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T. E. Hulme

Thomas Ernest Hulme (16 September 1883 – 28 September 1917) was an English critic and poet who, through his writings on art, literature and politics, had a notable influence upon modernism. He was an aesthetic philosopher and the 'father of imagism'.

Early life and education
Thomas Ernest Hulme — called "Ernest" by his family — was born at Gratton Hall, Endon, Staffordshire, the son of Thomas Hulme and Mary, née Young. Thomas attempted farming, but "the life proved too strenuous" for him; when his son was still young the family relocated to a house on Endon Bank, and Thomas went into business for a time as an auctioneer and sales agent before starting up a ceramics transfer business operating from a factory in Newcastle-under-Lyme. Thomas was "a remote and hard man" with an "explosive temper", but it was Mary Hulme that was "the disciplinarian in the family... a spirited, independent woman with a good sense of humour and a command of repartee." Thomas Hulme's father, also Thomas, who lived at nearby Dunwood Hall, was a successful pawnbroker whose death in 1884 "left his family well provided for". The Hulmes were wealthy; they "had chauffeurs and gardeners at Endon Bank, but the family had regional accents rather than Oxbridge accents and there was more social mixing across the classes than was common in the cities."

Hulme was educated at Newcastle-under-Lyme High School and, from 1902, St John's College, Cambridge, where he read mathematics, but was sent down in 1904 after rowdy behaviour on Boat Race night. He was thrown out of Cambridge a second time after a scandal involving a Roedean girl. He returned to his studies at University College London, before travelling around Canada and spending time in Brussels acquiring languages.

Proto-modernist

From about 1907 Hulme became interested in philosophy, translating works by Henri Bergson and sitting in on lectures at Cambridge. He translated Georges Sorel's Reflections on Violence. The most important influences on his thought were Bergson, who asserted that 'human experience is relative, but religious and ethical values are absolute' and, later, Wilhelm Worringer (1881–1965), German art historian and critic – in particular his Abstraktion und Einfühlung (Abstraction and Empathy, 1908). Hulme was influenced by Remy de Gourmont's aristocratic concept of art and his studies of sensibility and style. From 1909 Hulme contributed critical articles to The New Age, edited by A. R. Orage. Hulme developed an interest in poetry and wrote a small number of poems. He was made secretary of the Poets' Club, attended by such establishment figures as Edmund Gosse and Henry Newbolt. There he encountered Ezra Pound and F. S. Flint. In late 1908 Hulme delivered his paper A Lecture on Modern Poetry to the club. Hulme's poems "Autumn" and "A City Sunset", both published in 1909 in a Poets' Club anthology, have the distinction of being the first Imagist poems. A further five poems were published in The New Age in 1912 as The Complete Poetical Works of T. E. Hulme. Despite this misleading title, Hulme in fact wrote about 25 poems totalling some 260 lines, of which the majority were possibly written between 1908 and 1910. Robert Frost met Hulme in 1913 and was influenced by his ideas. The publisher of the book 'Ripostes' (to which Pound appended the 'complete' poetical works of T. E. Hulme) spoke in that book of Hulme 'the meta-physician, who achieves great rhythmical beauty in curious verse-forms.'

In his critical writings Hulme distinguished between Romanticism, a style informed by a belief in the infinite in man and nature, characterised by Hulme as "spilt religion", and Classicism, a mode of art stressing human finitude, formal restraint, concrete imagery and, in Hulme's words, "dry hardness". Similar views were later expressed by T. S. Eliot. Hulme's ideas had a major effect on Wyndham Lewis (quite literally when they came to blows over Kate Lechmere; Lewis ended the worse for it, hung upside down by the cuffs of his trousers from the railings of Great Ormond Street). He championed the art of Jacob Epstein and David Bomberg, was a friend of Gaudier-Brzeska, and was in on the debut of Lewis's literary magazine BLAST and vorticism.

Hulme's politics were conservative, and he moved further to the right after 1911 as a result of contact with Pierre Lasserre, who was associated with Action Française.

First World War

Hulme volunteered as an artilleryman in 1914 and served with the Honourable Artillery Company and later the Royal Marine Artillery in France and Belgium. He kept up his writing for The New Age. Notable publications during this period for that magazine were "War Notes", written under the pen name "North Staffs", and "A Notebook", which contains some of his most organised critical writing. He was wounded in 1916. Back at the front in 1917, he was killed by a shell at Oostduinkerke near Nieuwpoort, in West Flanders.

"[...] On 28 September 1917, four days after his thirty-fourth birthday, Hulme suffered a direct hit from a large shell which literally blew him to pieces. Apparently absorbed in some thought of his own he had failed to hear it coming and remained standing while those around threw themselves flat on the ground. What was left of him was buried in the Military Cemetery at Koksijde, West-Vlaanderen, in Belgium where—no doubt for want of space—he is described simply as 'One of the War poets'.'"

Works

 * Notes on Language and Style (1929, University of Washington Book Store); in The Criterion, Vol. 3, No. 12, (July 1925) (ed. Herbert Read)
 * Speculations: Essays on Humanism and the Philosophy of Art (1936, K. Paul, Trench, Trubner & Co., Ltd.), edited by Herbert Read
 * Further Speculations of T. E. Hulme (1955, University of Minnesota), edited by Samuel Hynes
 * The Collected Writings of T. E. Hulme (1996, OUP), edited by Karen Csengeri
 * Selected Writings of T. E. Hulme (2003, Fyfield Books), edited by Patrick McGuinness

Selected poems

 * Above the Dock
 * Autumn
 * A City Sunset
 * Conversion
 * The Embankment
 * Mana Aboda
 * The Man in the Crow's Nest
 * Susan Ann and Immortality
 * The Poet
 * A Tall Woman
 * A Sudden Secret
 * In the Quiet Land
 * At Night!
 * Town Sky-line

As translator

 * Henri Bergson, An Introduction to Metaphysics, (1912)
 * Georges Sorel, Reflections on Violence, (1915)

Articles

 * "Belated Romanticism," The New Age, Vol. IV, No. 17, 1909.
 * "The New Philosophy," The New Age, Vol. V, No. 10, 1909.
 * "Bergson and Bax," The New Age, Vol. V, No. 13, 1909.
 * "Searchers after Reality: Bax," The New Age, Vol. V, No. 14, 1909.
 * "Searchers after Reality: Haldane," The New Age, Vol. V, No. 17, 1909.
 * "A Note on 'La Foi'," The New Age, Vol. V, No. 27, 1909.
 * "Searchers after Reality: Jules De Gaultier," The New Age, Vol. VI, No. 5, 1909.
 * "Notes on the Bologna Congress," The New Age, Vol. VIII, No. 26, 1911.
 * "Bergsonism in Paris," The New Age, Vol. IX, No. 8, 1911.
 * "Bax on Bergson," The New Age, Vol. IX, No. 14, 1911.
 * "Notes on Bergson," The New Age, Vol. IX, No. 25, 1911.
 * "Notes on Bergson II," The New Age, Vol. IX, No. 26, 1911.
 * "Mr. Balfour, Bergson, and Politics," The New Age, Vol. X, No. 2, 1911.
 * "Notes on Bergson III," The New Age, Vol. X, No. 4, 1911.
 * "Notes on Bergson IV," The New Age, Vol. X, No. 5, 1911.
 * "Notes on Bergson V," The New Age, Vol. X, No. 17, 1912.
 * "Mr. Epstein and the Critics," The New Age, Vol. XIV, No. 8, 1913.

 * "German Chronicle", Poetry and Drama, Vol. II, 1914.
 * "Modern Art: The Grafton Group," The New Age, Vol. XIV, No. 11, 1914.
 * "Modern Art: A Preface Note and Neo-Realism," The New Age, Vol. XIV, No. 15, 1914.
 * "Modern Art: The London Group," The New Age, Vol. XIV, No. 21, 1914.
 * "Modern Art: Mr. David Bomberg's Show," The New Age, Vol. XV, No. 10, 1914.
 * "The Translator's Preface to Sorel's 'Reflections on Violence'," The New Age, Vol. XVII, No. 24, 1915.
 * "War Notes," The New Age, Vol. XVIII, No. 2, 1915 (as North Staffs).
 * "War Notes," The New Age, Vol. XVIII, No. 3, 1915 (as North Staffs).
 * "War Notes," The New Age, Vol. XVIII, No. 4, 1915 (as North Staffs).
 * "War Notes," The New Age, Vol. XVIII, No. 5, 1915 (as North Staffs).
 * "A Notebook," The New Age, Vol. XVIII, No. 5, 1915.
 * "War Notes," The New Age, Vol. XVIII, No. 6, 1915 (as North Staffs).
 * "A Notebook," The New Age, Vol. XVIII, No. 6, 1915.
 * "War Notes," The New Age, Vol. XVIII, No. 7, 1915 (as North Staffs).
 * "A Notebook," The New Age, Vol. XVIII, No. 7, 1915.
 * "War Notes," The New Age, Vol. XVIII, No. 8, 1915 (as North Staffs).
 * "A Notebook," The New Age, Vol. XVIII, No. 8, 1915.
 * "War Notes," The New Age, Vol. XVIII, No. 9, 1915 (as North Staffs).
 * "War Notes," The New Age, Vol. XVIII, No. 10, 1916 (as North Staffs).
 * "A Notebook," The New Age, Vol. XVIII, No. 10, 1916.

 * "War Notes," The New Age, Vol. XVIII, No. 11, 1916 (as North Staffs).
 * "War Notes," The New Age, Vol. XVIII, No. 12, 1916 (as North Staffs).
 * "War Notes," The New Age, Vol. XVIII, No. 13, 1916 (as North Staffs).
 * "A Notebook," The New Age, Vol. XVIII, No. 13, 1916.
 * "War Notes," The New Age, Vol. XVIII, No. 14, 1916 (as North Staffs).
 * "War Notes," The New Age, Vol. XVIII, No. 15, 1916 (as North Staffs).
 * "A Notebook," The New Age, Vol. XVIII, No. 15, 1916.
 * "War Notes," The New Age, Vol. XVIII, No. 16, 1916 (as North Staffs).
 * "War Notes," The New Age, Vol. XVIII, No. 17, 1916 (as North Staffs).
 * "War Notes," The New Age, Vol. XVIII, No. 18, 1916 (as North Staffs).
 * "The Note-Books of T. E. Hulme," The New Age, Vol. XXX, No. 12, 1922.
 * "The Note-Books of T. E. Hulme: II," The New Age, Vol. XXX, No. 13, 1922.
 * "The Note-Books of T. E. Hulme: III," The New Age, Vol. XXX, No. 15, 1922.
 * "The Note-Books of T. E. Hulme: IV," The New Age, Vol. XXX, No. 16, 1922.
 * "The Note-Books of T. E. Hulme: Bergson's Theory of Art," The New Age, Vol. XXX, No. 22, 1922.
 * "The Note-Books of T. E. Hulme: Bergson's Theory of Art, II", The New Age, Vol. XXX, No. 23, 1922.
 * "The Note-Books of T. E. Hulme: Bergson's Theory of Art, III", The New Age, Vol. XXX, No. 24, 1922.

title: T. E. Hulme


text:
Category:Districts of Saxony

bg:Категория:География на Саксония

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Category:Districts of Saxony


text:
Washington Park Arboretum

Washington Park is a public park in Seattle, Washington, United States, most of which is taken up by the Washington Park Arboretum, a joint project of the University of Washington, the Seattle Parks and Recreation, and the nonprofit Arboretum Foundation. Washington Park also includes a playfield and the Seattle Japanese Garden in its southwest corner. To the north is Union Bay; to the west are Montlake and Madison Valley; to the south is the Washington Park neighborhood; and to the east is the Broadmoor Golf Club.

Description
Lake Washington Boulevard E. runs north and south through the park, parallel to the creek. A secondary road, for most of its length named Arboretum Drive E. and for a short northern stretch named E. Foster Island Road, runs along the Arboretum's eastern edge. E. Interlaken Boulevard and Boyer Avenue E. run northwest out of the park to Montlake and beyond. State Route 520 cuts through Foster Island and the Union Bay wetlands at the park's northern end, interchanging with Lake Washington Boulevard just outside the arboretum entrance. A footpath winds underneath the freeway overpasses and over boardwalks, along the Lake Washington ship canal, and into the gardens of the Arboretum.

The Arboretum is well known for Azalea Way in the springtime, a stretch of the park which offers a unique tapestry of azaleas of many colors. The area is a popular site for strolling and is utilized by photographers and artists. The manicured Azalea Way stands out in stark contrast with the Arboretum's wild and heavily canopied areas.

The land occupied by the Washington Park Arboretum has been developed and is owned by the city, but the Arboretum is operated primarily by the University of Washington.

Arboretum Creek is approximately 4000 ft long, entirely within the park. Its average channel width is 4 ft and its average channel depth is 2 ft. The creek's source is a spring-fed stream in the Alder Creek Natural Area, three publicly owned properties on 26th Ave East between East Helen and Prospect streets. The stream feeds the koi pond in Washington Park's Japanese Garden, near Washington Park Playfield at the park's southern end. It also receives runoff from Rhododendron Glen and the Woodland Garden, as well as sub-surface drainage from the neighboring course of the Broadmoor Golf Club. It empties into Lake Washington via Willow Bay, itself a minor arm of Union Bay, having passed through numerous culverts under Lake Washington Boulevard.

History
Washington Park was developed on land that had been logged by the Puget Mill Company for sixty years. In 1920, the parcel was split in two. The eastern 200 acres (0.8 km2) were developed as the Broadmoor Golf Club by a group of businessmen that included E. G. Ames, general manager of Puget Mill. The western 230 were given to the city, who developed a park and arboretum on the site. On the basis of the agreement approved by the University of Washington (Board of Regents) and the City of Seattle (City Council/Mayor), The Washington Park Arboretum was established in 1934.

Ghost ramps

State Route 520 has a set of ghost ramps in the marshlands the arboretum. They are often referred to as "ramps to nowhere". However, one ramp is currently used for the on ramp to SR 520 Eastbound. The others are unused. They were originally part of a plan to build the R. H. Thomson Expressway which would have cut through the arboretum and down through Seattle towards the I-90/I-5 interchange. Citizens rallied a freeway revolt against the plan on May 4, 1969. Construction near the Arboretum later continued but citizen protest eventually won out and the plan was dropped in 1971.

The freeway revolt that stopped the R. H. Thomson Expressway had its origins in opposition to SR 520 itself. Architect Victor Steinbrueck, writing in 1962, objected to the "naked brutality of unimaginative structures such as this proposed crossing of Portage Bay, which eliminates fifty houseboats while casting its shadow and noise across this tranquil boat haven."

In 2013 the Washington State Department of Transportation announced plans to dismantle the ghost ramps. To commemorate the ramps and protest their demolition, a local art collective created an installation, Gate to Nowhere, on one of the ramps in 2014. The piece consists of a layer of reflective acrylic wrapping a pair of support columns.

In the spring of 2016, some of the SR 520 ghost ramps have begun to be dismantled to make way for the construction of a new causeway linking the new floating bridge to the mainland.

Modern plans
The potential impact of plans to reconstruct and expand State Route 520 and replace the Evergreen Point Floating Bridge in the early 2010s have raised concerns among Arboretum staff and park users. As the members of the Arboretum community noted in their collective letter to the Washington State Department of Transportation, "Native plants, wetlands, and wildlife ... would be affected not only by the taking of land but by the looming shadows created by roadways in various proposals". Among the alternative proposals is the "Arboretum Bypass Plan," building the new elevated highway over Union Bay on a more northerly route than the current one.

Seattle Japanese Garden
The Seattle Japanese Garden is a 3.5 acre (14,000 m2) Japanese garden in the Madison Park neighborhood of Seattle, Washington. The Garden is located in the Southern end of the Washington Park Arboretum on Lake Washington Boulevard East. The Garden is one of the oldest Japanese Gardens in North America, and is regarded as one of the most authentic Japanese Gardens in the United States.

title: Washington Park Arboretum


text:
John Henry Towers

John Henry Towers CBE (January 30, 1885 – April 30, 1955) was a highly decorated United States Navy four-star admiral and pioneer naval aviator. He made important contributions to the technical and organizational development of naval aviation from its beginnings, eventually serving as Chief of the Bureau of Aeronautics (1939–1942). He commanded carrier task forces during World War II, and retired in December 1947. He and Marc Mitscher were the only early Naval Aviation pioneers to survive the hazards of early flight to remain with naval aviation throughout their careers. Towers spent his last years supporting aeronautical research and advising the aviation industry.

Early life and career
John H. Towers was born on 30 January 1885 at Rome, Georgia, son of William Magee and Mary (Norton) Towers. He completed public school in Rome and entered the Georgia School of Technology at Atlanta, where he completed one year in civil engineering course, before received an appointment to the United States Naval Academy at Annapolis, Maryland in June 1902. While at the academy, Towers was nicknamed Hattie and reached the rank of cadet petty officer 1st class.

Among his classmates were many future admirals including Roland M. Brainard, Arthur L. Bristol, William L. Calhoun, Milo F. Draemel, Robert L. Ghormley, William A. Glassford, Charles C. Hartigan, Aubrey W. Fitch, Frank J. Fletcher, Isaac C. Kidd, John S. McCain Sr., Leigh Noyes, Ferdinand L. Reichmuth, Sherwoode A. Taffinder, Russell Willson, Raymond A. Spruance, and Thomas Withers.

He graduated with Bachelor of Science degree on 12 February 1906 and was attached as passed midshipman to the battleship USS Kentucky (BB-6). Towers then took part in the cruise around the world with Great White Fleet and also served in the Cuban waters during the Second Occupation of Cuba. After the two years at sea, then required by law, he was commissioned ensign on 13 February 1908 while still aboard Kentucky.

Towers was transferred to New York Shipbuilding Corporation for duty in connection with fitting out of the first United States dreadnought battleship, USS Michigan (BB-27), in September 1909 and upon her commissioning in January 1910, he served as fire control officer and spotter. During his tenure in this capacity, he became interested in aviation, which was motivated by recognition that higher elevation observation was required to observe fall of shot at the range of modern naval artillery. Towers requested aviation training in November 1910; but his proficiency at gunfire spotting was considered essential to Michigan's mission when Glenn Curtis offered to train a naval officer to fly the following month, so Theodore G. Ellyson became the first United States naval aviator. Only after Curtiss moved his flying school from San Diego to the east coast was Tower released from Michigan to report to the Curtiss Flying School in Hammondsport, New York, on June 27, 1911, for aviation training.

Pioneer naval aviator

Under the tutelage of aviation pioneers Curtiss and Ellyson, Towers qualified as a pilot with the Aero Club of America on 13 September 1911, flying the Navy's first airplane, a Curtiss A-1 seaplane. In Sept 1911 Towers and Ellyson created the first official Naval Air Station and flying aviation unit at Greenbury Point, Md across the Severn River from the Naval Academy under orders from Captain Washington Irving Chambers, the first Navy officer assigned to development of the nascent U.S. Naval aviation program.

In October 1911, Towers achieved a distance record, flying an A-1 from Annapolis, Maryland, to Old Point Comfort, Virginia, a distance of 112 miles in 122 minutes. He set several speed and altitude records at the time.

Due to the winter weather conditions at Greenbury Point they crated the airplanes and Towers et al. traveled to North Island in San Diego, California where, in conjunction with the Curtiss Flying School, he took part in developing and improving naval aircraft types After that winter in San Diego they went back to Greenbury Point. On October 6, 1912, he achieved an American endurance record by rigging extra gasoline tanks to a Curtiss A-2 seaplane, allowing him to remain aloft for 6 hours, ten minutes, 35 seconds. From October to December 1912, Towers conducted tests to spot submerged submarines from the air over the Chesapeake Bay. This later was valuable in leading to the design of the NC boats and the First Crossing of the Atlantic in 1919. He furthered those tests into 1913 during fleet operations near Guantanamo Bay, Cuba. Additionally, he investigated the potential for Navy aerial reconnaissance, bombing, photography, and communications.

On 8 May 1913, Lt. Towers flew a long-distance flight of 169 miles in a Curtiss flying boat from the Washington Navy Yard down the Potomac River and then up the Chesapeake Bay to the U.S. Naval Academy at Annapolis, Maryland. The flight took three hours and five minutes. Ensign Godfrey Chevalier was his passenger.

On 20 June 1913, Towers was nearly killed in an aviation mishap over the Chesapeake Bay. While he was flying as a passenger in a Wright seaplane, his plane was caught in a sudden downdraft and plummeted earthward. The pilot, Ensign W.D. Billingsley, was thrown from the aircraft and killed (becoming the first naval aviation fatality). Towers was wrenched from his seat but managed to catch a wing strut and stay with the plane until it crashed into the Chesapeake. Interviewed by Glenn Curtiss soon thereafter, Towers recounted the circumstances of the tragedy; his report and resultant recommendations eventually led to the design and adoption of safety belts and harnesses for pilots and their passengers.

On 20 January 1914, after appealing to the higher-ups to move the aviation unit to warmer climes Lieutenant Towers led 9 officers and 23 enlisted men, with seven aircraft, portable hangars and other gear from the aviation unit at Annapolis (Greenbury Point) to Pensacola, Florida to set up the naval aviation training unit. On April 20, 1914, Towers led the first naval aviation unit called into action with the Fleet. He and two other pilots, 12 enlisted men and three aircraft sailed from Pensacola aboard the cruiser USS Birmingham (CL-2) in response to the Tampico Affair.

Naval aviator designation and insignia
In January 1915, the navy decided to officially designate its flyers. At that time, Towers was officially designated as Naval Aviator No. 3, with an effective date of 1914. Lieutenant Commander Towers, while assigned to the aviation desk under the CNO, is credited with the development of the Naval Aviators badge, which were designed and ordered in 1917. On January 19, 1918, distribution of the first gold Naval Aviator wings began, and it is likely that Towers, as Senior Naval Aviator in Washington at the time, was an early, if not the earliest, recipient.

World War I
In August 1914, shortly after the war began, Towers was ordered to London as assistant naval attaché—a billet he filled until he returned to the United States in the autumn of 1916. That August Lieutenant Towers accompanied the U.S. Relief Expedition aboard the USS Tennessee (ACR-10) as part of the naval delegation led by Commander Reginald R. Belknap, with overall command by Assistant Secretary of the Army Henry S. Breckinridge. Subsequently, Towers advocated for the First Yale Unit, which became the core of naval aviation's participation in the war.

In May 1917, Lieutenant Commander Towers was ordered to the Bureau of Navigation as Supervisor of the Naval Reserve Flying Corps, a precursor to the Naval Air Reserve Force. When the Navy established the Division of Aviation, at Navy Department headquarters, Towers was appointed Assistant Director of Naval Aviation. In that position, he orchestrated the buildup from a handful of obsolete aircraft and fewer than 50 pilots to a force of thousands of aircraft and aviators. Towers was subsequently awarded the Navy Cross for his wartime service as Assistant Director of Naval Aviation.

Interwar years, 1919–1939

During the interwar years, Towers was the leading advocate of Naval Aviation (and especially carrier aviation) when there was virtually no other support within or outside of the navy. He was involved in a number of pioneering developments in Naval Aviation, including the first transatlantic crossing by aircraft; serving as commander of the first U.S. aircraft carrier, USS Langley (CV-1); and holding important positions (including bureau chief) within the Bureau of Aeronautics (BuAer), the organizational structure established for naval aviation in 1921.

Transatlantic crossing: Flight of NC-4, 1919
In 1919, then-Commander Towers proposed, planned and led the first air crossing of the Atlantic. Planning for the mission actually began during the early years of World War I, when Allied shipping was threatened by submarine warfare, but could not be accomplished prior to the war's end. The flying expedition began on 8 May 1919 when three Curtiss NC Flying Boats, designated NC-1, NC-3 and NC-4, left Naval Air Station Rockaway, New York, The aircraft made intermediate stops in Chatham, Massachusetts and Halifax, Nova Scotia before reaching Trepassey, Newfoundland on 15 May 1919.

On 16 May they left for the longest leg of their journey, to the Azores. NC-1 and the NC-3 were both forced to land in heavy seas due to dense fog, and neither could take off again. NC-1 subsequently began taking on water and the crew was rescued by the Greek freighter Ionia. The crew of the NC-3, including Towers, managed to keep the NC-3 afloat for 52 hours, water taxiing the craft over 200 miles to Ponta Delgada on São Miguel Island. NC-4 went on to complete the transatlantic crossing, arriving at Lisbon on 27 May. For his leadership in the operation, Towers was awarded his second Navy Cross. He was also made a commander of the Order of the Tower and Sword by the Portuguese government on 3 June 1919. Ten years later, Towers and the flight crew of NC-4 were awarded Congressional Gold Medals.

Sea and shore assignments, 1920s and 1930s

Between the autumn of 1919 and the late winter of 1922 and 1923, Towers served at sea—as the executive officer of USS Aroostook (CM-3) and as the commanding officer of the old destroyer USS Mugford (DD-105), which had been redesignated an aircraft tender. Then, after a tour as executive officer at NAS Pensacola, he spent two and one-half years—from March 1923 to September 1925—as an assistant naval attaché, serving at the American embassies at London, Paris, Rome, The Hague, and Berlin.

Returning to the United States in the autumn of 1925, he was assigned to the Bureau of Aeronautics and served as a member of the court of inquiry which investigated the loss of dirigible USS Shenandoah (ZR-1).

Towers next commanded USS Langley (CV-1), the Navy's first aircraft carrier, from January 1927 to August 1928. He received a commendation for "coolness and courage in the face of danger" when a gasoline line caught fire and burned on board the carrier in December 1927. Towers personally led the vigorous and successful effort to suppress the flames kindled by the explosion and thus averted a catastrophe.

After shore duty in the Bureau of Aeronautics, Towers successively served as head of the plans division and later, as assistant bureau chief. Towers joined the staff of the Commander, Aircraft, Battle Force, under Rear Admiral Harry E. Yarnell, in June 1931. He was among the staff which planned a successful "attack" on Pearl Harbor during the Joint Army-Navy Exercise No. 4 in the Hawaiian Islands in February 1932—an operation which was to be duplicated on a larger scale by the Japanese in December 1941.

Between June 1933 and June 1939, Towers filled a variety of billets ashore and afloat: he completed the senior course at the Naval War College in 1934; commanded the Naval Air Station at San Diego; again served on the staff of ComAirBatFor; commanded the aircraft carrier USS Saratoga (CV-3); and became Assistant Chief of the Bureau of Aeronautics. On 1 June 1939, he was named chief of the Bureau of Aeronautics with the accompanying rank of rear admiral.

World War II
As Aeronautics Bureau chief, Towers organized the Navy's aircraft procurement plans while war clouds gathered over the Far East and in the Atlantic. Under his leadership, the air arm of the Navy grew from 2,000 planes in 1939 to 39,000 in 1942. He also instituted a rigorous pilot-training program and established a trained group of reserve officers for ground support duties. During Towers' tenure, the number of men assigned to naval aviation activities reached a high point of some three quarters of a million.

World War II operational commands

Promoted to vice admiral on 6 October 1942, Towers became Commander, Air Force, Pacific Fleet. From this billet, he supervised the development, organization, training, and supply of the Fleet's growing aviation capability, and helped develop the strategy which spelled the doom of the Japanese fleet and eventual American victory in the Pacific. For his "sound judgment and keen resourcefulness", Towers received, successively, the Legion of Merit and the Distinguished Service Medal.

Towers was subsequently promoted to the dual position of Deputy Commander-in-Chief, Pacific Ocean Area (DCINCPOA) and Deputy Commander-in-Chief, Pacific Fleet (DCINCPAC). In this capacity, he served as Admiral Chester Nimitz's chief advisor on naval aviation policy, fleet logistics, and administration matters.

In August 1945, Towers was given command of the Second Fast Carrier Task Force and Task Force 38, Pacific Fleet. He held this position in the closing days of the war.

Post-war service
On 7 November 1945, he broke his flag aboard the battleship USS New Jersey (BB-62) as commander, 5th Fleet. On 1 February 1946, he relieved Admiral Raymond Spruance as commander in chief, Pacific Fleet, with the aircraft carrier USS Bennington (CV-20) his flagship, and held the post until March 1947.

In 1946, President Truman signed the first Outline Command Plan (now known as the Unified Command Plan) that called for the establishment of several joint or unified commands. On 1 January 1947, the new United States Pacific Command stood up as one of the first unified commands with Admiral Towers as its first commander. He served as the commander of Pacific Command for only two months before being reassigned: 1 January 1947 – 28 February 1947. Admiral Towers was dual-hatted as both commander in chief, Pacific Fleet and commander in chief, Pacific Command.

After chairing the Navy's General Board from March to December 1947, Towers retired on 1 December 1947.

Retirement
After retirement, Towers served as president of the Pacific War Memorial, as assistant to the president of Pan American World Airways, and as president of the Flight Safety Council. Towers died in St. Albans Naval Hospital, Jamaica, New York, on 30 April 1955 and was buried at Arlington National Cemetery.

Honors and awards
In 1961, Towers was posthumously designated the second recipient of the Gray Eagle Award, as the most senior active naval aviator from 1928 until his retirement. He was enshrined in the National Aviation Hall of Fame in 1966, the International Aerospace Hall of Fame in 1973, the Naval Aviation Hall of Honor in 1981 and the Georgia Aviation Hall of Fame in 2004.

The decorations and medals he earned during his career include the following:

Namesakes
USS Towers (DDG-9), a guided missile destroyer that saw action in the Vietnam War, was named in his honor. A crater on the moon was named in his honor by the Apollo 17 mission. Towers Field at Jacksonville Naval Air Station in Jacksonville, Florida, is named for him, as is the air field at Richard B. Russell Regional Airport, Rome, Georgia. A pool located on the United States Pacific Fleet command section of Pearl Harbor is named after him.

title: John Henry Towers


text:
Timothy Garton Ash

Timothy Garton Ash (born 12 July 1955) is a British historian, author and commentator. He is Professor of European Studies at the University of Oxford. Most of his work has been concerned with the contemporary history of Europe, with a special focus on Central and Eastern Europe.

He has written about the former Communist regimes of that region, their experience with the secret police, the Revolutions of 1989 and the transformation of the former Eastern Bloc states into member states of the European Union. He has also examined the role of Europe in the world and the challenge of combining political freedom and diversity, especially in relation to free speech.

Education
Garton Ash was born to John Garton Ash (1919–2014) and Lorna Judith Freke. His father was educated at Trinity Hall, Cambridge and was involved in finance, as well as being a Royal Artillery officer in the British Army during the Second World War. Garton Ash was educated at St Edmund's School, Hindhead, Surrey, before going on to Sherborne School, a public school in Dorset in South West England, followed by Exeter College, Oxford, where he studied Modern History.

For postgraduate study he went to St Antony's College, Oxford, and then, in the still divided Berlin, the Free University in West Berlin and the Humboldt University in East Berlin. During his studies in East Berlin, he was under surveillance from the Stasi, which served as the basis for his 1997 book The File. Garton Ash cut a suspect figure to the Stasi, who regarded him as a "bourgeois-liberal" and potential British spy.

Although he denies being or having been a British intelligence operative, Garton Ash described himself as a "soldier behind enemy lines" and described the German Democratic Republic as a "very nasty regime indeed".

Life and career
In the 1980s Garton Ash was Foreign Editor of The Spectator and a columnist for The Independent. He became a Fellow at St Antony's College, Oxford, in 1989, a senior fellow at Stanford University's Hoover Institution in 2000, and Professor of European Studies at the University of Oxford in 2004. He has written a (formerly weekly) column in The Guardian since 2004 and is a long-time contributor to the New York Review of Books. His column was also translated in the Turkish daily Radikal and in the Spanish daily El País, as well as other newspapers.

In 2005, Garton Ash was listed in Time magazine as one of the 100 most influential people. The article says that "shelves are where most works of history spend their lives. But the kind of history Garton Ash writes is more likely to lie on the desks of the world's decision makers."

Geopolitics
Garton Ash describes himself as a liberal internationalist. He is a supporter of what he calls the free world and liberal democracy, represented in his view by the European Union, the United States as a superpower, and Angela Merkel's leadership of Germany. Garton Ash opposed Scottish independence and argued for Britishness, writing in The Guardian: "being British has changed into something worth preserving, especially in a world of migration where peoples are going to become ever more mixed up together. As men and women from different parts of the former British empire have come to live here in ever larger numbers, the post-imperial identity has become, ironically but not accidentally, the most liberal, civic, inclusive one."

Garton Ash first came to prominence during the Cold War as a supporter of free speech and human rights within countries which were part of the Soviet Union and Eastern Bloc, paying particular attention to Poland and Germany. In more recent times he has represented a British liberal pro-EU viewpoint, nervous at the rise of Vladimir Putin, Donald Trump and Brexit. He is strongly opposed to conservative and populist leaders of EU nations, such as Viktor Orbán of Hungary, arguing that Merkel should "freeze him out", evoking "appeasement". Garton Ash was particularly upset about Orbán's move against George Soros' Central European University. Anti-Soviet themes and Poland remain topics of interest for Garton Ash; once a promoter of the anti-Eastern Bloc movement in Poland, he notes with regret the move away from liberalism and globalism towards populism and authoritarianism under socially conservative political and religious leaders such as Jarosław Kaczyński, in a similar manner to his criticisms of Hungary's Orbán. In reviewing his book, Homelands: A Personal History of Europe, veteran Newsweek Journalist Andrew Nagorski wrote: "It bluntly describes the harsh political repression and monstrous economic failures that characterized the countries behind what was known as the Iron Curtain, while also evocatively capturing the 'abnormal normality' of a system that ruthlessly quashed all hopes for change, yet inspired people to 'make the best' of their seemingly hopeless situation." In that book, Garton Ash describes his meeting with Władysław Bartoszewski and having been "struck not only by the loud, rapid-fire voice of this senior member of the opposition, but also by his confident prediction that the Russian empire would collapse by the end of the century. This was at a time when the Cold War division of Europe appeared to be an unalterable fact of life."

Personal life
Garton Ash and his Polish-born wife Danuta live primarily in Oxford, England, and also near Stanford University in California as part of his work with the Hoover Institution. They have two sons, Tom Ash, a web developer based in Canada, and Alec Ash, an author and editor focused on China. His elder brother, Christopher, is a Church of England clergyman.

Awards and honours

 * Somerset Maugham Award, for The Polish Revolution: Solidarity (1984)
 * Prix Européen de l'Essai Charles Veillon (1989)
 * Premio Napoli, for journalism (1995)
 * Order of Merit from the Czech Republic
 * Order of Merit from Germany
 * Order of Merit of the Republic of Poland
 * Honorary doctorate from St Andrews University, Scotland
 * Hoffmann von Fallersleben Prize for political writing (2002)
 * Companion of the Order of St Michael and St George (CMG)
 * Orwell Prize for journalism (2006)
 * Kullervo Killinen Prize from Finland (2006)
 * Honorary doctorate from KU Leuven, Belgium
 * Fellow of the Royal Society of Arts (FRSA)
 * Charlemagne Prize (2017)
 * Lionel Gelber Prize for Homelands: A Personal History of Europe (2024)
 * Honorary doctorate at Vytautas Magnus University, Lithuania (2024)

title: Timothy Garton Ash


text:
Faucett Perú

Compañía de Aviación Faucett, colloquially known simply as Faucett Perú or Faucett, was a Peruvian airline. It was headquartered on the grounds of Jorge Chávez International Airport in Lima.

Beginnings
Elmer J. Faucett had been sent to Peru as a representative of the Curtiss Export Company, arriving in the country from the United States in 1920. In 1928, he and a group of Peruvian business men joined to found the first commercial airline in Peru, and one of the first in Latin America. With an initial investment of £2,500, the company was formed on 15 September 1928, and started operations on 27 September that year. In 1937, the airline absorbed Compañía de Aviación Peruana SA from Panagra. At April 1938, the route network was flown with seven planes manufactured by the Stinson Aircraft Company, and included Chiclayo, Ica, Lima, Sabados and Talara.

Postwar operations (1945-1960)
Having their initial investment increased to £200,000 by 1943, Elmer Faucett bought a large number of aircraft from the United States in 1945.

By May 1952, the airline flew a route network that was 3000 mi long. Faucett carried 136,456 passengers in 1955, and at year end the company had 307 employees. By March 1960, the airline had a fleet of eight DC-3s, four DC-4s and four Faucett Stinson F-19s to serve a route network that was 6368 mi long. A second-hand Douglas DC-6B acquired from Panagra was incorporated into the fleet in the early 1960s. Another DC-6B was acquired in late 1964, and was converted to DC-6B(F) standard with a large rear freight door. This was operated on cargo services to Miami, Florida.

1970s-1980s
In 1973, Faucett was owned by Peruvian interests (46%), the Fundación Faucett (35%) and Braniff International Airways (19%). The cargo-only airline Aeronaves del Peru became Faucett's biggest shareholder in 1982.

1990s: Decline and final years
The 1990s economic liberalization under Alberto Fujimori, after years of economic and political chaos (as well as a violent Maoist insurgency), brought a series of measures aimed at the privatization and deregulation of the airline market. A series of short-lived airlines sprung up during this decade (in the style of Russian Babyflots), state-owned Aeroperú was partly sold to Mexican investors and the rise of low-fare Aero Continente as the biggest domestic airline, contributed to the slow decline of Faucett. A series of high-profile accidents, especially Faucett's crash in Arequipa and Aeroperú Flight 603 (both in 1996) affected the safety reputation of the Peruvian airline industry, with the US Embassy in Lima banning their employees from flying on Aero Continente and, more broadly, advising caution to US citizens flying on Peru's airlines.

In the end, problems with the economic-financial structure of the airline (with debts even with CORPAC for airport services), forced it to cease operations on 3 December 1997. Despite claiming that the 45-day closure would be temporary until government approval, all 1,250 employees were dismissed. Faucett incurred over US$1 million in debt. By 1998, the former directors and employees were engaged in legal battles over labor and management issues, as well as accusations over bankrupting the company. The airline was liquidated in 1999.

Destinations
Faucett Perú served the following destinations:

According to the February 15, 1985 edition of the Official Airline Guide (OAG), Faucett was also serving Owen Roberts International Airport on Grand Cayman in the Cayman Islands as an intermediate stop on its service between Lima and Miami.

Fleet

At March 1990, the airline had 1,300 employees and a fleet of ten aircraft that consisted of two Boeing 727-200s, one Boeing 737-100, four Boeing 737-200s and three McDonnell Douglas DC-8-50s.

Overall, Faucett Perú operated the following equipment at various times during its history:

Incidents and accidents

 * On 8 December 1967, a Faucett Douglas DC-4 airliner crashed into a mountain in the Andes at 10,470 feet, killing all 66 passengers and six crew.
 * On 11 September 1990, a Faucett Boeing 727-247 went missing some 180 miles southeast of Cape Race, Newfoundland. After having been leased to Air Malta, the aircraft was being returned to Peru from Europe via Iceland, when the crew reported a low fuel notice and that they were preparing to ditch. There were apparently no survivors among 16 occupants on board.
 * On 29 February 1996, Faucett Perú Flight 251, a Boeing 737 crashed in the mountains near Arequipa's airport, killing all 117 passengers and 6 crew aboard.

title: Faucett Perú


text:
User talk:Mrdarrett

Hello and welcome to Wikipedia!

Here are some tips to help you get started:

 * Try the Tutorial, and feel free to experiment in the test area.
 * If you need help, post a question at the Help Desk
 * Eventually, you might want to read the Manual of Style and Policies and Guidelines.
 * Remember Neutral point of view
 * Explore, be bold in editing pages, and, most importantly, have fun!

Good luck!

[[User:Meelar|Meelar (talk)]]

P.S. One last helpful hint. To sign your posts like I did above (on talk pages, for example) use the '~' symbol. To insert just your name, type ~~~ (3 tildes), or, to insert your name and timestamp, use ~~~~ (4 tildes).

title: User talk:Mrdarrett


text:
Izora Armstead

Izora Margaret Rhodes-Armstead (July 6, 1942 – September 16, 2004) was an American singer. Known for her distinctive alto voice, Armstead first achieved success as one half of the duo Two Tons O' Fun, along with Martha Wash, as they sang backup for American disco singer Sylvester. The duo obtained their own record deal as Two Tons O'Fun in 1979. They released three consecutive songs that were hits on the Dance Chart. The duo was renamed The Weather Girls in 1982 after the release of their single "It's Raining Men", their most successful single. As a duo, The Weather Girls released five albums and were also featured on Sylvester's albums.

After The Weather Girls disbanded in 1988, Armstead released a single, "Don't Let Love Slip Away" (1991). In 1991, she reformed The Weather Girls with her daughter Dynelle Rhodes, who had been one of the duo's background singers. Over the course of a decade, they released three albums: Double Tons of Fun (1993), Think Big! (1995), and Puttin' On The Hits (1999).

On September 16, 2004, Armstead died from heart failure in San Leandro, California.

Early life
Izora M. Rhodes was born on July 6, 1942, in Houston, Texas. She moved to San Francisco, California with her family when she was a child. At the young age of four, she began playing piano and later began singing at age eight. Rhodes eventually became the lead vocalist and pianist of San Francisco Inspirational Choir. Rhodes studied classical music at San Francisco Conservatory. She modeled herself after her favorite singers Mahalia Jackson and Clara Ward.

By 1975, Rhodes had a total of seven children, six boys and a girl, that she raised as a single parent. To support her children, Rhodes worked as a bartender and a nurse assistant. In addition, Rhodes also worked as a piano and vocal teacher. In 1976, Rhodes married a new husband and changed her last name to Armstead. According to the autobiography book The Fabulous Sylvester: The Legend, the Music, the Seventies in San Francisco written by Joshua Gamson, she had a total of eleven children (four of which are allegedly step-children) with then-new husband [Armstead]. Now Izora Armstead, she eventually landed in a short-lived gospel group called N.O.W. (News of the World), which would include neighborhood friend Martha Wash.

1976–1981: Sylvester and Two Tons O' Fun
In February 1976, friend Martha Wash auditioned as a backup singer before American singer-songwriter Sylvester and his manager Brent Thomson. Impressed with her vocal performance, Sylvester inquired if she had another large black friend who could sing, after which she introduced him to Izora Rhodes. Although he referred to them simply as "the girls", Wash and Rhodes formed a musical duo called Two Tons O' Fun (sometimes referred to as "The Two Tons"). Two Tons O' Fun debuted as Sylvester's backing vocalists on his self-titled third album Sylvester, released in 1977. The duo sang backup vocals on the album's singles "Down, Down, Down" and "Over and Over", which charted at number eighteen on the Billboard Dance chart. In 1978, Sylvester released his fourth album Step II, which also featured The Two Tons' background vocals throughout the album. "Dance (Disco Heat)", the album's lead single which featured The Tons, peaked at number one on Billboard Dance chart and became their first number-one single on that chart. In 1979, Two Tons O' Fun sang background on Sylvester's live album Living Proof. Later that year, the duo secured their own record deal with Fantasy Records.

On January 24, 1980, the duo released their debut self-titled album Two Tons of Fun. The album spawned two top-five dance singles: "Earth Can Be Just Like Heaven" and "I Got the Feeling". Their second album Backatcha was released later that year. The album spawned a single "I Depend On You" that peaked at number seventy-two on the Dance chart.

1982–1988: The Weather Girls
In September 1982, the duo released their single "It's Raining Men". The song became their biggest hit, peaking at number one on the Dance chart and number forty-six on Billboard's Hot 100 chart. Following the success of the song, Two Tons o Fun changed their group name to The Weather Girls. On January 22, 1983, they released their third album Success. The album's titled-track "Success" was released as the second single and peaked at number eighty-nine on the R&B chart. In 1985, The Weather Girls released their fourth album Big Girls Don't Cry. In 1988, The Weather Girls released their self-titled fifth album The Weather Girls, the final album featuring Armstead and Wash. Shortly after the release of the album, The Weather Girls were dropped from Columbia and soon disbanded to pursue solo careers.

1989–1991: Solo career
Following the disbandment of The Weather Girls, Armstead pursued a brief solo career. She began touring as a solo artist, performing songs from The Weather Girls. In 1991, she released a single "Don't Let Love Slip Away".

1991–2004: Reformation of The Weather Girls
After a three-year hiatus and Wash pursuing her solo career, Armstead reformed The Weather Girls with her daughter Dynelle Rhodes and relocated to Germany in 1991. Their first album together, Double Tons of Fun, was released in 1993. The album's lead single "Can You Feel It" peaked at number two Billboard's Dance chart. The song also peaked at number 75 on Germany's music chart, their second single to enter that chart since "It's Raining Men". While touring the club circuit, the album's third single "We Shall All Be Free" peaked at number 80 on Germany's music chart. Their follow-up album Think Big! was released in December 1995. The album saw Armstead's contribution as a songwriter and penning several songs, including the album's third single "The Sound of Sex (Ooh Gitchie O-La-La-Ay)" which was written with her daughter. The album also contained a cover version of Sylvester's 1979 disco hit "Stars", recorded as a duet with Scottish pop singer Jimmy Somerville.

In 1999, The Weather Girls released their eighth studio album Puttin' On The Hits which contained a collection of covered disco songs. In 2002, they joined the Disco Brothers for a participation in the German National Final for the Eurovision Song Contest, with their song "Get Up". Overall, the group finished in thirteenth place.

Final years and death
Armstead's final recording was the single "Big Brown Girl" with The Weather Girls, released in 2004. In August 2004, Armstead returned to the Bay Area to undergo treatment for heart-related problems. In mid-September 2004, Armstead was checked into San Leandro Hospital after her condition deteriorated. On September 16, 2004, Armstead died from heart failure at the age of 62 in 2004 in San Leandro, California. She was survived by her seven children. Her funeral was held at St. John Missionary Baptist Church in San Francisco, California. She was laid to rest in Cypress Lawn Memorial Park in Colma, California.

Legacy
As of 2004, Armstead's voice has collectively accumulated a total of three number-one dance singles: "Dance (Disco Heat)" (1978) and "You Make Me Feel (Mighty Real)" (1978) with Sylvester; and "It's Raining Men" with The Weather Girls. Her single "It's Raining Men" was ranked the song at thirty-five on VH1's list of the 100 Greatest Dance Songs in 2000, and also at thirty-five in their 100 Greatest One-Hit Wonders of the 1980s in 2009. Armstead's daughter Dynelle Rhodes received the rights to The Weather Girls name. Rhodes added a then-new member Ingrid Arthur to The Weather Girls and began performing as a tribute to Armstead. The Weather Girls' album Totally Wild! (2005) was dedicated to Armstead. In 2012, Rhodes replaced Ingrid Arthur with Dorrey Lin Lyles.

On September 14, 2014, Mighty Real: A Fabulous Sylvester Musical, a Broadway musical about Sylvester, debuted in New York City. Armstead's likeness was featured in the production and she was portrayed by actress Anastacia McCleskey.

Discography

 * Singles
 * 1991: "Don't Let Love Slip Away"

title: Izora Armstead


text:
Talk:Washington Park Arboretum

Untitled
I am unclear of the distintion between Washington Park and Washington Park Arboretum. I grew up nearby and it was all known as The Arboretum. Also I am unclear as to the neighborhood boundaries as Wikipedia's do not seem to match those given by the City Clerk's neighborhood maps. I'm just looking for direction.

 * Hi there, I grew up nearby too, at 34th and Mercer. The Arboretum is most of the park, but the playfield is not technically part of the Arboretum, as it is run by the city, not the UW. However, after a lot of thrash, I've decided that your original solution to just have one article makes the most sense, but I've modified it and expanded it somewhat. As for neighborhood boundaries, don't go by the City Clerk's atlas. You'll notice the main page says specifically the divisions are for administrative purposes. Washington Park is definitely not in Capitol Hill, for example, and nobody calls "Mann" or "Minor" by those names. Wikipedia's divisions are far more accurate. --Lukobe 06:44, 1 Oct 2004 (UTC)

Dates
Richard C. Berner, Seattle 1900-1920: From Boomtown, Urban Turbulence, to Restoration, Charles Press, 1991, ISBN 0962988901 p.101 says Washington Park was obtained by the city in 1900. Parks and Recreation says the same. Is there a citation for the 1920 date in this article?

Also, does anyone have a date for when the arboretum was started (presumably later than the park itself). - Jmabel | Talk 19:26, 9 February 2008 (UTC)

 * David B. Williams, Olmsted Parks in Seattle -- A Snapshot History, HistoryLink, May 10, 1999, says the arboretum is 1941. Any reason to think otherwise? I've cited that in Seattle Parks and Recreation. - Jmabel | Talk 19:34, 9 February 2008 (UTC)

Since it has been several days and no one is answering my query, I am adding a contradict-other template. - Jmabel | Talk 17:14, 12 February 2008 (UTC)

"Highway construction impact" plans are complete/outdated
There's discussion of competing plans and concern with the impact of highway construction, with references dating back to ~2008. Construction is now complete; can anyone summarize what ended up happening and/or the effects? --Fhocutt (talk) 20:04, 3 July 2014 (UTC)

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title: Talk:Washington Park Arboretum


text:
User:Gregw824

Hi. My name's Greg. I am interested in many things, including Chinese language, architecture, European history, and medicine.

title: User:Gregw824


text:
Society for the Protection of Ancient Buildings

The Society for the Protection of Ancient Buildings (SPAB) (also known as Anti-Scrape) is an amenity society founded by William Morris, Philip Webb, and others in 1877 to oppose the destructive 'restoration' of ancient buildings occurring in Victorian England. "Ancient" is used here in the wider sense rather than the more usual modern sense of "pre-medieval."

Morris was particularly concerned about the practice, which he described as "forgery", of attempting to return functioning buildings to an idealized state from the distant past, often involving the removal of elements added in their later development, which he thought had contributed to their interest as documents of the past. Instead, he proposed that ancient buildings should be repaired, not restored, to protect as cultural heritage their entire history. Today, these principles are widely accepted.

The architect A.R. Powys served as the Secretary of the SPAB for 25 years in the early 20th century.

Organization and activities
Today, the SPAB still operates according to Morris's original manifesto. It campaigns, advises, runs training programmes and courses, conducts research, and publishes information. As one of the National Amenity Societies, the Society is a statutory consultee on alterations to listed buildings, and by law must be notified of any application in England and Wales to demolish any listed building in whole or in part.

The society, which is a registered charity, is based at 37 Spital Square, London.

For its dedicated service to heritage, the society was awarded the European Union Prize for Cultural Heritage / Europa Nostra Award in 2012.

In 2022, the society reported 6579 members.

The society has branches in Scotland, Ireland, and Wales.

The society's Mills Section is concerned with the protection, repair, and continued use of traditional windmills and watermills. Ken Major carried out much work on its behalf.

An annual award honours the memory of church enthusiast and SPAB member Sir John Betjeman. The award is presented for outstanding repairs to the fabric of places of worship in England and Wales completed in the last 18 months.


text:
Cheetos

Cheetos (formerly styled as Chee-tos until 1998) is a crunchy corn-cheese puff snack brand made by Frito-Lay, a subsidiary of PepsiCo. Fritos creator Charles Elmer Doolin invented Cheetos in 1948, and began national distribution in the United States. The initial success of Cheetos was a contributing factor to the merger between The Frito Company and H.W. Lay & Company in 1961 to form Frito-Lay. In 1965 Frito-Lay became a subsidiary of The Pepsi-Cola Company, forming PepsiCo, the current owner of the Cheetos brand.

In 2010, Cheetos was ranked as the top selling brand of cheese puffs in its primary market of the U.S.; worldwide the annual retail sales totaled approximately $4 billion. The original Crunchy Cheetos are still in production but the product line has since expanded to include 21 different types of Cheetos in North America alone. As Cheetos are sold in more than 36 countries, the flavor and composition is often varied to match regional taste and cultural preferences—such as Savory American Cream in China, and Strawberry Cheetos in Japan.

History
Cheetos were invented in 1948 by Fritos creator Charles Elmer Doolin, who cooked early test batches in the Frito Company's research and development kitchen in Dallas, Texas. The cheese-flavored snack sold quickly, but Doolin did not have the production or distribution capacity to support a nationwide launch. This led Doolin to partner with potato chip businessman Herman W. Lay for marketing and distribution, and Cheetos were introduced nationally in the U.S. in 1948, along with a potato product called Fritatos. The success of Cheetos prompted Doolin and Lay to merge their two companies in 1961, forming Frito-Lay Inc. At the time, Cheetos was one of four large snack food brands produced by the company, which had annual revenues of $127 million. Frito-Lay merged with the Pepsi-Cola Company to form PepsiCo in 1965, prompting further distribution of Cheetos outside of North America.

While Cheetos were not the first snack food of its kind (Elmer's Chee Wee's were created in 1933 ), newer competing products in the snack food category have since emerged—including Utz Cheese Curls, Herr's Cheese Curls and Wise Cheez Doodles, along with Planters' Cheese Puffs and Cheese Curls. Most of the competing cheese-flavored snacks are distributed in specific regions of the U.S., and as of 2010 Cheetos remains as the top-selling cheese puff in America.

As of 2011, Cheetos are produced, marketed and distributed under three different PepsiCo operating divisions: PepsiCo Americas Foods (which includes Frito-Lay in the United States and Canada, Sabritas in Mexico and Latin Americas Foods in Brazil, Colombia, Argentina, Venezuela, and Peru ), PepsiCo Europe and PepsiCo APAC and AMESA. PepsiCo also granted a license to the Strauss-Elite company to distribute the Cheetos snack. In 2010, worldwide annual sales of Cheetos totaled approximately $4 billion, making it the 11th-largest PepsiCo brand.

In 2021, PepsiCo and Indofood announced that Indofood CBP has officially purchased all of the shares owned by Fritolay Netherlands Holding B.V., an affiliate of PepsiCo at PT Indofood Fritolay Makmur (IFL, now PT Indofood Fortuna Makmur) worth IDR 494 billion, thus the production of Lay's, Cheetos, and Doritos brand snacks in Indonesia were stopped on 18 August 2021. In addition, PepsiCo and its affiliates has also agreed not to produce, package, sell, market or distribute snack products that compete with IFL products in Indonesia for a period of three years. The Cheetos brand has since been renamed into new variants of Chiki (Twist, Puffs, and Net). Indonesia is the only Cheetos market that sells Roasted Corn flavor of Cheetos while Doritos would take on the new name Maxicorn.

Products and distribution
The first Cheetos product was Crunchy Cheetos, invented in 1948 in San Antonio, Texas. Crunchy Cheetos remained the brand's sole product for 23 years until the introduction of Cheetos Puffs in 1971. The baked varieties, otherwise known as Baked Cheetos, became available beginning in 2004. As of 2010, there are 21 different variants of Cheetos snacks distributed in the United States. In addition to the original Crunchy Cheetos, Cheetos Puffs and Baked varieties are sold in alternate shape and flavor variations—including a spicy variety known as Flamin' Hot Cheetos.

Cheetos are among the snack varieties included in the Frito-Lay Munchies snack mix.

With the introduction of Frito-Lay's Natural line, Natural Cheetos were introduced in the mid-2000s, touting all-natural ingredients and real Wisconsin white cheddar cheese. They accompany other Frito-Lay products in the Natural line and compete in the market space occupied by other health-conscious snack foods, such as Pirate's Booty. The Natural brand was re-branded to Simply in 2014.

Cheetos first entered Brazil in 1976, followed by other countries such as Australia during the 1980s. In 1994, Cheetos became the first American brand of snack food to be made and distributed in China. As the distribution of Cheetos expanded outside the U.S. to include more than 36 countries, localized versions were produced to conform to regional tastes and cultural preferences.

Frito-Lay conducted extensive testing before settling on flavors for the Chinese market, with ranch dressing, North Sea crab, smoked octopus and caramel being passed up for two flavors: Savory American Cream and Zesty Japanese Steak. These flavors were produced as the result of focus group testing, in which the original Crunchy Cheetos did not test as well. Strawberry Cheetos, a plain corn Cheeto coated in strawberry icing, were released in Japan in 2008. In 2013, a Pepsi-flavored Cheeto was introduced in Japan, and a Mountain Dew-flavored variety was available in 2014. In India, Cheetos Whoosh are sold, made of ingredients such as whole grain and vegetables. In Pakistan Cheetos are available in six different flavors: Bites: Vegetable, Stars: Cream N' Herb, Ocean Safari: Cheese, X & O: Spicy Twist, Red Flavoured Mast and Ketchup.

In 2015, Frito-Lay released a limited edition cinnamon sugar-flavored snack called Sweetos to U.S. markets. Sweetos were the first sweet snack that Cheetos had released in the United States in the brand's 67-year history.

In the first week of 2020, Frito-Lay began distributing "Cheetos popcorn".

In August 2020, Frito-Lay introduced a Cheetos mac n' cheese.

Flamin' Hot Cheetos
According to Frito-Lay records, Flamin' Hot Cheetos, a spicy version of the product, was developed at the company's headquarters in Texas starting in 1989, as part of a project led by Lynne Greenfeld, and introduced in test markets in the summer of 1990, alongside Flamin' Hot versions of Fritos and Lays. They became available nationwide in early 1992, and The Washington Post would go on to call them "something of a cultural phenomenon", with Newsweek noting that it "rejuvenated the brand" and would become a "central element in Cheetos marketing".

Beginning in the late 2000s, Richard Montañez, who had started his career at Frito-Lay as a plant janitor and later became a marketing director for the company, claimed that he had invented Flamin' Hot Cheetos in the early 1990s while still a janitor, observing that the brand did not have any products targeting Latinos. Montañez claimed he had pitched his idea to CEO Roger Enrico as part of Enrico's initiative to empower employees to help the flagging company. In 2018, Fox Searchlight started developing a biopic about the origin story of Flamin' Hot Cheetos as told by Montañez. It starred Jesse Garcia as Montañez and marked actress Eva Longoria's feature directorial debut. Hulu and Disney+ released the film, titled Flamin' Hot, in 2023.

In May 2021, the Los Angeles Times reported that Frito-Lay had begun an internal investigation in 2018 following a complaint by Greenfeld. The company, which had not previously contradicted Montañez's story publicly, said of the results of that investigation: "None of our records show that Richard [Montañez] was involved in any capacity in the Flamin' Hot test market ... we do not credit the creation of Flamin' Hot Cheetos or any Flamin' Hot products to him." Additional reporting by the Times indicated that Montañez's claims did not line up with other events in the product's release timeline, including newspaper articles announcing the test market release in 1990, and Enrico not joining Frito-Lay until later that year. However, the Times noted a 1993 U.S. News & World Report story indicating that Montañez was responsible for suggesting subsequent product ideas that built on the Flamin' Hot line, including Flamin' Hot Popcorn.

Montañez has stood by his claims following the LA Times investigation, arguing that there was a lack of documentation because of the low level of his job at the time, but adding that he was not aware of what might have been going on in other divisions of the company, and thus he did not have reason to dispute Greenfeld's accounts.

Manufacturing
Cheetos are manufactured by blending corn and water. The germ of the corn is removed to prevent spoiling; the germless corn is then ground into cornmeal. Because the cornmeal lacks the nutrients provided by the germs, it is enriched by adding nutrients in order to increase its nutritional value. (Enriched cornmeal is found in the following flavors: Crunchy, Puffs, Flamin' Hot Crunchy, Flamin' Hot Puffs, Flamin' Hot Limon Crunchy, XXTRA Flamin' Hot Crunchy, Reduced Fat Flamin' Hot Puffs, Reduced Fat Puffs, and Cheddar Jalapeño Crunchy. ) The mixture is heated under pressure, and then extruded through a die. The texture of the snack is formed as a result of contact with hot air, causing steam in the mixture to expand and creating its characteristic texture. After oven-drying or frying, the product is then tumbled with the desired flavor components (the original Crunchy Cheetos are fried). The process takes approximately 19 minutes and each half hour an in-house lab team inspects and taste-tests each batch. At this point, the result of the inspection is determined by comparing each batch to product sent from Frito-Lay headquarters. Other flavor and format variations such as Cheetos Puffs, Cheetos Paws, Cheetos Twists, Cheetos Balls, and Cheetos Whirls are all finished with a drying stage in large ovens. As of 2010, Frito-Lay has 14 fried-Cheetos plants in 11 states throughout the United States.

Marketing
The first Cheetos mascot was the animated Cheetos Mouse, which debuted in early 1971. The Cheetos Mouse spoke with an upper class accent, and typically wore a three piece suit. He used the slogans "Chee-tos. Cheese that goes crunch!" and several years later, "Hail Chee-sar!". The mouse was seen in television commercials and print ads for Cheetos, until the character was phased out around 1979.

The Cheetos brand is commonly recognized by association with its second and current mascot, an anthropomorphic sly, smooth-voiced cartoon cheetah named Chester Cheetah. Chester first appeared in television commercials in 1986, known for concluding Cheetos advertisements with slogans, which have evolved over time. He used both "The cheese that goes crunch!" and "It ain't easy bein' cheesy" as slogans from 1986 to 1997, and then "Dangerously cheesy" from 1997 onwards. In 2003, Chester was first rendered as a computer-generated character in the United States, while continuing to appear in a traditionally animated form in some other countries where the brand is sold.

Beginning in 2008, Cheetos advertising and promotion broadened in regard to age appeal, with a revised focus on an adult demographic. In this personification, Chester speaks with a mid-Atlantic accent and encourages people to use their Cheetos in acts of revenge or to solve problems. In February 2009, Cheetos was the subject of its first Super Bowl commercial. In the US$3million, 30 second advertisement, a "loud, chatty woman" is talking on her mobile phone at a restaurant. Chester the Cheetah persuades another customer to toss Cheetos onto the ground, attracting a flock of birds to drive away the obnoxious loud-talking customer. The scenario depicted in this commercial exemplifies the adult-oriented themes of subversion and revenge, which continue to be prevalent in Cheetos advertisements produced since 2008.

In 2009, Frito-Lay invited popular blog Boing Boing to feature online ads for Cheetos. The blog contracted Johannes Grenzfurthner (of monochrom) to create an artistic campaign for the product.

On August 15, 2017, Frito-Lay announced the opening of its The Spotted Cheetah pop-up restaurant in New York, with dishes made with Cheetos with chef Anne Burrell. According to the Wall Street Journal, the restaurant's reserve spots quickly sold out.

title: Cheetos


text:
Thomas Tew

Thomas Tew (died September 1695), also known as the Rhode Island Pirate, was a 17th-century English privateer-turned-pirate. He embarked on two major pirate voyages and met a bloody death on the second, and he pioneered the route which became known as the Pirate Round. Other infamous pirates in his path included Henry Avery and William Kidd.

Life and career
It is frequently written that Tew had family in Rhode Island dating back to 1640, but it is not known where he was born. He may have been born in New England; another hypothesis suggests that he was born in Maidford, Northamptonshire before emigrating to the American colonies as a child with his family, although there is only a little circumstantial evidence for this. He lived at one time in Newport, Rhode Island. He is reported as being married with two daughters. According to one source, his wife and children all greatly enjoyed the New York City social scene after Tew became rich, but there is no supporting evidence for this.

In 1691, Tew moved to Bermuda. There is evidence that he was already reputed as a pirate at that time, but no modern historian has determined whether or not this reputation was earned. He may simply have engaged in privateering against French and Spanish ships. He was in close relations with fellow pirate Captain Richard Want, who was his closest ally. Want became Tew's first mate on his first pirate cruise, and sailed his own ship Dolphin alongside Tew's Amity on the second.

First pirate cruise
In 1692, Thomas Tew obtained a letter of marque from the Governor of Bermuda. Various Bermudian backers provided him with the 70-ton sloop Amity, armed with eight guns and crewed by 46 officers and men. He and another captain obtained a privateer's commission from the lieutenant governor of Bermuda to destroy a French factory off the coast of West Africa. Tew set sail in December, ostensibly to serve as a privateer against French holdings in the Gambia. He set out alongside buccaneer, privateer, and pirate George Dew aboard the sloop Amity; shortly out of port, they were separated in a storm. Dew's dismasted ship limped alone to Saldanha Bay in South Africa, where he was arrested by the Dutch. Not long out of Bermuda, Tew announced his intention of turning to piracy, asking the crew for their support since he could not enforce the illegal scheme without their consent. Tew's crew reportedly answered with the shout, "A gold chain or a wooden leg, we'll stand with you!" The pirates proceeded to elect a quartermaster, a common pirate practice to balance the captain's power.

Tew reached the Red Sea and ran down a large Ghanjah dhow en route from India to the Ottoman Empire late in 1693. The dhow surrendered without serious resistance, inflicting no casualties on the assailants. Tew's pirates helped themselves to the ship's treasure, worth £100,000 in gold and silver alone, not counting the value of the ivory, spices, gemstones, and silk taken. Tew's 45 men afterward shared out between £1,200 and £3,000  per man, and Tew himself claimed about £8,000. Tew urged his crew to hunt down and rob the other ships in the Indian convoy, but he yielded to the opposition of the quartermaster. He set course back to the Cape of Good Hope, stopping at Adam Baldridge's pirate settlement at St. Mary's on Madagascar to careen.

Tew reached Newport in April 1694. Benjamin Fletcher, royal governor of Province of New York, became good friends with him and his family.

Second pirate cruise
In November 1694, Tew bought a new letter of marque from Fletcher and set out for another pirate cruise. His crew numbered 30 to 40 men at departure this time. John Ireland served as navigator on Tew's Amity during their second cruise, although he claimed after his own capture that both he and Tew had been forced to serve by the sloop's mutinous crew. According to his deposition, the crew threatened the pair during what would have been a trip from New York to Boston to prepare for privateering against the French. However, by the time that he reached Madagascar, Tew apparently increased his force to 50 or 60 men.

They arrived at the Mandab Strait at the mouth of the Red Sea in August 1695, where Tew found several other pirates hoping to duplicate his prior success, including Henry Avery in the powerfully armed warship Fancy, fellow Rhode Island pirate captains Joseph Faro and Thomas Wake, William May, and Richard Want. Tew and the other pirate captains decided to sail in concert.

In September 1695, a 25-ship Mughal convoy approached the Mandab Strait, slipping past the pirates during the night. Tew and his fellow pirates pursued. The Amity attacked one of the Mughal ships, believed to be the Fateh Muhammed. Tew was killed in this battle, reportedly disemboweled by a cannon shot. Demoralized, his crew surrendered immediately, though they were freed later when Avery's Fancy captured the Fateh Muhammed. The Amity returned to Baldridge's settlement under John Ireland's command to refit; they later swapped the Amity for Richard Glover's Charming Mary and plundered ships in the Indian Ocean under captain Richard Bobbington.

Legacy
Tew's burial site is unknown, but he is said to be the father of Ratsimilaho, a man who created a kingdom on the east coast of Madagascar. In addition, it has been claimed that Tew was one of the founders of the mysterious (and some believe fictional) pirate colony of Libertatia. King William III commissioned Captain William Kidd to hunt down several pirates, Thomas Tew and John Ireland among them, but Tew was already dead by the time Kidd set sail.

Jolly Roger Flag
Tew's personal standard is often depicted as a flag with a white arm holding a short sword on a black field. Buccaneer Edmund Cooke used a similar design, except on a red-and-yellow striped field instead of black. However, there is no evidence from period sources that Tew ever flew this flag, which is a 20th-century attribution.

title: Thomas Tew


text:
Aldermaston Court

Aldermaston Court is a country house and private park built in the Victorian era for Daniel Higford Davall Burr with incorporations from a Stuart house. It is south-east of the village nucleus of Aldermaston in the English county of Berkshire. The predecessor manor house became a mansion from the wealth of its land and from assistance to Charles I during the English Civil War under ownership of the Forster baronets of Aldermaston after which the estate has alternated between the names Aldermaston Park and Aldermaston Manor.

The estate became dominated by its neo-Elizabethan mansion after a fire of 1843 destroyed one third of the predecessor and various landscape features were added which have resulted in building and grounds being Grade II* listed. Between the turn of the 21st century and its closure in 2012, the estate has been a wedding venue, a conference centre, and a hotel. Aside from the manor house and its immediate surroundings, the park is home to office buildings and a lake.

Architecture
The current house is situated approximately 50 m south of the original manor house. Rebuilt by Daniel Burr in 1848 following a huge fire, the new manor was built in the Elizabethan style, and incorporated the figured wooden staircase, some stained glass, and the chimney stacks from the 1636 house, which was later demolished.

Park
Aldermaston Park is an ancient and derelict wood pasture, featuring numerous examples of pollard oak and sweet chestnut. In the mid-16th century, the park was 286 acre, by 1721 it was 436 acre and by 1860 it was considered 780 acre.

The Achard Family (11th century–1361)
Robert FitzAchard (1070–1161 ) was granted the Aldermaston estate in 1100 by Henry I of England; no records of the house at this time have survived. FitzAchard was a distinguished Norman soldier whose son built the north transept in the parish church. According to the Pipe Rolls of 1168, the name had become Aldermannestun. The Achard family hosted Henry III at the manor in 1227, but granted a long lease of the rectory and glebe to Priory of Monk Sherborne (Pamber Priory); the family are all buried at their secondary manor of Sparsholt. The estate descended to Peter Achard who died in 1361 with a female heir (daughter); it was inherited by Thomas de la Mare as his son-in-law.

De la Mare descendants (1361–1490)
De la Mare was from Somerset, and became the High Sheriff of Berkshire in 1370. His son was bestowed with this same position during Richard II's reign in the late 14th century. Robert de la Mare, Thomas's grandson, married into the Brocas family of Beaurepaire, near Bramley, and was made a Knight of the Shire by Henry V. Robert's son was the last of the de la Mare lineage, and a Knight of the Holy Sepulchre.

Elizabeth de la Mare, whose male relatives predeceased her, inherited Aldermaston. She married into the Forster baronets' family from Northumberland. Stephen Forster, an ancestor, had previously become the Lord Mayor of London in 1454.

Forster descendants (1490–1752)
Elizabeth's husband, George Forster, was the son of Sir Humphrey Forster I from Harpsden near Henley. When Elizabeth and George married, George became the owner of Aldermaston Manor along with other manors previously owned by the De la Mare family. He was knighted by Henry VII in 1501, becoming Sheriff of Berkshire and Oxford in 1517. He was made a Knight of the Bath in 1525. His assumed wealth meant that he was part of Henry VIII's entourage at the Field of the Cloth of Gold. George was succeeded by his son, Humphrey II, in 1533, a high sheriff.

During Humphrey II's lordship, he faced strong disputes with Francis Parkyns (alternatively spelled "Perkins" ), who was the brother of the Squire of Ufton and tenant of nearby Padworth Manor. Parkyns was unhappy with Forster's "over-lordship" of Aldermaston, and Forster retaliated by breaking into Parkyns's house and severely assaulting him while he ate breakfast. Anne Parkyns, Francis's wife, begged for his life. Forster – along with an armed entourage – dragged Francis to Ufton, where the family of his brother Richard were breakfasting. More violence broke out, with Lady Marvyn – Richard's wive – also begging for Francis's life to be spared. Francis was eventually taken to Aldermaston where he was jailed in the lock-up behind the village pub.

Humphrey was later succeeded by his son, William (who married Jane, daughter of Anthony Hungerford).

Elizabeth I visited Aldermaston twice. Her first visit, in 1558, was during the lordship of William, and the second – in 1592 – during his son Humphrey III's tenure.

Humphrey III's son, William II, fathered a son – Humphrey IV – in 1595. He and his wife Anne began building a mansion house, known as Aldermaston House, in 1618 by laying a new cornerstone. The house was completed in 1636, and was dedicated with a short verse:

Aldermaston saw military stationing in the English Civil War. In 1643, after the First Battle of Newbury, Robert Devereux's Parliamentarians were attacked by Prince Rupert of the Rhine in Padworth Lane. The road is now known as Red Lane, having taken its name from the bloodshed. In October of the following year, a regiment of Parliamentary troops under the command Edward Montagu, 2nd Earl of Manchester camped in the Aldermaston area. They were defending the crossing at the River Kennet, an operation that came about due to Humphrey Forster's staunch Royalist support. All the estates were sequestered because of these affiliations during the English Commonwealth and returned on the restoration of 1660. Humphrey IV died in 1663. His grandson, an MP, Sir Humphrey Forster, 2nd Baronet (c. 1649 – December 1711), died at the age of about 62 when the Baronetcy became extinct.

Congreve family inheritance (1752–1843)
In 1752 Forster direct descendants died out and the estate passed to Ralph Congreve as third husband of Sir Humphrey Forster, 2nd Baronet's grand-niece and heir.

In 1780 the estate passed to his second cousin, William (a relation of the dramatist of the same name ). Many changes to their estate occurred during the William's ownership. The lake by the house was created by damming the stream. The wrought-iron Eagle Gates, at the north-west of the estate, were won at a game of cards so taken from Midgham. To install them, the estate's north-west lodge (a dower house ) was dissected (removing the 60 m2 centre section). The estate's east gates are known as the Charity Gates; Congreve's daughters frequently sat by the gates and gave alms to the poor.

In approximately 1800, Congreve had a stable block built due west of the house; this is extant and until the site's vacancy was used office space.

William Congreve's butler at Aldermaston House, John Manning, died on 31 August 1811. Congreve erected the headstone on his grave in the village churchyard.

On 13 January 1843, a serious fire destroyed more than a third of the manor house. William Congreve never recovered from the fire and died the same year. The Congreve name is retained in the name of a cul-de-sac in the village.

Burr family purchase and rebuilding (1849–1893)
Aldermaston Manor passed into the Court of Chancery, and was eventually purchased in 1849 by Daniel Higford Davall Burr. Since 1836, Burr had owned the Alvington manor in Gloucestershire (having inherited it upon his mother's death). Her family, the Higford family, owned Alvington from the 17th century.

Burr was somewhat eccentric, keeping monkeys and snakes as pets. He commissioned Philip Charles Hardwick to build today's edifice in a Neoclassical style; the present mansion house was built using as much of the old material as possible that had been saved from the fire.

Burr died on 29 November 1885 at the age of 74, and the estate passed to his son, Higford Higford (who, rather than taking his father's surname, assumed the name of a distant ancestor). Higford only lived at Aldermaston for a few years before putting it up for sale. He sold Alvington in 1912.

Charles Keyser purchase (1893–1938)
In 1893, the estate was bought for £160,000 by Charles Edward Keyser, a stockbroker  and Fellow of the Society of Antiquaries. Keyser, who was born on 10 September 1847 and came from Hertfordshire had previously established a successful career in the City of London, having gained a Master's Degree in Law at Cambridge University. His accumulated wealth allowed him to specialise in his chosen area, and he became a distinguished figure in English church architecture, specialising in medieval churches.

Keyser's attention was drawn to Aldermaston by his sister Agnes, who said that the court reminded her of her stay at Sandringham House. Keyser seized the opportunity to buy the estate when it was put up for sale at the Hind's Head.

Keyser died in 1929, at the age of 81. His death certificate lists the place of death as Bucklebury. Keyser's estate was valued at £770,000, resulting in an Inheritance Tax of £150,000. The lessened agricultural income from the estate was then less than the cost of its maintenance in 1929. Keyser's wife, Mary died in 1938. Their son, Charles Norman, had no interest in running the estate and his heavy asthma led him to move to Adderbury, Oxfordshire. Muriel and Sybil, their daughters, had expensive taste with racehorses and ponies, and their brother sold the whole estate to a syndicate, Messrs Cribble, Booth and Shepherd, for £100,000 who auctioned it in lots at Reading Town Hall, beginning on 20 September 1939. Many of the lots were bought by their occupants. The house and its immediate grounds were bought by Associated Electrical Industries (AEI) for £16,000.

Airfield and opening of AWRE (1939–1965)
Despite the AEI purchase, the location was soon earmarked by the government for an airfield, RAF Aldermaston, to operate as a satellite field for RAF Andover. During World War II the land and house were requisitioned by the government as a barracks for the Women's Land Army, the USAAF HQ XIX Tactical Air Command was for some months stationed at the house and anti-aircraft batteries were stationed in the grounds. After the war, the airfield remained in use and was run by BOAC, who operated it as a pilot training academy then from 1947 to 1950 as a civilian airport. Air use was transferred to Blackbushe and Luton Airports.

After the closure of the airfield, the park was returned to AEI. which used it as a plasma research laboratory. They built the now demolished MERLIN reactor between the house and the lake – the first commercial scientific reactor in Britain, which was opened on 6 November 1959 by the monarch's husband, Prince Philip. The airfield became the UK's Atomic Weapons Research Establishment—later the Atomic Weapons Establishment (AWE)—for research, commissioning and de-commissioning of most such weapons. Periodic UK opposition to nuclear weapons was in the late 20th century was most prominently expressed in the Aldermaston Marches from London and High Wycombe, with its later marches organised in 1972 and 2004.

Commercial use (1965–2012)
Collier Macmillan Schools bought the north area of the park, including the manor house, in 1965. ) In 1967, the house and parkland became a Grade II* listed building and parkland. Blue Circle Industries bought the estate in the 1980s. They restored the house, and converted its usage into a hotel and conference centre. They also built the offices in the park, including Portland House, which won a Concrete Society award in 1986.

The house and grounds were purchased by Holaw (420) Ltd. in 1997, who under its former name, Aldermaston Manor, converted it to a hotel and conference centre. They appointed the Compass Group to operate these uses. The business was declared insolvent in 2012, and the house and office spaces were closed.

Notes and references

 * Notes
 * References

title: Aldermaston Court


text:
Baška tablet

Baška tablet (Bašćanska ploča, ) is one of the first monuments containing an inscription in the Croatian recension of the Church Slavonic language, dating from c. 1100 AD. On it Croatian ethnonym and king Demetrius Zvonimir are mentioned for the first time in native Croatian language. The inscription is written in the Glagolitic script. It was discovered in 1851 at Church of St. Lucy in Jurandvor near the village of Baška on the Croatian island of Krk.

History
The tablet was discovered on 15 September 1851 by Petar Dorčić during paving of the Church of St. Lucy in Jurandvor near the village of Baška on the island of Krk. Already then a small part of it was broken.

Since 1934, the original tablet has been kept at the Croatian Academy of Sciences and Arts, Zagreb. Croatian archaeologist Branko Fučić contributed to the interpretation of Baška tablet as a left altar partition. His reconstruction of the text of the Baška tablet is the most widely accepted version today.

Description
The Baška tablet is made of white limestone. It is 199 cm wide, 99.5 cm high, and 7.5–9 cm thick. It weighs approximately 800 kilograms. The tablet was installed as a partition between the altar and the rest of the church, specifically, it was left pluteus of the cancellus/septum (the right pluteus tablet is so-called "Jurandvorski ulomci/Jurandvor fragments" with four preserved pieces which were also found on the pavement, mentions name of Zvonimir, Croatia, Lucia, word "opat", "prosih" and "križ", has almost the same but smaller letters and it is also dated to the 11th and 12th century). According to historical sources the cancellus was preserved at least until 1752, when somewhere since then until before 1851 was destroyed and the tablet placed on the pavement of the church. A replica is in place in the church.

The inscribed stone slab records King Zvonimir's donation of a piece of land to a Benedictine abbey in the time of abbot Držiha. The second half of the inscription tells how abbot Dobrovit built the church along with nine monks. The inscription is written in the Glagolitic script, exhibiting features of Church Slavonic of Croatian recension influenced by Chakavian dialect of Croatian language, such as writing (j)u for (j)ǫ, e for ę, i for y, and using one jer only (ъ). It also has several Latin and Cyrillic letters (i, m, n, o, t, v) which combination was still common for that period. It provides the only example of transition from Glagolitic of the rounded Bulgarian (old Slovak) type to the angular Croatian alphabet type.

Contents
The scholars who took part in deciphering of the Glagolitic text dealt with palaeographic challenges, as well as the problem of the damaged, worn-out surface of the slab. Through successive efforts, the contents were mostly interpreted before World War I, but remained a topic of study throughout the 20th century.

One of the most disputed parts of it is the mention of "Mikula/Nicholas in Otočac", considered as a reference, or to the church and later monastery of St. Mikula/Nicholas in Otočac in Northwestern part of Lika (but earliest historical mention dating to the 15th century), or to the toponym of St. Lucia's estate of Mikulja in Punat on Krk which is an island (in Croatian island is "otok" with "Otočac" being a derivation), or somewhere else on Krk and its surroundings (like monastery of St. Nicholas near Omišalj, old churches of St. Nicholas in Bosar, Ogrul, Negrit or island of Susak). Lately, church historian Mile Bogović supported the thesis about St. Nicholas in Otočac because the Gregorian Reform during Zvonimir's reign went from Croatian inland toward recently conquered Byzantine lands (Krk was one of the Dalmatian city-states part of the theme of Dalmatia), and linguist Valentin Putanec based on the definition of krajina in the dictionary by Bartol Kašić and Giacomo Micaglia (meaning coastline and inland of Liburnia) argued it shows connection between Benedictines in Krk and Otočac in Lika.

The original text, with unreadable segments marked gray:

The transliterated text, according to Branko Fučić (1960s, last update 1982-1985), with restored segments in square brackets, is as follows:

Dating
Several evidences show that the tablet is dated to the late 11th or early 12th century (c. 1100 CE). The tablet's content suggests it was inscribed after the death of King Zvonimir (who died in 1089), since abbot Držiha describes Zvonimir's donation as an event that happened further in the past ("in his days"). The Church of St. Lucy, described as having been built during the reign of count Kosmat (possibly identified with župan of Luka in 1070 or comes Kuzma who was in the entourage of Coloman, King of Hungary to Zadar in 1102 ) who ruled over whole Krajina (probably a reference to a local place on island of Krk or March of Dalmatia from the 1060s which was composed of part of Kvarner and the eastern coast of Istria  ), suggests the period of Croatian succession crisis of the 1090s and before the Venetian domination since 1116 and first mention of counts of Krk in 1118-1130 (later known as Frankopan family). Lujo Margetić considered it was erected by the same counts of Krk between 1105-1118. Desimir is identified with Desimir župan of Krbava mentioned in the 1078 charter of king Zvonimir, while Pribineg some scholars identified with Pirvaneg župan of Luka in 1059. Ornamental decoration of the tablet, and early Romanesque (11-12th century) features of the church of St. Lucy similar to three other churches founded by 1100 on Krk also show it is dated at the turn of the 11th and 12th centuries. Lately art historian Pavuša Vežić argued that the church is dated to the late Romanesque period (in the beginning of the 14th century) and Baška tablet text to 1300 with only ornamental decoration from 1100. Although new dating of the church was accepted by scholars like Margetić, they still considered it does not change the early 12th century dating of the whole tablet which features are "hardly possible" for the middle of the 12th century and "unimaginable" for the beginning of the 14th century.

Scholars argue that the textual background for the inscription was made in the period between abbot Držiha and Dobrovit, probably based on the church's cartulary. It is considered that the fact it was inscribed at once as one unit (scriptura continua) rejects the thesis different rows were inscribed in two, three or four different periods as argued by Franjo Rački (two, 1078 and 1092-1102), Rudolf Strohal (four, between 1076 and 1120), Ferdo Šišić (two, until 1100), Vjekoslav Štefanić (three, between 1089 and 1116), Josip Hamm (three, 1077/1079, end of the 11th century and around 1100), Leo Košuta (three, similar to Hamm).

The meaning of the opening lines is contested. While some scholars interpret the introductory characters simply as Azъ ("I"), others believe that letters were also used to encode the year. There is no agreement, however, on the interpretation: 1100, 1077, 1079, 1105 and 1120 have been proposed.

Significance
The name of Croatia and King Zvonimir are mentioned on the tablet for the first time in Croatian.

Despite the fact of not being the oldest Croatian Glagolitic monument (the Plomin tablet, Valun tablet, Krk inscription, are older and appeared in the 11th century) and in spite of the fact that it was not written in the pure Croatian vernacular - it has nevertheless been referred to by Stjepan Ivšić as "the jewel" of Croatian, while Stjepan Damjanović called it "the baptismal certificate of Croatian culture". It features a vaguely damaged ornamental string pattern, the Croatian interlace (troplet).

The tablet was depicted on the obverse of the Croatian 100 kuna banknote, issued in 1993 and 2002, and on a postage stamp issued by Croatian Post in 2000.

title: Baška tablet