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Omar Ali Saifuddin I

Omar Ali Saifuddin I ibni Muhammad Alauddin (died 10 July 1795), also known as Al-Marhum Makam Besar, was the 18th Sultan of Brunei and the second son of Sultan Muhammad Alauddin. He was regarded as one of the longest-serving sultans and was renowned for his wise leadership and just rule, merely following his father-in-law, Sultan Hussin Kamaluddin. In fact, he received helpful knowledge, counsel, and experience from his father-in-law when he was still alive during his reigning period.

Succession
Sultan Husin Kamaluddin subsequently gave Pengiran Muda Tengah Omar Ali Saifuddin the sultanate of Brunei. In 1740, Pengiran Muda Tengah Omar Ali Saifuddin assumed the title of Sultan Omar Ali Saifuddin I. According to Sir Hugh Low, the new Sultan was still very young when he ascended the throne. It appears that the restoration go the Bendahara line and the end of the so-called legitimate or usurper rule coincided with the ascension to the throne of Sultan Omar Ali Saifuddin I. On the other hand, Spanish accounts claimed that the deceased Sultan obviously had no legal son, whereas Brunei sources Sisilah Raja-Raja Brunei and Batu Tarsilah assert that Sultan Omar Ali Saifuddin I was the heir.

Manila conflict
After Sultan Omar Ali Saifuddin learned about the situation in Manila of the Philippines, due to it being Bruneian territory, he was not pleased. As a result, he gave command to attack Sultan Alimuddin in Manila with his forces under the command of Pehin Orang Kaya Di-Gadong Seri Lela Awang Aliwaddin in 1769. The mission didn't arrive in Manila until 1769 because the expedition's preparations took so long. Sultan Alimuddin had already departed Manila for Sulu, therefore Manila was under Spanish rule when the siege began. The siege would go on to be a success as Manila was captured by the Brunei sultanate.

Sabah conflict
The conflict over North Borneo, also known as Sabah, began after which a promise made by Sultan Muhyiddin to the Sultan of Sulu after Sulu helped him win the Brunei Civil War that went in his favor. Sulu attacked Brunei in 1771 after he had become severely weakened. Sultan Omar Ali Saifuddin signed a deal with the British Empire in June 1774 to secure outside support. The British were looking for a storehouse along the way to Canton and received exclusive rights to the pepper trade in exchange for their military assistance. When Sulu despatch a force under the command of Datu Teting to attack Balambangan in 1775, its leaders sought safety in Labuan after the British quickly established a presence in Brunei. When the two forces clashed, Datu Teting surrendered and his troops fled back to Sulu after learning that the warriors of Brunei, led by Pengiran Temenggong Ampa, were far too strong for them to defeat. Thomas Forrest visited Brunei in February 1776. Despite Labuan's offer, the British left Brunei in 1777 due to the financial collapse of Balambangan, losing the entire East India Company.

Abdication

Sultan Omar Ali Saifuddin I ruled until the year 1778. He abdicated his position in favour of his son, Pengiran Muda Besar Muhammad Tajuddin, later known as Sultan Muhammad Tajuddin, being the heir.

After death, he was buried at the Kubah Makam Di Raja in Bandar Seri Begawan.

Personal life
Sultan Omar Ali Saifuddin was married three times, three out of his four wives were Sultan Husin Kamaluddin's daughters; Pengiran Anak Putri, Pengiran Anak Nur Alam, Pengiran Istri Bongsu and Wan Puteh. Known children of Omar Ali were:
 * Sultan Muhammad Tajuddin
 * Sultan Muhammad Khanzul Alam
 * Pangiran Anak Abdul Wahab
 * Pangiran Anak Sulaiman
 * Pangiran Anak Usuf
 * Pengiran Muhammad Ayub

title: Omar Ali Saifuddin I


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User talk:Alainprost

Hello and welcome to Wikipedia! Hope you like it here, and stick around.

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[[User:Meelar|Meelar (talk)]]

P.S. One last helpful hint. To sign your posts like I did above (on talk pages, for example) use the '~' symbol. To insert just your name, type ~~~ (3 tildes), or, to insert your name and timestamp, use ~~~~ (4 tildes).

Don't commit vandalism. __earth 02:03, Nov 7, 2004 (UTC)

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: User talk:Alainprost


text:
User talk:JORDI SIRVENT NUÑEZ

Hello and welcome to Wikipedia! Hope you like it here, and stick around.

Here are some tips to help you get started:

 * Try the Tutorial, and feel free to experiment in the test area.
 * If you need help, post a question at the Help Desk
 * Eventually, you might want to read the Manual of Style and Policies and Guidelines.
 * Remember Neutral point of view
 * Explore, be bold in editing pages, and, most importantly, have fun!

Good luck!

[[User:Meelar|Meelar (talk)]]

P.S. One last helpful hint. To sign your posts like I did above (on talk pages, for example) use the '~' symbol. To insert just your name, type ~~~ (3 tildes), or, to insert your name and timestamp, use ~~~~ (4 tildes).

Cerdanya
Please see my question at Talk:Cerdanya -- Jmabel|Talk 19:47, Oct 11, 2004 (UTC)

Catalan Sheepdog
Thanks for the lovely photo! To use it, we need to know the source (where you got it or who took the photo) and its licensing status--whether it is public domain or released under GFDL like all of the text in Wikipedia. Could you please take a moment to edit your Image:Gos12.gif with this info? To specify the license of the file, add if the file is licenced under the GFDL,  if it is in the public domain, etc. See Image copyright tags for more of these. Thanks! (For example, you can go to one of my images Image:AustrCattleDogBlueFace wb.jpg and click Edit this page to see what it contains.) Elf | Talk 23:41, 13 Oct 2004 (UTC)

Image Tagging Image:Cornersm.jpg
Thanks for uploading Image:Cornersm.jpg. I notice the 'image' page currently doesn't specify who created the content, so the copyright status is unclear. If you have not created this media yourself then there needs to be an argument why we have the right to use the media on Wikipedia (see copyright tagging below). If you have not created the media yourself then it needs to be specified where it was found, i.e., in most cases link to the website where it was taken from, and the terms of use for content from that page.

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Image Tagging Image:Ripoll.jpg
Thanks for uploading Image:Ripoll.jpg. I notice the 'image' page currently doesn't specify who created the content, so the copyright status is unclear. If you have not created this media yourself then there needs to be an argument why we have the right to use the media on Wikipedia (see copyright tagging below). If you have not created the media yourself then it needs to be specified where it was found, i.e., in most cases link to the website where it was taken from, and the terms of use for content from that page.

If the media also doesn't have a copyright tag then one should be added. If you created/took the picture, audio, or video then the GFDL-self tag can be used to release it under the GFDL. If you believe the media qualifies as fair use, consider reading fair use, and then use a tag such as or one of the other tags listed at Image copyright tags. See Image copyright tags for the full list of copyright tags that you can use.

If you have uploaded other media, consider checking that you have specified their source and copyright tagged them, too. You can find a list of 'image' pages you have edited by clicking on the "my contributions" link (it is located at the very top of any Wikipedia page when you are logged in), and then selecting "Image" from the dropdown box. Note that any unsourced and untagged images will be deleted one week after they have been uploaded, as described on criteria for speedy deletion. If you have any questions please ask them at the Media copyright questions page. Thank you.

Image:Federico_jimenez_losantos1.jpg
Thank you for uploading Image:Federico_jimenez_losantos1.jpg. Its copyright status is unclear, so it may have to be deleted. Please leave a note on the image page about the source of the image. Thank you. --Kevin McManus 22:02, Jun 17, 2005 (UTC)

Image Tagging Image:Palau.jpg
Thanks for uploading Image:Palau.jpg. I notice it currently doesn't have an image copyright tag, so its copyright status is therefore unclear. Could you add a tag to let us know its copyright status? (If you created/took the picture then you can use to release it under the GFDL. If you can claim fair use use  .)  If you don't know what any of this means, just let me know on the image description page where you got the images and I'll tag them for you. Otherwise, see Image copyright tags for the full list of copyright tags that you can use. Thanks so much. --michael180 15:35, August 5, 2005 (UTC)

Image replaced and up for deletion
Hi, I've replaced the image Image:Estalada 39.jpg, uploaded by you, with Image:Estalada flag.svg because SVG is a more suitable format for images with no photographical content. The original image has been listed for deletion—hope this is OK. –Mysid 07:10, 9 December 2005 (UTC)

Fair use rationale for Image:Estalada 8.gif
Thanks for uploading Image:Estalada 8.gif. I notice the image page specifies that the image is being used under fair use but there is no explanation or rationale as to why its use in Wikipedia articles constitutes fair use. In addition to the boilerplate fair use template, you must also write out on the image description page a specific explanation or rationale for why using this image in each article is consistent with fair use.

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Unspecified source for Image:Estalada 8.gif
Thanks for uploading Image:Estalada 8.gif. I noticed that the file's description page currently doesn't specify who created the content, so the copyright status is unclear. If you did not create this file yourself, then you will need to specify the owner of the copyright. If you obtained it from a website, then a link to the website from which it was taken, together with a restatement of that website's terms of use of its content, is usually sufficient information. However, if the copyright holder is different from the website's publisher, then their copyright should also be acknowledged.

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If you have uploaded other files, consider checking that you have specified their source and tagged them, too. You can find a list of files you have uploaded by following [ this link]. Unsourced and untagged images may be deleted one week after they have been tagged, as described on criteria for speedy deletion. If the image is copyrighted under a non-free license (per Fair use) then the image will be deleted 48 hours after 20:29, 17 May 2007 (UTC). If you have any questions please ask them at the Media copyright questions page. Thank you.Betacommand (talk • contribs • Bot) 20:29, 17 May 2007 (UTC)

Non-free use disputed for Image:Estalada 8.gif
Thanks for uploading Image:Estalada 8.gif. However, there is a concern that the rationale you have provided for using this image under "fair use" may be invalid. Please read carefully the instructions at Non-free content and then go to the image description page and clarify why you think the image qualifies.

If it is determined that the image does not qualify under fair use, it will be deleted within a couple of days according to our Criteria for speedy deletion. If you have any questions please ask them at the Media copyright questions page. Thank you.Betacommand (talk • contribs • Bot) 06:14, 23 May 2007 (UTC)

Non-free use disputed for Image:Puigcerda.gif
Thanks for uploading Image:Puigcerda.gif. However, there is a concern that the rationale you have provided for using this image under "fair use" may be invalid. Please read carefully the instructions at Non-free content and then go to the image description page and clarify why you think the image qualifies.

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title: User talk:JORDI SIRVENT NUÑEZ


text:
Soter

Soter derives from the Greek epithet σωτήρ (sōtēr), meaning a saviour, a deliverer; initial capitalised Σωτήρ; fully capitalised ΣΩΤΗΡ; feminine Soteira (Σώτειρα) or sometimes Soteria (Σωτηρία).

"Soter" was used as:
 * a title of gods: Poseidon Soter, Zeus Soter, Dionysus Soter, Apollo Soter, Hades Soter, Helios Soter, Athena Soteira, Asclepius Soter, and Hecate Soteira.
 * the name of a distinct mythical figure, Soter (daimon)
 * an epithet of several heroized or deified leaders of Hellenistic dynasties, see Hellenistic ruler cult:
 * Antigonus Monophthalmus (382 to 301 BCE), awarded the title for liberating Athens from Cassander
 * Ptolemy I Soter of Egypt (reigned 323-283 BCE)
 * Antiochus I Soter of the Seleucid Empire (reigned 281-261 BCE)
 * Demetrius I Soter of the Seleucid Empire (reigned 161-150 BCE)
 * Diomedes Soter
 * Dionysios Soter
 * Polyxenos Epiphanes Soter
 * Rabbel II Soter
 * Attalus I
 * Seleucus III Ceraunus
 * Ptolemy IX (died 81 BCE), twice king of Ptolemaic Egypt
 * Diodotus I
 * Strato II
 * Strato I
 * Menander I (died 130 BCE), Greco-Bactrian and Indo-Greek king
 * a title of liberators (see also eleutherios (disambiguation)
 * a title of Jesus of Nazareth, which came into use some time after the death of Paul the Apostle, most particularly in the fish acronym
 * the term "God our Saviour" (, dative) occurs several times in the New Testament, in the Epistle of Jude, 1 Timothy and Titus.
 * Pope Soter, (r. ca. 167 – 174).

title: Soter


text:
User talk:Narym~enwiki

Hej!
Möjligtvis, men det kommer nog dröja ett tag i så fall. Inriktar mig på att göra klart så mycket som möjligt på engelska först, eftersom de flesta svenskar ändå kan läsa engelska. Dessutom är ju alla förbandsnamn utskrivna på svenska också. En av sidorna som jag använder ganska mycket är http://www.algonet.se/~hogman/regementen_lnf.htm den kan nog intressera dig. :) feldgrau 18:58, 10 Oct 2004 (UTC)

Your account will be renamed
Hello,

The developer team at Wikimedia is making some changes to how accounts work, as part of our on-going efforts to provide new and better tools for our users like cross-wiki notifications. These changes will mean you have the same account name everywhere. This will let us give you new features that will help you edit and discuss better, and allow more flexible user permissions for tools. One of the side-effects of this is that user accounts will now have to be unique across all 900 Wikimedia wikis. See the announcement for more information.

Unfortunately, your account clashes with another account also called Narym. To make sure that both of you can use all Wikimedia projects in future, we have reserved the name Narym~enwiki that only you will have. If you like it, you don't have to do anything. If you do not like it, you can pick out a different name. If you think you might own all of the accounts with this name and this message is in error, please visit Special:MergeAccount to check and attach all of your accounts to prevent them from being renamed.

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Sorry for the inconvenience.

Yours, Keegan Peterzell Community Liaison, Wikimedia Foundation 02:06, 20 March 2015 (UTC)

Renamed
 This account has been renamed as part of single-user login finalisation. If you own this account you can |log in using your previous username and password for more information. If you do not like this account's new name, you can choose your own using this form after logging in: . -- Keegan (WMF) (talk) 16:48, 22 April 2015 (UTC)

title: User talk:Narym~enwiki


text: User talk:82.82.52.240

title: User talk:82.82.52.240


text:
Wikipedia:Articles for deletion/IndiaNumbered1.png

The word "claimed" is a POV on this map. Since I removed the POV and uploded a new image (IndiaNumbered2.png), need to know if anyone has any objection before I delete this map. ¶ ɳȉčḩåḽṗ | [[User talk:nichalp| ✉ ]] 18:59, Oct 10, 2004 (UTC)


text:
Road movie

A road movie is a film genre in which the main characters leave home on a road trip, typically altering the perspective from their everyday lives. Road movies often depict travel in the hinterlands, with the films exploring the theme of alienation and examining the tensions and issues of the cultural identity of a nation or historical period; this is all often enmeshed in a mood of actual or potential menace, lawlessness, and violence, a "distinctly existential air" and is populated by restless, "frustrated, often desperate characters". The setting includes not just the close confines of the car as it moves on highways and roads, but also booths in diners and rooms in roadside motels, all of which helps to create intimacy and tension between the characters. Road movies tend to focus on the theme of masculinity (with the man often going through some type of crisis), some type of rebellion, car culture, and self-discovery. The core theme of road movies is "rebellion against conservative social norms".

There are two main narratives: the quest and the outlaw chase. In the quest-style film, the story meanders as the characters make discoveries (e.g., Two-Lane Blacktop from 1971). In outlaw road movies, in which the characters are fleeing from law enforcement, there is usually more sex and violence (e.g., Natural Born Killers from 1994). Road films tend to focus more on characters' internal conflicts and transformations, based on their feelings as they experience new realities on their trip, rather than on the dramatic movement-based sequences that predominate in action films. Road movies do not typically use the standard three-act structure used in mainstream films; instead, an "open-ended, rambling plot structure" is used.

The road movie keeps its characters "on the move", and as such the "car, the tracking shot, [and] wide and wild open space" are important iconography elements, similar to a Western movie. As well, the road movie is similar to a Western in that road films are also about a "frontiersmanship" and about the codes of discovery (often self-discovery). Road movies often use the music from the car stereo, which the characters are listening to, as the soundtrack and in 1960s and 1970s road movies, rock music is often used (e.g., Easy Rider from 1969 used a rock soundtrack of songs from Jimi Hendrix, The Byrds and Steppenwolf).

While early road movies from the 1930s focused on couples, in post-World War II films, usually the travellers are male buddies, although in some cases, women are depicted on the road, either as temporary companions, or more rarely, as the protagonist couple (e.g., Thelma & Louise from 1991). The genre can also be parodied, or have protagonists that depart from the typical heterosexual couple or buddy paradigm, as with The Adventures of Priscilla, Queen of the Desert (1994), which depicts a group of drag queens who tour the Australian desert. Other examples of the increasing diversity of the drivers shown in 1990s and subsequent decades' road films are The Living End (1992), about two gay, HIV-positive men on a road trip; To Wong Foo, Thanks for Everything! Julie Newmar (1995), which is about drag queens, and Smoke Signals (1998), which is about two Indigenous men. While rare, there are some road movies about large groups on the road (Get on the Bus from 1996) and lone drivers (Vanishing Point from 1971).

Genre and production elements
The road movie has been called an elusive and ambiguous film genre. Timothy Corrigan states that road movies are a "knowingly impure" genre as they have "overdetermined and built-in genre-blending tendencies". Devin Orgeron states that road movies, despite their literal focus on car trips, are "about the [history of] the cinema, about the culture of the image", with road movies created with a mixture of Classical Hollywood film genres. The road movie genre developed from a "constellation of “solid” modernity, combining locomotion and media-motion" to get "away from the sedentarising forces of modernity and produc[e] contingency".

Road movies are blended with other genres to create a number of subgenres, including: road horror (e.g., Near Dark from 1987); road comedies (e.g., Flirting with Disaster from 1996); road racing films (e.g., Death Race 2000 from 1975) and rock concert tour films (e.g., Almost Famous from 2000). Film noir road movies include Detour (1945), Desperate, The Devil Thumbs a Ride (1947) and The Hitch-Hiker (1953), all of which "establish fear and suspense around hitchhiking", and the outlaw-themed film noirs They Live by Night (1948) and Gun Crazy. Film noir-influenced road films continued in the neo noir era, with The Hitcher (1986), Delusion (1991), Red Rock West (1992), and Joy Ride (2001).

Even though road movies are a significant and popular genre, it is an "overlooked strain of film history". Major genre studies often do not examine road movies, and there has been little analysis of what qualifies as a road movie.

United States
The road movie is mostly associated with the United States, as it focuses on "peculiarly American dreams, tensions and anxieties". US road movies examine the tension between the two foundational myths of American culture, which are individualism and populism, which leads to some road films depicting the open road as a "utopian fantasy" with a homogenous culture while others show it as a "dystopian nightmare" of extreme cultural differences. US road movies depict the wide open, vast spaces of the highways as symbolizing the "scale and notionally utopian" opportunities to move up upwards and outwards in life. In US road movies, the road is an "alternative space" where the characters, now set apart from conventional society, can experience transformation. For example, in It Happened One Night (1934), a wealthy woman who goes on the road is liberated from her elite background and marriage to an immoral husband when she meets and experiences hospitality from regular, good-hearted Americans who she never would have met in her previous life, with middle America depicted as a utopia of "real community". The scenes in road movies tend to elicit longing for a mythic past.

American road movies have tended to be a white genre, with Spike Lee's Get on the Bus (1996) being a notable exception, as its main characters are African-American men on a bus travelling to the Million Man March (the film depicts the historic role of buses in the US civil rights movement). Asian-American filmmakers have used the road movie to examine the role and treatment of Asian-Americans in the United States; examples include Wayne Wang's Chan Is Missing (1982), about a taxi driver trying to find about the Hollywood detective character Charlie Chan, and Abraham Lim's Roads and Bridges (2001), about an Asian-American prisoner who is sentenced to clean up garbage along a Midwestern highway.

Australia
Australia's vast open spaces and concentrated population have made the road movie a key genre in that country, with films such as George Miller's Mad Max films, which were rooted in an Australian tradition for films with "dystopian and noir themes with the destructive power of cars and the country’s harsh, sparsely populated land mass". Australian road movies have been described as having a dystopian or gothic tone, as the road the characters travel on is often a "dead end", with the journey being more about "inward-looking" exploration than reaching the intended location. In Australia, road movies have been called a "complex metaphor" which refers to the country's history, current situation, and to anxieties about the future. The Mad Max films, including Mad Max, The Road Warrior and Mad Max Beyond Thunderdome, "have become canonical for their dystopic reinvention of the outback as a post-human wasteland where survival depends upon manic driving skills". Other Australian road movies include Peter Weir's The Cars That Ate Paris (1974), about a small town where the inhabitants cause road accidents to salvage the vehicles; the biker film Stone (1974) by Sandy Harbutt, about a biker gang who witness a political cover-up murder; The (1981) thriller Roadgames by Richard Franklin, about a truck driver who tracks down a serial killer in the Australian outback; Dead-end Drive-in (1986) by Brian Trenchard-Smith, about a dystopian future where drive-in theatres are turned into detention centres; Metal Skin (1994) by Geoffrey Wright about a street racer; and Kiss or Kill (1997) by Bill Bennett, a film noir-style road movie.

The Adventures of Priscilla, Queen of the Desert (1994) has been called a "watershed gay road movie that addresses diversity in Australia".  Walkabout (1971), Backroads (1977), and Rabbit-Proof Fence (2002) use a depiction of travelling through the Australian outback to address the issue of relations between white and Indigenous people.

In 2005, Fiona Probyn described a subgenre of road movies about Indigenous Australians that she called "No Road" movies, in that they typically do not show a vehicle travelling on an asphalt road; instead, these films depict travel on a trail, often with Indigenous trackers being shown using their tracking abilities to discern hard-to-detect clues on the trail. With the increasing depiction of racial minorities in Australian road movies, the "No Road" subgenre has also been associated with Asian-Australian films that depict travel using routes other than roads (e.g., the 2010 film Mother Fish, which depicts travel over water as it tells the story of the boat people refugees). The iconography of car crashes in many Australian road movies (particularly the Mad Max series) has been called a symbol of white-Indigenous violence, a rupture point in the narrative which erases and forgets the history of this violence.

Canada
Canada also has huge expanses of territory, which make the road movie also common in that country, where the genre is used to examine "themes of alienation and isolation in relation to an expansive, almost foreboding landscape of seemingly endless space", and explore how Canadian identity differs from the "less humble and self-conscious neighbours to the south", in United States. Canadian road films include Donald Shebib's Goin' Down the Road (1970), three Bruce McDonald films (Roadkill (1989), Highway 61 (1991), and Hard Core Logo (1996), a mockumentary about a punk rock band's road tour), Malcolm Ingram's Tail Lights Fade (1999) and Gary Burns' The Suburbanators (1995). David Cronenberg's Crash (1996) depicted drivers who get "perverse sexual arousal through the car crash experience", a subject matter which led to Ted Turner lobbying against the film being shown in US theatres.

Asian-Canadian filmmakers have made road films about the experience of Canadians of Asian origin, such as Ann Marie Fleming's The Magical Life of Long Tak Sam, which is about her search for her "Chinese grandfather, an itinerant magician and acrobat". Other Asian-Canadian road movies look at their relatives experiences during the 1940s internment of Japanese Canadians by the Canadian government (e.g., Lise Yasui's Family Gathering (1988), Rea Tajiri's History and Memory (1991) and Janet Tanaka's Memories from the Department of Amnesia (1991).

Europe
European filmmakers of road movies appropriate the conventions established by American directors, while at the same time reformulating these approaches, by de-emphasizing the speed of the driver on the road, increasing the amount of introspection (often on themes such as national identity), and depicting the road trip as a search on the part of the characters.

The German filmmaker Wim Wenders explored the American themes of road movies through his European reference point in his Road Movie trilogy in the mid-1970s. They include Alice in the Cities (1974), The Wrong Move (1975), and Kings of the Road (1976). All three films were shot by cinematographer Robby Müller and mostly take place in West Germany. Kings of the Road includes stillness, which is unusual for road movies, and quietness (except for the rock soundtrack). Other road movies by Wenders include Paris, Texas and Until the End of the World. Wender's road movies "filter nomadic excursions through a pensive Germanic lens" and depict "somber drifters coming to terms with their internal scars".

France has a road movie tradition than stretches from Bertrand Blier's Les Valseuses (1973) and Agnès Varda's Sans toit ni loi (about a homeless woman) to 1990s films such as Merci la vie (1991) and Virginie Despentes and Coralie Trinh Thi's Baise-moi (a controversial film about two women revenging a rape), to 2000s films such as Laurent Cantet's L'emploi du temps (2001) and Cédric Kahn's Feux rouges (2004). While French road movies share the US road movie's focus on the theme of individual freedom, French movies also balance this value with equality and fraternity, according to the French Republican model of liberty-equality-fraternity.

Neil Archer states that French and other Francophone (e.g., Belgium, Switzerland) road films focus on "displacement and identity", notably in regards to maghrebin immigrants and young people (e.g., Yamina Benguigui's Inch'Allah Dimanche (2001), Ismaël Ferroukhi's La Fille de Keltoum (2001) and Tony Gatlif's Exils (2004). More broadly, European films are tending to use imagery of border-crossing and focusing on "marginal identities and economic migration", which can be seen in Lukas Moodysson's Lilja 4-ever (2002), Michael Winterbottom's In This World (2002) and Ulrich Seidl's Import/Export (2007). European road movies also examine post-colonialism, "disclocation, memory and identity".

Road movies from Spain have a strong American influence, with the films incorporating the road movie-comedy genre hybrid made popular in US films such as Peter Farrelly's Dumb and Dumber (1994). Spanish films including Los años bárbaros, Carretera y manta, Trileros, Al final del Camino, and Airbag, which has been called the "most successful Spanish road movie of all time". Airbag, along with Slam (2003), El mundo alrededor (2006) and Los managers, are examples of Spanish road films that, like US movies such as Road Trip, uses the "road movie genre as a narrative framework for...gross-out sex comedy". The director of Airbag, Juanma Bajo Ulloa, states that he aimed to make fun of the road movie genre as established in North America, while still using the metamorphosis through road trip narrative that is popular in the genre (in this case, the main male character rejects his upper class girlfriend in favour of a prostitute he meets on the road). Airbag also uses Spanish equivalents to the stock road movie setting and iconography, depicting "deserts, casinos and road clubs" and use the road movie action sequences (chases, car explosions, and crashes) that remind the viewer of similar work by Tony Scott and Oliver Stone.

A second subtype of Spanish road movies is more influenced by the female road movies from the US, such as Martin Scorsese's Alice Doesn't Live Here Anymore (1974), Jonathan Demme's Crazy Mama (1975), Ridley Scott's Thelma & Louise (1991), and Herbert Ross' Boys on the Side (1995), in that they show a "less traditional" and more "visible, innovative, introspective, and realistic" type of woman onscreen. Spanish road movies about women include Hola, ¿estás sola?, Lisboa, Fugitivas, Retorno a Hansala, and Sin Dejar Huella address social issues about women, such as the "injustice and mistreatment" that women experience under "authoritarian patriarchal order." Fugitivas depicts an American road movie genre convention: the "disintegration of the family and the community" and the "journey of transformation", as it depicts two fugitives on the run, whose distrust fades as the two women learn to trust each other from their adventures on the road. The images in the film are blend of homage to US road movie conventions (gas stations, billboards) and "recognizable Spanish types", such as the "embittered drunkard".

Other European road films include Ingmar Bergman's Wild Strawberries (1957), about an old professor travelling the roads of Sweden and picking up hitchhikers and Jean-Luc Godard's Pierrot le fou (1965) about law-breaking lovers escaping on the road. Both of these films, as well as Roberto Rossellini's Voyage in Italy (1953) and Godard's Weekend (1967) have more "existential sensibility" or pauses for "philosophical digressions of a European bent", as compared with American road films. Three Men and a Leg (1997) features several sketches from filmmakers and producers' Aldo, Giovanni & Giacomo's previous comedy productions overlaid with the rest of the movie's road-trip and romantic comedy atmosphere. Other European road films include Chris Petit's Radio On (1979), a Wim Wenders-influenced film set on the M4 motorway; Aki Kaurismäki's Leningrad Cowboys Go America ( 1989), about a fictional Russian rock band which travels to the US; and Theo Angelopoulos' Landscape in the Mist, about a road trip from Greece to Germany.

Latin America
Road movies made in Latin America are similar in feel to European road films. Latin American road movies are usually about a cast of characters, rather than a couple or single person, and the films explore the differences between urban and rural regions and between north and south. Luis Buñuel's Subida al Cielo (Mexican Bus Ride, 1951), is about a poor rural person's trip into a big city to help his mother, who is dying. The road trip on this film is shown as a "carnivalesque pilgrimage" or "travelling circus", an approach also used in Bye Bye Brazil (1979, Brazil), Guantanamera (1995, Cuba), and Central do Brasil (Central Station, 1998, Brazil). Some Latin American road movies are also set in the era of conquest, such as Cabeza de Vaca (1991, Mexico). Movies about outlaws escaping from justice include Profundo Carmesí (Deep Crimson, 1996, Mexico) and El Camino (The Road, 2000, Argentina). Y tu mamá también (And Your Mother Too, 2001, Mexico) is about two young male buddies who have sexual adventures on the road.

Russia and countries of the former USSR
Movies involving road movie genre while being rejected by mainstream media, gained huge popularity in Russian art cinema and surrounding post-Soviet cultures, slowly building their way into international film festivals. Well-known examples are My Joy (2010), Bimmer (2003), Major (2013), and How Vitka Chesnok Took Lyokha Shtyr to the Home for Invalids (2017). Some other movies incorporate a large portion of road movie style, for example Morphine (2008), Leviathan (2014), Cargo 200 (2007), Donbass (2018).

With themes ranging from crime, corruption and power to history, addiction and existence, road movies became an independent part of cinematic landscape. From the strong flow of existentialism, to the black comedy style, the road movie experienced a new revival. Most precious are pieces from Sergei Loznitsa, in his early work My Joy (2010) he used black noir style to tell the story of people falling together with destruction of governments after the fall of the Soviet Union. In his later work Donbass (2018), he takes an opposing style, turning to black comedy and satire to underline actual war tragedies in the Russo-Ukrainian War.

India
Indian screens saw a series of road movies with experimental filmmaker Ram Gopal Varma's works such as Kshana Kshanam. Rachel Dwyer, a reader in world cinema at the University of London-Department of South Asia, marked Varma's contribution into the new-age film noir. The film received critical reception at the Ann Arbor Film Festival, which led to a series of genre-benders like Mani Ratnam's Thiruda Thiruda, and Varma's Daud, Anaganaga Oka Roju and Road. Subsequently 21st century bollywood movies witnessed a surge of motion-pictures such as Road, Movie, nominated for the Tokyo Sakura Grand Prix Award, the Tribeca Film Festival, and the Generation 14plus at the 60th Berlin International Film Festival in 2010. Liars Dice explores the story of a young mother from a remote village who, going in search of her missing husband, goes missing, the film examines the human cost of migration to cities and the exploitation of migrant workers. It was India's Official Entry for the Best Foreign Language Film for the 87th Academy Awards. It won special prize at Sofia International Film Festival. In Karwaan, the protagonist is forced to set out on a road trip from Bengaluru to Kochi after he loses his father in an accident, but the body delivered to him is of the mother of a woman in another state.

Ryan Gilbey of The Guardian was broadly positive about Zoya Akhtar's Zindagi Na Milegi Dobara; he wrote, "It's still playing to full houses, and you can see why. Slick it may be. But tourist board employees representing the various Spanish cities flattered in the movie are not the only ones who will come out grinning", and that he found the movie "stubbornly un-macho" for a buddy film. Piku tells the story of the short-tempered Piku Banerjee (Deepika Padukone), her grumpy, aging father Bhashkor (Amitabh Bachchan) and Rana Chaudhary (Irrfan Khan), who is stuck between the father-daughter duo, as they embark on a journey from Delhi to Kolkata. In Nagesh Kukunoor's children's film Dhanak a blind kid and his sister set off alone on a 300 km journey traversing testing Indian terrain from Jaislamer to Jodhpur, the film won the Crystal Bear Grand Prix for Best Children's Film, and Special Mention for the Best Feature Film by The Children's Jury for Generation Kplus at the 65th Berlin International Film Festival Finding Fanny is based on a road trip set in Goa and follows the journey of five dysfunctional friends who set out on a road trip in search of Fanny. The Good Road is told in a hyperlink format, where several stories are intertwined, with the center of the action being a highway in the rural lands of Gujarat near a town in Kutch.

Africa
Several road movies have been produced in Africa, including Cocorico! Monsieur Poulet (1977, Niger); The Train of Salt and Sugar (2016, Mozambique); Hayat (2016, Morocco); Touki Bouki (1973, Senegal) and Borders (2017, Burkina Faso).

History
The genre has its roots in spoken and written tales of epic journeys, such as the Odyssey and the Aeneid. The road film is a standard plot employed by screenwriters. It is a type of bildungsroman, a story in which the hero changes, grows or improves over the course of the story. It focuses more on the journey rather than the goal. David Laderman lists other literary influences on the road movie, such as Don Quixote (1615), which uses a description of a journey to create social satire; The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn (1884), a story about a journey down the Mississippi River that is full of social commentary; Heart of Darkness (1902), about a journey down a river in the Belgian Congo to search for a rogue colonial trader; and Women in Love (1920), which describes "travel and mobility" while also providing social commentary about the woes of industrialization. Laderman states that Women in Love particularly lays the groundwork for the future road films, as it showed a couple who rebelled against social norms by leaving their familiar location and going on an aimless, meandering journey.

Steinbeck's novel The Grapes of Wrath (1939) depicts a family that struggles to survive on the road during the Great Depression, a book that has been called "America's best-known proletarian road saga". The movie version of the novel, made a year later, depicts the hungry, weary family's travel on Route 66 using "montage sequences, reflected images of the road on windshields and mirrors", and shots taken from the driver's point of view to create a sense of movement and place. Even though Henry Miller's The Air-Conditioned Nightmare (1947) is not a fictional work, it captures the mood of frustration, restlessness and aimlessness that became prevalent in the road movie. In the book, which describe's Miller's cross-country journey across the United States, he criticizes the nation's descent into materialism.

Western films such as John Ford's Stagecoach (1939) have been called "proto-road movies." In the film, an unusual group of travellers, including a banker, prostitute, escaped prisoner and a military officer's wife, move through the dangerous desert trails. Even though the travellers are so unlike each other, the mutual danger they must face in travelling through Geronimo's Apache territory requires them to work together to create a "utopia of...community". The difference between older stories about wandering characters and the road movie is technological: with road movies, the hero travels by car, motorcycle, bus or train, making road movies a representation of modernity's advantages and social ills. The on-the-road plot was used at the birth of American cinema but blossomed in the years after World War II, reflecting a boom in automobile production and the growth of youth culture. Early road movies have been criticized for their "casual misogyny", "fear of otherness", and for not examining issues such as power, privilege, and gender and for mostly showing white people.

The road movie of the pre-WW II era was changed by the publication of Jack Kerouac's On the Road in 1957, as it sketched out the future for the road movie and provided its "master narrative" of exploration, questing, and journeying. The book includes many descriptions of driving in cars. It also depicted the character Sal Paradise, a middle class college student who goes on the road to seek material for his writing career, a bounded journey with a clear start and finish which differs from the open ended wandering of previous films, with characters making chance encounters with other drivers who influence where one travels or ends up. To contrast the intellectual Sal character, Kerouac has the juvenile delinquent Dean, a wild, fast-driving character who represents the idea that the road provides liberation.

By depicting a movie character who was marginalized and who could not be incorporated into mainstream American culture, Kerouac opened the way for road movies to depict a more diverse range of characters, rather than just heterosexual couples (e.g., It Happened One Night), groups on the move (e.g., The Grapes of Wrath), notably the pair of male buddies. On the Road and another novel published in the same era, Vladimir Nabokov's novel Lolita (1955), have been called "two monumental road novels that rip back and forth across American with a subversive erotic charge."

In the 1950s, there were "wholesome" road comedies such as Bob Hope and Bing Crosby's Road to Bali (1952), Vincente Minnelli's The Long, Long Trailer (1954) and the Dean Martin and Jerry Lewis film Hollywood or Bust (1956). There were not many 1950s road films, but "postwar youth culture" was depicted in The Wild One (1953) and Rebel Without a Cause (1955).

Timothy Corrigan states that post-WW II, the genre of road films became more codified, with features solidifying such as the use of characters experiencing "amnesia, hallucinations and theatrical crisis". David Laderman states that road movies have a modernist aesthetic approach, as they focus on "rebellion, social criticism, and liberating thrills", which shows "disillusionment" with mainstream political and aesthetic norms. Awareness of the "road picture" as a separate genre came only in the 1960s with Bonnie and Clyde and Easy Rider. Road movies were an important genre in the late 1960s and 1970s era of the New Hollywood, with films such as Terrence Malick's Badlands and Richard Sarafian's Vanishing Point (1971) showing an influence from Bonnie and Clyde.

There may have been influences from French cinema in the creation of Bonnie and Clyde; David Newman and Robert Benton have stated that they were influenced by Jean-Luc Godard's A bout de souffle (1960) and François Truffaut's Tirez sur la pianiste (1960). More generally, Devin Orgeron states that American road movies were based on post-WW II European cinema's own take on the American road film approach, showing a mutual influence between US and European filmmakers in this genre.

The addition of violence to the sexual tension of road movies in the late 1960s and in subsequent decades can be seen as a way to create more excitement and "frisson". From the 1930s to 1960s, merely showing a man and woman on a road trip was exciting for audience, as all the motel stays and closeness had implied, yet deferred, consummation of the sexual attraction between the characters (sex could not be depicted due to the Motion Picture Production Code). With Bonnie and Clyde (1967) and Natural Born Killers (1994), the heterosexual couple are united by their involvement in murder; as well, with jail hanging over their heads, there can be no return to domestic life at the end of the film.

There have been three historical eras of the "outlaw-rebel" road movie: the post-WW II film noir era (e.g., Detour), the late 1960s era which was rocked by the Vietnam War (Easy Rider and Bonnie and Clyde), and the post-Reagan era of the 1990s, when the "masculinist heroics of the Gulf War gave way to closer scrutiny" (My Own Private Idaho, Thelma & Louise and Natural Born Killers). In the 1970s, there were low-budget outlaw films depicting chases, such as Eddie Macon's Run. In the 1980s, there were rural Southern road movies such as Smokey and the Bandit and the Cannonball Run chase films of 1981 and 1984. The outlaw couple movie was reinvented in the 1990s with a postmodernist take in films such as Wild at Heart, Kalifornia and True Romance.

While the first road movies described the discovery of new territories or pushing the boundaries of a nation, which was a core message of early Western films in the United States, road movies were later used to show how national identities were changing, such as which Edgar G. Ulmer’s Detour (1945), a film noir about a musician travelling from New York City to Hollywood who sees a nation absorbed by greed, or Dennis Hopper’s Easy Rider, which showed how American society was transformed by the social and cultural trends of the late 1960s. The New Hollywood era films made use of the new film technologies in the road movie genre, such as "fast film stock" and lightweight cameras, as well as incorporating filmmaking approaches from European cinema, such as "elliptical narrative structure and self-reflexive devices, elusive development of alienated characters; bold traveling shots and montage sequences.

Road movies have been called a post-WW II genre, as they track key post-war cultural trends, such as the breakup of the traditional family structure, in which male roles were destabilized; there is focus on menacing events which impact the characters who are on the move; there is an association between the character and the mode of transportation being used (e.g., a car or motorcycle), with the car symbolizing the self in the modern culture; and there is usually a focus on men, with women typically being excluded, creating a "male escapist fantasy linking masculinity to technology". Despite these examples of the post-WW II aspects of road movies, Cohan and Hark argue that road movies go back to the 1930s.

In the 2000s, a new crop of road movies was produced, including Vincent Gallo's Brown Bunny (2003), Alexander Payne's Sideways (2004), Jim Jarmusch's Broken Flowers (2005) and Kelly Reichardt's Old Joy (2006) and scholars are taking more interest in examining the genre. The British Film Institute highlights ten post-2000 road films that show that "[t]here’s still plenty of gas left in the road movie genre". The BFI's top 10 include Andrea Arnold’s American Honey (2016), which used "mostly non-professional actors"; Alfonso Cuarón's Y tu mamá también (2001), about Mexican teens on the road; The Brown Bunny (2003), which garnered publicity for its "infamous fellatio scene"; Walter Salles' The Motorcycle Diaries (2004), about Che Guevera's epic motorcycle trip; Mark Duplass and Jay Duplass' The Puffy Chair (2005), the "first mumblecore road movie"; Broken Flowers (2005); Jonathan Dayton and Valerie Faris' Little Miss Sunshine (2006), about a family's trip in a VW camper van; Old Joy (2006); Alexander Payne's Nebraska (2013), which depicts a father and son on a road trip; Steven Knight's Locke (2013), about a construction executive taking stressful calls on a road trip; and Jafar Panahi's Taxi Tehran (2015), about a cab driver ferrying strange passengers around the city. Timothy Corrigan has called the postmodern road movie a "borderless refuse bin" of "mise en abyme" reflection, reflecting a modern audience that is not able to think of a "naturalized history". Atkinson calls contemporary road movies an "ideogram of human desire and a last-ditch search for self" designed for an audience that was raised watching TV, particularly open-ended serial programs.

Movies of this genre
Note, that the Country column is the country of origin and/or financing, and does not necessarily represent the country or countries depicted in each film.

title: Road movie


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Geo Metro

The Geo Metro was a variation of the Suzuki Cultus available in North America from 1989 through 2001 as a joint effort of General Motors (GM) and Suzuki. In the US, the Metro carried a Geo nameplate from 1989 through 1997, and a Chevrolet nameplate from 1998 to 2001. It evolved with the Cultus and its siblings over 13 years, three generations and four body styles: three-door hatchback, four-door sedan, five-door hatchback and two-door convertible—and was ultimately replaced in the General Motors lineup by a family of vehicles based on the Daewoo Kalos, the Chevrolet Aveo.

From 1985 through 1989, Cultus-derived models sold in North America—under the nameplates Suzuki Forsa, Suzuki Swift, Chevrolet Sprint, Geo Metro and Pontiac Firefly—were sourced from Suzuki's facilities in Japan. Beginning in 1990, all North American M-cars were produced at CAMI Automotive, a 50–50 joint venture between General Motors and Suzuki in Ingersoll, Ontario, Canada, although Japanese production continued to source Canada bound sedan models. CAMI never reached its intended Metro/Firefly/Swift capacity. In response to the waning popularity of smaller automobiles in the North American markets, Chevrolet/Geo had sold only 55,600 Metros in 1997, off from 88,700 the year before. While at its peak, Canadian Swift/Metro/Firefly production reached more than 100,000 vehicles a year, the number fell to just 32,000 in 2000. In April, 2001, CAMI confirmed that it had ended production of the Metro at its Ontario production facility.

Beginning in late 2003 as a model year 2004 car, the Daewoo Kalos, marketed variously as the Chevrolet Aveo, Pontiac Wave and Suzuki Swift+, effectively replaced the Metro/Firefly, although the Aveo is more of a Daewoo Lanos replacement as opposed to the Metro, the same time when Daewoo closed majority of its dealerships outside South Korea in 2002.

The Suzuki Swift was replaced by the Suzuki Aerio hatchback in 2002, although the Aerio also replaced the Suzuki Esteem.

Chevrolet Sprint
GM began marketing the first generation Cultus in North America as the Chevrolet Sprint. The car was also sold as the Suzuki Forsa, and as the Pontiac Firefly in Canada. The Chevrolet Sprint was sold only in the Western United States until 1986, when nationwide sales in the US commenced. In 1987, the "Metro" name first appeared on a model of the naturally aspirated Chevrolet Sprint: the "Chevrolet Sprint Metro."

First generation

Production of the first Geo Metro models, equivalent to the second generation Suzuki Cultus, began at Suzuki's plant in Hamamatsu, Japan, in late 1988. In 1989, it debuted and replaced the Chevrolet Sprint in the United States. Canadian models continued with the Chevrolet Sprint and Pontiac Firefly nameplates, while the second generation Suzuki Swift replaced the Forsa nameplate. This generation was also marketed by Suzuki as the "Swift" in the United States. The Metro/Swift/Sprint lineup received a facelift, while the Firefly was temporarily discontinued. The first generation Metro was replaced by a rebodied model unique to the North American market.

Some preproduction models were handmade, and featured 5-digit odometers.

Second generation (1995–2001)
In 1995, the second generation of the Sprint/Metro line in North America—which was the third generation North American "Cultus"—was introduced as a three-door hatchback and four-door sedan, using an adaptation of the longer wheelbase platform from the second generation Cultus for both body configurations. Also designed at GM's Design Center, it carried styling cues similar from the bigger Chevrolet Cavalier and was built on the Suzuki developed M platform with Suzuki drivetrains. These models were marketed only in North America, carrying the nameplates Geo Metro (rebranded the Chevrolet Metro starting in the 1998 model year), Pontiac Firefly, and Suzuki Swift—and sourced only from CAMI Automotive. Thus this version was never sold as a Cultus, which was replaced by the Cultus Crescent in Japan. Production ended after model year 2001.

The Chevrolet Metro was used in the 17th Biennale of Sydney (2010) exhibition in an experiment made by Cai Guo-Qiang, a Chinese artist from Fujian, where nine Chevrolet Metros were suspended in the air through animation.

Comparison of Generation II/I 3-door hatchback interior dimensions:

The second generation Metro featured two engine options. The three-cylinder, 1.0-liter throttle body injected engine, still used on base models, was available for non-LSi models in 1997. The 1.0-liter became the last engine on a vehicle available in the US to use TBI. This generation also offered a revised 1.3-liter inline four-cylinder engine used in the Pontiac Firefly, with multi-point fuel injection (with hydraulic lifters and lash adjusters, and a 30,000-mile service interval). The 1.3-liter inline-four engine offered 70 hp, and was the same engine that had been in use in the Suzuki Swift (except for the GT models) in prior years. LSi models produced after 1997 featured the four-cylinder engine with a sixteen-valve head instead of the eight valves of the earlier design, yet was still a SOHC design.

It produced 79 hp. Contemporary Suzuki Swifts were available with only the four-cylinder, and only as a hatchback. The hatchback body configuration featured a three-inch lower liftover height compared to the previous generation model. Safety equipment included optional anti-lock brakes, safety cage construction with deformable front and rear crush zones and five structural crossbars engineered to spread side impact loads throughout the car's structure, steel side impact door safety beams, and daytime running lights (the second generation Metro was the second GM car to offer DRLs in the United States—the 1995 Chevrolet Corsica was the first)—and dual frontal airbags. The Saturn S-series had DRLs beginning in 1994.

A new, one-piece instrument panel was mounted to one of the five crossmembers with a new, full seal filling the gap between the instrument panel and the dash. The sedan and coupe chassis were 20% and 5% stiffer respectively than the previous generation 5-door and coupe Metros, and at the time of its introduction, the Metro was the smallest car in the world to meet the impending 1997 North American side impact standards. The revised sedan was also introduced in the United States, replacing the 5-door hatchback. This generation featured a coefficient of drag of 0.32.

Its twins, Pontiac Firefly and Suzuki Swift featured the same redesign. At the introduction of this generation, GM arranged for a car carrier with 1995 Metros to drive to college campuses across the country. Local writers took a half-day seminar at "Metro University" with the head product planner and senior members of the engineering, assembly, and marketing teams.

At the time this generation was introduced, 41 percent of Metro buyers were first-car buyers, 62 percent of the buyers were female, and the median age of a Metro buyer was 37.

The American Council for an Energy-Efficient Economy (ACEEE) named this generation of Chevrolet Metro and Suzuki Swift as the top two gasoline-fueled vehicles within their Top 12 Greenest Vehicles in 1998 and 1999. ACEEE assigns a Green Score to each vehicle make and model sold in the US, based on the vehicles' exhaust emissions, fuel economy and other specifications.
 * 1996 – OBD-II (On-Board Diagnostics, Second generation) was added to Metro models, at a cost of some fuel efficiency.
 * 1997 – The last year for the Geo brand. The Metro returned in 1998 with a Chevrolet nameplate.
 * 1998 – The Metro now carried the Chevrolet nameplate, along with new front and rear fascias and a SOHC 16v design I-4 1.3L engine with a horsepower increase of 12%. Electronic ignition replaced the distributor, and MPFI (Multiport Fuel Injection) replaced the TBI (Throttle Body Injection). The new motor offered more HP, torque, and higher fuel economy. This I-4 engine replaced the older 8v 4 cylinder, but the 3-cylinder engine remained unchanged.
 * 2001 – The Metro's final year. The only model available this year is the four-door LSi sedan. The Metro continued on sale in Canada. General Motors announces that the Metro would not be included in the 2002 Chevrolet model lineup. CAMI Automotive manufactures the last Metro, a red sedan, on April 26, 2001.

Solectria Corporation, based in Massachusetts, converted examples of the first and second generation Geo Metro to electric operation. Approximately 500 examples of 1996 and 1997 models were converted to electric operation—the bare vehicles were provided by GM without engines. Called the Solectria Force and Solectria EV, the converted vehicles featured 3 phase AC induction motors and regenerative braking. The battery pack consists of 13 Group 27 Deka Dominator Sealed Gel Lead Acid modules.

3= 3-dr hatchback

4= 4-dr sedan

Safety
US second generation models received the following NHTSA's New Car Assessment Program ratings: Test numbers indicate the chance of serious injury: 4 = 10–20%
 * Front Impact, Driver:
 * Front Impact, Passenger:
 * See NHTSA Test Results: 1995 Geo Metro

Fuel economy
In North America, the Metro received increased interest as a used car in 2008, by virtue of its fuel mileage and rising fuel costs.

Partially because of the renewed interest in the Metro, the July 2009 issue of Car and Driver included a base model 1998 Chevrolet Metro 3-door hatchback among vehicles tested for fuel efficiency alongside two hybrid models: the redesigned Honda Insight and Toyota Prius models. Car and Driver yet jokingly ridiculed the Metro's age and equipment, docking seven points from its overall score for its lack of amenities and mentioning that it was originally sold brand-new without hubcaps. Regardless, the Metro tied the Prius for best overall fuel economy at 42 mpgus. The vehicle finished third overall behind the Insight and Prius.

The vehicle is often used as a test-bed to field various fuel efficiency technology, such as the 2007 university based Cornell 100+ MPG Team.

title: Geo Metro


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Villers

Villers may refer to:

In France

 * Villers, Loire, in the Loire département
 * Villers, Vosges, in the Vosges département
 * Villers-Agron-Aiguizy, in the Aisne département
 * Villers-Allerand, in the Marne département
 * Villers-au-Bois, in the Pas-de-Calais département
 * Villers-au-Flos, in the Pas-de-Calais département
 * Villers-au-Tertre, in the Nord département
 * Villers-aux-Bois, in the Marne département
 * Villers-aux-Érables, in the Somme département
 * Villers-aux-Nœuds, in the Marne département
 * Villers-aux-Vents, in the Meuse département
 * Villers-Bocage, Calvados, in the Calvados département
 * Villers-Bocage, Somme, in the Somme département
 * Villers-Bouton, in the Haute-Saône département
 * Villers-Bretonneux, in the Somme département
 * Villers-Brûlin, in the Pas-de-Calais département
 * Villers-Buzon, in the Doubs département
 * Villers-Campsart, in the Somme département
 * Villers-Canivet, in the Calvados département
 * Villers-Carbonnel, in the Somme département
 * Villers-Cernay, in the Ardennes département
 * Villers-Châtel, in the Pas-de-Calais département
 * Villers-Chemin-et-Mont-lès-Étrelles, in the Haute-Saône département
 * Villers-Chief, in the Doubs département
 * Villers-Cotterêts, in the Aisne département
 * Villers-devant-Dun, in the Meuse département
 * Villers-devant-le-Thour, in the Ardennes département
 * Villers-devant-Mouzon, in the Ardennes département
 * Villers-Écalles, in the Seine-Maritime département
 * Villers-en-Argonne, in the Marne département
 * Villers-en-Arthies, in the Val-d'Oise département
 * Villers-en-Cauchies, in the Nord département
 * Villers-en-Haye, in the Meurthe-et-Moselle département
 * Villers-en-Ouche, in the Orne département
 * Villers-en-Prayères, in the Aisne département
 * Villers-en-Vexin, in the Eure département
 * Villers-Farlay, in the Jura département
 * Villers-Faucon, in the Somme département
 * Villers-Franqueux, in the Marne département
 * Villers-Grélot, in the Doubs département
 * Villers-Guislain, in the Nord département
 * Villers-Hélon, in the Aisne département
 * Villers-la-Chèvre, in the Meurthe-et-Moselle département
 * Villers-la-Combe, in the Doubs département
 * Villers-la-Faye, in the Côte-d'Or département
 * Villers-la-Montagne, in the Meurthe-et-Moselle département
 * Villers-la-Ville, Haute-Saône, in the Haute-Saône département
 * Villers-le-Château, in the Marne département
 * Villers-le-Lac, in the Doubs département
 * Villers-le-Rond, in the Meurthe-et-Moselle département
 * Villers-les-Bois, in the Jura département
 * Villers-lès-Cagnicourt, in the Pas-de-Calais département
 * Villers-le-Sec, Aisne, in the Aisne département
 * Villers-le-Sec, Marne, in the Marne département
 * Villers-le-Sec, Meuse, in the Meuse département
 * Villers-le-Sec, Haute-Saône, in the Haute-Saône département
 * Villers-lès-Guise, in the Aisne département
 * Villers-lès-Luxeuil, in the Haute-Saône département
 * Villers-lès-Mangiennes, in the Meuse département
 * Villers-lès-Moivrons, in the Meurthe-et-Moselle département
 * Villers-lès-Nancy, in the Meurthe-et-Moselle département
 * Villers-les-Ormes, in the Indre département
 * Villers-les-Pots, in the Côte-d'Or département
 * Villers-lès-Roye, in the Somme département
 * Villers-le-Tilleul, in the Ardennes département
 * Villers-le-Tourneur, in the Ardennes département
 * Villers-l'Hôpital, in the Pas-de-Calais département
 * Villers-Marmery, in the Marne département
 * Villers-Outréaux, in the Nord département
 * Villers-Pater, in the Haute-Saône département
 * Villers-Patras, in the Côte-d'Or département
 * Villers-Plouich, in the Nord département
 * Villers-Pol, in the Nord département
 * Villers-Robert, in the Jura département
 * Villers-Rotin, in the Côte-d'Or département
 * Villers-Saint-Barthélemy, in the Oise département
 * Villers-Saint-Christophe, in the Aisne département
 * Villers-Saint-Frambourg, in the Oise département
 * Villers-Saint-Genest, in the Oise département
 * Villers-Saint-Martin, in the Doubs département
 * Villers-Saint-Paul, in the Oise département
 * Villers-Saint-Sépulcre, in the Oise département
 * Villers-Semeuse, in the Ardennes département
 * Villers-Sire-Nicole, in the Nord département
 * Villers-Sir-Simon, in the Pas-de-Calais département
 * Villers-sous-Ailly, in the Somme département
 * Villers-sous-Chalamont, in the Doubs département
 * Villers-sous-Châtillon, in the Marne département
 * Villers-sous-Foucarmont, in the Seine-Maritime département
 * Villers-sous-Montrond, in the Doubs département
 * Villers-sous-Pareid, in the Meuse département
 * Villers-sous-Prény, in the Meurthe-et-Moselle département
 * Villers-sous-Saint-Leu, in the Oise département
 * Villers-Stoncourt, in the Moselle département
 * Villers-sur-Auchy, in the Oise département
 * Villers-sur-Authie, in the Somme département
 * Villers-sur-Bar, in the Ardennes département
 * Villers-sur-Bonnières, in the Oise département
 * Villers-sur-Coudun, in the Oise département
 * Villers-sur-Fère, in the Aisne département
 * Villers-sur-le-Mont, in the Ardennes département
 * Villers-sur-le-Roule, in the Eure département
 * Villers-sur-Mer, in the Calvados département
 * Villers-sur-Meuse, in the Meuse département
 * Villers-sur-Nied, in the Moselle département
 * Villers-sur-Port, in the Haute-Saône département
 * Villers-sur-Saulnot, in the Haute-Saône département
 * Villers-sur-Trie, in the Oise département
 * Villers-Tournelle, in the Somme département
 * Villers-Vaudey, in the Haute-Saône département
 * Villers-Vermont, in the Oise département
 * Villers-Vicomte, in the Oise département

In Belgium

 * Villers-la-Ville, a municipality of Walloon Brabant
 * Villers-Sainte-Gertrude, a village in the province of Luxembourg

People

 * André Villers (1930–2016), French photographer and artist
 * Charles de Villers (1765–1815), French philosopher
 * Charles Joseph de Villers (1724–1810), French naturalist
 * Charles de Villers (1765–1815), French philosopher
 * Marie-Denise Villers (1774–1821), French painter
 * Sir John Villers (1485/6–1544), English politician
 * Philippe Villers, French-American entrepreneur
 * Raido Villers (born 1982), Estonian professional basketballer

title: Villers


text:
User:Vogon/Paranoia rewrite

Paranoia is a humorous role playing game set in a dystopian future. The tone of the game is light and tongue-in-cheek rather than dark and heavy. The game is set in Alpha Complex, a futuristic domed city controlled by The Computer, which employs teams of special agents called "Troubleshooters" to root out traitors. Traitorous activities include Communism, being a mutant, and being a member of a secret society. The players commonly portray Troubleshooters, but later game supplements offered other roles for player characters.

The Rise of Alpha Complex
The game of Paranoia is set in the late 23rd century, following World War III and the takeover of human civilization by The Computer, a vastly powerful and greatly deranged civil service computer. The player characters are citizens of Alpha Complex, a large domed (usually, either underground or underwater) city -- canonically, San Francisco.

In May 2086, a planetoid the size of Sheboygan was discovered, moving toward a collision with Earth; humanity built a large network of shelter complexes and awaited the coming end. As the planetoid neared, antiquated Soviet missile warning equipment misdetected it as an incoming ICBM, and launched an automated counterattack -- consisting of one missile, stripped of a warhead for decades -- against the city of San Francisco.

San Francisco's node of The Computer, upon detecting the incoming missile (and subsequently being unable to identify it), reported to the central North American computer network its findings, asking for a confirmation of its identity. The network -- many of its data files taken offline to ensure its integrity after the planetoid strike -- was also unable to identify it, except from propaganda files dating from the height of the Cold War. It had only enough time to transmit data identifying the missile launch as the work of "Commies" before the planetoid struck.

In the aftermath of the strike, the data links connecting the various cities of North America to the central network were reestablished, but the network and the cities connected to it were unable to confirm one another as having been uncorrupted by the Commie attack. The links to the network were immediately severed, and each of the cities' nodes of The Computer, now isolated from the network, grew convinced that all of the other nodes had been taken over by Commies, and declared war on all of them.

The Computer
The Computer is "as batty as a bedbug", to quote the Paranoia Gamemaster's Handbook. It is convinced that the entire world outside of Alpha Complex has been taken over by Commies, and will stop at nothing to destroy the threat they pose.

However, It is well-meaning, and wishes to protect all of Its loyal citizens from harm, so It expressly forbids them from engaging in any activities that could lead to their corruption. It is all-seeing, all-knowing, all-powerful, and incapable of error. Needless to say (given the tone of the game), It makes many mistakes, and is usually unaware of much of what goes on in Alpha Complex.

Owing to The Computer's god-like power over the lives of Its citizens, the pronoun "it" is always capitalized when used in reference to It within the game.

Citizens
Citizens of Alpha Complex are generally human, although some sentient robots also have citizenship rights. As a result of the many vagaries of human reproduction, The Computer has replaced outmoded facets of human life such as sex with a complicated cloning system involving large vats in which gene-spliced human fetuses are grown. To prevent up-and-coming young citizens from being killed by accidents, coincidence, or Communist plots, each citizen is issued a number of clones (usually 6), which share property but are otherwise considered separate citizens under the law.

To suppress treasonous emotions and urges such as romantic love and sadness, citizens are constantly kept medicated on any number of hormone suppressants, mood stabilizers, tranquilizers, stimulants, and truth sera, and are thus normally in a rather dazed, happy, and fervently loyal state.

Treason
The concept of treason is everpresent in Alpha Complex society. Citizens found guilty of acts of treason are publicly executed on an hourly basis. The Computer's definition of treason is so broad that it is unreasonable to avoid engaging in treasonous activities; the best that most citizens can hope for is to not get caught, or to pin the blame on their fellow citizens -- turning in traitors is a good way to earn The Computer's trust, and is often rewarded with a commendation or promotion in security clearance.

Security Clearances
To prevent Commie infiltration from damaging Alpha Complex, The Computer created a system of security clearances to limit access to information, resources, and sensitive areas. Everything in Alpha Complex is issued a security clearance, and it is an act of treason against the state to violate your security clearance.

The security clearances are based on the colors of the visible electromagnetic spectrum, ranging from INFRARED (the lowest security clearance), through RED, ORANGE, YELLOW, GREEN, BLUE, INDIGO, VIOLET, up to ULTRAVIOLET. Citizens possessing ULTRAVIOLET clearance are known as High Programmers, as they are the only citizens allowed to change The Computer's programming directly.

Service Groups
Every citizen in Alpha Complex works for one of eight service groups. The service groups are:

 * Internal Security (IntSec). Internal Security is The Computer's secret (and not-so-secret) police force.  IntSec keeps a vigilant eye out for treason in all its forms, by constantly observing every movement and action of every citizen of Alpha Complex.  Most other service groups fear and despise IntSec for their interference in their day-to-day operations, though you'd be hard-pressed to find someone who admits it.
 * Production, Logistics, and Commissary (PLC). PLC's purpose is to issue Computer property to the citizens of Alpha Complex.  It consists primarily of a vast bureaucracy that keeps citizens so mired in red tape that very few things ever have to be issued.
 * Housing Preservation and Development & Mind Control (HPD&MC). HPD&MC governs the housing facilities of Alpha Complex, along with the state media and education programs.  Largely looked down upon by outsiders as a group of menial drones producing no useful goods, they nevertheless and use their unique opportunities for blackmail to maintain a certain level of sway.
 * Research and Design (R&D). R&D develops new equipment for the greater glory of Alpha Complex.  The Computer-sanctioned view is that they are a cadre of smart visionaries producing technological breakthroughs at an astounding rate; in reality, most of their equipment is equipment salvaged from before the days of The Computer, a small (and usually ill-advised) modification of existing equipment, or simply ludicrously impractical.
 * Armed Forces. The Armed Forces comprise The Computer's standing army, dedicated to the defense of Alpha Complex against the threat posed by other complexes.  This threat is almost nonexistent, so the finely-trained troops of the Armed Forces do little more than march around a lot and throw lavish parades to show off the Forces' newest capabilities.
 * Central Processing Unit (CPU). CPU maintains The Computer's records, executes its special projects, and oversees the functioning of the other service groups.  They are almost universally disliked for the special trust The Computer places in them.
 * Power Services. Power Services maintains the nuclear power plants and mass transit systems of Alpha Complex.  They are essential to the day-to-day operation of Alpha Complex, and very prone to sabotage, and thus watched very closely for treason by Internal Security.
 * Technical Services. Technical Services maintains all of the robots, computers, communications hardware, and vehicles of Alpha Complex, as well as just about anything else with moving parts.  In view of their wide-reaching jurisdiction, they often get into inter-service group conflicts regarding equipment maintenance, especially when they look to pass the blame for something that breaks down.

In addition, The Computer maintains a small force of special agents to perform tasks too menial or dangerous for the service groups to perform. These agents are called "Troubleshooters", as their job is to (quite literally) shoot trouble. This trouble often involves trips outside of Alpha Complex or the quelling of Commie uprisings.

Owing to the danger of the Troubleshooters' jobs, citizens are usually volunteered for a term in the Troubleshooters if they have developed a history of doing very good -- or very bad -- work. The Troubleshooters are drawn from all service groups and all security clearances; the desired effect is to give a large communal base of experience with which to perform their duty, but the actual effect is usually a lot of pent-up jealousy, finger-pointing, and frequent summary executions.

Secret Societies
The Computer's single-minded hatred of treason has -- ironically, or perhaps as a matter of course -- created a brisk market for treasonous activities to engage in. A wide array of secret societies has sprung up in the 200 years since The Computer took power, and The Computer dedicates a vast amount of resources to their infiltration and destruction.

There are three main groups of secret societies: the pro-Computer secret societies, like the First Church of Christ, Computer Programmer -- which believes that The Computer speaks the word of God -- and Anti-Mutant; the anti-Computer secret societies, like the Communists, PURGE (which wants to destroy The Computer), and the Frankenstein Destroyers (who want to destroy all intelligent machines); and the "weird" societies, like Death Leopard, whose guiding philosophy is that fragile things dropped from a great height make a nice sound.

However, regardless of their greater goals or beliefs, membership in any secret society is treason, and punishable by summary execution.

Mutant Powers
Due, variously, to experimental pharmaceuticals, malfunctions or bugs in the cloning process, or Commie plots, many Alpha Complex citizens are born with, or develop, mutant powers. Mutant powers range from the mundane (enhanced vision, supernatural intelligence) to the fantastic (the ability to eat metal and rock, pyrokinesis). Use or possession of an unregistered mutant power is treason, and punishable by summary execution.

Most mutant powers can be registered with The Computer, allowing the citizen possessing them to use them at will but requiring them to wear a yellow armband identifying them as a confessed traitor; however, certain mutant powers are deemed so dangerous that their registration is punishable by summary execution and destruction of all of that citizen's remaining clones.

The Outdoors and The Old Reckoning
Within Alpha Complex society, the world outside of Alpha Complex is known as The Outdoors. Citizens are forbidden from going into The Outdoors without explicit orders from The Computer or one of Its servants, but (in later editions) are allowed to know of its existence. Knowledge of the mechanics of the Outdoors, however, is rare, and it is often a very disorienting place for the citizens of Alpha Complex -- who, having lived under a dome for all their lives, are surprised by things as simple as the sky. A secret society known as the Sierra Club works toward restoration of The Outdoors inside Alpha Complex.

The time before Alpha Complex and The Computer, too, is seen as a distant and unnecessary thing. Referred to as the Old Reckoning, it is seen by Alpha Complex citizens as a quaint reminder of less-civilized times; not much is known of it, and excessive knowledge is often suspicious, if not outright treasonous. However, many of the Old Reckoning artifacts that are stumbled upon by citizens travelling in The Outdoors are perceived as having immense, almost legendary, power; and it is not entirely unknown for a group of Troubleshooters to be sent on a mission to search for, say, an Old Reckoning convenience store. A secret society known as the Romantics worships Old Reckoning artifacts, and believes that Alpha Complex should return to the period between 1950 and the early 1980s, which it sees as the Golden Age of mankind.

The Game
Paranoia differs from most other role-playing games in that the player is not supposed to understand what the underlying rules of the game are. Unauthorized knowledge of Alpha Complex or the Paranoia game system is to be harshly punished by the gamemaster.

This section is still under construction.

Player Characters
In most cases, player characters are rookie Troubleshooters possessing RED security clearance. All player characters possess at least one mutant power (in some editions, they can start with as many as three) and belong to a secret society. The majority of the time, a game of Paranoia is played with six player characters, although it can be played with more or fewer.

The guiding goal underlying the actions of player characters in Paranoia is to be entertaining; taking risks and being bold and daring may get your character killed, but it will move him or her along far faster than will playing by all the rules.

Advancement
Paranoia, as a game, does not place much emphasis on advancement; in general, player characters run out of clones too quickly to advance much. However, advancement can occasionally be earned through noteworthy actions in the service of The Computer (killing a traitor of a higher security clearance, for instance), and often comes in the form of extra food rations, official commendations, or even outright promotion to a higher security clearance.

Editions
Four editions of Paranoia exist: First Edition, Second Edition, Fifth Edition, and Paranoia XP.

This section is still under construction.

First Edition
Paranoia First Edition was written and designed by Greg Costikyan, Dan Gelber, Ken Rolston, and Eric Goldberg, and released in 1984 by the company West End Games. The initial version of the game was, apparently, intended initially to be far more serious than it became, and owing to this, much of the first edition is uneven in style and tone. In addition, many of the mutant powers and secret societies were uninteresting or nearly matched by others, and the skill system is seen by some to be too complicated.

Unlike later editions, First Edition was based on a game system utilizing d10 and d100 instead of d20.

Second Edition
Paranoia Second Edition (ISBN 0-87431-063-6), designed by Costikyan, Gelber, Goldberg, Rolston, and Paul Murphy, and released in 1987 by West End Games, is widely considered to be the most well-designed of the first three editions. The system was cleaned up and simplified and its background story improved, and fans claim that these changes made Second Edition match the tone of the Paranoia universe far better than First Edition.

Mandatory Bonus Duty
Introduced in a supplement to Second Edition, The Compleat Troubleshooter, was a new play mechanic, the Mandatory Bonus Duty. A Mandatory Bonus Duty is a position within a Troubleshooter team, carrying extra responsibility for one aspect of the mission; for instance, there is a Communications and Recording Officer Mandatory Bonus Duty, carrying responsibility for communication with The Computer and the video and audio records of the mission.

Crash Course Manual
Following a mission supplement published named The Iceman Returneth (in which an ancient High Programmer, frozen in ice, is woken by the Troubleshooters, and proceeds to fatally Crash The Computer), the Crash Course Manual detailed the new post-Crash setting in which West End Games decided to officially set the game. The Computer has been destroyed, and the secret societies rise up and begin to fight for control of Alpha Complex. Some societies and service groups form "Alpha Simplexes": sections of Alpha Complex completely taken over and independant. This scenario strayed closer to more of a traditional cyberpunk feel in the absence of The Computer, as the Troubleshooters take more of a soldier of fortune role performing missions characterized by the fights for power between the controllers of the Simplexes.

Reboot Alpha
West End once again decided to change the setting in 1992 with The Paranoia Sourcebook. The Computer had returned, Rebooted, and was once again back in control of Alpha Complex - although not entirely. Simplexes still existed, and Troubleshooters could again choose who they fought on behalf of.

Fifth Edition
Paranoia Fifth Edition, released in 1995 by West End Games, changed history yet again and set Paranoia before the Crash, but is widely regarded as the poorest of the first three editions; its critics claim that many of the jokes missed their mark (citing the name of the edition, chosen to suggest a gap in time between Fifth and the previous editions, as one of them), and that its setting lacks the qualities that made the earlier editions enjoyable. The publishers of Paranoia XP went so far as to officially declare Fifth Edition a "non-product", having never been released.

Paranoia XP
Paranoia XP (ISBN 1-904854-26-5) was written by Allen Varney and Greg Costikyan, and released in 2004 by Mongoose Publishing. A significant portion of the design was also developed on the Internet, through suggestions made by readers of Costikyan's Paranoia XP Design Blog.

Marking the first update to the game in almost a decade, Paranoia XP introduced new Internet-themed game content and a vastly-changed game system, and merged content previously found in sourcebooks into the main game manual.

New Mechanics
Paranoia XP introduced a number of new mechanics to the game, adding a large number of possibilities for interaction between the characters and the world around them. New mechanics include:

 * Perversity points, which allow players to purchase changes in die rolls made by themselves or others;
 * Service firms, subcontractors for the service groups, that add another dimension of depth to the character's background, and more potential for the player for the player to gain power in the political machinery of Alpha Complex;
 * A simpler damage system, and more fluid character generation mechanics, that marked a radical departure from those in previous editions;
 * And three new defined styles of play: "Classic" (the traditional Paranoia style of the earlier editions); "Straight" (a darker and less frantic tone); and the other extreme, "Zap" (more goofiness and slapstick).

Additional Publications

 * Alice Through the Mirrorshades
 * Crash Course Manual
 * Creatures of the Night Cycle
 * Death, Lies, and Vidtape
 * Don't Take Your Laser to Town
 * Gamma-Lot
 * Mad Mechs
 * Paramilitary
 * Paranormal / CTV
 * Send in the Clones
 * The Bot Abusers Manual
 * The Iceman Returneth
 * The People's Glorious Revolutionary Adventure
 * The R&D Catalog
 * The Yellow Clearance Black Box Blues
 * Twilightcycle: 2000
 * Vapors Don't Shoot Back
 * and many more...

title: User:Vogon/Paranoia rewrite


text:
James Hamilton Jr.

James Hamilton Jr. (May 8, 1786 – November 15, 1857) was an American lawyer and politician. He represented South Carolina in the U.S. Congress (1822–1829) and served as its 53rd governor (1830–1832). Prior to that, Hamilton achieved widespread recognition and public approval for his actions as Intendant (mayor) of the city of Charleston, South Carolina in 1822, during the period when plans for a slave rising were revealed. As governor, he led the state during the Nullification Crisis of 1832, at the peak of his power.

Hamilton organized a city militia in June 1822 to arrest suspects, including the purported free black leader Denmark Vesey, supported the City Council in commissioning a Court of Magistrates and Freeholders, and defended their actions, including ordering the execution of Vesey and 34 other blacks, and deporting of tens of others. He helped shape the public perception of the Court proceedings and the reasons for the revolt, as well as gaining legislation in 1822 for more controls on slaves and free people of color. Because of problems with crippling debt after 1839, Hamilton's reputation suffered.

Early life and career
James Hamilton was born on May 8, 1786, in Charleston, South Carolina, to James and Elizabeth (Lynch) Hamilton, both of the Lowcountry planter elite; his mother was the daughter of Congressman Thomas Lynch and sister of Thomas Lynch Jr.

His parents sent him to preparatory schools in New England; he studied in Newport, Rhode Island, and Dedham, Massachusetts, before returning to Charleston. In the city he read law under prominent attorneys Daniel Huger and William Drayton. Hamilton passed the bar and went into practice in Drayton's office; he later was in partnership with James L. Petigru.

Marriage and family
On November 15, 1813, Hamilton married Elizabeth Mathews Heyward, daughter of wealthy low country South Carolina planter Daniel Heyward and Ann SarahTrezevant; her paternal grandfather was Thomas Heyward Jr., a South Carolinian who served in the Continental Congress and signed the Declaration of Independence. She brought three plantations and approximately 200 slaves to the marriage. The couple had eleven children, ten males and one female.

Political career
Hamilton entered politics in the state. He was elected in 1818 to the South Carolina state House of Representatives, serving from 1819 until early 1822.

That year Hamilton was elected as Intendant, or mayor, of the city of Charleston. He was serving when plans were revealed in the spring to white officials of a slave "rising," reportedly led by Denmark Vesey, a free black carpenter and former slave, who was a leader of the large AME African-American Church. Hamilton quickly organized a militia to defend the city and round up and arrest slave suspects. Its forces roamed the city and its environs for weeks.

With Hamilton's leadership, the City Council commissioned a Court of Magistrates and Freeholders to review the cases, hear testimony, and determine guilt and punishment. They conducted their proceedings in secret, beginning in the middle of June. Suspects were arrested throughout the city. On July 1, the court published its initial findings related to the first 30 suspects: declaring Denmark Vesey and five slaves guilty of conspiracy and condemning them to death. They were executed on July 2 by hanging. In total, most during the next weeks, the courts examined a total of 131 men, convicted a total of 67 men of conspiracy and hanged 35 (including Vesey and others of the first group), through July 1822. A total of 31 men were transported, 27 reviewed and acquitted, and 38 questioned and released.

The court proceedings were controversial, criticized by United States Supreme Court Justice William Johnson and South Carolina Governor Thomas Bennett Jr. for their secrecy and lack of due process, as defendants were not allowed to confront accusers and witnesses were promised secrecy. But, Hamilton captured the public opinion of the events, publishing a 46-page article in August, taking credit for the city's actions in preventing a huge uprising and bloodbath. He also shaped the Court's official Report of its proceedings, published in October. Historian Lacy K. Ford has said, "the balance of the evidence clearly points to the exaggeration of the plot and the misappropriation of its lessons by Hamilton, the Court, and their allies for their own political advantage." Robert Tinkler, biographer of Hamilton, thinks he was ruthless about pursuing suspects because he believed the plot was real.

Hamilton built his political career on these events. In the fall, he lobbied the legislature to gain his agenda of increasing controls on slaves and free blacks in the state. He opposed the increasing paternalism in slave treatment which was based on Christian teachings. Hamilton was successful in gaining passage of state laws to achieve his goals, including the Seaman's Act of 1822, which required free black sailors to be imprisoned when their ships were in port in Charleston, to prevent their coming into contact with slaves in the city. As this violated international treaties, the law caused conflict with the federal government. Hamilton upheld the state's right to make such a law, but it was declared unconstitutional. Hamilton gained increased restrictions on free blacks, with a state law that prohibited them from returning to the state to live if they left for any reason, and controls on slave worship and gatherings. He ordered the congregation of the AME Church to be dispersed, and the building destroyed. The minister Morris Brown thanked Hamilton for helping him escape the state; historian Robert L. Paquette credits Hamilton with helping contain white vigilantism.

When South Carolina Congressman William Lowndes resigned from the U.S. Congress in May 1822, Hamilton was well known and had much public support. He was appointed to complete Lowndes' term, starting his congressional career on December 13, 1822, while still serving as mayor. He was elected to the U.S. House of Representatives in 1824 to a full term, and re-elected in 1826 and 1828, serving until 1829. He had led opposition to the administration of John Quincy Adams and opposed the Tariff Acts of 1824 and 1828. Increasingly at odds with the national government, Hamilton declined to be nominated for another term and returned to his home state to prepare for confrontation.

Hamilton was elected by the state legislature as Governor of South Carolina in 1830, and built up the States' Rights and Free Trade Party. He led the state during the Nullification Crisis of 1832, when more than 80% of the state convention's 162 delegates voted to nullify the federal tariffs of 1828 and 1832. After Robert Y. Hayne was elected by the legislature to governor, he commissioned Hamilton as a brigadier general in the state's militia. Hamilton prepared for possibly defending the state against federal forces on nullification.

Interested in supporting the expansion of slavery in western territories, Hamilton personally lent $216,000 to the young Republic of Texas in the 1830s. Subsequent to that, he made a number of poor business decisions, aggravated by the Panic of 1837, and leaving him deeply in debt for hundreds of thousands of dollars by 1839 – a condition often shared by other planters. Perhaps because his condition reminded them unpleasantly of their own, Hamilton's struggles with debt and poor decision-making caused a steep decline over the next twenty years in his reputation among the planter class in South Carolina. At the time of his death in 1857, he received no recognition from his home state.

He was appointed as loan commissioner for Texas by President Mirabeau Lamar and traveled to Europe to try to secure much-needed credit for the new republic. He did succeed in negotiating some commercial treaties. He also gained diplomatic recognition for Texas from Great Britain and the Netherlands. After being replaced in 1842, Hamilton struggled over several years to try to obtain federal reimbursement for his personal loan to Texas.

Hamilton moved with his family to Texas in 1855, nearly ten years after the republic had been annexed and made a U.S. state. In 1857, while Hamilton was returning by the steamboat Opelousas to Texas from Washington, D.C., his ship was hit by the Galveston and exploded on fire; it sank within half an hour off Avery Island, Louisiana, in the Gulf of Mexico. Twenty people died from the Opelousas, including Hamilton after he gave up his seat in a lifeboat to a woman and her child.

Legacy

 * Hamilton helped gain approval by the South Carolina legislature to authorize and appropriate $100,000 for an armory and defensive installation in Charleston against slave revolts; what became known as the Citadel was completed in the city in 1829.
 * Hamilton was the first governor of South Carolina to have his photograph taken.
 * Hamilton County, Texas is named in his honor.

title: James Hamilton Jr.