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Degtyaryov machine gun

The Degtyaryov machine gun (Пулемёт Дегтярёвa Пехотный literally: "Degtyaryov's infantry machine gun") or DP-27/DP-28 is a light machine gun firing the 7.62×54mmR cartridge that was primarily used by the Soviet Union, with service trials starting in 1927, followed by general deployment in 1928.

Besides being the standard Soviet infantry light machine gun (LMG) during World War II, with various modifications it was used in aircraft as a flexible defensive weapon, and it equipped almost all Soviet tanks in WWII as either a flexible bow machine gun or a co-axial machine gun controlled by the gunner. It was improved in 1943 producing the DPM, but it was replaced in 1946 with the RP-46 which improved on the basic DP design by converting it to use belt feed. The DP machine gun was supplemented in the 1950s by the more modern RPD machine gun and entirely replaced in Soviet service by the general purpose PK machine gun in the 1960s.

Design
The DP-27 is a light machine gun designed for the Soviet Red Army in the 1920s under the leadership of Vasily Degtyaryov (1880–1949), the first test model being the DP-26. Two test guns were manufactured and fired 5,000 rounds each from September 27–29, 1926, during which weaknesses were discovered in the extractor and firing pin mechanisms. After design improvements, two more guns were made and tested in December 1926, firing 40,000 rounds under adverse conditions, resulting in only .6% stoppages. However, changes to the bolt carrier and the chamber locking mechanism were still required. After this redesign the improved gun, now called the DP-27, was tested by the Red Army at the Kovrov plant on January 17–21 of 1927, passing all tests and being approved for manufacture. A full year of service testing followed, after which the primary requested change was the addition of the large flash suppressor that is now considered one of the recognition features of the design. With further refinements, the DP was to be the primary light machine gun of the Red Army during WWII.

The DP-27 was designed to fire the same 7.62×54mmR (R indicating rimmed) ammunition as the main Soviet infantry rifle, the Mosin-Nagant, much simplifying ammunition logistics for Soviet infantry units. Of typical Russian design philosophy, the DP-27 was a sturdy and simple gun that was easy and cheap to manufacture, and could be relied upon to perform even in the most adverse conditions; it was capable of withstanding being buried in dirt, mud, or sand and still operating consistently. However, being magazine fed, it had a rate of fire similar to other light machine guns, like the Bren light machine gun, but low when compared to its main wartime rivals, the German MG 34/MG 42 series, firing at a rate of 550rpm as compared to the 800–1,500rpm of the German general-purpose machine guns.

The operating mechanism of the DP-27 is gas-operated, using a Kjellmann-Friberg flap locking design to lock the bolt against the chamber until the round had left the barrel, aided by a recoil spring. Ammunition came in the form of a 47-round circular pan magazine that attached to the top of the receiver. Because of the shape of its magazine, the DP-27 was nicknamed the "record player".

Its main parts were a removable barrel with an integrated flash suppressor and gas cylinder, a receiver with the rear sight, a perforated barrel shroud/guide with the front sight, the bolt and locking flaps, the bolt carrier and gas piston rod, a recoil spring, stock and trigger mechanism group, a bipod for firing from prone positions, and the previously mentioned pan magazine. In total, the first versions contained only 80 parts, indicating both the simplicity and ease of manufacture of the design. Early versions had 26 transverse cooling fins machined into the barrel, but it was found that these had little cooling effect and so were deleted in 1938, further easing manufacture.

The design had weaknesses that would eventually be addressed in later variants. The pan magazines were prone to damage, while also being difficult and time-consuming to reload. The bipod mechanism was weak and likely to fail if not handled with care. Replacing the barrel was not a quick operation due to a lack of handle and the amount of disassembly needed, though a well trained crew could do so in 30 seconds under ideal conditions.The open gas chamber and bolt frame could accumulate dust in sandy conditions, clogging the gas piston. The recoil spring's location near the barrel led to overheating, causing it to lose proper spring temper.

Designation
The Degtyaryov machine gun was accepted for Red Army service in 1927 with the official designation 7,62-мм ручной пулемет обр. 1927 г (7.62mm Hand-Held Machine Gun Model 1927). It was called the ДП-27 (DP-27), although some western sources refer to it as the DP-28.

Service use
Despite its numerous problems, the DP had a reputation as a relatively effective light support weapon. It was nicknamed the "Record player" (proigryvatel') by Red Army troops because of its rotating disc-shaped pan magazine.

The first uses of the DP-27 in war where with the Republican forces in the Spanish Civil War. On 25 October 1936 the SS Kursk docked at Cartegena, delivering 150 Degtaryov machine guns along with 9,000 Winchester Model 1895 rifles. The Cabo Palos delivered 3 DT tank machine guns on 7 May 1937. On 7 February 1938 the SS Bonafacio arrived in Bassens and included numerous weapons in its cargo delivery, including DP & DT machine guns.

Many were captured by the Finnish army in the Winter War and the Continuation War and partially replaced the Lahti-Saloranta M/26. The DP received the nickname Emma in Finnish service after a popular waltz, again due to the magazine's resemblance to a record player. In the summer of 1944, the Finnish army had about 3400 Finnish-made Lahti-Salorantas and 9000 captured Soviet-made Degtyarevs on the front. Captured examples were operated by the Volkssturm, the late-war German militia, and in German service the Degtyarev received the designation Leichtes Maschinengewehr 120(r).

The Chinese Nationalists received 5,600 DPs from the USSR and used them in the Second Sino-Japanese War and the Chinese Civil War. The North Korean and Chinese Communists used the DP in the Korean War and copied the DPM as the Type 53.

Examples of all variants of the DP machine gun were given or sold to the Viet Minh in the First Indochina War by the USSR and Chinese Communists. Similarly, in the Vietnam War to the NVA and Vietcong.

DPMs have also been recovered from Taliban fighters during the War in Afghanistan while DPs or DPMs have been spotted in 2014 in the Northern Mali conflict. During the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine, a few of the backline Ukrainian forces were issued surplus DPMs.

Variants

 * DPM, modernized version adopted in 1943–44, with a more robust bipod fastened to the cooling jacket and the recoil spring housed in a tube projecting from the rear of the receiver which necessitated a pistol grip for this model of the weapon (manufactured in China as the Type 53)
 * DA, for mounting and loading in aircraft (Дегтярёва авиационный, Degtyaryova Aviatsionny; ДА). Also used in tandem mounts known as DA-2. Employed in the early versions of the Tupolev TB-3 bomber and in the Polikarpov R-5 and Polikarpov Po-2 army cooperation aircraft. The DA weighed 7.1 kg empty and 11.5 kg with standard ammunition load. Its rate of fire was 600 rounds per minute. It was built between 1928 and March 1930 with 1,200 units delivered. It was soon superseded by the ShKAS, which had a much higher rate of fire.
 * DT and DTM, for mounting and loading in armoured fighting vehicles (Дегтярёва танковый, Degtyaryova Tankovy; ДТ and ДТМ)
 * DTM-4, (ДТМ-4) quad mounted variant.
 * RP-46 (Ротный пулемет - company machine gun): metallic-belt fed version adopted in 1946 with a heavier barrel to allow prolonged sustained fire. About 500 rounds could be fired continuously before the barrel had to be swapped or allowed to cool down. Also had a user-adjustable gas system, with three holes of varying diameters provided, to cope with varying environmental conditions and residue buildup. Although the empty weight of the RP-46 exceeded that of DP by 2.5 kg, when considered together with a single ammo box of 250 rounds, the RP-46 weighed 10 kg less than the DP together with the same amount of ammunition in DP pans. The RP-46 remained in Soviet service for 15 years before it was replaced (together with the SGM) by the PK machine gun. The RP-46 was later manufactured in China as the Type 58 and in North Korea as the Type 64. The RP-46 could still fire from DP-style magazines by removing its belt-feeding system.

Users

 * undefined: DPM and RP-46 variants
 * 🇦🇱 Albania: RP-46 variant.
 * 🇩🇿 Algeria: RP-46 variant.
 * 🇦🇴 Angola: RP-46 variant.
 * 🇧🇯 Benin: RP-46 variant.
 * 🇧🇬 Bulgaria: RP-46 variant.
 * 🇨🇫 Central African Republic: RP-46 variant.
 * Republic of China (1912-1949): Received 5,600 from the Soviet Union as aid from 1938.
 * DPM and RP-46 locally built as Type 53 and Type 58
 * 🇰🇲 Comoros: RP-46 and Type 58 variants.
 * Congo-Brazzaville: RP-46 variant.
 * 🇨🇺 Cuba: DP, DT, DTM, DPM and RP-46 variants.
 * Czechoslovakia: DP, DPM and RP-46 variants.
 * 🇪🇬 Egypt
 * 🇬🇶 Equatorial Guinea: RP-46 variant.
 * 🇪🇹 Ethiopia: RP-46 variant.
 * 🇫🇮 Finland: Used captured examples during World War II.
 * East Germany: DT and DTM variants.
 * undefined: Captured models were issued to the Volkssturm.
 * 🇭🇺 Hungary: DP, DPM and DTM variants. Locally produced as M-27.
 * 🇮🇩 Indonesia
 * 🇮🇶 iraq: Iraqi insurgents used RP-46 variant.
 * Kingdom of Italy: The Italian Army in Russia used captured examples as they were more reliable than the Breda 30.
 * Laos: RP-46 variant.
 * 🇱🇾 Libya: RP-46 variant.
 * 🇳🇬 Nigeria: RP-46 variant.
 * 🇰🇵 North Korea: DPM, Type 53 and RP-46 variants.
 * PAIGC
 * Palestine Liberation Organization
 * 🇵🇱 Poland: Used by Polish Army in USSR during World War II and then during the Cold War era (DPM and RP-46 variants).
 * 🇷🇴 Romania: DP and DPM used after the war.
 * 🇸🇨 Seychelles: RP-46 variant.
 * 🇸🇴 Somalia: RP-46 variant.
 * Soviet Union
 * Spanish Republic
 * 🇱🇰 Sri Lanka: Type 58 variant
 * 🇸🇩 Sudan: RP-46 variant.
 * 🇸🇾: RP-46 variant.
 * Syrian opposition: Regular DP27. Used by the Martyrs Of Islam rebel faction.
 * 🇹🇿 Tanzania: RP-46 variant.
 * 🇹🇬 Togo: RP-46 variant.
 * Vietnam: DPM, Type 53, RP-46 and Type 58 variants
 * 🇾🇪 Yemen
 * undefined
 * 🇿🇲 Zambia: RP-46 variant.
 * 🇺🇦 Ukraine

title: Degtyaryov machine gun


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Potamogetonaceae

The Potamogetonaceae, commonly referred to as the pondweed family, is an aquatic family of monocotyledonous flowering plants. The roughly 110 known species are divided over six genera. The largest genus in the family by far is Potamogeton, which contains about 100 species.

The family has a subcosmopolitan distribution, and is considered to be one of the most important angiosperm groups in the aquatic environment because of its use as food and habitat for aquatic animals.

Taxonomy
The Potamogetonaceae are currently placed in the early diverging monocot order Alismatales by the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group. Their concept of the family includes the plants sometimes treated in the separate family Zannichelliaceae, but excludes the genus Ruppia. So circumscribed, the family currently consists of six genera: Althenia, Groenlandia, Lepilaena, Potamogeton, Stuckenia, and Zannichellia, totalling about 120 species of perennial aquatic plants.

Marine grasses families: Zosteraceae, Cymodoceaceae, Ruppiaceae and Posidoniaceae. Related families: Potamogetonaceae, Zannichelliaceae (not consistently).

Characteristics
The plants are all aquatic perennial herbs, often with creeping rhizomes and leafy branches. Their leaf blades can be either floating or submerged, and their stems are often joined. No stomata are present on the leaves. The flowers are tetramerous: the floral formula (sepals; petals; stamens; carpels) is [4;0;4;4]. The flowers have no petals. The fruit consists of one to four drupelets or achenes.

Genera

 * Althenia
 * Groenlandia
 * Lepilaena
 * Potamogeton
 * Pseudalthenia
 * Stuckenia
 * Zannichellia

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Potamogetonaceae


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TT pistol

The TT-30, commonly known simply as the Tokarev, is a Soviet semi-automatic pistol. It was developed during the late 1920s by Fedor Tokarev as a service pistol for the Soviet Armed Forces and was based on the earlier pistol designs of John Moses Browning, albeit with a number of detail modifications to simplify production and maintenance. The Soviet Union ceased production of the TT in 1954, although derivatives of the pistol continued to be manufactured for many years in the People's Republic of China and a number of nations aligned with the Soviet bloc.

Development

In 1930, the Revolutionary Military Council approved a resolution to test new small arms to replace its aging Nagant M1895 revolvers. During these tests, on 7 January 1931, the potential of a pistol designed by Fedor Tokarev was noted. A few weeks later, 1,000 TT-30s were ordered for troop trials, and the pistol was adopted for service in the (USSR) Red Army. The TT-30 was manufactured between 1930 and 1936, with about 93,000 being produced.

Even as the TT-30 was being put into production, design changes were made to simplify manufacturing. Minor changes to the barrel, disconnector, trigger and frame were implemented, the most notable ones being the omission of the removable hammer assembly and changes to the full-circumference locking lugs. This redesigned pistol was the TT-33. Most TT-33s were issued to commanding officers. The TT-33 was widely used by Soviet troops during World War II, but did not completely replace the Nagant. From 1931 to 1945, a total of 1,330,000 Tokarevs were produced in the Soviet Union.

Design details
Externally, the TT-33 is very similar to John Browning's blowback operated FN Model 1903 semiautomatic pistol, and internally it uses Browning's short recoil tilting-barrel system from the M1911 pistol. In other areas the TT-33 differs more from Browning's designs—it employs a much simpler hammer/sear assembly than the M1911. This assembly is removable from the pistol as a modular unit and includes machined magazine feed lips, preventing misfeeds when a damaged magazine is loaded into the magazine well. Soviet engineers made several alterations to make the mechanism easier to produce and maintain, most notably the simplifications of the barrel's locking lugs, allowing fewer machining steps. Some models use a captive recoil spring secured to the guide rod, which depends on the barrel bushing to hold it under tension.

The TT-33 is chambered for the 7.62×25mm Tokarev cartridge, which was itself based on the similar 7.63×25mm Mauser cartridge used in the Mauser C96 pistol. The 7.62×25mm cartridge is powerful, has an extremely flat trajectory, and is capable of penetrating thick clothing and soft body armor.

Variants
Due to their reliability, large numbers of TT-33s were produced during World War II and well into the 1950s. The TT-33 was eventually replaced by the 8-round, 9×18mm Makarov PM pistol in 1952.

The Wehrmacht captured TT-33s and issued them to units under the Pistole 615(r) designation. This was made possible by the fact that Russian 7.62 mm Model 1930 Type P cartridges were nearly identical to the German 7.63×25mm Mauser cartridge, although in German service the 9×19mm Parabellum round was more common. Russian cartridges are loaded to much higher pressures, so using them in German Mauser pistols can cause damage, and is advised against.

In 1949, a silenced variant was produced. Uniquely, the silencer is attached to the barrel bushing rather than the barrel itself. The combined weight of the suppressor with the slide prevents semi-auto cycling of the action, forcing the user to manually cycle it in the same manner as pump action firearms. It would later be replaced by the PB pistol in 1967.

Interarms marketed World War II–surplus Russian-made Tokarevs in Europe and the United States as the Phoenix. They had new wooden grips with a phoenix design on them and were overstamped INTERARMS on the barrel. Later gun laws banned their sale due to their lack of a safety.

In modern times, the robust TT-33 has been converted to many powerful cartridges including .38 Super and 9×23mm Winchester. The TT-33 omitted a safety catch other than the half cock notch, which rendered the trigger inoperable until the hammer was pulled back to full cock and then lowered manually to the half cock position. Many variants imported into the US have had manual safeties added, which vary greatly in placement and function.

Foreign production
Production of the TT-33 in Russia ended in 1954, but copies (licensed or otherwise) were also made by other countries. At one time or another, most communist or Soviet bloc countries created a variation of the TT-33 pistol.

China

The TT pistol was copied in China as the Type 51, Type 54, M20, and TU-90.

Norinco, the People's Liberation Army's state armaments manufacturer in China, manufactured a commercial variant of the Tokarev pistol chambered in the more common 9×19mm Parabellum round, known as the Tokarev Model 213, as well as in the original 7.62×25mm caliber.

The 9mm model features a safety catch, which was absent on Russian-produced TT-33 handguns. Furthermore, the Model 213 features the thin slide grip grooves, as opposed to the original Russian wide-types. The 9mm model is featured with a magazine well block mounted in the rear of the magazine well to accept 9mm type magazines without frame modification.

The Norinco model in current production is not available for sale in the United States due to import prohibitions on Chinese firearms, although older handguns of the Model 213 type imported in the 1980s and 1990s are common. Norinco now makes the NP-17, a modernized, two-tone variant on the Model 213.

7.62×25mm ammo is also rather inexpensive and locally produced or imported from China, also made by Norinco. The Type-54 was replaced in the mid to late 1990s by the QSZ-92 in PLA service.

Hungary

Hungary produced licensed copies of the TT-33 as the Pisztoly 48 Minta commonly referred to as the M48 or 48M, as well as an export version for Egypt known as the Tokagypt 58 chambered for the 9×19mm Parabellum round which was widely used by police forces there. Tokagypts differ from the M48 by an external thumb safety, an ergonomic wraparound grip, and a magazine with a finger rest.

Egypt, however, cancelled its order after less than half of the 30,000 pistols ordered were delivered. The remaining pistols were sold commercially by FÉG.

North Korea
North Korea manufactured them as the Type 68 or M68.

Pakistan

Both legal and illegal TT pistols are still manufactured in various Pakistani Khyber Pass factories.

Poland

Poland produced their own copies as the Pistolet wzór 1933 (P-33), manufactured from 1947 to 1959. In mid-50s a training version of P-33 was created, chambered in .22lr called TT Sportowy. All of those pistols were converted between 1954 and 1958 from the 7.62mm variant by changing the barrel and removing the locking lugs from slide.

Additionally, the Radom M48 was created in Radom, Poland as another slightly modified copy of the TT-33.

Romania
Romania produced a TT-33 copy as the TTC, or Tokarev Cugir well into the 1950s. These have been made available for commercial sale in great numbers in recent years. However, to be importable into the United States, a trigger blocking safety was added.

Vietnam
The K54 is a copy of the TT-33. An updated version known as the K14-VN is made by Factory Z111, and has an increased capacity of 13 rounds, with a wider grip to incorporate a double stack magazine. Research and development started in 2001. The K14-VN began to see service with PAVN forces on May 10, 2014.

The industry name for the regular K54 and the K14-VN is known as SN7M and the SN7TD.

Yugoslavia / Serbia
Zastava produces an improved version of the TT-33 designated M57.

The M57 has a longer grip and longer 9-round magazine (versus 8 rounds in TT). A 9×19mm version is also made by Zastava designated M70A as well as a compact version M88.

Zastava manufactures a sub compact pistol M70 (a.k.a. Pčelica ("little bee")) roughly based on TT design in 7,65mm Browning (.32 ACP) or 9mm Kratak (.380 ACP).

Prior to 2012, the M57A, M70A and M88A were formerly imported into the U.S. by Century International Arms, but have since been replaced by Zastava USA.

Conflicts

 * Winter War
 * World War II
 * Korean War
 * Arab–Israeli conflict
 * Bangladesh Liberation War
 * Hungarian Revolution of 1956
 * War in Afghanistan (2001–2021)
 * South African Border War
 * War in Donbass
 * Russian invasion of Ukraine

Users

 * 🇦🇱 Albania:
 * 🇩🇿 Algeria
 * 🇦🇴 Angola
 * 🇦🇲 Armenia
 * 🇦🇿 Azerbaijan
 * 🇧🇾 Belarus: Used by reserve military units.
 * 🇧🇯 Benin
 * Bosnia-Herzegovina
 * 🇧🇬 Bulgaria
 * 🇧🇮 Burundi: Burundian rebels
 * 🇰🇭 Cambodia
 * 🇹🇩 Chad
 * People's Republic of China: Used by Red Guards during Cultural Revolution and People's Liberation Army Officers. Produced in large numbers as the Type 54.
 * Congo-Brazzaville
 * 🇭🇷 Croatia
 * Donetsk People's Republic: Used by pro-Russian separatists.
 * 🇪🇬 Egypt: Produced from the 1950s.
 * 🇬🇶 Equatorial Guinea
 * Georgia
 * 🇬🇳 Guinea
 * 🇬🇼 Guinea-Bissau
 * 🇭🇺 Hungary: Produced locally.
 * 🇮🇩 Indonesia
 * 🇮🇶 Iraq
 * Ivory Coast
 * 🇰🇿 Kazakhstan
 * 🇰🇬 Kyrgyzstan
 * Laos
 * 🇱🇾 Libya
 * Luhansk People's Republic Used by pro-Russian separatists.
 * 🇲🇬 Madagascar
 * 🇲🇱 Mali: People's Movement for the Liberation of Azawad
 * 🇲🇹 Malta
 * 🇲🇷 Mauritania
 * 🇲🇩 Moldova
 * 🇲🇳 Mongolia
 * 🇲🇪 Montenegro
 * 🇲🇦 Morocco
 * 🇲🇿 Mozambique
 * 🇰🇵 North Korea: Produced locally as the Type 68.
 * 🇵🇰 Pakistan: TT pistols are manufactured in various Pakistani Khyber Pass factories.
 * 🇵🇱 Poland: Produced locally in the FB Radom arms factory.
 * 🇷🇴 Romania: Produced locally at the Cugir factory under the designation "TTC".
 * Russian Federation
 * 🇷🇸 Serbia
 * 🇸🇱 Sierra Leone
 * 🇸🇴 Somalia
 * 🇱🇰 Sri Lanka
 * Syria
 * 🇺🇦 Ukraine
 * 🇺🇬 Uganda
 * Vietnam
 * 🇿🇲 Zambia
 * 🇿🇼 Zimbabwe

Former users

 * Islamic Republic of Afghanistan
 * 🇫🇮 Finland: Captured TT-33 pistols were carried by Finnish soldiers during the Winter War (1939–1940) and Continuation War (1941–1944) with the USSR. It was nicknamed the "Star Pistol" (tähti-pistooli) due to the large Red Army star embossed on the grip panels. Although large numbers were acquired, the Finnish military never produced ammunition or spares for them because they were in a non-standard caliber.
 * East Germany
 * Nazi Germany: Captured from the Soviet Union.
 * People's Liberation Army of Namibia
 * Soviet Union
 * Umkhonto we Sizwe
 * Yugoslavia

title: TT pistol


text:
IFF

IFF, Iff or iff may refer to:

Arts and entertainment

 * Indonesian Film Festival, an annual film festival in Indonesia
 * Ischia Film Festival, an annual film festival held on the island of Ischia, Italy
 * Inferno, Flame, and Flint, a software by Autodesk Media and Entertainment
 * "IFF", an episode of The Expanse
 * Iff of the Unpronounceable Name, a fictional character in the Riddle-Master trilogy by Patricia A. McKillip
 * Simon Iff, a fictional character by Aleister Crowley

Mathematics, science, and technology

 * Identification friend or foe, an electronic radio-based identification system for the military
 * If and only if, a biconditional logical connective between statements, where either both statements are true or both are false
 * Iff card, a smart card used on bus services in Cardiff, Wales, United Kingdom
 * Interchange File Format, a computer file format

Sports organizations

 * International Fencing Federation (Fédération Internationale d'Escrime or FIE), the international governing body for fencing
 * International Floorball Federation, the global governing body for the sport of floorball
 * Irish Fencing Federation, the governing body for fencing in Ireland

Other organizations

 * Iff Books, an imprint of John Hunt Publishing
 * Independent Fianna Fáil, a political party in Ireland
 * Institute For Figuring, an organization that promotes the public understanding of the poetic and aesthetic dimensions of science, mathematics and the technical arts
 * International Federation of Factory Workers, former trade union international
 * International Flavors & Fragrances, an American corporation which produces flavors and fragrances
 * International Freedom Foundation, a self-described anti-communist group established in Washington, D.C.
 * Fakultät für Interdisziplinäre Forschung und Fortbildung (Faculty for Interdisciplinary Research and Continuing Education), a faculty of the Austrian University of Klagenfurt

Other uses

 * Illicit financial flows, a concept in economics and finance related to resources that are of illegal origin, use or transfer
 * International Finance Facility, proposed by HM Treasury in conjunction with the Department for International Development of the United Kingdom
 * International freight forwarder, an individual or company that books or otherwise arranges space for shipments between countries via common carriers

title: IFF


text:
David Ferrier

Sir David Ferrier FRS (13 January 1843 – 19 March 1928) was a pioneering Scottish neurologist and psychologist. Ferrier conducted experiments on the brains of animals such as monkeys and in 1881 became the first scientist to be prosecuted under the Cruelty to Animals Act, 1876 which had been enacted following a major public debate over vivisection.

Life
Ferrier was born in Woodside, Aberdeen, and educated at Aberdeen Grammar School before studying for an MA at Aberdeen University (graduated 1863). As a medical student, he began to work as a scientific assistant to the influential free-thinking philosopher and psychologist Alexander Bain (1818–1903), one of the founders of associative psychology.

Around 1860, psychology was finding its scientific foundation mainly in Germany, with the rigorous research of Hermann von Helmholtz (1821–1894), who had trained as a physicist, and of Wilhelm Wundt (1832–1920). They focused their work mainly in the area of sensory psychophysics. Both worked at the University of Heidelberg. In 1864, Bain prompted Ferrier to spend some time in their laboratories.

On returning to Scotland, Ferrier graduated in medicine in 1868 at the University of Edinburgh. A few years later, in 1870, he moved into London and started work as a neuropathologist at the King's College Hospital and at the National Hospital for Paralysis and Epilepsy, Queen Square. The latter – now the National Hospital for Neurology and Neurosurgery – was the first hospital in England to be dedicated to the treatment of neurological diseases and has a David Ferrier ward named in his memory.

At that period, the great neurologist John Hughlings Jackson (1835–1911) worked in the same hospital as Ferrier. Jackson was refining his concepts of the sensorimotor functions of the nervous system, derived from clinical experience. Jackson proposed that there was an anatomical and physiological substrate for the localization of brain functions, which was hierarchically organized.

Influenced by Jackson who became a close friend and mentor, Ferrier decided to embark on an experimental program. It aimed to extend the results of two German physiologists, Eduard Hitzig (1838–1907) and Gustav Fritsch (1837–1927).

In 1870, they had published results on localized electrical stimulation of the motor cortex in dogs. Ferrier wanted also to test Jackson's idea that epilepsy had a cortical origin, as it was suggested by his clinical observations.

Coincidentally, Ferrier had received a proposal to direct the laboratory of experimental neurology at the Stanley Royd Hospital, a psychiatric hospital located in Yorkshire. The hospital's director was the psychiatrist James Crichton-Browne (1840–1938). Working under good material conditions and having an abundance of animals for experimentation (mainly rabbits, guinea pigs and dogs), Ferrier started his experiments in 1873, examining experimental lesions and electrical stimulation of the cerebral cortex. Upon his return to London, the Royal Society sponsored the extension of his stimulation experiments to macaque monkeys, work he undertook at the Brown Institution in Lambeth. By the end of the year, he had reported his first results to local and national meetings and had published an account in the enormously influential West Riding Lunatic Asylum Medical Reports.

Ferrier had succeeded in demonstrating, in a spectacular manner, that the low intensity faradic stimulation of the cortex in both animal species indicated a rather precise and specific map for motor functions. The same areas, upon being lesioned, caused the loss of the functions which were elicited by stimulation. Ferrier was also able to demonstrate that the high-intensity stimulation of motor cortical areas caused repetitive movements in the neck, face and members which were highly evocative of epileptic fits seen by neurologists in human beings and animals, which probably were due to a spread of the focus of stimulation, an interpretation very much in line with Jacksonanian thought.

These – and other investigations in the same line – resulted in international fame for Ferrier and assured his permanent place as one of the greatest experimental neurologists.

In June 1876, he was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society at the age of 33 and Fellow of the Royal College of Physicians the following year. He was also the first physiologist to make an audacious (if scientifically incorrect) transposition of cortical maps obtained in monkeys to the human brain. This proposal soon led to practical consequences in neurology and neurosurgery.

A Scottish surgeon, Sir William Macewen (1848–1924), and two English physicians (clinical neurologist Hughes Bennett, and Rickman J. Godlee) demonstrated in 1884, that it was possible to use a precise clinical examination to determine the possible site of a tumor or lesion in the brain, by observing its effects on the side and extension of alterations in motor and sensory functions. This method of functional neurological mapping is still used today. Jackson and Ferrier were present at the first operation performed by Godlee on 25 November 1884. Godlee was a nephew of the eminent physician Sir Joseph Lister (1827–1912), the discoverer of surgical antisepsis.

Practical results of animal research were used to justify Ferrier before a noisy public persecution carried out by antivivisectionist societies against him and other scientists, who were accused of inhumane use of animals for experimental medicine. In 1892, Ferrier was one of the founding members of the National Society for the Employment of Epileptics (now the National Society for Epilepsy), along with Sir William Gowers and John Hughlings Jackson.

Death
He died of pneumonia on 19 March 1928 in London. He left a widow, Constance (née Waterlow, sister of painter Ernest Albert Waterlow), and a son and daughter. His son Claude was a well-known architect.

Works
Of Ferrier's publications, two books are particularly notable. The first one, published in 1876, The Functions of the Brain, describes his experimental results and became very influential in the succeeding years, in such a way that today it is considered one of the classics of neuroscience.

In 1886, he published a new edition, considerably expanded and reviewed. The second book, which was published two years later – The Localization of Brain Disease – had as its subject the clinical applications of cortical localization.

Together with his friends Hughlings Jackson and Crichton-Browne, Ferrier was one of the founders of the journal Brain in 1878, which was dedicated to the interaction between experimental and clinical neurology and is still published today. In that year Ferrier delivered the Goulstonian Lecture to the Royal College of Physicians on "The localisation of cerebral diseases".

title: David Ferrier


text: File:Letters to Cleo - Wholesale Meats and Fish.jpg


text:
Siegen

Siegen is a city in Germany, in the south Westphalian part of North Rhine-Westphalia.

It is located in the district of Siegen-Wittgenstein in the Arnsberg region. The university town (nearly 20,000 students in the 2018–2019 winter semester) is the district seat, and is ranked as a "higher centre" in the South Westphalian urban agglomeration.

In 1975, municipal reforms and amalgamations lifted Siegen's population above the 100,000 mark.

Location
The city of Siegen lies in the basin of the upper reaches of the river Sieg. From there, lateral valleys branch off in many directions. The heights of the surrounding mountains, wherever they are not actually settled, are covered in coppice. To the north lies the Sauerland, to the northwest the Rothaargebirge and to the southwest the Westerwald.

The nearest cities to Siegen, taking into account average travelling distances, are Hagen to the north 83 km, Frankfurt am Main to the southeast 125 km, Koblenz to the southwest 105 km and Cologne to the west 93 km.

As the crow flies the distances to these places are, however, 65 km (Hagen), 95 km (Frankfurt), 65 km (Koblenz) and 75 km (Cologne).

The city lies on the German-Dutch holiday road called the Orange Route, joining towns, cities and regions associated with the House of Orange.

City area
The city's total land area is roughly 115 km². Its greatest east-west span is about 12 km, and its greatest north-south span is about 12 km. City limits are 48 km long. Siegen lies at a median elevation of 290 m above sea level. The city's greatest elevation is the peak of the Pfannenberg at 499 m above sea level at southern city limits. Siegen's lowest point is 215 m above sea level at Niederschelden at southwestern city limits, which there also forms the state boundary with Rhineland-Palatinate. Roughly 60% of the city's land is wooded, making Siegen one of Germany's greenest cities.

The city area is divided into six zones, called Bezirke in German and comparable to boroughs in some cities, which themselves are further divided into various communities (Ortsteile and Stadtteile). Each "borough" has a borough board consisting of 15 voting and 15 non-voting members who are appointed by city council with regard to each party's share of the vote in the municipal elections in the borough in question. The borough boards decide on matters particular to their respective boroughs. These matters are laid down in Siegen's city charter.

Administrative division
Siegen's six boroughs and communities belonging to each boroughs are:
 * District I (Geisweid): Birlenbach, Meiswinkel, Langenholdinghausen, Geisweid, Dillnhütten, Sohlbach, Buchen, Niedersetzen, Obersetzen
 * District II (Weidenau):
 * District III (Ost): Kaan-Marienborn, parts of Alt-Siegen (Giersberg), Bürbach, Volnsberg, Breitenbach, Feuersbach
 * District IV (Mitte): Alt-Siegen (parts not belonging to borough III or V)
 * District V (West): Seelbach, Trupbach and parts of Alt-Siegen (Wellersberg, Fischbacherberg, Achenbach, Rothenberg)
 * District VI (Süd): Oberschelden, Gosenbach, Niederschelden, Eiserfeld, Eisern

Along with the boroughs and communities into which the city is divided, as mandated by law, there are also further subdivisions within the communities, each with its own name, but none with distinctly clear borders. They are called Quartiere, which can be rendered as "quarters" or "neighbourhoods". Examples of these include the Unterstadt, the Oberstadt, Hammerhütte, Lindenberg, Charlottental, Haardter Berg (with the university) and the Alte Dreisbach. Some neighbourhoods even straddle community boundaries, like Sieghütte, parts of which can be found in both Siegen-Mitte and Weidenau. Moreover, some neighbourhoods even overlap each other. Unlike the boroughs (Bezirke) or communities (Ortsteile and Stadtteile), the Quartiere have no statistical or administrative importance. They do, however, serve some function as to their inhabitants' identity, but more practically than that, they are also useful for finding one's way with a city map and using in bus route names and on public notices and traffic signs. Many of the Hüttentalstraße city Autobahn's exits are also named after the Quartiere that they serve.

The communities of Weidenau, Geisweid, Birlenbach, Langenholdinghausen, Buchen, Sohlbach, Dillnhütten, Niedersetzen, Obersetzen and Meiswinkel formed from 1 July 1966 to 31 December 1974 the town of Hüttental. The communities of Eiserfeld, Eisern, Gosenbach, Niederschelden and Oberschelden formed the town of Eiserfeld between those same two dates.

Neighbouring communities
The city of Siegen borders in the north on the town of Kreuztal and the community of Wenden, in the east on the town of Netphen, in the southeast on the community of Wilnsdorf, in the south on the community of Neunkirchen, in the west on the community of Mudersbach (Altenkirchen in Rhineland-Palatinate) and in the northwest on the town of Freudenberg.

History
 The name Siegen comes from the possibly Celtic river name Sieg. It is, however, unclear whether there is any relation between this name and the Celtic-Germanic Sicambri (Ger. Sugambrer) people, who in pre-Christian times lived in parts of North Rhine-Westphalia. The first documentary mention of the place called Sigena dates from 1079. The city's history is markedly shaped by mining, which locally began as far back as La Tène times. Bearing witness to this longtime industry are the many mines that can be found within city limits.

In 1224, Siegen is mentioned as a newly built town whose ownership was shared by the Count of Nassau, Heinrich the Rich, and Engelbert II of Berg, Archbishop of Cologne after the latter transferred one half of the ownership to the former. Moreover, there is proof that the Oberes Schloss ("upper stately home") was already standing at this time. On 19 October 1303, the town was granted Soester Stadtrecht, or Soest town rights. The town remained under the two overlords' joint ownership until 1 February 1381, only then passing fully into Nassau hands.

In the 16th century, the town of Siegen bore a formidable defensive look. It was surrounded by mighty walls with 16 towers and three town gates, and was home to a great castle. The town was stricken several times by townwide fires. Documents record such fires in 1592, and from 10 to 20 April 1695.

In 1536, Heinrich the Rich built a "paedagogium" in the buildings that had once housed a Franciscan Monastery. It later grew into today's Gymnasium at Siegen's Löhrtor (gate). John VII of Nassau-Siegen ("John the Middle") built the Unteres Schloss ("lower stately home") on the site of an old Franciscan Monastery. In 1616, John VII founded a knightly war school in the still standing old armoury on Burgstraße, "expressly to produce an officer corps for Calvinism".

His son John VIII ("The Younger") returned in 1612 to the Roman Catholic Church, and wanted to use force to make the townsfolk also convert back to Roman Catholicism. In 1632, Nassau-Siegen was conquered by the Swedes, after which his half-brother John Maurice of Nassau-Siegen, the Dutch commander in Brazil, re-introduced Protestantism. John VIII died in 1638 and was succeeded by his only son Johan Frans Desideratus, who had to cede part of Nassau-Siegen (north of the Sieg river) to the Protestant branch of the family.

John Maurice's leadership served in 1650–1651 to bring about a split in the Siegerland along denominational lines. Under Wilhelm Hyacinth of Nassau-Siegen, violence broke out between the two denominational groups. When on 29 March 1707 townsman Friedrich Flender was killed, Wilhelm Hyacinth was himself unseated and furthermore driven out of the town. Wilhelm Hyacinth was the last in the line of Nassau-Siegen's Catholic rulers, dying in 1743. Already in 1734, though, the Reformed line had died out, too, with Friedrich Wilhelm's death, leading Charles VI, Holy Roman Emperor to transfer power in the territory to the Prince of Orange and the Prince of Nassau-Diez. Under their leadership, mining, the main source of wealth, blossomed, along with agriculture and silviculture. When Prince William of Orange refused to join the Confederation of the Rhine, founded by Napoleon, he found himself unseated by the French leader and the Siegerland passed to the Grand Duchy of Berg. After Napoleon's downfall in 1813, however, William I regained his former German inheritances, but in 1815 he ceded them to the Kingdom of Prussia for the Grand Duchy of Luxembourg. Siegen was assigned to the Siegen district, first in the Koblenz region, and as of 1817 in the Arnsberg region within the Prussian Province of Westphalia.

Under Prussian rule, Siegen developed into the South Westphalian centre that it is today. On 1 March 1923, Siegen was set apart from the district bearing its name, and became a district-free town, while still keeping its function as seat of the district of which it was no longer part, and which was itself merged with Wittgenstein district under district reform in 1975. Siegen also lost its district-free status at this time, becoming part of the new Siegen-Wittgenstein district, the name that the district has borne since 1984.

During World War II, Siegen was repeatedly bombed by the Allies owing to a crucial railroad that crossed through the town. On 1 April 1945, the US 8th Infantry Division began the Allied ground assault against Siegen and the dominating military-significant high ground north of the river. The battle against determined German forces at Siegen continued through 2 April 1945, until organized resistance was finally overwhelmed by the division on 3 April 1945.

Religion
The town of Siegen belonged in the beginning to the Archbishopric of Mainz, or more precisely to its deaconry of Arfeld. There was a White Nun convent in town that folded in the 15th century. Furthermore, there was a Franciscan Monastery that was dissolved in 1533 after the Nassau overlords had introduced the Reformation in 1530. After that, the town was first Lutheran, but in 1550, the Principality of Nassau converted to the Reformed Church. Subsequently, Siegen was a predominantly Protestant town, but not so strongly that the Counterreformation could not gain ground in 1623, with one fifth of the townsfolk and those living in the surrounding area becoming Catholic once again. As of 1626, there was once more a monastery in town, this time a Jesuit one. After passing to Prussia in 1815, the union between Lutheran and Reformed churches was introduced in Siegen, as it was throughout Prussia, but the town's parishes kept their Reformed emphasis. As part of the Westphalian Provincial Church (now the Church of Westphalia), Siegen became the seat of a Superintendency. A similar entity still exists in Siegen, known as the Kirchenkreis, or church district, to which all the city's parishes nowadays belong, unless they are Free Church parishes. This church district encompasses the whole of South Westphalia all the way to Olpe.

The town's Catholics, even after the Reformation, still belonged to the Archbishopric of Mainz. With the restructuring of the Catholic Church early in the 19th century, Siegen was assigned to the Archbishopric of Paderborn and became the seat of a district synod, today a deaconry, to which all the district's Catholic parishes belong. Paderborn was raised to Archbishopric in 1929.

Besides the Roman Catholic Church, Siegen also has a Greek Orthodox parish and a Romanian Orthodox parish.

Moreover, there are various free churches established in Siegen, among them several Evangelical Free Church parishes (Baptists), an Evangelical-Methodist Church, an Independent Evangelical-Lutheran Church (SELK), a Seventh-day Adventist parish, several Free Evangelical parishes (FeG), the Achenbach Christian Community, the Christian Assembly, Calvary Chapel and the Siegen-Meiswinkel Mission Community.

Further religious communities in Siegen are the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, the New Apostolic Church, the Jehovah's Witnesses, an Original Christianity community and Baháʼí. Moreover, owing to a great number of Turkish and Arab migrants in Siegen, the Muslim community is also very much in evidence there and there are several mosques in Siegen run by Turkish, Arab and Albanian communities. There are said to be more than 15,000 Muslims out of Siegen's total population.

Municipal reform
The following communities and rural areas have been amalgamated with Siegen:

 * 1902 and 1912: parts of Buschgotthardshütten
 * 1934: parts of Achenbach
 * 1937: parts of Achenbach and Buschgotthardshütten
 * 1966: Trupbach, Seelbach, Breitenbach, Bürbach, Kaan-Marienborn and Volnsberg
 * 1969: Feuersbach
 * 1974: towns of Hüttental and Eiserfeld

Population development

In 1897, Siegen had 20,000 inhabitants. By 1939, this figure had doubled to 40,000. In the World War II, the town lost roughly 30% of its inhabitants (12,000). The population had fallen to 28,000 by 1945 and only in 1952 did it once again reach prewar levels.

On 1 January 1975, Siegen's population surpassed 100,000 through the amalgamation of Hüttental (38,867 inhabitants in 1974) and Eiserfeld (22,354 inhabitants in 1974), making it a city. With 117,224 inhabitants it also at the same time reached its all-time highest population. At the end of June 2005, according to the North Rhine-Westphalia State Office for Data Processing and Statistics (Landesamt für Datenverarbeitung und Statistik Nordrhein-Westfalen), 105,328 people made Siegen their main abode. Since 1975, the population has fallen by roughly 10% (12,000).

The following chart shows population figures for Siegen's municipal area, however big it was at each given time. Up to 1833, most figures are estimates, and thereafter census figures (¹) or official estimates by the statistical office of the time or the town/city administration itself. The given figures indicate from 1843 the "population present in the town" (Ort Anwesende Bevölkerung), from 1925 the "dwelling population" (Wohnbevölkerung), and since 1987 the "Population in the place of main residence" (Bevölkerung am Ort der Hauptwohnung). Before 1843, population figures come from irregular surveying procedures. ¹ Census figure

Mayor
The current mayor of Siegen is Steffen Mues of the Christian Democratic Union (CDU). The most recent mayoral election was held on 13 September 2020 and the results were as follows:

! colspan=2| Candidate ! Party ! Votes ! % ! colspan=3| Valid votes ! 39,612 ! 98.6 ! colspan=3| Invalid votes ! 555 ! 1.4 ! colspan=3| Total ! 40,167 ! 100.0 ! colspan=3| Electorate/voter turnout ! 80,568 ! 49.9
 * bgcolor=|
 * align=left| Steffen Mues
 * align=left| Christian Democratic Union
 * 22,807
 * 57.6
 * bgcolor=|
 * align=left| Ingmar Schiltz
 * align=left| Social Democratic Party
 * 6,525
 * 16.5
 * bgcolor=|
 * align=left| Michael Groß
 * align=left| Alliance 90/The Greens
 * 5,402
 * 13.6
 * bgcolor=|
 * align=left| Henning Zoz
 * align=left| Alternative for Germany
 * 3,031
 * 7.7
 * bgcolor=|
 * align=left| Melanie Becker
 * align=left| The Left
 * 1,847
 * 4.7
 * bgcolor=|
 * align=left| Melanie Becker
 * align=left| The Left
 * 1,847
 * 4.7
 * colspan=5| Source: City of Siegen
 * }
 * }

At the city's helm since the 13th century, there have been several mayors of whom evidence survives. In 1304 and 1305, a council ("consules") was mentioned for the first time. As early as 1224, however, documents mention Burgmänner ("Castle Men") as well as three Bürgermeister ("Mayors") who were changed yearly. As of 1500, only two mayors were chosen every year. In the 18th century, the guilds were achieving ever greater influence in the town. Thereafter the "ruling" or "office-holding" old shoemaking master represented the "common townsfolk" on the council. The mediaeval town charter was kept right up until 1809, and parts of it even held until 1815, but that year there was a self-endorsing council with 12 members, over which presided the mayor. As of 1824, the suburbs got their own chief administrator who was subordinate to the mayor of Siegen. In 1836, the Prussian municipal system was introduced. After the town was separated from Siegen district in 1923, the mayor was given the title Oberbürgermeister (roughly equivalent to Lord Mayor). The mayor who came to office in 1919 kept his position right through the time of the Third Reich, whereas some mayors in other German and Austrian towns, whose political views were at odds with the Nazis', were removed forcibly.

After the Second World War, the military government of the British Zone of Occupation installed a new mayor, and in 1946 it introduced a new town charter based on a British model, leading to a "Council of the town" elected by the people, whose members were called Stadtverordnete (town councillors). In the beginning, the council chose one from its midst as the mayor as the town's head and representative, which was an honorary function. Furthermore, as of 1946, the council also began choosing a full-time Oberstadtdirektor, or Higher Town Director, to lead the town's administration.

After Siegen was reunited with the district of the same name in 1975, these two officials bore the titles Bürgermeister and Stadtdirektor respectively. In 1999, this two-headed arrangement was forsaken in favour of a single city leader, with the title Bürgermeister, who serves as chairman or chairwoman of city council, leader of city administration and city representative. The mayor is directly elected.

Mayors (Bürgermeister and Oberbürgermeister) since 1919

 * 1919–1945: Alfred Fißmer, Oberbürgermeister
 * 1945: Fritz Fries, Oberbürgermeister
 * 1945–1946: Otto Schwarz, Oberbürgermeister
 * 1946–1948: Ernst Weißelberg, Oberbürgermeister
 * 1948–1956: Ernst Bach, Oberbürgermeister
 * 1956–1961: Erich Pachnicke, Oberbürgermeister
 * 1961–1966: Karl Eckmann, Oberbürgermeister
 * 1966–1975: Karl Althaus, Oberbürgermeister
 * 1975–1979: Friedemann Keßler, Bürgermeister
 * 1979–1990: Hans Reinhardt, Bürgermeister
 * 1990–1994: Hilde Fiedler, Bürgermeisterin
 * 1994–1999: Karl Wilhelm Kirchhöfer, Bürgermeister
 * 1999–2007: Ulf Stötzel (CDU), Bürgermeister
 * 2007–today: Steffen Mues (CDU), Bürgermeister

Stadtdirektoren and Oberstadtdirektoren 1946–1999

 * 1946–1954: Max Baumann, Oberstadtdirektor
 * 1954–1975: Kurt Seibt, Oberstadtdirektor
 * 1975–1985: Hans Mohn, Stadtdirektor
 * 1985–1989: Volker Oerter, Stadtdirektor
 * 1989–1995: Otto-Werner Rappold, Stadtdirektor (left office early with effect on 2 December 1995 by his own wish)
 * 1995–1999: Ulrich Mock, Stadtdirektor (at first as Dr. Rappold's General Agent until 31 January 1997, then appointed fulltime Stadtdirektor)

City council
The Siegen city council governs the city alongside the Mayor. The most recent city council election was held on 13 September 2020, and the results were as follows:

! colspan=2| Party ! Votes ! % ! +/- ! Seats ! +/- ! colspan=2| Valid votes ! 39,555 ! 98.6 ! ! ! ! colspan=2| Invalid votes ! 553 ! 1.4 ! ! ! ! colspan=2| Total ! 40,108 ! 100.0 ! ! 70 ! 4 ! colspan=2| Electorate/voter turnout ! 80,568 ! 49.8 ! ! !
 * bgcolor=|
 * align=left| Christian Democratic Union (CDU)
 * 12,366
 * 31.3
 * 3.3
 * 22
 * 1
 * bgcolor=|
 * align=left| Social Democratic Party (SPD)
 * 8,582
 * 21.7
 * 7.1
 * 15
 * 4
 * bgcolor=|
 * align=left| Alliance 90/The Greens (Grüne)
 * 6,704
 * 17.0
 * 5.4
 * 12
 * 4
 * align=left| Independent Voters' Association (UWG)
 * 3,172
 * 8.0
 * 0.2
 * 6
 * 1
 * bgcolor=|
 * align=left| Alternative for Germany (AfD)
 * 2,877
 * 6.3
 * 2.5
 * 5
 * 2
 * bgcolor=|
 * align=left| Free Democratic Party (FDP)
 * 2,481
 * 6.3
 * 0.3
 * 4
 * ±0
 * bgcolor=|
 * align=left| The Left (Die Linke)
 * 2,000
 * 5.1
 * 1.0
 * 4
 * ±0
 * bgcolor=|
 * align=left| Volt Germany (Volt)
 * 1,187
 * 3.0
 * New
 * 2
 * New
 * colspan=7 bgcolor=lightgrey|
 * bgcolor=|
 * align=left| Independent Bach
 * 171
 * 0.4
 * New
 * 0
 * New
 * bgcolor=|
 * align=left| Independent Schulte
 * 15
 * 0.0
 * New
 * 0
 * New
 * 0.4
 * New
 * 0
 * New
 * bgcolor=|
 * align=left| Independent Schulte
 * 15
 * 0.0
 * New
 * 0
 * New
 * New
 * colspan=7| Source: City of Siegen
 * }
 * }

Coat of arms
Siegen's civic coat of arms might be described thus: Argent a town wall embattled gules with an open gateway argent, therein in an inescutcheon azure a lion rampant Or armed and langued gules, issuant from the wall a bishop in robe and mitre azure (trimmed in argent) holding in his hand dexter a crozier argent with crook Or sinister, in his hand sinister, upraised, an open book argent with pages edged gules.

The bishop in the city's arms is the Bishop of Cologne. The wall symbolizes the city itself, and the inescutcheon in the gateway shows the Lion of Nassau in blue and gold (or yellow), which are Nassau's colours. The arms are based on the oldest known town seal, from 1248. The inescutcheon once also had gold billets (upright rectangles) around the lion, but these do not appear in what became the town's (and later city's) coat of arms in 1875.

Sights

Although the town was about 80% destroyed in the World War II, Siegen has kept a number of buildings worth seeing, such as the two stately homes, the Oberes Schloss and the Unteres Schloss.

Oberes Schloss
The castle on the Siegberg was first mentioned in a document in 1259 and was the family seat of the House of Nassau. Since 1905, the Siegerland Museum has been here. Alongside regional exhibits – among them an artificial demonstration mine – are many paintings. The centrepiece of this collection is made up of works by the man who is arguably the best known native, Peter Paul Rubens. There is also quite a comprehensive collection of portraits of members of the Houses of Nassau and Orange. The top floor is devoted to 19th-century home décor. A kitchen from the Siegerland, a bedroom and many pieces of furniture from the Biedermeier era give one an impression of life in the region in bygone days.

Unteres Schloss
Late in the 17th century, the Lower Stately Home came into being in its current form, somewhat like an open rectangle. The Protestant line of the House of Nassau-Siegen resided here. Also belonging to the Schloss is the "Dicker Turm", or "Fat Tower" with a carillon. In 1959, the then town of Siegen built a memorial for victims of war and tyranny. Inside the Schloss is also found the crypt of the Evangelical branch of the Nassau princely house.

Today, the Schloss serves as a state authority building in which the North Rhine-Westphalia Building and Property Establishment, the State Environment Office, the Office for Occupational Health and Safety and the Attendorn Correctional Facility (Siegen Branch Facility) are all housed. By the city's plans, a university is supposed to move into the Unteres Schloss within the next few years, but at this time, the plan is failing to find any financial backing.

Churches
Two churches in downtown Siegen are to be brought to the visitor's attention: The Martinikirche dating from the 11th century and the Nikolaikirche at the marketplace with its unusual eight-sided shape and its golden Krönchen ("coronet") – the city's landmark – on the church tower, which is a prominent feature of Siegen's skyline (Siegen is sometimes called Krönchenstadt for this unusual feature). Another church is the Marienkirche, built by the Jesuits between 1702 and 1729. Also worth seeing are Siegen's Old Town and several museums in the city core.

Gasometer
In the southwest of the city core, at the foot of the Ziegenberg, is a spherical gas holder, or gasometer, which is protected by law as a monument. It is one of the oldest spherical gas holders still preserved. Another peculiarity is its riveted casing. Only three other such gas holders are known to exist worldwide (all in Germany, in Schwerte, Offenburg and Bielefeld). The holder had to be moved a few metres owing to construction on the municipal Autobahn, the Hüttentalstraße, and in the residential area of Ziegenberg, and it now forms the symbolic sun as part of a scale model of the planets above the gas holder.

Cemeteries
Within Siegen's city limits are 36 municipally run cemeteries. Ten of them are already closed and are available for burials only because of existing laws. The cemeteries have a total area of 730 000 m2 with roughly 65,000 graves. Characteristic of regional cemeteries are hillside graves and a green, parklike layout that even affords wildlife a chance at reoccupying the land.

Cemeteries within city limits are:
 * Lindenbergfriedhof
 * Hermelsbacher Friedhof
 * Stockfriedhof
 * Geisweider Friedhof
 * Haardter Friedhof
 * Gilbergfriedhof
 * Friedhof Kaan-Marienborn
 * Neuer Friedhof Niederschelden

Theatre
In the Apollo-Theater (a downtown former 1930s cinema that underwent remodelling and opened in mid-2007), Siegen has one of the current decade's most important newly built theatres. A controlling interest in this venture is held by TheaterSiegen intendant Magnus Reitschuster.

Since 1992, the media and cultural house Lÿz has been a venue for cabaret, music and theatre in Siegen. On the two stages, roughly 150 events appear every season.

Bigger events take place at the Bühne der Stadt ("City's Stage", with about 820 seats), the Siegerlandhalle (1 800 m2, 2,300 seats) or the Bismarckhalle. As well, there are regular open-air concerts and productions in the inner yard at Unteres Schloss.

Orchestras and choirs

 * Philharmonie Südwestfalen
 * Evangelische Kantorei Siegen
 * Bach-Chor Siegen
 * Sängerkreis Siegerland

Museums
The main centre of art in Siegen are the Museum for Contemporary Art and the Haus Seel – city gallery.

The Siegerland Museum is dedicated to regional history. The Oranienstraße House, built at 1900 in the Italian country house style, is attached to the Siegerland Museum since 1993 as an exhibit forum. There is a varied program of temporary exhibitions of all kinds, from archaeological excavations to contemporary avant-garde art. Poet and author readings are also part of the program, such as classic concerts.

In Geisweid is found the Beatles Home Museum, run by Harold Krämer. According to the 2000 Guinness Book of Records, the 27 m2 museum is the smallest public museum in the world devoted to the four Liverpudlian musicians. The collection holds more than 17,000 recordings, souvenirs, film posters, and autographs and other memorabilia.

Regular events

 * Early in the year: SILA (Siegerlandausstellung – Siegerland Exhibition), even-numbered years only
 * March to November, first Saturday in each month: Flea market in Siegen-Geisweid (since 1970), no new goods
 * June to August: "Mittwochs in" different bands every Wednesday in Siegen-Weidenau
 * June: Johannimarkt, a fair held for some 400 years
 * June/July: Siegener Sommerfestival, plays, cabaret, theatre, music and cinema since about 1990. (In 2006, instead of the traditional summer festival, a World Cup festival was held)
 * July: Stadtfest (City Festival), even-numbered years only
 * July: Rubensfest, odd-numbered years only
 * August: Siegen Open-Air Cinema
 * August: Christopher Street Day (CSD), since 2000
 * August: Siegtal-Pur All streets only opened for bikes (the HTS (local Motorway) too)
 * Summer: Street Festival at the Corn Market
 * October: 2nd Sunday: Bürgerfest Geisweid
 * November: Geisweider Adventsmarkt, since about 1985
 * December: Christmas market, since about 1980

Dialect
The city and its surrounding region speak in addition to standard German also have a characteristic local dialect: Siegerländisch.

Tales and legends
The Dilldappe is an old mythical creature from the Siegerland. It lives mainly in the Siegerland Hauberg (coöperatively managed woodlots). Early in the 1980s, the writer and cartoonist Matthias Kringe first published a calendar about the creature, written in the local dialect of German.

The Rubens Prize of the City of Siegen
The Rubens Prize of the City of Siegen, founded in 1955, is awarded every five years to a painter or graphic artist whose life's work has been groundbreaking on the European stage. The title recalls the painter-diplomat Peter Paul Rubens, who expressed in his life's work the thought of European unity, long before it could become a political reality. Peter Paul Rubens – who was born in Siegen, grew up in Cologne and Antwerp, trained in art in Italy, was esteemed in France and acted as a diplomat in Spain and England – as the main master of European Baroque painting set those artistic and European standards to which the awarding of the prize has been bound since 1957–1958.

Past prizewinners:

 * Hans Hartung (1957/1958)
 * Giorgio Morandi (1962)
 * Francis Bacon (1967)
 * Antoni Tàpies (1972)
 * Fritz Winter (1977)
 * Emil Schumacher (1982)
 * Cy Twombly (1987)
 * Rupprecht Geiger (1992)
 * Lucian Freud (1997)
 * Maria Lassnig (2002)
 * Sigmar Polke (2007)
 * Bridget Riley (2012)
 * Niele Toroni (2017)

Sport
The city sport league includes 160 sport clubs in which roughly 37,000 members are active. National importance was achieved in 2005 by the Sportfreunde Siegen men's football team at Leimbachstadion when they rose from the Regionalliga Süd up to the 2nd Bundesliga, although the next year they dropped back down again. As six-time German Champions, the TSV Siegen women's football team was very successful in the 1990s.

Air transport
In the south of the district in the community of Burbach lies the Siegerland Airport. There are no scheduled services to other German cities. The airport is mainly used for general aviation and parachuting.

Bicycle transport
The city of Siegen lies on European long-distance path E1 running from the middle of Sweden to Umbria in Italy. There is, however, no organized cycling trail network in Siegen. Riding in bus lanes is sporadically allowed. Bicycle transport is generally poorly developed in Siegen. Owing to dual carriageways within the city and nearby, as well as transport planning that rather favours cars, bicycle transport has been somewhat thwarted. Together with the partly hilly topography, there is therefore little in the way of bicycle transport in Siegen.

Rail transport
Siegen station lies at the junction of the following railway lines:
 * The two-track electrified Ruhr–Sieg line (Ruhr-Sieg-Strecke) is used for regional services, usually hourly, of the Ruhr-Sieg-Express (RE 16) and the Ruhr-Sieg-Bahn (RB 91).
 * The Rothaar Railway (Rothaarbahn) is served, usually hourly by Rothaar-Bahn (RB 93) services, connecting in Erndtebrück to Obere Lahntal-Bahn (RB 94/RMV Line 43) services, usually two-hourly, on the Upper Lahn Valley Railway (Obere Lahntal-Bahn).
 * The two-track electrified Dill Railway (Dill-Strecke) is served, usually two-hourly, by the Rhein-Sieg-Express (RE 9) and the Main-Sieg-Express (RE 99) and hourly by the Sieg-Dill-Bahn (RB 95) (only to and from Dillenburg).
 * The mostly two-track electrified Sieg line (Siegstrecke) is served, usually hourly, by the Rhein-Sieg-Express (RE 9) and Sieg-Dill-Bahn (RB 95) services (only to and from Au).

Bus transport
On 18 March 1895, the Netphener Omnibusgesellschaft opened the world's first busline using a petrol-powered omnibus, running a service from its base in Netphen to Siegen and Deuz. Today, local road transport offers many regional, express and local buses, along with a night bus service connecting Siegen with its outlying communities and neighbouring towns. They are run by the South Westphalia Transport Services (Verkehrsbetriebe Westfalen-Süd; VWS) whose headquarters are in Siegen.

For the whole of local public transport, the tariff of the South Westphalia Transport Community (Verkehrsgemeinschaft Westfalen-Süd; VGWS) applies, regardless of the North Rhine-Westphalia tariff.

Roads
With regard to long-distance roads, the city of Siegen is connected to Autobahnen A 45 (Dortmund – Aschaffenburg) and A 4 (Cologne – Olpe), and to Federal Highways (Bundesstraßen) 54, 54n, 62 and 62n.

Siegen is home to the tallest bridge of the A 45 and one of the highest in Germany, the Siegtalbrücke. Built from 1964 to 1969, it is approximately 96 m high and 1 050 m long.

The shape that the city takes has much to do with the Hüttentalstraße (HTS) (Federal Highways 54n and 62n) which serves as a municipal Autobahn – much of it elevated – that runs through the city area.

The A 4 between Wenden and Kreuztal has been newly built. In the heights over Kreuztal's outlying community of Krombach, it now joins with the HTS. On this 12-kilometre stretch of highway are eight valley bridges as well as ten under- and overpasses. This new part was opened on 1 December 2007.

Economy
Siegen is South Westphalia's service and administrative centre. Much of its industry is based on metalworking.

Pedestrian precincts in Bahnhofsstraße ("Railway Station Street") and Kölner Tor ("Cologne Gate"), both downtown, have made shopping in Siegen very convenient, as have the shopping centres City-Galerie (opened in 1998) and Sieg Carré (opened in 2006, both downtown) and Siegerlandzentrum (Siegen-Weidenau), and the Marburger Straße shopping street (downtown). In 2005, an IKEA store and a Peek & Cloppenburg location opened.

Public institutions
Siegen is home to the Siegen-Wittgenstein district administration and location of a Chamber of Industry and Trade (Industrie- und Handelskammer, or IHK, one of 81 such regional institutions in Germany) for the districts of Siegen-Wittgenstein and Olpe.

Home to the Siegen State Court, a local court and a labour court, the city is also an important court centre.

Media
In Siegen, the Westdeutscher Rundfunk (WDR) maintains a studio where regional radio and television news for South Westphalia is produced. The daily broadcast goes out in the "South Westphalia" regional window following the programme Aktuelle Stunde (a newsmagazine show) on WDR's third channel. Moreover, WDR also runs a transmission facility for VHF radio and television (once also medium wave) at the Giersberg.

Daily newspapers in Siegen include not only the Siegener Zeitung but also local editions of the Westfälische Rundschau and the Westfalenpost. All three appear in the morning, although the first was until 2000 an afternoon paper. Furthermore, at the "Obergraben" is found the regional, Radio-NRW-connected Radio Siegen's studio building.

Education
In the early decades of the 17th century, the Herborn Academy temporarily relocated to Siegen, in the buildings of the Unteres Schloss, which came to an end when the Plague broke out.

Siegen's oldest school is the Gymnasium am Löhrtor, a grammar school. Other Schools:

Grammar schools

 * Gymnasium am Löhrtor (GAL)
 * Fürst-Johann-Moritz-Gymnasium (FJM)
 * Peter-Paul-Rubens-Gymnasium, formerly known as Ganztagsgymnasium am Rosterberg
 * Evangelisches Gymnasium (EV)
 * Gymnasium auf der Morgenröthe (GAM)

Primary schools

 * Albert Schweitzer Schule
 * Birlenbacher Schule
 * Burgschule
 * Diesterwegschule
 * Dreisbachschule
 * Eiserner Schule
 * Fischbacherbergschule
 * Friedrich Flender Schule
 * Geisweider Schule
 * Giersbergschule
 * Glückaufschule
 * Gosenbacher Schule
 * Grundschule Eiserfeld
 * Grundschule Kaan-Marienborn
 * Hammerhütter Schule
 * Hüttentalschule
 * Jung Stilling Schule
 * Lindenbergschule
 * Nordschule
 * Obenstruthschule
 * Sonnenhangschule
 * Spandauer Schule

Higher education
Siegen is headquarters of the University of Siegen, founded on 1 August 1972 as the Gesamthochschule Siegen.

As well, the Fachhochschule für Oekonomie & Management has a study centre, which is shared with the Academy of Administration and Economics.

Siegen also has various general-education and professional schools, and the Siegerlandkolleg.

Twin towns – sister cities
Siegen is twinned with:
 * 🇩🇪 Spandau (Berlin), Germany (1952)
 * Katwijk, Netherlands (1963, formerly Rijnsburg)
 * 🏴 Leeds, England, United Kingdom (1966, formerly Morley)
 * 🇮🇱 Emek Hefer regional council, Israel (1973)
 * 🇧🇪 Ypres, Belgium (1967)
 * 🇵🇱 Zakopane, Poland (1989)
 * 🇩🇪 Plauen, Germany (1990)

Notable people

 * Henry III of Nassau-Breda (1483–1538), Count of Nassau and Lord of Breda
 * Tilemann Stella (1525–1589), Renaissance scholar and librarian, mathematician, geometerer, cartographer and astronomer
 * John VII ‘the Middle’ of Nassau-Siegen (1561–1623), Count of Nassau-Siegen and military theorist
 * Peter Paul Rubens (1577–1640), Baroque painter
 * Johann Heinrich Bisterfeld (1605–1655), philosopher, polyhistor
 * Georg Wilhelm de Gennin (1676–1750), Russian military officer and engineer; baptized here
 * Franz Hunolt (1691–1746), Jesuit, theologian
 * Adolph Diesterweg (1790–1866), pedagogue and mastermind of reform education
 * Heinrich Kreutz (1854–1907), astronomer and publisher
 * Charles H. Daub (1855–1917), member of the Wisconsin State Assembly
 * Fritz Busch (1890–1951), conductor
 * Adolf Busch (1891–1952), German-Swiss violinist and conductor
 * Walter Kraemer (1892–1941), politician (KPD) and resistance fighter against Nazism
 * Paul Giesler (1895–1945), Nazi functionary, Premier of Bavaria
 * Heinrich Gontermann (1896–1917), fighter ace
 * Friedrich Middelhauve (1896–1966), publisher and politician (FDP)
 * Hermann Giesler (1898–1987), architect
 * Ernst Achenbach (1909–1991), politician (FDP)
 * Herbert Schäfer (1927–1991), football player and coach
 * Walter Schneider (1927–2010), motorcycle racing driver
 * Bernd Becher (1931–2007), conceptual artist and photographer
 * Heinfried Birlenbach (1940–2020), shot putter
 * Joachim Frank (born 1940), German-American biophysicist and a Nobel laureate
 * Rolf Stommelen (1943–1983), Formula One racer
 * Josef Clemens (born 1947), bishop
 * Klaus Scheer (born 1950), football player and coach
 * Christoph Bode (born 1952), literary scholar
 * Reinhard Goebel (born 1952), conductor and violinist
 * Annegret Kober (born 1957), swimmer
 * Bernward Koch (born 1957), musician
 * Burkhard Jung (born 1958), Lord Mayor of Leipzig
 * Dieter Falk (born 1959), music producer, keyboardist and composer
 * Peter Autschbach (born 1961), guitarist
 * Frank Heinrich (born 1964), theologian and politician (MdB)
 * Navid Kermani (born 1967), orientalist and Islamic studies scholar
 * Petra Lobinger (born 1967), athlete
 * Peter Stein (born 1968), politician (CDU)
 * Monika Meyer (born 1972), footballer
 * Sabrina Mockenhaupt (born 1980), long distance runner
 * August Wittgenstein (born 1981), prince and actor
 * Florian Kringe (born 1982), footballer
 * Moritz Volz (born 1983), footballer
 * Christian Nüchtern (born 1992), ice dancer
 * Andromache (born 1995), Greek singer, Cypriot representative in the Eurovision Song Contest 2022

Honorary citizens
Siegen has conferred honorary citizenship upon the following persons: For all those listed up to here, honorary citizenship, according to Enactment no. 21 to the amended German Municipal System of 1 April 1946, has been forfeited. *According to the city council of Siegen Adolf Hitler's honorary citizenship was lapsed by British military law. Caused by political discussion the city council denied Hitler's honorary citizenship posthumously on 29 August 2007.
 * 1887: Heinrich von Achenbach, High President of the Province of Brandenburg
 * 1891: Otto von Bismarck, Reich chancellor
 * 1933: Adolf Hitler, Reich chancellor*
 * 1933: Paul von Hindenburg, General Field Marshal and Reich President
 * 1953: Alfred Fißmer, retired Oberbürgermeister

Honorary citizens of the former town of Hüttental:
 * Josef Höfer, Prelate
 * Karl Barich, chairman of the board of Stahlwerke Südwestfalen (South Westphalia Steelworks)

title: Siegen


text:
Talk:Dharamsinh Desai Institute of Technology

hi i am pratik

To pratik
Hey pratik, I have been closely following the article about DDIT in wikipedia. I have noticed that you always mention some unnecessary info about your ownself in the article. Though you may have created the article, doesnt mean that you can use it as your own property. And what justice are you doing to your own Institute DDIT, if you think your own achievments are great enough to be given same space as of your own college? So let better sense prevail, and I request you not to stretch the limits too far. Maintain the decorum, and keep the spirit of wikipedia alive, so that only the truth is out.


text:
Category talk:Aquatic plants

In case anyone is wondering, I'm setting up the Family and genera pages, and then going to add content.--nixie 04:19, 15 Oct 2004 (UTC)

title: Category talk:Aquatic plants


text:
Leslie Blackwell

Leslie Egerton Blackwell (9 November 1897 – 20 October 1959) was a Canadian politician, soldier, lawyer, and land developer.

Background
He was born in Lindsay, Ontario in 1897, but moved to Toronto when he was young. He grew up and was educated in the Parkdale area of Toronto. He joined the Canada Army as a private in 1916, during the First World War. His unit, the 204th Battalion of the Canadian Infantry, was commanded by future Ontario Attorney General, Lieutenant-Colonel William Price. He was severely injured in the war, losing a leg during the Battle of Cambrai in 1918. He came back to Canada and eventually graduated from the University of Toronto and Osgoode Hall law school.

Politics
During the 1937 Ontario general election Blackwell was a candidate in Toronto's Eglinton electoral district; where he came in second on election night. He ran again in Eglinton, and was elected to the Legislative Assembly of Ontario in the 1943 election that brought George Drew's Progressive Conservative Party of Ontario to power with a minority government. Blackwell was immediately put into Drew's cabinet as Attorney General.

After Drew's departure from provincial politics, Blackwell was a candidate to replace him in the 1949 Conservative leadership election, placing second to Leslie Frost. He did not join Frost's cabinet and served his remaining time as a backbencher in the legislature, and did not run in the 1951 election.

Later life
He went back to his private law practice and became involved in land development. He was working on the Thorncliffe Park housing development, in Toronto, when he was hospitalized in early October 1959. He finally succumbed to complications due to pneumonia on 20 October 1959.

title: Leslie Blackwell


text:
Tom McNally, Baron McNally

Thomas McNally, Baron McNally, PC (born 20 February 1943) is a British politician and a former Leader of the Liberal Democrats in the House of Lords.

Early life
McNally was born in Blackpool. A Catholic of Irish descent, he attended St Joseph's College, Blackpool. He later attended University College London, where he was elected president of the Debating Society as well as Students' Union President.

Professional career
He later worked for the Fabian Society, and then as a full-time employee of the Labour Party, becoming its international secretary. He served as a political advisor to Foreign Secretary, James Callaghan during the conflict in Cyprus in the 1970s, before becoming head of the Prime Minister's political office at Downing Street in 1976 when Callaghan succeeded Harold Wilson.

Political career
Elected to the House of Commons in 1979 as a member of the Labour Party for the constituency of Stockport South, in 1981 he was one of the later defectors to the new Social Democratic Party (SDP). Following constituency boundary changes for the 1983 general election McNally was the SDP candidate for the new constituency of Stockport, but finished in third place behind Labour and the Conservative victor, Tony Favell.

From 1993 he was Head of Public Affairs at Shandwick Consultants, and later non-executive vice-chairman of its successor Weber Shandwick.

On 18 November 1995 it was announced McNally would receive a life peerage. The Letters Patent were issued on 20 December and he took the title Baron McNally, of Blackpool in the County of Lancashire.

After being elected unopposed to succeed Baroness Williams of Crosby, he took office as Leader of the Liberal Democrats in the House of Lords at the beginning of the 2004/05 session of Parliament.

In January 2006, McNally was linked to the resignation of Charles Kennedy as leader of the Liberal Democrats, with critical comments regarding Kennedy's leadership of the party, and the effect that infighting was having on their electoral prospects in the upcoming local elections in May. McNally criticised Kennedy, suggesting that his style and content were lacklustre. Also in January 2006, McNally revealed in an interview that he had himself been alcohol dependent in the 1980s. He said, "I don't think the passing of a more boozy, ill-disciplined, ill-researched type of politics is to be regretted at all."

He has been President of the Stockport Liberal Democrat Constituency Party since 2007. In May 2010, following the formation of the Conservative-Liberal Democrat Coalition Government, Lord McNally was appointed Minister of State at the Ministry of Justice, under Kenneth Clarke.

In 2012 McNally justified the absence of an official pardon of mathematician Alan Turing on indecency charges, saying that Turing was rightly prosecuted under the UK's 1950s laws.

On 2 October 2013, Lord McNally announced he would be stepping down as leader of the Liberal Democrats in the House of Lords, saying it had been "an enormous privilege to serve as Leader of a Group which, by its discipline and cohesiveness has constantly punched above its weight".

Lord McNally resigned as Minister of State for Justice on 18 December 2013 following his appointment as Chair of the Youth Justice Board. He is a vice-president of the Debating Group.

Family
Lord McNally is married with two sons and one daughter.

title: Tom McNally, Baron McNally


text: Category:P.O.D. albums

title: Category:P.O.D. albums


text:
Talk:List of Swedish Victoria Cross recipients

Deletion discussion from VfD:
I sort of think it takes more than one item to make a "list". This one just seems pointless. If his Swedishness is so important it can be mentioned in the regular Victoria Cross list. He doesn't need a list of his own. -R. fiend 04:23, 15 Oct 2004 (UTC)
 * D Rm Like \i in TeX, there is no point to this list. Merge this, and all others, into one list at List of Victoria Cross recipients by nationality. Chris 05:44, 15 Oct 2004 (UTC)
 * I can decode "D", but if "Rm" is supposed to be a vote, what action does it call for, and what does this terseness accomplish other than annoyance? --Jerzy(t) 07:04, 2004 Oct 20 (UTC)
 * Looks like this was made to fill a category - I'd suggest a merge into a list, something like List of other Victoria Cross recipients. Lists such as the Australian or Irish recipients are clearly going to be long, but there are too many short lists in this category. Given how hard it is for British soldiers to win the Victoria Cross these days, it's highly unlikely the Swedish list will expand to a useful size. Average Earthman 08:52, 15 Oct 2004 (UTC)
 * And the category in question exists, apparently, to duplicate the data structure contemplated by someone's decision not to support the special-purpose site they had planned. At WikiProject Victoria Cross Reference Migration is the description of the one-person WProj that seems to be the vehicle for warping WP into something that will serve that special purpose.  Was there serious consultation with well experienced WPians before instituting this WProj, or is its existence simply an expression of audacity? --Jerzy(t) 07:04, 2004 Oct 20 (UTC)
 * Keep. Logical part of a larger structure. Changes to this structure should be discussed on Talk:List of Victoria Cross recipients by nationality first. Andrewa 09:52, 15 Oct 2004 (UTC)
 * In which case, I'm having trouble parsing your logic. Note change of vote above. Chris 15:17, 15 Oct 2004 (UTC)
 * Something very like that was a reason for keeping List of people by name: Db-Dd, but that was part of long-standing structure with a WP-pervading significance. The significance of this structure is strictly limited. --Jerzy(t) 07:04, 2004 Oct 20 (UTC)
 * Keep. Intrigue 20:36, 18 Oct 2004 (UTC)
 * Delete this and many other lists. Make a stub for Peter Brown (VC) and put it in Category:Swedish people and Category:Victoria Cross recipients, and wait for MediaWiki's category browsing capabilities to improve. And in the meantime, maybe list Peter Brown on List of Victoria Cross recipients by nationality, like Chris said. ~leif 21:54, 18 Oct 2004 (UTC)
 * Del. Conceptually, i would say rename as List of VC recipients of nationalities with fewer than five of them, but even if the name weren't so unwieldy, i don't think dislike for slashes in titles is the real reason for barring sub-page articles: rather, articles should stand on their own feet. The only way an article serving this function can stand alone is by being List of Victoria Cross recipients by nationality (which probably obviates all the lists in Category:Lists of Victoria Cross recipients by nationality).--Jerzy(t) 07:04, 2004 Oct 20 (UTC)
 * Comment: the Wiki-project mentioned above sounds like it calls for a data-base implementation rather than an encyclopedic one. I've heard before some hints of desire for DB-like WP features, e.g., lists that let the user resort them from "by name" order to, say "nationality" order. Perhaps this area of interest should be brought to the attention of a "Data-architecture Committee" charged with considering what other organizing principles besides articles, lists, and Cat structures might further our encyclopedic mission.  I don't have any clear vision of what "shapes" of data-bases w/in WP are widely enough useful to justify integrating them with the article concept (beyond a personal obsession: DBs aren't worthwhile in any form that can't do everything LoPbN is trying to), but i suspect what we have so far is less rich and efficient than the features that future enhancements may include.  They may also support a VC project (and draw encyclopedic benefits from it) better than we now can. --Jerzy(t) 07:04, 2004 Oct 20 (UTC)

end moved discussion


text: Category:Polish heavy metal musical groups


text:
Elly Ameling

Elisabeth Sara "Elly" Ameling (born 8 February 1933) is a Dutch soprano, who is particularly known for lieder recitals and for performing works by Johann Sebastian Bach. Performing with distinguished pianists and ensembles around the globe, she was awarded various honours and recording prizes.

Career
Ameling was born in Rotterdam where she grew up. She later sang with Pierre Bernac. She won the first prize during the International Vocal Competition 's-Hertogenbosch in the Netherlands (1956) and the Concours International de Musique in Geneva (1958). After her professional début as a concert singer in Rotterdam in 1953, she performed for more than forty years in virtually every major cultural centre in the world. She appeared with most of the leading international orchestras and conductors, including Seiji Ozawa, André Previn, Wolfgang Sawallisch, Neville Marriner, Karl Münchinger and Edo de Waart.

She made her career mainly as a concert and lieder singer with some excursions into opera, and became world-renowned for her recitals of French and German songs and for her superlative interpretive gifts. She has been equally at home in chamber music, orchestral music, operas, and oratorios. Her operatic roles included Ilia in Mozart's Idomeneo, Fiordiligi in his Così fan tutte in 1958, Jacqueline in Messager's Fortunio in 1959, and the Marchesa in Verdi's Un giorno di regno in 1974, She made her U.S. recital debut at New York's Lincoln Center in 1968 and her opera debut in 1974 as Ilia in Mozart's Idomeneo in Washington, D.C. In 1974, Ameling also performed for the Peabody Mason Concert series in Boston.

Contemporary works, particularly by her countrymen Bertus van Lier and Robert Heppener, are also part of her large repertoire. Ameling has recorded more than 150 albums and has won many recording prizes, including The Edison Award, the Grand Prix du Disque and the Preis der deutschen Schallplattenkritik. When she retired in 1995, she was regarded as one of the most admired and recorded female lieder singers. She now teaches at the Franz Schubert Institut alongside Julius Drake, Helmut Deutsch, Roger Vignoles, and Cynthia Hoffmann.

Awards
For her services to music, Ameling has been awarded four honorary degrees and has been knighted, in 1971, by Her Majesty the Queen of The Netherlands to the Order of Orange-Nassau. In 2008, she received the highest civil decoration in the Netherlands, the Order of the Netherlands Lion. In 2015, she was awarded the Hugo Wolf Medal of the International Hugo Wolf Academy in Stuttgart.

Recordings
Ameling's recordings focus on lieder, with pianists and orchestras. She recorded two songs from Mahler's Des Knaben Wunderhorn with the English Chamber Orchestra conducted by Benjamin Britten at the 1969 Aldeburgh Festival. In 1970, she recorded Beethoven's Mass in C major with the New Philharmonia Chorus and Orchestra, conducted by Carlo Maria Giulini, alongside Janet Baker, Theo Altmeyer and Marius Rintzler. She recorded in 1979 Mahler Second and Fourth Symphony with the Netherlands Radio Chorus and the Royal Concertgebouw Orchestra conducted by Bernard Haitink, the Second alongside Aafje Heynis. In 1985, she recorded the Schubert's complete incidental music to Rosamunde with the Rundfunkchor Leipzig and the Gewandhausorchester, conducted by Kurt Masur. In 1974 she made, with pianist Dalton Baldwin, the first complete recording of Mozart's lieder for Philips Records. This is still considered to be the reference recording of these works, despite the existence of other cycles.

 * Icon: Elly Ameling, The Dutch Nightingale (8CD), 2012, EMI Classics
 * Elly Ameling 75 jaar, Live Concertopnamen 1957–1991, Nederlandse Omroep (5CD), 2008, Radio Broadcasts 1957–91, incl. Richard Strauss Vier letzte Lieder, Van Omnium audiovisueel, GW 80003.
 * The Artistry of Elly Ameling (5CD), Philips.
 * Elly Ameling, After Hours..., Songs by Gershwin, Porter, Prévert a.o.; Louis van Dijk, Philips.
 * Elly Ameling, Sentimental Me, Songs by Porter, Ellington, Sondheim a.o.; Louis van Dijk, Polygram Classics.
 * Elly Ameling, Sweet Was The Song, international Christmas songs, EMI.
 * Elly Ameling, The Early Recordings (4CD), DHM (Sony BMG).
 * Bach:
 * Arias from Cantatas for soprano, oboe and b.c., Han de Vries (oboe), Albert de Klerk (organ), Richte van der Meer (cello), EMI.
 * Bauern-, Kaffee-, Hochzeitskantate, Non sà che sia dolore, with Gerald English, Siegmund Nimsgern, Collegium Aureum, DHM (Sony BMG).
 * Ein feste Burg, Jauchzet Gott, Wachet auf, English Chamber Orchestra, Raymond Leppard, Deutsche Bachsolisten, Helmut Winschermann, Philips.
 * Johannes-Passion, Stuttgarter Kammerorchester, Karl Münchinger, Decca.
 * Matthäus-Passion, Stuttgarter Kammerorchester, Karl Münchinger, Decca.
 * Magnificat / Osteroratorium, Stuttgarter Kammerorchester, Karl Münchinger, Decca.
 * Weihnachtsoratorium, Stuttgarter Kammerorchester, Karl Münchinger, Decca.
 * Berlioz: Les nuits d'été, Atlanta Symphony Orchestra, Robert Shaw, Telarc.
 * Brahms: Lieder, Rudolf Jansen, Hyperion.
 * Debussy: Mélodies, Dalton Baldwin, EMI. For details, see here
 * Fauré:
 * Lieder, Complete Songs (4CD), with Gérard Souzay, Dalton Baldwin, Brilliant.
 * Requiem, Rotterdam Philharmonic Orchestra, Jean Fournet, Philips.
 * Grieg: Peer Gynt, San Francisco Symphony Orchestra, Edo de Waart, Philips.
 * Handel:
 * Messiah, Academy of St Martin-in-the-Fields, Neville Marriner, Decca.
 * Elly Ameling sings Handel
 * Haydn:
 * Orlando Paladino, Orchestre de Chambre de Lausanne, Antal Dorati, Philips.
 * Lieder, Jörg Demus, Brilliant Classics (3-Disc re-issue)
 * Mahler:
 * Symphony No. 2 & Symphony No. 4, Royal Concertgebouw Orchestra, Bernard Haitink, Philips.
 * Martin:
 * Le mystère de la nativité, Orchestre de la Suisse Romande, Ernest Ansermet, Cascavelle.
 * Frank Martin interprète Frank Martin, with others, Frank Martin, Jecklin Disco.
 * Mendelssohn:
 * Elias, Gewandhausorchester, Wolfgang Sawallisch, Philips.
 * Lieder, Rudolf Jansen, Sony BMG.
 * Mozart
 * Requiem, Wiener Philharmoniker, Istvan Kertesz, Decca.
 * Mozart, Schubert, Opern-und Konzertarien, Rotterdam Philharmonic Orchestra, Edo de Waart, PENTATONE.
 * The complete Mozart-Edition Vol. 24 (Lieder, Notturni), Philips.
 * Poulenc: Edition du centenaire 1899–1963 (Melodies & Lieder), EMI Classics.
 * Ravel: Mélodies-Lieder, Shéhérazade, Rudolf Jansen, Erato (Warner).
 * Schubert, Lieder (4CD), Dalton Baldwin, Rudolf Jansen, Philips.
 * Schubert, Schumann, Lieder, Jörg Demus, DHM (Sony BMG).
 * Schubert, Duette-Terzette-Quartette, with Janet Baker, Dietrich Fischer-Dieskau, Peter Schreier, Gerald Moore, Deutsche Grammophon.
 * Schumann: Frauenliebe und Leben, Dalton Baldwin, PENTATONE.
 * Vivaldi:
 * Berühmte geistliche Chorwerke, Nulla in mundo pax, English Chamber Orchestra, Vittorio Negri, Philips.
 * Juditha triumphans, with the Kammerorchester Berlin, Vittorio Negri, Philips.
 * Wolf:
 * Italienisches Liederbuch, Goethe- und Keller-Lieder, with Tom Krause, Irwin Gage, Rudolf Jansen, GLOBE.
 * Spanisches Liederbuch, Rudolf Jansen, Hyperion.

title: Elly Ameling


text:
Norma Cluster

The Norma Cluster (ACO 3627 or Abell 3627) is a rich cluster of galaxies located near the center of the Great Attractor; it is about 68 Mpc distant. Although it is both nearby and bright, it is difficult to observe because it is located in the Zone of Avoidance, a region near the plane of the Milky Way. Consequently, the cluster is severely obscured by interstellar dust at optical wavelengths. Its mass is estimated to be on the order of 1015 solar masses.

ESO 137-001, an example of a jellyfish galaxy, is located in Abell 3627.

title: Norma Cluster


text: Category:1984 in Canada

title: Category:1984 in Canada


text:
Talk:Paul Bogle

Morant Bay Rebellion
Towards the end of the paragraph, there's confused information about Bogle's hanging. On the one hand it says he was hanged immediately, on the other, later on 24 October. Somebody please clarify. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 82.38.64.117 (talk) 05:12, 26 September 2020 (UTC)

Untitled
Someone did a copy & paste in this article, from the site listed in External links. Maybe the text is under copyright protection. Should I delete the text? Marcelo R. 04:25, 15 Oct 2004 (UTC)

Fist off the song "so much things to say" was NOT writen by her infact that digusts me to think she wrote that. It was writen by the one and only person that could have BOB MARLEY, and i would wish to have this changed imediatly, because it is a false fact, and is telling everyone who doesnt know this a LIE.

Check ur self c.Douglas (talk) 05:16, 25 December 2016 (UTC)

Bogle dance NOT about Paul Bogle
There was a dancer and gangster in Jamaica who went by the name of Bogle. Maybe his name was Bogle, maybe he named himself after Paul Bogle, I don't know. I do know that he is the originator of the Bogle dance and that Buju Banton sang the song based on him, not on Paul Bogle.

There is reference to Paul Bogle in the song, however: the line "A mus' be Nanny dat! After a no so Bogle stay!" is a humourous reference to someone trying and not succeeding to do the Bogle dance. Buju Banton was inferring that they got the wrong National Hero. Respectfully, SamBlob 23:38, 20 May 2007 (UTC)

Ok c.Douglas (talk) 05:17, 25 December 2016 (UTC)

Year of birth
One source says "probably between 1815 and 1820" and the other says "around 1822". I'm going to split the difference and say "around 1820". Kaldari (talk) 00:36, 7 December 2008 (UTC)

Ok c.Douglas (talk) 05:18, 25 December 2016 (UTC)

Social studies
Paul bogle 67.230.79.101 (talk) 00:17, 27 October 2022 (UTC)

Wake up dummy
Your late for school come on you big fool😂😂😂 72.252.32.115 (talk) 18:18, 29 October 2022 (UTC)

English
@D 1701Parker 63.143.116.128 (talk) 22:48, 2 July 2024 (UTC)

title: Talk:Paul Bogle


text: Category:2000s comics

title: Category:2000s comics