text:
We Three Kings

"We Three Kings", original title "Three Kings of Orient", also known as "We Three Kings of Orient Are" or "The Quest of the Magi", is a Christmas carol that was written by John Henry Hopkins Jr. in 1857. At the time of composing the carol, Hopkins served as the rector of Christ Episcopal Church in Williamsport, Pennsylvania, and he wrote the carol for a Christmas pageant in New York City. It was the first widely popular Christmas carol written in America.

Composition

 * Source

John Henry Hopkins Jr. organized the carol in such a way that three male voices would each sing a solo verse in order to correspond with the three kings. The first and last verses of the carol are sung together by all three as "verses of praise", while the intermediate verses are sung individually with each king describing the gift he was bringing. The refrain proceeds to praise the beauty of the Star of Bethlehem. The Magi's solos are typically not observed during contemporary performances of the carol.

The carol's melody has been described as "sad" and "shifting" in nature. Because of this, it highly resembles a song from the Middle Ages and Middle Eastern music, both of which it has been frequently compared to.

Context
The carol centres around the Biblical Magi, who visited Jesus as a child in a Manger sometime after his Nativity and gave him gifts of gold, frankincense and myrrh while paying homage to him. Though the event is recounted in the Gospel of Matthew, there are no further details given in the New Testament with regards to their names, the number of Magi that were present or whether they were even royal. There are, however, verses in the Old Testament that foretell of the visitors: Isaiah 60:6: "The wealth of the nations will come to you. A multitude of camels will cover you. The young camels of Midian and Ephah; All those from Sheba will come; They will bring gold and frankincense, and will bear good news of the praises of the Lord." (New American Standard Bible), and two selections from the Psalms – Psalm 72:10: "The kings of Tarshish and of the isles shall pay tribute, and the kings of Arabia and Saba offer gifts" and Psalm 72:15: "...and may there be given to him gold from Arabia" (New American Standard Bible). Hence, the names of the Magi—Melchior, Caspar and Balthazar—and their status as kings from the Orient are legendary and based on tradition. The number three stems from the fact that there were three separate gifts that were given.

Background and influence
At the time he was writing "We Three Kings" in 1857, John Henry Hopkins Jr. was serving as the rector of Christ Episcopal Church in Williamsport, Pennsylvania. Although he originally worked as a journalist for a New York newspaper and studied to become a lawyer, he chose to join the clergy upon graduating from the University of Vermont. Hopkins studied at the General Theological Seminary in New York City and after graduating and being ordained a deacon in 1850, he became its first music teacher five years later, holding the post until 1857 alongside his ministry in the Episcopal Church.

During his final year of teaching at the seminary, Hopkins wrote "We Three Kings" for a Christmas pageant held at the college. It was noteworthy that Hopkins composed both the lyrics and music; contemporary carol composers usually wrote either the lyrics or music but not both. Originally titled "Three Kings of Orient", it was sung within his circle of family and friends. Because of the popularity it achieved among them, Hopkins decided to publish the carol in 1863 in his book Carols, Hymns, and Songs. It was the first Christmas carol originating from the United States to achieve widespread popularity, as well as the first to be featured in Christmas Carols Old and New, a collection of carols that was published in the United Kingdom. In 1916, the carol was printed in the hymnal for the Episcopal Church; that year's edition was the first to have a separate section for Christmas songs. "We Three Kings" was also included in The Oxford Book of Carols published in 1928, which praised the song as "one of the most successful of modern composed carols".

In popular music
Jazz, rock, and reggae musicians recorded "We Three Kings".
 * Percy Faith (1958)
 * Ramsey Lewis (1964)
 * The Beach Boys (1964)
 * Jethro Tull (2003) "We Five Kings"
 * Blondie (2009)

Parodies
Since the 1950s, the carol has been frequently parodied by children. The subject of the lyrics vary widely depending upon the region, with references to smoking explosive rubber cigars, selling counterfeit lingerie, or travelling to an Irish bar by taxi, car, and scooter.

title: We Three Kings


text: Category:230s deaths

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Category:230s deaths


text:
Wikipedia:Articles for deletion/Internet nation

Internet nation was proposed for deletion. This page is an archive of the discussion about the proposed deletion. This page is no longer live. Further comments should be made on the article's talk page rather than here so that this page is preserved as an historic record. The result of the debate was

Internet nation
Original research, apparently. [[User:Poccil|Peter O. (Talk)]] 17:50, Oct 22, 2004 (UTC)
 * Delete for extreme early 1990s starry-eyed goofiness. --Neschek 18:12, 22 Oct 2004 (UTC)
 * Delete: Not verifiable. Geogre 19:04, 22 Oct 2004 (UTC)
 * advanced by blogging...ohmigawd, you mean like my livejournal makes me leader of my own micronation? woohoo! Delete this utter absurdity. Bearcat, who actually does have a Livejournal 23:45, 22 Oct 2004 (UTC)
 * Delete. Patent nonsense. Indrian 23:47, Oct 22, 2004 (UTC)
 * D I've run more than one in my time. If people don't stop posting this crap, especially the schools stuff, I'm going to start writing about my various non-notable exploits in non-notable locations.  Ooooh, blinkenlights ... Chris 03:10, 23 Oct 2004 (UTC)
 * Perhaps this idea is slightly ahead of its time, but I think we can seriously consider having an entry in WikiPedia about concepts which can loosly be defined as relating to the internet nation. For example the interplay of international and national law that the use of the internet forces us to consider. The new non geographic boundaries of political thought and ideology that the internet permits. Much of the content of this article stems directly from contempory political philosophy and economic thinking. It is unsurprising that the content isn't immediatly understood by all the readers (calling it goofie, absurdity and nonsense...). Perhaps those with a degree in politics, philosophy or economics would care to comment? For example the new political landscapes shaped by information flow and information communication channels are well known and studied in fields of economics and futurology. I think this could easily become a very well written article, and should strive to the quality of a featured article, not be deleted. --Dan 20:20, 23 Oct 2004 (UTC)
 * FWIW, I have a degree in philosophy. "Internet nation" sounds like an oxymoron to me. It is conceivable that the formation of transnational communities resulting from technological development may have a novel effect on the development of the conventional nation-state. However, the author here presumes this without elaborating either a causal mechanism or pertinent structural elements, or, heaven forbid, citing some research here. This is a manifesto, not an article. Mashford 20:32, 23 Oct 2004 (UTC)

 * Delete. Wow. Irretrievably speculative. Sounds like street corner handbill material. Mashford 20:21, 23 Oct 2004 (UTC)
 * Delete. Patent nonsense. Very funny. --Improv 17:22, 24 Oct 2004 (UTC)
 * This is an important topic, but the article itself doesn't make much sense. Statist criticisms should always have a place in wikipedia, but this article is not a good example of an accurate one. As for multi-state systems, we already live in them because they are a neccesity of stable bureaucratic systems. I could argue that my neighborhood association was a nation-state, but that would be rediculous. I vote for deletion or extreme makeover. Flying Hamster 01:38, 25 Oct 2004 (UTC)
 * Pardon my silliness, but it'd be cool if we could vote to give people extreme makeovers too. We could have a wiki-hairdresser, a wiki-stylist, etc etc. --Improv 02:25, 25 Oct 2004 (UTC)
 * Delete. Perhaps some of the content has a place merged into Virtual Community.  Key45 21:45, 26 Oct 2004 (UTC)
 * Delete It's funny that someone put so much time into this article, but not funny enough for BJAODN, so sadly it must go. Ashibaka ✎ 21:22, 27 Oct 2004 (UTC)

This page is now preserved as an archive of the debate and, like other '/delete' pages is no longer 'live'. Subsequent comments on the issue, the deletion or on the decision-making process should be placed on the relevant 'live' pages. Please do not edit this page.


text: Category:Elections in Jamaica

title: Category:Elections in Jamaica


text:
Wikipedia:Articles for deletion/Esata

Esata was proposed for deletion. This page is an archive of the discussion about the proposed deletion. This page is no longer live. Further comments should be made on the article's talk page rather than here so that this page is preserved as an historic record. The result of the debate was

Esata
A constructed language. [[User:Poccil|Peter O. (Talk)]] 17:52, Oct 22, 2004 (UTC)
 * Delete: Brand new, a simplification, not spoken. Geogre 19:05, 22 Oct 2004 (UTC)
 * Delete. Wikipedia is not the place to promote your latest auxlang proposal.   — Gwalla | Talk 23:47, 22 Oct 2004 (UTC)
 * Delete. Indrian 23:48, Oct 22, 2004 (UTC)
 * Keep The new page does not infringe any rules according to the deletion policy. This is a valid proposal for an auxilliary language, an area for which there is growing interest. The proposal outlines one of the easiest to learn personal languages with many interesting features. There are numerous other auxlang proposals mentioned already in wikipedia. Why not wait and see if the page gets any traffic? Pafu 11:48, Oct 24, 2004 (UTC)
 * Notability is not a rule, it's the Prime Directive. I believe interest is increasing, since both world population and literacy are increasing. I also believe that their visibility has increased, due to being freed of the disadvantages that non-Internet publishing imposes on impractical ideas.  None of these indicates increase in notability, let alone achievement of encyclopedic notability. --Jerzy(t) 02:14, 2004 Oct 27 (UTC)
 * Delete. May be notable someday, not yet. --Improv 17:21, 24 Oct 2004 (UTC)
 * Delete. It needs to be more notable. NeoJustin 05:26 Oct 25, 2004 (UTC)
 * Del. Not notable. --Jerzy(t) 02:14, 2004 Oct 27 (UTC)
 * Delete: Wikipedia is a place to document existing phenomena, not original research; there are other, more suitable, places to take proposals for new languages: see Constructed language for example. --Phil | Talk 15:43, Oct 27, 2004 (UTC)
 * Delete V-v-v-vanity Ashibaka ✎ 21:20, 27 Oct 2004 (UTC)

This page is now preserved as an archive of the debate and, like other '/delete' pages is no longer 'live'. Subsequent comments on the issue, the deletion or on the decision-making process should be placed on the relevant 'live' pages. Please do not edit this page.

title: Wikipedia:Articles for deletion/Esata


text:
Gang Resistance Education and Training

Gang Resistance Education And Training, abbreviated G.R.E.A.T., provides a school-based, police officer-instructed program in America that includes classroom instruction and a variety of learning activities.

The program was originally administered by the Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco and Firearms (ATF) of the US Department of the Treasury; however, when the ATF was transferred to the United States Department of Justice, it became administered by the Office of Justice Programs of the Bureau of Justice Assistance.

History
GREAT originated through a combined effort of the ATF and the Phoenix Police Department, Phoenix, Arizona. The effort was congressionally supported as part of the ATF's Project Outreach.

The program originally began as a nine-lesson middle-school curriculum. In early 1992, the first GREAT Officer Program was conducted in Phoenix, Arizona. In 1993, due to its perceived success, the program was expanded nationwide. In 1993–98, the program added the regional partners, a national policy board, and thousands of trained officers.

In 2000, the program underwent a curriculum review, which was the result of a study conducted by the National Institute of Justice. The original program went to 13 lessons. The new curriculum was piloted in 14 cities nationwide.

From 2006 to 2012, a multi-site program evaluation was conducted. Based on the results, the "program holds promise as a universal gang prevention program."

Curriculum
Middle School Component: The curriculum has integrated National English Language Arts Standards and National Health Education Standards. The G.R.E.A.T. middle school curriculum was designed for students in 6th or 7th grade. The G.R.E.A.T. middle school curriculum consists of thirteen 30- to 45-minute lessons taught in sequential order:

 * 1) Welcome to G.R.E.A.T.
 * 2) What's the Real Deal?
 * 3) It's About Us
 * 4) Where Do We Go From Here
 * 5) Decisions, Decisions, Decisions
 * 6) Do You Hear What I Am Saying?
 * 7) Walk in Someone Else's Shoes
 * 8) Say It Like You Mean It
 * 9) Getting Along Without Going Along
 * 10) Keeping Your Cool
 * 11) Keeping It Together
 * 12) Working It Out
 * 13) G.R.E.A.T. Days Ahead

Each lesson is accompanied by a parent letter that the student takes home, explaining the lesson and encouraging parent-student interaction:

 * 1) G.R.E.A.T. Beginnings
 * 2) To Do or Not to Do
 * 3) Loud and Clear
 * 4) Staying Cool When the Heat Is On
 * 5) We're All in This Together
 * 6) G.R.E.A.T. Days Ahead

Officer selection
Officers will be under the supervision of the G.R.E.A.T. supervisor. Major disciplinary problems may result in the non-certification of the officer. G.R. Each agency will receive an evaluation of officer performance at the conclusion of the training, which begins with intensive one-week or two-week training.

Evaluation
From 2006 to 2012, a multi-site program evaluation was conducted. Approximately 4,000 students attending 31 schools in seven cities comprised the initial sample. 195 classrooms (102 received G.R.E.A.T. and 93 did not receive the program) during the 2006–2007 school year. There were 28 attitudinal or perceptual measures that address potential outcomes of the G.R.E.A.T. program that were examined. The differences in rates of delinquency are 7% lower for G.R.E.A.T. students, and violent offences are 10% lower for G.R.E.A.T. students.

Results from analyses of six waves of survey data collected from students in seven U.S. public school districts indicate a 39% reduction in the odds of gang members joining one year post-program as well as a 24% reduction four years post the program.

Usage in arcade games
In the 1990s, GREAT had a message that appeared in arcade games with an emblem that read "GREAT LIFE: A Most Excellent Adventure Without GANGS" with the "GANGS" part in a crossed-out circle. On the left of the emblem is the Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, and Firearms logo with "Steve Higgins Director" under it, and on the right of the emblem is the Phoenix Police Department logo with "Dennis Garrett Chief" under it.

title: Gang Resistance Education and Training


text:
Christopher Nowinski

Christopher John Nowinski (born September 24, 1978) is an American neuroscientist, author and retired professional wrestler. After extensively researching concussions in American football, Nowinski co-founded the Concussion Legacy Foundation, where he is currently CEO and co-founded Boston University's CTE Center. As a professional wrestler, he is best known for his tenure with World Wrestling Entertainment (WWE) under the ring name Chris Harvard and later under his real name.

Early life and education
Nowinski attended John Hersey High School in Arlington Heights, Illinois, serving as team captain of the football and basketball teams. He graduated cum laude from Harvard with a Bachelor of Arts in sociology in 2000. Nowinski played college football for the Crimson as a defensive tackle, earning second-team All-Ivy League honors. He worked as a pharmaceutical and biotech consultant in Boston shortly after graduation.

In 2017, he graduated with a Ph.D. in Behavioral Neuroscience from Boston University.

Early career (2001–2002)
Nowinski did not begin watching wrestling until his senior year of college. After graduating from Harvard, he joined Killer Kowalski's wrestling school in Malden, Massachusetts. Nowinski became one of the three finalists on WWE's (at the time trading as WWF) first season of Tough Enough, which Maven Huffman won. After failing to win the competition, Nowinski made appearances in independent promotions before being hired by WWF and entering its developmental territories. Nowinski competed as Chris Harvard, capitalizing on his status as an alumnus of Harvard University. Nowinski made his first major independent appearance in London, UK for the Frontier Wrestling Alliance promotion at its Lights Camera Action show on December 14, 2001. Nowinski competed in its main event teaming up with Alex Shane to defeat Drew McDonald and Flash Barker. Though this was the only show Nowinski did for the promotion, he regards it as the best promotion he has ever worked for outside of WWE.

World Wrestling Entertainment (2002–2003)

On the June 10, 2002, episode of Raw, Nowinski debuted in WWE as a heel, helping William Regal beat Bradshaw in a European Championship match. Nowinski had a short-lived alliance with Regal, defeating Spike Dudley in his debut match the following week with Regal in his corner. Nowinski teamed with Regal on the June 24 episode of Raw, defeating Bradshaw and Dudley. Nowinski continued to feud with Bradshaw over the next few weeks, with their feud ending on the July 8 episode of Raw, where Nowinski teamed with Jackie Gayda in a losing effort against Bradshaw and Trish Stratus, while also trying to warm up Regal from his breakdown after he lost the European Championship to Jeff Hardy. Nowinski feuded with The Dudley Boyz (Bubba Ray Dudley and Spike Dudley) through the summer.

Nowinski defeated Tommy Dreamer on the September 9 episode of Raw. A week later, Dreamer attacked Nowinski in a classroom. Their feud ended on the October 14 episode of Raw, where Nowinski was once again successful in defeating Dreamer. Over the next few weeks, Nowinski claimed victories over Jeff Hardy and Booker T before starting a feud with his former Tough Enough trainer, Al Snow. On the November 25 episode of Raw, Nowinski went against Maven in a match that ended in a no contest. Nowinski teamed with D'Lo Brown to defeat Snow and Maven on two occasions. Nowinski continued his feud with Maven into 2003, where Test aligned himself with Maven for a few weeks, successfully defeating Nowinski and Brown on January 13, 2003, episode of Raw.

Nowinski competed his first ever Royal Rumble match in 2003, entering at #3. During the match Edge and Rey Mysterio performed a double missile dropkick on Nowinski, but a mistimed execution caused Edge to land on Nowinski's head that caused his subsequent post-concussion syndrome later in his career.

On the March 31 episode of Raw, Nowinski was defeated by Scott Steiner. The feud come to an end on the May 12 episode of Raw, where Nowinski teamed with La Résistance (René Duprée and Sylvain Grenier) in a losing effort against Steiner, Test and Goldust. On the May 26 episode of Raw, Nowinski aligned himself with Thuggin' And Buggin' Enterprises, an African American wrestling stable consisting of Rodney Mack, Jazz and their manager Theodore Long. At Insurrextion, Nowinski teamed with Mack and Long in a losing effort against The Dudley Boyz (Bubba Ray Dudley, D-Von Dudley and Spike Dudley). At Bad Blood, Nowinski and Mack defeated Bubba Ray and D-Von. Nowinski wrestled his final match with WWE, due to him sustaining post-concussion syndrome, on the June 23 episode of Raw, in a losing effort against Maven. After a full year of post-concussion symptoms he chose to retire from wrestling.

Writing career
Following his wrestling career, Nowinski authored Head Games: Football's Concussion Crisis in 2006, which examined the long-term effects of head trauma among athletes, and also became a documentary. The Lancet said "the book sent shockwaves through the National Football League (NFL)" and details his career-ending injury and discusses the dangers of concussions in football and other contact sports; the book includes stories from National Football League (NFL) players and fellow wrestlers, and has an introduction written by former governor of Minnesota and professional wrestler, Jesse Ventura.

Later that year, Nowinski initiated an inquiry into the suicide of Andre Waters, a 44-year-old former NFL defensive back who shot himself on November 20, 2006. Waters had sustained several concussions over his career, and at Nowinski's behest, Waters' family agreed to send pieces of his brain to be tested. Bennet Omalu, a pathologist at the University of Pittsburgh announced that "the condition of Waters' brain tissue was what would be expected in an 85-year-old man, and there were characteristics of someone being in the early stages of Alzheimer's".

Nowinski played a role in the discovery of the fourth case of chronic traumatic encephalopathy (CTE) in a former NFL football player, former Pittsburgh Steelers offensive lineman Justin Strzelczyk, who was killed in an automobile crash in 2004 at age 36. Julian Bailes, the chairman of the department of neurosurgery at West Virginia University and the Steelers' team neurosurgeon during Strzelczyk's career, insisted to Nowinski over a phone conversation that he thought Strzelczyk's death, which was precipitated by strange behavior that some had labeled as "bipolar", was worth looking into due to its similarities to the Andre Waters case. Nowinski contacted Omalu, who discovered the brain was still available, and Nowinski called Mary Strzelczyk, Justin's mother, to ask for permission to Omalu to examine it for CTE. Omalu's positive diagnosis was confirmed by two other neuropathologists.

Nowinski came together with Ted Johnson, former New England Patriots linebacker, on revealing symptoms of concussions after Johnson (who received over half a dozen concussions in his career) retired from the NFL.

Nowinski alerted police and the coroner of Chris Benoit, asking them to do a brain exam on Benoit's brain to see if concussions had any part in his rage or depression at the time of the double-homicide of his family and his suicide. In June 2007, Nowinski co-founded the Sports Legacy Institute (now the Concussion Legacy Foundation), an organization dedicated to furthering awareness of and research on sports-related head injuries, and increasing the safety of contact and collision sports worldwide. Nowinski's work was documented on ESPN's Outside the Lines on September 5, 2007. On the same day, Benoit's brain examination report showed extensive damage due to concussions that could have led to dementia.

Concussion Legacy Foundation
Since Nowinski's departure from WWE and the publication of his book Head Games, he has garnered a significant amount of media attention, making numerous appearances on networks such as ESPN and CNN to discuss sports-related head injuries. On June 14, 2007, Nowinski and Robert Cantu founded the Concussion Legacy Foundation (CLF) in Boston, Massachusetts in reaction to medical research indicating brain trauma in sports had become a public health crisis. Postmortem analysis of the brain tissue of former contact sports athletes was revealing that repetitive brain injuries, both concussions and subconcussive blows, could lead to the neurodegenerative disease chronic traumatic encephalopathy (CTE). An absence of awareness and education on concussions, specifically proper diagnosis and management, was allowing the disease to proliferate. Finally, with brain trauma becoming the signature injury of the wars in Iraq and Afghanistan, this research/education model could also be applied to the military.

CLF was founded to solve the concussion crisis in sports and the military through medical research, treatment, and education & prevention. The initial vision of the CLF was to formalize neuropathological research and develop and treatment, via partnership with a top-tier university medical school. To that end, the CLF began such a partnership with Boston University School of Medicine (BUSM) in September 2008, collaborating in formation of its Center for the Study of Traumatic Encephalopathy (CTE Center).

CLF has sought to develop ways to raise awareness of the issue and to directly educate coaches, athletes and parents and has been featured in articles in The New York Times, on news programs such as 60 Minutes and Frontline, and CNN.

In August 2010, Nowinski took offense to Linda McMahon saying during her Senate campaign that she only met recently overdosed wrestler Lance Cade "once" and said it was "absolutely unsafe to work in that ring. They have no oversight into what actually happens in the ring, and they are encouraging steroid use."

In September 2015, the "Sports Legacy Institute" announced a rebrand and changed its name to the Concussion Legacy Foundation. The rebrand aimed to align the evolution of the organization's programs with its name.

Nowinski served as co-director at the CTE Center of BUSM, where he worked closely with Ann McKee, M.D., and other center experts, until 2013. Initially, he worked as a liaison making contact with athletes and families of deceased athletes, to further case studies that examine brain tissues impacted by CTE. As of 2020 he serves as the Outreach, Recruitment, Education, and Public Policy Leader.

Hockey News listed Nowinski on its 2011 edition of the 100 Most Powerful people in ice hockey as one of the Top 40 under the age of 40. This recognition was attributed to his ability in getting hockey players to donate brain tissue after death.

In January 2023, Nowinski presented warnings and criticism of an increased prevalence in slap fighting, to include a U.S. based reality show focused on the emerging sport.

Science and business
Vice called Nowinski "the man most responsible for making CTE part of the national conversation" and in 2010 Sports Illustrated printed: "It is Nowinski's figure which looms behind the doctors and the headlines and the debate roiling over sports' newfound commitment to minimizing head trauma."
 * 2019 Ernst Jokl Sports Medicine Award, United States Sports Academy
 * 2018 Industry Difference-Makers, Athletic Business
 * 40 under 40, Boston Business Journal, 2017
 * Dr. Alan Ashare Safety Award, Massachusetts Hockey, 2016
 * President's Medallion Award. Western New England College.2011
 * HealthLeaders 20 - People Who Make Healthcare Better, HealthLeaders Media, 2011
 * Hockey News 40 Under 40 Most Powerful People in Hockey, 2011
 * Sports Illustrated Sportsman of the Year Finalist, 2010
 * James Brady Award, Brain Injury Association of Illinois, 2010

Professional wrestling

 * World Wrestling Entertainment
 * WWE Hardcore Championship (2 times)
 * Wrestling Observer Newsletter
 * Worst Worked Match of the Year (2002) with Jackie Gayda vs. Bradshaw and Trish Stratus on Raw on July 8

title: Christopher Nowinski


text:
Talk:Dialects in Serbia, Croatia and Bosnia

Title
I've moved the page to a slightly different title, though it's still not quite correct to perpetuate the old name so much when in reality it's no longer being used. --Joy [shallot]   17:55, 22 Oct 2004 (UTC)

And on the same note, I've left them using the old phrase because they're only linked from that page. Once something starts linking to it, it might be necessary to rename it to "Serbian, Croatian and Bosnian dialects". --Joy [shallot]   17:59, 22 Oct 2004 (UTC)

 * Joy, there are no Croatian, Serbian and Bosnian dialects. Chakavian and Kaykavian are not Serbian nor Bosnian, as well as Torlakian is not Croatian nor Bosnian. This article is one of ex-YU nonsenses. And it should be merged with "South Slavic languages" or "Western South Slavic languages". --millosh (talk (sr:)) 00:19, 4 August 2005 (UTC)

I merged two articles because no one said anything against. --millosh (talk (sr:)) 06:34, 8 August 2005 (UTC)


text:
John Hardin

John Hardin (October 1, 1753 – May 1792) was an American soldier, scout, and frontiersman. As a young man, he fought in Lord Dunmore's War, in which he was wounded, and gained a reputation as a marksman and "Indian killer." He served in the Continental Army during the American Revolutionary War, where he played a noteworthy role in the American victory at Saratoga in 1777. After the war, he moved to Kentucky, where he fought against Native Americans in the Northwest Indian War. In 1790, he led a detachment of Kentucky militia in a disastrous defeat known as "Hardin's Defeat." In 1792, he was killed while serving as an emissary to the Natives in the Northwest Territory.

Biography
John Hardin was born on October 1, 1753, in Fauquier County, Virginia, the first son and fifth child of Martin Hardin (1716–1789) and Lydia (Waters) Hardin. His father was a large landowner who moved his family from Fauquier County to western Pennsylvania when John was twelve years old. Martin Hardin served in the Pennsylvania militia during the American Revolutionary War. Growing up on the frontier, John Hardin became an expert hunter and marksman. He married Jane Daviess; they would have seven children, including Martin D. Hardin, who became a U.S. Senator from Kentucky.

In 1774, Hardin joined a militia company raised by Lord Dunmore, the royal governor of Virginia, as an ensign. In August 1774, at the outset of Lord Dunmore's War, Virginia militiamen led by Angus McDonald invaded the Ohio Country and destroyed several Native towns on the Muskingum River. Hardin took part in this expedition as a private in a company from Monongalia County led by Captain Zackquill Morgan. On August 2, Hardin was wounded in a skirmish at Snake's Town. A musket ball "penetrated his thigh and lodged near his groin." The musket ball remained in him for the rest of his life. While recovering from the wound, he is said to have accompanied Lord Dunmore's subsequent expedition while on crutches. Hardin's frontier exploits gained him a reputation as an "Indian Killer."

During the American Revolutionary War, John Hardin was a second lieutenant in the 8th Pennsylvania Regiment. He was one of a select number of riflemen chosen to serve in a Regiment detachment known as the Provisional Rifle Corps (or "Morgan's Rifles"). During this time, he fought at Saratoga serving directly under Colonel Daniel Morgan. His exploits in the battle are commemorated by a historical marker at Saratoga National Historical Park.

In 1786, after the war, John Hardin and his family settled on a large parcel of land in Washington County, Virginia (now Washington County, Kentucky), where they farmed and raised livestock. They also joined the Methodist church in that area. Hardin had some success as a rancher, continually adding acreage to his original tract. As a militia captain in 1786, Hardin led an attack on a Piankeshaw village near present-day Vincennes, Indiana. This village belonged to a friendly tribe that had been allies with the colonial Americans. In August 1789, he led another militia expedition to Terre Haute, where he attacked a Shawnee party of twenty-two men, women, and children. Three women, one child, and an infant were killed in the attack. Hardin paraded through Vincennes, but Major Jean François Hamtramck lamented that the uneasy peace he had brokered with the Wabash nations would soon end due to the "provocation" of this "Kentucky affair." Hardin returned to Kentucky with twelve scalps.

Hardin was promoted to colonel and repeatedly engaged Indians during the Northwest Indian War in the Northwest Territory. In 1790, he led a detachment of the Kentucky County militia in the disastrous Battle of Heller's Corner (also known as "Hardin's Defeat"). This defeat began a long succession of American losses to a Miami chief named Little Turtle. In 1791, Hardin led a force of sixty mounted militiamen, destroying a large Kickapoo village near the mouth of the Big Pine Creek. This was part of General Charles Scott's campaign to conquer Ouiatenon.

In May 1792, General James Wilkinson sent Hardin as an emissary to carry American peace terms to the Natives along the Sandusky River. After leaving Fort Washington, Hardin encountered a party of Shawnees, who offered to escort him. While Hardin was sleeping one night, the Shawnees killed him and his servant. Hardin's guide survived.

Legacy
Hardin County, Kentucky; Hardin County, Illinois; and Hardin County, Ohio were named for John Hardin. The town of Hardin, Ohio, which is near the location where he was killed, is named for him. John Hardin High School in Radcliff, Kentucky, also bears his name.

His son Martin D. Hardin, who married Ann Logan, daughter of General Benjamin Logan. His second-oldest son, Mark, married Mary Adair, daughter of Kentucky governor, John Adair. His grandson, Congressman John J. Hardin, was killed at the Battle of Buena Vista, Mexico. His nephew, Congressman Benjamin Hardin was the father in law of Kentucky Governor John L. Helm and grandfather of General Benjamin Hardin Helm.

title: John Hardin


text:
MS Readathon

The MS Readathon is an annual sponsored reading event held by the MS Societies in Australia, Ireland, the United States, and Canada.

Australia
The MS Readathon in Australia started in 1979. The MS Readathon encourages Australian children to read books, learn about multiple sclerosis (MS) and raise funds to help people living with multiple sclerosis.

Participants read as many books as they can throughout the month of August. The money they raise funds vital services for Australians living with MS, such as MS Family Camps, Family days & family support services. In 2020 over $3.2 million was raised nationally from over 50,000 participants.

Ireland
The MS Readathon in Ireland started in 1988. The annual sponsored read is organized by the charity MS Ireland, encouraging children (and since 2003, adults) to read as many books as possible, and to collect a fixed amount per book from sponsors. The money collected goes towards MS Ireland's activities concerning sufferers of multiple sclerosis. In 2003, the charity raised over 1.2 million euros.

title: MS Readathon


text:
University of Nottingham Students' Union

The University of Nottingham Students' Union (often abbreviated as UoNSU ( /ˈjɒnsuː/)) is the students' union at the University of Nottingham, England. It is a representative body that aims to represent students to both the university and the wider community.

The Students' Union is housed in the Portland Building on University Park campus, a building shared with some non-student union activities. The union receives a block grant from the university of over £2 million to support its activities, although the union also raises money through income streams such as the Union shop and a bar.

All members of the University of Nottingham are automatically members of the Students' Union, unless they use their right to opt out of membership. As such the University of Nottingham Students' Union has over 34,000 members. The Union obtained charitable status in 2010 and is overseen by a Board of Trustees made up of student-elected sabbatical officers and full-time staff.

History
The Students' Union is a charitable organisation, enshrined by legislation such as the Education Act 1994, and responsible for a number of areas of work: student representation, student activities, student advice on education and welfare, and campaigning.

Early years
The Union's activity started in the 1880s when a cycling club was formed. At the old university college site in the city centre the 'RAG' started in 1923. The Gong Magazine (now Impact, having been Gongster and Bias at various points) initiated in 1939 was an early sign of developing union life.

Expansion
In 1928 the expanding college moved to the new out-of town Highfields Estate and here the Union's first permanent residence was in the lower corridor of the Trent Building. By 1956, the Portland Building had been opened, and was originally designated as a Union building, but although the Union is the major user, the management of the building has always rested with the university.

In the 1960s, the Union rationalised its representative system into a series of guilds, mostly based on halls of residence as 'constituencies'. This system worked well for over two decades, before a critical mass of students came to live outside halls, at which point the strong communities on which the guild system was based lost their universality.

During the 1970s the Union took on a more militant air, with sit-ins and student strikes. This did lead to some positive results, such as student representation of many university committees – an opportunity openly satirised by the 1980s as less of a revolutionary shift than expected.

The pace of change in the Union accelerated after the Robbins Report, as rises in student numbers drove it towards a bigger capacity, more permanent staff and sabbatical officers, more rooms and offices and bigger turnovers and budgets. Income rose from £250,000 in 1982 to £1,480,000 in 2006. Membership rose by 23,000 in the same period, whilst staff numbers more than trebled.

UNU
Prior to 2000, the University of Nottingham Students' Union was known as the University of Nottingham Union, abbreviated to UNU. The renaming was intended to clarify the Union's status as a students' union.

Recently, the Union has started to address a number of pressing challenges presented by the dynamism and growth of the university under Sir Colin Campbell – such as provision of union services to members at East Midland sites beyond the main Nottingham campuses.

Governance
The Students' Union is governed by its Constitution and Regulations, a document which is informally known as the 'Big Red Book'. The Students' Union also maintains a policy file, which outlines its stance on various issues. The Students' Union is established by the statutes of the university, which provide that "There shall be a Union of Students of the University" and that "Ordinances shall prescribe the constitution, functions, privileges and other matters relating to the Union of Students." Ordinance XI: Union of Students fulfils this role. Changes to the Constitution, Regulations and Policy File are typically made by Students' Union Council; however, the whole membership can vote on a policy in a referendum. In 2016 a referendum was held on whether the Students' Union would remain a member of the National Union of Students. The referendum was one of a number of referendums held by Students' Unions following the election of Malia Bouattia as National Union of Students President. The Referendum came back with a strong Yes Vote, this was despite strong and substantiated evidence that the No Campaign predominantly led by students from Nottingham University Conservative Association had been supported including financially by UNiDAYS which caused huge controversy and accusations of incompetence on the part of the returning officer.

Council
Students' Union Council is the highest regularly meeting decision-making body of the Students' Union. It meets at least seven times per year. For Council to make any binding decisions it has to be quorate; the quorum for Students' Union Council is set at 50% of voting members of council. Members of Students' Union Council can be either voting or non-voting members. The voting members are designed to be representative of the membership of the Students' Union as a whole. Most non-voting members sit on council to represent various views that it is felt important to have represented at this level, but where they do not represent a clear constituency of students. Each Student-Run Service, for example, has a non-voting seat on Council, since it is felt that there will be issues that it will be useful to have their input on, but that those involved in their organisation are already represented through a council rep.

The constituencies for voting members of students' union council are, for the most part either residential or subject-based. Generally, first year undergraduates are grouped into constituencies determined by their residence, with students in subsequent years represented through their subject or faculty. The remaining Council positions are held by the Executive Officers, JCR and Association Heads, and Student-Run Service Heads.

In 2011 democratic reforms were announced that would in effect abolish Council and replace it with a new democratic structure. The current democratic structures have only been quorate 17% of the time in the past 10 years and it was widely felt that they were not publicised well enough.

Officers
There are eight Full-Time officers of the Students' Union. These are sabbatical roles, which involve the office-holder either taking a year out from their studies, or taking office for a year after they finish their course. These are elected by a cross-campus ballot of all students. The Students' Union removed the office of President in 2020, replacing it with a Union Development Officer.

There are also seven unpaid non-sabbatical 'Part-Time' Officers, who hold their positions alongside their studies. These Officers work to represent select constituencies of students and their interests. These officers are elected by a cross-campus ballot of students who self-define into the constituency of the respective officer. These roles were established in 2008.

An individual is allowed to hold a sabbatical position for a maximum of two terms, while there is no term-limit on non-sabbatical roles.

The current Full-Time officers are:

 * Activities Officer – Dan Haq
 * Community Officer – Poppy Read-Pitt
 * Education Officer – Tu Anh Do
 * Liberation Officer – Noa Holt
 * Postgraduate Officer – River Butterworth
 * Sports Officer – Sean Nolan
 * Union Development Officer – Jessica Nuttall
 * Welfare and Wellbeing Officer – Ellena Leech

The current Part-Time Officers are:

 * Black and Minority Ethnic Students' Officer – Ella Benson Roberts
 * Disabled Students' Officer – Vacant
 * Environment & Social Justice Officer – Vacant
 * International Students' Officer – Nicola Wambui Maina
 * LGBT+ Students' Officer – Nuriat Olayinka Oluwa
 * Mature Students' Officer – Kimberley Brown
 * Women* Students' Officer – Vacant
 * Class Equity Officer: Meg Isaac
 * Trans Students' Officer: Harry Forsyth

Residential associations

More commonly called JCRs (junior common rooms) these committees are elected from students in halls to put on social events throughout the year. There is also a Regional Students Association for students who are not living in halls.

There is a Presidents' Committee ('Pres Com') where presidents of halls can share best practice. The JCRs are supported by a member of staff called the JCR development worker.

Networks
There are several student networks chaired by the respective Part-Time Officers.
 * Disabled Students' Network
 * BME Network
 * LGBT Network
 * Mature Students' Network
 * Women's Network
 * Environment and Social Justice Network
 * International Students' Network

Student-Run Services
The Student-Run Services (SRSs) are set apart from societies since they exist for the benefit of the wider student body. Each Student-Run Service is run by an elected student committee. As of January 2021 there are eight Student Run Services.

 * TEC PA & Lighting – Company providing technical services for SU and external events such as concerts and club nights. The group was founded in the 1940s.
 * Portland Music Library – CD & Record Library running since the 1970s with over 10,000 CDs and 4000 vinyl records available.
 * Impact – the official magazine for students at the University of Nottingham
 * Karnival – Europe's largest student-run charitable organisation – A rag group which raises money for charity
 * New Theatre – Student Theatre company
 * Nightline – Welfare-based telephone listening and information service
 * URN – Student Radio for Nottingham
 * NSTV – Nottingham Student Television, previously known as 'NUTS' or Nottingham Union Television Station. Re-branding took place in 2014.

Previous Student Run Services have existed including Week One which put on events in freshers week to welcome new students but was abolished in 2014/2015 after Week One Reps had been found encouraging the chanting of violent necrophilia and sexism. The non-SRS replacement Welcome Program was subsequently established to undertake a similar role to Week One with greater oversight to prevent any repetition of such incidents.

Societies & Volunteering
The University of Nottingham Students' Union has one of the largest ranges of student societies and volunteering opportunities in the UK. There are over 200 societies that cover a wide range of interests from bell-ringing to chess to gliding. There are also extensive local and international volunteering opportunities at the Students' Union, notably the InterVol student-led community volunteering initiative, as well as societies that support the British Red Cross and Oxfam.

Sports
There are over 70 sporting clubs affiliated to the Students' Union. As well as the Sports Clubs, the Union also runs one of the largest intramural sporting programmes in the country with hundreds of teams competing each week in a variety of sports including rugby, football (5-a-side and 11-a-side), hockey, basketball, ten pin bowling and volleyball. The winners of each sport then compete in an annual intramural varsity match against Loughborough University.

Varsity Series
Held annually, the Varsity Series is a series of sports matches against Nottingham Trent University held over the Spring term in ten different disciplines: rugby union (men's and women's), hockey (men's and women's), basketball (men's and women's), football (men's and women's), ice hockey (men's), Netball (women's), cricket (men's), swimming (men's and women's combined) and rugby league (men's).

The series is one of the best attended series in the UK, with over 6,000 watching the ice hockey, and 3,500 watching the football and rugby. The games are held at the top sporting venues in Nottingham; both the football and rugby at Meadow Lane (home of Notts County), and the ice hockey at the National Ice Arena.

Education Network
The Education Network is the name given to the Course Rep system. The Network is chaired by the Education Officer. There are 5 Undergraduate Faculty Coordinators and 5 Postgraduate Faculty Reps (both elected in cross campus elections). There are School Reps for each School/Department and finally Course Reps (currently around 1000).

Campaigns
The Students' Union has run a number of campaigns over the years on a wide range of subjects affecting students. These include B-EAT aimed at helping those with eating disorders and an Exam Stress campaign aimed at helping students get through the exam period. Around January when students begin to consider housing options for the next year a campaign is run to help students look for housing. The Student Advice and Representation Centre are also available to check housing contracts free of charge.

Living wage and anti-casualisation campaign
Started in 2012/2013 the Living Wage campaign is an ongoing campaign to see the University of Nottingham become a Living Wage Foundation Accredited Employer together with the Students' Union. The Campaign is led by student campaigners with the backing of the Students' Union alongside the University and College Union, Unite and Unison Trade Unions and Nottingham Citizens.

Prizes and awards
There are currently four levels of awards granted by the Students' Union to graduating students: The Students' Union makes the following awards to non-students:
 * Ordo Caligulae
 * Honorary Life Membership
 * Union Prize
 * Student Experience Award
 * Don Varley Award
 * Golden Jubilee Award

Ordo Caligulae
The Ordo Caligulae is the highest award of the Students' Union, and includes Honorary Life Membership of the Students' Union, and consequently members of the Ordo Caligulae enjoy those benefits detailed under Honorary Life Membership. Membership of the Ordo Caligulae (literally, "The Order of the Boot") is granted to those "who have given outstanding contribution to the University of Nottingham Students' Union." It is probably named after Jesse Boot (later Lord Trent), who was a great benefactor of the university.

Members entering the Ordo Caligulae are presented with a cast metal boot on a pedestal at the Union's Annual General Meeting.

Honorary life membership
Honorary Life Membership is conferred on those who have furthered the achievements of the aims of the University of Nottingham Students' Union.

The Students' Union Constitution lays down certain rights of its members (including Honorary Members):
 * 1) Take part in functions organised by the Students' Union.
 * 2) Become members of all Clubs and Societies affiliated to the Students' Union.
 * 3) Attend Union Council, Executive Committee and Standing Committees
 * 4) Wear official university colours.

(Further rights, such as the ability to stand and vote in Students' Union Elections, are reserved for "Full Members" – those registered as students at the university). In recent years typically five to eight new Honorary Life Members have been created in any year.

With typically thirty recipients each year (from a graduating class numbering around 8000) the Union Prize is presented to graduating students of the University of Nottingham in recognition of their contribution to the benefit of the students.


text:
Coffea arabica

Coffea arabica, also known as the Arabica coffee, is a species of flowering plant in the coffee and madder family Rubiaceae. It is believed to be the first species of coffee to have been cultivated and is the dominant cultivar, representing about 60% of global production. Coffee produced from the less acidic, more bitter, and more highly caffeinated robusta bean (C. canephora) makes up most of the remaining coffee production. The natural populations of Coffea arabica are restricted to the forests of South Ethiopia and Yemen.

Taxonomy
Coffea arabica was first described scientifically by Antoine de Jussieu, who named it Jasminum arabicum after studying a specimen from the Botanic Gardens of Amsterdam. Linnaeus placed it in its own genus Coffea in 1737.

Coffea arabica is one of the polyploid species of the genus Coffea, as it carries 4 copies of the 11 chromosomes (44 total) instead of the 2 copies of diploid species. Specifically, Coffea arabica is itself the result of a hybridization between the diploids Coffea canephora and Coffea eugenioides, thus making it an allotetraploid, with two copies of two different genomes. This hybridization event at the origin of Coffea arabica is estimated between 1.08 million and 543,000 years ago and is linked to changing environmental conditions in East Africa.

Description
Wild plants grow between 9 and 12 m tall, and have an open branching system; the leaves are opposite, simple elliptic-ovate to oblong, 6 – long and 4 – broad, glossy dark green. The flowers are white, 10–15 mm in diameter, and grow in axillary clusters. The seeds are contained in a drupe (commonly called a "cherry") 10–15 mm in diameter, maturing bright red to purple and typically containing two seeds, often called coffee beans.

Distribution and habitat
Endemic to the southwestern highlands of Ethiopia, Coffea arabica is grown in dozens of countries between the Tropic of Capricorn and the Tropic of Cancer. It is commonly used as an understory shrub. It has also been recovered from the Boma Plateau in South Sudan. Coffea arabica is also found on Mount Marsabit in northern Kenya, but it is unclear whether this is a truly native or naturalised occurrence; recent studies support it being naturalised. The species is widely naturalised in areas outside its native land, in many parts of Africa, Latin America, Southeast Asia, India, China, and assorted islands in the Caribbean and in the Pacific.

The coffee tree was first brought to Hawaii in 1813, and it began to be extensively grown by about 1850. It was formerly more widely grown, especially in Kona, and it persists after cultivation in many areas. In some valleys, it is a highly invasive weed. In the Udawattakele and Gannoruwa Forest Reserves near Kandy, Sri Lanka, coffee shrubs are also a problematic invasive species.

Coffee has been produced in Queensland and New South Wales of Australia, starting in the 1980s and 90s. The Wet Tropics Management Authority has classified Coffea arabica as an environmental weed for southeast Queensland due to its invasiveness in non-agricultural areas.

History
The first written record of coffee made from roasted coffee beans (botanical seeds) comes from Arab scholars, who wrote that it was useful in prolonging their working hours. The Arab innovation in Yemen of making a brew from roasted beans spread first among the Egyptians and Turks, and later on found its way around the world. Other scholars believe that the coffee plant was introduced from Yemen, based on a Yemeni tradition that slips of both coffee and qat were planted at Udein ('the two twigs') in Yemen in pre-Islamic times. Arabica coffee production in Indonesia began in 1699 through the spread of Yemen's trade. Indonesian coffees, such as Sumatran and Java, are known for their heavy body and low acidity. This makes them ideal for blending with the higher acidity coffees from Central America and East Africa.

Cultivation and use

Coffea arabica accounts for 60% of the world's coffee production.

C. arabica takes approximately seven years to mature fully, and it does best with 1.0 – of rain, evenly distributed throughout the year. It is usually cultivated at an altitude between 1,300 and 1,500 m, but there are plantations that grow it as low as sea level and as high as 2,800 m.

The plant can tolerate low temperatures, but not frost, and it does best with an average temperature between 15 and 24 C. Commercial cultivars mostly only grow to about 5 m, and are frequently trimmed as low as 2 m to facilitate harvesting. Unlike Coffea canephora, C. arabica prefers to be grown in light shade.

Two to four years after planting, C. arabica produces small, white, highly fragrant flowers. The sweet fragrance resembles the sweet smell of jasmine flowers. Flowers opening on sunny days result in the greatest number of berries. This can be problematic and deleterious, however, as coffee plants tend to produce too many berries; this can lead to an inferior harvest and even damage yield in the following years, as the plant will favor the ripening of berries to the detriment of its own health.

On well-kept plantations, overflowering is prevented by pruning the tree. The flowers only last a few days, leaving behind only the thick, dark-green leaves. The berries then begin to appear. These are as dark green as the foliage until they begin to ripen, at first to yellow and then light red and finally darkening to a glossy, deep red. At this point, they are called "cherries", which fruit they then resemble, and are ready for picking.

The berries are oblong and about 1 cm long. Inferior coffee results from picking them too early or too late, so many are picked by hand to be able to better select them, as they do not all ripen at the same time. They are sometimes shaken off the tree onto mats, which means ripe and unripe berries are collected together.

The trees are difficult to cultivate and each tree can produce from 0.5 to 5.0 kg of dried beans, depending on the tree's individual character and the climate that season. The most valuable part of this cash crop is the beans inside. Each berry holds two locules containing the beans. The coffee beans are actually two seeds within the fruit; sometimes, a third seed or one seed, a peaberry, grows in the fruit at the tips of the branches. These seeds are covered in two membranes; the outer one is called the "parchment coat" and the inner one is called the "silver skin".

On Java, trees are planted at all times of the year and are harvested year-round. In parts of Brazil, however, the trees have a season and are harvested only in winter. The plants are vulnerable to damage in such poor growing conditions as cold or low pH soil, and they are also more vulnerable to pests than the C. robusta plant.

It is expected that a medium-term depletion of indigenous populations of C. arabica may occur, due to projected global warming, based on IPCC modelling. Climate change—rising temperatures, longer droughts, and excessive rainfall—appears to threaten the sustainability of arabica coffee production, leading to attempts to breed new cultivars for the changing conditions.

Gourmet coffees are almost exclusively high-quality mild varieties of arabica coffee, and among the best known arabica coffee beans in the world are those from Jamaican Blue Mountain, Colombian Supremo, Tarrazú, Costa Rica, Guatemalan Antigua, and Ethiopian Sidamo.

Blends consisting only of Arabica are often labelled "100% Arabica" as a sign of quality. In 2023, several large coffee roasters dropped the "100% Arabica" declaration previously residing on some of their packages and started to blend less expensive Robusta coffee into the mix. To avoid making larger changes to the visual design of the package the Arabica label was replaced by other labeling, keeping the previous ornamental design, thereby presenting a case of shrinkflation. In some case, the coffee is still advertised as "100% Arabica" in flyers in 2024, but is no longer declared so on the actual package.

Strains
One strain of Coffea arabica naturally contains very little caffeine. While beans of normal C. arabica plants contain 12 mg of caffeine per gram of dry mass, these mutants contain only 0.76 mg of caffeine per gram, but with a taste similar to normal coffee.

Threats
Although it has a huge wild population of 13.5 to 19.5 billion individuals throughout its native range, C. arabica is still considered endangered on the IUCN Red List due to numerous threats it faces. Due to being an understory plant, it requires standing forest, making it highly susceptible to the historically significant deforestation levels in Ethiopia; prior to major deforestation, forest cover was thought to be between 25–31% of Ethiopia's total land surface, but has dropped to just 4%, and deforestation still continues. In addition, climate change may have a major effect on growing areas for wild C. arabica in Ethiopia due to its high-temperature sensitivity, and estimates indicate that population could reduce by 50–80% with a 40–50% reduction in area of occupancy by 2088; climate change can also impact reproductive success. In addition, the main pest of coffee, the coffee berry borer (Hypothenemus hampei) may benefit from climate change and colonize higher altitudes that were formerly too cold for it, which can also impact coffee populations.

The conservation of the genetic variation of C. arabica relies on conserving healthy populations of wild coffee in the Afromontane rainforests of Yemen. Genetic research has shown coffee cultivation is threatening the genetic integrity of wild coffee because it exposes wild genotypes to cultivars. Nearly all of the coffee that has been cultivated over the past few centuries originated from just a handful of wild plants from Yemen, and the coffee growing on plantations around the world contains less than 1% of the diversity in the wilds of Yemen alone.

Climate change also serves as a threat to cultivated C. arabica due to their temperature sensitivity, and some studies estimate that by 2050, over half of the land used for cultivating coffee could be unproductive. The more heat-tolerant Coffea stenophylla may replace C. arabica as the dominant coffee species in cultivation in order to guard against this.

title: Coffea arabica


text:
Fort Clarence

Fort Clarence is a now defunct fortification that is located in Rochester, Kent, England.

History
The fort was built between 1808 and 1812 to prevent invaders gaining access from Maidstone Road to the River Medway. The work was composed of a long brick revetted dry ditch running between a fortified guardroom on the Rochester-Maidstone Road to a similar tower alongside the Medway. The principal work (still surviving) is a massive red brick keep, in the style of a medieval castle, which served as gun tower and observation post. In the sides of the tower were embrasures to sweep the ditch with fire. The dry ditch running across St Margaret's Street was crossed by drawbridge through a substantial casemated guardhouse in the form of an arch (which was demolished in the 1930s). From the tower ran a series of tunnels to the outlying guardhouses. Behind the dry ditch running from the tower down to Maidstone Road was a range of domestic building and barracks.

After 1815, the fort served a variety of purposes, including military prison and lunatic asylum. After nearby Fort Pitt became a military hospital, the patients were moved from Clarence to a new asylum, although the prison remained, with accounts of floggings being given in local newspapers. The fort was used by the garrison artillery throughout the First World War as a recruiting centre. After the war, a large Territorial and Volunteer Reserve centre was built alongside the site and the main barrack site run down.

During the Second World War, the Home Guard used Fort Clarence as headquarters and, with the invasion scare, the fort was pressed into service again. After the war, the fort became derelict, then in the mid 1960s the GPO (now British Telecom) moved in, demolishing all the barracks, filling in a substantial part of the moat and demolishing the Maidstone Road guardhouse.

The most substantial remains now are the brick gun tower and section of ditch from St Margaret's Street into the public gardens opposite. Below the gardens — donated to the city of Rochester by former mayor Charles Willis in memory of a son killed in the First World War — is a sally port with sealed-up door. This connected with tunnel that led to the gun tower and probably to the Medway tower, which is long demolished. Intruders into the tunnel system would have been greeted by fire from loopholes built into the entrance tunnels walls.

The tower was transferred by English Heritage to private developers in the late 1990s and has now been converted to apartments. From the outside, the tower has been restored to pristine condition although there is an obvious contemporary structure added on the roof. On both sides the lowest pair of embrasures appear to be below ground level which indicates that originally the ditch was much deeper and more formidable than it now appears. On the east site, the brow of the hill has also been flattened to allow houses to be built and therefore the strategic dominance of the location harder to visualise. The site is a Grade II listed building.

title: Fort Clarence


text:
Samuel Whittemore

Samuel Whittemore Jr. (July 27, 1696 – February 2, 1793) was an American farmer and soldier. He was 78 years old when he became the oldest known colonial combatant in the American Revolutionary War (1775–1783).

Biography
Whittemore was born in Charlestown, Massachusetts, in 1696, the second son by that name of Samuel Whittemore Sr. and Hannah Rix, also of Charlestown. He served as a private in Col. Jeremiah Moulton's Third Massachusetts Regiment, where he fought in King George's War (1744–48). He was involved in the capture of the French stronghold, the Fortress of Louisbourg in 1745. He moved to Menotomy, Massachusetts (present-day Arlington). Recent sources suggest he fought in the French and Indian War (1754–63) at the age of 64, once again assisting in the capture of the Fortress of Louisbourg, and later in a military expedition against Chief Pontiac in 1763. None of them offer documentation to support such claims, though a nineteenth century reference mentions that he had served as a "Captain of Dragoons."

Battles of Lexington and Concord
On April 19, 1775, British forces were returning to Boston from the Battles of Lexington and Concord, the opening engagements of the war. On their march they were continually shot at by American militiamen.

Whittemore was in his fields when he spotted an approaching British relief brigade under Earl Percy, sent to assist the retreat. Whittemore loaded his musket and ambushed the British grenadiers of the 47th Regiment of Foot from behind a nearby stone wall, killing one soldier. He then drew his dueling pistols, killed a second grenadier and mortally wounded a third. By the time Whittemore had fired his third shot, a British detachment had reached his position; Whittemore drew his sword and attacked. He was subsequently shot in the face, bayoneted numerous times, and left for dead in a pool of blood. He was found by colonial forces, trying to load his musket to resume the fight. He was taken to Dr. Cotton Tufts of Medford, who perceived no hope for his survival. However, Whittemore recovered and lived another 18 years until dying of natural causes at the age of 96.

Legacy

 * A monument stands in the corner plot (611 Mass Ave.) called Whittemore Park at the northeast corner of Massachusetts Avenue and Mystic Street in Arlington, Massachusetts; it reads (inaccurately as to age both at the time and 18 years later ):

 * Near this spot, Samuel Whittemore, then 80 years old, killed three British soldiers, April 19, 1775. He was shot, bayoneted, beaten and left for dead, but recovered and lived to be 98 years of age.

 * In 2005, Massachusetts Senator Robert Havern III proposed that Whittemore be proclaimed the official state hero of Massachusetts and his memory be commemorated on February 3 each year.

title: Samuel Whittemore


text:
Mike Harding

Mike Harding (born 23 October 1944) is an English singer, songwriter, comedian, author, poet, broadcaster and multi-instrumentalist. Harding has also been a photographer, traveller, film maker and playwright.

Early life and education
Harding's father, Louis Arthur "Curly" Harding, a navigator in the RAF, was killed in the Second World War, a month before his son's birth. Harding is of Irish Catholic ancestry on his mother's side.

Flight Sergeant Louis Arthur Harding (RAF/574158) was a prewar RAF airman. A navigator on Lancasters, his No. 9 Squadron RAF aircraft LL901 (WS:V) was lost on an operation to Munster, 23/24 September 1944. From the seven crew, six were killed and lie at Holten General Cemetery in the Netherlands. The seventh airman evaded capture.

Harding was educated at St Anne's, Crumpsall, and St Bede's College, Manchester. He has written of the abuse inflicted on pupils at St Bede's, a Roman Catholic school. After a varied career as a road digger, dustbin man, schoolteacher, steel erector, bus conductor, boiler scaler and chemical factory worker, he took a degree in English and Education at the University of Manchester.

Professional career
Harding began performing as a folk singer and as a member of several local Manchester bands in the 1960s, making his first recordings for the Topic label. He began telling jokes between songs, eventually extending them into longer humorous anecdotes which became the main focus of his act. He released his first album, A Lancashire Lad, in 1972, followed by Mrs 'Ardin's Kid in 1974. In 1975, the single release of "The Rochdale Cowboy" reached No. 22 in the UK Singles Chart, and brought him national attention.

As a stand-up comic he made several series for the BBC and appeared on numerous television and radio programmes, including two series of travel films in Ireland and the Appalachian Mountains of America. He also played rock and roll with his band, the Stylos, with the Lowe Brothers. He has had many albums and singles released, whilst the latter included "Man 'nited Song".

As well as comedy, he has released albums of serious songs, most notably Bombers' Moon, the title track of which tells of his father's death. The album also includes "The Accrington Pals" and cover versions of Bruce Springsteen's "Factory" and Eric Bogle's "And the Band Played Waltzing Matilda".

Harding composed the music scores for DangerMouse, Count Duckula (he also sang the main and end titles with Manchester native Doreen Edwards), The Reluctant Dragon and The Fool of the World and the Flying Ship for Cosgrove Hall Films.

As well as being an acclaimed musician and comedian, he wrote The Armchair Anarchist's Almanac, a humorous A to Z book; two collections of anecdotes, jokes and songs entitled The Unluckiest Man in the World and The 14½ Pound Budgie; and a comedy/thriller/fantasy, Killer Budgies.

His other books include a series covering aspects of his interest in British folklore and history – The Little Book of the Green Man, The Little Book of Stained Glass, The Little Book of Gargoyles, and The Little Book of Misericords; and the loosely factual autobiography, You Can See the Angel's Bum, Miss Worswick! He has also read two of his short stories for Afternoon Story on BBC Radio 4. In 1986, Harding wrote the foreword to Barry Pilton's book, One Man and His Bog.

He made a series of fourteen short films on minority religions in England for the BBC's Heaven and Earth show. Harding has presented the annual BBC Radio 2 Folk Awards, and from 1997 to 2012 he presented the weekly BBC Radio 2 flagship folk and roots programme, The Mike Harding Show. His last show was on 26 December 2012. According to Mark Radcliffe, who took over Radio 2's Folk Show, Harding had left reluctantly, stating that the BBC had "sold the folk world down the river". Four days later, on 30 December 2012, Harding launched his own internet radio show, called The Mike Harding Folk Show broadcast at 5pm every Sunday and available as a podcast and on iTunes afterwards. The show went on a very short break during November and December 2017, after 252 regular weekly episodes, with a Christmas episode #253 published in December 2017 and the next episode (#254) published on 24 February 2018. Thereafter, commencing on 18 March 2018, Harding was back with a regular monthly slot. On 4 October 2022, after 309 shows, Harding announced that #309 was his final show.

Harding is a dedicated hillwalker and a former president, and now life vice president of the Ramblers' Association. He wrote, until a new format was sought for the magazine in 2008, a regular column for hiking magazine The Great Outdoors and campaigned for 'Right to Roam' legislation in the United Kingdom. He is one of the patrons of the Wensleydale Railway, a group set up to re-open the once mainly derelict line between Northallerton and Garsdale in Yorkshire, near where he now lives.

He is also the patron of Settle Stories, a charity based in Settle, North Yorkshire, that promotes traditional storytelling and runs the annual Settle Storytelling Festival. Harding contributed to a promotional leaflet for the Settle tourist board.

Albums

 * A Lancashire Lad (1972, Trailer LER 2039)
 * There Was This Bloke (1974 Rubber Records RUB 010) with Tony Capstick, Derek Brimstone and Bill Barclay
 * Mrs 'Ardin's Kid (1975, Rubber Records RUB 011) – UK No.24
 * The Rochdale Cowboy Rides Again (1975, Rubber Records RUB 015/016)
 * One Man Show (1976, Philips 6625 022) – UK No.19
 * Old Four Eyes is Back (1977, Philips 6308 290) – UK No.31
 * Captain Paralytic & The Brown Ale Cowboys (1978, Philips 6641 798) – UK No.60
 * On The Touchline (1979, Philips 9109 230)
 * Komic Kutz (1979, Philips 6625 041)
 * Red Specs Album (1981, Polydor 2383 601)
 * Take Your Fingers Off It (1982, Moonraker MOO1)
 * Rooted! (1983, Moonraker MOO2)
 * Flat Dogs and Shaky Pudden (1983, BBC Records REH 468)
 * Bomber's Moon (1984, Moonraker MOO3)
 * Roll Over Cecil Sharpe (1985, Moonraker MOO7)
 * Foo Foo Shufflewick & Her Exotic Banana (1986, Moonraker MOO8)
 * The Best of Mike Harding (1986, Rubber Records RUB 047)
 * Plutonium Alley (1989, Moonraker MOO9)
 * God's Own Drunk (1989, Moonraker MOO10)
 * Footloose in the Himalaya (1990, Moonraker MOOC11)
 * Chinese Takeaway Blues (1992, Moonraker MOO11)
 * The Bubbly Snot Monster (1994, Moonraker MOO14)
 * Classic Tracks (1995, Moonraker CD MOO13)

Singles

 * "Rochdale Cowboy" / "Strangeways Hotel" (1975, Rubber Records ADUB 3) – UK No.22
 * "My Brother Sylveste" / "Uncle Joe's Mint Balls" (1976, Rubber Records ADUB 4)
 * "Talking Blackpool Blues" / "Bogey Man" (1976, Rubber Records ADUB 10)
 * Guilty, But Insane (EP): includes "Born Bad" / "Jimmy Spoons" / "Manuel" (1977, Philips CLOG 1)
 * "Christmas 1914" / "P.S. God" (1977, Philips 6006 585)
 * "Disco Vampire" / "For Carlo" (1977, Philips CLOG 2)

Other recordings

 * "Ale is Physick for Me" / "Ten Per Cent" on Deep Lancashire (1968, Topic 12T 188)
 * "Sammy Shuttleworth" on Owdham Edge (1970, Topic 12T 204)
 * "Ale is Physick for Me" / "Ten Per Cent" / Sammy Shuttleworth" on Deep Lancashire (1997, Topic TSCD 485)
 * "Ale is Physick for Me" on And We'll All Have Tea (2000, Retro R2CD)

Collaborations

 * Plays tenor banjo and harmonica on "Jump Ararnd" with The Bar-Steward Sons of Val Doonican, Maartin Allcock, Eliza Carthy, Hugh Whitaker and Graham Oliver, on The Bar-Steward Sons of Val Doonican 2008-2018 (2018, Moon-On-A-Stick Records BSVD008)
 * Plays the voice of The Devil on "The Devil Went Darn To Barnsley" with The Bar-Steward Sons of Val Doonican, Maartin Allcock, Eliza Carthy and Graham Oliver, on the album The Bar-Steward Sons of Val Doonican 2008-2018 (2018, Moon-On-A-Stick Records BSVD008)
 * Plays harmonica on "Wath-On-Dearne Blues", a cover of one of his own comedy compositions, with The Bar-Steward Sons of Val Doonican, also accompanied by Graham Oliver founder guitarist with heavy metal band Saxon and Barnsley blues singer songwriter Richard Kitson, on the album Cpl. Kipper's Barnsley Trades Club Turn (2020, Moon-On-A-Stick Records BSVD-KIP2020).

Publications

 * Napoleon's Retreat From Wigan (1976, EMI Music Ltd)
 * The Unluckiest Man in the World (1979, Robson)
 * The Singing Street (1979, Moonraker)
 * The Witch That Nicked Christmas (1979)
 * Folk Songs of Lancashire (1980, Whitethorn)
 * Fur Coat and No Knickers (play) (1980, Samuel French)
 * Barnaby Barnaby Boy Wonder (1980, Robson)
 * The 14½ lb Budgie (1980, Robson)
 * Up The Boo Aye Shooting Pookakis (1980, Savoy)
 * The Armchair Anarchist's Almanac (1981, Robson)
 * One Night Stand (play) (1981)
 * Hell Bent (play) (1981)
 * Dead Ernest (play) (1982)
 * Not with a Bang (play) (1983, Samuel French)
 * Killer Budgies (1983, Robson)
 * When The Martians Land in Huddersfield (1984, Robson)
 * You Can See The Angel's Bum, Miss Worswick (1985, Robson)
 * Rambling On (1986, Robson)
 * Walking The Dales (1986, Michael Joseph)
 * Cooking One's Corgi (1988, Robson)
 * Bomber's Moon (1988, Michael Joseph)
 * Footloose in the Himalaya (1989, Michael Joseph)
 * Last Tango in Whitby (play) (1990, Samuel French)
 * A Free Man on Sunday (play) (1992)
 * Daddy Edgar's Pools (1992, Peterloo Poets)
 * Walking the Peak and Pennine (1992, Michael Joseph)
 * Tales from the Towpath (1992, Central Manchester Development Corporation)
 * The Virgin of the Discos (1993, Robson)
 * Hypnotising the Cat (1995, Robson)
 * Buns for the Elephants (1995, Penguin Viking)
 * Footloose in the West of Ireland (1996, Michael Joseph)
 * Crystal Set Dreams (1997, Peterloo Poets)
 * Comfort and Joy (play) (1997, Samuel French)
 * A Little Book of the Green Man (1998, Aurum Press)
 * A Little Book of Gargoyles (1998, Aurum Press)
 * A Little Book of Stained Glass (1998, Aurum Press)
 * A Little Book of Devils and Demons (1998, Aurum Press)
 * A Little Book of Misericords (1998, Aurum Press)
 * Yorkshire Transvestite Found Dead on Everest (2005, Hayloft)
 * A Little Book of Angels (2008, Aurum Press)
 * A Little Book of Tombs and Monuments (2008, Aurum Press)
 * A Little Book of Miracles and Marvels (2008, Aurum Press)
 * The VW Camper Van A Biography (2013, Aurum Press )
 * The Adventures of the Crumpsall Kid (Biography) (2015, Michael O'Mara Books Ltd)

Awards

 * Fellow of the Royal Geographical Society
 * Shortlisted for the Boardman Tasker Award for Mountaineering Literature
 * Ralph Lewis Poetry Award (University of Sussex)
 * 1991 Outdoor Writers Guild Award for Excellence for Footloose in the Himalaya (broadcast)
 * 1996 The Signal Award for Children's Poetry

title: Mike Harding


text:
Fort Bridgewoods

The site of Fort Bridgewoods is on the outskirts of Rochester, Medway in the United Kingdom, next to the Rochester-Maidstone road (B2097). The site was acquired by the War Office in about 1860 to form part of a ring of forts protecting the Royal Dockyard at Chatham.

Building
It was envisaged that the line would stretch from the River Medway to the Thames but a shortage of money meant only five of the original large works plus two small experimental earthen redoubts were built. Work, using convict labour, started 30 years later in 1890, but by that time the enemy it was supposed to repulse, France, was an ally, the new enemy was Imperial Germany.

Because of budget restraints and changing fashions in fortifications, no fixed armament was mounted; instead earthen ramps were built to enable field artillery to fire from the fort’s parapet. The fort was a radical departure from traditional design, of earth construction, with a deep dry moat designed to blend in with the line of the land. There were magazines and living quarters under the earthen walls. A new large prison was built on the hill above the nearby village of Borstal to house the workforce. It later became a prison for young offenders and gave its name to the Borstal Institution system of correction.

Railway
Four of the forts (Luton, Horsted, Bridgewoods and Borstal) were linked by an gauge railway to move building materials between the sites, called the Eastern Defences Railway (EDR), built by the Royal Engineers. Building materials were brought by barge up the River Medway to a quay at Borstal, then hauled up the steep scarp slope of the North Downs to the fort via a branch of the EDR. This was done using a special type of locomotive called a Handyside locomotive that could be clamped to the tracks while it hauled wagons up behind it in stages using a winch mounted on the front of the loco. The prisoners were transported along the EDR in lockable carriages, accompanied by armed warders. The railway remained in use until about 1905.

Some of the original railway lines can be seen in the cow-shed floor of the prison farm, which in a previous incarnation was the railway workshop. The line of a section of the track between Fort Bridgewood and Fort Horsted can be seen from the air (for example on Google Earth), as it curves away in a south westerly direction from the junction of City Way and Marconi Way.

World wars
After completion and until the outbreak of the First World War, Fort Bridgewoods was only sporadically garrisoned. In the early years of the 20th century the Royal Engineers deliberately mined and blew up one corner of the fort during a field exercise. With repairs undertaken the fort slipped into obscurity until trials with gun laying radar were undertaken at the Fort in the late 1930s. With radar installed, Bridgewoods served as headquarters for anti-aircraft guns in the Thames Estuary with the two flanking forts of Horsted and Borstal being among the most up-to-date anti-aircraft batteries in Britain.

Nuclear age
With the development of the nuclear bomb, new protected headquarters were built at Bridgewoods in the early 1950s. Shortly after completion Anti Aircraft Command was disbanded and the site used for Civil Defence preparation and training. In 1960 the protected headquarters became the regional HQ for London (south) and remained in use until the early 1970s.

In 1975 the site was sold to a property developer who quickly demolished the fort and bunker. The site remained empty for a number of years and is now a Royal Mail depot. Part of the fort is also under UK Vending Ltd, whose address is Fort Bridgewood.

title: Fort Bridgewoods