoman Turks in both the Balkans and Anatolia.

The Battle of Nicopolis is also widely regarded as the end of the Second Bulgarian Empire, since hopes for its revival had come to an end with the defeat of the Crusaders. Its last ruler, Ivan Sratsimir of Bulgaria, was captured and killed in Bursa.

By their victory at Nicopolis, the Turks discouraged the formation of future European coalitions against them. They maintained their pressure on Constantinople, tightened their control over the Balkans, and became a greater threat to central Europe.

title: Battle of Nicopolis


text:
Reuben C. Baker

Reuben Carlton "Carl" Baker, Sr. (July 18, 1872 – September 29, 1957 ) was an American oil industry drilling pioneer. He established Baker Oil Tools in 1907 after developing a casing shoe that revolutionized cable tool drilling. In 1903, he introduced the offset bit for cable tool drilling to enable casing wells in hard rock and in 1912 the cement retainer that allowed casing to be cemented in the wells. Baker further improved the process with the float shoe in 1923. Having only a third grade education, he obtained more than 150 patents on oil drilling tools. Baker Oil Tools merged with Hughes Tool Company in 1987 to form Baker Hughes Incorporated.

Personal life
On December 12, 1897, he married his childhood sweetheart Minnie Myrtle Zumwalt (October 24, 1870 – April 20, 1947). They moved to Coalinga from Los Angeles in 1899. They had two children, Thelma Ellen Baker (January 9, 1901 – April 13, 1986; later Anderson) and Reuben Carlton Baker, Jr. (October 18, 1902 – October 1, 1965).

Early life
Baker was born to Mary Elizabeth (née Stroud) and Reuben Baker in Purcellville, Virginia, and grew up in Shasta County, California. His father, a Civil War veteran from Chester County, Pennsylvania, had a farm that was not very productive. Baker never advanced beyond the third grade. In 1895, at age 23, he decided to go to Alaska to prospect for gold. He got as far as Redding, California, when he ran out of money. He worked in a stone quarry and slept in a barn for two weeks, earning $24, but his clothes were stolen from the barn one day while he worked. An acquaintance suggested he head south instead, where oil had been discovered in Southern California.

Career
Baker's older brother, Aaron Alphonso Baker, Sr. (December 10, 1867 – September 15, 1942 ) had been a dry goods merchant in Fall River Township, Shasta County before he went into the oil business.

Baker's followed his brother Aaron into the oil business. He arrived in Los Angeles on April 4, 1895, with a new suit and 95 cents in his pocket. His first job was driving a horse team hauling oil in the Los Angeles City Oil Field for USD$2.00 for a 12-hour day. He soon got a job as an oilwell pumper, and then as a tool dresser for Irving Carl, a contract driller. When Carl couldn’t pay Baker’s wages, he made him his partner instead. Two years later, they had two rigs and a profitable business. In 1898, they divided their assets.

In 1899, Baker moved to Coalinga, California, where he continued as a drilling contractor, introducing one of the first rotary rigs in the San Joaquin Valley that same year. As he drilled he began to discover ways he could improve the equipment. He invented an improved drill bit with a dovetail groove in the side with a hole extending across the groove with a shank, key, and screw. He intended to continue as a contract driller and use his improvements to make his drilling business more competitive. After encountering layers of hard rock in the Coalinga area, Baker developed an offset bit for cable tool drilling that made it easier to get casing down a freshly drilled hole.

Baker and his brother Aaron formed the Coalinga Petroleum Company on January 23, 1905, capitalized with USD$75,000, initially owning six wells in Fresno County, They sold the business to Samuel Allen "Al" Guiberson, Jr. on December 20, 1920. In 1909, Baker's competitor Howard R. Hughes, Sr. patented the first roller cone drill bit, which made it possible to drill through deeper, harder rock. This was the basis for the Hughes Tool Company.

Baker organized the St. Paul Consolidated Oil Company on September 24, 1910, with USD$600,000 in capital. Baker was president and W. T. Knowles was secretary. They owned five wells in Fresno County. Four years later, on January 4, 1911, Baker formed the Coalinga Lost Hills Oil Company with USD$75,000 in capital. He served as president and Robert Lee Peeler as secretary.

In 1912, Baker invented a way to make cementing more efficient and effective. The Baker Cement Retainer was designed to pack off between the casing and tubing when pumping cement through tubing. He then started working on a casing shoe, a device to ensure the uninterrupted flow of oil through a well at the bottom of the casing. The next year, Baker organized the Baker Casing Shoe Company to take advantage of changes in U.S. income tax law, to hold his patents, and to collect royalties from the patents. He licensed the invention to third parties to manufacture, market, and use the casing shoe, while he continued in the contract drilling business. Over the next five years, the company received from $600 to $1,500 per month in royalties. By 1918 he decided the leasing business had greater opportunity and bought a machine shop in Coalinga. He left the contact drilling business and concentrated on finding ways to improve drilling tools. He patented those improvements and began selling the tools to other drillers.

Baker formed other businesses. With his brother Aaron formed the Future Success Oil Company, with Carl as president and Aaron as secretary, with USD$100,000 of capital on May 3, 1913. His business interests included farming and oil production companies.

When he needed a better base of operations for the company he moved back to Los Angeles and bought a yard on Slauson Avenue. In 1921 he started working on an improved and simplified dump bailer, and also a cement retainer. At the same time the Long Beach Oil Field was discovered and with that Baker returned to the Los Angeles area.

Death and legacy
Carl Baker, Sr. died in Whittier, California, in 1957 at the age of 85. Baker Oil Tool Company and Hughes Tool Company merged in 1987 to form Baker Hughes Incorporated. By then both were global oilfield service leaders with many innovative product lines.

Patents
Baker received more than 150 U.S. patents in his lifetime. A few of the early patents that Baker received included:

 * "Drilling Bit", patented December 22, 1903
 * "Gas Trap for Oil Wells", patented August 25, 1908
 * "Well Casing Shoe", patented November 11, 1913
 * "Plug for Well Casings", on November 18, 1913
 * "Pump-Plunger", on June 23, 1914
 * "Shoe Guide for Well Casings", on November 16, 1920

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Reuben C. Baker


text:
Wikipedia talk:Pictures needing attention

Name that file
A significant problem with this page is that is that you need to give an image a filename in order to upload it. If you don't know what it is, it isn't easy to name it. This would be less of a problem if it were easier to move/rename an image. -- Solipsist 19:40, 12 Oct 2004 (UTC)

fr:Atelier graphique
You can copy the french Graphic Desktop to work in the same way :] Yug   15:19, 3 January 2006 (UTC)


text:
Sigil Games Online

Sigil Games Online, Inc. was a computer game developer based in Carlsbad, California founded in January 2002 by Brad McQuaid and Jeff Butler, key development team members who created EverQuest, the most popular massively multiplayer online role-playing game before World of Warcraft. McQuaid and Butler left Sony Online Entertainment (SOE), the publisher of EverQuest, and formed Sigil Games Online to develop "the next big thing". McQuaid told to the video game website IGN at the time that he was happy to assemble a team of MMORPG developers and to focus on making similar project, as opposed to his work in SOE. Sigil released their only game Vanguard: Saga of Heroes on January 30, 2007 after several well publicized delays and a last minute switch from publishing with Microsoft to publishing again with SOE. In May 2007, SOE acquired key assets of Sigil Games Online. As a result, SOE now owns Vanguard: Saga of Heroes, described as Sigil's "tent pole property".

Vanguard: Saga of Heroes
McQuaid and Butler formerly worked for Sony Online Entertainment on the team developing EverQuest. After their departure, they formed Sigil; in May 2002 Sigil reached an exclusive publishing deal with Microsoft and they began work on Vanguard: Saga of Heroes. With the pedigree of the "all-star" team at Sigil and the bravado of CEO Brad McQuaid, there were high expectations for the game among MMO fans and the press.

An early marketing fact sheet for Vanguard revealed that the game will be a "vast", "seamless", "immersive" virtual world filled with elements of high fantasy, with cutting-edge graphics technology of its time. It stated that Sigil's expertise and experience in the field will bring groundbreaking static and dynamic content to the genre, and that Vanguard will build upon the successes and strengths of earlier MMORPGs to improve popular game mechanics and features, but also address these pioneering games' mistakes and deficiencies. The sheet stated that Vanguard will focus heavily on interdependence, challenge, and reward, while simultaneously addressing tedious and annoying issues, including camping, excessive downtime and more.

Originally, Sigil worked with Microsoft to co-publish Vanguard but after 4 years, and less than one year before the game's release, the partnership was quickly dissolved. In May 2006 Sigil negotiated a deal to purchase the rights to Vanguard back from Microsoft, and at the same time they arranged a co-publishing deal with Sony Online Entertainment. Vanguard: Saga of Heroes was released on January 30, 2007, co-published by Sigil and Sony Online Entertainment. While initial preview coverage was positive the launch lead to disappointing reviews.

Acquisition
Sigil Games Online had around 150 employees at the time they released their only game, Vanguard: Saga of Heroes, on January 30, 2007. The development team continued to address the well-documented technical issues users experienced at launch for several months. Four months later, on May 14, the staff of Sigil Games Online were told to meet in the parking lot at 4:30PM and to take with them what they would need for the rest of the day. The employees were told that the launch of the game had not gone well, the company was in financial trouble and they were selling the company to Sony Online Entertainment. Director of Production, Andy Platter, then told the employees that they were all fired.

The following day, Sony Online Entertainment acquired Sigil's "key assets", stating that they will hire approximately fifty of Sigil's employees and that Brad McQuaid would be consultant to SOE as a creative advisor for Vanguard. Sony Online Entertainment's President John Smedley communicated the announcement to Vanguard's playerbase via the game's official forums.

title: Sigil Games Online


text:
Talk:List of books on Croatian grammar

Move to Serbo-Croatian language or Croatian language, if significant. Former suggested because of Croatian's intelligibility with Serbian language.] Comment fro, User:Poccil,on article page  --Cje 19:42, 12 Oct 2004 (UTC)

title: Talk:List of books on Croatian grammar


text:
Wikipedia:Articles for deletion/Vincent Gullotta

Vincent Gullotta
Autobiographical promotion page. Does not seem to meet the requirements of Criteria_for_Inclusion_of_Biographies --French Tourist 19:42, 12 Oct 2004 (UTC)
 * Delete: Can't see any evidence of notability. --Ianb 20:22, 12 Oct 2004 (UTC)
 * Delete: Just a dude who plays computer games and works for a company. Wikipedia is not Monster.com. Geogre 21:21, 12 Oct 2004 (UTC)
 * Delete: Vanity. Jayjg 22:40, 12 Oct 2004 (UTC)
 * Delete as vanity. Sheesh, what part of "do not write about yourself" do people have a hard time grasping? - Lucky 6.9 22:58, 12 Oct 2004 (UTC)
 * Delete: Vanity and self promotion - Anon 14:14, 18 Oct 2004 (BST)
 * Delete. Vanity. --*drew 13:18, 18 Oct 2004 (UTC)


text:
Anne Clark (poet)

Anne Charlotte Clark (born 14 May 1960) is an English poet, singer and songwriter. Her first album, The Sitting Room, was released in 1982, and she has released over a dozen albums since then.

Her poetry work with experimental musicians occupies a region bounded roughly by electronic, dance (techno applies on occasion) and possibly avant-garde genres, with varying hard as well as romantic and orchestral styles.

Clark is mainly a spoken word artist. Many of her lyrics deal critically with the imperfections of humanity, everyday life, and politics. Especially in her early works she created a gloomy, melancholy atmosphere bordering on weltschmerz. She has been considered one of the pioneers in the spoken-word music genre, as well as being acclaimed for her synth-pop and new wave music, especially across Europe.

Early life
Clark was born the daughter of a Roman Catholic Irish mother, Cecilia, and a mixed Scottish and Welsh Protestant father, Herbert. She has one brother, John and mentions in her spoken biography 'Notes Taken Traces Left' that her mother also had another son who died shortly after being born. Clark recollects her childhood in her spoken biography as being "troubled but loving at the same time". At the age of 16, she left school. She took various jobs, one of which was as a nurse in a psychiatric hospital. Clark then worked at a local record store (and label), Bonaparte Records. Punk rock was finding its way into London's music scene and matched her emotions.

Clark became involved with the Warehouse Theatre, an independently financed stage for bands, that was low on cash. Although the theatre's owners initially objected to the strange, pierced punk scene characters and their leather outfits, she was able to successfully arrange the program. Clark managed to fill the theatre with artists like Paul Weller, Linton Kwesi Johnson, French & Saunders, The Durutti Column, Ben Watt (who later became a member of Everything But The Girl), and many others. She experimented with music and lyrics herself and first appeared on stage in Richard Strange's Cabaret Futura with Depeche Mode.

Clark worked with Paul Weller to help set up Riot Stories. He had put up an article about helping young writers that were unable to be signed up to major record labels. Clark said that at first the relationship was troubled due to him not replying to her letters. She announced "After a pretty heated letter calling out his rudeness, I received one back in the same tone." Clark subsequently said that the relationship ended up being a strong one, which still exists today.

Career
In 1982, Clark published her first album, The Sitting Room, with songs written by herself, the album placed in 11th place on The Top 100 Albums of 1983. On the following albums, Changing Places (1983), Joined up Writing (1984) and Hopeless Cases (1987), Clark benefited from an acquaintance from the Warehouse: keyboardist David Harrow contributed all the music as the co-author and producer. The music created by Harrow that Clark read poetry to, such as "Sleeper in Metropolis," "Our Darkness," and "Wallies," have since been considered milestones of the 1980s and 1990s. David Harrow's music of "Our Darkness" is sampled in Benny Benassi's 2003 hit "Love is Gonna Save Us".

Our Darkness has been considered by Fact magazine as one of the 20 best industrial records of all time. Fact describe it as "An influential proto-house record". Clark mentions in her autobiography Notes Taken Traces Left that she has no vivid memory of the creative phase of Our Darkness however, clearly remembers the exact time and place of writing the words to her other club anthem hit Sleeper in Metropolis. Clark was set to start touring in the United States in the late 1980s, however, was subsequently in disagreements with Richard Branson which led her breakthrough in America to be cancelled. Nevertheless, Clark has become a well respected artist across Europe, especially in Germany where she has a cult following.

In 1985, Clark released the album Pressure Points. It was created in collaboration with John Foxx, who wrote the music and plays on the first five tracks.. The album features the song Heaven which was considered a moderately successful hit across Europe.

In 1987, Clark went to Norway for three years, where she worked with Tov Ramstad and Ida Baalsrud, among others. In co-operation with Charlie Morgan, she released the album Unstill Life in 1991 on SPV Records. Tracks included The Moment, Unstill Life, Abuse and Empty Me. This album was also released in the USA on Radikal Records. During 1992, she released a non-album collaboration on maxi-CD (SPV) with Ida Baalsrud, who both played the violin part and co-wrote If I Could; furthermore, there was also a remix of Our Darkness included on the last track of the CD. In December 1992, Charlie Morgan unexpectedly died of cancer at the age of 36, which caused many planned collaboration projects to be abandoned. After several months of reorientation, Clark eventually released The Law is an Anagram of Wealth in 1993, once again in collaboration with other musicians and completed a major European Tour.

In 1994, Clark ventured into a style that she had not experimented with before: acoustic music. This eventually culminated in the release of Psychometry (1994), which featured a concert recorded live on stage in the Passionskirche in Berlin-Kreuzberg.

Clark continuously followed her musical roots and the influences of folk and classical music. Her 1998 album, Just After Sunset, a collaboration with Martyn Bates, featured poems by German poet Rainer Maria Rilke translated into English. This album was re-released four years later in 2002 when Clark regained the rights to the album. The re-release included some additional video footage, although it was of rather poor quality.

In 2003, another album joined Clark's series of acoustic albums: From The Heart – Live In Bratislava, which she recorded together with Murat Parlak (vocals/piano), Jann Michael Engel (cello), Niko Lai (drums and percussion) and Jeff Aug (guitars) in Bratislava, Slovak Republic.

In 2005, Clark joined up with the Belgian act Implant for the album Self-inflicted, on which she delivered guest vocals. The album was released via Alfa Matrix Records, which in the meantime had become her home label outside of Germany. She also appeared on the Implant EP Too Many Puppies.

2006 saw Clark back again in the recording studio with Implant for the EP Fade Away, on which she delivered guest vocals and performed a duet with Leæther Strip's Claus Larsen. And she also appeared on the album Audioblender by Implant, again released via the Alfa Matrix record label.

In 2008, Clark was in Germany to record her next album The Smallest Act of Kindness, which was released in September 2008. This album was dedicated to her late mother Cecilia Ann Picton-Clark (nee. Murray). At the end of 2010, Clark released the first chapter of an ongoing project Past & Future Tense, the first release on her own label, After Hours Productions.

In January 2011, Clark contributed an arrangement of the Charles Baudelaire poem Enivrez-Vous (Be Drunk) to the audio book and radio play Die künstlichen Paradiese ("The artificial paradises"), (Hörbuch Hamburg/Radio Bremen).

In 2016, Clark announced she would take a year sabbatical, then in January 2017 collaborated on the song Donald Trump Praesidend (Quack Quack) with artist Ludwig.London, intended as a parody in light of the election of Donald Trump.

In July 2017, Clark headlined the W Festival in Belgium alongside acts such as Peter Hook and others.

Band
Current live band members:
 * Anne Clark, Vocals
 * Jeff Aug, Guitarist
 * Tobias Haas, Drums & Percussion
 * Murat Parlak, Piano
 * Jann Michael Engel, Cello
 * Steve Schroyder, Keyboards & Programming

Albums

 * 1982 – The Sitting Room (UK: Red Flame, Germany: Virgin Schallplatten, later: Virgin/EMI; LP)
 * 1983 – Changing Places (UK: Red Flame, Germany: Virgin Schallplatten, later: Virgin/EMI; LP)
 * 1984 – Joined Up Writing (UK: Ink Records, later: Virgin/EMI; EP)
 * 1985 – Pressure Points (UK: Ten, Germany: Virgin Schallplatten; later: Virgin/EMI; LP)
 * 1987 – Hopeless Cases (UK: Ten; Germany: Virgin Schallplatten, later: Virgin/EMI; LP)
 * 1988 – R.S.V.P. (UK: Ten; Germany: Virgin Schallplatten, later: Virgin/EMI; LP – recorded live at the Music Centrum, Utrecht, Holland, 1987)
 * 1991 – Unstill Life (SPV, later: Virgin/EMI; LP/CD)
 * 1993 – The Law Is an Anagram of Wealth (Germany: SPV; CD)
 * 1994 – Anne Clark and friends: Psychometry (SPV, later: Virgin/EMI; CD – Live at the Passionskirche Berlin)
 * 1995 – To Love and Be Loved (SPV, later: Warner Chappell; CD)
 * 1997 – Wordprocessing: The Remix Project (Columbia Europe/Sony BMG, later: Warner Chappell; CD)
 * 1998 – Anne Clark & Martyn Bates: Just After Sunset – The Poetry of Rainer Maria Rilke (Labor/Indigo, later: Warner Chappell, re-release 2002: netMusicZone; CD)
 * 2003 – From the Heart – Live in Bratislava (netMusicZone – Recorded at the studios of Slovak National Radio Broadcast during the European acoustic tour on 17 November 2002)
 * 2004 – Notes Taken, Traces Left (netMusicZone – Audiobook, song lyrics and commentary from Anne Clark's book)
 * 2008 – The Smallest Acts of Kindness (netMusicZone)
 * 2019 – Homage (The Silence Inside) (with Thomas Rückoldt)
 * 2021 – Synaesthesia: Classics Reworked
 * 2022 - Borderland - Found Music for a Lost World (with Ulla Van Daelen & Justin Ciuche)

Singles

 * 1984 – "Sleeper in Metropolis" (Rough Trade Germany)
 * 1984 – "Our Darkness" (miscellaneous, licensed from Red Flame)
 * 1984 – "Self Destruct" (Germany: Ten)
 * 1985 – "Sleeper in Metropolis" (Remix with David Harrow) (UK: Ink)
 * 1985 – "Wallies" (UK: Ink)
 * 1985 – "Heaven" (UK: Ten; Germany: Virgin Schallplatten)
 * 1986 – "True Love Tales" (UK: Ink)
 * 1987 – "Hope Road" (UK: Ten)
 * 1987 – "Homecoming" (UK: Ten, Germany: Virgin Schallplatten)
 * 1988 – "Our Darkness" / "Sleeper in Metropolis" / "Self Destruct" (UK: Ink)
 * 1990 – "Abuse" (Germany: SVP)
 * 1991 – "Counter Act" (SVP)
 * 1991 – "Counter Act" (Remixes) (SPV; single/EP)
 * 1992 – "If I Could" / "Our Darkness" (Remix) (SPV)
 * 1993 – "The Haunted Road: Travelogue Mixes" (SPV)
 * 1994 – "Elegy for a Lost Summer" (SPV)
 * 1994 – "Elegy for a Lost Summer" (Remix) (SPV)
 * 1996 – "Letter of Thanks to a Friend" (SPV; Bill Laswell remixes)
 * 1997 – "Our Darkness" ('97 Remixes) (Columbia Records/Sony BMG)
 * 1997 – "Sleeper in Metropolis" ('97 Remixes) (Gang Go, Columbia Records/Sony BMG)
 * 1998 – "Wallies (Night of the Hunter)" ('98 Remixes) (Columbia Records/Sony BMG)
 * 2002 – "The Hardest Heart" – Blank & Jones featuring Anne Clark (Gang Go/Warner)
 * 2003 – "Sleeper in Metropolis 3000" (Gang Go/Warner)
 * 2008 – "Full Moon" (netMusicZone)
 * 2014 – LifeWires (EP featuring herrB)

Compilations

 * 1986 – An Ordinary Life (UK: Great Expectations/Ink; 15 tracks drawn from her first three albums LP/CD)
 * 1986 – Trilogy (UK: Ink; compilation of the first three albums, omits two tracks from Joined Up Writing; CD)
 * 1986 – Terra Incognita (Spain: Ink; LP)
 * 1991 – The Last Emotion (Beehive Productions; 3-CD box set: The Sitting Room/Changing Places/Joined Up Writing)
 * 1994 – The Best of Anne Clark (UK: Beehive Productions)
 * 1996 – Anne Clark: Nineties – a Fine Collection (Germany: Steamhammer, later: SPV; CD)
 * 2003 – Dream Made Real (Noble Price/TIM)
 * 2007 – Remix Collection (netMusicZone)
 * 2010 – Past & Future Tense Chapter One (After Hours Productions/Believe Digital)
 * 2011 – Die Künstlichen Paradiese (Hörbuch Hamburg/Radio Bremen)

Videos

 * 1992 – Iron Takes the Place of Air: Live in Berlin (SPV; Live Video, VHS)
 * 2008–2009 Anne Clark Live at Frankfurter Hof, Mainz (MMM Film GMBH)
 * 2018 – I'll Walk Out Into Tomorrow (Blu-ray, TAG/TRAUM Filmproduktion, in cooperation with Neue Visionen Filmproduktion)

title: Anne Clark (poet)


text:
Dassault Mirage G

The Dassault Mirage G, also known as the Mirage IIIG, was a variant of the French Dassault Mirage series of supersonic warplanes, but with a variable-sweep wing. Three prototypes were flown; one single-engined G and two twin-engined G8 examples (which had begun construction as the G4). Various roles, equipment fits and other variants were proposed, but none entered production.

Origins
In 1963 the French defence ministry initiated studies on variable-sweep wing aircraft for dual land and aircraft carrier use in response to the American TFX program (which would lead to the General Dynamics F-111).

Alongside the theoretical research undertaken by ONERA, Avions Marcel Dassault began studies of a Mirage variant. An early study was the Mirage F4G. In 1964 they proposed the model MD800 for a carrier-based two-seat, twin-engined Naval version to meet the DAFNE requirement. Alongside it they also proposed a smaller single-engined Mirage IIIF2G.

The UK was also studying the concept and in 1965 Dassault and the British Aircraft Corporation (BAC) were jointly contracted to develop an Anglo-French Variable Geometry (AFVG) aircraft. This was to be of the heavier two-seat, twin-engined size. The partnership fell apart when Dassault withdrew over political wrangling in 1967.

Meanwhile the IIIF2G initiative had led to an order for the first Mirage G prototype, to be of single-seat, single-engined configuration. Its rollout in 1967, at much the same time as the larger AFVG was cancelled, led to accusations by the British that Dasault had been undermining them all along.

Mirage G
The first variable-sweep aircraft from Dassault emerged as the single-engined, two-seat Mirage G fighter in 1967, essentially a swing wing version of the Mirage F2. The wings were swept at 22 degrees when fully forward and 70 degrees when fully aft and featured full-span double-slotted trailing edge flaps and two-position leading edge flaps.

The first flight was 18 November 1967. The plane was generally well received, however it crashed on 13 January 1971, following total loss of electrical power.

Mirage G8
By this time the Mirage G4 had been proposed as a twin-engine, two-seat nuclear strike fighter. A contract was issued in 1968 for two new prototypes, G4-01 and -02. These were intended to be powered by Snecma M53 turbofans in production. However while they were under construction the requirements changed to a dedicated interceptor and the design was modified accordingly. They were completed in this form, now redesignated the Mirage G8.

Mirage G8-01 first flew on 8 May 1971. The second aircraft, G8-02, was finished as a single-seater, with the rear cockpit space adapted to take avionics and faired over. It also had a longer and slimmer nose fitted with a mockup of a Cyrano radar radome. It followed -01 into the air on 13 July 1972.

The G8 was equipped with Thomson-CSF radar and a low-altitude navigational-attack system based on that used in the SEPECAT Jaguar and Dassault Milan. As no funding was included for the Mirage G8 in the 1971-1976 French defence budget the aircraft did not enter production.

Flight trials were relatively successful but no production order ensued, the Mirage G programme being cancelled in 1968. Flying with the Mirage G continued however until 13 January 1971 when the sole prototype was lost in an accident.

Influence on the LTV V-507
In the late 1960s, the US manufacturer Ling-Temco-Vought (LTV) was seeking technical data on variable-geometry wings, within the framework of a bid for the US Navy's VFX carrier fighter contract. As a result of the publicity gained by the Mirage G, LTV sought the assistance of Dassault. Two agreements were signed by Dassault and LTV in 1968: one for general cooperation and the other specifically in regard to variable-geometry wings. Eight Dassault engineers went to America to help with the design. This resulted in two LTV designs, the Vought V-505 and V-507, as well as construction of a full-scale, non-flying mockup of the second design. In the event, the competition was won by another variable-geometry design, the Grumman F-14 Tomcat.

One outcome of the visit was a twin-engined two-seat Mirage G5 study. This was effectively an enlarged and navalised G4/G8, to be powered by twin SNECMA-built Pratt & Whitney TF306 turbofans. Length was 19.80 m, and span 17.8 m.

Variants

 * Note: Source is Carbonel 2023, unless otherwise stated.

 * F4G: Initial study prior to the start of the first prototype. 1963-4.
 * MD800: DAFNE submission, 1964.
 * G: Single-engined initial prototype. One flown from 1967.
 * G0: Advanced trainer/attack variant offered to Australia, in single- and twin-engined versions. Reached mock-up stage.
 * G1 and G1M: Productionised G offered to the French and Australian air forces in 1968; the G1M was a Naval variant, subsequently proposed in 1970.
 * G2 and G6: Proposed NATO replacement for the Lockheed F-104G Starfighter, initially developed in parallel with the G1.
 * G3 and G3M: Longer-range development of the G3 with improved radar. The navalised version, the G3M, was deemed too large and heavy for carrier operation.
 * G4 and G8: Twin-engine fighter project. Two G4 nuclear strike fighter prototypes begun but redesignated the G8 interceptor during construction. Flew respectively as two- and single-seaters from 1968.
 * G5: Study around the LTV V-507 requirement. Enlarged, navalised G4.
 * G8A or Super Mirage: A fixed-wing, 55 deg sweepback development of the G8. 1973 contract for a prototype cancelled in 1975.

Aircraft on display

 * Mirage G8-01 is on display at the Musée de l’air et de l’espace alongside Paris–Le Bourget Airport.
 * Mirage G8-02 is on display at the Musée Européen de l'Aviation de Chasse, Montélimar.

title: Dassault Mirage G


text:
Lucy Gutteridge

Lucy Kérimée Gutteridge (born 28 November 1956) is a retired English actress. She portrayed Gloria Morgan Vanderbilt in the television miniseries Little Gloria... Happy at Last (1982), for which she received a Golden Globe Award nomination.

Personal Life
Gutteridge was born in London, England, the eldest daughter of Major Bernard Hugh Gutteridge, Legion of Merit, a poet and writer, by his 1947 marriage (divorced 1971) to Nabila Farah Kérimée Halim, the daughter of H.H. Prince Muhammad Said Bey Halim of Egypt and his British second wife, Nabila Malika (née Morwena Bird). Through her mother, Gutteridge is a great-great-great-granddaughter of Muhammad Ali of Egypt, a Muslim subject of the Ottoman Empire (likely of Albanian ethnicity) who became the father of modern Egypt. She is thus a distant cousin of Egypt's last king, Fuad II. She has two sisters, Anne-Marie Morwenna Gutteridge (b. 1958) and Cosima Farah Gutteridge (b. 1962). She married Andrew Hawkins, a son of the actor Jack Hawkins, in London in 1978. They had a daughter, Alice, born 1979.

title: Lucy Gutteridge


text:
Victor Schœlcher

Victor Schœlcher (22 July 1804 – 25 December 1893) was a French abolitionist, writer, politician and journalist, best known for his leading role in the abolition of slavery in France in 1848, during the Second Republic.

Early life
Schœlcher was born in Paris on 22 July 1804. His father, Marc Schœlcher (1766–1832), from Fessenheim in Alsace, was the owner of a porcelain factory. His mother, Victoire Jacob (1767–1839), from Meaux in Seine-et-Marne, was a laundry maid in Paris at the time of their marriage. He was baptized in Saint-Laurent Church on 9 September 1804.

He enrolled in the Lycée Louis-le-Grand in 1818, but left one year later and began working at the family's porcelain factory in the rue du Faubourg Saint-Denis. In his teenage years Schœlcher became an opponent of the Bourbon monarchy while frequenting the literary and political salons of Paris. In 1820, at the age of 16, he joined Freemasonry, being initiated into the Parisian lodge Les Amis de la Vérité (Grand Orient de France), which was at the time very strongly politicized, not to say openly revolutionary. He later moved to another Parisian lodge, La Clémente Amitié.

Abolitionism
In 1828, Schœlcher was sent by his father on an eighteen months-long trip in America, as a business representative of the family's enterprise. While in the continent he visited Mexico, Cuba, and the southern United States. During this trip he learned much about slavery and began his career as an abolitionist writer, and returning to France in 1830 he published his first writing in the Revue de Paris, an article titled Des noirs ("Of the blacks"), in which he proposed a gradual abolition of slavery. Schœlcher inherited the family business on his father's death in 1832, but sold it on order to dedicate himself to his abolitionist work. In the following years he traveled through Europe, and in 1840 went to the West Indies to further study slavery and the results of its abolition in the British colonies. Next he went to Egypt, Greece and Turkey, where he studied Muslim slavery, and finally to West Africa, traveling through Senegal and Gambia between September 1847 and January 1848.

With the knowledge on slavery acquired in his travels, Schœlcher became an advocate for the immediate emancipation of slaves, no longer supporting a gradual process. He published these ideas in Des colonies françaises: Abolition immédiate de l'esclavage ("Of the French colonies: Immediate abolition of slavery") in 1842, following his return from the West Indies. He was a member of the Société française pour l'abolition de l'esclavage ("French Society for the Abolition of Slavery") founded in 1834, modeled after contemporary British abolitionist societies. After the early 1830s he was also a republican activist in France, and was one of the founders of the progressive newspaper La Réforme in 1843, to which he was a regular contributor.

Schœlcher elaborated on social, economic, and political reforms he believed would be necessary to the Caribbean colonies after the abolition of slavery. He argued that the production of sugar could continue, though it should be rationalized with the construction of large central factories, and opposed the concentration of land ownership. Schœlcher was the first European abolitionist to visit Haiti after its independence, and had a large influence on the abolitionist movements in all of the French West Indies. He was actively against the debt collected from the Haitians as French slave owners sought reparations for their property lost in the Haitian Revolution.

In February 1848, a revolution in France overthrew the July Monarchy. Schœlcher arrived from Senegal on 3 March, and quickly went to meet with François Arago, the Minister of the Navy and Colonies of the provisional government of the new Republic. Arago appointed him under-secretary of state for the colonies the next day, as well as president of a new commission charged with drafting the immediate abolition of slavery, with Louis Percin and Henri-Alexandre Wallon assigned as secretaries.

Schœlcher had convinced Arago not to wait until the election of the constituent National Assembly, which would be deeply occupied with organizing the new republican institutions, to establish the abolitionist commission, arguing that any postponing of the emancipation could lead to revolt and bloodshed in the colonies. In his capacity as under-secretary of state and president of the commission, Schœlcher prepared and wrote the decree that was issued on 27 April 1848, through which the French government abolished slavery in all of its colonies and granted citizenship to the emancipated slaves.

Later career
Schœlcher's ultimate success in ending slavery gave birth to a new republican movement in the Caribbean colonies. He was elected deputy to the National Assembly in 1848 by the department of Martinique. The next year he ran for reelection but lost to Cyrille Bissette, a former "free man of colour" and abolitionist, but won in Guadeloupe and was again elected for that department in 1850. He introduced a bill for the abolition of the death penalty, which was to be discussed on the day on which President Louis-Napoléon Bonaparte seized power with a coup d'état, on 2 December 1851, dissolving the National Assembly. The next day Schœlcher, alongside Jean-Baptiste Baudin, was one of the few deputies present at the barricades in Paris to resist the coup.

Schœlcher was then exiled by the new regime. He lived briefly in Belgium before moving to London, where he settled in 1852. In the following years he became an specialist in the work of Georg Friedrich Handel, writing a biography of him in 1857. At the same time he published multiple writings criticizing Napoleon III, formerly president of France and now monarch of the Second French Empire, in works such as Dangers to England of the alliance with the men of the Coup d'État, which Schœlcher wrote in English and published in 1854. During this period he became a friend of fellow republican exile Victor Hugo.

Refusing to take advantage of the amnesty of 1859, Schœlcher only returned to France in late August 1870, after the declaration of war with Prussia. He was appointed staff colonel of the National Guard on 4 September, the day of the deposition of Napoleon III and the proclamation of the Third Republic. Organizing a legion of artillery, he took part in the defence of Paris. In 1871 he was again elected by Martinique for the National Assembly in Bordeaux, where he voted against the peace treaty. During the subsequent Paris Commune insurrection, Schœlcher tried unsuccessfully to mediate peace talks between the insurgents and the French government, and was briefly imprisoned by the communards. Afterwards he continued to serve in the National Assembly as a member of the Republican Union, and was elected senator for life in December 1875.

In 1875, Schœlcher became a member of the Societé pour l'amélioration du sort de la femme ("Society for the improvement of women's condition"), and in July 1876 he renewed his proposal for the abolition of capital punishment. In 1882 he co-founded, with Gaston Gerville-Réache, the newspaper Le Moniteur des Colonies. Schœlcher published his last work in 1889, a biography of Haitian revolutionary leader Toussaint Louverture (Vie de Toussaint Louverture). He died on 25 December 1893 in his house in Houilles, near Paris, aged 89.

Legacy
Having never married or left issue, in his will Schœlcher distributed his money and donated his collection to Guadeloupe, which is now housed at the Schœlcher Museum (Musée Schœlcher) in Pointe-à-Pitre. First buried in the Père Lachaise Cemetery, his remains were transferred on 20 May 1949 to the Panthéon on the initiative of Senator Gaston Monnerville from Guiana. Schœlcher had wanted to be buried with his father Marc, who was therefore also interred in the Panthéon. The ashes of Félix Éboué, the first black person to be buried in the Panthéon, were transferred at the same time. In 1981, the newly elected President François Mitterrand placed a rose at Schœlcher's tomb in the Panthéon as part of his inauguration ceremony.

Homages

 * In homage to his fight against slavery, the commune of Case-Navire (Martinique) took the name of Schœlcher in 1888.
 * The commune of Fessenheim turned his family's house into the Victor Schœlcher museum.
 * The Place Victor Schœlcher in Aix-en-Provence is named after him.
 * A street created at the south-eastern corner of the Montparnasse Cemetery in Paris was named Rue Schœlcher in 1894 and Rue Victor Schœlcher in 2000.
 * Two ships of the French Navy have been named Victor Schœlcher – an auxiliary cruiser during World War II, and a Commandant Rivière-class frigate in service from 1962 to 1988.
 * On 20 May 2020, two statues of Schœlcher were destroyed in Martinique. French President Emmanuel Macron criticized the acts. Another statue was destroyed in March 2021; their destruction was supported by activists from the separatist "National Front for the Liberation of Martinique", and represents part of wider protests against "colonial memory".
 * He was honored by the department of Réunion on a commemorative note of five thousand francs first issued in 1946.

Works

 * De l'esclavage des noirs et de la législation coloniale (On slavery of blacks and colonial legislation) (Paris, 1833)
 * Abolition de l'esclavage (Abolition of slavery) (1840)
 * Les colonies françaises de l'Amérique (French colonies of America) (1842)
 * Les colonies étrangères dans l'Amérique et Hayti (Foreign colonies in America and Haiti) (2 vols., 1843)
 * Histoire de l'esclavage pendant les deux dernières années (History of slavery during the last two years) (2 vols., 1847)
 * La verité aux ouvriers et cultivateurs de la Martinique (The truth to the workers and farmers of Martinique) (1850)
 * Protestation des citoyens français negres et mulatres contre des accusations calomnieuses (Protests of black and mulatto French citizens against slanderous accusations) (1851)
 * Le procès de la colonie de Marie-Galante (The trial of the Marie-Galante colony) (1851)
 * Histoire des crimes du 2 décembre (History of the crimes of the 2 December) (1852)
 * Le gouvernement du 2 décembre (The government of the 2 December) (1853)
 * Dangers to England of the alliance with the men of the Coup d'État (1854)
 * Vie de Händel (Life of Handel) (1857)
 * La grande conspiration du pillage et du meurtre à la Martinique (The great conspiracy of theft and murder in the Martinique) (1875)
 * Vie de Toussaint Louverture (1889)

title: Victor Schœlcher


text:
Adrar Province

Adrar (ولاية أدرار, ⴰⴷⵔⴰⵔ) is a province (wilaya) in southwestern Algeria, named after its capital Adrar. It is the second-largest province, with an area of 424,948 km2, roughly the size of the US state of California. It had 402,197 inhabitants at the 2008 population census.

It is bordered by five other wilayas: to the west by Tindouf; to the north by Béchar and El Bayadh; to the east by Ghardaïa and Tamanrasset. To the south, it is bordered by Mauritania and Mali.

Adrar is composed of three natural and cultural regions: Touat (Adrar, Zaouiet Kounta), Gourara (Aougrout, Timimoune) and Tidikelt (Aoulef), and 299 ksour.

History
The province was created from parts of the Oasis Province and Saoura Province in 1974.

Location
The province of Adrar is located in south-west Algeria.

Administrative divisions
The province comprises 7 districts (daïras) and 16 communes or municipalities (baladiyahs)

The following table shows the list of districts in the province of Adrar and all the communes in each district.

Districts

 * 1) Adrar
 * 2) Aoulef
 * 3) Bordj Badji Mokhtar
 * 4) Fenoughil
 * 5) Reggane
 * 6) T'Sabit
 * 7) Zaouiet Kounta

title: Adrar Province


text:
Talk:University of Toronto Faculty of Law

Prime Ministers
Someone re-added William Lyon Mackenzie King even though the links do not say he went to U of T law school, which he did not. One link said he studied for one year at u of t law but he is a graduate of a different law school. I removed this incorrect re-addition.Alcoxnow (talk) 17:38, 9 October 2014 (UTC)Alcoxnow

There is also no link providing the claim that U of T law is known as "Toronto Law". I am again removing this inaccuracy.

I will add that someone has returned to add the misleading and hyperbolic statements that U of T law is "more selective than Harvard"...I invite others to clean this up.Alcoxnow (talk) 17:38, 9 October 2014 (UTC)Alcoxnow.

It also appears that the same person has erroneously added that the graduate John A Tory founded Torys LLP which is false. One need only go to the official Torys link to find that it was founded by the father. I removed this inaccuracy. Alcoxnow (talk) 17:45, 9 October 2014 (UTC)Alcoxnow

more selective than Harvard
There are a number of bogus claims made in this article that I have tried to clean up. Someone has used application stats to claim that u of t law is more selective than Harvard and keeps trying to compare and associate it with Yale. Someone even placed a quote that it was dubbed the Yale of Canada but the link had no such quote. There was also a quote that it had the best faculty to student ratio matched only by Yale, again, total BS. There was no such quote in the link, and the ration of 10:1 is not the lowest in North America, as was claimed.

There is also some bizarre talk about yield, with a dead link. It appears to be intentionally misleading gobbldigook. — Preceding unsigned comment added by Axx1900 (talk • contribs) 07:25, 5 October 2014 (UTC)

There was also a claim of being in the American Top 14 Law Schools with a link that did not mention U of T law anywhere. I removed it. Axx1900 (talk) 07:54, 5 October 2014 (UTC)Axx1900

JD program
Here is the link for U of T's JD program, in case you don't believe me: Darkcore 19:50, 12 Oct 2004 (UTC)

Considered to be the best?
"The University of Toronto Law school is considered to be among the best in Canada, especially in corporate law and legal theory," -- Do we have a source for this? —The preceding unsigned comment was added by 216.137.105.18 (talk • contribs).

Macleans magazine ranked them number 1 in 2007 and 2008. http://www.law.utoronto.ca/students_content.asp?itempath=2/11/0/0/0&specNews=638&cType=NewsEvents aksunder

Um, this ranking has nothing to do with the above query about being best 'especially in corporate law and legal theory'.

Linking academic dishonesty incident
why is it that everytime i put up accurate and linked information about U of T law that is not favorable to them ie 25 of their students being disciplined by the Law Society of Upper Canada, that it is removed the next day? Is that how Wikipedia works???? If it can't put the truth except as accepted by the uoft mafia then wikipedia is a sad joke on us all. —The preceding unsigned comment was added by Cyril2006 (talk • contribs).

 * You should try to present the information in an acceptable, formatted manner. Stuffing info in the middle of nowhere with absolute no formatting, grammatical checks whatsoever, is not how wikipedia works. Chensiyuan 20:27, 27 March 2007 (UTC)

No problem, although i am not convinced that that is the reason the links and information were repeatedly removed. You know what else is not how wiki is supposed to work? Total deletion of content you from U of T don't like. If it's not formatted or you think it should be in a different paragraph why don't you change it instead of just deleting it?? In fact, when i had first linked this information i had put it under the heading of "controversy" and it nevertheless entirely vanished the next day.

why did you delete it again? what is your rationale?

 * who's "you"? i don't edit under anons. btw, i'm not from U of T either. Chensiyuan 03:04, 28 March 2007 (UTC)

You're quite a piece of work tough guy. do you think you're entitled to raze information on wikipedia just because i didn't sign properly??? why don't we have this arbitrated. Cyril2006Cyril2006 03:11, 28 March 2007 (UTC)

 * i have no idea what you're talking about. regarding arbitration, what is there to arbitrate over? Chensiyuan 03:15, 28 March 2007 (UTC)

I guess i will just keep adding the information that i have added several times and that has been removed several times including by you. We'll just keep doing this forever. I'll check back now and then and just change it. And in the meantime explain to everyone i know that wikipedia is a sorry joke thanks to the sad likes of you. And of course, you have no idea what i'm talking about. Cyril2006Cyril2006 08:18, 29 March 2007 (UTC)
 * yup you're a true asset. Chensiyuan (talk) 00:50, 15 December 2007 (UTC)

 * well, maybe one reason the "facts" get cut is because they're not true. 25 students were never disciplined by the Law Society of Upper Canada.  In 2001 a number of students (not 25) were disciplined by UofT itself.  The Law Society wasn't involved.  In any event it was the students, not the school that were disiplined so why would that story go into an article about the school?  —Preceding unsigned comment added by Jmscstl (talk • contribs) 19:11, 7 July 2009 (UTC)

As a matter of fact, there was an investigation regarding a law professor at the school. The only reason the students did what they did is because the law professor told them it was acceptable. Get your facts straight. by Axx1900. — Preceding unsigned comment added by Axx1900 (talk • contribs) 07:14, 5 October 2014 (UTC)

Alumni graduation dates
There are no graduation dates for the last three alumni listed under "selected alumni". — Preceding unsigned comment added by Emilymarian (talk • contribs) 22:35, 20 September 2011 (UTC)

Mistaken or phoney claims about alumni
Someone had very misleadingly edited the Bora Laskin page to make it appear that he attended this law school even though the link used to justify it made no such claim. I have corrected that page and removed Bora Laskin from the list of Alumni.

A similar scenario took place regarding the school having produced 'two prime ministers'. In fact, William Lyon Mackenzie King went to a different law school. I also removed this.

There was also a phoney claim about the John Tory who attended this law school. He was not a founder of Torys. I corrected this. Alcoxnow (talk) 00:53, 6 October 2014 (UTC)Alcoxnow

Vandalism by Rival Students
Some persons using various accounts as sock puppets (e.g. Axx1900 which is now blocked indefinitely - http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/User:Axx1900) have been vandalizing this page along with other law school pages. It is unfortunate that some think that they can go about attacking various law schools (as many were rapidly edited by the sock puppets), while probably studying at another law school (based on the edits, you can guess where the immaturity emerged from).

The person introduced numerous errors. For instance Bora Laskin is a graduate of law from the University of Toronto, where he earned a BA and MA in Law (old British names still used by Oxford for a LLB and LLM, respectively) -https://www.law.utoronto.ca/news/nexus/archives/bora-laskin-legendary-force-friedland The assertions that Toronto (13.5) has a lower acceptance rate than Harvard (15.9%) is accurate as the updated sources show (Internet Archive is now being used to ensure links do not break in the future). Please also peruse the U of T Performance Indicators report for details. Also, the school has a higher yield rate than Harvard only exceeded by Yale. Also, the quote ("10:1 student/faculty ratio, the best in North America, matched only by Yale") about the school having a 10:1 student-faculty ratio is directly from the Faculty's About page and the school itself makes the comparison to Yale. Claims about other schools were not substantiated as most other schools provide very little information on faculty, employment statistics, and salary distributions. William Lyon Mackenzie King is a U of T Law graduate as he received an LLB, but back then one had to also take the vocational program at Osgoode Hall at Queen and University to get licensed - http://www.biographi.ca/en/bio/king_william_lyon_mackenzie_17E.html And so on.

While some of the links in this article had become broken as websites have been updated, simple web searches would reveal the source materials. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 70.30.99.207 (talk) 03:12, 8 October 2014 (UTC)

External links modified
Hello fellow Wikipedians,

I have just modified 2 external links on University of Toronto Faculty of Law. Please take a moment to review my edit. If you have any questions, or need the bot to ignore the links, or the page altogether, please visit this simple FaQ for additional information. I made the following changes:
 * Added archive https://web.archive.org/web/20120110135044/http://www2.macleans.ca/2009/09/16/ranking-canada%E2%80%99s-law-schools/ to http://www2.macleans.ca/2009/09/16/ranking-canada%E2%80%99s-law-schools/
 * Added archive https://web.archive.org/web/20150924095157/http://www.scc-csc.gc.ca/court-cour/judges-juges/bio-eng.aspx?id=bora-laskin to http://www.scc-csc.gc.ca/court-cour/judges-juges/bio-eng.aspx?id=bora-laskin

When you have finished reviewing my changes, you may follow the instructions on the template below to fix any issues with the URLs.

Cheers.— InternetArchiveBot  (Report bug) 23:28, 22 December 2017 (UTC)


text:
Jimmy McCulloch

James McCulloch (4 June 1953 – 25 September 1979) was a Scottish musician best known for playing lead guitar and bass as a member of Paul McCartney's band Wings from 1974 to 1977. McCulloch was a member of the Glasgow psychedelic band One in a Million (formerly known as the Jaygars), Thunderclap Newman, and Stone the Crows.

McCulloch also made appearances on many albums, including John Entwistle's Whistle Rymes in 1972, as lead guitarist playing alongside Peter Frampton on "Apron Strings" and "I Feel Better". McCulloch also played guitar on Roger Daltrey's album One of the Boys which was released in 1977.

McCulloch was a friend of the Who and a member of the band Thunderclap Newman, which was created and produced by his mentor Pete Townshend. At age 11, he was also a protégé of the Shadows' Hank Marvin. His brother is drummer Jack McCulloch.

Biography
McCulloch was born in Dumbarton and raised in Clydebank and Cumbernauld, Scotland. The McCulloch family relocated to London when Jimmy was 13. He was inspired by Django Reinhardt and began to play the guitar aged 11.

He made his performance debut as the guitarist for the Jaygars, which was later known as One in a Million. One in a Million performed live in support of The Who during their tour of Scotland in 1967. That year, One in a Million released their "Fredereek Hernando"/"Double Sight" single on MGM. The single is now highly collectable, and an expensive purchase, now classed as a classic and obscure UK psychedelic release. Double Sight, a CD compilation of these and other songs written and recorded by the band, was released in 2009.

In April 1967, McCulloch played lead guitar for the Utterly Incredible, Too Long Ago to Remember, Sometimes Shouting at People during The 14 Hour Technicolour Dream event, which was held on the grounds of the Alexandra Palace in London. That year, he played guitar for One in a Million, which performed live at The Upper Cut and other London venues.

McCulloch first rose to fame in 1969 when he joined Pete Townshend's friends, Andy 'Thunderclap' Newman (piano) and songwriter John 'Speedy' Keen (vocals, drums), to form the band Thunderclap Newman. The band enjoyed a UK No. 1 hit with "Something in the Air" that year. Thunderclap Newman's album, Hollywood Dream, on which the title instrumental, written by McCulloch and his brother, sold well but was not as successful as their hit single. (Reissues of the album include another McCulloch brothers song, "I See It All".) From January to mid-April 1971, the band toured England, Scotland, The Netherlands, and Scandinavia and disbanded shortly thereafter.

In October 1971, McCulloch played guitar in concert with John Mayall and the Bluesbreakers in England, Scotland and Germany. On 31 October 1971 McCulloch's band Bent Frame made its performance debut in London. The band subsequently renamed itself the Jimmy McCulloch Band and toured England and Scotland in support of Leslie West's Mountain in February 1972. By then, McCulloch had done session work for Klaus Voormann, Harry Nilsson, Steve Ellis, John Entwistle, and others.

In June 1972, McCulloch joined the blues rock band (and fellow Mayall-school alumni) Stone the Crows to replace guitarist Les Harvey, who had been electrocuted on stage. McCulloch helped Stone the Crows to complete their Ontinuous Performance album by playing on the tracks "Sunset Cowboy" and "Good Time Girl". Stone the Crows disbanded in June 1973.

In 1973, McCulloch played guitar on John Keen's album, Previous Convictions, had a brief stint in Blue and played guitar on Brian Joseph Friel's debut album under the pseudonym 'The Phantom'.

Paul McCartney & Wings and after
McCulloch first met Paul McCartney in August 1973, after the departure of Henry McCullough. McCulloch joined Wings in August 1974. His debut track with them was "Junior's Farm." McCulloch composed the music for the anti-drug song "Medicine Jar" on the album Venus and Mars and the similar "Wino Junko" on Wings at the Speed of Sound. He also sang both. Colin Allen, who had been drummer for Stone the Crows, wrote lyrics for both songs.

During his time with Wings, McCulloch formed White Line with his brother Jack on drums and Dave Clarke on bass, keyboards, and vocals. They played several impromptu gigs and released a single, "Call My Name"/"Too Many Miles". A 13-track album, White Line – Complete, was released in 1994 on Clarke's Mouse Records. Jimmy McCulloch and White Line appeared on the British television programme Supersonic on 27 November 1976. In addition, McCulloch recorded and produced two unreleased songs by The Khyber Trifles and had occasionally performed live (in London and their native Glasgow) with the band. Finally, as noted above, he played guitar on Roy Harper's album Bullinamingvase and Ricci Martin's album Beached, in 1977.

In September 1977, McCulloch left Wings to join the reformed Small Faces during the latter band's nine date tour of England that month. He played guitar on the Small Faces' album, 78 in the Shade. In early 1978, McCulloch started a band called Wild Horses with Brian Robertson, Jimmy Bain and Kenney Jones, but both McCulloch and Jones left the band soon afterward. In 1979, McCulloch joined the Dukes. His last recorded song, "Heartbreaker", appeared on their only album, The Dukes.

A melodic, heavily blues-infused guitarist, McCulloch normally used a Gibson SG and a Gibson Les Paul, and he occasionally played bass when McCartney, Wings' usual bassist, or Laine were playing piano or acoustic guitar, which he used Fender Precision or Fender Jazz basses. For acoustic guitar work, he used Ovation acoustic guitars.

In 2021, an episode of BBC's The Repair Shop featured two platinum discs for Wings at the Speed of Sound and Wings over America, presented to McCulloch for his work with Wings, which were taken for restoration by his cousin.

Death
On 27 September 1979, McCulloch was found dead by his brother in his flat in Maida Vale, London. He was 26 years old.

Although McCulloch was a heavy drinker and marijuana smoker, he was not known to be a user of hard drugs. After complaining of feeling anxious, exhausted and unwell in general, he was given a prescription from his physician that contained small, legal amounts of morphine, cannabis and alcohol. The subsequent autopsy revealed that his medication had caused heart failure. Reports that he died from a heroin overdose were based on a misconception of facts.

The Paul McCartney Project lists several newspaper articles about McCulloch's death. The concert film Rockshow, from Wings' 1976 North American tour, was released in late 1980, more than a year after McCulloch's death.

title: Jimmy McCulloch