text:
Symphyotrichum novae-angliae

(formerly Aster novae-angliae) is a species of flowering plant in the aster family (Asteraceae) native to central and eastern North America. Commonly known as, , or , it is a perennial, herbaceous plant usually between 30 and 120 cm tall and 60 to 90 cm wide.

The usually deep purple flowers have up to 100 ray florets which are rarely pink or white. These surround the flower centers which are composed of just as many tiny yellow disk florets. The plant grows naturally in clumps, with several erect stems emerging from a single point. The stems are stout, hairy, and mostly unbranched. The untoothed, lance-shaped leaves clasp the stem with earlobe-like appendages, and the lower stem leaves often wither by the time of flowering.

New England aster generally grows in wet environments but also has been found in dry soil or sand. The seeds and nectar of this mostly conservationally secure species, which blooms August to November, are important to a wide variety of animals, including birds, bees, and butterflies. It has been introduced to Europe, Central Asia, Hispaniola, New Zealand, and some western states and provinces of North America.

The naturally-occurring hybrid species of New England aster and white heath aster (Symphyotrichum ericoides) is named Symphyotrichum × amethystinum and is commonly known as amethyst aster. It can grow where the two parents are in close proximity. There are roughly 50 cultivars of Symphyotrichum novae-angliae available, including the award-winners 'Brunswick', 'Helen Picton', and 'James Ritchie'. It has been used by indigenous Americans, such as the Cherokee, Iroquois, and Potawatomi, to heal multiple ailments.

Description
New England aster is a clump-forming perennial and herbaceous plant. Usually it is between 30 and 120 cm tall and 60 to 90 cm wide. Sometimes it can reach heights of 180 to 240 cm. It is cespitose, growing in clumps with several erect stems emerging from a single point. The stems are stout and mostly unbranched. The upper stems and leaves, along with some parts of the flower heads, are covered with tiny glands on tiny stalks called "stipitate glands".

Roots, stems, and leaves
The roots either come from caudices or short rhizomes and are thick, appearing woody, sometimes with cormoid portions. There are usually from one to five strong, erect, hairy stems growing from the root base. These can be brown or purplish in color, and largely stipitate-glandular higher up.

Symphyotrichum novae-angliae has light to dark green, thin, and often stiff alternate and simple leaves. These occur at the base, on stems, and on the flower head branches which all have generally the same lanceolate appearance regardless of their location on the plant. The exception to this is the basal (bottom) leaves, which are usually spatulate or sometimes oblanceolate in shape. The lower stem leaves often wither or drop by the time the plant flowers.

The leaf margins are sometimes entire, meaning they are smooth on the edges with no teeth or lobes, or ciliate, meaning fringed with fine hairs on their edges. They are sessile, having no leafstalk, and they are auriculate, clasping the stem with earlobe-like appendages.

The leaves can vary in size, with the basal and distal (highest) leaves usually smaller than those occurring mid-stem. The basal leaves are sparsely hirsute and range 2–6 cm wide. Stem leaves are generally lanceolate or oblong with pointed tips and have stipitate glands on both sides. They average 5–10 cm in length by 5–2 millimeters wide. The distal leaves are oblanceolate, also stipitate-glandular, and softly-pubescent. Distal leaves range 3–8 cm in length by 6–15 mm wide.

Flowers
Symphyotrichum novae-angliae is a late-summer and fall blooming perennial with flower heads opening as early as August in some locations and as late as November in others. The inflorescences grow in paniculo-corymbiform arrays, also called "cymose corymbs". These inflorescences have many leaves and are quite crowded, typically with one head at the end of each small branch. Each open flower head can be up to 5 cm in diameter.

Involucres and phyllaries
On the outside the flower heads of all members of the family Asteraceae are small specialized leaves called "phyllaries", and together they form the involucre that protects the individual flowers in the head before they open. The involucres of S. novae-angliae are campanulate (bell-shaped) to hemispheric (half-spherical) and usually 7–9 mm in length. The phyllaries are spreading and often reflexed and are covered with stipitate glands. They are in 3–5 (sometimes up to 6) somewhat equal rows.

Florets
Each flower head is made up of ray florets and disk florets in about a one to one ratio, with the former accepting pollen before, and longer than, the latter. The 40–100 ray florets grow in one, two, or multiple series and are usually deep purple, rarely pink or white. They average 10–20 mm in length and 0.8–1.3 mm wide. Ray florets in the Symphyotrichum genus are exclusively female, each having a pistil (with style, stigma, and ovary) but no stamen; thus, ray florets accept pollen and each can develop a seed, but they produce no pollen.

The disks have 50–110 florets that start out as yellow and later turn purple. Each disk floret has an average range of 4.5–5.5 mm in depth and is made up of 5 fused petals, collectively called a "corolla", which opens into 5 lobes. Disk florets in the Symphyotrichum genus are androgynous, each with both male (stamen, anthers, and filaments) and female reproductive parts; thus, a disk floret produces pollen and can develop a seed.

Fruit
The fruits of Symphyotrichum novae-angliae are seeds, not true achenes but cypselae, resembling an achene but surrounded by a calyx sheath. This is true for all members of the Asteraceae family. After pollination, they become dull purple or brown with an oblong or obconic shape, are uncompressed, and are 1.8–3 mm long and 0.6–1 mm wide with 7–10 nerves. They also have tufts of hairs called "pappi" which are tawny or rose-tinged in color and 4.5–6 mm long.

Chromosomes
S. novae-angliae has a monoploid number (also called "base number") of five chromosomes The species is diploid with a total chromosome count of 10.

History and classification
The species' basionym (original scientific name) is Aster novae-angliae L., and it has many taxonomic synonyms. Its name with author citations is Symphyotrichum novae-angliae (L.) G.L.Nesom. Swedish botanist Carl Linnaeus, in 1753, formally described what we know today as S. novae-angliae. It is a member of the genus Symphyotrichum classified in the subgenus Virgulus. It has been placed in section Grandiflori, sometimes segregated then within its own subsection Polyligulae. It also has been segregated within its own section Polyliguli. The cladogram shown follows the circumscription of section Polyliguli for the species.

Placement within Symphyotrichum

Several varieties and forms have been described, differing in flower color, but these generally are not recognized and are considered taxonomic synonyms of the species. F1 hybridization with S. ericoides can occur where the ranges of these two species overlap. Named Symphyotrichum × amethystinum (amethyst aster), the hybrid is intermediate between the parent species in most respects. No other hybrids with S. novae-angliae have been reported.

Etymology
The word Symphyotrichum has as its root the Greek symph, which means "coming together", and trichum, which means "hair". The species name novae-angliae translates to "New England", and the vernacular name "Michaelmas daisy" derives from the various asters, including this species, that tend to flower around September 29, the Feast of St. Michael.

The species' former genus, Aster, comes from the Ancient Greek word ἀστήρ (astḗr), meaning "star", referring to the shape of the flower. The word "aster" was used to describe a star-like flower as early as 1542 in De historia stirpium commentarii insignes, a book by the German physician and botanist Leonhart Fuchs. An old common name for Astereae species using the suffix "-wort" is "starwort", also spelled "star-wort" or "star wort". An early use of this name can be found in the same work by Fuchs as Sternkraut, translated from German literally as "star herb". The name "star-wort" was in use by Aiton in his 1789 Hortus Kewensis for Aster novae-angliae. He used the common names "New England cluster'd star-wort" and "New England panicl'd star-wort" in this work.

Native
New England aster is native to most of the central and northeastern United States and southeastern Canada, from Manitoba south to Louisiana and east to Maine. It is absent from much of the far southeastern United States and from boreal regions in North America. There are isolated populations to the west of the main range, such as in New Mexico and in the Black Hills of South Dakota.

Introduced
Due to widespread cultivation, introduced populations are present elsewhere in North America including in Montana, Oregon, Utah, Washington, and Wyoming. It was found in Nova Scotia and considered a possible escapee from cultivation, but, it is categorized as native there. It is considered ephemeral in British Columbia, with recorded sightings in 1993 and 1994 near Vancouver, probably originating from railroad cars and garden waste.

New England aster is widely naturalized throughout most of Europe, in parts of Central Asia, on the island of Hispaniola, and in the island country of New Zealand.

Habitat
S. novae-angliae is found in a wide variety of open, typically moist habitats, including meadows, prairies, marshes, fens, forest edges, and disturbed anthropogenic sites, such as roadsides and former agricultural fields. In its native habitat, it grows primarily in moist calcareous soils, favoring more marshy-wet sites in the western-most of its range.

It is categorized on the United States National Wetland Plant List (NWPL) with the Wetland indicator status rating of Facultative Wetland (FACW) in all wetland regions, meaning it usually occurs in wetlands, but not out of necessity. For example, in one northern location, the Niagara Peninsula in southern Ontario, it was found to grow in dry and sandy soils. It grows best in soils with a pH of 5–7.

Ecology
Symphyotrichum novae-angliae has coefficients of conservatism (C-values) in the Floristic Quality Assessment (FQA) that range from 0 to 8 depending on evaluation region. The higher the C-value, the lower tolerance the species has for disturbance and the greater the likelihood that it is growing in a presettlement natural community. In the Dakotas, for example, S. novae-angliae has a C-value of 8, meaning its populations there are found in high-quality remnant natural areas with little environmental degradation but can tolerate some periodic disturbance. In contrast, for the Atlantic coastal pine barrens of Massachusetts, New York, and Rhode Island, it has been given a C-value of 1, meaning its presence in locations of that ecoregion provides little or no confidence of a remnant habitat.

Reproduction
Symphyotrichum novae-angliae reproduces sexually via wind-dispersed seeds and asexually (vegetatively) via short rhizomes. The species is largely incapable of self-pollination and requires cross-pollination for seed production. The ray florets of species in the Symphyotrichum genus are exclusively female, each having a pistil but no stamen, while disk florets are androgynous, each with both male and female reproductive parts.

Pollinators and food-seekers
The seeds of S. novae-angliae are an important fall and winter food source for songbirds. Further, a wide variety of generalist nectar-feeding insects visit the plant, including butterflies, moths, ants, flies, and bees. It is heavily visited by long-tongued bumblebees, including the golden northern bumble bee (Bombus fervidus) and the half-black bumblebee (Bombus vagans), and less so by short-tongued species. Some bees will collect pollen in addition to nectar, such as the broad-handed leafcutter bee (Megachile latimanus) and Drury's long-horned bee (Melissodes druriellus).

Insects
A gall midge insect, Rhopalomyia astericaulis, produces a 2 cm stem gall on this species. Leaf-mining insects include beetles (Sumitrosis inaequalis, Systena hudsonias, and Microrhopala xerene) and flies (Agromyza curvipalpis, Agromyza platypera, Napomyza lateralis, and Phytomyza albiceps). A butterfly known to feed on New England aster as a caterpillar is the Gorgone checkerspot (Chlosyne gorgone). The warty leaf beetle Exema canadensis breeds on S. novae-angliae.

Fungi
Fungi known to affect the species include the mildews Basidiophora entospora (downy) and Erysiphe cichoracearum (powdery), and a black knot fungus Gibberidea heliopsidis. Leaf spot fungi include Discosphaerina pseudhimantia and Placosphaeria haydeni (both making black spots), as well as Ramularia asteris, R. macrospora, and Septoria atropurpurea, the latter making purple stains. Two rusts have been recorded on S. novae-angliae: the brown rust Puccinia asteris and the red rust Coleosporium asterum.

Conservation
, NatureServe listed S. novae-angliae as Secure (G5) worldwide; Possibly Extirpated (SX) in Oklahoma; Critically Imperiled (S1) in Saskatchewan, Georgia, South Carolina, and Wyoming; Imperiled (S2) in Colorado; and, Vulnerable (S3) in North Carolina.

Medicinal
Symphyotrichum novae-angliae has been used for various medicinal purposes. In his 1828 Medical Flora, French botanist Constantine Samuel Rafinesque wrote the following about its use to treat skin eruptions, including urushiol-induced contact dermatitis from poison ivy and poison sumac:"The A. novanglia is employed in decoction internally, with a strong decoction externally, in many eruptive diseases of the skin: it removes also the poisonous state of the skin caused by Rhus or Shumac."

Among Indigenous peoples of North America, it has been documented that the Cherokee have made a poultice of the roots for pain, an infusion of the roots for diarrhea, an infusion of the plant for fever, and have sniffed the ooze from the roots for catarrh.

Both the Meskwaki and the Potawatomi have used the plant to revive people: the Meskwaki by smudging, and the Potawatomi through fumigation. The Iroquois have made a decoction of the plant for weak skin and of the roots and leaves for fevers. They have used the plant as a love medicine. Both the Mohawk people and the Iroquois have used an infusion of the whole plant in combination with rhizomes from another plant to treat mothers with intestinal fevers. The Ojibwe have smoked the root in pipes to attract game.

Gardening
Over 70 cultivars have been developed, and about 50 were in commerce. The S. novae-angliae cultivars grow to between 90 and 200 cm in height, with the notable exception of 'Purple Dome', at 45 cm. Long popular in Europe where it was introduced into cultivation in 1710, New England aster has only more recently become commonly cultivated in North America.

Twelve cultivars have received the Royal Horticultural Society's Award of Garden Merit (AGM), including 'Brunswick' (bright pink), 'Helen Picton' (purple), 'James Ritchie' (deep pink), and 'Rosa Sieger' (rose-pink).

title: Symphyotrichum novae-angliae


text:
Ines

Ines or INES may refer to:

People

 * Ines (name), a feminine given name, also written as Inés or Inês
 * Saint Ines or Agnes (c. 291), Roman virgin–martyr
 * Eda-Ines Etti (stage name: Ines; born 1981), Estonian singer

Places

 * Doña Ines, a volcano in Chile
 * Institute of Applied Sciences Ruhengeri, a Rwandan university

Science and technology

 * International Network of Engineers and Scientists for Global Responsibility
 * International Nuclear Event Scale

Other uses

 * iNES (TV service), a Romanian IPTV television streaming service

 * Carte d'identité nationale électronique sécurisée, proposed French national identity card

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Ines


text: Category:Russian sculptors

title: Category:Russian sculptors


text: Category:Sculptors by nationality

title: Category:Sculptors by nationality


text:
Talk:Good Stuff

Why in the world was my information about the album and it's reference to quim removed from this article? The function if editing wikipedia articles is to make them better, not to censor, and I can only presume since my statement was factual in nature but you removed it anyway that you either A: were offended by it and removed it because of that, or B: you felt it was not relevant. If B, I would expect you to answer why, please. Otherwise I'll continue to re-add it until you stop removing it for absolutely no justifiable reason. Pacian 08:43, 20 Nov 2004 (UTC)

 * I can find no reference on any web page to the song being about vaginal fluids. You must provide a reference to support your claim. If you do not provide a reference, the content will continue to be reverted. And even if you can provide a reference, I'm pretty sure quim isn't a useful way to express the point, since there are countless more current and common terms for vaginal fluids than that. Bearcat 04:50, 2 Dec 2004 (UTC)

 * What do you do when something is accepted common knowledge and someone, such as yourself, doesn't know about it and therefore demands some kind of reference. First, consider the lyrics: "let your good stuff rain down on me," "how's about joinin' my lovin' session,' "take me down where the love honey flows" and "gonna wallow in the lovin' hollow"? Take also into consideration the music video wherein the band is standing around as giant vagina-shaped pipes pour down soapy foam onto their heads. Sometimes there is no direct and explicit reference for something: sometimes things just *ARE*. I'm putting it back in. Pacian 12:23, 12 Apr 2005 (UTC)

 * What you do is you find a reference to prove it. If it's common knowledge, then it won't be that hard to find one. Bearcat 08:42, 1 October 2005 (UTC)

 * And actually as a sidebar, your inaquaintence with the term quim doesn't make invalid or unacceptable as a word for use in an encyclopedia. Naturally you would have been welcome to just change it to something else, but just because something is out of common use doesn't make it WRONG or BAD. It's thinking like that which will make our children's children think that the proper way to speak is to AX someone a question. Pacian 12:26, 12 Apr 2005 (UTC)

 * My "inaquaintence" with the term isn't the issue. We have readers to think about, readers who don't have what you claim as "common knowledge" about the song and its video. Besides, I'm really not clear that a band comprising two gay men and a straight woman would really be singing an ode to sex with a woman, given that none of them would be having sex with a woman. Bearcat 08:42, 1 October 2005 (UTC)

 * "Good Stuff" is definitely NOT well-known to be about a woman's fluids ... that's your own personal opinion. I agree that you need a reference for that claim.

I hope this is the right place to mention this. It may not even be a wikipedia problem. Trillian's tooltip wikipedia reference for good stuff shows the disambiguation page for ECU. Clicking it as a link correctly brings one here.

title: Talk:Good Stuff


text:
Polyakov action

In physics, the Polyakov action is an action of the two-dimensional conformal field theory describing the worldsheet of a string in string theory. It was introduced by Stanley Deser and Bruno Zumino and independently by L. Brink, P. Di Vecchia and P. S. Howe in 1976, and has become associated with Alexander Polyakov after he made use of it in quantizing the string in 1981. The action reads:
 * $$\mathcal{S} = \frac{T}{2} \int\mathrm{d}^2\sigma\, \sqrt{-h}\,h^{ab} g_{\mu\nu}(X) \partial_a X^\mu(\sigma) \partial_b X^\nu(\sigma),$$

where $$T$$ is the string tension, $$g_{\mu\nu}$$ is the metric of the target manifold, $$h_{ab}$$ is the worldsheet metric, $$h^{ab}$$ its inverse, and $$h$$ is the determinant of $$h_{ab}$$. The metric signature is chosen such that timelike directions are + and the spacelike directions are −. The spacelike worldsheet coordinate is called $$\sigma$$, whereas the timelike worldsheet coordinate is called $$\tau$$. This is also known as the nonlinear sigma model.

The Polyakov action must be supplemented by the Liouville action to describe string fluctuations.

Global symmetries
N.B.: Here, a symmetry is said to be local or global from the two dimensional theory (on the worldsheet) point of view. For example, Lorentz transformations, that are local symmetries of the space-time, are global symmetries of the theory on the worldsheet.

The action is invariant under spacetime translations and infinitesimal Lorentz transformations1. $ X^\alpha \to X^\alpha + b^\alpha, $

2. $ X^\alpha \to X^\alpha + \omega^\alpha_{\ \beta} X^\beta, $ where $$ \omega_{\mu \nu} = -\omega_{\nu \mu} $$, and $$ b^\alpha $$ is a constant. This forms the Poincaré symmetry of the target manifold.

The invariance under (i) follows since the action $$ \mathcal{S} $$ depends only on the first derivative of $$ X^\alpha $$. The proof of the invariance under (ii) is as follows:

 * $$\begin{align}

\mathcal{S}' &= {T \over 2}\int \mathrm{d}^2\sigma\, \sqrt{-h}\, h^{ab} g_{\mu \nu} \partial_a \left( X^\mu + \omega^\mu_{\ \delta} X^\delta \right) \partial_b \left( X^\nu + \omega^\nu_{\ \delta} X^\delta \right) \\ &= \mathcal{S} + {T \over 2}\int \mathrm{d}^2\sigma\, \sqrt{-h}\, h^{ab} \left( \omega_{\mu \delta} \partial_a X^\mu \partial_b X^\delta + \omega_{\nu \delta} \partial_a X^\delta \partial_b X^\nu \right) + \operatorname{O}\left(\omega^2\right) \\ &= \mathcal{S} + {T \over 2}\int \mathrm{d}^2\sigma\, \sqrt{-h}\, h^{ab} \left( \omega_{\mu \delta} + \omega_{\delta \mu } \right) \partial_a X^\mu \partial_b X^\delta + \operatorname{O}\left(\omega^2\right) \\ &= \mathcal{S} + \operatorname{O}\left(\omega^2\right). \end{align}$$

Local symmetries
The action is invariant under worldsheet diffeomorphisms (or coordinates transformations) and Weyl transformations.

Diffeomorphisms
Assume the following transformation:
 * $$ \sigma^\alpha \rightarrow \tilde{\sigma}^\alpha\left(\sigma,\tau \right). $$

It transforms the metric tensor in the following way:
 * $$ h^{ab}(\sigma) \rightarrow \tilde{h}^{ab} = h^{cd} (\tilde{\sigma})\frac{\partial {\sigma}^a}{\partial \tilde{\sigma}^c} \frac{\partial {\sigma}^b}{\partial \tilde{\sigma}^d}. $$

One can see that:

\tilde{h}^{ab} \frac{\partial}{\partial {\sigma}^a} X^\mu(\tilde{\sigma}) \frac{\partial}{\partial \sigma^b} X^\nu(\tilde{\sigma}) = h^{cd} \left(\tilde{\sigma}\right)\frac{\partial \sigma^a}{\partial \tilde{\sigma}^c} \frac{\partial \sigma^b}{\partial \tilde{\sigma}^d} \frac{\partial}{\partial \sigma^a} X^\mu(\tilde{\sigma})\frac{\partial}{\partial {\sigma}^b} X^\nu(\tilde{\sigma}) = h^{ab}\left(\tilde{\sigma}\right)\frac{\partial}{\partial \tilde{\sigma}^a}X^\mu(\tilde{\sigma}) \frac{\partial}{\partial \tilde{\sigma}^b} X^\nu(\tilde{\sigma}). $$

One knows that the Jacobian of this transformation is given by
 * $$ \mathrm{J} = \operatorname{det} \left( \frac{\partial \tilde{\sigma}^\alpha}{\partial \sigma^\beta} \right), $$

which leads to
 * $$\begin{align}

\mathrm{d}^2 \tilde{\sigma} &= \mathrm{J} \mathrm{d}^2 \sigma \\ h &= \operatorname{det} \left( h_{ab} \right) \\ \Rightarrow \tilde{h} &= \mathrm{J}^2 h, \end{align}$$ and one sees that
 * $$ \sqrt{-\tilde{h}} \mathrm{d}^2 {\sigma} = \sqrt{-h \left(\tilde{\sigma}\right)} \mathrm{d}^2 \tilde{\sigma}. $$

Summing up this transformation and relabeling $$ \tilde{\sigma} = \sigma $$, we see that the action is invariant.

Weyl transformation
Assume the Weyl transformation:
 * $$ h_{ab} \to \tilde{h}_{ab} = \Lambda(\sigma) h_{ab}, $$

then
 * $$\begin{align}

\tilde{h}^{ab} &= \Lambda^{-1}(\sigma) h^{ab}, \\ \operatorname{det} \left( \tilde{h}_{ab} \right) &= \Lambda^2(\sigma) \operatorname{det} (h_{ab}). \end{align}$$ And finally:

And one can see that the action is invariant under Weyl transformation. If we consider n-dimensional (spatially) extended objects whose action is proportional to their worldsheet area/hyperarea, unless n = 1, the corresponding Polyakov action would contain another term breaking Weyl symmetry.
 * $$ \mathcal{S}', $$
 * $$ = {T \over 2}\int \mathrm{d}^2 \sigma \sqrt{-\tilde{h}} \tilde{h}^{ab} g_{\mu\nu} (X) \partial_a X^\mu (\sigma) \partial_b X^\nu(\sigma), $$
 * $$ = {T \over 2}\int \mathrm{d}^2 \sigma \sqrt{-h} \left( \Lambda \Lambda^{-1} \right) h^{ab} g_{\mu \nu} (X) \partial_a X^\mu (\sigma) \partial_b X^\nu(\sigma) = \mathcal{S}. $$
 * }
 * $$ = {T \over 2}\int \mathrm{d}^2 \sigma \sqrt{-h} \left( \Lambda \Lambda^{-1} \right) h^{ab} g_{\mu \nu} (X) \partial_a X^\mu (\sigma) \partial_b X^\nu(\sigma) = \mathcal{S}. $$
 * }

One can define the stress–energy tensor:
 * $$ T^{ab} = \frac{-2}{\sqrt{-h}} \frac{\delta S}{\delta h_{ab}}. $$

Let's define:
 * $$ \hat{h}_{ab} = \exp\left(\phi(\sigma)\right) h_{ab}. $$

Because of Weyl symmetry, the action does not depend on $$ \phi $$:
 * $$ \frac{\delta S}{\delta \phi} = \frac{\delta S}{\delta \hat{h}_{ab}} \frac{\delta \hat{h}_{ab}}{\delta \phi} = -\frac12 \sqrt{-h} \,T_{ab}\, e^{\phi}\, h^{ab} = -\frac12 \sqrt{-h} \,T^a_{\ a} \,e^{\phi} = 0 \Rightarrow T^{a}_{\ a} = 0, $$

where we've used the functional derivative chain rule.

Relation with Nambu–Goto action
Writing the Euler–Lagrange equation for the metric tensor $$ h^{ab} $$ one obtains that
 * $$ \frac{\delta S}{\delta h^{ab}} = T_{ab} = 0. $$

Knowing also that:
 * $$ \delta \sqrt{-h} = -\frac12 \sqrt{-h} h_{ab} \delta h^{ab}. $$

One can write the variational derivative of the action:
 * $$ \frac{\delta S}{\delta h^{ab}} = \frac{T}{2} \sqrt{-h} \left( G_{ab} - \frac12 h_{ab} h^{cd} G_{cd} \right), $$

where $$ G_{ab} = g_{\mu \nu} \partial_a X^\mu \partial_b X^\nu $$, which leads to
 * $$\begin{align}

T_{ab} &= T \left( G_{ab} - \frac12 h_{ab} h^{cd} G_{cd} \right) = 0, \\ G_{ab} &= \frac12 h_{ab} h^{cd} G_{cd}, \\ G &= \operatorname{det} \left( G_{ab} \right) = \frac14 h \left( h^{cd} G_{cd} \right)^2. \end{align}$$

If the auxiliary worldsheet metric tensor $$\sqrt{-h}$$ is calculated from the equations of motion:
 * $$ \sqrt{-h} = \frac{2 \sqrt{-G}}{h^{cd} G_{cd}} $$

and substituted back to the action, it becomes the Nambu–Goto action:
 * $$ S = {T \over 2}\int \mathrm{d}^2 \sigma \sqrt{-h} h^{ab} G_{ab} = {T \over 2}\int \mathrm{d}^2 \sigma \frac{2 \sqrt{-G}}{h^{cd} G_{cd}} h^{ab} G_{ab} = T \int \mathrm{d}^2 \sigma \sqrt{-G}.$$

However, the Polyakov action is more easily quantized because it is linear.

Equations of motion
Using diffeomorphisms and Weyl transformation, with a Minkowskian target space, one can make the physically insignificant transformation $$\sqrt{-h} h^{ab} \rightarrow \eta^{ab}$$, thus writing the action in the conformal gauge:
 * $$ \mathcal{S} = {T \over 2}\int \mathrm{d}^2 \sigma \sqrt{-\eta} \eta^{ab} g_{\mu \nu} (X) \partial_a X^\mu (\sigma) \partial_b X^\nu(\sigma) = {T \over 2}\int \mathrm{d}^2 \sigma \left( \dot{X}^2 - X'^2 \right), $$

where $$ \eta_{ab} = \left( \begin{array}{cc} 1 & 0 \\ 0 & -1 \end{array} \right) $$.

Keeping in mind that $$ T_{ab} = 0 $$ one can derive the constraints:
 * $$\begin{align}

T_{01} &= T_{10} = \dot{X} X' = 0, \\ T_{00} &= T_{11} = \frac12 \left( \dot{X}^2 + X'^2 \right) = 0. \end{align}$$

Substituting $$ X^\mu \to X^\mu + \delta X^\mu $$, one obtains
 * $$\begin{align}

\delta \mathcal{S} &= T \int \mathrm{d}^2 \sigma \eta^{ab} \partial_a X^\mu \partial_b \delta X_\mu \\ &= -T \int \mathrm{d}^2 \sigma \eta^{ab} \partial_a \partial_b X^\mu \delta X_\mu + \left( T \int d \tau X' \delta X \right)_{\sigma=\pi} - \left( T \int d \tau X' \delta X \right)_{\sigma=0} \\ &= 0. \end{align}$$

And consequently
 * $$ \square X^\mu = \eta^{ab} \partial_a \partial_b X^\mu = 0. $$

The boundary conditions to satisfy the second part of the variation of the action are as follows.
 * Closed strings:
 * Periodic boundary conditions: $$ X^\mu(\tau, \sigma + \pi) = X^\mu(\tau, \sigma). $$
 * Open strings:1. Neumann boundary conditions: $ \partial_\sigma X^\mu (\tau, 0) = 0, \partial_\sigma X^\mu (\tau, \pi) = 0. $

2. Dirichlet boundary conditions: $ X^\mu(\tau, 0) = b^\mu, X^\mu(\tau, \pi) = b'^\mu. $ Working in light-cone coordinates $$\xi^\pm = \tau \pm \sigma$$, we can rewrite the equations of motion as

 * $$\begin{align}

\partial_+ \partial_- X^\mu &= 0, \\ (\partial_+ X)^2 = (\partial_- X)^2 &= 0. \end{align}$$

Thus, the solution can be written as $$X^\mu = X^\mu_+ (\xi^+) + X^\mu_- (\xi^-)$$, and the stress-energy tensor is now diagonal. By Fourier-expanding the solution and imposing canonical commutation relations on the coefficients, applying the second equation of motion motivates the definition of the Virasoro operators and lead to the Virasoro constraints that vanish when acting on physical states.

title: Polyakov action


text:
Scoring in Mahjong

Scoring in Mahjong, a game for four players that originated in China, involves the players obtaining points for their hand of tiles, then paying each other based on the differences in their score and who obtained mahjong (won the hand). The points are given a monetary value agreed by the players. Although in many variations scoreless hands (推倒胡 tui dao hu in Mandarin, 雞糊 gai wu in Cantonese) are possible, many require that hands be of some point value in order to win the round.

While the basic gameplay is more or less the same throughout mahjong, the most significant divergence between variations lies in the scoring systems. Like the gameplay, there is a generalized system of scoring, based on the method of winning and the winning hand, from which Chinese and Japanese (among notable systems) base their roots. American mahjong generally has wildly divergent scoring rules (as well

Because of the large differences between the various scoring systems (especially for Chinese variants), groups of players will often need to agree on particular scoring rules before a game to eliminate possible disputes during the game. As with the gameplay, many attempts have been made to create an international scoring standard, but most are not widely accepted.

Criteria
Points are obtained for a hand by matching it against various criteria, with different criteria scoring different values. Criteria can include particular melds or other tiles held, how the (winning) hand was completed, possession of various special combinations, etc. Some of these criteria may be subsets of other criteria (for example, having a meld of one dragon versus having a meld of all of them), and in these cases, only the criteria with the tighter requirements is scored. The points obtained may be translated into scores for each player using some (typically exponential) function. When gambling with mahjong, these scores are typically directly translated into sums of money paid between players.

The terminology of point differs from variation to variation. A common English term is double, as the point-to-score translation is typically exponential with a base of 2. (This is not to be confused with the doubling applied to the basic point score in some variations.) Chinese variants will use the term 番 (pinyin: fan). Taiwanese mahjong, however, uses the term 台 (pinyin: tái) along with a linear scoring system.

Points and score relate to two distinct concepts - based on the points obtained in a round, and other factors, players pay each other money. Chips or similar tokens can be used instead, or a score can simply be calculated.

Each player begins the game with the same score. When settling up, in many cases only the winner is paid with the winner's gain being deducted from the three losers' scores (that is, the losers pay the winner). However, payment between players can be arranged in other ways. A common set of modifiers (for which this article will call the standard payment variations) include:
 * In the case where a player wins by a discard (a player picks off an opponent), the player who performs the discard pays double
 * In the case where a player wins by a draw (a player wins by self-pick), every losing player pays double.
 * In the case where a player wins from a high-risk scenario (see below), the player who performs the discard pays for the other two losing players (in addition to the normal double share).

If playing with chips, there is no universal rule for the situation when a player runs out. In some circles, the match is immediately aborted, with the player furthest ahead in score declared the winner, while in others, a player out of chips continues to play without risk of further losses. Alternatively, the loser may pay cash to buy back chips from the winners and the game continues.

The rules mentioned below are by no means exhaustive or common to every variation, but are common to many 13-tile and 16-tile variations.

Hong Kong scoring
In the traditional Hong Kong scoring system or the Cantonese scoring system, scoring tends to be low due to the few criteria used.

The general scoring modifiers apply (see above), with the point translation function being a piecewise function: a constant amount is given for scoreless hands, and the score is doubled for each point (that is, an exponential function). Because zero-point hands are common, players often play with the additional restriction that a winning hand must be of some point value, often anywhere between one and five points, with three being the most common.

Chinese Classical scoring
Scoring in the Chinese Classical system, from which the Babcock system is derived, proceeds as follows. When one player has won the hand by obtaining mahjong
 * each player adds up basic points for their hand based on possession of certain melds, pairs and bonus tiles
 * winner adds additional basic points for obtaining mahjong, and possibly for completing their hand in various special ways (for example, getting their last tile from the wall)
 * each player doubles their basic points one or more times based on possession of certain rarer melds or combinations of melds (for example a set of the prevailing wind tiles)
 * winner doubles their basic points one or more times based on their hand forming certain rarer patterns (for example, composed entirely of honour tiles) or being completed in a special way (for example, robbing an exposed kong)

The winner collects their total points from each of the three losers. The losers pay each other the difference in their points. East pays or receives double amounts in their transactions.

Various "Special Limit" hands exist which, if obtained (which is unlikely), give the holder the maximum permitted amount (the limit) of points for their hand.

Taiwanese scoring
Unlike Hong Kong scoring, Taiwanese scoring employs a linear relationship between tai (台) (points in the Taiwanese system) and chips. When a win occurs in Taiwanese Mahjong, the number of tai of the winning hand is multiplied by a factor and then added to a base score. For example, if the base and factor are 3 and 2, respectively, then the loser to a 5-tai hand pays the winner 13 (3+2×5).

The Taiwanese system follows a different payment procedure from the standard procedure mentioned earlier:
 * In the case where a player wins by a discard (a player picks off an opponent), the player who performs the discard pays each winner (there may be more than one).
 * In the case where a player wins by a draw (a player wins by self-pick), each player except the winner pays the winner.

When the dealer is involved in either the winning or losing side of a hand, extra tai (one plus twice the number of times the dealer has consecutively retained the dealership) are added to the dealer's winnings or losses.

Shanghai scoring
In contrast, the scoring system used in the Shanghai variant is high due to the diverse number of scoring criteria and inflated values for rarer hands such as the thirteen terminals. Because of the inflated point values, there is generally a minimum point value in the Shanghai variant.

Singaporean scoring
Singaporean scoring is similar to that of the Chinese Classical system but accounts for the different set of tiles used therein. Again, standard payment variations apply, although variants exist where the dealer must also pay and receive double.

Japanese scoring
The Japanese scoring system is the system that is found in many Mahjong video games. In this variation, each player begin with a start score. Usually, this number is either 25,000 or 30,000. However, it can be any agreed start value. In real tile settings, this is typically represented by a series of bars resembling elongated Chinese dominoes, in four denominations: 10,000, 5,000, 1,000, and 100. Otherwise, online the representation is simply the displayed point scores.

American scoring
A side effect of the Babcock scoring system in the 1920s was that many players frequently sought after limit hands rather than hands of smaller value. Because of this, the common hands were eventually abandoned, and the only way one could win was to match a hand from a list of hands.

Today, in the American variations, players use a card that defines a small set of hands that are the only valid winning hands, with a point value given for each hand. This system is used by the two major governing bodies of Mahjong in the United States, the National Mah Jongg League and the American Mah-Jongg Association, with new cards that define the valid winning hands released annually.

Typically, each card contains scoring criteria that make references to the year the scoring cards are released. For example, the 1985 scoring hand will have hands containing "melds" of a one, nine, eight, and five of a certain suit.

Scoring limits
Some variations may impose a scoring limit - a maximum to the number of points for a given hand. In many cases where limits exist, there may be either multiple limits, or ways to obtain multiples of a limit. In many cases where limits exist, the typical point translation function is exponential, where a constant score is assigned to points up to the first limit, and afterwards increases (often doubles) as further limits are reached. The Taiwanese system does not employ scoring limits.

A scoring limit may be more of a gambling incentive: for example, if six and nine points were scoring limits, a seven- or eight-point hand would be worth the same as a six-point hand, which may be an incentive for players to go for nine-point hands.

High-risk discards
Many variations may also impose penalties for discards that are considered to be "high-risk" when the size of the wall is winding down. If a player wins from a high-risk discard, or goes out self-drawn after claiming a high-risk discard, the player(s) who made the high-risk discard(s) have to pay for the winner's points, and the other players are off the hook. A discard is considered risky if there were enough open melds to reveal the fact that said discard is very likely to enable completing a limit hand before it was claimed. Note that some rulesets always make the discarder pay anyway. In this case, going out self-drawn after claiming a risky discard will trigger the penalty. The intent of these rules is to punish the player who foolishly enabled the completion of the limit hand.

title: Scoring in Mahjong


text:
Frank Silva

Frank A. Silva (October 31, 1950 – September 13, 1995) was an American set dresser and occasional actor best known for his performance as the evil spirit BOB in the TV series Twin Peaks.

Silva had a degree in lighting design from San Francisco State University and worked as a prop master and set decorator on several films including David Lynch's Dune and Wild at Heart.

Silva worked on Lynch's Twin Peaks. According to David Lynch on the 2007 Gold Edition DVD release of Twin Peaks, Lynch was upstairs in the Laura Palmer house, near Silva as he worked, and suddenly realized that Silva might have a place in the show. He asked Silva if he was an actor, and Silva said that he was. Lynch then shot a scene where Silva was crouched at the foot of Laura Palmer's bed, staring at the camera, with no idea of where it would fit into the film. Later, while shooting a scene where Laura's mother is remembering a traumatic event, camera operator Sean Doyle told Lynch they'd have to repeat the scene because a crew member had accidentally been caught in a reflection. Lynch asked who, and Doyle told him it was Silva. Seeing this as a sign, Lynch decided to keep the shot as it was. Thus was born the character of BOB, a dark spirit who haunts Laura. Silva appeared occasionally as BOB for the remainder of the Twin Peaks series and in the 1992 movie Twin Peaks: Fire Walk with Me. His first major appearance was in the International Version of the Twin Peaks pilot, which contained a standalone ending that resolved the mystery of the series and incorporated the accidental footage.

Silva appears in the Anthrax video "Only".

Frank Silva died on September 13, 1995, aged 44 from AIDS-related complications. The second episode of the revived Twin Peaks was dedicated to Silva, and he appeared throughout the revival as BOB through use of archival footage.

title: Frank Silva


text:
Talk:The Legend of Zelda: Ocarina of Time

Revert of hatnote about "Zelda 64" redirect
Sorry, but I don't understand in what way this explanation makes sense.

If someone types "Zelda 64" in the search field, that person is in all likelyhood looking for a Zelda game that was released for the Nintendo 64, and that can either be Ocarina of Time or Majora's Mask.-- Maxeto0910 (talk) 16:17, 9 October 2022 (UTC)

 * I'm saying it solves a problem no one is having. Who is knowledgeable enough to type in a search term like Zelda 64 but not knowledgeable enough to know if they meant Ocarina of Time or Majora's Mask? OoT went by the working title Zelda 64 prior to its release. MM did not. No one would type in Zelda 64 and actually mean MM. Sergecross73   msg me  16:36, 9 October 2022 (UTC)
 * Zelda 64 is (or was) a common alternative name for Ocarina of Time, but not for Majora's Mask — so I think it's unlikely someone searching for Zelda 64 is looking for Majora's Mask. Additionally, this is a long hatnote that takes up a lot of prime real estate at the top of the article, so to me it doesn't seem worth the trade-off considering the little value it adds. (Unrelated, but here's a rant I wrote on the subject of clunky hatnotes some time ago.) Popcornfud (talk) 16:40, 9 October 2022 (UTC)
 * Thank you, I was thinking of that essay when I wrote my response but couldn't remember where I had read it. Sergecross73   msg me  16:45, 9 October 2022 (UTC)
 * I read your essay, but personally, I don't understand your problem. In scenario 1, the hatnote is helpful. In scenario 2, when you don't need it, you can just ignore it. It shouldn't keep or distract you from reading the article. Therefore, from my point of view, it only brings advantages.-- Maxeto0910 (talk) 17:11, 9 October 2022 (UTC)
 * Thanks for reading. I guess it isn't clear enough in my essay, but the problem is this: if something is in an article and it doesn't help anyone, then it's at best redundant and should be deleted. Popcornfud (talk) 17:14, 9 October 2022 (UTC)

I know that Zelda 64 was the working title of OoT, but someone who doesn't even know the name of the N64 Zelda game that person is looking for is 99.9% likely not to know that little trivial development detail.-- Maxeto0910 (talk) 16:56, 9 October 2022 (UTC)
 * But is someone who doesn't know the name of "the Zelda N64 game" actually likely to search for the name "Zelda 64"? And is that someone likely to be looking for Majora's Mask or the much more widely known Ocarina of Time? Popcornfud (talk) 17:06, 9 October 2022 (UTC)

 * "But is someone who doesn't know the name of "the Zelda N64 game" actually likely to search for the name "Zelda 64"?"

 * I can only speak of myself here, but if I'm looking for a game whose name I don't know, I would type in the title of the game series or franchise and the platform it was released on. That approach doesn't seem too outlandish and implausible to me, especially since many N64 games are named after this scheme.

 * "And is that someone likely to be looking for Majora's Mask or the much more widely known Ocarina of Time?"

 * Just because OoT is a lot more known doesn't mean that MM is unknown and only a few people are looking for it.-- Maxeto0910 (talk) 17:18, 9 October 2022 (UTC)
 * And we're saying that scenario is...unlikely. I mean, the fact that both articles were worked on to the point of FA status and such a hate note wasn't implemented is probably a good sign of that too. And both articles already mention the other title pretty prominently in the lead too, so even people in your far fetched scenarios would get there eventually if they just skim through the intro of either article. Sergecross73   msg me  17:33, 9 October 2022 (UTC)

 * And I think that scenario isn't unlikely, which I also justified. But it's fine, I respect your opinion and if two people think it's unlikely, I'm probably outvoted. I don't see the disadvantages of such a hatnote, I only see potential advantages, but good.-- Maxeto0910 (talk) 17:46, 9 October 2022 (UTC)

Late to this party. Why does this hatnote even exist? Sourcing and common use, Zelda 64 never referred to anything but OoT. -- ferret (talk) 22:34, 18 October 2023 (UTC)

 * I assume it was snuck in without anyone noticing. Bafflingly, even Maxeto seems to remember there was no consensus for this, referred to it, but didn't fix it. Sergecross73   msg me  22:54, 18 October 2023 (UTC)
 * It was added only a month ago, here. I'm removing it. -- ferret (talk) 23:09, 18 October 2023 (UTC)
 * Thank you. Sergecross73   msg me  23:16, 18 October 2023 (UTC)

2nd Annual Interactive Achievement Awards
According to the archived web pages for the Academy of Interactive Arts & Sciences web pages from 1999. Zelda: Ocarina of Time won 5 awards total. There was 2011 Forbes article with a photo Miyamoto holding up 5 awards at the 2nd Annual Interactive Achievement Awards. If Ocarina of Time had won 6 awards, why would Miyamoto be holding up 5 awards. My theory is that the academy has mistakenly list Ocarina of Time as the winner of the Outstanding Achievement in Software Engineering since the early 2000s. I have had trouble finding any news articles that list off the winners from 1999. MR.RockGamer17 (talk) 04:03, 27 June 2023 (UTC)

Miyamoto was originally gonna make OoT like Super Mario 64
Ganon's castle was originally gonna be a hubworld very similar to Peach's Castle. Link would travel to different stages, like in SM64 Complete idiocy (talk) 19:39, 15 May 2024 (UTC)

 * To be included in the article, this needs a reliable source that verifies it. Do you have one? Sergecross73   msg me  20:24, 15 May 2024 (UTC)
 * I'm pretty sure Miyamoto said that in an interview. Complete idiocy (talk) 13:12, 16 May 2024 (UTC)
 * I have no idea when it was, or who interviewed him. I can't find the article that said this anymore. I'll look further into it. Complete idiocy (talk) 13:15, 16 May 2024 (UTC)
 * Okay, feel free to post it here if you find it. Until there's a source, we can't add it to the article though. Sergecross73   msg me  14:23, 16 May 2024 (UTC)
 * Alright. Complete idiocy (talk) 16:12, 16 May 2024 (UTC)
 * Wait, it's in the article. Complete idiocy (talk) 16:15, 16 May 2024 (UTC)
 * Oh, yup, it is. The article seems to cover it pretty well as is. Sergecross73   msg me  16:23, 16 May 2024 (UTC)

Move discussion in progress
There is a move discussion in progress on Talk:OOT (disambiguation) which affects this page. Please participate on that page and not in this talk page section. Thank you. —RMCD bot 12:21, 20 May 2024 (UTC)


text:
American Enlightenment

The American Enlightenment was a period of intellectual and philosophical fervor in the thirteen American colonies in the 18th to 19th century, which led to the American Revolution and the creation of the United States. The American Enlightenment was influenced by the 17th- and 18th-century Age of Enlightenment in Europe and native American philosophy. According to James MacGregor Burns, the spirit of the American Enlightenment was to give Enlightenment ideals a practical, useful form in the life of the nation and its people.

A non-denominational moral philosophy replaced theology in many college curricula. Some colleges reformed their curricula to include natural philosophy (science), modern astronomy, and mathematics, and "new-model" American-style colleges were founded. Politically, the age is distinguished by an emphasis upon equality under the law, economic liberty, republicanism and religious tolerance, as clearly expressed in the United States Declaration of Independence.

Among the foremost representatives of the American Enlightenment were presidents of colleges, including Puritan religious leaders Jonathan Edwards, Thomas Clap, and Ezra Stiles, Presbyterian minister and college president John Witherspoon, and Anglican moral philosophers Samuel Johnson and William Smith. Leading political thinkers were John Adams, James Madison, Thomas Paine, George Mason, James Wilson, Ethan Allen, and Alexander Hamilton, and polymaths Benjamin Franklin, and Thomas Jefferson.

The term "American Enlightenment" was coined in the post-World War II era and was not used in the 18th century when English speakers commonly referred to a process of becoming "enlightened."

Dates
Various dates for the American Enlightenment have been proposed, including 1750–1820, 1765–1815, and 1688–1815. One more precise start date proposed is 1714, when a collection of Enlightenment books by Jeremiah Dummer were donated to the library of the college of Yale University in Connecticut. They were received by a post-graduate student Samuel Johnson, who studied them. He found that they contradicted his Puritan learning. He wrote that, "All this was like a flood of day to his low state of mind", and that he found himself as if "emerging out of the glimmer of twilight into the full sunshine of open day". Two years later in 1716 as a tutor, Johnson introduced a new curriculum into Yale using Dummer's donated Enlightenment books. Johnson offered what he called "The New Learning", which included the works and ideas of Francis Bacon, John Locke, Isaac Newton, Robert Boyle, Copernicus, and literary works by Shakespeare, John Milton, and Joseph Addison. Enlightenment ideas were introduced to the colonists and diffused through Dissenter educational and religious networks in America.

Religious tolerance
Enlightened Founding Fathers, especially Benjamin Franklin, Thomas Jefferson, James Madison and George Washington, fought for and eventually attained religious freedom for minority denominations. According to the Founding Fathers, the United States should be a country where peoples of all faiths could live in peace and mutual benefit. Madison summed up this ideal in 1792 saying, "Conscience is the most sacred of all property."

A switch away from established religion to religious tolerance was one of the distinguishing features of the era from 1775 to 1818. The ratification of the Connecticut Constitution in 1818 has been proposed as a date for the triumph if not the end of the American Enlightenment. That new constitution overturned the 180-year-old "Standing Order" and The Connecticut Charter of 1662, whose provisions dated back to the founding of the state in 1638 and the Fundamental Orders of Connecticut. The new constitution guaranteed freedom of religion and disestablished the Congregational church.

Intellectual currents
The American Enlightenment grew partly from works of European political thinkers such as John Locke, Michel de Montaigne, and Jean Jacques Rousseau, who derived ideas about democracy from admiring accounts of American Indian governmental structures brought back from European travelers to the New World in the 16th century. Concepts of freedom and modern democratic ideals were born in "Native American wigwams” and found permanence in Voltaire's Huron.

Between 1714 and 1818, an intellectual change took place in the Thirteen Colonies that changed them from a largely distant backwater into a leader in various fields, moral philosophy, educational reform, religious revival, industrial technology, science, and, most notably, political philosophy, the roots of this change were home grown. America saw a consensus on a "pursuit of happiness" based political structure based in large part on Native sources, however misunderstood. Attempts to reconcile science and religion sometimes resulted in a rejection of prophecy, miracle, and revealed religion, resulting in an inclination toward deism among some major political leaders of the age.

A non-denominational moral philosophy replaced theology in the college curricula at the nation's three leading colleges at the time. Yale College, now Yale University, and the College of William & Mary were reformed. The Presbyterian College of New Jersey, now Princeton University, and Harvard University, reformed their curricula to include natural philosophy (science), modern astronomy, and mathematics. Two new major colleges were also founded as part of the American Enlightenment, both representing the "new model", King's College New York, now Columbia University, and the College of Philadelphia, now the University of Pennsylvania.

European sources
Sources of the American Enlightenment are many and vary according to time and place. As a result of an extensive book trade with Great Britain, the colonies were well acquainted with European literature almost contemporaneously. Early influences were English writers including James Harrington, Algernon Sidney, the Viscount Bolingbroke, John Trenchard and Thomas Gordon (especially the two's Cato's Letters), and Joseph Addison (whose tragedy Cato was extremely popular). A particularly important English legal writer was William Blackstone, whose Commentaries on the Laws of England served as a major influence on the American Founders and is a key source in the development Anglo-American common law. Although Locke's Two Treatises of Government has long been cited as a major influence on American thinkers, historians David Lundberg and Henry F. May demonstrate that Locke's Essay Concerning Human Understanding was far more widely read than were his political Treatises.

The Scottish Enlightenment also influenced American thinkers. David Hume's Essays and his History of England were widely read in the colonies, and Hume's political thought had a particular influence on Madison and the drafting of the U.S. Constitution. Francis Hutcheson's ideas of ethics, along with notions of civility and politeness developed by the Earl of Shaftesbury, and Addison and Richard Steele in their Spectator, were a major influence on upper-class American colonists who sought to emulate European manners and learning.

By far the most important French sources to the American Enlightenment were Montesquieu's Spirit of the Laws and Emer de Vattel's Law of Nations. Both informed early American ideas of government and were major influences on the U.S. Constitution. Voltaire's histories were widely read but seldom cited. Noah Webster used Rousseau's educational ideas of child development to structure his famous Speller. The writings of German Samuel Pufendorf were commonly cited by American writers.

Science
Leading scientists included Franklin for his work on electricity; Jared Eliot for his work in metallurgy and agriculture; David Rittenhouse in astronomy, math, and instruments; Benjamin Rush in medical science; Charles Willson Peale in natural history; and Cadwallader Colden for his work in botany and town sanitation. Colden's daughter, Jane Colden, was the first female botanist working in America. Benjamin Thompson was a leading scientist, especially in the field of heat.

Architecture, arts, and culture
After 1780, the Federal style of American Architecture began to diverge from the Georgian style and became a uniquely American genre. In 1813, Ithiel Town designed the first Gothic-style church in North America, Trinity Church on the Green in New Haven, Connecticut, predating the English Gothic revival by a decade. In the fields of literature, poetry, music, and drama some nascent artistic attempts were made, particularly in pre-war Philadelphia, but American (non-popular) culture in these fields was largely imitative of British culture for most of the period.

Republicanism and liberalism
American republicanism emphasized consent of the governed, riddance of the aristocracy, and resistance towards corruption. It represented the convergence of classical republicanism and English republicanism (of 17th century Commonwealth men and 18th century English Country Whigs).

J. G. A. Pocock explains the intellectual sources in America: "The Whig canon and the neo-Harringtonians, John Milton, James Harrington and Sidney, Trenchard, Gordon and Bolingbroke, together with the Greek, Roman, and Renaissance masters of the tradition as far as Montesquieu, formed the authoritative literature of this culture; and its values and concepts were those with which we have grown familiar: a civic and patriot ideal in which the personality was founded on property, perfected in citizenship but perpetually threatened by corruption; government figuring paradoxically as the principal source of corruption and operating through such means as patronage, faction, standing armies (opposed to the ideal of the militia); established churches (opposed to the Puritan and deist modes of American religion); and the promotion of a monied interest—though the formulation of this last concept was somewhat hindered by the keen desire for readily available paper credit common in colonies of settlement." Since the 1960s, historians have debated the Enlightenment's role in the American Revolution. Before 1960 the consensus was that liberalism, especially that of John Locke, was paramount; republicanism was largely ignored. The new interpretations were pioneered by Pocock who argues in The Machiavellian Moment (1975) that, at least in the early 18th century, republican ideas were just as important as liberal ones. Pocock's view is now widely accepted. Bernard Bailyn and Gordon Wood pioneered the argument that the Founding Fathers were more influenced by republicanism than they were by liberalism. Isaac Kramnick, on the other hand, argues that Americans have always been highly individualistic and therefore Lockean.

In the decades before the American Revolution (1776), the intellectual and political leaders of the colonies studied history intently, looking for guides or models for good (and bad) government. They especially followed the development of republican ideas in England. Pocock explains the intellectual sources in the United States:

"The Whig canon and the neo-Harringtonians, John Milton, James Harrington and Sidney, Trenchard, Gordon and Bolingbroke, together with the Greek, Roman, and Renaissance masters of the tradition as far as Montesquieu, formed the authoritative literature of this culture; and its values and concepts were those with which we have grown familiar: a civic and patriot ideal in which the personality was founded on property, perfected in citizenship but perpetually threatened by corruption; government figuring paradoxically as the principal source of corruption and operating through such means as patronage, faction, standing armies (opposed to the ideal of the militia), established churches (opposed to the Puritan and deist modes of American religion) and the promotion of a monied interest—though the formulation of this last concept was somewhat hindered by the keen desire for readily available paper credit common in colonies of settlement. A neoclassical politics provided both the ethos of the elites and the rhetoric of the upwardly mobile, and accounts for the singular cultural and intellectual homogeneity of the Founding Fathers and their generation."

The commitment of most Americans to these republican values made inevitable the American Revolution, for Britain was increasingly seen as corrupt and hostile to republicanism, and a threat to the established liberties the Americans enjoyed. Leopold von Ranke, a leading German historian, in 1848 claims that American republicanism played a crucial role in the development of European liberalism:

"By abandoning English constitutionalism and creating a new republic based on the rights of the individual, the North Americans introduced a new force in the world. Ideas spread most rapidly when they have found adequate concrete expression. Thus republicanism entered our Romanic/Germanic world... Up to this point, the conviction had prevailed in Europe that monarchy best served the interests of the nation. Now the idea spread that the nation should govern itself. But only after a state had actually been formed on the basis of the theory of representation did the full significance of this idea become clear. All later revolutionary movements have this same goal... This was the complete reversal of a principle. Until then, a king who ruled by the grace of God had been the center around which everything turned. Now the idea emerged that power should come from below... These two principles are like two opposite poles, and it is the conflict between them that determines the course of the modern world. In Europe the conflict between them had not yet taken on concrete form; with the French Revolution it did."

Declaration of Independence
The United States Declaration of Independence, which was primarily written by Thomas Jefferson, was adopted by the Second Continental Congress on July 4, 1776. The text of the second section of the Declaration of Independence reads:

"We hold these Truths to be self-evident, that all Men are created equal, that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable Rights, that among these are Life, Liberty and the pursuit of Happiness."

Many historians find that the origin of the famous phrase "Life, Liberty and the pursuit of Happiness" derives from Locke's position that "no one ought to harm another in his life, health, liberty, or possessions." Others suggest that Jefferson took the phrase from Blackstone's Commentaries on the Laws of England. Others note that William Wollaston's 1722 book The Religion of Nature Delineated describes the "truest definition" of "natural religion" as being "The pursuit of happiness by the practice of reason and truth."

The Virginia Declaration of Rights, which was written by George Mason and adopted by the Virginia Convention of Delegates on June 12, 1776, a few days before Jefferson's draft, in part, reads:

"That all men are by nature equally free and independent, and have certain inherent rights ... namely, the enjoyment of life and liberty, with the means of acquiring and possessing property, and pursuing and obtaining happiness and safety."

Deism
Both the moderate Enlightenment and a radical or revolutionary Enlightenment were reactions against the authoritarianism, irrationality, and obscurantism of the established churches. Philosophers such as Voltaire depicted organized religion as hostile to the development of reason and the progress of science and incapable of verification. An alternative religion was deism, the philosophical belief in a deity based on reason, rather than religious revelation or dogma. It was a popular perception among the philosophes, who adopted deistic attitudes to varying degrees. Deism greatly influenced the thought of intellectuals and Founding Fathers, including Adams, Franklin, perhaps Washington and especially Jefferson. The most articulate exponent was Thomas Paine, whose The Age of Reason was written in France and soon reached the United States. Paine was highly controversial; when Jefferson was attacked for his deism in the 1800 election, Democratic-Republican politicians took pains to distance their candidate from Paine. Unitarianism and Deism were strongly connected, the former being brought to America by Joseph Priestley. Samuel Johnson called Lord Edward Herbert the "father of English Deism".

Biographies

 * Aldridge, A. Owen, (1959). Man of Reason: The Life of Thomas Paine. Lippincott.
 * Cunningham, Noble E. In Pursuit of Reason (1988) well-reviewed short biography of Jefferson.
 * Weinberger, Jerry ''Benjamin Franklin Unmasked: On the Unity of His Moral, Religious, and Political Thought (University Press of Kansas, 2008) ISBN 0-7006-1584-9

Academic studies

 * Allen, Brooke Moral Minority: Our Skeptical Founding Fathers (2007) Ivan R Dee, Inc, ISBN 1-56663-751-1
 * Bailyn, Bernard The Ideological Origins of the American Revolution (1992) Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, ISBN 0-674-44302-0
 * Bedini, Silvio A Jefferson and Science (2002) The University of North Carolina Press, ISBN 1-882886-19-4
 * Cohen, I. Bernard Science and the Founding Fathers: Science in the Political Thought of Jefferson, Franklin, Adams and Madison (1995) W.W. Norton & Co, ISBN 0-393-03501-8
 * Dray, Philip Stealing God's Thunder: Benjamin Franklin's Lightning Rod and the Invention of America (2005) Random House, ISBN 1-4000-6032-X
 * Ellis, Joseph. "Habits of Mind and an American Enlightenment," American Quarterly Vol. 28, No. 2, Special Issue: An American Enlightenment (Summer, 1976), pp. 150–14 in JSTOR
 * Ferguson, Robert A. The American Enlightenment, 1750–1820 (1997) Harvard University Press, ISBN 0-674-02322-6
 * Gay, Peter The Enlightenment: The Rise of Modern Paganism (1995) W.W. Norton & Company, ISBN 0-393-31302-6; The Enlightenment: The Science of Freedom (1996) W.W. Norton & Company, ISBN 0-393-31366-2
 * Greeson, Jennifer "American Enlightenment: The New World and Modern Western Thought." American Literary History (2013) online
 * Israel, Jonathan A Revolution of the Mind – Radical Enlightenment and the Intellectual Origins of Modern Democracy (2009) Princeton University Press, ISBN 0-691-14200-9
 * Jayne, Allen Jefferson's Declaration of Independence: Origins, Philosophy and Theology (2000) The University Press of Kentucky, ISBN 0-8131-9003-7; [traces TJ's sources and emphasizes his incorporation of Deist theology into the Declaration.]
 * Koch, Adrienne. "Pragmatic Wisdom and the American Enlightenment," William and Mary Quarterly Vol. 18, No. 3 (July 1961), pp. 313–29 in JSTOR
 * May, Henry F. The Enlightenment in America (1978) Oxford University Press, US, ISBN 0-19-502367-6; the standard survey
 * May, Henry F. The Divided Heart: Essays on Protestantism and the Enlightenment in America (Oxford UP 1991) online
 * McDonald, Forrest Novus Ordo Seclorum: Intellectual Origins of the Constitution (1986) University Press of Kansas, ISBN 0-7006-0311-5
 * Meyer D.H. "The Uniqueness of the American Enlightenment," American Quarterly Vol. 28, No. 2, Special Issue: An American Enlightenment (Summer, 1976), pp. 165–86 in JSTOR
 * Nelson, Craig Thomas Paine: Enlightenment, Revolution, and the Birth of Modern Nations (2007) Penguin, ISBN 0-14-311238-4
 * Ralston, Shane "American Enlightenment Thought" (2011), Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
 * Reid-Maroney, Nina Philadelphia's Enlightenment, 1740–1800: Kingdom of Christ, Empire of Reason (2000)
 * Richard, C.J. Founders and the Classics: Greece, Rome and the American Enlightenment (1995) Harvard University Press, ISBN 0-674-31426-3
 * Sanford, Charles B. The Religious Life of Thomas Jefferson (1987) University of Virginia Press, ISBN 0-8139-1131-1
 * Sheridan, Eugene R. Jefferson and Religion, preface by Martin Marty, (2001) University of North Carolina Press, ISBN 1-882886-08-9
 * Staloff, Darren Hamilton, Adams, Jefferson: The Politics of Enlightenment and the American Founding. (2005) Hill & Wang, ISBN 0-8090-7784-1
 * Winterer, Caroline American Enlightenments: Pursuing Happiness in the Age of Reason (2016) Yale University Press, ISBN 0-300-19257-6
 * Wood, Gordon S. The Radicalism of the American Revolution (1993) Vintage, ISBN 0-679-73688-3

Historiography

 * Winterer, Caroline. "What Was the American Enlightenment?" in The Worlds of American Intellectual History, eds. Joel Isaac, James Kloppenberg, Michael O'Brien, and Jennifer Ratner-Rosenhagen (New York: Oxford University Press, 2016): 19–36.
 * Caron, Nathalie, and Naomi Wulf. "American Enlightenments: Continuity and Renewal." Journal of American History (2013) 99#4 pp: 1072–91. online
 * Dixon, John M. "Henry F. May and the Revival of the American Enlightenment: Problems and Possibilities for Intellectual and Social History." William & Mary Quarterly (2014) 71#2 pp. 255–80. in JSTOR

title: American Enlightenment


text:
Dong Biwu

Dong Biwu (5 March 1886 – 2 April 1975) was a Chinese communist revolutionary and politician, who served as acting Chairman of the People's Republic of China between 1972 and 1975.

Early life
Dong Biwu was born in Huanggang, Hubei, to a landlord family, and received a classical education. In 1911, he joined the Tongmenghui, and participated in the Wuchang Uprising. He then went to Japan in 1913 to study law at Nihon University. While there, he joined Sun Yat-sen's newly-formed Chinese Revolutionary Party, later to become the Kuomintang. In 1915, he returned to China, organizing resistance against the Yuan Shikai regime in his native Hubei, which landed him in prison for six months. Upon his release, he returned to Japan to complete his law studies. Between 1919 and 1920, he lived in Shanghai, where he was first exposed to Marxism through a group of Communist intellectuals centered around Li Hanjun. Returning to Hubei, he set up a local Communist apparatus, and in 1921, he attended the 1st National Congress of the Chinese Communist Party, representing Wuhan along with Chen Tanqiu. Incidentally, Dong was the only other person than Mao Zedong to be present at both the founding congress of the party and the proclamation ceremony of the People's Republic of China twenty-eight years later.

Revolutionary period
Throughout the first half of the 1920s, Dong remained a member of both the Kuomintang and the Communist Party. However, with the tensions between the two parties increasing, he eventually chose to side with the Communists in the summer of 1927. After the Nanchang Uprising, he was forced into hiding, first seeking refuge in Kyoto for eight months, and then making his way to the Soviet Union. There, he attended the International Lenin School and the Moscow Sun Yat-sen University between 1928 and 1931. Upon his return to China in 1932, he became active in the Jiangxi Soviet, where he served as Political Director of the Red Army Academy and President of the Party School. During this time, Dong sided with Mao Zedong over Li Lisan in the two men's struggle for party leadership. He then took part in the Long March, and upon the arrival in Yan'an, he resumed his school leadership duties. In this period, Dong came to be known as one of the Five Elders of Yan'an, along with Lin Boqu, Xu Teli, Wu Yuzhang, and Xie Juezai.

During the war with Japan, Dong divided his time between Wuhan and Chongqing as a liaison with the Nationalist government, given his previous Kuomintang associations. In 1945, he traveled to San Francisco to attend the founding session of the United Nations, as part of a delegation led by T.V. Soong. He was the only representative of the Communist Party, whose Central Committee outlined the objectives of the trip as follows: "to win foreign friends, to improve the party's international position, and to try to stay and work in the United States." After the conference, Dong spent several months traveling the United States, seeking to attain these diplomatic goals. Towards the end of the Civil War in 1948, following decisive victories in the north, Dong was appointed Chairman of the North China People's Government.

People's Republic of China

After the founding of the People's Republic of China, Dong served as the Director of the Finance and Economic Committee of the Government Council. In 1954, he was appointed President of the Supreme People's Court. With previous experience in international diplomacy from his visit to the United States in 1945, Dong was chosen to lead a delegation to Eastern Europe and the Soviet Union in 1958, keeping him away from Beijing for two months. In his absence, the work of the Supreme People's Court over the last previous years was reviewed by a group headed by Peng Zhen. On his return, Dong was presented with the shortcomings revealed by the scrutiny, for which he accepted responsibility at a special judicial conference.

In early 1959, Dong was named Vice President of China in a joint appointment with Soong Ching-ling, a post he held until his death. Later the same year, Dong defended Peng Dehuai from criticism at the Lushan Conference, yet still managed to stay in favor with Mao, unlike others who stood up for the reproached general. In a similar manner, Dong would later remain unaffected by the political turmoil of the Cultural Revolution, despite coming from a relatively privileged background. Instead, he rose in prominence and public visibility during these tumultuous years, taking over many of the diplomatic and ceremonial responsibilities previously held by the purged Liu Shaoqi. Historians have attributed this curious fact not to any cunning political maneuvering, but to Dong's special relationship with Mao and their always getting along well, ever since their first meeting at the founding of the Communist Party in 1921.

In the power vacuum that appeared after the fall of Lin Biao, Dong became Acting President of China, serving in that capacity from February 1972 to January 1975. At that point, the office of president was abolished and the Chairman of the Standing Committee of the National People's Congress - then Zhu De - became the formal head of state. Dong was, in turn, elected Vice Chairman of the Standing Committee of the People's National Congress.

Dong died in Beijing on 2 April 1975, at the age of 89. In his official obituary, he is described as "one of the founders of the Communist Party of China, a great Marxist, an outstanding proletarian revolutionary, a founding father of the People's Republic of China," and "a founder of China's socialist legal system."

In 1991, a statue of Dong was erected in one of Wuhan's central squares, Hongshan Guangchang. The Hubei Provincial Museum houses a collection of Dong's personal items.

title: Dong Biwu


text:
Great Race (classic rally)

The Great Race (formerly known as the Great American Race) is a classic rally for street-legal vintage automobiles at least 45 years old. Vehicles must use original factory parts, and modern navigational aids like GPS are prohibited.

The race is a precision pace race, not a high-speed race. Points are awarded on the accuracy of a driver and navigator to match a time and average speed over a predetermined course. Points are also awarded on a handicap system that awards bonus points to older vehicles. Prizes are awarded in several categories, including the "X-Cup" for high school teams.

Media coverage
The slow speeds of the vehicles involved, combined with the long-distance nature of auto rallying have made television coverage of the event limited. Highlights have been shown on ESPN, History Channel (which became a race sponsor in the early 1990s), and full coverage shows have aired on Speed Channel and The Outdoor Channel.

Connections to NASCAR
NASCAR Cup race cars sponsored by Interstate Batteries have also been used to promote the Great Race. Jack Roush, owner of NASCAR race teams has also participated as a competitor and is currently a co-owner of the Great Race.

Note:  The event was known as the "Great American Race" up to the mid-1990s and for the 25th Anniversary race in 2007. Although the name "Great American Race" has been applied to the Indy 500 and the Daytona 500, the events are not affiliated. Both the Indianapolis Motor Speedway and Daytona International Speedway have served as the finish line of the Great Race.

title: Great Race (classic rally)


text:
Star of the Grand Cross of the Iron Cross

The Star of the Grand Cross of the Iron Cross (Stern zum Großkreuz des Eisernen Kreuzes) was the highest military decoration of the Kingdom of Prussia and the German Empire. It was considered a senior decoration to the Grand Cross of the Iron Cross.

The Star of the Grand Cross of the Iron Cross was awarded to the most outstanding of generals who performed feats of leadership to the extreme benefit of the Prussian and later German state. It was awarded only twice, a century apart, to Generalfeldmarschall Gebhard von Blücher in 1815 for his part in the victory over Napoleon at the Battle of Waterloo in the Napoleonic Wars, and to General field Marschall Paul von Hindenburg on 25 March 1918 for his conduct of the 1918 German spring offensive in World War I. Hindenburg had received the Grand Cross of the Iron Cross on 9 December 1916.

The award is commonly known as "Blücher's Star" (Blücherstern) after its first recipient.

A World War II version of the Star was devised, but never formally instituted or awarded. Following the Allied victory in May 1945, the United States Army seized the only known prototype, which had been stored in a bunker. It is now a part of the collection of the Museum of the United States Military Academy (USMA) in West Point, New York.


text:
Ponce Health Sciences University

The Ponce Health Sciences University (PHSU), formerly Ponce School of Medicine & Health Sciences, is a private, for-profit university in Ponce, Puerto Rico and St. Louis, Missouri. It awards graduate degrees in Medicine (MD), Clinical Psychology (PsyD and PhD), Biomedical Sciences (PhD), Medical Sciences (MS), and Public Health (MPH and DrPH). The university has 360 students in its medical school and, as of 11 February 2019, was authorized to increase the student body at the medical school to 600 which, when fully in place, will make it the largest private medical school in Puerto Rico and one of the largest under the American flag.

History

In January 1980 a group of lay and professional leaders in southern Puerto Rico established the Ponce Medical School Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization, for the purpose of providing continuity to the Medical Education Program (MD Program) originally developed by the Pontifical Catholic University of Puerto Rico in 1977. In July 1980, the Council of Higher Education of Puerto Rico (CHE-PR) authorized the Foundation to operate a medical school under the name Ponce School of Medicine. In 1981, the Liaison Committee on Medical Education (LCME) accredited the school to grant the Doctor of Medicine degree.

In 1983, the institution applied for funds under the Minority Biomedical Research Support Program (MBRS) and the Research Center in Minority Institutions (RCMI) Program. A Graduate Program in Biomedical Sciences (PhD) was initiated in 1988, and in 1992 the Council of Higher Education of Puerto Rico (CHE-PR) accredited the PhD Program and authorized PHSU to award a Doctor of Philosophy (PhD) degree in Biomedical Sciences.

In January 1995, the academic institution moved to a new campus with additional facilities. A Clinical Psychology Doctoral Program (PsyD Program) was begun in 1999 which was later expanded to offer a PhD in Psychology, Professional Certificate in Couples and Family Therapy, and Postgraduate Certificate in Neuroscience of Learning.

In August 2002 a Master's of Public Health (MPH) program was started with specialization in Epidemiology, Environmental Health, and General Public Health. A DrPH in Epidemiology is also offered. On 5 September 2014, the Ponce School of Medicine and Health Sciences was acquired by Arist Corporation, which itself is an investment of global media, services and education company Bertelsmann.

The university has a campus in St. Louis, Missouri. In March 2020 the school "announced an $80 million investment toward creating a new medical school" near their downtown location and on the former Pruitt-Igoe site.

Research
The Ponce Research Institute (PRI) at Ponce Health Sciences University (PHSU) performs research in the basic, behavioral, public health, and clinical sciences. Research areas include non-communicable diseases (cancer, women's health, gastrointestinal disorders), health disparities, infectious diseases (HIV, dengue), neurosciences and behavioral sciences, genetics, and community health outreach (obesity, smoking).

In 2002, an academic partnership was established with the H. Lee Moffitt Cancer Center & Research Institute, with involvement of the National Cancer Institute.

A grant awarded to the Oregon Health & Science University Neuro-Oncology Blood Brain Barrier Program has given many PHSU students the opportunity to participate in research and clinical fellowships.

On 4 December 2014, Andreas Charalambous, executive dean of the University of Nicosia Medical School (UNMS), and David Lenihan, president and CEO of PHSU, signed an agreement to promote academic cooperation and collaboration in research.

Licenses and accreditation
The Ponce Health Sciences University is accredited by the following entities:
 * Council on Higher Education of Puerto Rico (CHE-PR)
 * Middle States Commission on Higher Education
 * Liaison Committee on Medical Education (LCME)
 * Council on Education for Public Health (CEPH)
 * American Psychological Association (APA)
 * Accreditation Council for Graduate Medical Education (ACGME)

Notable alumni and members

 * Admiral Joxel García, USPHS, MD, MBA - Medical Director in the Regular Corps of the Public Health Service, former Assistant Secretary of Health and Human Services, and representative of the United States of America on the Executive Board of the World Health Organization.
 * Charles Cuprill Oppenheimer - Trustee Emeritus

title: Ponce Health Sciences University


text:
Shaw Neilson

John Shaw Neilson was an Australian poet. Slightly built, for most of his life he worked as a labourer, fruit-picking, clearing scrub, navvying and working in quarries, and, after 1928, working as a messenger with the Country Roads Board in Melbourne. Largely untrained and only basically educated, Neilson became known as one of Australia's finest lyric poets, who wrote a great deal about the natural world, and the beauty in it.

Early life
Neilson was born in Penola, South Australia of purely Scottish ancestry. His grandparents were John Neilson and Jessie MacFarlane of Cupar, Neil Mackinnon of Skye, and Margaret Stuart of Greenock. His mother, Margaret MacKinnon, was born at Dartmoor, Victoria, his father, John Neilson, at Stranraer, Scotland, in 1844.

John Neilson senior was brought to South Australia at nine years of age, had practically no education, and was a shepherd, shearer and small farmer all his life. He never had enough money to get good land, and like other pioneers he fought drought and rabbits and other pests, receiving little reward for his labours. He died in 1922, having lived just long enough to see his son accepted as an Australian poet. He himself had written verses; one song, Waiting for the Rain, was popular in the shearing sheds, and in January 1893 he wrote the senior prize poem, The Pioneers, for the literary competition held by the Australian Natives' Association. In 1938 a small collection of his poems, The Men of the Fifties, was published by the Hawthorn Press at Melbourne.

John Shaw Neilson had little more education than his father. When about eight years old he was for 15 months at the state school at Penola, but he had to leave in 1881 when the family removed to Minimay in the south-west Wimmera in Victoria. There was no school at Minimay then, but four years later one was opened and Neilson attended for another 15 months. There was, however, a Bible and a tattered copy of Robert Burns' poems in the house, and when at the age of 15 a copy of Thomas Hood's poems came in his way, Neilson read them all with great joy. Driven out by drought, Neilson's father took his family to Nhill in 1889, and was employed as a farm worker and on the roads. His son soon after began to write verses of which some appeared in the local press and one in The Australasian in Melbourne.

Poetry
In January 1893 John Shaw Neilson won the junior prize for a poem at the Australian Natives' Association's competition, in the same year that his father won the senior prize. In 1895 he went with his father to Sea Lake, and about a year later had some verses accepted by The Bulletin in Sydney. But his health broke down and he did little writing for about four years.

He was contributing to the Bulletin between 1901 and 1906, and about 1908 some of his verses, mostly of a light or popular kind, were accepted by Randolph Bedford for the Clarion. From about 1906 Neilson's sight began to fail, for the rest of his life he was able to do little reading, and most of his work was dictated.

When The Bookfellow was revived in 1911 Neilson was a contributor, and Alfred George Stephens the editor, began collecting the best of his poems, intending to issue them in a volume under the title of Green Days and Cherries; Fred John's Annual for 1913 included Neilson as the author of this volume. It was, however, delayed; World War I delayed it further; and it was not issued until 1919, when the title Heart of Spring was adopted. It had a laudatory preface by Stephens which stated that some of the work was "unsurpassed in the range of English lyrics". It was well received, and in 1923, with the help of Mrs Louise Dyer, another volume, Ballad and Lyrical Poems, was published. This included nearly all the work in the first volume with some 20 additional lyrics.

About this time Neilson visited Melbourne and met many of the literary people of the period. Now in his 50s and not a robust man he was beginning to feel the strain of physical work.

"I don't mind some kinds of pick and shovel work," he said to Percival Serle, "but when I have to throw heavy stuff over my shoulder it gives me rather a wrench." He may have been referring to the time he spent in the Heyfield area, where he wrote several poems and helped in the construction of the Lake Glenmaggie weir wall.

In 1925 and again in 1926, Alfred Stephens suggested in newspaper articles that more suitable employment should be found for him. The difficulty was that Neilson's poor eyesight unfitted him for most kinds of work. However, a movement began in Melbourne to help him and he was granted a small literary pension; and eventually in 1928 a position was found for him as an attendant in the office of the Victorian Country Roads Board. This office was directly opposite the Exhibition Gardens, Melbourne, and in these pleasant surroundings Neilson spent his days until near the end of his life.

A volume, New Poems, was published in 1927, and in 1934 his Collected Poems appeared. Four years later another small volume was published, Beauty Imposes. A number of Neilson's poems were set to music by composers such as Margaret Sutherland, Alfred Hill, Cathie O'Sullivan, Llew and Mara Kiek, Richard Keam and Darryl Emmerson. The latter's play, The Pathfinder, based on the life and writings of Neilson, enjoyed much success in the 1980s, toured twice, was produced for radio by the Australian Broadcasting Commission, and published by Currency Press, Sydney, in 1987. In 2012 an updated and expanded compilation of Neilson's Collected Poems, edited by Margaret Roberts, was published by University of Western Australia Press.

Death
Neilson retired from the Country Roads Board early in 1941, and went to Queensland to stay with friends. His literary pension was now increased to £2 a week. Soon after his return to Melbourne his health began to fail, and he died of heart disease at a private hospital on 12 May 1942. He was buried in the Footscray Cemetery near Melbourne.

Legacy
In 1946 a bronze sculpture of the poet was commissioned for the opening of the Footscray Children's Library in Buckley Street. The sculpture, by Wallace Anderson, is still on display at the Footscray Library in Paisley Street. The Maribyrnong Library Service, who now run the Footscray Library, holds an archive, the John Shaw Neilson Collection. There is also a local John Shaw Neilson Society.

In 1964 the Nhill and District Historical Society erected a monument to Neilson. In 1972 the cottage birthplace of Neilson was relocated from Penola to a park in Nhill, as the John Shaw Neilson National Memorial Cottage.

Since 1970 the Fellowship of Australian Writers has presented an annual award, the FAW John Shaw Neilson Poetry Award, for unpublished poems of at least 14 lines.

Since 2005 the Penola Coonawarra Arts Festival have hosted the John Shaw Neilson Art Prize, for visual works inspired by the poet.

Despite Melbourne's strong literary tradition, there are no Melbourne suburbs named after writers. There was a campaign in 2009 to name a new suburb after Neilson.

Works

 * Old Granny Sullivan (poems), Sydney, Bookfellow, 1915.
 * Heart of Spring (poems), Sydney, Bookfellow, 1919.
 * Ballad and Lyrical Poems, Sydney, Bookfellow, 1923.
 * New Poems, Sydney, Bookfellow, 1927.
 * Collected Poems of John Shaw Neilson, edited and with introduction by R. H. Croll, Melbourne, Lothian, 1934.
 * Beauty Imposes: Some Recent Verse, Angus and Robertson, 1938.
 * Unpublished Poems, edited by James Devaney, Angus and Robertson, 1947.
 * Shaw Neilson: poetry selections, selected and introduced by Judith Wright, Angus and Robertson, 1963.
 * The Poems of Shaw Neilson, edited and introduction by A. R. Chisholm, Angus and Robertson, 1965, revised edition, 1973.
 * Witnesses of Spring, edited by Judith Wright and Val Vallis, Angus and Robertson, 1970.
 * Selected Poems, edited by A. R. Chisholm, Angus and Robertson, 1976.
 * Green Days and Cherries: The Early Verse of Shaw Neilson, edited by Hugh Anderson and Leslie James Blake, Red Rooster Press, 1981.
 * Some Poems of John Shaw Neilson: Selected and With Wood-Engravings, Canberra, Brindabella Press, 1984.
 * John Shaw Neilson: Poetry, Autobiography, and Correspondence, edited by Cliff Hanna, University of Queensland Press, 1991.
 * Selected Poems, edited by Robert Gray, Angus and Robertson, 1991.
 * The Sun Is Up: Selected Poems, Loch Haven Books, 1991.
 * Collected Verse of John Shaw Neilson, edited by Margaret Roberts, University of Western Australia Publishing, 2012.
 * Collected Poems of John Shaw Neilson, edited by Robert Dixon, Sydney University Press, 2013

Individual poems

 * "The Crane is My Neighbour" (1938)

Biographies

 * John Shaw Neilson: a memorial, J. Roy Stevens, Bread and Cheese Club, 1942
 * Shaw Neilson, James Devaney, Angus and Robertson, 1944
 * Shaw Neilson, H.J. Oliver, Oxford University Press, 1968
 * John Shaw Neilson, Hugh Anderson and L.J. Blake, Rigby, 1972
 * The Pathfinder, Darryl Emmerson, Currency Press, 1987
 * Poet of the Colours: The Life of John Shaw Neilson, John H. Phillips, Allen and Unwin, 1988
 * The Folly of Spring: A Study of John Shaw Neilson's Poetry, Cliff Hanna, University of Queensland Press, 1990
 * John Shaw Neilson: Poetry, Autobiography and Correspondence, edited by Cliff Hanna, University of Queensland Press, 1991
 * Jock: A Life Story of John Shaw Neilson, Cliff Hanna, University of Queensland Press, 1999
 * John Shaw Neilson: A Life in Letters, Helen Hewson, Melbourne University Press, 2001
 * John Shaw Neilson: A Life in Letters, Helen Hewson, Melbourne University Press, 2001

title: Shaw Neilson


text: Category:Supreme Leaders of Iran

title: Category:Supreme Leaders of Iran


text:
Wikipedia talk:WikiProject Formula One/to do

 * Requests: David Richards, Tony Purnell, Bernd Maylander, Jean Marie Balestre
 * Expand: Charlie Whiting, Luca di Montezemolo
 * Copyedit: History of Formula One


text:
Category:New York Mets players

This category lists past and present players for the New York Mets baseball team.

title: Category:New York Mets players


text: Category:New York Mets field personnel

title: Category:New York Mets field personnel


text:
Category:San Francisco Giants players

This category includes baseball players for the franchise currently known as the San Francisco Giants. This franchise has been known as: See also
 * New York Gothams (1883-1884)
 * New York Giants (1885-1957)
 * San Francisco Giants (1958-present)
 * New York Giants players
 * New York Gothams players
 * San Francisco Giants all-time roster

title: Category:San Francisco Giants players


text:
Category:San Francisco Giants field personnel

San Francisco Giants field personnel


text:
Wikipedia:Goings-on/October 17, 2004

Welcome to Wikipedia's goings-on. This page is a central point for community members to collect current information about the community project and to report on recent goings-on. In a sense, it's an announcement page, but it is supposed to collect even those kinds of information that are normally not announced on pages like Announcements (e.g. arbitration progress, outspoken newcomers, amusing things, etc.). However, please notice that this page is explicitly not for discussion. When listing topics here that are being discussed or have been discussed, please link to the appropriate discussion page and discuss it there. For a project-wide update of events, see the Meta goings-on.

This page is archived in a weekly digest-like fashion, every Sunday at 0:00 UTC.

{| cellspacing=3 width="100%"
 * bgcolor="#fffff6" colspan="2" style="border: 1px solid black;padding-left:1em;"|

Goings-on in the week starting Sunday October 17 2004

 * Chicago meetup with Jimbo Wales scheduled for 24 October 2004. Sign up if you can attend.
 * Seattle meetup (without Jimbo Wales, but with lots of other Wikipedians) scheduled for Saturday, 6 November 2004. Sign up if you can attend.
 * Gwalla, Hawstom, Ta bu shi da yu, and CyborgTosser become administrators, and UninvitedCompany becomes a bureaucrat. Congratulations!

 * - valign="top"
 * bgcolor="#fffff6" style="border: 1px solid black;padding-left:1em;"|

Articles featured on the Main Page
 * Roche limit (October 17)
 * Cyclone Tracy (October 18)
 * Margin of error (October 19)
 * Attila the Hun (October 20)
 * Jazz (October 21)
 * Breastfeeding (October 22)
 * Crime fiction (October 23)

 * bgcolor="#fffff6" style="border: 1px solid black;padding-left:1em;"|

Articles that gained "featured" status
 * Attalus I (October 18)
 * The Adventures of Tintin (October 18)
 * Dred Scott v. Sandford (October 18)
 * Shroud of Turin (October 18)
 * Japanese toilet (October 18)

Pictures that gained "featured" status
 * Kepler's Supernova (October 22)
 * The Himalayan Mountains (October 21)
 * Horse Chestnuts (October 21)
 * Peacock (October 21)
 * Biodiversity (October 20)
 * Daisy - surface tension (October 19)
 * Red-back spider (October 18)
 * Landing at Normandy (October 18)
 * }

title: Wikipedia:Goings-on/October 17, 2004


text:
User:Enirac Sum

Hello! My name is Enirac Sum. I am a Japanese Wikipedian. Since my native language is Japanese, please talk to me in Japanese or Simple English. I'm interested in astronomy, earth science, meteorology, geology, etc. I am mainly active in Japanese Wikipedia.

My Japanese account page: ja:利用者:Enirac Sum

ja:利用者:Enirac Sum

title: User:Enirac Sum