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Nafion

Nafion is a brand name for a sulfonated tetrafluoroethylene based fluoropolymer-copolymer synthesized in 1962 by Dr. Donald J. Connolly at the DuPont Experimental Station in Wilmington Delaware (U.S. Patent 3,282,875). Additional work on the polymer family was performed in the late 1960s by Dr. Walther Grot of DuPont. Nafion is a brand of the Chemours company. It is the first of a class of synthetic polymers with ionic properties that are called ionomers. Nafion's unique ionic properties are a result of incorporating perfluorovinyl ether groups terminated with sulfonate groups onto a tetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) backbone. Nafion has received a considerable amount of attention as a proton conductor for proton exchange membrane (PEM) fuel cells because of its excellent chemical and mechanical stability in the harsh conditions of this application.

The chemical basis of Nafion's ion-conductive properties remain a focus of extensive research. Ion conductivity of Nafion increases with the level of hydration. Exposure of Nafion to a humidified environment or liquid water increases the amount of water molecules associated with each sulfonic acid group. The hydrophilic nature of the ionic groups attract water molecules, which begin to solvate the ionic groups and dissociate the protons from the -SO3H (sulfonic acid) group. The dissociated protons "hop" from one acid site to another through mechanisms facilitated by the water molecules and hydrogen bonding. Upon hydration, Nafion phase-separates at nanometer length scales resulting in formation of an interconnected network of hydrophilic domains which allow movement of water and cations, but the membranes do not conduct electrons and minimally conduct anions due to permselectivity (charge-based exclusion). Nafion can be manufactured with or exchanged to alternate cation forms for different applications (e.g. lithiated for Li-ion batteries) and at different equivalent weights (EWs), alternatively considered as ion-exchange capacities (IECs), to achieve a range of cationic conductivities with trade-offs to other physicochemical properties such as water uptake and swelling.

Nomenclature and molecular weight
Nafion can be produced as both a powder resin and a copolymer. It has various chemical configurations and thus several chemical names in the IUPAC system. Nafion-H, for example, includes the following systematic names:
 * From Chemical Abstracts: ethanesulfonyl fluoride, 2-[1-[difluoro-[(trifluoroethenyl)oxy]methyl]-1,2,2,2-tetrafluoroethoxy]-1,1,2,2,-tetrafluoro-, with tetrafluoroethylene
 * tetrafluoroethylene-perfluoro-3,6-dioxa-4-methyl-7-octenesulfonic acid copolymer

The molecular weight of Nafion is variable due to differences in processing and solution morphology. The structure of a Nafion unit illustrates the variability of the material; for example, the most basic monomer contains chain variation between the ether groups (the z subscript). Conventional methods of determining molecular weight such as light scattering and gel permeation chromatography are not applicable because Nafion is insoluble, although the molecular weight has been estimated at 105–106 Da. Instead, the equivalent weight (EW) and material thickness are used to describe most commercially available membranes. The EW is the number of grams of dry Nafion per mole of sulfonic acid groups when the material is in the acid form. Nafion membranes are commonly categorized in terms of their EW and thickness. For example, Nafion 117 indicates an extrusion-cast membrane with 1100 g/mol EW and 0.007 inches (7 thou) in thickness. In contrast to equivalent weight, conventional ion-exchange resins are usually described in terms of their ion exchange capacity (IEC), which is the multiplicative inverse or reciprocal of the equivalent weight, i.e., IEC = 1000/EW.

Preparation
Nafion derivatives are first synthesized by the copolymerization of tetrafluoroethylene (TFE) (the monomer in Teflon) and a derivative of a perfluoro (alkyl vinyl ether) with sulfonyl acid fluoride. The latter reagent can be prepared by the pyrolysis of its respective oxide or carboxylic acid to give the olefinated structure.

The resulting product is an -SO2F-containing thermoplastic that is extruded into films. Hot aqueous NaOH converts these sulfonyl fluoride (-SO2F) groups into sulfonate groups (-SO3−Na+). This form of Nafion, referred to as the neutral or salt form, is finally converted to the acid form containing the sulfonic acid (-SO3H) groups. Nafion can be dispersed into solution by heating in aqueous alcohol at 250 °C in an autoclave for subsequent casting into thin films or use as polymeric binder in electrodes. By this process, Nafion can be used to generate composite films, coat electrodes, or repair damaged membranes.

Properties
The combination of the stable PTFE backbone with the acidic sulfonic groups gives Nafion its characteristics:
 * It is highly conductive to cations, making it suitable for many membrane applications.
 * It resists chemical attack. According to Chemours, only alkali metals (particularly sodium) can degrade Nafion under normal temperatures and pressures.
 * The PTFE backbone interlaced with the ionic sulfonate groups gives Nafion a high chemical stability temperature (e.g. 190 °C) but a softening point in the range of 85-100 °C give it a moderate operating temperature, e.g. up to 100 °C, with additional challenges in all applications due to the loss of water above 100 °C.
 * It is a superacid catalyst. The combination of fluorinated backbone, sulfonic acid groups, and the stabilizing effect of the polymer matrix make Nafion a very strong acid, with pKa ~ -6. In this respect Nafion resembles the trifluoromethanesulfonic acid, CF3SO3H, although Nafion is a weaker acid by at least three orders of magnitude.
 * It is selectively and highly permeable to water.
 * Its proton conductivity up to 0.2 S/cm depending on temperature, hydration state, thermal history and processing conditions.
 * The solid phase and the aqueous phase of Nafion are both permeable to gases, which is a drawback for energy conversion devices such as artificial leaves, fuel cells, and water electrolyzers.

Structure/morphology
The morphology of Nafion membranes is a matter of continuing study to allow for greater control of its properties. Other properties such as water management, hydration stability at high temperatures, electro-osmotic drag, as well as the mechanical, thermal, and oxidative stability, are affected by the Nafion structure. A number of models have been proposed for the morphology of Nafion to explain its unique transport properties.

The first model for Nafion, called the cluster-channel or cluster-network model, consisted of an equal distribution of sulfonate ion clusters (also described as 'inverted micelles' ) with a 40 Å (4 nm) diameter held within a continuous fluorocarbon lattice. Narrow channels about 10 Å (1 nm) in diameter interconnect the clusters, which explains the transport properties.

The difficulty in determining the exact structure of Nafion stems from inconsistent solubility and crystalline structure among its various derivatives. Advanced morphological models have included a core-shell model where the ion-rich core is surrounded by an ion poor shell, a rod model where the sulfonic groups arrange into crystal-like rods, and a sandwich model where the polymer forms two layers whose sulfonic groups attract across an aqueous layer where transport occurs. Consistency between the models include a network of ionic clusters; the models differ in the cluster geometry and distribution. Although no model has yet been determined fully correct, some scientists have demonstrated that as the membrane hydrates, Nafion's morphology transforms from the cluster-channel model to a rod-like model.

A cylindrical-water channel model was also proposed based on simulations of small-angle X-ray scattering data and solid state nuclear magnetic resonance studies. In this model, the sulfonic acid functional groups self-organize into arrays of hydrophilic water channels, each ~ 2.5 nm in diameter, through which small ions can be easily transported. Interspersed between the hydrophilic channels are hydrophobic polymer backbones that provide the observed mechanical stability. Many recent studies, however, favored a phase-separated nanostructure consisting of locally-flat, or ribbon-like, hydrophilic domains based on evidence from direct-imaging studies and more comprehensive analysis of the structure and transport properties.

Applications
Nafion's properties make it suitable for a broad range of applications. Nafion has found use in fuel cells, electrochemical devices, chlor-alkali production, metal-ion recovery, water electrolysis, plating, surface treatment of metals, batteries, sensors, Donnan dialysis cells, drug release, gas drying or humidification, and superacid catalysis for the production of fine chemicals. Nafion is also often cited for theoretical potential (i.e., thus far untested) in a number of fields. With consideration of Nafion's wide functionality, only the most significant will be discussed below.

Chlor-alkali production cell membrane
Chlorine and sodium/potassium hydroxide are among the most produced commodity chemicals in the world. Modern production methods produce Cl2 and NaOH/KOH from the electrolysis of brine using a Nafion membrane between half-cells. Before the use of Nafion, industries used mercury containing sodium amalgam to separate sodium metal from cells or asbestos diaphragms to allow for transfer of sodium ions between half cells; both technologies were developed in the latter half of the 19th century. The disadvantages of these systems is worker safety and environmental concerns associated with mercury and asbestos, economical factors also played a part, and in the diaphragm process chloride contamination of the hydroxide product. Nafion was the direct result of the chlor-alkali industry addressing these concerns; Nafion could tolerate the high temperatures, high electrical currents, and corrosive environment of the electrolytic cells.

The figure to the right shows a chlor-alkali cell where Nafion functions as a membrane between half cells. The membrane allows sodium ions to transfer from one cell to the other with minimal electrical resistance. The membrane was also reinforced with additional membranes to prevent gas product mixing and minimize back transfer of Cl− and −OH ions.

Proton exchange membrane (PEM) for fuel cells
Although fuel cells have been used since the 1960s as power supplies for satellites, recently they have received renewed attention for their potential to efficiently produce clean energy from hydrogen. Nafion was found effective as a membrane for proton exchange membrane (PEM) fuel cells by permitting hydrogen ion transport while preventing electron conduction. Solid Polymer Electrolytes, which are made by connecting or depositing electrodes (usually noble metal) to both sides of the membrane, conduct the electrons through an energy requiring process and rejoin the hydrogen ions to react with oxygen and produce water. Fuel cells are expected to find strong use in the transportation industry.

Superacid catalyst for fine chemical production
Nafion, as a superacid, has potential as a catalyst for organic synthesis. Studies have demonstrated catalytic properties in alkylation, isomerization, oligomerization, acylation, ketalization, esterification, hydrolysis of sugars and ethers, and oxidation. New applications are constantly being discovered. These processes, however, have not yet found strong commercial use. Several examples are shown below:

Alkylation with alkyl halides
Nafion-H gives efficient conversion whereas the alternative method, which employs Friedel-Crafts synthesis, can promote polyalkylation:
 * [[Image:nafion alkylation halides.png|300 px|Alkyl Halide Reaction]]

Acylation
The amount of Nafion-H needed to catalyze the acylation of benzene with aroyl chloride is 10–30% less than the Friedel-Crafts catalyst:
 * [[Image:nafion acylation benzene.png|350 px|Acylation of Benzene]]

Catalysis of protection groups
Nafion-H increases reaction rates of protection via dihydropyran or o-trialkylsilation of alcohols, phenol, and carboxylic acids.
 * [[Image:nafion protection.png|200 px|Catalysis of protection groups]]

Isomerization
Nafion can catalyze a 1,2-hydride shift.
 * [[Image:nafion isomerize.png|350 px|Isomerization via Nafion]]

It is possible to immobilize enzymes within the Nafion by enlarging pores with lipophilic salts. Nafion maintains a structure and pH to provide a stable environment for the enzymes. Applications include catalytic oxidation of adenine dinucleotides.

Sensors
Nafion has found use in the production of sensors, with application in ion-selective, metallized, optical, and biosensors. What makes Nafion especially interesting is its demonstration in biocompatibility. Nafion has been shown to be stable in cell cultures as well as the human body, and there is considerable research towards the production of higher sensitivity glucose sensors.

Antimicrobial surfaces
Nafion surfaces show an exclusion zone against bacteria colonization. Moreover, layer-by-layer coatings comprising Nafion show excellent antimicrobial properties.

Dehumidification in spacecraft
The SpaceX Dragon 2 human-rated spacecraft uses Nafion membranes to dehumidify the cabin air. One side of the membrane is exposed to the cabin atmosphere, the other to the vacuum of space. This results in dehumidification since Nafion is permeable to water molecules but not air. This saves power and complexity since cooling is not required (as needed with a condensing dehumidifier), and the removed water is rejected to space with no additional mechanism needed.

Modified Nafion for PEM fuel cells
Normal Nafion will dehydrate (thus lose proton conductivity) when the temperature is above ~80 °C. This limitation troubles the design of fuel cells because higher temperatures are desirable for better efficiency and CO tolerance of the platinum catalyst. Silica and zirconium phosphate can be incorporated into Nafion water channels through in situ chemical reactions to increase the working temperature to above 100 °C.

title: Nafion


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Category:Baronetcies

This category includes articles on the baronetcies (both extant and extinct) of England, Ireland, Great Britain, the United Kingdom, and Nova Scotia.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Category:Baronetcies


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Talk:Parkfield, California

Regarding Leonard G.'s latest update:

"Note that the range of earthquakes between 3.0 and 5.0 encompass a range of energy release in the ratio of 1:100, as the magnitude scale is logarithmic. The ground motion associated with earthquakes in this range is highly dependent upon the distance from the epicenter and the particular soil conditions at the observation point."

The energy level change between earthquakes in actually 32 times between each magnitude number, which is equal to a ration of over 1:900.

That said, I don't believe this information belongs in the Parkfield article.

RockBandit 05:38, Oct 5, 2004 (UTC)

We should remove earthquake analysis information
Seeing as how earthquakes happen here roughly every 22 - 25 years or so (at least since the late 1800s), I think we should move a lot of the specific information about earthquakes and the analysis to other pages. It is cluttering up this page. RockBandit 06:23, Dec 11, 2004 (UTC)

Moving of earthquake info
I think the information on the recent earthquake was appropriate here shortly after it happened. However, it was time to move it elsewhare.

Earthquakes and Parkfield, CA
When you Google "what city in CA has never had an earthquake?" Results are Parkfield, CA When you Google "What city is known as the earthquake capital ?" Results are Parkfield, CA. 2600:1012:B153:1BBC:EE0D:688C:9EA8:7890 (talk) 07:31, 14 September 2022 (UTC)

title: Talk:Parkfield, California


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Talk:Vida Guerra

ass
this page I, feel should describe more about what makes her stand out, but That probably will be hard without saying the word Butt or ass, whichI think many people would be adverse to.

is there some way we could get a picture of her to appear when a user first accesses the page, w/o infinging on laws prohibiting the use pf photographs?

 * If you can find a photo that doesn't have copyright issues, sure. See Image use policy for more info on what's acceptable. —tregoweth 15:44, Oct 5, 2004 (UTC)

just because some would object to the use ot the word buttocks on this page does not mean that its use is wrong, if anyone looks at her. the first thing they notice is .... her booty. could put a pic from http://www.djbigsteve.com/gallery/albun32 on this page, all those images appear to be screen grabs & google turn up googles of pics.

-I think her celebrity in spite of her ugliness should at least be mentioned. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 68.144.35.49 (talk • contribs)
 * :O - NO, you didn't just say that! Donmega60645 16:38, 24 May 2006 (UTC)

1980 she is hard core actually born in 1974. This is very common practice with women in the entertainment industry.71.126.174.237

thus the link to 1980's births should be removed

 * Can someone please provide evidence of what birth date she claims? --TJive 17:28, 10 June 2006 (UTC)

 * The New Jersey Voter Registration record lists her DOB as 3/19/1974. In other news she originally registered to vote on 2/6/1992 and last voted in New Jersey in the election on 11/2/2004.  She was registered in the 13th Congressional District. Source (screen shot from Lexis public records search):http://i132.photobucket.com/albums/q21/cafra2000/VG.jpg.

Most women in the modeling/entertainment industry try not to claim anything. They're like Caribbean baseball players. If they're 22 and you need them to be 18, they're 18.

 * Right, there are conflicting claims on this, so it needs to be sourced. --TJive 20:39, 14 June 2006 (UTC)

Wait....what does her birth date have to do with being marketable? It seems like not that big a difference between those two dates (1976 and 1980).

The dates were 1974 (not 1976) and 1980 and when you're a magazine that is selling sex to 18-ish males, it's the difference between a 24 year old fantasy and a 30 year old fantasy. It's certainly getting better, but the modeling/acting industry still tends to look at women who are 30+ as washed-up.

 * Its too convenient that few people on Wikipedia can even use the LexisNexis database to look up Vida's voter registration information. A screenshot that someone uploaded to their anonymous free image hosting account isn't a real reference.  I can take screenshots of 50 different actors tomorrow, edit their birthdates in photoshop, upload them to an image host and then change all of their birthdates on wikipedia.  We might as well be putting barbershop gossip on wikipedia articles if you're not going to cite sources that can be confirmed by a reputable website that ANYONE reading the article can access.

 * A search of public records via zabasearch.com confirms a March 1974 birthdate as well. (http://www.zabasearch.com/query1_zaba.php?sname=Vida%20Guerra&state=ALL&ref=$ref&se=$se&doby=&city=&name_style=1) —The preceding unsigned comment was added by 72.195.190.91 (talk) 23:36, 28 February 2007 (UTC).

 * Dude. IMDb says she's 32 (same date as the first post or edit or whatever). I say thats a trusted website.71.17.168.88 04:14, 3 January 2007 (UTC)

According to IMBD.com she was born in 1974 check out link to see. Great discrepancy in years, i think you have the same dates though. Axedmt 03:28, 3 May 2007 (UTC)

 * Unfortunatlly IMDb is NOT a valid site per WP's policy's.PeaceKeeper1234 19:53, 23 February 2011 (UTC) — Preceding unsigned comment added by Peacekeeper 1234 (talk • contribs)

Removal of Personal Quotes section
I agree that the quotes that were in this section previously were not very notable. However, I disagree that the entire section should be removed. If someone can come up with some notable quotes can they please the section back? Thank you. -- Jalabi99 16:43, 27 July 2006 (UTC)

 * I take the term "notable quotes" to mean something that would pertain significatly to her biography. Anything that important would be mentioned somewhere in the article and it would have already been mentioned. Thus, there is no need for a seperate section. If you have a quote that is significant to her bio, then feel free to add it and add discussion of the quote in whatever section the quote may apply. --Jaysscholar 16:55, 27 July 2006 (UTC)

Protection
Currently protected per linkspam campaing, recurrent vandalism and content dispute over birthdate. It was originally semi-protected but was later forced to upgrade protection due to the use of a dormant account to get around it. -- Run e Welsh | ταλκ 08:04, 21 September 2006 (UTC)

Cell Phone Pics vs. Playboy
It may be.. uhm... "original research", but contrary to what she claims, the cell phone pics are clearly her. Besides the fact that her face is easily recognizible in the cell phone shots, the same tattoo on her lower abdomen is clearly visible in both sets. 71.128.255.251 23:57, 25 September 2006 (UTC)

The claim was not in reference to all of the pictures, but rather a few pictures in particular from the set. Specifically the crotch shots.

early life
With the current wording, it sounds like she became a model and actress, and then eventually became a loan officer. It should be reworded to say that the loan officer part was earlier and the modelling/acting part is more current. --Atari2600tim (talk • contribs) 22:07, 17 April 2007 (UTC)

Age issue
May I ask people not to delete information regarding her age. Personally, I think that the evidences for her being born in 1974 seem more thrustworthy, but a discussion would not be out of place. Once the matter is settled, the article should of course give only one birthdate, but even after that I think that a short paragraph on the confusion of the birth dates should be kept. Six years is not a big difference in many cases, but for someone being a model, the difference between being discovered at when 22 and having the big breakthrough at 23 is very different from being discovered at 28 and having a breakthrough at 29. The latter case is rather unusual. I hope to see more contributions on this page instead of just reversions. JdeJ 01:14, 25 May 2007 (UTC)

 * AskMen.com is a reputable source. The other references given are not reputable whatsoever, as one is a celebrity "encyclopedia" which pulls its data from wikipedia and other blogs at times when they could be inaccurate, and the others are MFA sites.  VidaZone is a blatant MFA, it was designed for the express purpose of displaying Google Adsense ads, there are more ads than there are original content (the site owners have a whole series of celebrity MFA sites).  Vidaguerra-pics.com is another example, its used as a source when its more ads than content (again, part of a series of MFA sites for models), there's no original content on that site at all, just personal opinion about Vida.  This isn't even an issue about reputable sources, this is about wiki spammers finding ways to insert links into articles to generate some money.  Nothing wrong with having ads, but if a site doesn't at least carry some original content or interviews, and is blatantly made just to generate ad revenue, it doesn't belong.  I'm halfway convinced that you own the sites that you keep spamming the article with, I'm going to ask that they be blacklisted from wikipedia if this continues. 68.155.84.145 03:45, 25 May 2007 (UTC)

 * I agree with you in point, but your behaviour is completely irresponsible. A principle here is to assume good faith, something you would be well-adviced to learn. I have no connection to any of the sites posted here as sources, and a quick check of the page history would have shown you that they were first posted by other users and long before I made any contribution to this article. Instead of hurling low accusations at other users, you could begin to contribute in a constructive way by giving any of the sources you claim to have. You speak about interviews with her. Well, give the sources for those interviews. In the meantime, I've added an interview with her in which her age is given as 25, by FHM. A reasonably well-respected sources in this particular field, if not in any other. The only source I've added to this article is the one at IMDB. Do you seriously think I'm the owner of the site? And once again, this is an article about a woman who is known "just" for modelling. What kind of sources do you expect to find. And once again, I didn't add any of those except IMDB. Lastly, regardless of when she was born, you cannot possiblt deny that there is confusion about the issue, with even an interview with FHM (the paper that brought her to fame) claiming that she is much younger than she is. So please stop deleting the paragrapg discussing her age.JdeJ 04:03, 25 May 2007 (UTC)

 * FHM made a ton of money off of her pictorials, which is exactly why they continued to promote a fake age. Lexis Nexis lists her public documents as showing her correct DOB as 1974, other public records reflected in people searches online (which accurately has everything from her old Perth Amboy addresses) as 1974:

http://www.zabasearch.com/query1_zaba.php?sname=Vida%20Guerra&state=ALL&ref=$ref&se=$se&doby=&city=&name_style=1

 * The New Jersey Voter Registration record lists her DOB as 3/19/1974. She registered to vote on 2/6/1992 and last voted in New Jersey in the election on 11/2/2004. She was registered in the 13th Congressional District. Source (screen shot from Lexis public records search):http://i132.photobucket.com/albums/q21/cafra2000/VG.jpg . There is no real confusion, FHM wanted to keep her marketable and lied about her age, any website that lists her as being born in 1980 is using inaccurate data. Vida continued to lie about her age just like Eva Mendes did and still does, just like hundreds of models and actresses that magazines and agents want to keep marketable.  68.155.84.145 04:14, 25 May 2007 (UTC)

 * Once again, we're in total agreement about her age - although I have to say that a picture as photobucket has no value whatsoever as proof. However, accusing a magazine and two women of lying is not very polite, just as your false and abusive insults directed at me weren't particularely nice. In addition, you yourself agree that both the lady herself and a magazine has given an age that most probably is different from her real age, so once again: please stop deleting the parapgraph discussing the issue. If you would have taken the time to read through my edit, you would have seen that I left her real age as being born in 1974. The question here is not when she is born, it's about you deleting material from the page. JdeJ 04:21, 25 May 2007 (UTC)

 * Your sources aren't reputable, simple as that. Its irrelevant as to whether or not I think Vida and Eva Mendes lie about their age (which they do, and anyone who went to high school with either of them knows regardless of what FHM prints).  The evidence overwhelmingly proves that she's born in '74, the fact that she admits in interviews to leaving Cuba at age six (when the Mariel Boat Lift took place) is just another piece of evidence.  There's no point in posting something in her article that's so easily disproved. 68.155.84.145 04:31, 25 May 2007 (UTC)

 * Once again:
 * 1. The only source I have inserted is the one from IMDB, one of the most reputable on this page, if I may say so.
 * 2. Non-reputable sources are still better than non-existing ones. I don't doubt that she was born in 1974, but all those testimonies you are talking of would still be interesting to see.
 * 3. My main edit to this page in the paragraph that states that there have been discussions about her age, as it obviously has. That is not to dispute that her real birth year was 1974.JdeJ 04:40, 25 May 2007 (UTC)

pic?
How come there's no picture? good point no pic??? y is that
 * Nobody has submitted a picture that is acceptable with Wikipedia's image use policy. --Atari2600tim (talk • contribs) 12:36, 16 June 2007 (UTC)

Age/content note
Who cares if FHM once got her age wrong? How is this worth making a note right at the start of the article? I've never seen this done anywhere else, and believe me, publications have gotten people's ages wrong many times.  Enigma msg  02:43, 12 March 2009 (UTC)

 * I'm not sure, but I think the content note was added to the article to acknowledge the existence of the FHM interview and prevent people from changing the date of birth based on it. If you think it's unnecessary, we can remove it. — Malik Shabazz (talk · contribs) 03:02, 12 March 2009 (UTC)

 * I would recommend removing it. If people then start changing the birth date based on FHM, we can leave a hidden note explaining why 1974 is the correct year.  Enigma msg  03:10, 12 March 2009 (UTC)

 * Ok. — Malik Shabazz (talk · contribs) 03:12, 12 March 2009 (UTC)

"Get No Better" Video
Vida was in Cassidy's "Get No Better" video someone should add that in the list of videos she appeared in! —Preceding unsigned comment added by Matt33310231 (talk • contribs) 21:17, 16 February 2010 (UTC)

Chappelle sketch
It says she appears in an R. Kelly skit but that link takes us to a page which does not mention RK. -- Beardo (talk) 18:27, 29 June 2010 (UTC)

 * That page may have once mentioned R. Kelly, but it doesn't anymore. I removed the link. — Malik Shabazz Talk/Stalk 19:02, 29 June 2010 (UTC)

Her album
The first song from Guerra's debut album, You Got Me, was leaked to the Internet on November 2, 2006. It's been four years from that, there is no other info in the article about the 'debut album'. Is it recorded, in progress, or what? 85.217.20.12 (talk) 17:52, 15 November 2010 (UTC)

 * What might be the source to that? When googling the album, I found a pic that looks like a cd cover, and it has the title "Hardbody". And only references I found were exact opies of the text in Wikipedia. So it's hard to tell which, if any, of them is the original source. 82.141.119.130 (talk) 01:07, 4 May 2013 (UTC)

Real Name?
Is it actually her real name? Cos obviously in Spanish her name means 'Life War', which seems a bit strange. VenomousConcept (talk) 08:40, 3 September 2011 (UTC)

While "Vida" is a pretty uncommon Spanish name, "Guerra" is a pretty common surname. So it could well be her real name.

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title: Talk:Vida Guerra


text:
User talk:Ancient Dragon

Every now and then I keep wondering what the fuck I am doing at uni. My first year plodding around with journalism has been a complete waste of time. Not to say that I haven't learnt anything, of course, but I haven't learnt anything that I couldn't have picked up from a book or something.

So this summer I will be working like a hero for VG Nett - a publication that in many ways does everything wrong. They are fairly right-oriented, tabloid, and I am fairly left-oriented, non-tabloid.

I think I will be spending most of the summer with my camera. Touring Norway. Making a vague attempt at changing the world. And - of course - failing miserably.

At least my uni assignments are almost done, I survived my birthday, and I'm looking forward to coming back home.

But to what? My parents have moved while I was gone, and they are in Australia at the moment, visiting my sister. So I'll come "home" to a place I've never been before (I'm not even sure if I will be able to find the damn place!).

This is where it gets interesting, I suppose.

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title: User talk:Ancient Dragon


text:
A Man in Full

A Man in Full is the second novel by Tom Wolfe, published on November 12, 1998, by Farrar, Straus & Giroux. It is set primarily in Atlanta, with a significant portion of the story also taking place in the East Bay region of the San Francisco Bay Area.

Summary
A Man In Full is a bitingly satirical novel (Juvenalian Satire) set in Georgia in the late 20th century. It tells the story of characters, black and white, from Georgia's various social and economic classes. These include Charles "Cap'm Charlie" Croker, a real estate mogul and member of Atlanta's high society who is suddenly facing bankruptcy; Martha Croker, his first wife, trying to maintain her social standing without her husband; Ray Peepgass, who is trying illegally to capitalize on Croker's fall; Roger "Too White" White II, a prominent black lawyer; and Conrad Hensley, a young man in prison who discovers Stoic philosophy.

The novel begins with the characters learning of the rumored rape of a young white heiress by a black superstar athlete, Fareek "The Cannon" Fanon. Though the incident is unimportant to the lives of the characters, the potential for the rumor to incite race riots in metropolitan Atlanta has a profound effect on all of their lives. Local politics and business interests become involved, including the president of the bank to which Croker is indebted, Roger Too White's former fraternity brother (now mayor of Atlanta), and the entirety of "respectable" Atlanta society.

A Man In Full is written much in the style of Wolfe's other fictions, such as The Bonfire of the Vanities and I Am Charlotte Simmons.

Reactions
Released eleven years after Wolfe's bestselling novel The Bonfire of the Vanities, A Man in Full was widely anticipated; Wolfe was known to be working on the research for this follow-up effort for several years.

Most of the mainstream American newspapers and news magazines gave the book positive reviews. However, a second wave of reviews in more highbrow literary outlets were more critical. Some of this more pointed criticism, mixed with praise for Wolfe's style, came from established American novelists, including John Updike and Norman Mailer. In addition, novelist John Irving criticized Wolfe's novel during an interview on a Canadian television program. Wolfe countered this criticism in his book Hooking Up, calling the three authors his "three stooges" who were actually shaken by the support he received. The novelists, he claimed, were threatened by the success of his technique - writing a novel based on reporting techniques - and were failing to engage the world around them. According to Mailer's review, the book had sold over 750,000 copies by December 1998.

The book was credited with allusions to, or the caricaturing of, some prominent members of contemporary Atlanta society.

Other media
The abridged audiobook of A Man in Full was narrated by American actor David Ogden Stiers. The unabridged audiobook of A Man in Full was released in 2018 and was narrated by American actor Michael Pritchard.

Adaptation
In November 2021, Netflix ordered a six-episode limited television series adaptation of the novel with Regina King as director and executive producer and David E. Kelley as showrunner. The miniseries was released on May 2, 2024 to mixed reviews.

title: A Man in Full


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Talk:List of Greek Orthodox Patriarchs of Jerusalem

Research of name links missing
Whoever compiled this list and inserted some links to Wikipedia articles did a terrible job, as none of the links were correct. I inserted either (Greek bishop) or (Greek patriarch) in the incorrectly linked articles to start the process of "disambiguation" from others with similar names. IZAK 05:42, 5 Oct 2004 (UTC)

 * Well, I hope this doesn't spoil your work, but now we have two lists of patriarchs, one here, and one on Orthodox Patriarch of Jerusalem. Adam Bishop 14:08, 5 Oct 2004 (UTC)


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Talk:Ambassador College

Creation of new entry for Ambassador College with a redirect page to new entry for Ambassador University, all linking to Worldwide Church of God, et al and The World Tomorrow and Herbert W. Armstrong and Bricket Wood and Art Gilmore. No page entry yet for Ambassador Hall or AICF, but I will work on creating same. MPLX/MH 05:44, 5 Oct 2004 (UTC)

For Ambassador Hall read Ambassador Auditorium
I have corrected this mistake, fortunately I have not created a linking page under the wrong name. I do intend to create one for Ambassador Auditorium. MPLX/MH 06:22, 5 Oct 2004 (UTC)

===

History section implies that Pasadena campus was the last campus to close and that it closed in 1990. Actually Big Sandy closed later. I am not sure of the date though.

===

Today I received a notice of Ambassador University books being auctioned off near Big Sandy, TX. Here is the email:

100,000 BOOKS TO BE AUCTIONED IN TEXAS

National Book Auctions is pleased to announce that we will be spending September through November of this year, selling approximately 100,000 books from the former Ambassador University campus library in Big Sandy, Texas. The auctions will take place on location at ALERT Academy, One Academy Boulevard (Route 80, approximately 2 miles east of Big Sandy) and will be organized into Friday evening and Saturday afternoon pairs of auctions, combined with library-style book sales. Each weekend will include approximately 800 lots, containing nearly 10,000 books. The first auctions will be on September 22 and 23rd and complete catalogs will soon be available for previewing at our website. Later auction dates will be posted as they are scheduled, stay tuned to our website for updated information.

This library is a complete university campus facility with full Library of Congress categorization and has been closed since 1997. The library's closing pre-dates the advent of internet book selling and this is the first time this inventory has been put to market. Over the three-month period, we will systematically move through the library, following the classifications. The library contains a high percentage of antique books including many landmark texts of significant value. We will be organizing the auction lots into individual titles, small groups and boxlots. This is a rare opportunity to access a massive collection of strong dealer inventory and collectible titles including thousands of antique books and limited print scholarly works.

To see images and descriptions of highlights for our next event, click here: http://nationalbookauctions.com/alertauctions.htmDeatonjr 16:49, 14 September 2006 (UTC) ===

How was this all funded?
How was this all funded? Donations? MaynardClark (talk) 17:46, 30 December 2019 (UTC)

title: Talk:Ambassador College


text: Category talk:Apes

title: Category talk:Apes


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Kármán vortex street

In fluid dynamics, a Kármán vortex street (or a von Kármán vortex street) is a repeating pattern of swirling vortices, caused by a process known as vortex shedding, which is responsible for the unsteady separation of flow of a fluid around blunt bodies.

It is named after the engineer and fluid dynamicist Theodore von Kármán, and is responsible for such phenomena as the "singing" of suspended telephone or power lines and the vibration of a car antenna at certain speeds. Mathematical modeling of von Kármán vortex street can be performed using different techniques including but not limited to solving the full Navier-Stokes equations with k-epsilon, SST, k-omega and Reynolds stress, and large eddy simulation (LES) turbulence models, by numerically solving some dynamic equations such as the Ginzburg–Landau equation,  or by use of a bicomplex variable.

Analysis
A vortex street forms only at a certain range of flow velocities, specified by a range of Reynolds numbers (Re), typically above a limiting Re value of about 90. The (global) Reynolds number for a flow is a measure of the ratio of inertial to viscous forces in the flow of a fluid around a body or in a channel, and may be defined as a nondimensional parameter of the global speed of the whole fluid flow: $$\mathrm{Re}_L=\frac{U L}{\nu_0}$$ where: $$\nu_0 =\frac{\mu_0} {\rho_0} $$ between:
 * $$U$$ = the free stream flow speed (i.e. the flow speed far from the fluid boundaries $$U_\infty$$ like the body speed relative to the fluid at rest, or an inviscid flow speed, computed through the Bernoulli equation), which is the original global flow parameter, i.e. the target to be non-dimensionalised.
 * $$L$$ = a characteristic length parameter of the body or channel
 * $$\nu_0$$ = the free stream kinematic viscosity parameter of the fluid, which in turn is the ratio:
 * $$\rho_0$$ = the reference fluid density.
 * $$\mu_0$$ = the free stream fluid dynamic viscosity

For common flows (the ones which can usually be considered as incompressible or isothermal), the kinematic viscosity is everywhere uniform over all the flow field and constant in time, so there is no choice on the viscosity parameter, which becomes naturally the kinematic viscosity of the fluid being considered at the temperature being considered. On the other hand, the reference length is always an arbitrary parameter, so particular attention should be put when comparing flows around different obstacles or in channels of different shapes: the global Reynolds numbers should be referred to the same reference length. This is actually the reason for which the most precise sources for airfoil and channel flow data specify the reference length at the Reynolds number. The reference length can vary depending on the analysis to be performed: for a body with circle sections such as circular cylinders or spheres, one usually chooses the diameter; for an airfoil, a generic non-circular cylinder or a bluff body or a revolution body like a fuselage or a submarine, it is usually the profile chord or the profile thickness, or some other given widths that are in fact stable design inputs; for flow channels usually the hydraulic diameter about which the fluid is flowing.

For an aerodynamic profile the reference length depends on the analysis. In fact, the profile chord is usually chosen as the reference length also for aerodynamic coefficient for wing sections and thin profiles in which the primary target is to maximize the lift coefficient or the lift/drag ratio (i.e. as usual in thin airfoil theory, one would employ the chord Reynolds as the flow speed parameter for comparing different profiles). On the other hand, for fairings and struts the given parameter is usually the dimension of internal structure to be streamlined (let us think for simplicity it is a beam with circular section), and the main target is to minimize the drag coefficient or the drag/lift ratio. The main design parameter which becomes naturally also a reference length is therefore the profile thickness (the profile dimension or area perpendicular to the flow direction), rather than the profile chord.

The range of Re values varies with the size and shape of the body from which the eddies are shed, as well as with the kinematic viscosity of the fluid. For the wake of a circular cylinder, for which the reference length is conventionally the diameter d of the circular cylinder, the lower limit of this range is Re ≈ 47. Eddies are shed continuously from each side of the circle boundary, forming rows of vortices in its wake. The alternation leads to the core of a vortex in one row being opposite the point midway between two vortex cores in the other row, giving rise to the distinctive pattern shown in the picture. Ultimately, the energy of the vortices is consumed by viscosity as they move further down stream, and the regular pattern disappears. Above the Re  value of 188.5, the flow becomes three-dimensional, with periodic variation along the cylinder. Above Re on the order of 105 at the drag crisis, vortex shedding becomes irregular and turbulence sets in.

When a single vortex is shed, an asymmetrical flow pattern forms around the body and changes the pressure distribution. This means that the alternate shedding of vortices can create periodic lateral (sideways) forces on the body in question, causing it to vibrate. If the vortex shedding frequency is similar to the natural frequency of a body or structure, it causes resonance. It is this forced vibration that, at the correct frequency, causes suspended telephone or power lines to "sing" and the antenna on a car to vibrate more strongly at certain speeds.

In meteorology
The flow of atmospheric air over obstacles such as islands or isolated mountains sometimes gives birth to von Kármán vortex streets. When a cloud layer is present at the relevant altitude, the streets become visible. Such cloud layer vortex streets have been photographed from satellites. The vortex street can reach over 400 km from the obstacle and the diameter of the vortices are normally 20-40 km.

Engineering problems
In low turbulence, tall buildings can produce a Kármán street, so long as the structure is uniform along its height. In urban areas where there are many other tall structures nearby, the turbulence produced by these can prevent the formation of coherent vortices. Periodic crosswind forces set up by vortices along object's sides can be highly undesirable, due to the vortex-induced vibrations caused, which can damage the structure, hence it is important for engineers to account for the possible effects of vortex shedding when designing a wide range of structures, from submarine periscopes to industrial chimneys and skyscrapers. For monitoring such engineering structures, the efficient measurements of von Kármán streets can be performed using smart sensing algorithms such as compressive sensing.

Even more serious instability can be created in concrete cooling towers, especially when built together in clusters. Vortex shedding caused the collapse of three towers at Ferrybridge Power Station C in 1965 during high winds.

The failure of the original Tacoma Narrows Bridge was originally attributed to excessive vibration due to vortex shedding, but was actually caused by aeroelastic flutter.

Kármán turbulence is also a problem for airplanes, especially when landing.

Solutions
To prevent vortex shedding and mitigate the unwanted vibration of cylindrical bodies is the use of a tuned mass damper (TMD). A tuned mass damper is a device consisting of a mass-spring system that is specifically designed and tuned to counteract the vibrations induced by vortex shedding.

When a tuned mass damper is installed on a cylindrical structure, such as a tall chimney or mast, it helps to reduce the vibration amplitudes caused by vortex shedding. The tuned mass damper consists of a mass that is attached to the structure through springs or dampers. In many cases, the spring is replaced by suspending the mass on cables such that it forms a pendulum system with the same resonance frequency. The mass is carefully tuned to have a natural frequency that matches the dominant frequency of the vortex shedding.

As the structure is subjected to vortex shedding-induced vibrations, the tuned mass damper oscillates in an out-of-phase motion with the structure. This counteracts the vibrations, reducing their amplitudes and minimizing the potential for resonance and structural damage.

The effectiveness of a tuned mass damper in mitigating vortex shedding-induced vibrations depends on factors such as the mass of the damper, its placement on the structure, and the tuning of the system. Engineers carefully analyze the structural dynamics and characteristics of the vortex shedding phenomenon to determine the optimal parameters for the tuned mass damper.

Another solution to prevent the unwanted vibration of such cylindrical bodies is a longitudinal fin that can be fitted on the downstream side, which, provided it is longer than the diameter of the cylinder, prevents the eddies from interacting, and consequently they remain attached. Obviously, for a tall building or mast, the relative wind could come from any direction. For this reason, helical projections resembling large screw threads are sometimes placed at the top, which effectively create asymmetric three-dimensional flow, thereby discouraging the alternate shedding of vortices; this is also found in some car antennas.

Another countermeasure with tall buildings is using variation in the diameter with height, such as tapering - that prevents the entire building from being driven at the same frequency.

Formula
This formula generally holds true for the range 250 < Red < 200000: $$\text{St} = 0.198\left (1-\frac{19.7}{\text{Re}_d}\right )\ $$ where: $$\text{St}=\frac {f d}{U} $$ This dimensionless parameter St is known as the Strouhal number and is named after the Czech physicist, Vincenc Strouhal (1850–1922) who first investigated the steady humming or singing of telegraph wires in 1878.
 * f = vortex shedding frequency.
 * d = diameter of the cylinder
 * U = flow velocity.

History
Although named after Theodore von Kármán, he acknowledged that the vortex street had been studied earlier by Arnulph Mallock and Henri Bénard. Kármán tells the story in his book Aerodynamics:

"[...] Prandtl had a doctoral candidate, Karl Hiemenz, to whom he gave the task of constructing a water channel in which he could observe the separation of the flow behind a cylinder. The object was to check experimentally the separation point calculated by means of the boundary-layer theory. For this purpose, it was first necessary to know the pressure distribution around the cylinder in a steady flow. Much to his surprise, Hiemenz found that the flow in his channel oscillated violently. When he reported this to Prandtl, the latter told him: 'Obviously your cylinder is not circular.' However, even after very careful machining of the cylinder, the flow continued to oscillate. Then Hiemenz was told that possibly the channel was not symmetric, and he started to adjust it. I was not concerned with this problem, but every morning when I came in the laboratory I asked him, 'Herr Hiemenz, is the flow steady now?' He answered very sadly, 'It always oscillates.'"

In his autobiography, von Kármán described how his discovery was inspired by an Italian painting of St Christopher carrying the child Jesus whilst wading through water. Vortices could be seen in the water, and von Kármán noted that "The problem for historians may have been why Christopher was carrying Jesus through the water. For me it was why the vortices". It has been suggested by researchers that the painting is one from the 14th century that can be found in the museum of the San Domenico church in Bologna.

title: Kármán vortex street


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Jean Alexandre LeMat

Jean Alexandre Francois LeMat (1821–1895) is best known for the percussion cap revolver that bears his name (see LeMat revolver).

LeMat was born in France in 1821 and studied for the priesthood at an early age. He decided against it and became a doctor. LeMat immigrated to the United States in 1843 and in 1849 he married Justine Sophie LePretre, the cousin of U.S. Army Major Pierre Gustave Toutant Beauregard. Beauregard later led the bombardment of Fort Sumter in Charleston Harbor in 1861. LeMat was an avid inventor as well as a practicing physician and Beauregard financed some of these ideas. LeMat, secured for his "Grapeshot revolver" design on October 21, 1856. British patents for the same design were issued in 1859, and he later designed a revolver rifle of similar concept as the handgun.

He returned to France after the Civil War and led a legion of Americans during the Franco-Prussian War. While many sources list his year of death in 1883, the most credible sources note that his grave in Paris indicates he died in 1895.

title: Jean Alexandre LeMat


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Rumsfeld Doctrine

The "Rumsfeld Doctrine", named after former United States Secretary of Defense Donald Rumsfeld, is a phrase coined by journalists concerned with the perceived transformation of the military of the United States. It would be considered Rumsfeld's own take on RMA (Revolution in Military Affairs). It seeks to increase force readiness and decrease the amount of supply required to maintain forces, by reducing the number in a theater. This is done mainly by using LAVs (Light Armoured Vehicles) to scout for enemies who are then destroyed via airstrikes. The basic tenets of this military strategy are:

 * High-technology combat systems;
 * Reliance on air forces;
 * Small, nimble ground forces.

The early phases of the Afghanistan and Iraq wars are considered the two closest implementations of this doctrine.

Responses
Opponents argue that the doctrine entails a heavy reliance on air strikes to replace a lack of ground forces. Beginning with Saddam Hussein, there were at least 50 air strikes aimed at decapitating the Iraqi leadership. Not a single one was successful. However, there were extensive civilian casualties. This was coined the Shock and awe military campaign.

Opponents also claim that without ground troops to secure the border, top Ba'athist regime members fled the country with vast Iraqi funds and foreign insurgents moved into the country. There were not enough troops to defend the Iraqi border from foreign-backed insurgents.

They also claim that without sufficient troops the country could not be pacified. Without sufficient troops to guard the Iraqi military infrastructure, large amounts of munitions were looted. This has led to the current problem of insurgents and their improvised explosive devices (IED)s. Thomas L. Friedman of the New York Times has referred to the Rumsfeld Doctrine as one of "just enough troops to lose".

That said, the war plan for the Iraq War led to a quick and decisive victory over one of the region's largest and best equipped military forces. Using tactics honed from those used during first Gulf War, the Balkans and Afghanistan, the U.S. led coalition's integrated forces strategy overwhelmed the Iraqi defenses using rapid deployment and engagement of military "power" rather than overwhelming them with overwhelming forces, or overwhelming numbers.

title: Rumsfeld Doctrine


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User:Cinnamon~enwiki

Hi, I'm a Japanese Wikipedian. I'm not good at English, so I cannot write articles. I mainly do interwiki activities in English Wikipedia.

& & zh:User:Cinnamon

title: User:Cinnamon~enwiki


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Beers, Steers, and Queers

Beers, Steers + Queers (stylized as BEERS, STEERS + QVEERS: THE ALBVM) is the second studio album by American–Belgian industrial rock band Revolting Cocks. Released in May 1990, the album was supported by three singles and was reissued several times. Its sound is industrial and built upon repetitive percussion and samples. David Jeffries of AllMusic described Beers, Steers + Queers as dominating college radio and clubs. The album's supporting tour was recalled by Chris Connelly as "ridiculous" and particularly chaotic.

Original album

 * (*) The LP version is 7:02.

Singles
Stainless Steel Providers (1989)

 * 1) "Stainless Steel Providers"
 * 2) "At the Top"
 * 3) "T.V. Mind [Remix]" (CD only)

(Let's Get) Physical (1989)

 * 1) "(Let's Get) Physical"
 * 2) "(Let's Talk) Physical"

Beers, Steers & Queers (The Remixes) (1991)

 * 1) "Beers, Steers & Queers [Drop Yer Britches Mix]" / "Beers, Steers & Queers [Take 'Em Right Off Mix]"
 * 2) "Stainless Steel Providers [Live]"
 * 3) "Public Image [Live]"

Personnel
Credits adapted from liner notes

 * Revolting Cocks
 * Alain Jourgensen – guitar, programming, production
 * Luc van Acker – vocals (track 8)
 * Chris Connelly – vocals (tracks 2, 3, 5-7, 9), cover artwork
 * William Rieflin – drums, programming
 * Paul Barker – bass, programming, production

 * Additional personnel
 * Phildo Owens – vocals (track 1)
 * Nivek Ogre – vocals (track 4)
 * Fluffy – engineer
 * Brian Shanley – cover artwork

title: Beers, Steers, and Queers


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Cliff Allison

Henry Clifford Allison (8 February 1932 – 7 April 2005) was a British racing driver from England, who participated in Formula One during seasons to  for the Lotus, Scuderia Centro Sud, Ferrari and UDT Laystall teams. He was born and died in Brough, Westmorland (now Cumbria).

Formula Three and Sports Cars
Cliff Allison started his racing career in a Formula Three Cooper 500 in 1953 before being spotted by Colin Chapman. Allison won the performance prize driving a 744cc Lotus in the 1957 24 Hours of Le Mans. The Lotus of Allison and Colin Chapman finished sixth in the 1958 12 Hours of Sebring endurance race for sports cars. Allison came in fourth with his Lotus in the 1958 Grand Prix of Europe at Spa-Francorchamps, more than four minutes behind victor Tony Brooks.

Allison and Dan Gurney shared one of three team Ferrari cars that competed in the June 1959 1000 km Nürburgring race. Seventy-five cars entered the 1000 kilometre race which was a world championship event for sports cars.

Allison was paired with Jean Behra in a Ferrari which finished second in the 1959 12 Hours of Sebring. The drivers received $1,500 in prize money. Allison was credited with the fastest lap of the Sebring race in the No. 9 Ferrari. He was clocked at 3 minutes 21.6 seconds on the 97th lap of the 5.2-mile course.

In May 1960 Allison skidded off the road during practice for the Targa Florio in Palermo, Sicily. His Ferrari had reached a speed of 100 miles per hour when a tyre burst, or so the driver believed. The car crashed into a scrub forest, destroying itself and most of what it touched. When the mishap occurred the Ferrari was nearing the end of a five-mile straight by the sea. This was the only very fast stretch of road in the event. Allison escaped from the wreck without a scratch, but his face was ashen and his mouth hung open with an expression of fear.

Formula One Lotus (1958, 1961), Ferrari (1959–60)
Allison was forced to make numerous pit stops during the 1958 Monaco Grand Prix. His Lotus finished sixth, 12 laps behind race winner Maurice Trintignant. However this marked the first World Championship point for Team Lotus.

Ferrari's stable of drivers for 1959 were Olivier Gendebien, Phil Hill, Brooks, Behra, Gurney, and Allison.

For the 1959 Monaco Grand Prix the Ferrari factory team fielded truncated versions of the cars they ran in future grand prix races. At Monte Carlo the Ferraris' long sleek snouts (air scoops) were cut away to allow more air into the cooling systems. Wolfgang von Trips lost control of his Porsche in a bend where the street was steeply inclined to Casino. Allison's Formula 2 Ferrari crashed into him as he spun. The Lotus of Bruce Halford came next into the blind curve and became part of the wreck. Allison and his Ferrari suffered the least damage while von Trips sustained a gashed face, and Halford had a cut to his arm. None of the three cars could continue.

In the 1960 Argentine Grand Prix he scored the best result of his Formula 1 career when he finished 2nd. He suffered a major crash behind the wheel of his Ferrari while practising for the 1960 Monaco Grand Prix, and it took him almost the rest of the year to recover from his injuries. Allison was hurt when his Ferrari slammed into a straw barrier. He was unconscious when he was taken to a hospital. Allison sustained a broken left arm, rib fractures, facial cuts, and a concussion. He was listed in serious condition.

The following year he suffered another crash at the wheel of his Lotus in practice for the 1961 Belgian Grand Prix. He broke both his knees and fractured his pelvis when his car careened off the course and overturned in a field.

Post-Formula One career
This marked the end of his career in motor sport. He kept in touch with the sport through reunions and was always a popular visitor to the paddock.

Allison owned and managed Allison's Garage in Brough. The business had been started by his father and he returned to it after his racing career ended. Allisons also provided the village and school bus services, which Cliff Allison would drive.

Complete Formula One World Championship results
(key)

title: Cliff Allison


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Norwegian Cruise Line

Norwegian Cruise Line (NCL) is an American cruise line founded in Norway in 1966, incorporated in Bermuda and headquartered in Miami. It is the fourth-largest cruise line in the world by passengers, controlling about 8.6% of the total worldwide share of the cruise market by passengers. It is wholly owned by parent company Norwegian Cruise Line Holdings.

History
The cruise line was founded in 1966 by Norwegian Knut Kloster and Israeli Ted Arison, with the 8,666-ton, 140 m long cruise ship/car ferry, MS Sunward (1966), which in 1966 operated as a car ferry between Southampton UK and Gibraltar, for that one short season only. The Sunward was first managed under the Arison Shipping Company, and marketed as Ensign Cruises. Arison soon left to form Carnival Cruise Lines, while Kloster acquired additional ships for Caribbean service, with the line renamed and marketed as Norwegian Caribbean Lines.

Norwegian Caribbean Lines
Norwegian pioneered many firsts in the cruise industry, such as the first exclusive private island, Great Stirrup Cay in the Bahamas, the first combined air-sea program (marketed as "Cloud 9 Cruises"), which combined low-cost air fares with the cruise, Freestyle Cruising, which is a form of relaxed and informal cruising, and first shipline to develop new ports in the Caribbean, such as Ocho Rios in Jamaica.

First new builds
Norwegians's second and third ship, the MS Starward and Skyward, were the first newly built ships designed for the cruise line. Like the original Sunward of 1966, they had the capability to carry automobiles through a well-concealed stern door. Later, this area was turned into cabins and a two-deck movie theater, later to be used as a casino. Norwegian was responsible for many of the cruise innovations that have now become standard throughout the industry.

Norwegian would order two additional ships, that would be their first true cruise ships without any car carrying capacity. This would be the Southward in 1971, and an intended identical sister the Seaward, that would never be delivered to the line, and would be completed for P&O Cruises instead. The line would sell its original ship the Sunward in 1973, being too small and inadequate for the modern cruise market. They would purchase the former Cunard Adventurer in 1977, refitting her with the trademark NCL funnels, and renamed Sunward II.

SS Norway
Norwegian made headlines with the acquisition of the liner SS France (1961) in 1979, rebuilding the liner as a cruise ship and renaming her Norway. The conversion cost more than US$100million. At 1,000 ft long and displacing 52,000 tons, the Norway was at the time significantly larger than any existing cruise ship, and exploited the extra space available by adding a greater-than-usual variety of onboard entertainment. Her success paved the way for a new era of giant cruise ships.

Further newbuilds and acquisitions
With an aging, small ship fleet by the late 1980s compared to the larger modern ships being built for competitors Carnival and Royal Caribbean, Norwegian attempted to catch up with an order of a new ship in 1987, the new Seaward, NCL's first new build since 1971. Norwegian parent company Kloster would transfer two of the recently acquired Royal Viking Line ships to Norwegian, which became the MS Westward and MS Sunward (1991) (III). Kloster would acquire Royal Cruise Line in 1989–90, and would eventually transfer the Westward to their fleet. Norwegian would also continue with further orders of new ships in the early 1990s, not competing with large-sized cruise ship building trend of competitors, but with the smaller with the Dreamward and Windward to offer better flexibility with itineraries.

The line would continue to acquire second hand ships in the mid-1990s, with the addition of the Leeward in 1995. In 1996 the Crown Odyssey, which was part of NCL's subsidiary line Royal Cruise Line, was transferred and became the Norwegian Crown. In 1997 Norwegian acquired Majesty Cruise Line, and added their two ships, which became the Norwegian Majesty and Norwegian Dynasty. During this time Norwegian would rename all its ships with the "Norwegian" prefix (excluding SS Norway), and change its livery for the second time to a dark blue funnel with gold NCL logo.

Norwegian has expanded to other parts of the world, including Alaska, Europe, Bermuda, and Hawaii. Between 1997 and 2001, the company also operated cruises out of Australia under the name Norwegian Capricorn Line and acquired Orient Lines in 1998.

Acquisition by Star Cruises & Freestyle Cruising
Norwegian was sold by Kloster to Star Cruises in 2000, a subsidiary of Genting Hong Kong, part of the Malaysia-based Genting Group. Under the new ownership a new concept was introduced with the newly completed ship, Norwegian Sky, freestyle cruising. This concept freed passengers from fixed formal dining times, instead there was relaxed attire, several distinct dining options, relaxed disembarkation and more lounges, bars, theatres and other entertainment and activity options, a change that would have a ripple effect across the cruise industry.

Fleet Modernization
With the financial backing of Star Cruises, the struggling Norwegian Cruise Line was able to begin to replace much of its older and second hand fleet with new ships. In addition to the Norwegian Sun, Star Cruises had ships already on order for their own fleet at Meyer Werft, which would be transferred to Norwegian during construction, with the first two debuting as the Norwegian Star in 2001 and Norwegian Dawn in 2002. These would be followed by an accelerated new build program, adding four more new ships over a five-year period.

NCL America
In 2002, Norwegian purchased the half-complete hull of the first Project America ship, at the time under construction at Ingalls Shipbuilding in Pascagoula, Mississippi, US, which was towed to Germany to be completed at the Lloyd Werft shipyard. Subsequently, Norwegian acquired the rights to move two ships built entirely outside the United States under the US flag, making it possible to start a US-flagged operation under the brand name NCL America. In 2003, the company announced the purchase of the American-flagged liners SS United States and SS Independence. In their July 2007 fiscal report, Norwegian noted the sale of Independence, renamed SS Oceanic some time before. On July 1, 2010, the SS United States Conservancy struck a deal to buy SS United States for $3 million. On February 1, 2011, the ownership was officially transferred to the SS United States Conservancy.

Departure of SS Norway
A boiler explosion in May 2003 forced Norwegian to withdraw the Norway from service, later being laid up in Bremerhaven, Germany, until 2005, when she was towed to Port Klang Malaysia with the claimed intent to use her as an anchored casino or slow overnight casino cruises on her remaining boilers. Instead, she was sold for scrap and renamed the SS Blue Lady and later beached at Alang, Gujarat, India, in August 2006 with claims that she had not been cleaned of toxic materials. On September 11, 2007, the India Supreme Court issued an order permitting her to be broken up at Alang, despite the presence of large amounts of hazardous asbestos remaining on board.

Apollo Management and reorganisation
In August 2007, Star Cruises sold 50% of Norwegian for $1 billion to US-based Apollo Management to strengthen Norwegian's financial position. In 2007, Star Cruises sold Orient Line's Marco Polo to Transocean Tours, and Orient Lines ceased operations in early 2008.

Following an initial public offering and corporate reorganisation in 2013, Norwegian was made a wholly owned subsidiary of Norwegian Cruise Line Holdings (NCLH), while Norwegian's previous owners Genting Hong Kong, Apollo Management and TPG Capital exchanged their stakes in Norwegian for shares in the newly listed NCLH.

Further new builds and fleet changes
Norwegian reported in February 2008 that the Pride of Aloha, one of the two remaining NCL America ships, would be withdrawn from service in May of the same year. Initial reports suggested she would be transferred to the fleet of Star Cruises, but it was later announced that she would return to the Norwegian international fleet as the Norwegian Sky, while the Norwegian Majesty and Norwegian Dream would be sold to Louis Cruise Lines.

Norwegian Epic
Two ships in this Epic class were ordered by NCL in November 2006, with an option for a third vessel that was not exercised. A dispute between NCL and STX initially resulted in the construction of both ships being placed on hold until a new agreement was reached. The agreement called for completion of the first ship; the second ship was cancelled in 2008. The sole remaining ship, Norwegian Epic, was delivered to NCL on 17 June 2010.

Breakaway class
The first two Breakaway-class ships entered service in 2013 and 2014 as Norwegian Breakaway and Norwegian Getaway. On October 17, 2012, Meyer Werft and Norwegian reached a second agreement for the construction of two new vessels, slated for delivery in October 2015 and 2017, respectively. The project was under the code name "Breakaway Plus Class", with the vessels expected to be 163,000 gross tons and hold 4,200 passengers. The Norwegian Escape entered service in November 2015 and Norwegian Joy in 2017. Two more vessels were ordered on July 14, 2014, and they entered service in 2018 and 2019 as the Norwegian Bliss and Norwegian Encore, respectively. Dream Cruises ordered two modified Breakaway Class ships in 2015, they were launched in 2016 and 2017 as Genting Dream and World Dream.

The sale of the Norwegian Dream was subsequently cancelled. The Norwegian Dream became the Superstar Gemini for Star Cruises, from January 2013.

On June 1, 2012, Norwegian announced the signing of a memorandum of agreement to exercise its option to purchase Norwegian Sky. The purchase price was roughly $260 million, financing being provided by the seller.

In December 2016, Norwegian Cruise Line announced it had reached an agreement with the Cuban government. In May 2017, the Norwegian Sky was the first Norwegian Cruise Line vessel to ever visit Cuba. The Norwegian Sky made weekly trips from Miami to Havana, making Norwegian the only line sailing that route weekly. Norwegian continued operating Cuban routes until June 2019, when they came to a halt following new restrictions from the Trump Administration.

Project Leonardo
In February 2016, Norwegian ordered 4 new ships from Fincantieri under the codename Project Leonardo, to be delivered in 2022–2025. These ships would have around 140,000 gross tonnage. In July 2018, NCL confirmed that they had ordered 2 more ships to be delivered in 2026–27. On December 9, 2019, the keel of the first ship was laid down and named Norwegian Prima. It was launched in August 2021 and commenced sailing in the same month of 2022. The second ship was named Norwegian Viva in early 2022 and expected to be completed by 2023.

On May 2, 2017, Norwegian Cruise Line announced a new PortMiami Terminal. The construction began on May 1, 2018, and was completed in fall 2019. In December 2018, Norwegian revealed plans to build a new pier in Alaska's Icy Strait Point.

COVID-19 pandemic
In March 2020, the Miami New Times reported that managers at Norwegian had prepared a set of responses intended to convince customers wary of the ongoing COVID-19 pandemic to book cruises, including "blatantly false" claims that the coronavirus "can only survive in cold temperatures, so the Caribbean is a fantastic choice for your next cruise", that "scientists and medical professionals have confirmed that the warm weather of the spring will be the end of the coronavirus", and that the virus "cannot live in the amazingly warm and tropical temperatures that your cruise will be sailing to."

On March 14, 2020, the U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) issued a No Sail Order for cruise ships. Concurrently Norwegian Cruise Line Holdings implemented a suspension of all cruise voyages across its three brands (Norwegian Cruise Line, Oceania Cruises, and Regent Seven Seas Cruises), with all 28 ships in port or at anchor and all passengers disembarked by March 28, 2020. This suspension has subsequently been extended through June 30, 2020.

On May 5, 2020, in a filing with the Securities and Exchange Commission, Norwegian Cruise Line Holdings (NCLH) said there is “substantial doubt” about its ability to continue as a “going concern” as it faces a liquidity crisis over the next twelve months.

By the next day, NCLH was able to secure over $2.2 billion of additional liquidity in oversubscribed capital markets transactions, but at a price: (1) $400 million in common stock at $11 per share; (2) $675 million in senior secured notes due 2024 at a 12.25% interest rate; (3) $750 million in exchangeable notes due 2024 at 6% interest rate, and exchangeable at any time into common shares at $13.75; and (4) $400 million private investment from a global private equity firm. On May 7, 2020, NCLH CEO declared that the company has secured enough liquidity to get through potentially 18 months of zero revenues and may resume cruising later in 2020.

In anticipation of sailing again, Norwegian is implementing new health and safety measures, including installing H13 HEPA air filters. The company is also working with the CDC and the new color-coding system to indicate each ship's COVID-19 status, and to repatriate Norwegian crews still stuck aboard their vessel.

Even though the company lost $4 billion and furloughed 20 percent of its staff, it doubled the salary of its chief executive, Frank Del Rio, to $36.4 million.

Fleet
, Norwegian Cruise Line operates 19 cruise ships, with eight on order. It has also previously owned or operated 19 other ships. All its ships are flagged to the Bahamas, except for the Pride of America, which operates cruises within the United States and is flagged and registered in the US, as well as being owned by a US-registered subsidiary, NCL America.

Ships which never entered service for NCL
Ships which NCL had options on using but never took up for various reasons.

Private islands
Norwegian owns two private islands in the Caribbean: Harvest Caye in Belize and Great Stirrup Cay in the Bahamas.

Subsidiary Cruise Lines
Norwegian Cruise Line subsidiary lines over the years:

 * Royal Viking Line (1984–1994)
 * Royal Cruise Line (1989–1996)
 * Norwegian Capricorn Line (1997–2001)
 * Orient Lines (1998–2008)
 * NCL America (2004 - 2008)
 * Oceania Cruises (2014–present)
 * Regent Seven Seas Cruises (2014–present)

title: Norwegian Cruise Line


text:
2006 FIFA World Cup qualification (OFC)

Listed below are the dates and results for the 2006 FIFA World Cup qualification rounds for Oceania. 12 teams took part, competing for a place in the intercontinental play-off against the fifth-placed team from South America. The winner of this play-off qualified for the World Cup.

This qualifying tournament also doubled as the 2004 OFC Nations Cup, up to the final play-off stage.

First round
The competition was composed of three rounds. Australia and New Zealand entered the competition directly in the Second Round. The other 10 teams were divided in two groups of five teams each, and played against each other once. The two teams with most points in each group advanced to the Second Round.

Second round
In the Second round, the six teams were put in a single group, and played against each other once. The two teams with most points advanced to a play-off, and played against each other home and away. The winner of this play-off advanced to the intercontinental play-off.

Final
Australia and the Solomon Islands progressed to the final stage.

Final round

 * Australia won 9–1 on aggregate and advanced to the CONMEBOL–OFC play-off against Uruguay.

Inter-confederation play-offs
The final round winners then played the fifth-placed team of CONMEBOL qualifying, Uruguay, in a home-and-away play-off. The winner of this play-off qualified for the 2006 FIFA World Cup finals.

Qualified teams
The following team from OFC qualified for the final tournament.

 * 1 Bold indicates champions for that year. Italic indicates hosts for that year.

Top goalscorers
Below are full goalscorer lists for each round:

 * First round
 * Second round
 * Final round

title: 2006 FIFA World Cup qualification (OFC)


text:
Lab-on-a-chip

A lab-on-a-chip (LOC) is a device that integrates one or several laboratory functions on a single integrated circuit (commonly called a "chip") of only millimeters to a few square centimeters to achieve automation and high-throughput screening. LOCs can handle extremely small fluid volumes down to less than pico-liters. Lab-on-a-chip devices are a subset of microelectromechanical systems (MEMS) devices and sometimes called "micro total analysis systems" (μTAS). LOCs may use microfluidics, the physics, manipulation and study of minute amounts of fluids. However, strictly regarded "lab-on-a-chip" indicates generally the scaling of single or multiple lab processes down to chip-format, whereas "μTAS" is dedicated to the integration of the total sequence of lab processes to perform chemical analysis.

History
After the invention of microtechnology (≈1954) for realizing integrated semiconductor structures for microelectronic chips, these lithography-based technologies were soon applied in pressure sensor manufacturing (1966) as well. Due to further development of these usually CMOS-compatibility limited processes, a tool box became available to create micrometre or sub-micrometre sized mechanical structures in silicon wafers as well: the microelectromechanical systems (MEMS) era had started.

Next to pressure sensors, airbag sensors and other mechanically movable structures, fluid handling devices were developed. Examples are: channels (capillary connections), mixers, valves, pumps and dosing devices. The first LOC analysis system was a gas chromatograph, developed in 1979 by S.C. Terry at Stanford University. However, only at the end of the 1980s and beginning of the 1990s did the LOC research start to seriously grow as a few research groups in Europe developed micropumps, flowsensors and the concepts for integrated fluid treatments for analysis systems. These μTAS concepts demonstrated that integration of pre-treatment steps, usually done at lab-scale, could extend the simple sensor functionality towards a complete laboratory analysis, including additional cleaning and separation steps.

A big boost in research and commercial interest came in the mid-1990s, when μTAS technologies turned out to provide interesting tooling for genomics applications, like capillary electrophoresis and DNA microarrays. A big boost in research support also came from the military, especially from DARPA (Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency), for their interest in portable systems to aid in the detection of biological and chemical warfare agents. The added value was not only limited to integration of lab processes for analysis but also the characteristic possibilities of individual components and the application to other, non-analysis, lab processes. Hence the term "lab-on-a-chip" was introduced.

Although the application of LOCs is still novel and modest, a growing interest of companies and applied research groups is observed in different fields such as chemical analysis, environmental monitoring, medical diagnostics and cellomics, but also in synthetic chemistry such as rapid screening and microreactors for pharmaceutics. Besides further application developments, research in LOC systems is expected to extend towards downscaling of fluid handling structures as well, by using nanotechnology. Sub-micrometre and nano-sized channels, DNA labyrinths, single cell detection and analysis, and nano-sensors, might become feasible, allowing new ways of interaction with biological species and large molecules. Many books have been written that cover various aspects of these devices, including the fluid transport,  system properties, sensing techniques, and bioanalytical applications.

The size of the global lab on chip market was estimated at US$5,698 million in 2021 and is projected to increase to US$14,772 million by 2030, at a CAGR of 11.5% from 2022 to 2030

Chip materials and fabrication technologies
The basis for most LOC fabrication processes is photolithography. Initially most processes were in silicon, as these well-developed technologies were directly derived from semiconductor fabrication. Because of demands for e.g. specific optical characteristics, bio- or chemical compatibility, lower production costs and faster prototyping, new processes have been developed such as glass, ceramics and metal etching, deposition and bonding, polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) processing (e.g., soft lithography), Off-stoichiometry thiol-ene polymers (OSTEmer) processing, thick-film- and stereolithography-based 3D printing as well as fast replication methods via electroplating, injection molding and embossing. The demand for cheap and easy LOC prototyping resulted in a simple methodology for the fabrication of PDMS microfluidic devices: ESCARGOT (Embedded SCAffold RemovinG Open Technology). This technique allows for the creation of microfluidic channels, in a single block of PDMS, via a dissolvable scaffold (made by e.g. 3D printing). Furthermore, the LOC field more and more exceeds the borders between lithography-based microsystem technology, nanotechnology and precision engineering. Printing is considered as a well-established yet maturing method for rapid prototyping in chip fabrication.

The development of LOC devices using printed circuit board (PCB) substrates is an interesting alternative due to these differentiating characteristics: commercially available substrates with integrated electronics, sensors and actuators; disposable devices at low cost, and very high potential of commercialization. These devices are known as Lab-on-PCBs (LOPs). The following are some of the advantages of PCB technology: a) PCB-based circuit design offers great flexibility and can be tailored to specific demands. b) PCB technology enables the integration of electronic and sensing modules on the same platform, reducing device size while maintaining accuracy of detection. c) The standardized and established PCB manufacturing process allows for cost-effective large-scale production of PCB-based detection devices. d) The growth of flexible PCB technology has driven the development of wearable detection devices. As a result, over the past decade, there have been numerous reports on the application of Lab-on-PCB to various biomedical fields. e) PCBs are compatible with wet deposition methods, to allow for the fabrication of sensors using novel nanomaterials (e.g. graphene).

Advantages
LOCs may provide advantages, which are specific to their application. Typical advantages are:
 * low fluid volumes consumption (less waste, lower reagents costs and less required sample volumes for diagnostics)
 * faster analysis and response times due to short diffusion distances, fast heating, high surface to volume ratios, small heat capacities.
 * better process control because of a faster response of the system (e.g. thermal control for exothermic chemical reactions)
 * compactness of the systems due to integration of much functionality and small volumes
 * massive parallelization due to compactness, which allows high-throughput analysis
 * lower fabrication costs, allowing cost-effective disposable chips, fabricated in mass production
 * part quality may be verified automatically
 * safer platform for chemical, radioactive or biological studies because of integration of functionality, smaller fluid volumes and stored energies

Disadvantages
The most prominent disadvantages of labs-on-chip are:
 * The micro-manufacturing process required to make them is complex and labor-intensive, requiring both expensive equipment and specialized personnel. It can be overcome by the recent technology advancement on low-cost 3D printing and laser engraving.
 * The complex fluidic actuation network requires multiple pumps and connectors, where fine control is difficult. It can be overcome by careful simulation, an intrinsic pump, such as air-bag embed chip, or by using a centrifugal force to replace the pumping, i.e. centrifugal micro-fluidic biochip.
 * Most LOCs are novel proof of concept application that are not yet fully developed for widespread use. More validations are needed before practical employment.
 * In the microliter scale that LOCs deal with, surface dependent effects like capillary forces, surface roughness or chemical interactions are more dominant. This can sometimes make replicating lab processes in LOCs quite challenging and more complex than in conventional lab equipment.
 * Detection principles may not always scale down in a positive way, leading to low signal-to-noise ratios.

Global health
Lab-on-a-chip technology may soon become an important part of efforts to improve global health, particularly through the development of point-of-care testing devices. In countries with few healthcare resources, infectious diseases that would be treatable in a developed nation are often deadly. In some cases, poor healthcare clinics have the drugs to treat a certain illness but lack the diagnostic tools to identify patients who should receive the drugs. Many researchers believe that LOC technology may be the key to powerful new diagnostic instruments. The goal of these researchers is to create microfluidic chips that will allow healthcare providers in poorly equipped clinics to perform diagnostic tests such as microbiological culture assays, immunoassays and nucleic acid assays with no laboratory support.

Global challenges
For the chips to be used in areas with limited resources, many challenges must be overcome. In developed nations, the most highly valued traits for diagnostic tools include speed, sensitivity, and specificity; but in countries where the healthcare infrastructure is less well developed, attributes such as ease of use and shelf life must also be considered. The reagents that come with the chip, for example, must be designed so that they remain effective for months even if the chip is not kept in a climate controlled environment. Chip designers must also keep cost, scalability, and recyclability in mind as they choose what materials and fabrication techniques to use.

Examples of global LOC application
One of the most prominent and well known LOC devices to reach the market is the at home pregnancy test kit, a device that utilizes paper-based microfluidics technology. Another active area of LOC research involves ways to diagnose and manage common infectious diseases caused by bacteria, e.g. bacteriuria or virus, e.g. influenza. A gold standard for diagnosing bacteriuria (urinary tract infections) is microbial culture. A recent study based on lab-on-a-chip technology, Digital Dipstick, miniaturised microbiological culture into a dipstick format and enabled it to be used at the point-of-care. When it comes to viral infections, HIV infections are a good example. Around 36.9 million people are infected with HIV in the world today and 59% of these people receive anti-retroviral treatment. Only 75% of people living with HIV knew their HIV status. Measuring the number of CD4+ T lymphocytes in a person's blood is an accurate way to determine if a person has HIV and to track the progress of an HIV infection. At the moment, flow cytometry is the gold standard for obtaining CD4 counts, but flow cytometry is a complicated technique that is not available in most developing areas because it requires trained technicians and expensive equipment. Recently such a cytometer was developed for just $5. Another active area of LOC research is for controlled separation and mixing. In such devices it is possible to quickly diagnose and potentially treat diseases. As mentioned above, a big motivation for development of these is that they can potentially be manufactured at very low cost. One more area of research that is being looked into with regards to LOC is with home security. Automated monitoring of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) is a desired functionality for LOC. If this application becomes reliable, these micro-devices could be installed on a global scale and notify homeowners of potentially dangerous compounds.

Plant sciences
Lab-on-a-chip devices could be used to characterize pollen tube guidance in Arabidopsis thaliana. Specifically, plant on a chip is a miniaturized device in which pollen tissues and ovules could be incubated for plant sciences studies.

title: Lab-on-a-chip


text:
Orient Lines

Orient Lines was a cruise line specialising in exotic destinations that was in operation 1993–2008. The brand was founded in 1993 by Gerry Herrod, and was sold to Norwegian Cruise Line in 1998. It ceased operations in March 2008 and was sold to new owners in June 2008. Operations were planned to be restarted in April 2009; however, due to the Great Recession of 2008, the re-launch of the Orient Lines brand was put on hold and eventually cancelled.

History
The history of Orient Lines began in 1991 when Shipping & General Ltd, owned by Gerry Herrod, acquired the cruise ship Alexandr Pushkin from Far Eastern Shipping Company. During the next two and a half years the Alexandr Pushkin was almost entirely rebuilt and emerged in 1993 as the Marco Polo for the new Orient Lines brand, embarking on a varied program with cruises all around the world.

In 1998, Norwegian Cruise Line (NCL) acquired the brand. In 1999, NCL itself was acquired by Star Cruises. Following this, NCL's Norwegian Crown joined the Orient Lines fleet in May 2000 under the name Crown Odyssey. In March 2001 Star Cruises announced that their SuperStar Aries would be joining the Orient Lines fleet in mid-2002 as the Ocean Voyager. This plan was shelved however, and in 2003, the Crown Odyssey returned to the NCL fleet and Orient Lines reverted to operating with just one ship.

On 4 June 2007, the Marco Polo was sold to the Greece-based Global Maritime, with a delivery date on 31 March 2008. Without its only ship sold and no other ships to replace it, the Orient Line brand ceased to operate.

On 27 June 2008, Star Cruises sold the Orient Line brand to Origin Cruise Group, owned by Wayne Heller. The new owners stated they would be restarting operations with several second-hand ships with a capacity of 600 to 800 passengers. The first ship acquired by the "new" Orient Lines was SS Maxim Gorkiy, which was purchased from Sovcomflot on 20 August 2008. The Maxim Gorkiy was due to enter service with Orient Lines in April 2009 as SS Marco Polo II. On 19 November 2008 Wayne Heller stated that due to the Great Recession of 2008, the relaunch of the Orient Lines brand was delayed indefinitely. The Maxim Gorkiy never was refitted and renamed Marco Polo II. The ship was sold for scrap in January 2009. No further announcements have been made regarding the future of the Orient Lines, though the trademarks are still owned by Origin Cruise Group. In 2019, the abandoned website was taken down due to the domain expiring.

title: Orient Lines


text:
Barony Rosendal

Barony Rosendal (Norwegian: Baroniet Rosendal) is a historic estate and manor house situated in Kvinnherad in Hordaland county, Norway. The barony was built in the 17th century by Danish noblemen on the old estate of the Norwegian noble Galte family, the current barony estate making out the historical farms of Hatteberg, Mel and Eik.

History
The history of Rosendal dates back to the 1650s, when the nobleman Ludvig Holgersen Rosenkrantz (1628-1685) of the House of Rosenkrantz came to Bergen as commissioner of war for the Danish king, Frederick III. At a ball at the fortress of Bergenhus he met Karen Andersdatter Mowatt (1630-1675), sole heiress to the largest fortune in the country at the time. Her father was a great land-owner and had more than 550 farms all over the western part of Norway. They were married in 1658 and were given the farm of Hatteberg in Rosendal as a wedding present. In 1661, Ludwig Rosenkrantz started building his own country house in Rosendal and completed this in 1665. In 1678, King Christian V of Denmark gave the estate the status of a barony - the only one of its kind in Norway. Around 1850, an expansive romantic garden was laid out around the house.

The inhabitants of Rosendal were important people in the cultural life of Norway. Authors Henrik Ibsen, Jonas Lie and Alexander Kielland and painters Hans Gude and Anders Askevold visited Rosendal often. The musicians Edvard Grieg and Ole Bull were guests here. Often there were concerts in Rosendal, a tradition which is still kept alive.

House of Rosenkrantz
Ludvig Holgersen Rosenkrantz received a baronial patent (Friherrepatent) in 1678 from King Christian V. The successive barons were:

 * 1658–1685 Baron Ludvig Rosenkrantz (1628-1685)
 * 1685–1691 Baron Christian Rosenkrantz
 * 1691–1723 Baron Axel Rosenkrantz (1670-1723)

House of Londemann of Rosencrone
In 1749, Bishop Edvard Londemann of Rosendal received a patent of nobility under the name Londemann af Rosencrone. In 1773 he received a baronial patent, and in 1782 was also created a count. The holders of this title were:

 * 1745–1749 Count Edvard Londeman Rosencrone (1680-1749)
 * 1749–1811 Count Marcus Gerhard Londemann de Rosencrone (1738-1811)

House of Hoff Rosencrone
A member of the Hoff family in the Bohemian nobility was naturalized as a Danish-Norwegian nobleman in 1778. One Major Hans Wentzel Hoff (1636-1713), emigrated to Denmark in 1659. His son, Lieutenant Colonel Christian Hoff (1690-1746), married Maria Margrethe Londemann of Rosencrone (1711–62), daughter of the titular bishop Edvard Londemann of Rosencrone (1680-1749), who had founded the fideikommiss of Rosendal. Christian Hoff was the grandfather of Major Christian Henrik Hoff (1768-1837) who inherited the barony of Rosendal, and in 1813 was created a Baron with the title of Hoff Rosencrone. His children were baroness Edvardine Reinholdine Hoff Rosenkrone (1820-1901), who married Hans Christian Weis (1811–82); Marcus Gerhard Hoff Rosenkrone of Rosendal (1823–96); and Hermann Reinhold Hoff Rosenkrone of Rosendal (1829-1900). The two brothers were not Norwegian barons, since they were born after 1821, but were still Danish barons.

 * 1811–1837 Baron Christian Henrik Hoff Rosencrone (1768-1837)
 * 1837–1896 Marcus Gerhard Hoff Rosenkrone to Rosendal (1823-1896)
 * 1896–1900 Hermann Reinhold Hoff Rosenkrone to Rosendal (1829-1900)[[Image:Rosendal castle above.png|thumb|300 px|Rosendal House with its garden to the right, the stud farm in red, as seen from Malmangernuten mountain]]

House of Weis-Hoff-Rosencrone
Baroness Edvardine Reinholdine Hoff-Rosencrone (1820–1901) daughter of baron Christian Henrik Hoff-Rosencrone, married the doctor and later state councilor Hans Christian Weis. She inherited the estate when her little brother died in 1900, Edvardine died the next year. Their oldest son doctor Christian Weis-Hoff-Rosencrone inherited the estate next.

 * 1902–1916 Christian Weis-Hoff-Rosencrone (1850-1916)
 * 1916–1927 Edvard Weis-Hoff-Rosencrone (1855-1927)
 * 1927–1927 Clara Marie Gædeken née Weis-Hoff-Rosencrone (1845-1934)

Baroniet Rosendal museum
The property remained in private ownership until 1927, when the last owner donated it to the University of Oslo. The manor is now operated as the Baroniet Rosendal museum. The museum offers valuable information about an important period of Norwegian history.

A guided tour of the manor takes visitors through the different periods of occupation from 1665 up to 1930. The oldest restored rooms are still decorated as they were in the early 19th century. The garden is often referred to as the most magnificent Victorian garden in Norway. Among other things around 2000 roses in bloom can be experienced here from June to November.

Related reading

 * Jorn Oyrehagen Sunde (2009) From a Shetland Lairdship to a Norwegian Barony: The Mouat Family and the Barony of Rosendal (Shetland Heritage Publications) ISBN 978-0955764233

title: Barony Rosendal


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San Andreas Fault Observatory at Depth

The San Andreas Fault Observatory at Depth (SAFOD) was a research project that began in 2002 aimed at collecting geological data about the San Andreas Fault for the purpose of predicting and analyzing future earthquakes. The site consists of a 2.2 km pilot hole and a 3.2 km main hole. Drilling operations ceased in 2007. Located near the town of Parkfield, California, the project installed geophone sensors and GPS clocks in a borehole that cut directly through the fault. This data, along with samples collected during drilling, helped shed new light on geochemical and mechanical properties around the fault zone.

SAFOD was part of Earthscope, an Earth science program using geological and geophysical techniques to explore the structure of the North American continent and to understand the origin of earthquakes and volcanoes. Earthscope was funded by the National Science Foundation in conjunction with the U.S. Geological Survey and NASA. Data collected at SAFOD are available from The Northern California Earthquake Data Center at U.C. Berkeley and from NSF SAGE Facility Data Services operated by EarthScope Consortium, formerly known as the IRIS DMC.

title: San Andreas Fault Observatory at Depth


text:
User talk:Dcfeher

Welcome
--Slowking Man 06:03, Oct 5, 2004 (UTC)

title: User talk:Dcfeher