text:
Michael Andretti

Michael Mario Andretti (born October 5, 1962) is an American former racing driver, and current team owner. Statistically one of the most successful drivers in the history of American open-wheel car racing, Andretti won the 1991 CART championship, and amassed 42 race victories, the most in the CART era and fifth-most all time. Since his retirement, Andretti has owned Andretti Autosport, which has won four IndyCar Series championships and five Indianapolis 500 races. He is the son of Mario Andretti, a multi-time champion, and is the father of IndyCar Series driver Marco Andretti.

Early life and education
Andretti was born on October 5, 1962, in Bethlehem, Pennsylvania, in the Lehigh Valley region of eastern Pennsylvania to race car driver Mario Andretti, a four-time IndyCar champion and one-time Formula One champion and his wife, Dee Ann (née Hoch). His brother Jeff Andretti competed in IndyCar. His uncle, Aldo Andretti, was an open wheel racer until an accident ended his racing career. Aldo's son John Andretti, his first cousin, raced in IndyCar before he became a NASCAR regular. He returned to IndyCar in 2007, 2008, 2009, 2010 and 2011, where he raced in the Indy 500. Aldo's other son, Adam, is also a racing driver. In 2006, his eldest son, Marco, made his debut in the IndyCar Series. The Andretti family became the first family to have five members (Michael, Mario, Marco, Jeff, and John) compete in the same series (CART/Champ Car/IndyCar).

Andretti graduated from Nazareth Area High School in Nazareth, Pennsylvania, and then attended Northampton Community College in Bethlehem.

Career
Following a successful career racing karts, winning 50 of his 75 races over eight years, Andretti moved into racing cars. He obtained his SCCA National License in 1980, then won six races to claim the SCCA's Northeast Division Formula Ford championship in 1981. He also drove in a number of Formula Vee races in regional SCCA events.

In 1982, he won six of the 11 races on his way to winning the Robert Bosch US Formula Super Vee Championship. He also won the opening race of the 1983 Super Vee season before he moved up to drive in Formula Atlantic, and won his second title by winning the FIA Formula Mondial North American Cup the following season. Although he made his international sports car debut at the 1982 24 Hours of Le Mans, he was denied the opportunity to race, as the Mirage M12 he had chosen to race with his father was disqualified 80 minutes before the race was due to start. The father and son partnership returned to the Circuit de la Sarthe the following year, and were joined by Philippe Alliot in the Porsche Kremer Racing's Porsche 956, taking third place. Andretti also raced alongside his father in the Riverside 6 Hours where they were joined by A. J. Foyt and Preston Henn, but the Porsche 935 failed to finish. The father and son duo paired up again the 1984 24 Hours of Daytona, this time in a full-works Porsche 962, which made its race debut. They took pole position, but during the race, the engine broke.

CART
Andretti made his CART debut in 1983, racing for the Kraco Enterprises team. He re-signed for Kraco for the 1984 season, where he managed five third-place finishes and ended his rookie season in seventh overall. In the Indianapolis 500, he finished fifth and shared the Rookie of the Year award with Roberto Guerrero. He went on to win his first IndyCar race in 1986 in the Toyota Grand Prix of Long Beach. The season became a two-man battle for the championship title, between Andretti and Bobby Rahal. Andretti would take the points lead with his victory on the Milwaukee Mile. A week later, on Father's Day, Andretti was leading on the final lap at Portland, when his March-Cosworth 86C ran out of fuel, allowing his father Mario to beat him by just 0.07 seconds. It was one of the most shocking finishes in the history of IndyCar, and the closest finish until 1997. With Rahal continuing to win races, Andretti's consistent finishing only allowed Rahal a nine-point lead in the standing with two races remaining. Andretti won a key victory in at Phoenix. Going into the season finale at Tamiami Park, Andretti was just three points behind Rahal, but neither driver were a factor in the race, with Andretti retiring with a broken halfshaft.

In a one-off race with Alfa Corse, he took part in the inaugural World Touring Car race, 500 km di Monza. Paired with Alessandro Nannini, they finished 16th overall, second in class. Back in CART, he continued with Kraco in 1987, and like 1986, the championship was between Andretti and Rahal. Andretti would win the 1987 Marlboro 500, drawing within nine points of Rahal. With him winning in dominating fashion at Nazareth Speedway, his championship hopes remained alive, although Rahal clinched the championship at the next race. Andretti would also win the season finale, Tamiami Park. He would finish runner-up for the second season in a row. Back in June 1987, Andretti joined Hendrick Motorsport to race a Chevrolet Corvette GTP in the Mid-Ohio 500 km, this time joined by his cousin, John Andretti, where they finished 11th. Following Porsche's defeat in the 1988 Daytona 24 Hours, Porsche entered a 962C at Le Mans for Michael, Mario, and John. They were competitive in the first half of the race until the Andretti family's car needed minor repairs before lapsing on to five cylinders, finishing sixth overall. Michael and Mario join Busby Racing for 1989 Daytona 24 Hours, only for their 962 to retire with brakes problems.

The 1988 CART season was a lean year for Andretti. He remained with Kraco and won only a single race, the Marlboro Challenge, for which no championship points were awarded. For the 1989 season, Andretti signed with Newman/Haas Racing, partnering him with his father. He won two races that season, Molson Indy Toronto and the 1989 Marlboro 500 at the Michigan International Speedway, placing third in points. For 1990, Al Unser Jr. would become champion, Andretti was his nearest competitor, winning five races and four poles. In the second-to-last race of the season at Nazareth, Unser crashed out, giving Andretti a huge opportunity to close the gap. Andretti managed only a sixth-place finish, and could not capitalize on Unser's misfortune. Unser left Nazareth with a 27-point lead, enough to clinch the championship. Andretti would finish runner-up once again. For the 1991 24 Hours of Daytona, Andretti was joined by his brother, Jeff Andretti. Piloting a Jochen Dauer Racing entered Porsche 962, they were classified fifth overall, despite not finishing the race.

Andretti was the drivers' champion of the 1991 CART PPG Indy Car World Series. He won a total eight of 17 races, eight poles and led more than half of the laps during the season, but Rahal still took the championship battle down to the final race of the season. Andretti's season started slowly, recording DNFs in the opening two events, then the heartbreaking second place at the Indy 500. He recovered from this, winning four of the last five races of the season and with Rahal retiring during the title decider at Laguna Seca, he cruised to the title. The day before, he won the non-championship, Marlboro Challenge for a second time.

Remaining with Newman/Haas for 1992, Andretti's season started slowly, but then won three races out of four during the mid-season. Despite taking two more wins later in the year, including the season finale at Laguna Seca, Rahal beat him again to the title by just four points. He would leave for Formula One at the end of the year, with his seat going to the reigning Formula One World Champion Nigel Mansell, who would win the 1993 CART title in his rookie season. For four seasons between 1989 and 1992, Andretti had his father as his teammate at Newman/Haas. Together, they established a number of firsts, including the first father-son front row, for the 1986 Dana 200 for Special Olympics at Phoenix, and the first of 15 father-son podiums in the 1984 Cribari Wines 300K at Laguna Seca, with the last coming nearly a decade later in the 1992 Daikyo IndyCar Grand Prix, around the street of Surfers Paradise.

Futility at Indianapolis
The Andretti family's bad luck at the Indianapolis Motor Speedway is known as the Andretti curse. He shared Rookie of the Year honours with Guerrero in 1984, when he finished fifth. In 1991, he led with 12 laps remaining, but finished second to Rick Mears after battling the multiple Indy 500 winner. The pair of them traded memorable late-lap outside passes for the lead in Turn One. The next year, 1992, he dominated the race, leading four-fifths of the laps, but, with 11 laps remaining after holding a two-lap lead, his fuel pump failed, and his car coasted to a stop. He was classified in 13th place. He also dropped out while leading the Indy 500 in 1989, 1995 and 2003. Andretti holds the record for most laps led in the Indy 500 without having achieved a victory.

Formula One
For the 1993 season, Andretti signed for Marlboro McLaren to partner with the triple World Drivers' Champion Ayrton Senna in their Ford HBD V8-powered MP4/8. He signed during the summer of 1992 and the deal was announced at Monza over the weekend of the 1992 Italian Grand Prix. Ron Dennis, McLaren's team principal, said: "I think he can win Grands Prix and become the World Champion. It's not a question of which country you come from. It's how you demonstrate your desire to win." There were practical factors that mitigated against Andretti being able to show competitive form in his debut season in Formula One. The rule changes introduced that season destroyed his hopes of unrestricted laps in free practice during which he could learn the tracks, as most were unfamiliar to him. From the start of 1993, just 23 laps were allowed in the morning's untimed session and only twelve in the qualifying session.

With the pressure intensifying, Andretti began the year with crashes in at Kyalami and at Interlagos. In the latter of these two, he had a massive collision at the start with Gerhard Berger in a Ferrari. He then qualified sixth for the Sega European Grand Prix at Donington Park but collided with Karl Wendlinger's Sauber on the opening lap. Next time out at Imola, he again fell foul of Wendlinger after a drive that might have ended with a visit to the podium, and many critics cited this as the key turning point for the American. In the 1993 Spanish Grand Prix, Andretti finally completed a race, finishing fifth amongst the established front runners. His showing was criticized by former McLaren World Champion James Hunt because Andretti was lapped by his teammate Senna.

Andretti finished in the points on three occasions but not consistently. He never fully got to grips with the McLaren MP4/8. Highly technical aspects which he was not used to in the technologically simpler Indy cars such as active suspension and traction control hampered Andretti's chances as did the standing starts used in F1. Some in the industry also felt that since he commuted to races and test sessions from the United States, rather than relocating full-time to Europe, this was also a contributing factor to his lack of success in Formula One. At the time, McLaren's Special Projects Manager and long-time Andretti family friend Tyler Alexander, who had been involved in Formula One since the mid-1960s, had urged him to relocate to England as he knew times had changed from when his father had raced to the 1978 World Championship. He finished third at Monza, which would prove to be his last Formula One race; with three races remaining, he left the team and the championship by mutual agreement after the race.

According to Andretti's son Marco, the McLaren team "sabotaged" his father's chances at being competitive in order to replace him with the team's test driver Mika Häkkinen, who would require a smaller salary. In 2008, Marco said: "The reality of it was, they had Mika Häkkinen ready to come in for a lot less than what my dad was getting paid, and that's all it was. Right then and there, they had to make him look [bad]. They would make the car do weird things in the corner electronically, stuff out of his control." Andretti still had problems in practice for the Italian Grand Prix, and both he and Senna spun off with brake balance problems early in the race. Andretti was able to continue and fought back up to third, holding off Wendlinger. Throughout the season, Senna experienced similar reliability problems to Andretti, mainly electronic gremlins, particularly in San Marino, Canada, Hungary, and Belgium, although Häkkinen equalled Andretti's third place Monza finish in Japan, while Senna won both the Japanese Grand Prix and the season ending Australian Grand Prix, his final race for McLaren.

According to Häkkinen in a much later interview, Andretti's commuting to Europe from the United States meant he was not in Europe enough when testing needed to be done, allowing Häkkinen to consistently show his speed and build a relationship with the team. Häkkinen had also said that Andretti's mental approach was wrong, and he did not realize the kind of sacrifices one needed to make in order to succeed in Formula One. It has also been reported that at the start of the 1993 season, Dennis signed Häkkinen as a backup to Senna, who was initially reluctant to commit to the team for the whole season; Senna's move to Williams had to wait until the next season because his rival Alain Prost was having his retirement season there and had it written into his contract that they could not sign Senna as his teammate). This created a difficult atmosphere for Andretti, who would be in the shadow of Senna, and also faced the threat of being replaced by Häkkinen.

Return to CART
Andretti returned to the IndyCar racing after his unsuccessful season in Formula One with Target Chip Ganassi Racing, where he once again proved successful. He went on to win in his very first race back in the series at the 1994 Australian FAI Indycar Grand Prix, around the Surfers Paradise Street Circuit in Queensland, Australia, having led every lap along the way. That win also got Reynard's first win in CART in their debut. He also won again in the Molson Indy Toronto, taking a record fourth win. By the time he retired, he would have won seven times around the Exhibition Place.

In 1995, Andretti returned to Newman/Haas Racing. Taking only one win in Toronto, he had a consistent season, scoring points in every round which resulted in Andretti claiming fourth overall in the points standing. The following season, he would finish as runner-up to Jimmy Vasser, in a season marred by the death of Jeff Krosnoff and split with Indy Racing League, visiting victory lane on five occasions. Newman/Haas began a new relationship with Swift which did not prove to be very successful in 1997–1999. In 2000 the team used Lola chassis and Andretti won the Firestone Firehawk 300 held at Twin Ring Motegi in Japan, and again in Toronto.

Andretti tried again to win Le Mans in 1997, again alongside his father, but joined on this occasion by Olivier Grouillard. Following an accident during the night, the trio were forced to retire their Courage C36. He would not return to la Sarthe as a driver. For 2001, Andretti made the decision to move to Team Green as he wanted to try to win the Indianapolis 500 and Newman/Haas refused to enter the Indy Racing League event. Andretti ran in a third Team Green car with Motorola sponsorship and ran at Indianapolis. He led 16 laps, and was leading the race during a rain delay just beyond the halfway point. Had the race been halted due to the rain, he could have been declared the winner. The red flag, however, did not come out at the time and the race resumed. A punctured tyre, and a minor collision in the pits with eventual winner Hélio Castroneves, driving for car owner Roger Penske, slowed him down, and at the end of the day, Andretti settled for 3rd place. In July, it was announced that he had bought the team and intended to shift the entire operation (which was renamed Andretti Green Racing) to the IRL.

Andretti's career in CART ended in 2002, in which he took his 42nd and final career victory at the Toyota Grand Prix of Long Beach. placing him in third place for all-time victories in championship car racing behind his father (52 wins) and A. J. Foyt (67 wins). Andretti is also tied with Al Unser Jr. for the most wins in a CART/IndyCar season with eight victories. He achieved this during his championship-winning season of 1991. Throughout his time in IndyCar, he retained a consistent and impressive record, finishing in the top ten of the championship on 17 occasions.

Semi-retirement and team owner
Andretti entered in the first four IRL events in 2003, culminating with the 2003 Indianapolis 500, after which he retired from full-time IndyCar racing. He led the race for 28 of the opening 94 laps before a throttle linkage failure put him out of contention once again. That year he bought into the "Team Green" squad run by brothers Kim and Barry Green in CART. It became Andretti Green Racing and for 2003, the team moved to the Indy Racing League IndyCar Series. The team claimed consecutive IndyCar Series titles in 2004 and 2005, with Tony Kanaan and Dan Wheldon respectively, winning 11 of the 17 races, including the Indianapolis 500. The 2007 season enhanced the Andretti legacy, when Dario Franchitti captured Andretti Green Racing its third Series title in four seasons, and its second Indianapolis 500 win.

Andretti returned to the driver's seat for the 2006 Indianapolis 500 in a one-time effort to assist the development of his son, Marco, an IndyCar rookie for the 2006 season. Andretti led the race with four laps to go, before falling to second behind his son a lap later. He went on to finish third, while Marco only just missed out on the 500 victory after he was passed just before the start/finish line on the last lap by three-time IndyCar champion, Sam Hornish Jr. After qualifying his car in 11th place for the 2007 Indianapolis 500, Andretti went on to finish 13th. He then announced that this would be his last Indy 500 as a driver. Andretti leaves driving competition at Indy with a frustrating distinction: the driver who led the most laps (431) without winning the race. He competed in 16 Indy 500s, with a top finish of second in 1991, but led the race nine times. By 2012, racing under the name of Andretti Autosport, they brought the 2012 IndyCar Series championship back home. He served not only as the team owners, but as the strategist on Ryan Hunter-Reay's four race victories. Hunter-Reay also captured the 2014 Indianapolis 500, with a close victory over Hélio Castroneves. At the beginning of 2018, he partnered with Ryan Walkinshaw's Walkinshaw Racing and Zak Brown's United Autosports to create Walkinshaw Andretti United which competes in the Australian Supercars Championship. Andretti United expanded into Extreme E in 2021. On February 18, 2022, it was announced that Andretti had submitted a request with the FIA to enter Formula 1 under "Andretti Global". Formula One announced on January 31, 2024, that it had rejected Andretti's latest bid to join the sport by 2026, but that it was leaving the door open for an admission from 2028.

Other activities
In 1996, Andretti invested in a Toyota dealership in his home state of Pennsylvania. Among his personal appearances, Andretti appeared as a contestant on season 5 of the reality TV series The Celebrity Apprentice, which debuted in February 2012. Andretti joined the show as a last-minute replacement for his son Marco, who dropped out when Marco's friend Dan Wheldon was killed in the 2011 IZOD IndyCar World Championship hours before Apprentice filming was scheduled to begin. Andretti was fired in the fourth episode, after a presentation for Buick executives of the Buick Verano. In March 2012, Andretti Sports Marketing took over as promoter of the Milwaukee Mile IndyCar race. The company also promoted the Indy Grand Prix of Louisiana, the Miami ePrix and the Global RallyCross Championship events at Washington and New York.

Personal life
Andretti was married to Sandra "Sandy" Spinozzi from November 1985 to 1996 and they had two children, son Marco (born March 13, 1987) and daughter Marissa (born October 31, 1990). He remarried on December 24, 1997, to Leslie Wood. They had a son, Lucca, born September 16, 1999. Andretti officially separated from Wood in 2003, and filed for divorce on September 7, 2004. Two years later, on July 15, 2006, Andretti announced his engagement to former Miss Oregon Teen USA 1994, Playboy Playmate of the Year 1999, model and actress Jodi Ann Paterson. The couple were married on October 7, 2006, at the Andretti Winery in Napa Valley, California. They have twin children, Mario and Miati (Mia), born February 13, 2014. The couple resides in Fishers, Indiana.

Awards
Andretti was inducted into National Italian American Sports Hall of Fame in 2002, the Motorsports Hall of Fame of America in 2008, the Long Beach Grand Prix Walk of Fame in 2010, the Canadian Motorsports (International Division) Hall of Fame in 2012, and the Indianapolis Motor Speedway Hall of Fame in 2012.

Formula One
(key)

American Open Wheel racing results
(key)

CART

 * (Event)1 : non-championship, exhibition race held day preceding next championship race.

title: Michael Andretti


text:
Buddhist Society

The Buddhist Society is a UK registered charity which aims to encourage the study and practice of Buddhist principles.

The Buddhist Society is an inter-denominational and non-sectarian lay organisation. It offers talks and classes on the teachings of all the different major mainstream Buddhist schools and traditions, as well as a structured programme of courses on general Buddhism, for both the public and members. It has a publishing programme and in its premises houses one of the main libraries in Britain on Buddhism. It is managed by an elected council and its patron is the 14th Dalai Lama.

Among other publications, it produces The Buddhist Directory, a reference book which lists the vast majority of Buddhist groups, centres and other related organisations in the United Kingdom and Ireland, and The Middle Way, a quarterly journal (referring to the Buddhist concept of a Middle Way).

History
The Society was originally created in 1924 in London as an offshoot of a Theosophical Lodge by Christmas Humphreys, a British judge and convert to Buddhism. It became an independent body in 1926, by then Buddhist and no longer associated with Theosophy, and Humphreys remained its president until his death in 1983. In 1961 the 14th Dalai Lama became patron of the Society, the first organisation in the West to be so honoured.

The Buddhist Society was one of the first Buddhist organisations outside Asia and remains one of the oldest in Europe to date.

Activities
The Buddhist Society runs a number of classes, courses and lectures, many of which are open to the general public. This includes Saturday meditation classes and popular Tuesday and Thursday lunchtime sessions. More specific members classes are offered in the Zen, Theravadan and Tibetan traditions. The Society is open on occasional Sundays to the public for 'Zen Sundays', 'Theravadan Sundays' and a Pure Land class.

Three courses are taught at the Society representing three levels of Buddhist study, the first of which, ‘Introducing Buddhism’, is free and open to the public. This can be followed by the Intermediate and advanced, 'Great Way' courses. A Correspondence Course is also available to those who are unable to study at a Buddhist centre.

Free public lectures are held at least once a month on a Wednesday evening. Topics are varied and concern not only the practical application of Buddhism but its cultural and historical aspects too. The guest speakers include academic as well as spiritual scholars of Buddhism. Special function days are held four times a year on Saturdays and are intended for those who do not live in London. A Summer School is held annually in August, too. This one-week residential course is open to members of all Buddhist schools and explores the major aspects of the Buddha's teachings and their practice. The Summer School is highly popular and is now in its 63rd year (2014).

Publishing
For more than 50 years The Buddhist Society has published Buddhist works and continues to do so today. The Buddhist Directory is a comprehensive directory of Buddhist groups and organisations in the UK and Ireland. It also gives details of sizeable library collections, publishers and retailers of Buddhist literature and items.

The Society continues to print a selection of Buddhist classics and important new works including some titles by its founder Christmas Humphreys. Books can be bought by mail-order or in person at the Society.

The Middle Way is the quarterly journal of the Buddhist Society and has been in print since 1926 originally under the title Buddhism in England. The journal is respected worldwide and contains news and articles on Buddhist practice and history as well as details of the Society's programme. Non-members can take out a subscription without joining the society.

Facilities
In 1956 the Buddhist Society moved to its present location at 58 Eccleston Square in south-west London. The library on the ground floor, which began with just a few volumes in 1926, is now a collection in excess of 4,500 volumes. Members can request books by post and renew them by email and there is an online catalogue on the Society's website. The library also houses a small bookstall and offers items such as incense and cards for sale.

The Society's Audio Department offers CDs and tapes of public lectures and courses for sale at a small cost and there is a free tape library for the registered blind.

The building also has a lecture hall and two shrine rooms and is a treasure house of Buddhist statuary and artefacts presented to the Society by donors from around the world.

Membership
Membership includes subscription to The Middle Way, access to all lectures, classes and courses and full use of the library services.

The Buddhist Society is located close to Victoria Station and is open to all Monday to Friday from 2pm to 6pm and on Saturdays until 5pm.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Buddhist Society


text:
User:Friedrich.Kromberg~enwiki

 * from Austria (German), Europe (EU)
 * my home page is in the German Wikipedia: Benutzer:Friedrich.Kromberg

de:Benutzer:Friedrich.Kromberg

title: User:Friedrich.Kromberg~enwiki


text:
Talk:Cronyism

Proposed merge of High command culture into Cronyism
Cronyism, known under many names in the world, is being recently called euphemistically "high command culture". This article consists of a few sentences about cronyism in India – its author mainly bitches about non-transparent appointment of government ministers. Does it merit a separate article on Wikipedia? I don't think so. — kashmīrī  TALK  04:22, 22 November 2021 (UTC)

title: Talk:Cronyism


text:
Universidad del Sagrado Corazón

Universidad del Sagrado Corazón (English: University of the Sacred Heart), abbreviated "USC" and often called simply Sagrado, is a private Catholic university in Santurce, San Juan, Puerto Rico. It is one of the oldest and largest educational institutions in Puerto Rico with origins dating back to the 1880 establishment of an elementary school by the Society of the Sacred Heart.

The university is situated in an area which was urbanized in the first decades of the twentieth century with great residences that belonged to the privileged families of the time and is rich in architectural styles. Renowned architect Antonín Nechodoma located his residence in Monteflores and some residences designed by him are still in the area. Including buildings with the unique French-style neoclassic architectural characteristics of the residence of Pablo Ubarri, Count of Santurce, which is now the center of the university's main campus. Such buildings abound along with Puerto Rican adaptations of Victorian architecture. There are also homes in the "tropical" U.S. influenced Mission Revival, French-gothic, Spanish Colonial Revival, Prairie School, and several apartment structures of the "Art Deco" periods in Bouret street.

History
It was the year 1880 when three nuns of the Society of the Sacred Heart of Jesus landed on the docks of San Juan, coming from Havana, Cuba. Their mission was to establish in Puerto Rico the educational and spiritual work that just 80 years before Mother Madeleine Sophie Barat had begun in France.

At the beginning of the 20th century the institution acquired the Count of Santurce Estate and established the foundations of what makes-up today's campus.

In 1935, the local government issued the Letter Foundation, whereby it established the College of the Sacred Heart. Four years later, in 1939, the institution granted its first academic degrees. The original founding purpose was as an educational center for women in Puerto Rico to achieve ample knowledge, not only for their personal enrichment, but for the benefit of the territory.

In 1970, the religious order opted to transfer ownership and governance of the institution to the Board of Trustees (composed of some religious, but mostly lay members). This transition allowed for the notable expansion of academic offerings and student body.

In February 1972, a change in the institution's original vision took place. The Board of Trustees approved the establishment of an entirely co-ed institution. In December 1976, the Board of Trustees authorized the use of the new official name: "Universidad del Sagrado Corazon" (USC) or University of the Sacred Heart (USH). In 1985, the university established the first three graduate programs in: Education, Communications, and Business Administration.

In October 1984, Pope John Paul II held a mass at the university during the first and only Papal visit to Puerto Rico. In 1990, the university began to limit the number of undergraduate students accepted, in order to raise academic standards.

In January 2019, the division of continuing education was rebranded Sagrado Global, the School of Professional Studies at Sagrado, and started offering professional certificates in Digital marketing, Data Analytics, and Graphic Design, among others. These professional certificates, some of which are also offered remotely, require taking 6 courses and can be completed in 1 year or less.

In 2019, the university had its first School of Music graduates with seven obtaining a Bachelor of Arts in music. In 2019, Socorro Juliá- one of the oldest faces of the university was interviewed by El Vocero. She stated that she has been affiliated with the university since she was 5 years old, long before her religious calling.

In 2019, the university joined forced with the Santurce Cultural Center in an initiative to help business owners by offering free business workshops and help local business explore ways to grow their business.

Campus

The campus of the University of the Sacred Heart is composed of 33 acre of undulating terrain and shading, from whose height can see panoramic views of the ocean and surrounding urban areas. In its abundant vegetation, highlighting forest of tropical plants that contribute to the freshness and beauty of the land University.

For the development of its activities, the university has the following facilities: the broad main building architecture classical, lifted at the beginning of the twentieth century, which today accommodates the administrative offices and in whose center is home to the Chapel of the Institution, which was listed in the National Register of Historic Places in 1983, the residence of the Religious of the Sacred Heart, the Information and Resource Center Modern facilities of the library. Then followed the student Residences, modern style, and south of the earlier, a complex structure consisting of classrooms, administrative and faculty offices, and an amphitheater.

The Mother Maria Teresa Guevara Library, one of the vital units of the university for his significant educational role, offers services to teachers, students, administrators and other members of the university community.

The Emilio S. Belaval Theater serves the development of a comprehensive program of artistic, cultural and academic development. A modern student center and sports complex to accommodate several service offices and fitness facilities, indoor stadium, tennis court, Olympic pool, meeting rooms and cafeteria.

Among the major academic resources at the disposal of the university, can be singled out the library, laboratories, Communication and technology education, science laboratories, languages, nursing and television studios and recordings.

Courses and certificates for working professionals are offered through Sagrado Global, the School of Professional Studies at Sagrado. With close to 4,000 annual participants, the primary disciplines taught at Sagrado Global include Data Science & Analytics, Digital Marketing, Graphic Design, Entrepreneurship, Languages, Technology, Web Design, among others.

Accreditation and affiliations

The University of the Sacred Heart is accredited by the following regional institutions:

 * Council of Higher Education of Puerto Rico
 * Council on Social Work Education (Social Work Program)
 * Middle States Association of Colleges and Schools
 * National Accrediting Agency for Clinical Laboratory Sciences (Program Medical Technology)
 * National League for Nursing (Nursing Program)

The school is affiliated with the following organizations:

 * Alliance Française
 * American Library Association
 * American Association of Collegiate Registrars and Admissions Officers
 * American Association for Higher Education
 * American Medical Association
 * American Association of University Administration
 * Association for Educational Communications and Technology
 * Association of Private Colleges and Universities
 * Manufacturers' Association of Puerto Rico
 * Association of University Presidents of Puerto Rico
 * Association of Universities and Research Institutes in the Caribbean
 * Association of American Colleges
 * Association of Catholic Colleges and Universities
 * Association of Colleges and Universities Auditors
 * Association of Governing Boards of Universities and Colleges
 * Chamber of Commerce of Puerto Rico
 * College Entrance Examination Board
 * Council of International Education
 * International Federation of Catholic Universities
 * Hispanic Association of Colleges and Universities
 * International Association for Continuing Education and Training (IACET)
 * Institute of Internal Auditors
 * Middle States Association of Colleges and Schools
 * National Association of Colleges and University Business Officers
 * National Association of Colleges and Universities
 * National Association of Independent Colleges and Universities
 * National Association of Student Financial Aid
 * National Student Exchange.

Presidents and rectors

 * 1951: Madre Dolores Sarre, RSCJ
 * 1951 - 1954: Madre Consuelo Herrera
 * 1954 - 1955: Madre Raquel Pérez
 * 1955 - 1967: Madre Rosa Aurora Arsuaga
 * 1968 - 1969: Madre Eleanor O'Byrne
 * 1969 - 1970: Madre María Milagros Carbonell
 * 1970 - 1972: Rafael García Bottari
 * 1972 - 1986: Pedro González Ramos
 * 1986 - 1992: José Alberto Morales
 * 1992 - 2014: José Jaime Rivera
 * 2014–Present: Gilberto Marxuach Torrós

Notable alumni

 * Raymond Arrieta - actor, comedian, musician and host
 * María Elena Batista - 1988 Olympic swimmer, longest-serving Director of Sports in San Juan, USC Athletic Director
 * Giannina Braschi, author of "United States of Banana", "Yo-Yo Boing!"and "Empire of Dreams"
 * Norma Candal - actress and comedian
 * Doreen Colondres - chef, food writer, television presenter and sommelier.
 * Dreuxilla Divine - drag queen, female impersonator, TV personality, actress.
 * Carmen Dominicci - news anchor and television reporter
 * Juan Eugenio Hernández Mayoral - former senator
 * Adamari López - actress and television host
 * Nery Santos Gómez - author
 * Teresa López - artist and graphic designer
 * Melanie Maher - singer, actress and model
 * Héctor Martínez - former Senator
 * Lila Mayoral Wirshing - First Lady of Puerto Rico (1972–1977, 1985–1993)
 * Karla Monroig - actress, model and television host
 * Viviana Ortiz - Miss Universe Puerto Rico 2011
 * Gilluis Pérez - actor
 * Ivette Perfecto - ecologist
 * Kimmey Raschke - journalist, politician
 * Vilma Reyes (born 1958) - poet, storyteller and educator
 * Birmania Rios - television journalist
 * Rocky the Kid - Puerto Rican radio and television personality and actor
 * Yara Sofia - female impersonator and reality television personality
 * Luz María Umpierre - poet, scholar and human rights activist
 * Villano Antillano - rapper and songwriter
 * Otto Oppenheimer - television personality

title: Universidad del Sagrado Corazón


text:
Keith Andrews (racing driver)

Keith Philip Andrews (June 15, 1920 – May 15, 1957) was an American racecar driver. He was killed after crashing his car during practice for the 1957 Indianapolis 500.

Death
Giuseppe Farina was the only European driver on the entry list for the 1957 Indy 500, however, he did not attempt to qualify. Farina had difficulty getting his car up to speed, and had experienced handling problems. On May 15, Andrews stepped into Farina's car for a test run, but crashed. Down the frontstretch, Andrews began to slide, and when he attempted to correct, the car backed into the inside wall separating the pit area. Andrews was crushed to death between the cowl and the fuel tank, but no fire broke out. Farina withdrew after Andrews was killed, with no backup car to use.

Complete Formula One World Championship results
(key)

title: Keith Andrews (racing driver)


text:
Green Mountain Peace and Justice Party

The Green Mountain Peace and Justice Party (GMPJP), known as the Liberty Union Party (LUP) until 2021, is a political party active in the U.S. state of Vermont. It is a self-proclaimed "non-violent socialist party".

The LUP was founded in 1970 by former Congressman William H. Meyer, Peter Diamondstone, Dennis Morrisseau and others, and was described by The New York Times as the cradle of progressivism in Vermont. The party is the fourth-largest in the state after the Democratic, Republican, and Progressive parties.

History
The Liberty Union party (LUP) was formed to contest the Vermont elections of 1970. In 1971, People's Party was formed as a national umbrella party for various socialist-oriented state parties including the LUP.

Bernie Sanders joined Liberty Union in 1971 and became the party's candidate for several offices. At the first Party meeting he attended, in 1971, Sanders was nominated to be the Party's Senate candidate in the January 1972 special election; he placed third with 2% of the vote. Sanders was the party's candidate for Vermont governor in 1976 where he received 6.1% of the vote, which remains the best result for any LUP candidate for governor as of 2021. At the time of his resignation from the party in October 1977, he was party chairman. Sanders quit due to the inactivity of the party between elections. As an independent politician, Sanders became Vermont's congressional representative in 1991 and U.S. senator in 2007. He ran unsuccessfully as a Democratic presidential candidate in 2016 and 2020.

In 1974, political scientist Michael Parenti was the party's candidate for election to the House of Representatives; he placed third with 7.1 percent of the vote. Bernie Sanders ran again as the Senate candidate, but received 4.13% of the vote.

In 1976, the party's Vermont lieutenant governor candidate John Franco took enough votes to force the election to the Vermont General Assembly's House. The party also lost the outspoken members, Nancy Kaufman and Martha Abbott before the 1978 election cycle. Despite Liberty Union co-founder, Peter Diamondstone, appearing biennially on the ballot from 1970 through 2016, none of the party's candidates were elected during that period.

In local Vermont town elections in 2009 a Liberty Union and Vermont Progressive Party endorsed candidate, David Van Deusen, won a contested race for a seat on the Moretown Select Board. Van Deusen, at the time a District Vice President of the Vermont AFL-CIO active within US Labor Against The War, and cofounder of the Green Mountain Anarchist Collective, also received the backing of organized labor. This victory represented an electoral high water mark for the Liberty Union Party (previous Liberty Union wins included a Representational Town Meeting Delegate in Brattleboro, and a single Justice of the Peace position some decades earlier). In 2010 Van Deusen again ran and again won a contested seat on the Moretown Select Board. Again he was endorsed by the Liberty Union, the Progressives, the Socialist Party USA, and organized labor. In this election Van Deusen was the top vote-getter among four Select Board candidates (three candidates, including Van Deusen running for two one year seats, and one candidate running as a write-in for one open three-year seat). In 2011 Van Deusen did not seek re-election to the Select Board. In this election he ran for First Constable of Moretown (a position he held in 2007). While Van Deusen won the election, he did not seek the endorsement of the Liberty Union Party. This time he had the endorsement of the local Progressive Party alone. During Van Deusen's two terms on the Moretown Select Board, he was able to win "livable wages" for all non-elected town employees, doubled property tax relief for disabled military veterans (through a Town Meeting article), successfully advocated for the use of the Town Hall for a free weekly children's play group, made strides in opening up the local democratic process to all town residents, and publicly supported a Vermont run single-payer healthcare system.

In 2012, the party once again re-qualified for major party status as a result of a 13.1% showing for Liberty Union candidate Mary Alice Herbert in the election for Vermont Secretary of State against Democrat Jim Condos.

In 2014, the party re-qualified for major party status yet again as a result of a 10.32 showing for Liberty Union candidate Mary Alice Herbert in the election for Vermont Secretary of State. In the race for Treasurer Murray Ngoima received 8.3% of the vote. For Attorney General the LU candidate, Rosemary Jackowski, received 3.9% of the vote. In VT State Senate races, Ben Bosley won 13.9% of the vote for Grand Isle district. In the Windham County Senate contest, Jerry Levy & Aaron Diamondstone won on 5.0% & 4.6% of the ballots.

In the 2016 Vermont gubernatorial election, former Boston Red Sox pitcher Bill "Spaceman" Lee ran as the Liberty Union's candidate for Governor. Lee supported single payer healthcare and ran far to the left of the Democratic Party while at the same time remaining an advocate for the right of Vermonters to own firearms. Lee received 2.8% of the vote, which was the highest percentage for a LUP candidate for governor since 1978.

In other 2016 races, Murray Ngoima received 3.9% of the vote for Treasurer, Mary Alice Herbert 9.7% for secretary state, Marina Brown 4.7% for Auditor and Rosemarie Jackowski 3.7% for attorney general. For US Congress, Erica Clawson received 9.2% of the vote. Liberty Union Party co-founder, Peter Diamondstone received 1.0% of the vote for US Senate.

In 2018 elections, Emily Peyton received 0.6% of the vote for Governorship, Murray Ngoima 1.5% for lieutenant governor, Mary Alice Herbert 3.6% for Secretary of State, Marina Brown 3.9% for Auditor and Rosemarie Jackowski 3.4% for Attorney General. For US Congress, Laura Potter received 1.4% of the vote. For US Senate, Reid Kane received 0.4% of the vote.

In 2020, the Liberty Union Party did not nominate any candidates for state office. They only nominated Gloria La Riva for presidency.

In September 2021, the party changed its name from Liberty Union to Green Mountain Peace and Justice. Jessica Diamondstone, party chair and daughter of the party's founder stated that she feared the old name might make the party sound as if it had right-wing positions. Diamondstone felt the new name would be more clear on the political positions of the party.

In 2022, under its new name, Green Mountain Peace and Justice Party nominees ran only for U.S. Senate and Lieutenant Governor seats. For U.S. Senate, Natasha Diamondstone-Kohout received 0.5% of the vote and for Lieutenant Governor, Ian Diamondstone received 2.9% of the vote. Both candidates were related to Peter Diamondstone.

Presidential nominee
Over the years, it has selected various presidential candidates from several national leftist political parties. For the 1972 and 1976 elections, the LUP was a member of the national People's Party, thus the People's presidential candidates were the LUP's. In 1980, 1988, 1996, and 2000 it endorsed the Socialist Party USA's candidates. Mary Alice Herbert, the party's 2006 candidate for Lieutenant Governor, was the vice presidential candidate of the Socialist Party USA in 2004. However, due to conflicts with her running mate, Walt Brown, the LUP gave its ballot line to Workers World Party candidates John Parker and Teresa Gutierrez. In 2008, the Socialist Party's presidential candidate, Brian Moore, was the only candidate to collect the 1,000 signatures required to participate in the Liberty Union Party's presidential primary. The primary election is binding, so Moore and his running mate Stewart Alexander were the Liberty Union nominees in the November general election. In 2024, the GMPJP (the renamed LUP) nominated Cornel West as its candidate for President.

title: Green Mountain Peace and Justice Party


text:
Samoa national rugby union team

The Samoa national rugby union team represents the Samoa Rugby Union in men's international rugby union. They are also known as "Manu Samoa", which is thought to derive from the name of a Samoan warrior. They perform a traditional Samoan challenge called the siva tau before each game. Samoa Rugby Union were formerly members of the Pacific Islands Rugby Alliance (PIRA) along with Fiji and Tonga. They are ranked 11th in the world.

Rugby was introduced to Samoa in the early 1920s and a governing body was soon formed. The first international was played as Western Samoa against Fiji in August 1924. Along with Tonga, these nations would meet regularly and eventually contest competitions such as the Pacific Tri-Nations – with Western Samoa winning the first of these. From 1924 to 1997 Samoa was known as Western Samoa.

Samoa have been to every Rugby World Cup since the 1991 tournament. That tournament, along with the 1995 competition, saw them make the quarterfinals. Under their new coach, former New Zealand and Samoan international player Michael Jones, Samoa competed in the 2007 Rugby World Cup. However, Samoa had a dismal World Cup campaign, winning only one match and finishing fourth in their group. Samoa showed an improved performance at the 2011 Rugby World Cup, winning two matches by comfortable margins, and losing close matches to South Africa and Wales.

History
The Marist Brothers brought rugby to Western Samoa in 1924 and The Western Samoa Rugby Football Union was formed in 1924. On 18 August 1924, Western Samoa played its first international against Fiji in the capital Apia, the visitors winning 6–0. The match was played at 7am to allow the Samoans time to get to work afterwards and was played on a pitch with a large tree on the halfway line. The return match was won 9–3 by Samoa to draw the series.

In 1954 Western Samoa visited both Pacific Island neighbors Fiji and Tonga, but had to wait a further 20 years before a tour of New Zealand took place. The Samoans won one of eight matches on that tour.

The traditional tri-series between Tonga, Fiji and Western Samoa was established in 1982 with Western Samoa winning the first tournament. Wales visited Western Samoa and won the test 32–16 at Apia. The tour led to a return visit to Wales which brought Western Samoa out of International limbo, although Western Samoa were not invited to the first Rugby World Cup in 1987.

The following year a 14-match tour of Europe took place before a World Cup elimination series in Tokyo, which gave Western Samoa a place in the 1991 Rugby World Cup in Britain. They made a huge impact. After sweeping aside Wales 16–13 in Cardiff and defeating Argentina 35–12, and narrowly losing 3–9 to eventual champions Australia in their pool match, Western Samoa, a country with a population of 160,000, found itself in the quarterfinals against Scotland at Murrayfield. The Scots won comfortably 28–6, but the Samoans were clearly the personality team of the tournament. One Welsh fan ruefully remarked after Wales's defeat, "It's a good job we weren't playing all of Samoa."

Over the next two years, the side had a number of notable wins. The most outstanding achievements were in Sevens where it won the 1993 Hong Kong and 1992 Middlesex Sevens. The 1995 Rugby World Cup in South Africa proved that the team belonged in top company. They again reached the quarterfinals after wins over Argentina and Italy, but were beaten 42–14 by the eventual winners South Africa. After the Cup, Manu Samoa made a 13-match tour of England and Scotland, drawing 15–15 with the Scots and going down 27–9 to England.

With the advent of professional rugby in 1995 it was vital for Manu Samoa to develop a new administrative structure. This was made possible with Fay Richwhite and the Western Samoan Rugby Union joining forces to form Manu Samoa Rugby Limited. Fay Richwhite invested $5 million from 1995 to 2004 into Samoan rugby. Samoa emerged from the 1999 World Cup with its honor intact after another shock 38–31 victory over host nation Wales in the pool stages. They again lost out to Scotland in the quarterfinal play-off.

Manu Samoa qualified for the 2003 World Cup with a 17–16 loss against Fiji, Earl Va'a missing an injury-time penalty. They recovered to beat Tonga both home and away and avenged that Fijian defeat with a 22–12 win in Nadi. They ultimately had to settle for second place in the round robin, behind Fiji on points difference, and a place in the tougher of the two Rugby World Cup 2003 pools alongside automatic qualifiers England and South Africa. In one of the games of the tournament, they led eventual champions England for most of the game before losing 35–22.

Samoa qualified for the 2011 World Cup after beating Papua New Guinea 73–12 in Port Moresby on 18 July 2009. They won 188–19 on aggregate over two matches against Papua New Guinea, having won 115–7 at Apia Park the previous week.

Samoa began their 2011 World Cup campaign preparation with a flying start, after registering an upset against No.2 ranked Australia with a four-try-to-two win of 32–23.

In November 2017, Samoa's prime minister and SRU chairman Tuila'epa Sa'ilele Malielegaoi announced that the organisation was bankrupt, although those claims were denied by world governing body World Rugby.

Overall record
Below is table of the representative rugby matches played by a Samoa national XV at test level up until 16 July 2024.

World Cup record
In one of the scenes of the feature film, Invictus, Western Samoa can be seen playing South Africa in the 1995 Rugby World Cup.

Pacific Nations Cup
Samoa previously competed in the Pacific Tri-Nations winning 11 tournaments. The Pacific Nations Cup replaced the Tri-Nations tournament in 2006. Samoa have won four tournaments.

Wins against Tier 1 nations
Samoa have recorded 15 wins against tier 1 nations. In addition, Samoa drew with Scotland 15–15 on the 18 November 1995 at Murrayfield Stadium, Edinburgh, Scotland.

Current squad
On 13 June 2024, newly-appointed head coach Mahonri Schwalger named a 32-player squad for Samoa's July internationals against Italy and Spain.

Head coach: Mahonri Schwalger
 * Caps updated: 13 July 2024 (after game v Spain)

Most caps
Last updated: Samoa vs Italy, 5 July 2024. Statistics include officially capped matches only.

Most tries
Last updated: Samoa vs Italy, 5 July 2024. Statistics include officially capped matches only.

Most points
Last updated: Samoa vs Italy, 5 July 2024. Statistics include officially capped matches only.

Most matches as captain
Last updated: Samoa vs Italy, 5 July 2024. Statistics include officially capped matches only.

Most points in a match
Last updated: Samoa vs Italy, 5 July 2024. Statistics include officially capped matches only.

Most tries in a match
Last updated: Samoa vs Italy, 5 July 2024. Statistics include officially capped matches only.

New Zealand connection
Western Samoa's triumph in the 1991 Rugby World Cup was inspired by their assistant coach Bryan Williams, who was a New Zealand-born (of Samoan descent) All Black great of the 1970s. The 1991 Samoan World Cup team included many New Zealand born or raised players; the catalyst was Auckland prop Peter Fatialofa, who in 1989, became the first major New Zealand-based player to play for Samoa. By the time of the 1991 World Cup several other New Zealand-born Samoans like Pat Lam, Stephen Bachop, Frank Bunce and Apollo Perelini had joined him. New Zealand born players with Samoan parentage have played for Samoa, such as Earl Va'a, Pat Lam and Lome Fa'atau.

The rugby relationship that exists between New Zealand and Samoa is a complex one. Close ties exist between the two countries, these bonds first being formed with the start of mass Polynesian migration to New Zealand in the latter half of the twentieth century. At the 2007 World Cup, there were 14 New Zealand-born players in the Samoan squad. The only team with more foreign born players in their squad was Italy who had 15.

Strips
Manu Samoa play in blue and white uniforms, with the home strip consisting of blue jerseys, white shorts and blue socks and the away kit being with the colours reversed. Since 2007, the flag of Samoa has been featured on the left sleeve and pe'a-like patterns were incorporated into the jerseys. Sponsored logos appear on jerseys for matches other than the Rugby World Cup, where branding, except for equipment manufacturers, is not allowed.

title: Samoa national rugby union team


text:
Elio de Angelis

Elio de Angelis (26 March 1958 – 15 May 1986) was an Italian racing driver who participated in Formula One between and, racing for the Shadow, Lotus and Brabham teams. He was killed in an accident while testing the Brabham BT55 at the Paul Ricard circuit, near the commune of Le Castellet, France, in 1986. De Angelis was a very competitive and highly popular presence in Formula One during the 1980s, and is sometimes referred to as Formula One's "last gentleman player".

Early life
De Angelis was born in Rome. His father Giulio was an inshore and offshore powerboat racer who won many world championships in the 1960s and 1970s.

After a brief spell with karts, de Angelis went on to win the Italian Formula Three Championship in 1977. In 1978 he raced in Formula Two for Minardi and then for the ICI British F2 Team, he also competed in one round of the British Formula One championship and won the prestigious Monaco F3 race.

Formula One
At the end of the 1977 season, de Angelis was on Enzo Ferrari's short list to replace Niki Lauda. De Angelis successfully tested the Ferrari at the Fiorano circuit but eventually Ferrari decided to hire Gilles Villeneuve. De Angelis's debut Formula One season was in with Shadow. He finished seventh in his maiden Grand Prix in Argentina and 15th in the championship with three points.

De Angelis's performance with Shadow caught the eye of Lotus boss Colin Chapman, who hired him to partner Mario Andretti in. At the age of 21, de Angelis became the youngest Grand Prix podium finisher of all time when he finished second at the Brazilian Grand Prix, run at the  Interlagos circuit. His first victory came in the 1982 Austrian Grand Prix at the Österreichring, 0.05 seconds ahead of the Williams of eventual  World Champion Keke Rosberg. The win was the last hailed by Colin Chapman's act of throwing his cloth cap into the air. Chapman died in December that year and Peter Warr became the new Lotus team manager.

In, Lotus switched from the Cosworth DFV they had been using since , to Renault turbo engines, but it was a disappointing season, suffering multiple mechanical failures. De Angelis's best result was a fifth place in the 1983 Italian Grand Prix.

In, de Angelis had a much better season, scoring a total of 34 points and finishing third in the standings with three podiums. His best result was a second place at the Detroit Grand Prix. De Angelis was the only driver to finish in the top 5 in 1984 not to score a race win, showing his consistent performances throughout the season with the improving Lotus-Renault.

In, de Angelis was joined at Lotus by Ayrton Senna, who had left the Toleman team. De Angelis's second win came in the third race of the season, at the 1985 San Marino Grand Prix, after Alain Prost was disqualified when his McLaren MP4/2B was found 2 kg underweight. De Angelis also claimed his last Formula One pole position that year in Canada. He finished fifth in the championship, with 33 points, five points behind his teammate. However, de Angelis chose to leave Lotus at the end of the season, frustrated that the team's efforts were being focused mostly on Senna.

De Angelis's drive for was with Brabham, as a replacement for twice World Champion Nelson Piquet, who had moved to Williams to join de Angelis's former Lotus teammate Nigel Mansell. Fellow Italian Riccardo Patrese was his teammate. Patrese was returning to the Bernie Ecclestone owned team after two unhappy years with Alfa Romeo.

The 1986 Brabham-BMW, the BT55, was the brainchild of long time Brabham designer Gordon Murray. The BT55 was a lowline car with a reduced frontal area, the idea being to have a cleaner airflow over the car to create more downforce, while at the same time reducing the car's drag. The chassis proved effective, unlike the I4 BMW turbo that had to be tilted to an angle of 72°. This caused severe oil surge and an even greater lack of throttle response than the BMW had become famous for. Although the team worked hard to overcome these problems, it was clear from early in the season that Brabham had fallen behind the leading pack.

Death and aftermath
In May 1986, during tests at the Paul Ricard circuit in France, the rear wing of de Angelis's BT55 detached at high speed resulting in the car losing downforce on the rear wheels, which instigated a cartwheel over a crash barrier, causing the car to catch fire. The impact itself did not kill de Angelis but he was unable to extract himself from the car unassisted. The situation was exacerbated by the lack of track marshals on the circuit who could have provided him with emergency assistance. A 30-minute delay ensued before a helicopter arrived and de Angelis died 29 hours later, at the hospital in Marseille where he had been taken, from smoke inhalation. His actual crash impact injuries were only a broken collar bone and light burns on his back.

De Angelis's death also saw the end of Formula One using the full 5.812 km (3.612 mi) Paul Ricard Circuit. F1 cars started using the 3.812 km (2.369 mi) "Club" version of the circuit, bypassing the Verriere curves where the Brabham had crashed, and cutting the length of the Mistral Straight from 1.8 to 1 km in length. The move was unpopular with many of the drivers, although others did like the reduced straight length as it was easier on the engines. Paul Ricard would not host a race on the full layout until, which featured sharper Verriere curves and a chicane on Mistral effectively cutting the straight to two 800m straights.

De Angelis's place in the Brabham team was subsequently taken by Derek Warwick, allegedly because Warwick was the only available top level driver who did not contact team owner Bernie Ecclestone immediately after de Angelis's death asking to replace him. McLaren driver Keke Rosberg, who was a close friend of de Angelis, retired at the end of the 1986 season.

De Angelis was the last driver to die in a Formula One car until Roland Ratzenberger died during qualifying for the San Marino Grand Prix at Imola eight years later. The day after Ratzenberger's death, de Angelis's former Lotus teammate (and by then a triple World Champion) Ayrton Senna died from injuries sustained in a crash on the seventh lap when his Williams-Renault crashed into the Tamburello Curve wall at approximately 130 mph.

Legacy
De Angelis was a concert-standard pianist, and famously kept his fellow Formula One drivers entertained with his skills by playing multiple concertos by Chopin and Mozart, while they locked themselves in a Johannesburg hotel before the 1982 South African Grand Prix at Kyalami when the Grand Prix Drivers Association held a strike in protest at the new Super Licence conditions imposed by the governing body, the FIA.

The French-Italian driver Jean Alesi, who broke into the sport in, wore a helmet that matched de Angelis's design, in tribute to his semi-compatriot.

In 2017 de Angelis was honoured at the Ludovico Scarfiotti Memorial in Rome.

Formula One World Championship results
(key) (Races in bold indicate pole position)

 * ‡ Race was stopped with less than 75% of laps completed, half points awarded.

title: Elio de Angelis


text:
Talk:List of English words from Indigenous languages of the Americas

Potato and Tomato
Talk:Algonquian says that tomato and potato are unlikely to be of Algonquian origin. I have removed them for now.

Here are the entries:

 * potato† (potaytoh) ground berry
 * tomato† (tomaytoh) sharp biting berry

--Stereo 06:45, 2004 Oct 8 (UTC)

 * I agree they are not Algonquian. The word for "potato" in Ojibwe language group is /piny/ (c.f. Ojibwe language o pin  (plural: o pini ig), potato(es); waabizii pin  (plural: waabizii pini ig), "arrowroot(s)").  In the Eastern Algonquian language group, the word is /tapitan/ (c.f. Maliseet language tahkitom, Mi'kmaq language tap'tan).  Looking in my "American Heritage dic•tion•ar•y of the English Language", it says "potato" comes from the Taíno batata via Spanish and "tomato" comes from Nahuatl tomatl, again via Spanish. CJLippert 18:26, 19 July 2006 (UTC)
 * Yes - Although tomatoes and potatoes are both indigenous to the New World, neither of them had reached as far north as the Algonquian languages were spoken before European contact. Both originated in the Andes region of South America, and had to travel a long way through various climate zones to spread. The furthest the tomato got in what later became the modern-day United States was among the Pueblo cultures of the Southwest, while the potato didn't "cross the border" at all. Native Americans along the East Coast of North America were introduced to these vegetables after Europeans were. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 74.103.150.125 (talk) 08:36, 21 June 2011 (UTC)

Capitalized
I have capitalized each word as per the general convention in a dictionary entry. --Bhadani 12:25, 14 March 2006 (UTC)

(originally on Talk:List of English words of Quechua origin) I have capitalized each word as per the general convention in a dictionary entry. --Bhadani 13:05, 14 March 2006 (UTC)

Soroche
(originally on Talk:List of English words of Quechua origin) Soroche is an English word? I speak English as my native language, and I've always said "altitude sickness." --Descendall 02:36, 17 August 2006 (UTC)

"How"
The word "how" is the stereotypical Native American word for "hello" (usually ascribed to all Native Americans languages or just 'indian') according to American movies and television shows too numerous to list.

Does anybody know the real linguistic background of the word "how"?

72.82.178.33 06:00, 5 July 2006 (UTC)
 * There are two ways "How" ends up as "Hello": Lakota language explanation and Algonquian languages explanation. In the Algonquian languages, the meeting greeting, when translated into English, is "What is your Clan?"  The word for "what...?" (Ojibwa: aaniin; Odawa: aanii) can also be translated as "how...?" so alternatively, the translation of the greeting is "How is your Clan?".  In the Lakota language, "Hau" is the meeting greetings, but it is also the word to mean "Yes!" or "Fine!" or "Good!" or "OK!". CJLippert 17:55, 19 July 2006 (UTC)

Merge
I suggest that this should be merged with List of English words of Algonquian origin. Both pages have separately maintained long list of Algonquian words which should be the same. It would be easier to maintain if they were in one article. As for the place names, perhaps those could be moved into a separate article as this one does not cover places. Rmhermen 16:45, 19 July 2006 (UTC)

 * Support merging the Algonquian list under this title. Kafziel 17:22, 19 July 2006 (UTC)
 * Support in merging the two articles to this one. CJLippert 17:31, 19 July 2006 (UTC)

If merging the two, then List of English words of Nahuatl origin should also be merged. CJLippert 00:13, 20 July 2006 (UTC)
 * I support that merge as well. Rmhermen 16:24, 21 July 2006 (UTC)
 * Ditto. Kafziel 16:30, 21 July 2006 (UTC)

The merge is now complete for both pages. The old pages now redirects to here and their Talk pages erased with their contents moved below. Now, all we need to do is make the current three sections match each other for stylistic consistency. CJLippert 08:45, 23 July 2006 (UTC)

Since these other pages have been merged, List of English words of Quechua origin should be too. I have incorporated all the content here. I'm not sure of the correct procedure for completing the merge, so I'd appreciate if someone else would take care of it. Lagringa 02:07, 27 September 2006 (UTC)

Michigan and Mississippi
(originally on Talk:List of English words of Algonquian origin)

The following page: gives the following Illinois language geographic names: Is it known whether these were borrowed from Illinois, or from another related language? I would like to add referenence to these terms; for now I will just show the Illinois terms for comparison. --Theodore Kloba July 5, 2005 19:52 (UTC)
 * Mississippi River: mihcisiipiiwi
 * Lake Michigan: meehcakamiwi

 * I belive "Mississippi" is thought to come either from Cree or Ojibwe (the Ojibwe for "big river" is misi-ziibi). I don't know the origin of the name "Michigan", however, and I don't know what the Cree form for "big river." --Whimemsz 00:58, August 5, 2005 (UTC)
 * Both the "Mississippi" and "Michigan" have common forms in the Algonquian languages spoken around the Great Lakes. It would be nearly impossible to pigeon-hole such names to a specific language.  However, every now and then the real origin of the place name shows up, such as with the case of Michilimackinac.  The explanations given for that place base on Ojibwe and the current form don't quite fit (usual etmology based on Ojibwe requires French as "mishi-" (Oj: big) + "ile" (Fr: island) + "makinaak" (Oj: snapping turtle) for a "large, snapping-turtle island"), but if you consider the Menominee language as the source, then the etmology would be "mishili" (be large-like) + "maqkināhkw" (snapping turtle).  So yes, some places you can say with certainty, but with others, all you can say is that the word or place comes from an Algonquian language, and just give examples of similar sounding words among those languages. CJLippert 14:16, 18 July 2006 (UTC)

words of Nahuatl origin
(originally on Talk:List of English words of Nahuatl origin)

I changed the entry for "chilli" to "chili" with one "l". I changed the Nahuatl root the same way, although I don't know for sure how the Nahuatl word should be written.
 * Believe it or not, "chilli" is the standard spelling in Britain.
 * Also, I'm surprised and a bit skeptical of the inclusion of the word "shack" on this list. According to link titleMerriam-Webster Online], the etymology of "shack" is "probably back-formation from English dialect shackly rickety."
 * But the American Heritage Dictionary entry says, "Possibly from American Spanish jacal, from Nahuatl xacalli, adobe hut : xámitl, adobe + calli, house, hut." You'd have to look up "shackly", which isn't in M-W on line unless you subscribe.
 * What's less likely is "shanty". The AHD again says "Probably from Canadian French chantier, hut in a lumber camp, from French, timberyard, from Old French, gantry, from Latin cantherius, rafter, nag, from Greek kanthlios, pack ass."  M-W agrees, and so do most other sources, as I recall.  Time to edit the article.  —JerryFriedman 23:44, 7 March 2006 (UTC)

Cheechako
I removed this as it doesn't have an article on Wikipedia or a definition on Wiktionary. Anyone know what this is? Is it a word in English? Rmhermen 04:18, 24 December 2006 (UTC)
 * Cheechako † from Chinook via Chinook Trade Jargon
 * I found it. It means "greenhorn" and is used in Northern Canada and by poet Robert Service about the Yukon Gold Rush. Rmhermen 22:29, 10 January 2007 (UTC)
 * That doesn't sound like a particularly notable word, then...if it only appears in the work of one poet, has it even been borrowed into the language? Or am I misunderstanding? --Miskwito 01:01, 30 January 2007 (UTC)
 * Never mind, I guess it's the term used for newcomers to Alaska? Supposedly? I see now that I misread Rmhermen's post... --Miskwito 04:04, 31 January 2007 (UTC)

Nahuatl word
I am stunned to not see the word "maize" on there. —The preceding unsigned comment was added by 128.54.69.247 (talk)
 * Woah, good point! I'll add it. Although, actually, it's not from Nahuatl--it's from Taino, I believe, by way of Spanish. --Miskwito 01:46, 2 February 2007 (UTC)

Move?
Should the page be moved? The term "Native American" doesn't refer to any indigenous people of the Americas--generally just to indigenous people from the United States. A more accurate title might be List of English words from indigenous languages of the Americas or something. I wish it weren't so long, though...

Thoughts? --Miskwito 04:43, 20 March 2007 (UTC)
 * Inclusiveness is very good. Thank you for taking the initiative to act (though it took me nearly 2 months to even notice). CJLippert 15:20, 9 May 2007 (UTC)
 * I don't object to the move but note that "Native American" does mean any indigenous people of the Americas. See Native American name controversy for more. Rmhermen 04:51, 27 August 2007 (UTC)
 * I agree, I've always understood "Native American" to mean all indigenous people of the New World, not just those in the United States. --74.103.150.125 (talk) 10:47, 21 June 2011 (UTC)

Tupi-Guaraní
Oikua'apa mba'eicha ojekrivi mandi'o ha tapioca tupiñe'ẽme? mandi'o, mandi'oka o mani'oca; ha tipi'oca o typy'oca? Does anyone know the word for manioc in Tupi? Mandi'o, mandi'oka, or mani'oca; and tipi'oca or typy'oca? --Pyry 16:24, 16 October 2007 (UTC)

Kiva
What about the word Kiva? In my grade school we had mini-amphitheaters in the halls at both ends of the school which we called kivas. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 75.169.235.20 (talk) 05:27, 13 April 2009 (UTC)
 * I think that counts (if "hogan" counts, "kiva" should count). It's from Hopi I think. I'll add it. --Miskwito (talk) 23:21, 13 April 2009 (UTC)

More words
Maybe we can start a list of words that might be added? I'll begin:

Tomaley - Carib Pawpaw - Carib Peccary - Carib Huarache - Purapecha Wendigo - Ojibwe Cherimoya - Quechua Guacho - Quechua Mate (as in yerba mate) - Quechua Açai - Tupi Carnauba (as in carnauba wax) - Tupi Guarana - Tupi

Indirect:

Chicano - from Spanish "mexicano", ultimately from Nahuatl "mēxihcah" Ke-mo sah-bee/Kemosabe - various possible origins, including Ojibwe, Tewa, and even Spanish (quien lo sabe) Parka - originally from Nenets, but adopted into English via Aleut via Russian Nanaimo (as in Nanaimo bar) - named after Canadian city, derived from Halkomelem Geronimo (exclamation) - Spanish name, but adapted from the Apache leader Two-spirit - English transliteration of Ojibwe

Possible:

Chinchilla - possibly from Quechua Cigar - possibly from Maya Shark - possibly from Maya Caucus - possibly from Algonquian Okay - possibly from Choctaw Potluck - possibly from Chinook Jargon Sassafras - possibly from unknown Native American language — Preceding unsigned comment added by 74.103.150.125 (talk) 11:38, 21 June 2011 (UTC)

 * Also, "quickhatch," another term for wolverine, derived from Algonquian languages (the same etymology as kinkajou in English and carcajou in French). --98.114.176.218 (talk) 06:56, 20 March 2012 (UTC)

 * Tamarack and tacamahac. Sassafras, from Latin via Spanish, may relate to a similar-sounding but unknown Native American word that related to its ultimate meaning. --96.227.248.179 (talk) 08:27, 20 November 2012 (UTC)

 * Massassauga is a word used for a type of snake in Central North America, adopted from Chippewa. On another note, why haven't any of these words been added? Some of them are iffy, but others are pretty indisputable. --122.194.159.212 (talk) 07:35, 2 February 2013 (UTC)

Origin of word "squash"
The list correctly tells us that the word "squash" (referring to the fruit, such as a butternut squash) is a word of Algonquin origin, but does not tell us what the original Algonquin stands for. I have long understood that the word "squash" comes from an Algonquin word that means "can be eaten raw". ACEOREVIVED (talk) 16:37, 15 December 2011 (UTC)

longer list on Wiktionary
Some time ago, I put together a more extensive list on Wiktionary, wikt:Appendix:English terms of Native American origin. Feel free to import from it. -sche (talk) 21:29, 22 November 2012 (UTC)

What are those blue crosses? — Preceding unsigned comment added by 187.93.211.3 (talk) 18:43, 27 June 2013 (UTC)

External links modified
Hello fellow Wikipedians,

I have just modified one external link on List of English words from indigenous languages of the Americas. Please take a moment to review my edit. If you have any questions, or need the bot to ignore the links, or the page altogether, please visit this simple FaQ for additional information. I made the following changes:
 * Added archive https://web.archive.org/web/20111225135709/http://www.d.umn.edu/~ahartley/CAMAS_etymology.pdf to http://www.d.umn.edu/~ahartley/CAMAS_etymology.pdf

When you have finished reviewing my changes, you may follow the instructions on the template below to fix any issues with the URLs.

Cheers.— InternetArchiveBot  (Report bug) 00:10, 12 December 2017 (UTC)

External links modified
Hello fellow Wikipedians,

I have just modified 4 external links on List of English words from indigenous languages of the Americas. Please take a moment to review my edit. If you have any questions, or need the bot to ignore the links, or the page altogether, please visit this simple FaQ for additional information. I made the following changes:
 * Added archive https://web.archive.org/web/20070310162701/http://www.bartleby.com/61/75/S0307500.html to http://www.bartleby.com/61/75/S0307500.html
 * Added archive https://web.archive.org/web/20111226192019/http://homepage.ntlworld.com/robert_beer/Vocabulario%20comparativo%20Quechua%20cuzqueno%20Quechua%20boliviano%20-%2022%20Apr%2006.PDF to http://homepage.ntlworld.com/robert_beer/Vocabulario%20comparativo%20Quechua%20cuzqueno%20Quechua%20boliviano%20-%2022%20Apr%2006.PDF
 * Added archive https://web.archive.org/web/20100102181049/http://billcasselman.com/cwod_archive/chimo.htm to http://www.billcasselman.com/cwod_archive/chimo.htm
 * Added archive https://web.archive.org/web/20060210155101/http://www.bartleby.com/61/42/C0464200.html to http://www.bartleby.com/61/42/C0464200.html

When you have finished reviewing my changes, you may follow the instructions on the template below to fix any issues with the URLs.

Cheers.— InternetArchiveBot  (Report bug) 05:34, 25 December 2017 (UTC)


text:
Marco Apicella

Marco Apicella (born 7 October 1965) is an Italian former professional racing driver. He competed in one Formula One Grand Prix for the Jordan team in the 1993 Italian Grand Prix. He later won the 1994 Japanese Formula 3000 Championship driving for Dome.

Career
Marco Apicella was born in Bologna on 7 October 1965. He began competing in Formula Three racing in 1984, and took victory for Scuderia Coloni in the first two rounds of the 1986 Italian Formula Three season. Apicella competed in the 1985 Macau Grand Prix, where he failed to finish.

International Formula 3000 (1987–1991)
Apicella's first season in International Formula 3000, 1987, was uncompetitive in the EuroVenturini Dallara car, only scoring one point thanks to a fifth place at the Spa-Francorchamps circuit. During the same year, he tested the Minardi Formula One car at the Autódromo do Estoril circuit. Apicella moved to the FIRST team for the 1988 season and was a title favourite for the season. He bought the March Engineering car to a second-place finish in the Monza race, but was not as competitive as teammate Pierluigi Martini. The team underperformed, but in 1989, again with FIRST (who had made a change to Reynard Motorsport cars), Apicella achieved several podium finishes on his way to finishing fourth overall in the Drivers' Championship. Apicella looked like a championship contender for the 1990 season and continued with the FIRST team, but his performances worsened as the season progressed, ending with a disqualification in the Brands Hatch round. A crash at the Pau Grand Prix prevented him from claiming his first win. Despite a poor 1990 season, Apicella had the chance to test drive with the Modena and Minardi teams. Late in the year, he went to Japan and did some tests for Bridgestone in a Reynard-Mugen Formula One prototype car. Apicella chose to change teams for the 1991 season, moving to Paul Stewart Racing, teaming up with Stewart himself. He was classified fifth overall at the end of the season. Apicella was able to score podiums, but not victories, in the Lola car. Apicella started more International F3000 races than any other winless driver.

Japanese Formula 3000 (1992–1993)
With no offers for a drive in International F3000 for 1992, Apicella went to Japan to drive in the Japanese Formula 3000 series, setting up a relationship with the Dome team. Apicella came tenth in the standings, the best of any Dome driver. Apicella, driving the Dome F103 won the fifth round of the championship that year. He continued to improve, finishing fourth in the 1993 season, winning at the Sugo race circuit.

Formula One
Apicella's good performances in Japan during 1992 and early 1993 gave him a drive at the Jordan Formula One team for his home race in the 1993 season, with team boss Eddie Jordan wanting to try out up-and-coming Formula 3000 drivers. He replaced Thierry Boutsen. Apicella tested the Jordan 193 car at Imola before the race weekend. During practice for the race he spun on the moist tarmac at the second Lesmo corner. He qualified in 23rd position, half a second behind teammate Barrichello, who set his times later in the session after the circuit had become less damp. It was the first time Apicella had driven a racing car with a semi-automatic gearbox. Apicella retired at the first corner of the first lap of the race after a multi-car collision. He was replaced by Emanuele Naspetti for the following round in Portugal. As a result of this, he is falsely considered to have had the shortest Formula 1 career out of any driver, a record held by Ernst Loof. Apicella retired after driving 800 metres, while Loof's car broke down as it was pulling away from the starting grid.

Japanese Formula 3000/Formula Nippon (1994–1996)
For 1994, Apicella continued with Dome in Japanese Formula 3000, winning at the Mine, Suzuka and Fuji circuits on his way to winning the title. He continued in Japanese F3000 for 1995 and 1996 (the series being renamed Formula Nippon for 1996), this time with Team 5Zigen, but his activities were limited, as he chose to do other motor sport activities such as the 24 Hours of Le Mans.

Apicella was appointed Chief Test Driver with Dome for 1996, testing the Dome F105 car alongside Shinji Nakano and Katsumi Yamamoto from April to June 1996 at the Suzuka Circuit. The aim was for the car to produce a base for them to mount a challenge into Formula One, but the project was shelved after the car was substantially damaged in an accident.

Apicella's last season in the Formula Nippon series was in 1997, driving for the Stellar International team. His best result for the team was a fourth place at the Mine circuit.

Other series (1999–2009)
Apicella moved back to Italy for 1999, competing in the Italian Formula 3000 championship. He scored two wins during the season on his way to third place in the championship. Apicella also tried to qualify for the Spa round of the International Formula 3000 championship in 1999 for Monaco Motorsport, but failed to do so due to adverse weather conditions. Apicella has since gone back to Japan, to compete in touring cars with the All Japan GT Championship.

Apicella has also competed in several 24 Hours of Le Mans races. He was scheduled to compete in the 2007 event with the JLOC Isao Noritake team, but on the first day of practice he was involved in an accident on the Mulsanne Straight, which heavily damaged his Lamborghini Murciélago car. Apicella competed in the 2009 event, again with the JLOC team. This and a start for JLOC in the 2009 Super GT Series saw the end of Apicella's professional racing career.

Complete International Formula 3000 results
(key) (Races in bold indicate pole position; races in italics indicate fastest lap.)

Complete Japanese Formula 3000/Formula Nippon results
(key) (Races in bold indicate pole position; races in italics indicate fastest lap) † Did not finish, but was classified as he had completed more than 90% of the race distance.

Complete Formula One results
(key)

Complete JGTC/Super GT results
(key) (Races in bold indicate pole position) (Races in italics indicate fastest lap)

title: Marco Apicella


text:
Self-incompatibility

Self-incompatibility (SI) is a general name for several genetic mechanisms that prevent self-fertilization in sexually reproducing organisms, and thus encourage outcrossing and allogamy. It is contrasted with separation of sexes among individuals (dioecy), and their various modes of spatial (herkogamy) and temporal (dichogamy) separation.

SI is best-studied and particularly common in flowering plants, although it is present in other groups, including sea squirts and fungi. In plants with SI, when a pollen grain produced in a plant reaches a stigma of the same plant or another plant with a matching allele or genotype, the process of pollen germination, pollen-tube growth, ovule fertilization, or embryo development is inhibited, and consequently no seeds are produced. SI is one of the most important means of preventing inbreeding and promoting the generation of new genotypes in plants and it is considered one of the causes of the spread and success of angiosperms on Earth.

Mechanisms of single-locus self-incompatibility
The best studied mechanisms of SI act by inhibiting the germination of pollen on stigmas, or the elongation of the pollen tube in the styles. These mechanisms are based on protein-protein interactions, and the best-understood mechanisms are controlled by a single locus termed S, which has many different alleles in the species population. Despite their similar morphological and genetic manifestations, these mechanisms have evolved independently, and are based on different cellular components; therefore, each mechanism has its own, unique S-genes.

The S-locus contains two basic protein coding regions – one expressed in the pistil, and the other in the anther and/or pollen (referred to as the female and male determinants, respectively). Because of their physical proximity, these are genetically linked, and are inherited as a unit. The units are called S-haplotypes. The translation products of the two regions of the S-locus are two proteins which, by interacting with one another, lead to the arrest of pollen germination and/or pollen tube elongation, and thereby generate an SI response, preventing fertilization. However, when a female determinant interacts with a male determinant of a different haplotype, no SI is created, and fertilization ensues. This is a simplistic description of the general mechanism of SI, which is more complicated, and in some species the S-haplotype contains more than two protein coding regions.

Following is a detailed description of the different known mechanisms of SI in plants.

Gametophytic self-incompatibility (GSI)
In gametophytic self-incompatibility (GSI), the SI phenotype of the pollen is determined by its own gametophytic haploid genotype. This is the most common type of SI. Two different mechanisms of GSI have been described in detail at the molecular level, and their description follows.

The RNase mechanism
In this mechanism, pollen tube elongation is halted when it has proceeded approximately one third of the way through the style. The female component ribonuclease protein, termed S-RNase probably causes degradation of the ribosomal RNA (rRNA) inside the pollen tube, in the case of identical male and female S alleles, and consequently pollen tube elongation is arrested, and the pollen grain dies.

Within a decade of the initial confirmation their role in GSI, proteins belonging to the same RNase gene family were also found to cause pollen rejection in species of Rosaceae and Plantaginaceae. Despite initial uncertainty about the common ancestry of RNase-based SI in these distantly related plant families, phylogenetic studies and the finding of shared male determinants (F-box proteins)  strongly supported homology across eudicots. Therefore, this mechanism likely arose approximately 90 million years ago, and is the inferred ancestral state for approximately 50% of all plant species.

In the past decade, the predictions about the wide distribution of this mechanism of SI have been confirmed, placing additional support of its single ancient origin. Specifically, a style-expressed T2/S-RNase gene and pollen-expressed F-box genes are now implicated in causing SI among the members of Rubiaceae, Rutaceae, and Cactaceae. Therefore, other mechanisms of SI are thought to be recently derived in eudicots plants, in some cases relatively recently. One particularly interesting case is the Prunus SI systems, which functions through self-recognition (the cytotoxic activity of the S-RNAses is inhibited by default and selectively activated by the pollen partner SFB upon self-pollination), [where "SFB" is a term that stands "for S-haplotype-specific F-box protein", as explained (parenthetically) in the abstract of ], while SI in the other species with S-RNAse functions through non-self recognition (the S-RNAses are selectively detoxified upon cross-pollination).

The S-glycoprotein mechanism
In this mechanism, pollen growth is inhibited within minutes of its placement on the stigma. The mechanism is described in detail for Papaver rhoeas and so far appears restricted to the plant family Papaveraceae.

The female determinant is a small, extracellular molecule, expressed in the stigma; the identity of the male determinant remains elusive, but it is probably some cell membrane receptor. The interaction between male and female determinants transmits a cellular signal into the pollen tube, resulting in strong influx of calcium cations; this interferes with the intracellular concentration gradient of calcium ions which exists inside the pollen tube, essential for its elongation. The influx of calcium ions arrests tube elongation within 1–2 minutes. At this stage, pollen inhibition is still reversible, and elongation can be resumed by applying certain manipulations, resulting in ovule fertilization.

Subsequently, the cytosolic protein p26, a pyrophosphatase, is inhibited by phosphorylation, possibly resulting in arrest of synthesis of molecular building blocks, required for tube elongation. There is depolymerization and reorganization of actin filaments, within the pollen cytoskeleton. Within 10 minutes from the placement on the stigma, the pollen is committed to a process which ends in its death. At 3–4 hours past pollination, fragmentation of pollen DNA begins, and finally (at 10–14 hours), the cell dies apoptotically.

Sporophytic self-incompatibility (SSI)
In sporophytic self-incompatibility (SSI), the SI phenotype of the pollen is determined by the diploid genotype of the anther (the sporophyte) in which it was created. This form of SI was identified in the families: Brassicaceae, Asteraceae, Convolvulaceae, Betulaceae, Caryophyllaceae, Sterculiaceae and Polemoniaceae. Up to this day, only one mechanism of SSI has been described in detail at the molecular level, in Brassica (Brassicaceae).

Since SSI is determined by a diploid genotype, the pollen and pistil each express the translation products of two different alleles, i.e. two male and two female determinants. Dominance relationships often exist between pairs of alleles, resulting in complicated patterns of compatibility/self-incompatibility. These dominance relationships also allow the generation of individuals homozygous for a recessive S allele.

Compared to a population in which all S alleles are co-dominant, the presence of dominance relationships in the population, raises the chances of compatible mating between individuals. The frequency ratio between recessive and dominant S alleles, reflects a dynamic balance between reproductive assurance (favoured by recessive alleles) and avoidance of selfing (favoured by dominant alleles).

The SI mechanism in Brassica
As previously mentioned, the SI phenotype of the pollen is determined by the diploid genotype of the anther. In Brassica, the pollen coat, derived from the anther's tapetum tissue, carries the translation products of the two S alleles. These are small, cysteine-rich proteins. The male determinant is termed SCR or SP11, and is expressed in the anther tapetum as well as in the microspore and pollen (i.e. sporophytically). There are possibly up to 100 polymorphs of the S-haplotype in Brassica, and within these there is a dominance hierarchy.

The female determinant of the SI response in Brassica, is a transmembrane protein termed SRK, which has an intracellular kinase domain, and a variable extracellular domain. SRK is expressed in the stigma, and probably functions as a receptor for the SCR/SP11 protein in the pollen coat. Another stigmatic protein, termed SLG, is highly similar in sequence to the SRK protein, and seems to function as a co-receptor for the male determinant, amplifying the SI response.

The interaction between the SRK and SCR/SP11 proteins results in autophosphorylation of the intracellular kinase domain of SRK, and a signal is transmitted into the papilla cell of the stigma. Another protein essential for the SI response is MLPK, a serine-threonine kinase, which is anchored to the plasma membrane from its intracellular side. ARC1 E3 Ubiquitin ligand gets activated in the downstream signaling cascade which targets compatibility factors like ExO70A1 and GLO1 for proteasomal degradation leading to an SI response | journal = Nature Plants| volume = 1 | issue = 12| doi=https://doi.org/10.1038/nplants.2015.185.

Other mechanisms of self-incompatibility
These mechanisms have received only limited attention in scientific research. Therefore, they are still poorly understood.

2-locus gametophytic self-incompatibility
The grass subfamily Pooideae, and perhaps all of the family Poaceae, have a gametophytic self-incompatibility system that involves two unlinked loci referred to as S and Z. If the alleles expressed at these two loci in the pollen grain both match the corresponding alleles in the pistil, the pollen grain will be recognized as incompatible. At both loci, S and Z, two male and one female determinant can be found. All four male determinants encode proteins belonging to the same family (DUF247) and are predicted to be membrane-bound. The two female determinants are predicted to be secreted proteins with no protein family membership.

Heteromorphic self-incompatibility
A distinct SI mechanism exists in heterostylous flowers, termed heteromorphic self-incompatibility. This mechanism is probably not evolutionarily related to the more familiar mechanisms, which are differentially defined as homomorphic self-incompatibility.

Almost all heterostylous taxa feature SI to some extent. The loci responsible for SI in heterostylous flowers, are strongly linked to the loci responsible for flower polymorphism, and these traits are inherited together. Distyly is determined by a single locus, which has two alleles; tristyly is determined by two loci, each with two alleles. Heteromorphic SI is sporophytic, i.e. both alleles in the male plant, determine the SI response in the pollen. SI loci always contain only two alleles in the population, one of which is dominant over the other, in both pollen and pistil. Variance in SI alleles parallels the variance in flower morphs, thus pollen from one morph can fertilize only pistils from the other morph. In tristylous flowers, each flower contains two types of stamens; each stamen produces pollen capable of fertilizing only one flower morph, out of the three existing morphs.

A population of a distylous plant contains only two SI genotypes: ss and Ss. Fertilization is possible only between genotypes; each genotype cannot fertilize itself. This restriction maintains a 1:1 ratio between the two genotypes in the population; genotypes are usually randomly scattered in space. Tristylous plants contain, in addition to the S locus, the M locus, also with two alleles. The number of possible genotypes is greater here, but a 1:1 ratio exists between individuals of each SI type.

Cryptic self-incompatibility (CSI)
Cryptic self-incompatibility (CSI) exists in a limited number of taxa (for example, there is evidence for CSI in Silene vulgaris, Caryophyllaceae ). In this mechanism, the simultaneous presence of cross and self pollen on the same stigma, results in higher seed set from cross pollen, relative to self pollen. However, as opposed to 'complete' or 'absolute' SI, in CSI, self-pollination without the presence of competing cross pollen, results in successive fertilization and seed set; in this way, reproduction is assured, even in the absence of cross-pollination. CSI acts, at least in some species, at the stage of pollen tube elongation, and leads to faster elongation of cross pollen tubes, relative to self pollen tubes. The cellular and molecular mechanisms of CSI have not been described.

The strength of a CSI response can be defined, as the ratio of crossed to selfed ovules, formed when equal amounts of cross and self pollen, are placed upon the stigma; in the taxa described up to this day, this ratio ranges between 3.2 and 11.5.

Late-acting self-incompatibility (LSI)
Late-acting self-incompatibility (LSI) is also termed ovarian self-incompatibility (OSI). In this mechanism, self pollen germinates and reaches the ovules, but no fruit is set. LSI can be pre-zygotic (e.g. deterioration of the embryo sac prior to pollen tube entry, as in Narcissus triandrus ) or post-zygotic (malformation of the zygote or embryo, as in certain species of Asclepias and in Spathodea campanulata ).

The existence of the LSI mechanism among different taxa and in general, is subject for scientific debate. Criticizers claim, that absence of fruit set is due to genetic defects (homozygosity for lethal recessive alleles), which are the direct result of self-fertilization (inbreeding depression). Supporters, on the other hand, argue for the existence of several basic criteria, which differentiate certain cases of LSI from the inbreeding depression phenomenon.

Self-compatibility (SC)
Self-compatibility (SC) is the absence of genetic mechanisms which prevent self-fertilization resulting in plants that can reproduce successfully via both self-pollen and pollen from other individuals. Approximately one half of angiosperm species are SI, the remainder being SC. Mutations that disable SI (resulting in SC) may become common or entirely dominate in natural populations. Pollinator decline, variability in pollinator service, the so-called "automatic advantage" of self-fertilisation, among other factors, may favor the loss of SI.

Many cultivated plants are SC, although there are notable exceptions, such as apples and Brassica oleracea. Human-mediated artificial selection through selective breeding is often responsible for SC among these agricultural crops. SC enables more efficient breeding techniques to be employed for crop improvement. However, when genetically similar SI cultivars are bred, inbreeding depression can cause a cross-incompatible form of SC to arise, such as in apricots and almonds. In this rare, intraspecific, cross-incompatible mechanism, individuals have more reproductive success when self-pollinated rather than when cross-pollinated with other individuals of the same species. In wild populations, intraspecific cross-incompatibility has been observed in Nothoscordum bivalve.

title: Self-incompatibility