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Norodom Sihamoni

Norodom Sihamoni (នរោត្តម សីហមុនី, ; born 14 May 1953) is King of Cambodia. He became King on 14 October 2004, a week after the abdication of his father, Norodom Sihanouk.

He is the eldest son of King Sihanouk and former Queen consort Norodom Monineath and is the fourth monarch from the royal House of Norodom. Before his selection by a nine-member throne council as the next monarch, Sihamoni served as Cambodia's ambassador to the United Nations and UNESCO. He was educated in Czechoslovakia and was known for his work as a cultural ambassador in Europe and as a classical ballet instructor when he was still a prince. During his reign, Sihamoni has continued his cultural advocacy alongside supporting various philanthropic causes, while balancing his role as a constitutional monarch amid Cambodia's political developments.

Birth, name and family
Sihamoni was born on Thursday 14 May 1953, in Phnom Penh, Cambodia when it was still a colonial protectorate within French Indochina. The prince's birth at the time was viewed as a positive omen as Cambodia gained independence from France later in that year.

His given name "Sihamoni" comprises two morphemes from his parents' given names "Sihanouk" and "Monineath". As for "Norodom", this means Narottam in Pali and Prakrit, which translates to "the best amongst men". The name has a similar meaning in Khmer as well.

At the time of his birth and that of his younger brother, his mother Princess Monique who is of Khmer, French and Corsican descent, had been one of King Norodom Sihanouk's consorts after being a constant companion since the day they met in 1951 when she won first prize in a national beauty contest. The queen was granted the title of Neak Moneang and the name of Monineath at the time of her marriage to King Norodom Sihanouk in 1952. Furthermore, Queen Monineath is a step-granddaughter of the late Prince Norodom Duong Chakr of Cambodia, and the daughter of Pomme Peang and of her second husband, Jean-François Izzi, a Corsican banker.

Sihamoni has 14 half-brothers and half-sisters from his father; his only full sibling, a younger brother, Samdech Norodom Narindrapong, was born in 1954 and died in 2003.

Education and life abroad
The then-Prince Sihamoni first began his education in 1959, where he attended Norodom School, followed by Lycée Descartes School in Phnom Penh, developing a keen interest in the arts early on in his life.

In 1962, the young Sihamoni was sent to Prague in Czechoslovakia by his father to study abroad. There, he completed his early education at Majakovskeho Primary School and later at Ostrovni Elementary School. When he was in his preadolescence years, he starred in a production of Pyotr Tchaikovsky's The Nutcracker at the prestigious Prague National Theatre, where he pursued private ballet and piano classes and was once even selected for a television rendition of Brundibár, a well-known children's opera. He then concluded his secondary education at the National Prague Conservatory and was regarded as an able student, getting high marks. Here, he further developed his interest in the performing arts, undertaking courses in this field and excelling at the top of his class. Furthermore, he attained great fluency in Czech. A movie directed by Vladimir Sís was shot about the prince in Prague in 1967, under the name The Other Little Prince (Jiný malý princ). The prince would occasionally visit his homeland for holidays of which when he did, he involved himself in Cambodia's arts and cultural scene, including starring in a film made by his father and performing ballet. During the 1970 coup d'état by Lon Nol that saw Sihanouk removed from power and a Khmer Republic being proclaimed, exacerbating the Cambodian Civil War, Sihamoni remained in Czechoslovakia.

Between 1971 and 1975, Sihamoni completed his higher education in classical dance and music at the Academy of Performing Arts in Prague, culminating with the attainment of a Master's degree for which he wrote a thesis titled The Conception and Administration of Artistic Schools in Cambodia. After graduation in 1975, he left Prague and began to study filmmaking in North Korea at the National Academy of Cinematography in Pyongyang.

Return to Cambodia
The fall of Phnom Penh on 17 April 1975 led to the demise of the Khmer Republic and the creation of Democratic Kampuchea by the Khmer Rouge who oversaw a brutal campaign of genocide. In the following year of 1976, Sihamoni was forced to come back to Cambodia after having been deceived by the Khmer Rouge with a forged telegram, undersigned by King Sihanouk ordering his return. Immediately, the ruling Khmer Rouge regime headed by Pol Pot turned against the monarchy, and put the royal family including Sihamoni, his brother Prince Norodom Narindrapong, his mother Queen Norodom Monineath, his father King Norodom Sihanouk under house arrest in the Royal Palace. The consequent Cambodian genocide saw several members of the wider royal family killed and Sihamoni and his immediate family lived in daily fear for their lives, effectively shut off from the outside world. Throughout their period of house arrest, the prince recounted how they were prohibited from making contact with anyone and were barred from having any staff. The Khmer Rouge soldiers would give them food consisting of rice and fish that was limited to two times a week and they had to, for the most part, cultivate their food from the palace gardens. With the Cambodian–Vietnamese War, which resulted in the ousting of the Khmer Rouge in 1979 and the establishment of the Vietnamese installed People's Republic of Kampuchea, the family, aided by the Chinese government, was airlifted to China. Sihamoni subsequently worked as a secretary for his father who spearheaded a resistance movement in response to the Vietnamese occupation.

Career
In 1981, Sihamoni moved to France to teach ballet as a professor of classical dance and artistic pedagogy, a position which he held for almost two decades, at various conservatoires, including the Marius Petipa Conservatory, the Gabriel Faure Conservatory and the W.A. Mozart Conservatory. He was also later president of the Khmer Dance Association there. He lived in France for nearly 20 years and continued his pursuit in the arts, establishing 'Ballet Deva', an original dance troupe, in which he served as its General Manager and Artistic Director, alongside heading the Royal Khmer Cinematic Corporation. In his line of work, he placed emphasis on giving opportunities for men to feature more prominently in traditional Khmer dance where they are often not assigned leading roles when he created "Duel", a unique ballet style inspired by the Russian ballet. During this overseas period, for a time, he also entered into the monkhood under the auspices of Samdech Bour Kry, who would later become a supreme patriarch of Cambodia.

In the early 1990s, Cambodia's Supreme National Council, which was recognized by United Nations Security Council Resolution 668 as part of the transitional process in the country under the 1991 Paris Peace Agreements, unanimously selected Prince Sihamoni in 1992 as its permanent representative to the United Nations, which he served until 1993. That same year of 1993 saw the restoration of the monarchy, with Sihanouk returning as King and the prince being appointed as Cambodia's permanent representative to UNESCO in Paris, a role he held right until he became King in 2004. In this role, Sihamoni became known for his hard work and devotion to Cambodian culture as seen by his advocacy for the international recognition of Khmer classical ballet and shadow theatre as an intangible cultural heritage. He had previously refused an appointment as Cambodia's ambassador to France. In October 2003, he was additionally appointed as a High Privy Counselor to then-King Norodom Sihanouk.

Accession and coronation
On 14 October 2004, Sihamoni was chosen as monarch by the Royal Council of the Throne, a special nine-member constitutional body that is tasked with electing the King of Cambodia. This selection process was quickly put into place after the surprise abdication of King Norodom Sihanouk the week before. At that time, there were no provisions in the nation's constitution that covered the subject of abdication. Prince Sihamoni's selection was endorsed by Prime Minister Hun Sen and the then National Assembly President Prince Norodom Ranariddh (Sihamoni's half-brother), both members of the throne council. King Sihanouk backed the decision as well. A few years before his selection, there was speculation about potential succession after he was seen deputizing on Sihanouk's behalf at official functions despite him being rarely seen in public, although much of the initial speculation focused on Ranariddh who was the preferred choice of his parents, but who ultimately expressed disinterest in acceding to the throne. Sihamoni was said to have been reluctant to take on the stately role, but nevertheless accepted it in the national interest, returning on 20 October to Phnom Penh, accompanied by his parents, King-Father Norodom Sihanouk and Queen-Mother Norodom Monineath, to an estimated 100,000 people who lined their motorcade route from Phnom Penh International Airport to the Royal Palace to welcome the soon-to-be King.

Then-Prince Sihamoni's accession to the throne was reflected upon by journalist Michael Sheridan of The Sunday Times whom on 17 October 2004 remarked:

"The extraordinary story of the aesthete who flies home this week to become king of Cambodia — and of the men who nearly had him killed — can be summed up for most people in the capital, Phnom Penh by the tale of two buildings on the banks of the Mekong River. One is the glorious golden-roofed royal palace, gaily illuminated by hundreds of festive lights in celebration of the announcement that the bachelor prince, Norodom Sihamoni, is to succeed his father King Norodom Sihanouk... Within its walls, father and son endured captivity at the hands of the Khmer Rouge, not knowing from day to day whether the revolutionaries might order their murder. The other building is the concrete 1950s Chaktamuk theatre, nearby, where the surviving members of the Khmer Rouge regime, most now frail old men, are expected to face trial for genocide before an internationally funded tribunal. Two momentous dramas in Cambodia's modern history – the chequered rule of King Sihanouk and the [Khmer Rouge's] blood-drenched attempt to create a Marxist utopia – are therefore drawing to a close at the same time."

Sheridan's reflection captured the symbolism of the moment in Cambodia's monarchical transition as these two indelible chapters etched into its national story; the undisputed significance of King Sihanouk's influential rule and the undeniably traumatic genocidal rule of the Khmer Rouge are juxtaposed with one another as the country entered a new historical era under the reign of King Sihamoni.

He was then inaugurated and formally appointed as King on 29 October 2004 in a coronation ceremony centered at the Royal Palace in the capital. The coronation was noted for its relative simplicity, which was specifically requested by King-Father Sihanouk. King Sihamoni himself did not want the ceremonies to be too lavish because he did not wish for the impoverished country to spend too much money on the event, opting for a more modest affair. In a break with precedent, Sihamoni did not assume his seat on the higher, elevated throne nor did he wear the gold-and-diamond monarchial crown that came with the royal regalia.

In his first public speech as monarch, he acknowledged words of wisdom imparted to him by his father and pledged to be a king of the people by saying: "My august father, at the very moment of my election as King of Cambodia by the highly respected Throne Council, said to me... 'it is by being in contact with the people and the realities of the country that one learns how to become more and more capable of serving, defending and developing Cambodia and the Cambodian nation.' My respected and beloved compatriots, I will always be your faithful and devoted servant. I will never live apart from my beloved people. The Royal House will remain a transparent house and for me there will never be an ivory tower."

In the first six months after his coronation, Sihamoni ensured to pay regular visits to his fellow Cambodians, especially those in the provinces and countryside, including occasionally making surprise visits. He was praised by observers for "being close to the people and having a gentle touch", though they also noted he still needed time to independently carve out his role as monarch amid the influential role of his father, former King Sihanouk, notwithstanding his abdication.

On 29 October 2014, there were celebrations to mark the 10th anniversary of his coronation. Well-wishers representing different cross sections of the kingdom's population congregated outside the royal palace to commemorate the occasion and pay their respects to the King.

Privy advisory council

On 12 December 2008, it was reported that Sihamoni had selected twenty-six members of the Cambodian royal family to his advisory court, among them his half-brother and former Prime Minister Prince Norodom Ranariddh as chief advisor and president of the council. Other choices included Prince Sisowath Sirirath, Princess Norodom Marie (estranged wife of Prince Ranariddh) and Prince Sisowath Thomico. The King's half-sister and Cambodia's former Ambassador to Malaysia, Princess Norodom Arunrasmy and uncle, Prince Norodom Sirivudh serve as members on the council as well.

As royalism has long been a staple in Cambodian political history, with periods where royalist parties had once governed the country, such as the Sangkum of then-Prince Sihanouk in the 1950s and 1960s and the FUNCINPEC party of Prince Ranariddh in the 1990s, the appointments was seen at the time by observers as signaling the cessation of royal family members participating in politics. This was because theoretically, the constitution did not allow individuals to concurrently serve in both the royal court and government. Responding to the commentary, some ruling party officials and members of the royal family insisted that there was no agenda behind the move and that it should not be construed as the prohibition or end of royal political involvement, despite the influence and electoral success of royalist political parties having waned significantly over time.

In late July 2023, upon the resignation of Prime Minister Hun Sen, it was announced that the King would appoint him to take up the position as head of the council, succeeding Ranariddh who had died in 2021. This coincided with the announcement that National Assembly President Heng Samrin, Interior Minister Sar Kheng, Defence Minister Tea Banh, and National Assembly-Senate Relations and Inspection Minister Men Sam An, the latter three of whom concurrently served as Deputy Prime Ministers, will too be appointed as privy counsellors once they have relinquished their respective positions. The appointments came into effect later in the following month.

On 4 September 2023, the King made additional appointments to the council that included former Foreign Minister Hor Namhong and former Supreme Court President Dith Munty. In January 2024, former Cambodian military leader Meas Sophea was also appointed to the council. This was followed by the appointments of former Senate President Say Chhum and former Senate First and Second Vice Presidents Sim Ka and Tep Ngorn in March 2024.

Political role

The King has limited political powers and rarely gets involved in the Cambodian political space, in conformance with his position as a constitutional monarch, and is considered to be 'above politics'. Some Cambodian opposition figures, however, have called for him to be more vocal and directly involved in the political issues of the country, like his predecessor, King-father Norodom Sihanouk was, contending that the King has the constitutional prerogative to do so, in terms of powers accorded to him. Conversely, others have cautioned against this notion, citing that the constitution strictly warrants for a predominantly ceremonial monarch that "shall reign but shall not govern", noting that resorting to political intervention is neither in the long-term interests of the monarchy nor nation, and Sihamoni, since the outset of his reign, has pledged and adhered to a largely apolitical stance. Indeed, during the monarchical selection process, King Sihanouk touted then Prince Sihamoni's neutral and impartial approach to politics as a key trait for why he is suited to the role. This is reinforced by analysis from observers that Sihamoni "has represented both continuity and change — withdrawing royalty from active politics, but advancing it as a symbol of national reconciliation", thereby restoring the "monarchy's traditional role as an 'umbrella' under which Cambodians could unite." In turn, observers argue that this limits any politicization of the monarchy as an institution whilst maintaining its neutrality as well as legitimacy, especially amid the context of the sometimes controversial and turbulent nature of Cambodian politics.

Bilateral border dispute
Nevertheless, there have been several occasions where Sihamoni's reluctance to be involved in the political arena have been tested. In 2005, in the first major political challenge of his reign, it was reported that he was hesitant to authorize the royal assent for the government's plans to give effect to a controversial border treaty with neighbouring Vietnam, which was compounded by his predecessor, King-father Sihanouk's objection. This caused tension with the government after Prime Minister Hun Sen expressed frustration about the royal assent delay to the point that abolition of the monarchy was suggested. Sihamoni eventually signed the treaty, after having been assured by government and legislative officials as well as other members of the royal family, that no land would be ceded to Vietnam as a result of the promulgation of the bilateral treaty.

Political pardons

In 2006, at the government's petition, he granted a pardon to leading opposition politicians, namely Sam Rainsy and Cheam Channy, who originally had their parliamentary immunity annulled and were facing charges viewed as politically motivated. In regards to Rainsy, he was embroiled in a legal dispute with Prime Minister Hun Sen, over a 1997 grenade attack on a political rally, which injured Rainsy, as he was giving a speech. He had accused Prime Minister Sen of being involved, an accusation that the Prime Minister denies, though Rainsy later expressed regret in making the claim. As for Channy, he was designated as a prisoner of conscience by Amnesty International, where he was convicted for fraud and in attempting to conspire to overthrow the government. At the time, the move by Sihamoni was found to be encouraging by international observers as it indicated a conciliatory gesture that points to a reduction of political tensions and restoration of multi-party democracy in the country.

In 2009, Sihamoni, upon considering the appeals made to him for the review of the conviction verdict against opposition-affiliated journalist and editor Hang Chakra, who was jailed on charges of "criminal disinformation", sought the government's support for a prospective royal pardon. The appeals were made to him in his capacity as a member of the Supreme Council of the Magistracy. This request was reportedly rejected by the government for reasons not stated, but it was eventually later accepted, of which Sihamoni went on to grant a full pardon to Chakra in 2010.

In late 2009, amid then-strained diplomatic relations between Cambodia and Thailand, Sihamoni pardoned a Thai national, Siwarak Chutipongse, on humanitarian grounds after a request by multiple parties, including Siwarak's mother, the Pheu Thai Party and former Thai Prime Minister Thaksin Shinawatra. Siwarak had been controversially charged and jailed by a Cambodian court for espionage due to his leaking sensitive flight-related details of Thaksin to Thai officials. Around that time, Thaksin was living in exile abroad despite being a wanted fugitive for corruption in his homeland, which he challenged. He also served as an advisor to the Cambodian government, which publicly backed Thaksin and resisted the extradition attempt from the Thai government.

General election of 2013 and aftermath
In the lead-up to the 2013 Cambodian general election, Sihamoni at the request of the government, granted a royal pardon which enabled then Opposition Leader Sam Rainsy, who had been in self-imposed exile since 2009, to partake in the election which was welcomed by the United Nations. Prior to the pardoning, Rainsy had found himself in legal jeopardy once again due to another politically-motivated charge brought against him arising from an incident in 2009. When the election outcome became disputed between the ruling Cambodian People's Party (CPP) and opposition Cambodia National Rescue Party (CNRP), the subsequent aftermath resulted in the 2013–2014 Cambodian protests.

Consequently, in what is regarded as the first time he had intervened directly to try to resolve a political dispute, the King attempted to play a mediating role and urged for national reconciliation, by exercising his moral authority to facilitate talks between the two party leaders, Rainsy and Prime Minister Hun Sen. He implored for a de-escalation of tensions, including an end to the violence between the protestors and authorities, and for the parties to find common ground towards a resolution regarding their issues. In late July 2014, the CPP and CNRP eventually reached a mutually agreed deal to resolve the political impasse.

After this, in August 2014, Sihamoni would formally swear-in Rainsy and the CNRP members of parliaments who had up until then, refused to assume their seats in the National Assembly because of the dispute, though he had earlier officiated Prime Minister Sen's and CPP lawmakers' swearing-in ceremony in September of the previous year due to a constitutional necessity. He later encouraged the two sides to "continue to work together for the sake of stability, development and national unity" and for a time, there was a "culture of dialogue" between the rival political parties. This period of dialogue was relatively short-lived as tensions soon manifested again that culminated in the dissolution of the CNRP in late 2017 and the reallocation of the party's seats that they won in the general election to other political parties in concurrence with the gradual persecution of members associated with the CNRP.

Controversial legislation
In the same year, a piece of legislation was introduced, named the Political Parties Law, that human rights organisations saw as a means of further curtailing the power of the opposition in the run-up to the 2018 Cambodian general election. When it came to the formalization of this law through the required royal assent, Sihamoni was coincidentally overseas, thereby delegating the royal assent duties to the President of the Senate, who constitutionally serves as the acting head of state in the King's absence. This then prompted speculation as to whether there was an underlying reason behind the timing of his overseas trip. During the legislative processes that was taking place to enact this law, a letter additionally emerged, of which Sihamoni had encouraged for all Cambodians to vote without intimidation ahead of the 2017 communal elections. Nonetheless, officials of the ruling CPP denied such speculation and insist that the King's trip were non-politically motivated.

Similarly, in February 2018, about the Lèse-majesté Law, which too had concerns expressed about it by various observers, speculation was fuelled again, when the King did not directly sign this legislation into law, due to a planned foreign trip. Some analysts maintained that this did not merely occur by chance, though others cautioned that such an assumption cannot be verified without actual official confirmation. Regardless, commentators noted that it added to a perception that Sihamoni tends to be overseas to avoid having to give his signature to highly contentious legislations and that such trips are supposedly timed, which then trigger a delegation of responsibility to the next constitutional office holder. It is theorized that the reason for this is that caught between the dilemmas of his position to concurrently not politically interfere and to also serve as a political guarantor, these absences are a way for the King to meet a middle ground through the "symbolic denial of royal legitimacy." However, the question still remains as to whether they constitute as "legitimate absences or absent legitimacy."

Interestingly, a few years prior in 2015, with respect to the then draft Law on Associations and Non-Governmental Organisations (LANGO), which was equally controversial, the King did sign this into law. This is despite the unprecedented action taken by Cambodian civil society, specifically by 26 non-governmental organisations, to directly lobby Sihamoni to not give his royal assent. They had cited his constitutional imperative as a "guarantor" and the proposed law's restrictive effects on their collective ability to function effectively as key reasons for why he should agree to their request. To that end, their failed attempt in petitioning the King demonstrated constraints associated with the above-mentioned theory.

Elections 2018 and developments
In 2018, Sihamoni urged for Cambodians to vote in the national elections, notwithstanding calls made by exiled Opposition Leader Sam Rainsy to resist such a move and for the public to boycott the election. After the year's general election and senate election, which saw the ruling CPP retaining power, winning virtually every seat in both houses of parliament, much to the consternation of members of the now-dissolved opposition, international observers and human rights groups, whom all voiced unease about the deteriorating state of political affairs in the country, not least, the lack of a viable opposition,  Sihamoni convened the opening of the national legislature. He had urged parliamentarians in both the National Assembly and Senate to protect the rights of all Cambodians and seek ways to bring about national unity and in bettering the lives of the overall populace, whilst highlighting the nation's long path towards peace and development. Several Western countries boycotted the opening, but the King noted in his speech that the opening of parliament was nonetheless constitutionally mandated.

Further, again at the request of the government, he has approved political clemency requests for several former members of the dissolved CNRP to participate in politics again, like for example in 2020, with respect to former chief whip Son Chhay and in 2021, with Pol Hom, who was a deputy party president. Both Chhay and Ham were amongst at least 32 former CNRP political figures, as of February 2022, that the King has politically rehabilitated. Sihamoni, also had granted a royal pardon for Rainsy's deputy and later successor, Kem Sokha who had defamation charges against him stemming from an alleged adultery, though his separate treason charge remained until he was convicted in early 2023. Aside from the CNRP related cases aforementioned, other high-profile pardons include that of land rights activist Tep Vanny and Australian filmmaker James Ricketson.

Elections 2022 and ASEAN summit
In the 2022 communal elections, he reiterated his call for all eligible Cambodians to participate in the civic process by exercising their right to vote, and to "not worry about oppression, threats or intimidation from any person or party at all", something that he had previously urged a few years back in the 2017 communal elections. Several political parties expressed appreciation for the King's public appeal. The communal elections result saw a victory for the ruling CPP, although the Candlelight Party, which has links with the dissolved CNRP, made some relatively surprising gains.

At the ASEAN summit in November 2022, Sihamoni hosted regional leaders at the royal palace where he reinforced Cambodia's commitment to the bloc of nations and emphasized the continued importance of inter-state collaboration in addressing contemporary issues. Later, at the interrelated 43rd General Assembly of the ASEAN Inter-Parliamentary Assembly, he further touched upon several topics. This included the centrality of peace in relation to socio-economic development, healthcare and educational investment, concern regarding the Myanmar conflict, the impact of increasing tensions between global powers, the threat of nuclear weapons, climate change, and the lingering effects of the COVID-19 pandemic.

General election 2023
In February 2023, several months ahead of the 23 July general election, Sihamoni once again advocated, as he has done in prior years, for electoral participation amongst the public and for free elections to take place. His call was backed by the National Election Committee whom urged the citizenry to heed the King's message, despite insinuations of bias levelled against him by former opposition leader Rainsy. These claims were roundly rejected and condemned by government officials, including multiple cabinet ministers.

The election unsurprisingly resulted in the CPP's victory in which they retained their ruling majority in the legislature, though there was controversy involving the disqualification of the opposition Candlelight Party by electoral authorities. On 26 July, just a few days after the election, Prime Minister Hun Sen announced his intention to tender his resignation in favour of his son, Hun Manet. Sen had an audience with Sihamoni at the Royal Palace who reportedly consented "in a formality" to his decision and for the transitional arrangements that was scheduled within August 2023 for Manet's and the new government's appointment. A royal decree was formally issued on 7 August, tasking Manet with forming a new government for the seventh mandate and requesting confidence from the National Assembly. In late August, he received the endorsement and confidence of the National Assembly to serve as head of government. Subsequently, King Sihamoni officially appointed and sworn in Manet as the second Prime Minister of his reign along with the new cabinet and members of parliament as well as officiating the inaugural opening for the new legislative term.

Philanthropy

King Sihamoni's reign has been focused on the wellbeing of the Khmer people. He has been described by some as a humble monarch because of his philanthropic endeavours and is well-known for carrying out humanitarian activities.

This can be soon through various examples such as in 2006, where when the relocation of one of the campuses of the Royal University of Fine Arts caused an inconvenience to students and teachers, including posing safety concerns, he arranged for the donation of three minibuses to assist with transportation. Another example was in the aftermath of the 2010 Phnom Penh stampede at Koh Pich that saw hundreds killed and injured, where he reached out to the victims and their families, donating money to every household who had lost a family member in the incident, as well as financially supporting those who were injured. In 2016, he donated a record-breaking $6.5 million from the proceeds that was gained from the selling of the royal residence in Koh Kong to the Kantha Bopha Foundation, which oversees a group of nationally renowned children's hospitals. Furthermore, in 2018, upon learning of the plight of provincial people affected by flooding, he gave essential goods to over 500 families.

At times, he has even assisted his fellow citizens first-hand during adverse events, such as venturing out into flooded areas and handing out goods to victims directly and was once reported to have requested for his official state car to stop so he can give a blanket to an elderly Cambodian who he saw on the roadside. Additionally, Sihamoni is said to donate to the Cambodian Red Cross on a regular basis and has authorized royal grants for infrastructure, schools, orphanages, struggling communities, religious institutions, people affected by a disability, rehabilitation centres, mental health organizations, victims of violence, and sponsoring student's trips among others. His philanthropy extends in the international context as well, like for instance, after Hurricane Katrina, the King made a personal good-will donation to victims of the storm. He has also donated towards multiple relief efforts after the occurrence of natural disasters in China.

Amidst the global COVID-19 pandemic, King Sihamoni, alongside Queen Mother Norodom Monineath has donated well over $1 million to the Royal Government of Cambodia's efforts to address the situation in Cambodia, inspiring a concerted public campaign across the country. Moreover, the King has made contributions in the provision of essential supplies, including donations of food, water and face masks to Cambodians severely impacted by COVID-19. In July 2022, he contributed $500,000 towards ongoing demining efforts in the nation, which is still plagued by problematic landmines leftover from decades of conflict.

In 2024, on the occasion of National Clean City Day, he publicly recognised and distributed goods to more than 2000 rubbish collectors for their work to upkeep the capital Phnom Penh. In the same year, to commemorate the 161st Anniversary of World Red Cross and Red Crescent Day, he and the Queen-Mother donated $100,000 to the Cambodian Red Cross.

Cultural advocacy

Sihamoni remains an ardent advocate for Cambodian arts and culture. For instance, in 2006, when he was designated by the International Theatre Institute as its "Message Author" for International Dance Day, he extolled the symbolism and virtue of dance, with reference to the Royal Ballet of Cambodia. In September 2012, he presided over the opening of L'ombrello di Beatocello, a documentary film by Georges Gachot showcasing the life's work of famed Swiss pediatrician Beat Richner and his contribution to Khmer society. Likewise, in February 2017, he did the same at the global premiere of acclaimed Cambodian-based film First They Killed My Father, documenting the experiences of Loung Ung, a survivor of the Khmer Rouge and directed by Oscar-winning actress Angelina Jolie, whom he had earlier hosted, along with her family, at The Royal Residence in Siem Reap prior to the occasion. In March 2023, as part of the 12th Cambodian International Film Festival, he presided over the premiere screening for The Perfect Motion, a film directed by Xavier de Lauzanne, which explored the progression of the kingdom's Royal Ballet and one of the interlinked works by Princess Norodom Buppha Devi.

The King is a strong proponent of Buddhism and of the integral place it maintains in the cultural life of the Khmer nation,  and he usually officiates key festivals on the Buddhist calendar. Moreover, he supports the work of the country's Ministry of Culture and Fine Arts whom reportedly engages regularly in consultations with him on advancing their overall strategic agenda. Additionally, as King, he presides over the annual Bon Om Touk, a major festive cultural event on the yearly calendar with ancient roots dating back to the Khmer Empire, in conjunction with other traditionally important national events like for example, Independence Day, the Royal Ploughing Ceremony, and Khmer New Year. He also presided over the torch lighting ceremony in March 2023 at Angkor Wat marking the start of the torch relay for the 32nd Southeast Asian Games that was held in Phnom Penh that same year in May.

Furthermore, Sihamoni has been commended for his dedication to archaeological preservation, conservation and research, with specificity to Cambodia. In particular, as Honorary President of ICC-Angkor (International Coordination Committee for the Safeguarding and Development of Historic Site of Angkor), King Sihamoni places special emphasis on the efforts to protect this national symbol and treasure, engaging frequently with the body's work through fulfilling representative functions or routine briefings given directly to him or via a delegated senior representative. In 2011, he attended the completion ceremony pertaining to restoration works at the Baphuon historical temple in Angkor. In late 2021, he championed Cambodia's bid for the proposed inclusion of Koh Ker, an ancient Khmer archaeological site, alongside Bokator, one of the kingdom's oldest martial arts on the UNESCO Intangible cultural heritage and World Heritage Site lists. The eventual outcome resulted in both being successfully inscribed on to their respective listings. In November 2023, the King inaugurated the formal ceremonies to commemorate the completion of restorative works for the western causeway into Angkor Wat and its reopening, which was closed for several years due to its deteriorating condition.

Overseas visits
In the international arena, Sihamoni's first official foreign trip as King was to China in 2004, where he met with President Hu Jintao, indicative of a strong friendship long established from the days of his father between China and the Cambodian royal family. Here, he routinely also undertakes yearly health-related visits, usually to Beijing and have formal courtesy calls with members of China's political leadership. In 2015, he attended the United Nations COP21 summit, and gave an impassioned speech highlighting the impact of the climate crisis on Cambodia and urging international efforts on this front to be expedited. He represented Cambodia at the 2019 Conference on Dialogue of Asian Civilizations (CDAC) in Beijing aimed at enhancing regional cooperation and intercultural exchange. Other notable trips include to Japan, where he was the first Cambodian sovereign since the monarchical restoration of the 1990s to visit, his "second homeland" of the Czech Republic where he spent his childhood, a landmark state visit to India, and France, Cambodia's former colonial power.

Public image
In contrast to his father, former King Norodom Sihanouk's "mercurial" and outspoken reign,   commentators note that Sihamoni has maintained a relatively "low-key" profile, with his tenure being characterized by an award-winning article of The Phnom Penh Post as being "Reign of the quiet king." Nonetheless, leading national leaders across the political spectrum recognize the King as a unifying force in Cambodian society. Prime Minister Hun Sen gave praise to Sihamoni for honourably carrying out his role as a "symbol of national unity, stability, happiness and prosperity", noting his humanitarianism, as well as efforts in strengthening national prestige and fostering a "spirit of solidarity" amongst Cambodians. Similarly, de facto Leader of the Opposition Sam Rainsy, shares this sentiment, welcoming his ability to bring people together in the national interest, although amid internal political developments that is seen as indicative of democratic backsliding, this view held by Rainsy has not always been consistent. Thus, it is within this juxtaposition, from a power politics analytical standpoint, including on the limits and extent of constitutional monarchism and given the political polarization,   that there are often divergent perspectives concerning the King, between those who implore for his active politicism   and those who advocate he sustain his guarded apoliticism.

Scholar Milton Osborne, regarded as amongst the world's most distinguished authors specializing in Southeast Asia, commends him as a "dedicated servant of his people" that is "cultured and disciplined", but he questions the monarchical institution's long-term survivability. The latter can be attributed in part due to competing power structures whereby there were periods of past historical tensions between some members of the royal family and the executive branch. However, in recent years, Prime Minister Hun Sen has given steadfast assurances which therefore signals his government's intent to preserve the monarchy well into the future. Prominent Cambodian history professor Sambo Manara credits Sihamoni as a "morale model" for all Khmer people whom exudes a calm and kind demeanor, underscored by a sincere warmth towards his subjects, notwithstanding some misconceived notions about the King's role from within some sectors of the population, in particular, the youth demographic.

Reflecting after a royal audience with the King in 2013, then International Monetary Fund Managing Director Christine Lagarde expressed how she was profoundly touched by his "thoughtfulness and compassion" and how he "not only cares deeply about the welfare of his people, but is clearly passionately devoted to promoting the cultural and artistic heritage of his country." On the occasion of his 68th birthday, ASEAN described King Sihamoni as a monarch who is "cherished and well-respected by the people of Cambodia" and as someone who exemplifies "dignified and humbled leadership", characterized by his frequent engagements with the populace through local visitations. The King's birthday on 14 May in conjunction with his coronation day on 29 October are both annual public holidays in Cambodia and in 2019, a special commemorative 15,000 riel was issued in his honour, celebrating the 15th anniversary of his tenure as sovereign. Sihamoni is also featured on the 200, 500, 2,000, 10,000, 20,000 and 100,000 riels respectively and his portrait, alongside the King-father and Queen-mother is prominent across many parts of the country, illustrative of their highly revered status.

Lèse-majesté
In February 2018, the penal code was formally revised to incorporate lèse-majesté legislation, which makes it an offence to insult the king, pursuant to its promulgation by Cambodia's National Assembly and Senate, and the law came into effect the following month. Human rights groups had voiced concerns that the law may be potentially used to suppress political opponents of the government and considered it to be incompatible with respect to the freedom of speech, though the Ministry of Justice maintains that the law is necessary in protecting the monarchy from people who push the boundaries of said freedom. After this law was enacted, there have been seldom arrests, charges   and convictions,  with the most notable case being that of Opposition Leader Sam Rainsy. Prior to this legislative enactment, the constitution did acknowledge the "inviolability" of the monarch and this constitutional provision was tested in 2017, when the Ministry of Interior pursued charges against a few individuals who were indignant towards the King on social media.

Personal life
The King is a bachelor and has no children. As Cambodia is not a hereditary monarchy, but rather an elective monarchy, his future successor will be determined by the Royal Council of the Throne, chosen from the lineage of one of the two royal houses of Cambodia, in accordance with the country's constitution. His parents, King-Father Norodom Sihanouk and Queen-Mother Norodom Monineath, were once questioned by journalists about Sihamoni's marital status and when he was planning to get married. In response, the Queen-Mother replied that her son "only feels Buddhist" and that "he confines himself to Buddhism." The King-Father added that because of this, his son's affection for women is akin to that of "as his sisters" and that "he dares not to make a deep relationship." This reflects Sihamoni's adherence to a monastic way of life which is underpinned by his austere piety and devotion to faith. In some respects, Sihamoni is regarded somewhat as an enigmatic figure, with the available literature pointing to a "reflective, deliberate and cultured man" who apparently had reservations in becoming King, yet in spite of this, humbly assumed the solemn responsibility of his position, whilst holding "his cards close to his chest."

Interests
Apart from his interest in the arts and culture, which is well-documented, it is reported that the king "is a man of simple tastes." Purportedly, in his free time he enjoys the peace of meditation, reading, exercising, listening to classical music such as by the likes of Beethoven and observance to traditional Buddhist rituals. In addition, it is reported that he enjoys comedy films, is the occasional fan of chocolates, and likes to keep up with current events and news, balancing his personal interests with that of his busy and rigid schedule as head of state. His commitment to the duties of a monarch could be seen in 2011 where he famously declined to attend the royal wedding of then Kate Middleton and Prince William, which the British tabloids headlined as a "snub." This was quickly refuted by Ministry of Foreign Affairs officials who informed that a declination notification was indeed advised and that no snub occurred whatsoever. Moreover, alongside having an interest in DVDs relating to ballet and opera in general, he is also skilled at playing the piano and is reputedly a keen reader of reviews covering the Czech theatre scene.

Wealth
During speeches that Prime Minister Hun Sen delivered in November 2020 and August 2021, he made rare public references about the King's wealth by mentioning that compared to other monarchies in the world, Cambodia's monarchy is amongst the poorest. He further added that the King does not have his own private property. However, these factors, Sen noted were irrelevant, as more importantly, Sihamoni has a generous heart towards his people as evident by his philanthropic contributions.

Languages
Besides his native Khmer, Sihamoni speaks Czech fluently, being the only ruling monarch in the world to do so. The king is also fluent in French and is a conversational speaker of English and Russian. He has basic fluency in Mandarin as well.

Filmography
Then-Prince Sihamoni during the 1960s and 1990s starred in a few films, mainly directed by his father, who was a prolific and accomplished film-maker. He has also been the subject of documentaries and directed a few films himself.

Titles and styles
Before he was crowned king, his princely royal title granted to him in February 1994 by King Sihanouk was Sdech Krom Khun (ស្តេចក្រុមឃុន), or His Royal Highness Sdech Krom Khun Norodom Sihamoni, equating him to the rank of "Great Prince".

In August 2004, King Sihanouk elevated the then Prince Sihamoni to the distinguished title of Samdech Preah Boromneath (សម្ដេចព្រះបរមនាថ).

As King, his full regnal title is Preahkaruna Preah Bath Samdech Preah Boromneath Norodom Sihamoni Samanphoum Cheatsasna Rakhatkhateya Khemrarothreas Puthinthrea Thoreamohaksat Khemreachnea Samophorpheas Kampuch Ekreachroatboranaksanteh Sopheakmongkulea Sereyvibolar Khemarasreypireas Preah Chao Krong Kampuchea Thipadey (in romanized Khmer); ព្រះករុណាព្រះបាទសម្តេចព្រះបរមនាថ នរោត្តម សីហមុនី សមានភូមិជាតិសាសនា រក្ខតខត្តិយា ខេមរារដ្ឋរាស្ត្រ ពុទ្ធិន្ទ្រាធរាមមហាក្សត្រ ខេមរាជនា សមូហោភាស កម្ពុជឯករាជរដ្ឋបូរណសន្តិ សុភមង្គលា សិរីវិបុលា ខេមរាស្រីពិរាស្ត្រ ព្រះចៅក្រុងកម្ពុជាធិបតី, roughly translating to "His Merciful Excellent Majesty Protector, King Norodom Sihamoni, who unites the nation, religion, realms, and people of Khmer state, the great king who is supported by Buddha and Indra, the protector of independence, unification, and peace, the Great King of the Kingdom of Cambodia."

The King's shortened official title is His Majesty Preah Bat Samdech Preah Boromneath Norodom Sihamoni, King of the Kingdom of Cambodia (ព្រះករុណា ព្រះបាទសម្តេច ព្រះបរមនាថ នរោត្តម សីហមុនី ព្រះមហាក្សត្រ នៃព្រះរាជាណាចក្រកម្ពុជា។).

In June 2015, he was bestowed the honorary religious title Preah SriLoka Dhammika Raja (ព្រះស្រីលោកធម្មិករាជ), or "Virtuous King for the Propagation of Buddhism in the World", which was recommended for him at the Sixth Buddhist Summit in the year prior in December 2014.

During an overseas trip in September 2015, he was conferred the academic title of 'Honorific Professor' by the Jiangxi University of Traditional Chinese Medicine in Nanchang, China.

On 24 June 2023, the World Fellowship of Buddhists (WFB) awarded the King the honorary title of 'Royal Patron' in an event held at the Royal Palace in Phnom Penh.

In the military context, one of his concurrent titular styles is 'Supreme Commander of the Royal Khmer Armed Forces', which is in line with the country's constitution.

Patronages
As King, Sihamoni has served as the patron of many causes and organizations as well as a range of NGOs and NPOs. This includes, but is not limited to the below list:

Heritage

 * Honorary President of ICC-Angkor (International Coordination Committee for the Safeguarding and Development of Historic Site of Angkor)
 * Angkor Wat Western Causeway Restoration Project — Patron
 * Baphuon Temple at Angkor Restoration Project — Patron
 * Greater Angkor Collaborative Research Project — Patron
 * Angkor Medieval Hospitals Archaeological Project — Patron
 * Symposium "Deux décennies de coopération archéologique franco-cambodgienne à Angkor" — Patron
 * Guimet Museum — Patron of "Angkor: The Rise of a Myth" Exhibition
 * Preah Norodom Sihanouk-Angkor Museum — Patron of inauguration ceremony
 * Koh Ker Temple — Patron of successful bid for its inclusion on the UNESCO World Heritage Site list
 * Preah Suramarit National Theatre — Patron of attempted restoration efforts
 * Statue of St. John of Nepomuk in Divina, Slovakia — Patron of the project of restoration (2017).

Cultural

 * Member of the High Council of French-speaking Countries (2004).
 * Foreign Associate Member of the Académie des Inscriptions et Belles-Lettres (2008).
 * International Dance Day — Message Author (2006)
 * Mozart at Angkor Project — Patron
 * Center for Khmer Studies Library, Siem Reap — Patron
 * Nginn Karet Foundation for Cambodia (Preah Ream Buppha Devi Conservatoire) — Patron of dance troupe 'The Sacred Dancers of Angkor'
 * Nuits d'Angkor Festival — Patron
 * Cambodian Living Arts — Patron
 * Cambodian International Film Festival (CIFF) — Patron
 * Technicolour Foundation (MEMORY! International Film Heritage Festival) (2014) — Patron
 * Cie Cabaret des Oiseaux — Patron
 * GoGo Cambodia world record-setting Krama initiative — Patron
 * Angkor Archaeological Park meditation centre — Patron
 * Ricardo Casal's "90 Khmer Figures" Art Exhibition (in collaboration with Royal University of Fine Arts as part of 2013 French Week) — Patron
 * Kep Expo 2018 — Patron
 * United States Embassy in Cambodia's Air Force Band String Quartet special concert (8 May, 2016) — Patron
 * Royal Thai Embassy in Cambodia's "Choral Music for Friendship: A Concert by Suanplu Chorus" (21 June, 2019) — Patron
 * China Disabled Persons' Performing Art Troupe — Patron
 * Battery Dance Company — Patron of performance on 21 October, 2006
 * First They Killed My Father — Patron of film
 * L'ombrello di Beatocello — Patron of film
 * The Perfect Motion — Patron of film

Community

 * Cambodian Red Cross — Patron
 * Cambodian Children's Fund — Patron
 * Samdech Euv Team — Patron
 * Krousar Thmey Foundation — 25th Anniversary Celebration Ceremony Honorary President
 * Transcultural Psychosocial Organization (Cambodia) — Patron of 20th Anniversary Celebration and new Mental Health Treatment Center
 * Kantha Bopha Foundation — Patron of 25th Anniversary, new ward (Kantha Bopha V), surgery centre (Kantha Bopha I) & major donor
 * Eye Care Foundation — Patron
 * Samdech Techo Project for Mine Action (STP-MA) — Patron
 * Preah Sihamoniraja Buddhist University — Establishing Patron
 * Sihanouk Hospital Center of Hope — Patron
 * Calmette Hospital Neurology Center (Centre De Neurosciences) — Patron
 * Teach Them To Fish Foundation — Patron
 * Cambodian Day of Older People / International Day of Older Persons — Patron
 * International Children's Day — Patron
 * KaisKids Orphanage — Patron
 * Waltzing Around Cambodia Onlus — Patron
 * AIP Foundation — Patron of Cambodia Helmet Vaccine Initiative (CHVI)
 * House of Family — Patron
 * Cambodian National Committee to Fight Covid-19 — Patron
 * Royal University of Fine Arts — Patron of transportation service through the donation of 3 minibuses to the university's north campus
 * Don Bosco Foundation — Patron
 * Hurricane Katrina disaster relief — Patron
 * General disaster relief in China — Patron (the King has made several donations in the aftermath of natural disasters)

Sporting

 * Royal Angkor Endurance Competition 2018 — Patron of inaugural event
 * Norodom Sihanouk du Cambodge National Show Jumping Championships — Patron
 * 32nd Southeast Asian (SEA) Games — Patron
 * Bokator (Khmer martial art) — Patron of successful bid for its inclusion on the UNESCO Intangible cultural heritage list

Environmental

 * Airavata Elephant Foundation — Establishing Patron
 * National Arbor Day — Patron
 * Rubbish Project — Patron of Nāga Sculpture in Siem Reap to mark 2008 World Water Day
 * National Clean City Day — Patron

National honours

 * 🇰🇭 Cambodia
 * KHM Ordre Royal du Cambodge - Grand Croix BAR.png Grand Cross of the Royal Order of Cambodia
 * KHM Royal Order of Monisaraphon - Grand Cross.png Grand Cross of the Royal Order of Monisaraphon

Foreign honours

 * 🇫🇷 France
 * Legion Honneur GC ribbon.svg Grand Cross of the Order of the Legion of Honour (2006)
 * Legion Honneur GO ribbon.svg Grand Officer of the Order of the Legion of Honour (2006)

 * 🇯🇵 Japan:
 * JPN Daikun'i kikkasho BAR.svg Collar and Grand Cordon of the Supreme Order of the Chrysanthemum (11 May 2010)

Ecumenical orders

 * Flag of the Order of Saint Lazarus.svg Order of Saint Lazarus: Grand Cross of Merit of the Order of Saint Lazarus (10 May 2008)

Awards

 * 🇨🇿 Czech Republic: Gratias Agit Award of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs (2006)
 * Prague: Honorary Citizen of the City of Prague (2006)
 * Paris: Silver Medal of the City of Paris

Honorary degrees

 * Academy of Performing Arts in Prague, Honorary Doctorate (19 March 2010)
 * Naresuan University, Honorary Doctorate in Political Science (12 June 2015)
 * St. Elizabeth University of Health and Social Sciences, Honorary Doctorate in Social Work

Honourific eponyms

 * Dendrobium Norodom Sihamoni, an orchid named in honour of the King (30 March 2006)
 * Musee Preahbat Samdech Preah Boromneath Norodom Sihamoni (Norodom Sihamoni Museum), Royal Palace, Phnom Penh
 * Sattapanniguha Auditorium (named in honour of King Sihamoni), Nenbutsushu Sampozan Muryojuji Temple, Katō, Hyōgo Prefecture, Japan
 * Preah Norodom Sihamoni Primary School, in Chhnuk Trou Commune, Baribour district
 * Preah Norodom Sihamoni General and Technical Lycée, in Kampot Province
 * Preah Bat Samdech Preah Boromneath Norodom Sihamoni General & Technical High School, Aur Russei Commune, Kampong Tralach District
 * Preah Sihamoniraja Buddhist University, in Phnom Penh
 * Kantha Bopha-Sihamoni Monineath (Heart Surgery Centre II) at Kantha Bopha I Children's Hospital, in Phnom Penh
 * King Sihamoni Meditation Centre at Angkor Archaeological Park, Siem Reap province
 * King Norodom Sihamoni Boulevard, in Siem Reap, Siem Reap province
 * King Norodom Sihamoni Avenue, in Siem Reap, Siem Reap province
 * King Norodom Sihamoni Road, in Siem Reap, Siem Reap province

title: Norodom Sihamoni


text:
Tlacaelel

Tlacaelel I (1397 – 1487) (, "Man of Strong Emotions," from "tlācatl," person and "ēllelli," strong emotion) was the principal architect of the Aztec Triple Alliance and hence the Mexica (Aztec) empire. He was the son of Emperor Huitzilihuitl and Queen Cacamacihuatl, nephew of Emperor Itzcoatl, father of poet Macuilxochitzin, and brother of Emperors Chimalpopoca and Moctezuma I.

During the reign of his uncle Itzcoatl, Tlacaelel was given the office of Tlacochcalcatl, but during the war against the Tepanecs in the late 1420s, he was promoted to first adviser to the ruler, a position called Cihuacoatl in Nahuatl, an office that Tlacaelel held during the reigns of four consecutive Tlatoque, until his death in 1487.

Tlacaelel recast or strengthened the concept of the Aztecs as a chosen people, elevated the tribal god/hero Huitzilopochtli to top of the pantheon of gods, and increased militarism. In tandem with this, Tlacaelel is said to have increased the level and prevalence of human sacrifice, particularly during a period of natural disasters that started in 1446 (according to Diego Durán). Durán also states that it was during the reign of Moctezuma I, as an invention of Tlacaelel that the flower wars, in which the Aztecs fought Tlaxcala and other Nahuan city-states, were instigated.

To strengthen the Aztec nobility, he helped create and enforce sumptuary laws, prohibiting commoners from wearing certain adornments such as lip plugs, gold armbands, and cotton cloaks. He also instigated a policy of burning the books of conquered peoples with the aim of erasing all memories of a pre-Aztec past.

When he dedicated the seventh reconstruction of the Templo Mayor in Tenochtitlan, Tlacaelel had brought his nation to the height of its power. The dedication took place in 1484 and was celebrated with the sacrifice of many war captives. After Tlacaelel's death in 1487, the Mexica Empire continued to expand north into the Gran Chichimeca and south toward the Maya lands.

In popular culture
Inspiration for the main character in the novel, "Tlacaelel, El Azteca entre los Aztecas", by Mexican author Antonio Velasco Piña.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Tlacaelel


text: User talk:195.33.208.2

title: User talk:195.33.208.2


text:
List of national parks of Costa Rica

In 2023 thirty National Parks of Costa Rica are managed under the umbrella of SINAC (Sistema Nacional de Areas de Conservacion), a department of Costa Rica's Ministry of Environment and Energy (MINAE). All told, Costa Rica's protected areas, including national parks, encompass more than 25% of the country's total land area. Many of these protected areas are national parks.

Costa Rica's progressive policies on environmental protection and sustainable ecotourism in the National Parks System have been lauded as a model for other countries. The rainforests, tropical forests, marine areas and wetlands of Costa Rica are the subject of many university and scientific organization studies. The enrichment of the world's knowledge of these important habitats is an invaluable contribution from the National Parks System of Costa Rica.

The Cordillera de Talamanca is home to an impressive collection of national parks and other preserved areas, including the La Amistad International Park, which extends into Panamá. On the southern Osa Peninsula is the internationally renowned Corcovado National Park, which preserves a remnant of sizeable lowland tropical rainforest that is unique in the world. Manuel Antonio National Park was listed by Forbes in 2011 among the world's 12 most beautiful national parks.

The Camino de Costa Rica is a 280 km long hiking trail across Costa Rica. It runs from the Atlantic Ocean (Caribbean coast), the southernmost part of the Tortuguero Canals, up the mountain and through indigenous territory near the Barbilla National Park and through valleys and mountain ranges of the central region of the country, just south of the Turrialba and Irazu Volcanos and through the Los Santos coffee region down to the Pacific coast in Quepos.

title: List of national parks of Costa Rica


text:
Jay Heaps

John Franklin "Jay" Heaps (born August 2, 1976) is an American former soccer player who currently serves as president and general manager of Birmingham Legion FC. He is a former head coach for the New England Revolution in Major League Soccer.

After a successful college career at Duke University, Heaps spent his entire professional playing career in Major League Soccer, initially with Miami Fusion, and then with New England Revolution, for whom he made over 250 appearances in all competitions. Towards the end of his career Heaps also played with the United States men's national soccer team, earning four caps at the 2009 CONCACAF Gold Cup. He was coach of the New England Revolution from 2011 to 2017. He was also part of the Lamar Hunt U.S. Open Cup winning 2007 roster and was part of the 2008 North American SuperLiga winning roster. He was on the Miami Fusion team from 1999 to 2001. He then played for the New England Revolution from 2001 to 2009. He won Defender of the Year in 2009 for the New England Revolution.

College
Heaps grew up in Longmeadow, Massachusetts, and graduated from Longmeadow High School. He played college soccer for the Duke University Blue Devils from 1995 to 1998. He was named first team All-ACC all four of his years, was a three-time finalist for the Hermann Award, and as a senior was awarded the Hermann Trophy by the Missouri Athletic Club, marking him as the nation's top college player. During his four years at Duke, he had 45 goals and 37 assists across 83 appearances. Additionally, Heaps played for the Duke Blue Devils men's basketball team under Mike Krzyzewski from 1996 to 1999. He appeared in 27 games and played 68 minutes total.

Professional
After graduating from Duke, Heaps was drafted second overall in the 1999 MLS College Draft by Miami Fusion, and was named MLS Rookie of the Year after playing 2511 minutes for the team in midfield and defense. In his second year, Heaps was named an MLS All-Star, while registering 5 goals and six assists for the Fusion. Before the 2001 season, he was traded to the New England Revolution in exchange for Brian Dunseth. In the 2006 MLS Cup Championship, his penalty kick was saved by Pat Onstad, winning the championship for the opposing Houston Dynamo.

Heaps announced his retirement from soccer on December 3, 2009.

International
As of February 2009, Heaps had played more MLS matches (289) than any other American player who had not received a cap for the United States. On June 25, 2009, Heaps received his first call-up for the United States for the 2009 CONCACAF Gold Cup. On July 11, 2009, Heaps made his debut with the United States against Haiti.

Post-playing career
After announcing his retirement from professional soccer, Heaps joined Morgan Stanley Private Wealth Management, providing customized investment advice and portfolio management for ultra high-net-worth individuals.

In 2010, Heaps became the color commentator for the New England Revolution games on Comcast SportsNet New England, alongside Brad Feldman.

In 2018, Heaps was announced as the first president and general manager of the expansion USL club Birmingham Legion FC in Birmingham, AL.

Coaching career
On November 14, 2011, Heaps was named the head coach for the New England Revolution, replacing former Revolution coach Steve Nicol whose contract was not renewed following the 2011 Major League Soccer season. In the 2012, 2013, and  2014 seasons, the results of this change appeared positive, with each year after the first showing improved results. In 2014, the Revolution made it to the MLS Cup, narrowly losing to the LA Galaxy. However, in 2015, the team was eliminated from playoff contention in the knockout round, and in 2016, they failed to qualify entirely.

In mid 2017, the team sat 10th out of 11 in the Eastern Conference, with SportsClubStats.com offering a 7% chance of the team making the playoffs. This led to speculation that Heaps is or should be facing removal as head coach. On September 18, it was reported that Heaps had been fired by the Revolution and that his spot would be filled in by assistant coach Tom Soehn.

New England Revolution

 * Lamar Hunt U.S. Open Cup: 2007
 * North American SuperLiga: 2008

Individual

 * MLS Rookie of the Year: 1999
 * MLS All-Star: 2000

title: Jay Heaps


text:
Blue eyes (disambiguation)

Blue eyes is a common pigmentation in the iris of an eye of a mammal.

Blue eyes may also refer to:

Places

 * Blue Eye, Albania, a water spring and tourist attraction
 * Blue Eye, Arkansas, United States, a town
 * Blue Eye, Missouri, United States, a village

Music

 * Blue Eyes, a jazz album by Miki Matsubara
 * "Blue Eyes" (Elton John song), 1982
 * "Blue Eyes" (Yo Yo Honey Singh song), 2013
 * "Blue Eyes", a song by Don Partridge written Richard Kerr, Joan Maitland, 1968
 * "Blue Eyes", a song by BZN written Th. Tol, J. Tuijp, C. Tol 1982
 * "Blue Eyes", a song by Cary Brothers from the Garden State film soundtrack album
 * "Blue Eyes", a song by the International Submarine Band from Safe at Home
 * "Blue Eyes", a song by Mika from The Boy Who Knew Too Much
 * "Blue Eyes", a song by The Chevin from Borderland
 * "Blue Eyes", a song by Scott Weiland and the Wildabouts from Blaster
 * "Blue Eyes", a song by Within Temptation, a B-side of the single "What Have You Done"
 * "Blue Eyes", a song by Gary Numan/Tubeway Army, a B-side of the single "Bombers"

Other arts and entertainment

 * Blue Eyes (film), a 2009 Brazilian film
 * Blue Eyes (TV series), a 2014-15 Swedish TV series
 * Blue Eyes, a nickname of the character Bill Hudson in the animated series Return to the Planet of the Apes
 * Blue Eyes, a character in the comics series Sin City
 * Blue Eyes, a novel by Jerome Charyn
 * Blue Eyes (Ojos azules, in Spanish), a short story by Spanish writer Arturo Pérez-Reverte

Other uses

 * Pseudomugilidae, a family of fish known as Blue-eyes
 * AGM-79 Blue Eye, an American prototype air-to-surface missile cancelled in the early 1970s
 * Blueeyes Productions, an Icelandic film production company
 * Nazar (amulet) or Blue Eye, an amulet believed to provide protection against the evil eye

title: Blue eyes (disambiguation)


text: Category:French cyclists

title: Category:French cyclists


text: Category:French basketball players

title: Category:French basketball players


text:
Lohan

Lohan is a surname. Notable people with the surname include:

 * Aliana Lohan (born 1993), American fashion model and former television personality, singer and actress
 * Brian Lohan (born 1971), Irish sportsman
 * Dina Lohan (born 1962), television personality and occasional actress
 * Frank Lohan (born 1974), Irish sportsperson
 * Lindsay Lohan (born 1986), American actress and pop singer
 * Michael Lohan (born 1960), ex-husband of Dina Lohan and the father of Lindsay, Michael Lohan Jr., Ali, and Cody Lohan
 * Neddy Lohan (died 1820), Irish captain of the Whiteboys
 * Sinéad Lohan, Irish singer and songwriter of folk music and folk-inspired popular music

Other uses

 * Arhat, luohan or lohan in Chinese contexts
 * Lohan, Pakistan, a village in the Narowal District of Punjab province
 * Lohan (river), a tributary of the Crasna in Vaslui County, Romania
 * Lohan, a fictional city from the 1999 PlayStation game The Legend of Dragoon

title: Lohan


text:
Talk:List of national parks of Costa Rica

Untitled
The aggressive Template currently being used, with the official phone numbers etc. seems out-of-place in Wikipedia. Is this official text too? Will we see more of this taste? Wetman 07:25, 7 Oct 2004 (UTC)

Thanks for the feedback. I am a newbie to Wikipedia, and not very familiar with Wikipedia's policies on "aggressive" versus "casual" templates... In fact, this was my very first post. What I submitted is not "official text"; I simply filled in the appropriate information for Costa Rica, into the basic outline / template / style which was used for Wikipedia's page about the United States National Park Service. I was attempting to follow a guideline for submissions by using an example from a similar subject. I will try to be less formal in future if it seems out of place? Costa 08:39, 9 Oct 2004 (UTC)

I'd suggest we use the templates for the Wikiproject on Protected Areas for all the national parks/protected areas, etc. Might be kinda neat to get in on that project. I'll probably retrofit my lone Braulio Carrillo stub to it shortly. Nulldevice 18:35, 3 February 2006 (UTC)

I'm moving out a load of stuff about SINAC to the article about that organisation, I will add some stuff back relating specifically to the National Parks maybe as I go along, or at least at the end once all the regions are done at least in stub form. SINAC covers a lot more nature reserves than it does NPs, so its probably easier to have the greater part of stuff there (after all the title of this article is mismatched currently. -- Sfnhltb 14:00, 5 April 2006 (UTC)


text:
Talk:Zheng Zhenduo

Inverted Pyramid Writing
As told by my tutor that in writing a journal, we should put the most important and the summary of the contents at the beginning. It is because the readers may not have so much time to read through the journal. Even though, they can still get the information they want by reading the first paragraph. This is the reason why I put the summary in the 1st paragraph. If u agree with me, please do not delete it! 0101LAMkp

Reference
Why do somebody delete my reference list? 0101LAMkp

hi dear fellow, for the reference list, i think what we are doing now is a bit redundant. Remember what TA Li has said, she mentioned our main audience in the Wikipedia reads English, but not Chinese. But most of the reference are just in Chinese. Besides, actually there're tons of books talking about Zheng. And I don't think those putting up in our pages are worthwhile to be quoted as "Reference". I think we should open a column stating "bibliography" or " cited Work" instead of reference here. People would be confuse of our "reference" and don't know if these are the material we've been using for building up this page or just some further information for them to know more about Zheng. I have no offence to you, and i just want to scrutinize and make our page to be the best page. Hope you understand why i am doing the erasing work. 0101CHIUwy

Yes, u are right!0101LAMkp

Verification of dates
Dear all, I have read through a lot of articles about Zheng and found that some questions about the dates. There are 2 versions (Nov 1920 / 1921) for the date of the establishment of 文學研究會. What should we write? After reading different sources, I think Nov 1920 is more likely to be the correct date. Another event was about 蔣介石's 反革命政變. Some sources said it was on April 12, 1927 while somee said April 11. Can anyone try to seek the verification of the date? Melody 13:41, 17 Oct 2004 (UTC)

General Discussion
Hello, everyone. I am doing a research on Zheng Zhenduo. Actually, I really do not know much about him but somehow, it's really interesting to work with all these "invisible" interested parties and to have a discussion on that. In fact, I have found that there are many books wrote by and being written on Zheng. I hope I can read some of them and share my view with everyone of you.

For me, the most interesting part to understand Zheng is not what he was but rather what he thought and what he had done in his life to make him such an important man, not only in the literary arena but also in the mass media during the 19th century.

By the way, I forget to tell my name : 0101NGhk

 * -D

Hi everybody~ Actually I don't know much about Zheng Zhenduo and I have collected a little information so far. I was so busy this week and could not edit this article. But I watch it twice a day and I am really happy that many people are contributing to this article~ I hope that I can make my contribution this weekend~ Keep it going! (^_^)

0101CHENGwy 14:27, 7 Oct 2004 (UTC)

Hello everyone, i am doing this topic too, and i am gathering information right, hope i can contribute to this page as much as i can and have a good co-operation with you guys. forget to say, I am 0101CHIUwy. As I forgot to log-in, so this message has previously shown by an unidentifiable person, and now i have logged in again, hope it will work okay!!

A new topic
Hi everyone, I am 0101NGhk. It's so good to see everyone working on this wikipedia about Zheng. I suggest we should open another coloumn about "His Influence to public as a journalist" or something like that. In fact, I can't find materials exactly talks about him as a journalist but he is really powerful over the mass media.

Well, I am finding information about the new topic, hope that the other groupmates could give some suggestions or comments.

Hi I'm 0101CHANlc. I strongly agree for 0101NGhk's thinking, it is quite difficult to find his influence of Journalism. I hope that i also can find more information about him and can do as well for this project with all of groupmates... Add oil together0101CHANlc

Hi, this is 0101LAMkp, I also agree to you two. I think we should have this topic since we are asked to search how Zheng influence jornalism.

And one more thing to remind all of you (including myself), we should follow the same format in writing, e.g. in writing the PINYIN(拼音), we should use italic words to emphasize them. right?

Ya,this is 0101CHENGwy. I think we have to follow the same format in writing. But I remember I have read an article in Wiki that states some rules to follow, for example, to make the names of books/ agazines italic (only for the first time the books appear). Do anyone know this? I want to show you the article, but I do not have the link right now.

Also, I think we should add more subtitles in the section "A Journey Towards Journalism" as there are a lot of paragraphs. Melody 14:52, 14 Oct 2004 (UTC)

Some references on how to edit and format a page: Melody 15:15, 14 Oct 2004 (UTC)
 * Italic
 * How to edit a page
 * http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Style_and_How-to_Directory

About Bibliography
Hi everyone. I am 0101CHENGwy. I think we should only list some important books and translate the names into English. We should choose the books which have influence on Journalism. Do you agree? Melody 14:52, 14 Oct 2004 (UTC)

I have read some translation of the names of the books. I think we need to improve it because it is rather strange to translate the Chinese characters on by one into Pinyin. I think there are too many books and the readers may find it difficult to understand as there are no clues what the books are writing about. I think we should give a very brief description on the important acheivement.

Melody 01:57, 15 Oct 2004 (UTC)

Cite our source
Don't forget that we have to set up the references section~ Cite the sources, e.g. books, journals, newspaper or websites. For the format of linking, please refer to http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Guide_to_Layout Melody 15:15, 14 Oct 2004 (UTC)

I am 0101NGhk. In fact, though it is good to add subtitle in the "A Journey towards journalism", it would also be fine if we organize it well. I found it is quite hard to define each paragraph with a subtitle.

Keep on editing!
Hi Folks, things are looking better. what is the difference between "Career" heading and "journey towards journalism"? keep on editing! figure out how to hide your external links! (for example: Google) (JMSC0101 TA - Li) Lfcho 15:17, 19 Oct 2004 (UTC)

 * This article has definately grown since the the last time I went through it. Great work everyone! Keep it up, I'll go and do some copyediting now... [[User:MacGyverMagic|Mgm|(talk)]] 18:16, Oct 20, 2004 (UTC)

Influence
Hey, guys!! Should we add some information for his influence of Jounalism?? 0101CHANlc

External links modified
Hello fellow Wikipedians,

I have just modified 3 one external links on Zheng Zhenduo. Please take a moment to review my edit. If you have any questions, or need the bot to ignore the links, or the page altogether, please visit this simple FaQ for additional information. I made the following changes:
 * Added archive http://web.archive.org/web/20041026151443/http://www.cass.net.cn:80/y_09/y_09_01/y_09_01_10.htm to http://www.cass.net.cn/y_09/y_09_01/y_09_01_10.htm
 * Added archive http://web.archive.org/web/20040713192425/http://www.shuku.net:8080/novels/mingjwx/udbwxfplrdfe/zzd.html to http://www.shuku.net:8080/novels/mingjwx/udbwxfplrdfe/zzd.html
 * Added archive http://web.archive.org/web/20040818041822/http://www.booker.com.cn:80/big5/paper20/16/class002000004/hwz118433.htm to http://www.booker.com.cn/big5/paper20/16/class002000004/hwz118433.htm

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title: Talk:Zheng Zhenduo


text:
Yakovlev Yak-28

The Yakovlev Yak-28 (Яковлев Як-28) is a swept wing, turbojet-powered combat aircraft used by the Soviet Union. Produced initially as a tactical medium bomber, it was also manufactured in reconnaissance, electronic warfare, interceptor, and trainer versions, known by the NATO reporting names Brewer, Brewer-E, Firebar, and Maestro respectively. Based on the Yak-129 prototype first flown on 5 March 1958, it began to enter service in 1960.

Design and development
The Yak-28 was first seen by the West at the Tushino air show in 1961. Western analysts initially believed it to be a fighter rather than an attack aircraft—and a continuation of the Yak-25M—and it was designated "Flashlight". After its actual role was realized, the Yak-28 bomber series was redesignated "Brewer".

The Yak-28 had a large mid-mounted wing, swept at 45 degrees. The tailplane set halfway up the vertical fin (with cutouts to allow rudder movement). Slats were fitted on the leading edges and slotted flaps were mounted on the trailing edges of the wings. The two Tumansky R-11 turbojet engines, initially with 57 kN (12,795 lbf) thrust each, were mounted in pods, similarly to the previous Yak-25. The wing-mounted engines and bicycle-type main landing gear (supplemented by outrigger wheels in fairings near the wingtips) were widely spaced, allowing most of the fuselage to be used for fuel and equipment. It was primarily subsonic, although Mach 1 could be exceeded at high altitude.

Total production of all Yak-28s was 1,180.

Operational history
The aircraft is perhaps best known for the heroic actions of Captain Boris Kapustin and Lieutenant Yuri Yanov after the Yak-28 they were piloting suffered a catastrophic engine malfunction on 6 April 1966. They were ordered to divert to attempt a landing in Soviet zone of Germany, but lost control of the aircraft and strayed into the airspace of West Berlin. The crew managed to avoid a housing estate but crashed into Lake without ejecting. Their bodies, along with the wreckage, were raised from the lake by Royal Navy divers (flown in from Portsmouth) and salvage specialists, who also retrieved important top secret material from the plane. This included the engines, which were taken to RAF Gatow to be inspected by RAF and American engineers. The bodies of the two pilots were returned to the USSR with full military honors from both Soviet and British armed service members, and they were both posthumously awarded the Order of the Red Banner. The first engine was recovered on 18 April 1966 and the second a week later; both engines were returned to the Soviets on 2 May 1966.

The Yak-28P was withdrawn in the early 1980s, but trainer and other versions remained in service until after the fall of the Soviet Union, flying until at least 1992. The reconnaissance and ECM aircraft were eventually replaced by variants of the Sukhoi Su-24.

Prototype
Yak-129
 * Prototype of Yak-28.

Yak-28UVP prototype (ukorochennyy vzlyot i posahdka – short takeoff and landing)
 * Yakovlev Yak-28U two-view silhouette.png single Yak-28 converted for testing short takeoff and landing techniques with JATO bottles and braking parachutes.

Yak-28SR prototype (samolyot raspylitel – spraying/dusting aircraft) first use of SR.
 * Chemical warfare aircraft for dispensing dust or liquid agents from underwing tank/applicators. Though recommended for production none were delivered to the VVS.

Yak-28PM prototype
 * Upgraded Yak-28P with R11AF3-300 engines, flight testing started in 1963 but development abandoned when the R11AF3-300 did not enter production.The re-engined "PM" modification has established a speed record of 2,400 km/h in 1963.

Yak-28URP prototype
 * High altitude interceptor prototype using a rocket engine to boost performance during the interception phase.

Yak-28-64 prototype
 * Extensively redesigned Yak-28P with Tumansky R-11F2-300 engines moved to the rear fuselage with intakes extending to the cockpit, intended to compete with the Sukhoi Su-15. Performance was very disappointing, being slower than the Yak-28P, and serious aileron reversal issues caused the abandonment of the Yak-28-64.

Yak-28VV proposition (vertikahl'nyy vzlyot – vertical take-off)
 * A vertical takeoff and landing project, with two R-27AF-300 lift/cruise engines and four R39P-300 lift engines in the forward fuselage.

Yak-28LSh proposition
 * Light attack aircraft project competing with the Ilyushin Il-102 and Sukhoi T-8, eliminated at an early stage.Yakovlev Yak-28P three-view silhouette.png

Yak-28A (Izdeliye B)

 * The first tactical bombing mission training aircraft type produced. The radar and avionics on board are not yet complete, so it is assumed that it will be operated during the day. Basically, it was deployed as training for changing aircraft types for crew members and as a teaching material on the ground. After that, some parts and wiring positions were reflected in later mass-produced models.

Mass production type

Yak-28B (Izdeliye 28B; NATO reporting name: "Brewer-A")
 * Production of Yak-28 with weapon-aiming radar fitted, and various improvements such as fittings for JATO bottles. Production number unknown.

Yak-28L (Izdeliye 28L; NATO reporting name: "Brewer-B")
 * Tactical bomber with ground-controlled targeting system using triangulation from ground-based transmitter sites. A total of 111 built.

Yak-28I (Izdeliye 28I; NATO reporting name: "Brewer-C")
 * Tactical bomber with the internal targeting system "Initsiativa-2" 360-degree ground-mapping radar. A total of 223 built.

Yak-28U (Izdeliye 28U) (uchebnyy – training) (NATO reporting name – "Maestro")
 * It was a dual control trainer with a second cockpit in the nose for student pilots; made as a prototype in 1962. A total of 183 were built.

Yak-28R (Izdeliye 28R; NATO reporting name: "Brewer-D")
 * A dedicated tactical reconnaissance version of the Yak-28I, with increased headroom under the pilot´s canopy, increased nose glazing with a sloping rear bulkhead, Initsiativa-2 radar, and five interchangeable pallets containing various mission equipment fittings. Prototype in 1963. A total of 183 built.

Yak-28SR (Izdeliye 28SR) second use of SR.
 * Tactical reconnaissance aircraft fitted with an active radio/radar jammer (either SPS-141 or SPS-143). Production was on a very small scale.

Yak-28TARK (televiszionnyy aviatsionnyy razveddyvatel'nyy kompleks)
 * Television reconnaissance system to send real-time images to a ground base. Backup provided by a 190 mm focal length still camera.

Yak-28RR (Izdeliye 28RR)
 * Radiation intelligence aircraft with RR8311-100 air sampling pods, for gathering samples of nuclear tests. The pods were specially designed for the Yak-28RR but became standard fit for all subsequent radiation intelligence gathering aircraft. Modification of a number of existing Yak-28R aircraft.

Yak-28RL
 * Radiation Intelligence aircraft conceived by fitting RR8311-100 air sampling pods, with no other specialist equipment. Modification of a number of existing Yak-28L aircraft. Yakovlev Yak-28R and Yak-28PP side-view silhouettes.png

Yak-28PP (Izeliye 28PP) (NATO reporting name – "Brewer-E")
 * Deployed in 1970, it is notable as the first Soviet electronic countermeasures (ECM) aircraft. It was unarmed, with an extensive electronic warfare (EW) suite in the bomb bay and various aerials and dielectric panels for transmitting the jamming signals. Excess heat generated by the jamming equipment was dissipated by heat exchangers under the centre fuselage; it did not include a radome. Produced in the 1970s in unknown numbers.

Yak-28P (Izdeliye 40) (NATO reporting name – "Firebar")
 * A dedicated long-range interceptor version, the Yak-28P was developed from 1960 and deployed operationally from 1964. It omitted the internal weapons bay in favor of additional fuselage tanks (its fuel capacity was considerable, limited by weight rather than volume), and added a new 'Oriol-D' interception radar compatible with the R-98 (AA-3 'Anab') air-to-air missile. Late production "upgraded" Yak-28Ps had a longer radome of pure conical shape and enhanced armament. Produced until 1967, with 435 built.

Operators

 * Russian Air Force
 * Soviet Air Force
 * Soviet Air Defence Forces
 * Military of Turkmenistan
 * Ukrainian Air Force operated 35 aircraft.
 * 118th Independent Aviation Regt EW Chortkov (Yak-28 Brewer E (30), Su-24MP (12)) listed in early 1994 (Air Forces Monthly March 1994)
 * Military of Turkmenistan
 * Ukrainian Air Force operated 35 aircraft.
 * 118th Independent Aviation Regt EW Chortkov (Yak-28 Brewer E (30), Su-24MP (12)) listed in early 1994 (Air Forces Monthly March 1994)
 * 118th Independent Aviation Regt EW Chortkov (Yak-28 Brewer E (30), Su-24MP (12)) listed in early 1994 (Air Forces Monthly March 1994)

title: Yakovlev Yak-28


text:
German expressionist cinema

German expressionist cinema was a part of several related creative movements in Germany in the early 20th century that reached a peak in Berlin during the 1920s. These developments were part of a larger Expressionist movement in north and central European culture in fields such as architecture, dance, painting, sculpture and cinema.

Characteristics
German Expressionism was an artistic movement in the early 20th century that emphasized the artist's inner emotions rather than attempting to replicate reality. German Expressionist films rejected cinematic realism and used visual distortions and hyper-expressive performances to reflect inner conflicts.

History
The German Expressionist movement was initially confined to Germany due to the country's isolation during World War I. In 1916, the government banned foreign films, creating a sharp increase in the demand for domestic film production, from 24 films in 1914 to 130 films in 1918. With inflation also on the rise, Germans were attending films more freely because they knew that their money's value was constantly diminishing.

International audiences and appreciation for German cinema began to grow as anti-German sentiment decreased following the end of World War I. By the time its 1916 ban on imports on foreign film was lifted, Germany had become a part of the international film industry.

Among the first Expressionist films, The Student of Prague (1913), The Cabinet of Dr. Caligari (1920), From Morn to Midnight (1920), The Golem: How He Came into the World (1920), Genuine (1920), Destiny (1921), Nosferatu (1922), Phantom (1922), and Schatten (1923) were highly symbolic and stylized.

European societies of the 1920s embraced an ethic of change and a willingness to look to the future by experimenting with bold new ideas and artistic styles. The first Expressionist films, which lacked a generous budget, used set designs with wildly non-realistic, geometrically absurd angles, along with designs painted on walls and floors to represent lights, shadows, and objects. The plots and stories of the Expressionist films often dealt with madness, insanity, betrayal and other "intellectual" topics triggered by the experiences of World War I (as opposed to standard action-adventure and romantic films). Later films often categorized as part of the brief history of German Expressionism include Metropolis (1927) and M (1931), both directed by Fritz Lang. This trend was a reaction against realism. Its practitioners used extreme distortions in expression to show an inner emotional reality rather than what was on the surface.

The extreme anti-realism of Expressionism was short-lived, fading away after only a few years. The themes of Expressionism were integrated into later films of the 1920s and 1930s, resulting in an artistic control over the placement of scenery, light, etc., to enhance the mood of a film. This dark, moody school of filmmaking was brought to the United States when the Nazis gained power and many German film makers emigrated to Hollywood. Several German directors and cameramen flourished in Hollywood, producing a repertoire of films that had a profound effect.

Two genres that were especially influenced by Expressionism are horror film and film noir. Carl Laemmle and Universal Studios had produced horror films of the silent era, such as Lon Chaney's The Phantom of the Opera. German film makers such as Karl Freund (the cinematographer for Dracula in 1931) set the style and mood of the Universal monster movies of the 1930s with their dark and artistically designed sets, providing a model for later generations of horror films. Directors such as Fritz Lang, Billy Wilder, Otto Preminger, Alfred Hitchcock, Orson Welles, Carol Reed and Michael Curtiz introduced the Expressionist style to crime dramas of the 1930s and 1940s, expanding Expressionism's influence on modern film making.

Influence and legacy
German silent cinema was arguably far ahead of Hollywood during the same period. Cinema outside Germany benefited both from the emigration of German film makers and from German expressionist developments in style and technique that were apparent on the screen. The new look and techniques impressed other contemporary film makers, artists and cinematographers, and they began to incorporate the new style into their work.

In 1924, Alfred Hitchcock was sent by Gainsborough Pictures to work as an assistant director and art director at the UFA owned Babelsberg Studios in Potsdam near Berlin on the film The Blackguard. The immediate effect of the working environment in Germany can be seen in his expressionistic set designs for that film. Hitchcock later said he "acquired a strong German influence by working at the UFA studios".

German Expressionism would continue to influence Hitchcock throughout his career. In his third film, The Lodger, Hitchcock introduced expressionist set designs, lighting techniques, and trick camera work to the British public against the wishes of his studio. His visual experimentation included the use of an image of a man walking across a glass floor shot from below, a concept representing someone pacing upstairs.

Werner Herzog's 1979 film Nosferatu: Phantom der Nacht was a tribute to F. W. Murnau's 1922 film. The film uses expressionist techniques of highly symbolic acting and symbolic events to tell its story. The 1998 film Dark City used stark contrast, rigid movements, and fantastic elements.

Stylistic elements taken from German Expressionism are common today in films that need not reference contemporary realism, such as science fiction films (for example, Ridley Scott's 1982 film Blade Runner, which was itself influenced by Metropolis). Woody Allen's 1991 film Shadows and Fog is an homage to German and Austrian Expressionist filmmakers Fritz Lang, Georg Wilhelm Pabst and F. W. Murnau. The extreme angles of set decor and associated lighting were parodied by Ken Hughes in his Berlin spy school segment for the 1967 spoof version of Casino Royale.

Set designs
Many critics see a direct tie between cinema and architecture of the time, stating that the sets and scene artwork of Expressionist films often reveal buildings of sharp angles, great heights, and crowded environments, such as the frequently shown Tower of Babel in Fritz Lang's Metropolis.

Strong elements of monumentalism and Modernism appear throughout the canon of German Expressionism. An excellent example of this is Metropolis, as evidenced by the enormous power plant and glimpses of the massive yet pristine "upper" city.

German Expressionist painters rejected the naturalistic depiction of objective reality, often portraying distorted figures, buildings, and landscapes in a disorienting manner that disregarded the conventions of perspective and proportion. This approach, combined with jagged, stylized shapes and harsh, unnatural colors, were used to convey subjective emotions.

A number of artists and craftsmen working in the Berlin theater brought the Expressionist visual style to the design of stage sets. This, in turn, had an eventual influence on films dealing with fantasy and horror.

The prime example is Robert Wiene's dream-like film The Cabinet of Dr. Caligari (1920) which is universally recognized as an early classic of Expressionist cinema. Hermann Warm, the film's art director, worked with painters and stage designers Walter Reimann and Walter Röhrig to create fantastic, nightmarish sets with twisted structures and landscapes with sharp-pointed forms and oblique, curving lines. Some of these designs were constructions, others were painted directly onto canvases.

German Expressionist films produced in the Weimar Republic immediately following the First World War not only encapsulate the sociopolitical contexts in which they were created, but also rework the intrinsically modern problems of self-reflexivity, spectacle and identity.

According to Siegfried Kracauer and Lotte Eisner, German Expressionist cinema operates as a kind of collective consciousness and a symptomatic manifestation of what they polemically claim to be inherent cultural tendencies of the German nation. Expressionism has also been described as focusing on the "power of spectacles" and offering audiences "a kind of metonymic image of their own situation".

This film movement paralleled Expressionist painting and theater in rejecting realism. The creators in the Weimar Period sought to convey inner, subjective experience through external, objective means. Their films were characterized by highly stylized sets and acting; they used a new visual style which embodied high contrast and simple editing. The films were shot in studios where they could employ deliberately exaggerated and dramatic lighting and camera angles to emphasize some particular affect – fear, horror, pain. Aspects of Expressionist techniques were later adapted by such directors as Alfred Hitchcock and Orson Welles and were incorporated into many American gangster and horror films. Some of the major filmmakers of this time were F. W. Murnau, Erich Pommer, and Fritz Lang. The movement ended after the currency stabilized, making it cheaper to buy movies abroad. The UFA financially collapsed and German studios began to deal with Italian studios which led to their influence in style of horror and films noirs. The American influence on the film industry would also lead some film makers to continue their career in the US. The UFA's last film was Der blaue Engel (1930), considered a masterpiece of German Expressionism.

Interpretation
The two most comprehensive studies of German Expressionist film are Lotte Eisner's The Haunted Screen and Siegfried Kracauer's From Caligari to Hitler. Kracauer examines German cinema from the Silent/Golden Era to support the (controversial) conclusion that German films made prior to Hitler's takeover and the rise of the Third Reich all hint at the inevitability of Nazi Germany. For Eisner, similarly, German Expressionist cinema is a visual manifestation of Romantic ideals turned to dark and proto-totalitarian ends. More recent German Expressionist scholars examine historical elements influencing German Expressionism, such as the Weimar economy, UFA, Erich Pommer, Nordisk, and Hollywood.

title: German expressionist cinema


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Talk:Yasui house

i believ Yasui refers to a city in Iran called "yasuj". this city is not the capital of the Chahr Mahaal and Bakhtiari province, but the capital of the neighbouring province of Koh-ge-louyeh va boyer ahmad. the capital of Chahr Mahaal and Bakhtiari province is called Shahre-Kord which is corruption of the word "deh-kordeh" which means " village where shoes are made" (This comment was NOT by me, but moved here from the main article Gerritholl 07:33, 7 Oct 2004 (UTC))

title: Talk:Yasui house


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Speculaas

Speculaas (speculaas, spéculoos,, Spekulatius) is a type of spiced shortcrust biscuit baked with speculaas spices originated from the County of Flanders territory in present-day Belgium, France and the Netherlands.

Speculaas biscuits are usually flat and are often moulded to carry certain traditional images (see image on the right). They are particularly popular around the feast of St. Nicholas (Dutch: Sinterklaas). The oldest sources on speculaas also mention weddings and fairs. In recent decades, however, it has become normal to eat speculaas all year round, especially with coffee or tea, or with ice cream.

Speculaas is primarily made and consumed in Belgium, France and the Netherlands, as well as in Luxembourg and the German regions of Westphalia and Rhineland. It is also highly popular in the former Yugoslav countries, where it is manufactured by the Croatian food company Koestlin. The cookie can also be found in Indonesia where it is known as spekulaas or spekulaaskoekjes, and usually served at Christmas or on other special occasions.

title: Speculaas


text:
Araucanía (historic region)

Araucanía or Araucana was the Spanish name given to the region of Chile inhabited by the Mapuche peoples known as the Moluche (also known as Araucanos by the Spanish) in the 18th century. Prior to the Spanish conquest of Chile, the lands of the Moluche lay between the Itata River and Toltén River.

History
Following the great rising of the Moluche and Huilliche after the Battle of Curalaba in 1598 during the Arauco War, they expelled the Spanish from south of the Bío-Bío River. After many decades of further warfare, the bounds of Araucania were recognized by the Spanish as being between the Bío-Bío and Toltén rivers. This old region of Araucanía now is divided between the southern part of the Bío-Bío Region and the Araucanía Region in southern Chile.

General references

 * Juan Ignatius Molina, The Geographical, Natural, and Civil History of Chili, Vol II., Longman, Hurst, Rees, and Orme, London, 1809

title: Araucanía (historic region)