text:
Thomas Preston

Thomas Preston may refer to:

Politicians

 * Thomas Preston (MP for Derby), see Derby
 * Thomas Preston (died 1604), MP for Knaresborough
 * Thomas Preston of Gretton, MP for Northampton
 * Thomas Preston (MP for Newcastle-under-Lyme), in 1437 MP for Newcastle-under-Lyme
 * Thomas Preston, in 1452 MP for Wallingford
 * Thomas Preston (of Holker, elder) (1600–1679), English MP for Lancashire
 * Thomas Preston (of Holker, younger) (1647–1697), English MP for Lancaster
 * Thomas Hiram Preston (1855–1925), Ontario journalist and political figure
 * Thomas Hildebrand Preston, 6th Baronet (1886–1976), British diplomat

Religion

 * Thomas Preston (monk) (1563–1640), English Benedictine monk
 * Thomas Scott Preston (1824–1891), Roman Catholic Vicar General of New York

Others

 * Thomas Preston (composer) (died c. 1563), English composer
 * Thomas Preston (footballer) (1893–1971), Scottish footballer (Airdrieonians)
 * Thomas Preston (writer) (1537–1598), master of Trinity Hall, Cambridge and possible author of King Cambyses
 * Thomas Preston, 1st Viscount Tara (1585–1655), who fought on the side of Confederation in the Irish Confederate Wars (1642–1649)
 * Thomas Preston (British Army officer), involved in the Boston Massacre in 1770
 * Thomas Austin Preston, Jr. (1928–2012), poker player also known as Amarillo Slim
 * Thomas Preston (scientist) (1860–1900), Irish scientist
 * Thomas J. Preston Jr. (1862–1955), professor of archeology at Princeton University
 * Tommy Preston (1932–2015), Scottish footballer (Hibernian)
 * Tom Preston-Werner (b 1979), American entrepreneur (GitHub)

title: Thomas Preston


text:
National Merit Scholarship Program

The National Merit Scholarship Program is a United States academic scholarship competition for recognition and university scholarships. The program is managed by the National Merit Scholarship Corporation (NMSC), a privately funded not-for-profit organization based in Evanston, Illinois. The program began in 1955.

Each year, the NMSC conducts a competition that is open to all students who meet the entry requirements. Until 2015, the NMSC also administered the National Achievement Scholarship Program, which was specifically for African-American students.

The highest performers in the National Merit Scholarship Program are named National Merit Scholars. Finalists and Semifinalists are also recognized for their academic and extracurricular achievements. Commended Students are selected based on a nationally applied Selection Index score, which may vary annually and is typically below the level required for participants to be named Semifinalists in their respective states. The Preliminary SAT/National Merit Scholarship Qualifying Test (PSAT/NMSQT) is used as the qualifying test for entry into each year's competitions.

Each year, about 1.6 million students from around 22,000 high schools enter the National Merit Scholarship competition when they take the PSAT/NMSQT. This test is used to screen program entrants, evaluating their critical reading skills, problem-solving abilities in mathematics, and writing skills. Semifinalists are chosen on a state representational basis, depending on the total number of entrants and in proportion to each state's share of the nation's high school graduating seniors. Semifinalists represent the top 0.5 percent of the state's senior students.

To be considered for a National Merit Scholarship, Semifinalists must meet certain requirements to advance to Finalist standing. This includes submitting a detailed scholarship application, which encompasses essays and information about extracurricular achievements, awards, and leadership positions. They must also demonstrate a strong academic record, receive an endorsement and recommendation from a school official, and earn SAT scores that confirm their qualifying test performance. A specific number of students, which varies each year, advance to Finalist standing based on these criteria. At the end of the competition, a select group of Finalists are chosen to receive $2500 National Merit Scholarships. Scholarship winners represent less than 1% of the initial pool of student entrants.

Program entry requirements
To enter the competition, a student must
 * Be enrolled full-time as a high school student progressing normally toward completion of high school and planning to enroll full-time in college in the fall following the completion of high school;
 * Be a citizen of the United States or be a U.S. lawful permanent resident who intends to become a U.S. citizen at the earliest opportunity allowed by law, or have applied for permanent residency with the intention of becoming a U.S. citizen at the earliest possible opportunity and have not been denied; and
 * Take the Preliminary SAT/National Merit Scholarship Qualifying Test (PSAT/NMSQT) in the specified year of the high school program, usually the junior (11th grade) year and usually at one's own school. Students completing high school in three years or less must be in the last or next-to-last year of high school when they take the test. Students unable to take the exam because of an extenuating circumstance, such as severe illness or natural disaster, may be permitted to substitute subsequent SAT results by making arrangements with NMSC no later than March 1 following the exam that was missed.

PSAT/NMSQT
The NMSC uses the PSAT/NMSQT as the initial screen of over 1.5 million program entrants. In the spring of the junior year, NMSC determines a national Selection Index qualifying score (critical reading + math + writing skills scores all multiplied by two) for "Commended" recognition, which is calculated each year to yield students at about the 96th percentile (top 50,000 highest scorers). Up until 2016 (when the College Board changed the format and style of the PSAT), scores in the 200s (out of 240) often qualified for recognition; however, with the New SAT and PSAT format and grading system, which is out of 228 (not 240, which is what it was on the old PSAT), qualifying scores for commendation are about 207, but qualifying levels change annually depending on how the top approximately 50,000 high scorers fared. Qualification levels also vary by state, and qualifying levels are higher in competitive states such as New Jersey and Massachusetts. For the 2009/2010 school year, a score of 217 was required in California to qualify. Notification is mailed to school principals in April regarding students who scored at or above this level. In September, principals notify their students of their status.

Semifinalist
Early the next September (beginning of the senior year, almost a year after the PSAT/NMSQT was taken), NMSC determines Selection Index qualifying scores for further recognition by state (including three other areas: DC, US Territories and Commonwealths, and students enrolled in schools outside the US) and US boarding schools (by geographic region). About 16,000 of the 50,000 are recognized as National Merit Semifinalists in this process. The Selection Index qualifying scores for Semifinalist standing vary from state to state and from year to year. Each state is allocated a percentage of Semifinalists based on the percentage of that state's graduating seniors out of the nation's total. The National Merit Scholarship Corporation does not release to the public the minimum qualifying score required per state. In August after the PSAT was taken, high school principals are mailed notification about their semifinalists. Principals communicate these results to their students, though some misread the NMSC materials and do not release them until the NMSC press release, which comes in mid-September. Those not making Semifinalist – about 34.000 of the 50.000, and about 3-4% of all PSAT takers – are "Commended", and receive a Letter of Commendation; they do not continue in the competition for Merit Scholarship awards.

Finalist
Semifinalists must fulfill additional requirements and advance to the finalist level of the competition to be considered for a scholarship. Approximately 15,000 of the 16,000 Semifinalists advance to Finalist standing by submitting SAT scores that confirm the earlier PSAT/NMSQT performance, having an outstanding academic record, and being endorsed and recommended by a high school official. They must also submit an application that includes high school courses and grades, extracurricular and volunteer activities, and a self-descriptive essay. The information that is collected about each Semifinalist is used later in the process to choose scholarship winners. All Finalists receive a Certificate of Merit in recognition of their outstanding performance in the competition.

Scholarships
Of the 15,000 Finalists, about 8,000 receive Merit Scholarship awards. All Finalists are considered for one of the 2,500 National Merit $2,500 Scholarships. National Merit $2,500 Scholarship winners are the finalists in each state judged to have the strongest combination of accomplishments, skills, and potential for success in rigorous college studies. The number of winners named in each state is proportional to the state's percentage of the nation's graduating high school seniors. These Scholars were selected by a committee of college admissions officers and high school counselors, who appraised a substantial amount of information submitted by both the finalists and their high schools: the academic record, including difficulty level of subjects studied and grades earned; scores from two standardized tests; contributions and leadership in school and community activities; an essay written by the finalist; and a recommendation written by a high school official. NMSC's own funds support the majority of these awards but corporate sponsors help underwrite these awards with grants they provide to NMSC in lieu of paying administrative fees. About 1,100 Merit Scholarship awards are provided by corporate sponsors for Finalists who meet criteria specified by the sponsor. Most of these awards are for children of the sponsor's employees, for Finalists living in a particular geographic area, or for Finalists who have career plans the sponsor wishes to encourage. These two types of awards can be used at any regionally accredited college or university in the United States. There are also approximately 4,600 college-sponsored Merit Scholarship awards for Finalists who plan to attend a sponsor college. Finalists report to NMSC their first choice college (College-Sponsored Merit Awards). In addition, about 1,500 program participants who are below the finalist level receive Special Scholarships provided by corporate sponsors.

To receive a scholarship payment, a Merit Scholarship winner must (a) notify NMSC of plans to enroll in a college or university in the United States that holds accredited status with a regional accrediting commission on higher education, and (b) plan to enroll full-time in an undergraduate course of study leading to a traditional baccalaureate degree. NMSC scholarship stipends are not payable for attendance at United States service academies, distance learning programs, and certain institutions that are limited in their purposes or training. A number of National Merit Scholars do not receive a monetary award because their educational plans or other awards preclude receipt of a monetary scholarship; however, these students may be honored as Honorary Merit Scholars, a designation that acknowledges achievement without providing any financial assistance.

National Achievement Scholarship Program
The National Achievement Scholarship Program was established in 1964, contemporaneously with the passage of the Civil Rights Act of 1964, specifically to encourage Black American youth to continue their education.

In its half century of existence, more than four million African-Americans entered the program. Approximately 228,000 received program recognition, and more than 34,000 were chosen to receive Achievement Scholarship awards.

Prior to 2016, black students who met entry requirements and requested consideration when they took the PSAT/NMSQT could enter both the National Achievement Scholarship Program and the National Merit Program. The two programs were conducted concurrently; however, a student's standing in each program was determined independently. Black students could qualify for recognition, become candidates for awards, and be honored as Scholars in both competitions, but they could receive only one monetary award from NMSC. Students who were chosen as both National Achievement and National Merit Scholars received the monetary award that was most advantageous to them and were recognized as Honorary Scholars in the other program.

With the conclusion of the 2015 program, the National Achievement Scholarship Program transitioned to the United Negro College Fund, which will use program funds to honor and award financial assistance to high-achieving, underrepresented college graduates through the newly designed Achievement Capstone Program.

Because Achievement Scholarship funds are being redirected to awards for college graduates, Black American high school students no longer have the opportunity to compete for Achievement Scholarship awards. However, they may still enter the National Merit Scholarship competition, and they may be eligible to receive awards from the United Negro College Fund after college graduation.

National Merit and National Achievement Scholars
The following is a list of notable National Merit Scholarship Program honorees, many of whom are listed on the "Scholars You May Know" page on the National Merit Scholarship Corporation website.

 * Elvin Bishop (1960)
 * Joseph Stiglitz (1960)
 * Randy Hendricks (1963)
 * Amory Lovins (1964)
 * Robert Reich (1964)
 * Thomas Cech (1966)
 * Alexa Canady (1967)
 * Mitch Daniels (1967)
 * Michael Walsh (1967)
 * Roger Tsien (1968)
 * Jerry Greenfield (1969)
 * Paul Krugman (1970)
 * Ben Bernanke (1971)
 * Evelynn M. Hammonds (1971)
 * Jeffrey Sachs (1972)
 * Bill Gates (1973)
 * Jim Cramer (1973)
 * John Roberts (1973)
 * Mae Jemison (1973)
 * Steve Ballmer (1973)
 * Elena Kagan (1977)
 * Lisa P. Jackson (1979)
 * B. Alvin Drew (1980)
 * Lisa Randall (1980)
 * Jeff Bezos (1982)
 * Andrew Gelman (1982)
 * Susan Rice (1982)
 * Spencer Wells (1984)
 * Peter Thiel (1985)
 * Chubb Rock (1985)
 * Jeri Ryan (1986)
 * Lauren Lake (1986)
 * Linda Rottenberg (1986)
 * Elliott Smith (1987)
 * Ted Cruz (1988)
 * M. Night Shyamalan (1988)
 * Howard Steven Friedman (1989)
 * Michael McCullers (1989)
 * Josh Singer (1990)
 * Asia Carrera (1991)
 * Melissa Harris-Perry (1991)
 * Brooke Magnanti (1992)
 * Stephenie Meyer (1992)
 * Felicia Day (1995)
 * Slater Rhea (2005)

College enrollment
A number of universities reserve or guarantee additional merit-based funding for students who are National Merit Scholars, Finalists or Semifinalists. The National Merit Scholarship Corporation releases annual reports displaying the number of award winners enrolled at specific universities, which some believe encourage competition to attract students in this select group. Secondary schools may also publish information related to their students, in order to augment perception on teaching quality.

The following lists universities that enrolled more than 100 National Merit Scholars for 2019 entering class according to the 2018-19 Annual Report of the National Merit Scholarship Corporation.

Criticism
Under the umbrella of their professional organization, the National Association for College Admission Counseling (NACAC), college and university admissions officers have strongly criticized the National Merit Scholarship Corporation's use of only one measure—the PSAT/NMSQT—to pre-screen students for National Merit recognition.

The NACAC's position was emphasized in a July 2009 announcement, which stated the following: "Implementing the recommendations of its blue-ribbon Testing Commission, the National Association for College Admissions Counseling (NACAC) has called on the National Merit Scholarship Corporation (NMSC) and the College Board to stop using PSAT scores as the initial screen for the country’s most prestigious academic awards."

In public letters to the test's co-sponsors, NACAC charged that eliminating 99 percent of test-takers from the National Merit Scholarship competition solely on the basis of a multiple-choice, standardized exam was "at odds with best practices in the use of admissions test scores". To be eligible for scholarships, high school juniors must score among the top 1 percent of test-takers in their home state. The PSAT serves as the National Merit Scholarship Qualifying Test (NMSQT), and measures critical reading ability, mathematics problem solving ability and writing ability, rather than existing knowledge. These criticisms were challenged by both the College Board and the National Merit Scholarship Corporation.

FairTest (National Center for Fair and Open Testing) has also voiced concerns about the level of transparency in the National Merit Scholarship Corporation's selection process. In February 2010, it issued an announcement stating the following: "The National Merit Scholarship Corporation (NMSC), which runs the country’s most prestigious tuition aid competition, is trying to block internet posting of state-by-state test score requirements for its awards." FairTest points out the many problems associated with standardized tests as measurement tools for real-world achievement. Additional criticism exists in that the National Merit Scholarship Corporation (NMSC) does not publish information regarding scholarship winners by year by state.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: National Merit Scholarship Program


text: Category:Hospitals in Toronto

title: Category:Hospitals in Toronto


text:
Wikipedia:Articles for deletion/Steller Secondary School

 This page is an archive of the discussion about the proposed deletion of the article below. This page is no longer live. Further comments should be made on the article's talk page rather than here so that this page is preserved as an historic record. The result of the debate was: Keep. - SimonP 17:55, Sep 26, 2004 (UTC)

Steller Secondary School
Non-notable secondary school. RickK 06:26, Sep 18, 2004 (UTC)

Isn't the consensus to be keeping high schools? This entry is actually well-written. Keep, I suppose. Rhymeless 06:46, 18 Sep 2004 (UTC)
 * No, there is no consensus. Whenever there has been an attempt to establish one, the opinions among those participating has been very close to evenly divided. I don't mind hashing over high schools but I really do object to what occasionally seem to be misrepresentations of policy. Every VfD discussion on a high school starts from ground zero. Those who say "it should be kept because its a high school" or "all high schools are notable by definition" are stating their own opinion, not established policy or consensus. Those who say "Delete, non-notable" are stating their own opinion, not established policy or consensus. In practice the probability of getting listed on VfD and the vote balance is strongly affected by the quality of the article. [[User:Dpbsmith|Dpbsmith (talk)]] 17:00, 18 Sep 2004 (UTC)

 * Comment: The school doesn't bill itself as a high school, but as a secondary school, accepting students in grades 7-12.  That covers the high school years, but would open the door to articles about junior high schools.  I'm tempted to vote keep since it covers the high school years, but I don't like the slippery slope possibility, and there is nothing particularly notable about this secondary school.  Neutral.  SWAdair | Talk  07:20, 18 Sep 2004 (UTC)
 * Please be aware of national differences. Though this is in Alaska, it's not at all aware for what you would call a high school to be called a secondary school or secondary college in several other countries. Furthermore, in many other countries, there's not a split between junior and senior high. So if you were to vote to delete on that slippery slope basis, you'd basically be setting a precedent to delete the vast majority of high schools in at least Australia, and probably others as well. Ambi 13:22, 18 Sep 2004 (UTC)
 * Actually, I was aware of this. That is why I didn't vote on St Francis of Assisi School (VfD listing immediately below this one), since that school is in a nation where "secondary school" has an entirely different meaning.  Because this article is about a U.S. school, where there normally is a distinction, I'm not comfortable voting either way.  SWAdair | Talk  00:05, 19 Sep 2004 (UTC)
 * Keep, decent article on a school. -- Creidieki 07:47, 18 Sep 2004 (UTC)
 * Delete - non-notable. RedWolf 07:50, Sep 18, 2004 (UTC)
 * Hmmm, there are redlinks that need to be unwikied, but the coverage is excellent. Additionally, the case for notability is genereally made.  I suppose I have to say "keep," since I think our only criterion for schools should be notability. Geogre 13:05, 18 Sep 2004 (UTC)
 * Keep notable HS's delete non-notable HS, just like anything else. This one, however, seems to be a student-run or at least partly student-run public high school, which seems interestingly notable to me.  Keep.--Samuel J. Howard 13:17, Sep 18, 2004 (UTC)
 * Keep. Sounds notable to me. Ambi 13:22, 18 Sep 2004 (UTC)
 * Keep - there is no valid reason whatsoever for this to be a deletion candidate - David Gerard 15:23, 18 Sep 2004 (UTC)
 * Borderline keep, mostly because the article is more complete and more interesting than most high-school-VfD-candidates The writer respected Wikipedia enough to complete a decent short article before pressing the "save page" button. I believe it was perfectly appropriate to list the article for VfD, and perfectly appropriate to decide, after discussion, to keep it. [[User:Dpbsmith|Dpbsmith (talk)]] 17:00, 18 Sep 2004 (UTC)
 * Delete. Not notable. --Improv 00:50, 19 Sep 2004 (UTC)
 * Keep. Decent article. -- Necrothesp 14:22, 19 Sep 2004 (UTC)
 * Delete. Not notable. Nothing in the article is notable. Reads like Dennis' description of how his commune is governed in Monty Python and the Holy Grail. Are these voting rules even worth mentioning? They seem quite normal. The problem with such high school articles is that even when detailed like this, they come out mostly the same: nothing but non-encyclopedic fluff about the school as it exists at the moment. If many graduates begin talking about the wonderful (or hideous) education at Steller Secondary School or this school is being talked about in educational journals or even if it was getting press in the local community for something unusual, it would have some notablity. Otherwise, just a school like any other. Yes, it is an alternative school. But nothing here makes it look like an especially different sort of alternative school. Jallan 17:22, 19 Sep 2004 (UTC)
 * Please note that Steller's philosophy makes it a very unique school. As soon as I talk to Dorothy (the principal), I should be able to directly implement it rather than just having a link. --Stellertony 00:00, Sep 20, 2004 (UTC)
 * Delete - Tεx  τ  urε  17:09, 20 Sep 2004 (UTC)
 * Delete all schools unless they are notable. Chameleon 17:24, 20 Sep 2004 (UTC)
 * Delete. Non-notable --G Rutter 18:46, 21 Sep 2004 (UTC)

 * This page is now preserved as an archive of the debate and, like some other VfD subpages, is no longer 'live'. Subsequent comments on the issue, the deletion, or the decision-making process should be placed on the relevant 'live' pages.  Please do not edit this page .


text:
Alexander (crater)

Alexander is a lunar impact crater-like feature in the rugged surface to the north of Mare Serenitatis. It lies to the south-southwest of the prominent crater Eudoxus, and to the east-northeast of Calippus. It was named after Alexander the Great. The Alexander formation has been so heavily worn and distorted with the passage of time that it now resembles little more than a lowland region enclosed by rugged ranges. The rim segments lie along the northwest, west, and south sections of the crater, while the eastern side stands open to the surrounding surface. The surviving walls are nearly rectangular in form, with the most prominent mounts in the northwest.

The crater floor is more smooth and has a darker albedo in the western half, and gradually grows lighter and more impacted toward the east. There are no craters of significance within the perimeter of this formation, although there are tiny craterlets aplenty in the rougher eastern section.

Satellite craters
By convention these features are identified on lunar maps by placing the letter on the side of the crater midpoint that is closest to Alexander.

title: Alexander (crater)


text:
Sûreté

Sûreté (, lit. 'safety') is, in some French-speaking countries or regions, the organizational title of a civil police force.

Algeria
The Directorate General for National Security is known in French as the Sûreté Nationale.

Belgium
The VSSE is known by its French name, Sûreté de l'État.

Canada
The provincial police force of Québec is called the Sûreté du Québec.

France
The French National Police was formerly called Sûreté générale and then Sûreté nationale.

History
The Sûreté nationale, or Sûreté, began as the criminal investigative bureau of the Préfecture de police de Paris (Paris Police Prefecture) and did not function as the national command and control organization until much later, by which time it no longer had any detectives on its staff.

Both the Paris Police Prefecture's Brigade Criminelle and the Direction centrale de la Police judiciaire trace their history directly to the Sûreté.

The French Sûreté is considered a pioneer of all crime-fighting organizations in the world, although London's Bow Street Runners, founded 1749, served a similar purpose at times. Founded in 1812 by Eugène François Vidocq, who headed it until 1827, it was the inspiration for Scotland Yard, the FBI, and other departments of criminal investigation throughout the world. Vidocq was convinced that crime could not be controlled by then-current police methods, so he organized a special branch of the criminal division modelled on Napoleon's political police. The force was to work undercover and its early members consisted largely of reformed criminals. By 1820 – eight years after its formation – it had blossomed into a 30-man team of experts that had reduced the crime rate in Paris by 40%.

On 23 April 1941, the French police was nationalized under the Vichy regime, and each branch was placed under the prefect. The term Police nationale ("National Police") was then first used – with the sole exception of the Paris Police Prefecture. This organisational name was used during the Fourth and Fifth French Republic.

On 9 July 1964, the previously independent police in Paris were placed under the Sûreté nationale and 10 July 1966 saw the final reorganization into the National Police in its present form.

Notable original members

 * Eugène François Vidocq – founder and first chief

Morocco
The national police force of Morocco is the Sûreté Nationale.

Switzerland
Sûreté is the name of the detective branch of the cantonal police of the French-speaking cantons of Switzerland.

title: Sûreté


text:
Eugenia

Eugenia is a genus of flowering plants in the myrtle family Myrtaceae. It has a worldwide, although highly uneven, distribution in tropical and subtropical regions. The bulk of the approximately 1,100 species occur in the New World tropics, especially in the eastern Brazil's northern Andes, the Caribbean, and the Atlantic Forest (coastal forests). Other centers of diversity include New Caledonia and Madagascar. Many species in the Old World have received a new classification into the genus Syzygium.

All species are woody evergreen trees and shrubs. Several are grown as ornamental plants for their attractive glossy foliage, and a few produce edible fruit that are eaten fresh or used in jams and jellies.

Taxonomy
The genus was named in honor of Prince Eugene of Savoy.

Many species new to science have been and are in the process of being described from these regions. For example, 37 new species of Eugenia have been described from Mesoamerica in the past few years. At least 20 new species are currently being described from New Caledonia, and approximately the same number of species new to science may occur in Madagascar. Despite the enormous ecological importance of the myrtle family in Australia (e.g. Eucalyptus, Corymbia, Angophora, Melaleuca, Callistemon, Rhodamnia, Gossia), only one species of Eugenia, E. reinwardtiana, occurs on that continent. The genus also is represented in Africa south of the Sahara, but it is relatively species-poor on that continent. In the past some botanists included the morphologically similar Old World genus Syzygium in Eugenia, but research by Rudolf Schmid in the early 1970s convinced most botanists that the genera are easily separable. Research by van Wyk and colleagues in South Africa suggests the genus may comprise at least two major lineages, recognizable by anatomical and other features.

Molecular phylogenetic studies have changed the historical circumscription of the genus. Many species formerly placed in Eugenia have been moved to Syzygium. Two others have been reassigned to Pimenta. The Caribbean genera Hottea, Calyptrogenia and Pseudanamomis were shown to be embedded in Eugenia. The monotypic Indian genus Meteoromyrtus was also found to be part of Eugenia.

Species
Selected species include: • Eugenia angustissima O.Berg – needle-leaf cherry

• Eugenia azeda M.Sobral – feijoa pitanga

• Eugenia brasiliensis Lam. – grumichama (Brazil)

• Eugenia brevistyla D.Legrand (Brazil)

• Eugenia calycina Cambess. - savannah cherry

• Eugenia candolleana – rainforest plum

• Eugenia capensis – dune myrtle, Eastern Cape myrtle (South Africa)

• Eugenia cerasiflora Miq.

• Eugenia cereja D.Legrand – mountain cherry

• Eugenia copacabanensis – Copacabana Beach pitanga (Atlantic Coast restingas in the state of Rio de Janeiro, Brazil)

• Eugenia coronata

• Eugenia dysenterica DC. a.k.a. Stenocalyx dysentericus O.Berg

• Eugenia earthiana (Costa Rica)

• Eugenia ekmanii

• Eugenia fernandopoana

• Eugenia florida – rainforest cherry, guamirim cereja

• Eugenia foetida

• Eugenia fulva

• Eugenia involucrata – cherry of the Rio Grande

• Eugenia klotzschiana O.Berg – cerrado pear

• Eugenia koolauensis O.Deg – Koolau eugenia, nioi (Islands of Molokai and Oahu in Hawaii)

• Eugenia lamprophylla

• Eugenia luschnathiana Klotzsch & O.Berg – Bahia pitomba (Bahia, Brazil), not to be confused with Talisia esculenta

• Eugenia mabaeoides Wight.

• Eugenia neomyrtifolia

• Eugenia orbiculata

• Eugenia palumbis – agatelang

• Eugenia petrikensis

• Eugenia pitanga (O.Berg ex Mart.) Kiaersk. – pitanga-peba, creeping pitanga

• Eugenia punicifolia (Kunth) DC.

• Eugenia pyriformis Brazil – uvaia, uvalha

• Eugenia pruniformis Brazil – azeitoninha-da-praia (little beach olive)

• Eugenia reinwardtiana (Blume) DC. – mountain stopper, Cedar Bay cherry, beach cherry (Queensland in Australia, Indonesia, Pacific Islands)

• Eugenia repanda – pitanga-jambo

• Eugenia roxburghii DC.

• Eugenia selloi – pitanga-tuba, pitangola

• Eugenia sellowiana – field uvaia, field perinha, sweet uvainha

• Eugenia singampattiana Beddome

• Eugenia speciosa – ibaijuba, bush orange

• Eugenia stipitata McVaugh – arazá-boi (Amazon Rainforest)

• Eugenia subterminalis – bush cherry, smooth pitanga of the shade

• Eugenia sulcata – pitanga-preta

• Eugenia truncata

• Eugenia umtamvunensis (South Africa)

• Eugenia uniflora L. – Suriname cherry, pitanga (Neotropics)

• Eugenia uruguayensis Cambess.

• Eugenia victoriana – guayabilla (northern South America)

Ecology
Eugenia species are sometimes used as food plants by the larvae of hepialid moths of the genera Aenetus (including A. splendens) and Endoclita (including E. damor and E. malabaricus). Aenetus species burrow horizontally into the trunk then vertically down. Other Lepidoptera larvae which feed on Eugenia include Eupseudosoma aberrans and the snowy eupseudosoma.

title: Eugenia


text:
Iris Associates

Iris Associates was an American software development company founded in 1984. It developed the software for Lotus Notes (subsequently IBM Notes). Iris worked under contract with Lotus Development Corporation until 1994, when it was bought by Lotus.

Founding
Iris Associates was founded in Westford, Massachusetts on December 7, 1984, by Ray Ozzie. Tim Halvorsen and Len Kawell, who joined Iris shortly afterwards in January 1985, met Ray Ozzie years before when all of them were working on the University of Illinois PLATO system. They are widely regarded as the core team behind the creation of Lotus Notes. Len Kawell was the author of PDP-11 Notes and a predecessor of VAX Notes, which shared similar functionality to Lotus Notes but predated the graphical interface of the PC.

Relationship with Lotus Development Corporation
The company's primary funding came from a contractual relationship with Lotus Development Corporation (later known as Lotus Software), best known at the time for its Lotus 1-2-3 spreadsheet software. Lotus funded development of Iris's product (then code-named simply "Notes") in exchange for a future option to purchase exclusive intellectual property, marketing, and sales rights. After this option was exercised years later by Lotus, Iris was additionally compensated through royalties on gross product sales. Lotus Notes was brought to market on Iris's 5th anniversary, December 7, 1989.

The author/publisher contractual relationship between Iris Associates and Lotus Development continued until 1994, when Iris was purchased by Lotus for approximately US$84 million.

Success of Lotus Notes
Only a year later, in the face of the rapid decline of its desktop business, Lotus itself was purchased by IBM for approximately US$3.5 billion and Notes became branded as IBM Notes. Approximately US$3 billion of this price is generally attributed to the purchase of the Notes business.

At the time of the IBM purchase, Lotus reported that Notes had approximately 2.2 million users. In 2004, nearing the 20th anniversary of the founding of Iris Associates, IBM reported that Notes has over 110 million users.

title: Iris Associates


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Fort Tryon Park

Fort Tryon Park is a public park located in the Washington Heights and Inwood neighborhoods of the borough of Manhattan in New York City. The 67 acre park is situated on a ridge in Upper Manhattan, close to the Hudson River to the west. It extends mostly from 192nd Street in the south to Riverside Drive in the north, and from Broadway in the east to the Henry Hudson Parkway in the west. The main entrance to the park is at Margaret Corbin Circle, at the intersection of Fort Washington Avenue and Cabrini Boulevard.

The area was known by the local Lenape tribe as Chquaesgeck and by Dutch settlers as Lange Bergh (Long Hill). During the American Revolutionary War, the Battle of Fort Washington was fought at the site of the park on November 16, 1776. The area remained sparsely populated during the 19th century, but by the turn of the 20th century, it was the location of large country estates.

Beginning in January 1917, philanthropist John D. Rockefeller Jr., bought up the "Tryon Hall" estate of Chicago industrialist C. K. G. Billings and several others to create Fort Tryon Park. He engaged the Olmsted Brothers firm to design the park and hired James W. Dawson to create the planting plan. Rockefeller gave the land to the city in 1931, after two prior attempts to do so were unsuccessful, and the park was completed in 1935. Rockefeller also bought sculptor George Gray Barnard's collection of medieval art and gave it to the Metropolitan Museum of Art, which from 1935 to 1939 built the Cloisters in Fort Tryon Park to house the collection.

The park is built on a high formation of Manhattan schist with igneous intrusions and glacial striations from the last ice age. The park's design included extensive plantings of various flora in the park's many gardens, including the Heather Garden, which was restored in the 1980s. Besides the gardens and the Cloisters, the park has extensive walking paths and meadows, with views of the Hudson and Harlem Rivers. Fort Tryon Park was added to the National Register of Historic Places on December 19, 1978 and was designated a New York City scenic landmark in 1983.

Geography and geology
Fort Tryon Park covers 67.21 acre. It is bounded on the west by the Henry Hudson Parkway, on the north by Riverside Drive, on the east by Broadway and Bennett Avenue, and on the south by the alignment of 192nd Street. A small section at the park's southwestern corner is located between Cabrini Boulevard to the east and Henry Hudson Parkway to the west, and is bounded to the south by 190th Street. The park is adjacent to Inwood Hill Park to the north and Fort Washington Park and Riverside Park to the south; all are part of the Manhattan Waterfront Greenway. The park offers views of the Hudson River, the George Washington Bridge, and the New Jersey Palisades, to the west; Washington Heights to the south; Inwood and the Bronx to the north; and the Harlem River to the east. The north–south Henry Hudson Parkway and Amtrak's Empire Connection run alongside the western edge of the park.

The park is built on a formation of Manhattan schist and contains examples of igneous intrusions and of glacial striations from the last ice age. The lower lying regions to the east and north of the park are built on Inwood marble. Outcroppings of gneiss and schist can be seen interlaid with the marble, as seen in the outcroppings at the park's edges. Fort Tryon Park also contains a large glacial pothole.

The northern boundary of the park is formed by the seismologically active Dyckman Street Fault. The fault creates a valley separating Fort Tryon Park from Inwood Hill Park to the north. In precolonial times, a Native American road ran within this valley from the present-day intersection of Broadway and Dyckman Street to a settlement on the Hudson River. The valley formerly contained an inlet named Little Sand Bay, which flowed into the Hudson River to the west. As recently as 1989, activity of this fault caused a magnitude 2 earthquake.

Another valley separated Fort Washington from a hill to the east, which hosted Fort George. This valley contained a stream, which was known as the Hessian Spring. The stream emptied into Half Creek (later Sherman Creek), which in turn led to the Harlem River to the east.

Site
The northern portion of Manhattan was first known to be inhabited by the Wecquaesgeek tribe of Lenape Native Americans,   who referred to the area around Fort Tryon Park as Chquaesgeck. When Dutch settlers inhabited the lower Hudson Valley in the early 17th century, they attempted to force the Native Americans out, and some of the Wecquaesgeeks continued to occupy the area. The tribe had moved out by 1669, but continued to hold onto their land claims until 1715. The Dutch referred to the park site as Lange Bergh (Long Hill), a name first given by Dutch settler Joost van Oblienus in 1691. At the time, Long Hill was a heavily wooded area that was part of the town of Harlem. As late as the 17th century, wild animals could be hunted on the northern portion of the hill, within the park's present site. In 1711, Harlem's political leaders decreed that a road be built through the area. When Harlem was subdivided the following year, the hill was split into multiple smaller lots.

During the American Revolutionary War, the trees were cleared to make way for fortifications. At the time, Long Hill had been known as Mount Washington, while an outcropping in the center of the site was called Forest Hill. The latter was part of a series of fortifications that lined the steep cliff within the park site, which was known by the Americans as Fort Washington. The actual site of Fort Washington is less than a mile south at Bennett Park. The park was an ancillary site of the Battle of Fort Washington, fought on November 16, 1776, between 2,900 American soldiers and 8,000 invading Hessian troops hired by Great Britain. Despite the American Continental Army's strategic position at the top of Long Hill, they were defeated after holding out for two hours. American soldier Margaret Corbin became the first woman to fight in the war and was injured during the battle; the southern entrance to the park bears her name. After the British victory, the outpost on Forest Hill was named after William Tryon, the last British Governor of the Province of New York (1771–1777). The British made improvements to Fort Tryon, using it as Upper Manhattan's primary defensive post, before peacefully withdrawing from Manhattan in 1783. The Tryon name persisted even after the British withdrawal, even as many other colonial place names were being expunged of their British influence.

As New York City expanded and prospered following the end of the Revolutionary War, the land comprising the park remained undeveloped, except for a few country estates. The first of these was created by Dr. Samuel Watkins, founder of Watkins Glen, who took ownership of multiple plots in 1818. Ownership of the Watkins estate passed to Lucius Chittenden, a merchant originally from New Orleans, in 1844. The Chittenden family owned the land until 1871. Part of the estate was sold in 1855 to August C. Richards, who built a Gothic-style stone castle called "Woodcliff", designed by Alexander Jackson Davis. Woodcliff was subsequently used as a summer home by General Daniel Butterfield, Boss Tweed, Alexander Turney Stewart, and William Libbey, whereupon it became known as "Libby Castle". Another portion of the Chittenden site was developed by William C. Muschenheim, later an operator of the Hotel Astor, who built an estate called "Fort Tryon Terrace". In contrast with the elaborate estates at the top of Fort Tryon, the plateau to the east was known as "Poverty Hollow" by 1851.

Between 1901 and 1905, C. K. G. Billings combined Chittenden's, Muschenheim's, and Libbey's properties into a single estate. On the site, he built "Tryon Hall", a Châteauesque-style mansion with a swimming pool, horse stables, a formal garden, pergolas, and a winding 2000 ft driveway leading from Riverside Drive. The mansion also contained boat docks on the Hudson River and a garage to house his collection of 13 automobiles. Billings lived at Tryon Hall until 1915. Immediately to the north were Abbey Inn, a summer residence built on land that Willam Henry Hays had purchased in 1842, and another estate that Walter S. Sheafer, the state geologist of Pennsylvania, had bought in 1891.

Acquisition and planning

The philanthropist John D. Rockefeller Jr. had held an interest in Fort Tryon since childhood, when he and his father had taken walks in Fort Tryon. In January 1917, Rockefeller anonymously purchased the 33 acre that collectively comprised the Hays and Sheafer tracts, Shortly afterward, a New York Times article publicized the sale, and Rockefeller acquired the 25 acre Billings estate for $35,000 an acre.

In June 1917, Rockefeller announced that Fort Tryon Park would be given to the city on the conditions that it be joined to the existing Fort Washington and Riverside Parks, and that the city maintain the park. Rockefeller also donated land on the opposite bank of the Hudson to the Palisades Interstate Park in 1933; that land would be taken over by the Palisades Interstate Park Commission, which had operated the Palisades Interstate Park in New Jersey since 1900. According to the Palisades Interstate Park Commission's website, there is an often-repeated claim that the land in New Jersey was bought to preserve views from Fort Tryon Park; however, the Palisades land was purchased years before Fort Tryon Park was opened to the public. In any case, Rockefeller planned to run a ferry service across the Hudson River between Fort Tryon and the Palisades on the river's western bank. Mayor John Purroy Mitchel was positioned to accept Rockefeller's offer. However, his successor John Francis Hylan ultimately did not accept the land, saying that the site had not been "improved". Moreover, the city had failed to propose a law that would have deeded the parkland to the Palisades Interstate Park Commission. In 1925, Hylan told one of Rockefeller's advisors that the city would consider another proposal to take the land and use it as a park. Following this, Rockefeller again offered the land to the city in 1926, though without success.

In preparation for converting the land into a city park, Rockefeller hired the Olmsted Brothers firm, particularly Frederick Law Olmsted Jr., son of the designer of Central Park. Olmsted's design capitalized on the topography to reveal sweeping vistas of the Hudson River and the Palisades. Olmsted Jr. was guided by the four principles of park design that his father had established in creating Central Park: the beautiful, as seen in small open lawns; the picturesque, as shown in wooded slopes; the sublime, represented in the vistas of the Hudson River; and the gardenesque, exemplified by the park's Heather and Alpine Gardens. Olmsted Jr. had a preliminary report in 1927 and conducted a more exhaustive study in 1928–1930. In addition, James W. Dawson was hired to create a park-planting plan.

Rockefeller also bought sculptor George Gray Barnard's collection of medieval art in 1925. He added several artworks to the collection, which became a branch of the Metropolitan Museum of Art (Met) in 1926. Rockefeller retained Barnard as an advisor for the collection, and they collectively decided to add a museum for the collection at Fort Tryon Park, which they chose for its elevation, views, and accessible but isolated location. The Billings mansion, which was originally supposed to house the collection, was destroyed in a March 1926 fire that burned down everything except the walls. In June 1930, Rockefeller offered 56 acre of the park to the city for a third time, though he reserved 4 acre for the future museum. Rockefeller also offered to improve the grounds for $2 million, though the city would be responsible for improving utilities in the park. In his letter offering the park to the city, Rockefeller proposed to name the park after Fort Tryon, but in September 1930, historian Reginald Pelham Bolton said that Rockefeller actually preferred to have the park be named "Forest Hill Park". In early 1931, the city moved to accept Rockefeller's offer.

Construction
Construction of the park began in August 1931, before the city had accepted the deed to the land on December 28, 1931. The work provided many jobs during the Great Depression. The work included numerous smaller projects such as destruction of the old Billings estate; grading of the terrain; constructing structures such as arches and balconies; planting trees, shrubs, and lawns; and cutting into the ridge of the west side of the park to create an extension of Riverside Drive. Some 36000 yd3 of Manhattan schist were used in the project, while an average of 350 workers were employed during each day of work. Construction progressed quickly and by February 1932, it was reported that Fort Tryon Park was 42% complete. Rockefeller bought an additional two plots from the Met totaling about 1 acre in June 1932. The following year, he offered to landscape the additional plots at his own expense, and the city accepted that land.

The project included the construction of the New York City Subway's IND Eighth Avenue Line, served by the modern-day, which contains two stations serving the park (see ). The line, which crosses directly under the park between the two stations, opened in late 1932. By March 1934, it was reported that the park was nearly complete, but that an additional $500,000 was needed for improvements. The Public Works Administration subsequently gave mayor Fiorello H. La Guardia and New York City parks commissioner Robert Moses $800,000 in funds to complete the park. The playground at the northeast corner of the park, at Broadway and Dyckman Street, was opened on September 6, 1934. The park was dedicated on October 12, 1935 by Rockefeller & Moses. In total, Rockefeller had spent $3.6 million toward the park's construction. Upon Fort Tryon Park's opening, Upper Manhattan had nearly 600 acre of parkland split among several non-contiguous sites, including Fort Tryon, Fort Washington, Inwood Hill, and Highbridge Parks.

In April 1935, construction started on the Cloisters, the Met's medieval art museum within the park. The museum, designed by Charles Collens, incorporated several medieval buildings that were purchased in Europe, brought to the United States, and reassembled, often stone by stone. The first portions of the Cloisters were opened to the public in May 1938, and the museum was completed the following year.

Mid-20th century and decline
In the years following Fort Tryon Park's opening, several improvements were made to the park. In 1936, the Met gave the city a small portion of the land intended for the Cloisters, thereby increasing Fort Tryon Park's area slightly. In 1939, Rockefeller announced that he had given the city an additional 1.75 acre of vacant land adjacent to Fort Tryon Park, which the city would convert into another playground. The new playground was dedicated in 1941.

During the years before World War I, the future park's name was shared by the neighborhood to its south. The area between Broadway and the Hudson River, as far south as West 179th Street, was known as Fort Tryon. By the 1940s the neighborhood was known as Frankfurt-on-the-Hudson, a name that by the 1990s had given way to Hudson Heights. In the 1970s, a retired furniture salesman named Robert Hoffman led an initiative to rename Fort Tryon Park, following an interaction where Hoffman heard a group of tourists laugh upon hearing about the park's etymology. His efforts led Hope Irvine, a co-chairperson of Manhattan Community Board 12's Bicentennial Committee, to suggest Margaret Corbin's name for the park. The Cloisters objected to the entire park's renaming but reached a compromise to rename the park's southern entrance plaza and the main road. This led to the New York City Council voting to rename these features after Margaret Corbin in 1977.

As the City of New York suffered severe budget constraints in the 1970s, especially in the aftermath of the 1975 New York City fiscal crisis, funds for parks were decimated. Fort Tryon Park's gardens, woodlands, and playgrounds fell into disuse and disrepair. The park's concession building was closed in 1976 following a major fire. Decline continued until the 1980s when funds became available and restoration efforts began. Numerous crimes were recorded in the park in the 1980s. These included the discoveries of several corpses, including that of a missing 9-year-old girl in 1986, and that of a 19-year-old woman who was strangled in 1989. However, there were perceptions that crime in Fort Tryon Park was overlooked due to its relatively remote position. In April 1989, the beating and rape of a woman in Central Park received national media attention, but a similar attack on another woman in Fort Tryon Park the same month was sparsely covered even by local media.

Late-20th and early-21st century improvements
In 1983, the New York City Landmarks Preservation Commission made Fort Tryon Park an official scenic landmark. The next year, a plan for the park's complete renovation was unveiled. The Greenacre Foundation, an organization created by John Rockefeller Jr.'s only daughter Abby Rockefeller Mauzé, donated $10 million toward the restoration in advance of the park's 50th anniversary in 1985. Among the first features to receive improvements was the Heather Garden, which was restored over three years by a partnership between the New York City Department of Parks and Recreation (NYC Parks), the Greenacre Foundation, and volunteers. The concession building was restored beginning in 1995 by the New York Restoration Project (NYRP), a nonprofit organization operated by Bette Midler, which started operating a cafe there in 2001. The Anne Loftus Playground at the park's northeast corner was also restored between 1995 and 1997, and the Javits Playground at the southern border was restored around the same time. The nonprofit Fort Tryon Park Trust was founded in 1998 to help maintain the park. In 2001, the trust raised $200,000 toward the further restoration of the Heather Garden. The Sir William Dog Run opened the same year.

The park was still the site of crimes, despite being much safer than in previous years. After an incident where a jogger was raped in the early morning in 1997, NYC Parks considered proposals to close the park's roads at night. Met officials opposed the move because it would block access to the Cloisters, but NYC Parks eventually agreed to place wooden barriers to allow Met staff access at night. The New York Times stated that the park had gained the perception among local residents and park officials "as something of a nighttime haven for vandals, drug users and even car thieves", and had seen eight abandoned cars in 1997 alone. Following additional crimes in the 2000s, cameras were installed in the park in 2011.

NYC Parks and the Fort Tryon Park Trust started restoring the park's eastern side in 2006. The restoration of the overgrown Alpine Garden was completed in 2009 in advance of the park's 75th anniversary the following year. On June 15, 2010, the park celebrated its 75th anniversary with a fundraiser and fireworks display. After the concession building was closed in 2014 for roof renovations, the operation of the restaurant was taken over in 2015 by Queens-based cafe Coffeed. A renovation of the Jacob K. Javits Playground started in July 2018 and was completed in March 2020. The Anne Loftus Playground was temporarily closed in August 2021, and it reopened in October 2022 after a $4.2 million renovation.

Design
Olmsted Brothers created a plan that adapted the area's steep topography into a landscaped park. According to their original 1927 design, Fort Tryon Park was to be a "landscape park occupying a site of extraordinary landscape interest", devoted mostly to "passive recreation" except for a playground at its northern edge. Fort Tryon Park's landscape also served as the backdrop for the Cloisters, intended as the "culminating point of interest in the architectural design of the park." The natural topography was largely preserved, with the park being designed around the terrain. Olmsted Jr. believed that the park should use a variety of landscapes:

"Each unit in this intricate series of places should offer a picture of as great perfection as can be contrived, using the same great distant views over the Hudson and over the City gain and again but framing them differently, presenting them with constantly differing types of foreground, some intricate and intimate, some grandiose and simple, some richly architectural or gardenesque, some picturesquely naturalistic; and, by way of contrast, some presenting wholly self-contained scenes."

In a continuation of his father's design philosophy, Olmsted Jr. included passive recreation features such as numerous tiers of paths; a combination of natural and manmade slopes; and the addition of plantings and rock forms to supplement existing features of the park site. The few small flat areas were converted to lawns with trees on their perimeters. Stone retaining walls were placed along slopes to prevent visitors on the paths from falling off the cliffs. The park also included curved drives and pathways for vehicles and pedestrians, as well as segregated vehicle and pedestrian uses. Other design features in Fort Tryon Park included the use of arches; segregation of passive and active recreational activities; the diversity and precise arrangement of plantings; the variety of different landscape designs; and the blend of naturalistic and architectural features. Similar design principles were also included in Morningside Park and in the Ramble at Central Park, both designed by Olmsted's father upon steep terrain.

In contrast to previous parks created by Olmsted Jr. and his father, Fort Tryon Park emphasized architecture and was more accommodating to vehicles. The park's retaining walls were more prominent than in previous parks, and the Cloisters was the most prominent feature of the park. Further, Fort Tryon Park contained parking lots and vehicle overlooks, in contrast to other parks that discouraged vehicle use. Other deviations from past designs included the emphasis of Heather Garden, a gardenesque feature, as well as the formally-designed children's playground at the northeast corner. The design includes numerous architectural features including Corbin Circle and Linden Terrace.

Circulation

Fort Tryon Park contains numerous roads that can accommodate light traffic volumes. The primary road, named Margaret Corbin Drive, carries traffic from the park's southern entrance at Corbin Circle to a roadway that loops around the Cloisters. Formally designated in 1977,  the name commemorates the Continental Army soldier in the American Revolutionary War who was wounded in the Battle of Fort Washington. A secondary roadway named Fort Tryon Place carries traffic to and from the northbound lanes of Henry Hudson Parkway, at the bottom of the cliff to the west. Corbin Drive passes above Fort Tryon Place via a pair of masonry arches: one large arch at a rock cut that carries both directions of Corbin Drive above both directions of Fort Tryon Place, and a smaller arch that carries northbound Corbin Drive over the westbound Fort Tryon Place. The drive contains numerous small parking lots.

The north–south Fort Washington Avenue ends at Corbin Circle, though it once extended north through the park. Another street, Abbey Hill Road, once connected Margaret Corbin Drive with Broadway, though it no longer exists on maps. The north–south Overlook Terrace, on the south side of the park, was authorized to be extended to Corbin Circle, though that section was not built.

An 8 mi-long network of pedestrian pathways is also located within the park. Along the edges of some paths, there are rows of stone that have been cut and placed to produce naturalistic effects. Tunnels carry the paths under the drives at two locations: at Fort Tryon Place and near the concession building. Another bridge carries a path over Fort Tryon Place. Ramps and stairways connect the park to Broadway and Riverside Drive, respectively located at the bottom of the cliff to the east and north. A formal promenade, containing seating areas and elm trees, runs north from Corbin Circle to Linden Terrace.

Plantings
The park site was originally planted with numerous trees, both native and imported. Olmsted Brothers transported 180 fully grown "mature trees" and planted more than 1,600 floral species to make the park appear like a botanical garden. The various sections of Fort Tryon Park were planted with herbaceous plants, shrubs, and trees representing different seasons. There were also numerous small lawns including the Children's Play Lawn and the Picnic Grounds, as well as formal planted areas such as Corbin Circle, the promenade, the terrace, and the playground. The Heather and Alpine Gardens were distinctly designed with a large variety of plantings. Though it is illegal to forage for plants inside Fort Tryon Park, or at any other public park within the city, relatively few summons are written for such violations within the park.

The Heather Garden, located in a ridge west of Corbin Drive and the promenade, is described by NYC Parks as "the largest public garden with unrestricted access in New York City", with an area of 3 acre. It was planned by the Olmsted Brothers as a gardenesque site with American elm trees and low-growing heather, also known as Calluna vulgaris. The short height of the heather was intended to allow views of the Hudson River, and stone seating allowed visitors to observe the landscape. The heather took several years to grow to its full height. The Heather Garden became overgrown with invasive species after a remodeling in 1955 failed to take Olmsted's design into consideration. The garden was restored in the late 1980s following Olmsted's original plans. Minor additions and improvements continued to take place afterward. The garden contains perennials, shrubs, and trees, as well as plantings representing each season.

The Alpine Garden, the other formal space planned by the Olmsted Brothers, is located on the ridge along the park's eastern side, to the east of the Cloisters. It contains a stone stair and a grotto. Originally planted with alpine plants, the garden later became overgrown before being restored in 2009. The garden incorporates numerous rocks, which according to NYC Parks' website "compliment the outcroppings of metamorphic Manhattan schist". The rocks used in the garden include quartz, feldspar, mica, and garnet; some of the stone comes from excavations during the park's and subway's construction.

In addition, the Cabrini Woods Nature Sanctuary runs alongside Cabrini Boulevard at the southwestern corner of the park. The woods connect to Inwood Hill Park and Fort Washington Park, the last two natural woodlands in Manhattan. Both the woods and the boulevard are named after Frances Xavier Cabrini, the first American canonized as a Roman Catholic saint. The woods serve as a habitat for wildlife, including 80 bird species as well as possums, raccoons, and skunks.

Playgrounds
Fort Tryon Park contains two playgrounds. The park's northeast corner contains the Anne Loftus Playground, a triangle-shaped play area that primarily serves the Inwood neighborhood to the north. It is named after Anne Susan Cahill Loftus, a local resident who was the district manager of Manhattan Community Board 12 between 1980 and 1989. Opened in 1934, the playground was the only section of Fort Tryon Park that was originally intended for "active recreation" and the only playground designed by the Olmsted Brothers. The Olmsted Brothers built the playground on the site because of its flatness and proximity to the streets nearby. The southwest side of the Anne Loftus Playground contains a one-story stone fieldhouse with a rooftop observation deck that is set into the cliff, and the northeast side contains an entrance to the Dyckman Street station. A large wading pool is located in the middle of the playground, and plane trees encircle the play area. The playground was restored in 1995–1997 under a $1.44 million project that also added handicapped-accessible facilities, additional play structures, and performance space. The Anne Loftus Playground was renovated again between 2021 and 2022.

The other playground in Fort Tryon Park is the Jacob K. Javits Playground, which primarily serves Hudson Heights and is named after U.S. senator Jacob Javits. The play area contains a play structure and basketball courts, as well as elm trees throughout the playground. When the park was created, Empire Mortgage initially leased the playground to the city before giving away the land as a gift in 1944. The playground was transferred to NYC Parks in 1981 and renamed after Javits in 1984. It was renovated in 1995. After a second period of decline, the playground was renovated again from 2018 to 2020.

Other features

Margaret Corbin Circle is located at the intersection of Cabrini Boulevard and Fort Washington Avenue, on the park's southern border. Formerly known simply as the South Plaza, it was renamed in 1977 after Corbin. The plaza consists of a roundabout for traffic, and is surrounded by a low stone perimeter wall, with stone posts flanking the entrances to the building. A planted circle is located in the center of the roundabout. The old Fort Tryon Cottage (see ) and the station building to the New York City Subway's 190th Street station are located on the edges of the plaza. A bronze plaque commemorating Corbin is located on the perimeter wall.

Sir William's Dog Run is located to the east of Corbin Drive, south of the overpass over Fort Tryon Drive. The dog run is open 24 hours a day and its regulations allow owners to take their dogs off-leash. Opened in 2001, it is described as the largest dog run in Manhattan. Several trees within Sir William's Dog Run are surrounded by short barriers to prevent damage to their roots.

Structures
Buildings in Fort Tryon Park include the Cloisters, the gatehouse, a cafeteria and administration building, the field house, and the subway fan house and shed. Except for the Cloisters, these buildings are mostly single-story masonry structures made with ashlar. Numerous other structures also exist, including a gazebo and the Billings Arcade.

The Cloisters
The Cloisters is a branch of the Metropolitan Museum of Art that houses the museum's extensive collection of medieval European art and artifacts, including the Unicorn Tapestries. The museum's buildings are a combination of medieval structures bought in Europe and reconstructed on-site stone-by-stone, and new buildings in the medieval style designed by Charles Collens. The Cloisters consists of four main cloister structures: Cuxa, Saint Guilhem, Bonnefont, and Trie. The Cloisters also contains three gardens, one each within the Cuxa, Bonnefont, and Trie cloisters. The museum is surrounded by the circular park drive, and its site is bounded by many plantings including an apple orchard to the south and denser vegetation to the north and west. A driveway and a bus stop with Belgian blocks is located at the northeastern portion of the site.

The museum was created after John D. Rockefeller Jr. purchased the medieval art collection of George Grey Barnard, and gave it to the Met along with his own collection. Rockefeller, retaining Bernard as an advisor, decided that Fort Tryon Park was the most suitable place for the collection. The Met then had the Cloisters built in Rockefeller's newly created Fort Tryon Park with endowment money from Rockefeller. The Cloisters opened to the public in 1938. A northern extension to the Cloisters, The Fuentidueña Apse, was completed in 1961.

Linden Terrace
The David Rockefeller Linden Terrace is located at the Promenade's northern end, on the site of Fort Tryon and Tryon Hall. The terrace is located 268 ft above sea level, the highest location in Fort Tryon Park. It is also the highest landscape feature on Manhattan Island, as measured by the distance between ground level and sea level. However, Linden Terrace is not the island's highest natural point, which is located within Bennett Park a few blocks south, 265 ft above sea level. Linden Terrace is supported with stone retaining walls of up to 40 ft tall. It comprises a main observation deck and the smaller Northeast Terrace, which are linked by an arch across a passageway below. In the early 21st century the terrace was renamed after John D. Rockefeller Jr's last surviving child David, who had donated $1 million toward the park.

The main portion contains a terraced seating area with elms. There is plaque installed in 1935 that recognizes John Rockefeller Jr's donation of the parkland, as well as another plaque installed in 2010 honoring David's donation. The Northeast Terrace, also known as Flagpole Terrace, includes a flagstaff with a granite-and-bronze pedestal. The original flagstaff installed by Olmsted was toppled during Hurricane Sandy in 2012 and was replaced with a replica.

The retaining wall north of Linden Terrace contains a stele called the Fort Tryon Memorial. The stele predates the park, having been installed in 1904 or 1909 to a design by Charles Rollinson Lamb. The monument was donated by C. K. G. Billings and the American Scenic and Historic Preservation Society. It contains an inscription commemorating Corbin's and the Maryland and Virginia regiments' defense during the battle on Forest Hill in 1776.

Billings estate
There are numerous remnants of the C. K. G. Billings estate. The Fort Tryon Cottage, located on a slope just northwest of Corbin Circle, was originally a gatehouse for the estate. The structure is made of frame and stucco and contains three floors with a dining room and kitchen, as well as a patio. The cottage is NYC Parks' northern Manhattan headquarters and is closed to the public except for one weekend per year.

Another extant remnant of the estate is the partially paved-over red-brick pathways near Corbin Circle. It was originally a 1600 ft serpentine driveway with multiple switchbacks that continued down to Riverside Drive, now the northbound lanes of the Henry Hudson Parkway. The brick was intended to help horses ascend the driveway's 6% slope. By 1936, when the park was built, the driveway had been converted into a pedestrian path. Though the gates to the driveway were removed, the granite posts were left standing. An overgrown section of the driveway used to connect with the northbound Henry Hudson Parkway, but in 1994, the New York State Department of Transportation added a Jersey barrier to block off access to the driveway.

The driveway continued down through the massively arched structure known as the Billings Arcade. The arcade features five 50 ft arches built of granite from Maine. Atop the arcade is a small open area known as the Billings Lawn. The arcade cost $250,000 to construct,.

Concession building

The park's concession building is located north of Margaret Corbin Circle, on the western side of Corbin Drive. The two-story stone structure is located in a slope. It contains a hip roof made of slate and open pavilions on all sides except the southern facade. The building's main entrance is through an arcade with three arches on the eastern facade. Originally, the building contained a cafe with refreshments, as well as restrooms and the headquarters for park staff.

The building, having fallen into disrepair, was closed after a fire in 1976. It was restored beginning in 1995 by Bette Midler's nonprofit organization NYRP. The organization was awarded the operation of the concession in 2000, and opened the New Leaf Café – later called the New Leaf Restaurant and Bar – the next year. NYC Parks closed the building for necessary roof repairs in December 2014, and NYRP announced that it would not reopen, due to the length of time the repairs would take and the increased rent that the organization would have to pay. The operation of the restaurant was taken over in late April 2015 by Coffeed, a Queens-based cafe which donates a portion of its revenue to local charities. The restaurant closed again in January 2020 after Coffeed's contract expired.

Other structures

The Shelter Overlook, an octagonal gazebo, is located east of Corbin Drive at the northeast corner of Sir William's Dog Run. It originally contained a tile roof, later replaced with a slate roof after a fire. The roof is supported by stone piers. The gazebo is frequented by those using the dog run.

A two-story brick ventilation building for the subway is also located within the park at Broadway and Dongan Place. There are also two comfort stations in the park. The first is a structure at Broadway and Sherman Avenue that looks like a cottage, while the second is located inside a slope north of the Cloisters.

Wildlife
Cabrini Woods hosts 80 bird species as well as possums, raccoons, and skunks. The surrounding area also hosts a wide variety of birds, including common species such as blue jays and cardinals; wild turkeys; and birds of prey including red-tailed hawks and owls. Animals within the area include Eastern and meadow voles, red-bellied salamanders, southern flying squirrels, opossums, white-footed deer mice, and cottontail rabbits, as well as eastern gray squirrels and raccoons.

Management
The Fort Tryon Park Trust is a nonprofit organization that helps maintain and improve Fort Tryon Park. It was founded in 1998 as the Heather Garden Committee Endowment. Their mission statement is to "promote the restoration, preservation, and enhancement of this historic and scenic landmark for the benefit and use of the surrounding community and all New Yorkers and visitors." The trust secured numerous grants to maintain various parts of the park.

Transportation
The New York City Subway's IND Eighth Avenue Line runs directly underneath Fort Tryon Park. It contains two stations serving the park: the Dyckman Street station at Broadway, Riverside Drive, and Dyckman Street on the far northeast corner of the park, and the 190th Street station at Corbin Circle in the park's far southeast end.

Several bus routes serve Fort Tryon Park. The northern terminals of the buses are at Corbin Circle, though the M4 bus is extended into the park to serve the Cloisters when the museum is open. Additionally, the buses serve Broadway on the park's eastern border.

Historic significance
There have been numerous archeological findings in Fort Tryon Park since 1918. That year, Alanson Skinner, an archeologist with the National Museum of the American Indian, discovered "traces of Indian shell heaps, fireplaces, and pits, indicating an ancient camping ground". The historian Reginald Pelham Bolton wrote in 1924 that the intersection of 194th Street and Broadway may have been used as a seasonal camp, as evidenced by the presence of debris from the pre-colonial era underneath the overhangs in Fort Tryon Park between 194th and 198th Streets. It is unclear whether the subway excavations of the 1930s disturbed any shells or other materials, but despite the construction during that era, many materials are still buried in the ground. In the 1970s, Michael Cohn of the Brooklyn Children's Museum found oyster and clam shells as well as pottery shards and "projectile points". Other excavations have found artifacts from the 17th and 18th centuries, including war artifacts up to 10 ft below ground level.

Together, the park and the Cloisters were listed as an historic district on the National Register of Historic Places in 1978. The Cloisters had been designated a New York City landmark in 1974, while Fort Tryon Park was designated a scenic landmark in 1983.

Public use and perception
In 2012, an examination of tweets and emoticons determined that Fort Tryon Park was "the happiest spot in Manhattan". Because of its secluded location, the park is frequently used for wedding photographs and ceremonies, though the park remains open to the public while these events take place. On the other hand, Fort Tryon Park has historically been used as a location for sexual intercourse due to this seclusion, and in some years, New York City Police Department officers would issue summons once a week. However, since the 2000s and 2010s, summons for public intercourse have decreased greatly.

The Fort Tryon Park Trust helps fund programs for all ages like yoga and tai chi classes, live outdoor concerts, and bird walks. The Trust also supports local artists' displays within the park, facilitated by the New York City Parks Temporary Public Art Program.

Fort Tryon Park also hosts several annual events. The Medieval Festival, an annual event that has taken place at the park since 1983, typically takes place at the end of September and draws an average of 60,000 people. Additionally, Open House New York hosts the Annual Open House New York Weekend each October, collaborating with the Fort Tryon Park Trust to give tours of the Billings cottage and the Heather Garden. Other annual events include the "Shearing of the Heather" in April, the "Urban Wildlife Festival", the remembrance of the Battle of Fort Washington in November, the Scandia Symphony concert in June, the Harvest Festival in October, and "A Toast to Fort Tryon" each summer.

In media
Several films contain footage shot in Fort Tryon Park or the Cloisters. In 1948, director Maya Deren used the Cloisters' ramparts as a backdrop for her experimental film Meditation on Violence. The same year, the film Portrait of Jennie used the Cloisters as the location for a convent school. Additionally, two scenes in the 1968 film Coogan's Bluff were filmed in Fort Tryon Park: a shoot-out at the Cloisters and a motorcycle chase in the Heather Garden. Scenes from the 2011 film The Adjustment Bureau were also filmed in Fort Tryon Park.

title: Fort Tryon Park


text:
Esplanade

An esplanade or promenade is a long, open, level area, usually next to a river or large body of water, where people may walk. The historical definition of esplanade was a large, open, level area outside fortress or city walls to provide clear fields of fire for the fortress's guns. In modern usage, the space allows the area to be paved as a pedestrian walk; esplanades are often on sea fronts and allow walking whatever the state of the tide, without having to walk on the beach.

History
In the 19th century, the razing of city fortifications and the relocation of port facilities made it possible in many cities to create promenade paths on the former fortresses and ramparts. The parts of the former fortifications, such as hills, viewpoints, ditches, waterways and lakes have now been included in these promenades, making them popular excursion destinations as well as the location of cultural institutions. The rapid development of artificial street lighting in the 19th century also enabled safe use in the evening. One example of this is Vienna's Ringstrasse.

Esplanades became popular in Victorian times, when it was fashionable to visit seaside resorts. A promenade, often abbreviated to '(the) prom', was an area where people – couples and families especially – would go to walk for a while in order to 'be seen' and be considered part of 'society'. Beach promenades such as the Promenade de la Croisette in Cannes, the famous Promenade des Anglais on the Mediterranean coast in Nice or the Lungomare of Barcola in Trieste still play a central role in city life and in the real estate market.

In the United States, esplanade has another meaning, being also a median (strip of raised land) or berm dividing a roadway or boulevard. Sometimes they are just strips of grass, or some may have gardens and trees. Some roadway esplanades may be used as parks with a walking/jogging trail and benches.

Esplanade and promenade are sometimes used interchangeably. The derivation of "promenade" indicates a place specifically intended for walking, though many modern promenades and esplanades also allow bicycles and other nonmotorized transport. Some esplanades also include large boulevards or avenues where cars are permitted.

A similar term with the same meaning in the eastern coastal region of Spain is alameda Alameda de Hercules, Seville, o rambla, such as La Rambla in Barcelona, but more widely used terms in the rest of the Hispanic world are paseo marítimo ("esplanade"), paseo ("promenade") or explanada ("esplanade").

India

 * Esplanade, also known as the Central Business District in Kolkata
 * Kamarajar Salai, Chennai in Chennai
 * Marine Drive, Kochi in Kochi
 * Marine Drive in Mumbai
 * Bandstand Promenade in Mumbai
 * Promenade Beach in Pondicherry

Malaysia

 * Esplanade, Kuantan, Pahang
 * Esplanade, George Town, Penang
 * Gurney Drive, George Town, Penang
 * Karpal Singh Drive, George Town, Penang

Philippines

 * Baywalk, Manila
 * Dipolog Boulevard, Dipolog
 * Iloilo River Esplanade, Iloilo City
 * Paseo del Mar, Zamboanga City

United Arab Emirates

 * Al Seef
 * Corniche (Abu Dhabi)
 * Deira Corniche
 * Fujairah Corniche

Others

 * Tsim Sha Tsui East, Victoria Harbour in Hong Kong
 * West Kowloon Waterfront Promenade, West Kowloon Cultural District in Hong Kong
 * Tel Aviv Promenade, Tel Aviv, Israel
 * Corniche Beirut, Beirut, Lebanon
 * The Esplanade, Singapore
 * Galle Face Green, Colombo, Sri Lanka
 * Doha Corniche, Doha, Qatar
 * The Bund, Shanghai, China
 * Jehangir Kothari Parade, Pakistan
 * Jeddah Corniche, Saudi Arabia

United States

 * The Charles River Esplanade, Boston, Massachusetts
 * The Eastern Promenade, Portland, Maine
 * The Esplanade, Redondo Beach, California
 * Third Street Promenade, Santa Monica, Los Angeles County, California
 * Eastbank Esplanade, Portland, Oregon
 * The East River Greenway, New York, New York

Others

 * Calçadão de Copacabana and Calçadão de Ipanema, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
 * Malecón, Puerto Vallarta, Mexico
 * Malecón, Havana, Cuba
 * Paseo del Morro, Old San Juan, Puerto Rico
 * Paseo de la Princesa, Old San Juan, Puerto Rico
 * Rambla de Montevideo, Uruguay
 * Terrasse Dufferin, Quebec City, Canada

Europe

 * Barcola, Trieste, Italy
 * Esplanaden, Copenhagen, Denmark
 * La Promenade des Anglais, in Nice, France
 * Esplanade de La Defense, France
 * Paseo Marítimo de Pontevedra, in Pontevedra, Spain
 * Usedom Beach Promenade, Western Pomerania, Germany (Europe's longest beach promenade)
 * Świnoujście, by the Baltic Sea, Poland
 * Trzebież, by the Szczecin Lagoon, Poland
 * The Esplanade, in Weymouth, England
 * Esplanadi, in Helsinki, Finland
 * Valletta Waterfront, in Floriana, Malta
 * Spianada, in Corfu town, Greece

Others

 * St Clair Esplanade in Dunedin, New Zealand
 * The Golden Mile, Durban, South Africa
 * Sea Point, Cape Town, South Africa

Inland

 * Esplanade of the European Parliament, in Brussels, Belgium
 * Ministries Esplanade, in Brasília, Brazil
 * The Esplanade (Toronto), in Toronto, Canada
 * Thames Embankment, in London, England
 * Brühl's Terrace, Dresden, Germany
 * The Danube Promenade in Budapest, Hungary
 * Esplanade, in Calcutta, India
 * Iloilo River Esplanade in Iloilo City, Philippines
 * Błonia, Kraków, Poland
 * L'Enfant Plaza in Washington, D.C., United States
 * Charles River Reservation, in Boston, Massachusetts, United States
 * The Eastbank Esplanade, in Portland, Oregon, United States

title: Esplanade


text:
Little Pee Dee River

The Little Pee Dee River is a 116 mi tributary of the Pee Dee River (which originates in the Appalachian Mountains where it is known as the Yadkin River). The Little Pee Dee technically arises near Laurinburg, North Carolina as Gum Swamp, which flows southward, receiving several small tributaries, across the South Carolina border into Red Bluff Lake, near McColl, South Carolina. The lake is at an elevation of 135 ft above sea level, and from the outlet of the lake, the flow is called the Little Pee Dee River. The Little Pee Dee River is named after the Pee Dee Indian Tribe. Today, the tribe still occupies some of the land, although the tribe only consists of just over 200 enrolled members.

The Little Pee Dee is a sluggish meandering blackwater river that ranges between 10 and 25 ft wide and 6 to 10 ft deep in its upper reaches. It is navigable only by canoe or other small craft. Some parts of the Little Pee Dee River are nearly blocked by low-hanging tree branches. It is bordered by a swamp area that features bald cypress, sweetgum, oak, tupelo and other hardwoods. It flows southeastward, roughly paralleling the state border until it receives the somewhat larger Lumber River (a National Wild and Scenic River) near Nichols, South Carolina, from which the much larger river flows more nearly southward until it joins with the Pee Dee near Yauhannah, South Carolina.

Part of the lower section has been designated a Scenic River by the South Carolina Department of Natural Resources. It features deep channels, slow moving water, and white sandy bars and beaches. Cooters, sunning on logs, are a common sight. Other wildlife is abundant, including alligators, beavers, deer, and wood ducks. Less common species like bald eagles, pileated woodpeckers, and prothonotary warblers, can be spotted with a little luck. The river also offers excellent fishing. A Boating Guide to the Little Pee Dee is available from the South Carolina Department of Natural Resources. It covers the history of the river, its flora and fauna as well as a listing of access points and boating information. Paddle SC has list of 10 suggested trips on the Little Pee Dee listing difficulty and current runnability.

The Little Pee Dee runs its entire length through coastal lands of low relief that are pockmarked with Carolina bays. Down river from Dillon, South Carolina is Little Pee Dee State Park. Adjacent to this is the Little Pee Dee Heritage Preserve which is a Carolina bay that has been preserved as natural as possible.

title: Little Pee Dee River


text:
Stigler

Stigler is a surname. Notable people with the surname include:

 * Franz Stigler (1915–2008), Luftwaffe pilot who escorted an American bomber back to safety in 1943
 * George Stigler (1911–1991), Nobel Prize–winning U.S. economist, associated with the Stigler Commission and Stigler diet; father of Stephen Stigler
 * James W. Stigler, American psychologist, researcher, entrepreneur and author
 * Michael Stigler (born 1992), American track and field athlete
 * Stephen Stigler (born 1941), professor at the University of Chicago, known for Stigler's law of eponymy; son of George Stigler
 * William G. Stigler (1891–1952), American politician in Oklahoma

Other uses

 * Stigler, Oklahoma, a city Haskell County
 * Stigler Regional Airport, owned by the city of Stigler
 * Stigler Commission, convened in 1961 to study the measurement of inflation in the United States
 * Stigler diet, an optimization problem regarding recommended dietary allowances (RDAs)
 * Stigler's law of eponymy, which states that no scientific discovery is named after its original discoverer
 * List of examples of Stigler's law

title: Stigler


text:
Reiner Gamma

Reiner Gamma (γ) is a geographical feature of the Moon known as a lunar swirl. It is one of the most visible lunar swirls from Earth, visible from most telescopes. It was originally thought to be a lunar highland, but scientists eventually realized that it cast no shadow on the moon.

Origin
The origin of Reiner Gamma—like other lunar swirls—is not completely understood. It is associated with a localized magnetic field, but not with any particular irregularities in the surface. Similar features have been discovered in Mare Ingenii and Mare Marginis by orbiting spacecraft. The feature on Mare Ingenii is located at the lunar opposite point from the center of Mare Imbrium. Likewise the feature on Mare Marginis is opposite the midpoint of Mare Orientale. Thus one hypothesis is that the feature resulted from seismic energies generated by the impacts that created these maria. However, no such lunar mare formation is on the opposite side of the Moon from Reiner Gamma.

Location and Features
Reiner Gamma is located on the Oceanus Procellarum, west of the crater Reiner. Its center is located at selenographic coordinates. It has an overall length of about 70 kilometres. The feature has a higher albedo than the relatively dark mare surface, with a diffuse appearance and a distinctive swirling, concentric oval shape. Related albedo features continue across the surface to the east and southwest, forming loop-like patterns over the mare.

The central feature of Reiner Gamma resembles the dipolar formation created by iron filings on a surface with a bar magnet on the underside. Low-orbiting spacecraft have observed a relatively strong magnetic field associated with each of these albedo markings. Some have speculated that this magnetic field and the patterns were created by cometary impacts. However the true cause remains uncertain.

Reiner Gamma's magnetic field strength is approximately $15 nT$, measured from an altitude of $28 km$. This is one of the strongest localized magnetic anomalies on the Moon. The surface field strength of this feature is sufficient to form a mini-magnetosphere that spans $360 km$ at the surface, forming a $300 km$ thick region of enhanced plasma where the solar wind flows around the field. As the particles in the solar wind are known to darken the lunar surface, the magnetic field at this site may account for the survival of this albedo feature.

In early lunar maps by Francesco Maria Grimaldi, this feature was incorrectly identified as a crater. His colleague Giovanni Riccioli then named it Galilaeus, after Galileo Galilei. The name was later transferred northwest to the current crater Galilaei.

Other references

 * Ewen A. Whitaker, Mapping and Naming the Moon: A History of Lunar Cartography and Nomenclature, Cambridge University Press, 1999, ISBN 0-521-62248-4.

title: Reiner Gamma


text:
Ximelagatran

Ximelagatran (Exanta or Exarta, H 376/95) is an anticoagulant that has been investigated extensively as a replacement for warfarin that would overcome the problematic dietary, drug interaction, and monitoring issues associated with warfarin therapy. In 2006, its manufacturer AstraZeneca announced that it would withdraw pending applications for marketing approval after reports of hepatotoxicity (liver damage) during trials, and discontinue its distribution in countries where the drug had been approved (Germany, Portugal, Sweden, Finland, Norway, Iceland, Austria, Denmark, France, Switzerland, Argentina and Brazil).

Method of action
Ximelagatran, a direct thrombin inhibitor, was the first member of this class that can be taken orally. It acts solely by inhibiting the actions of thrombin. It is taken orally twice daily, and rapidly absorbed by the small intestine. Ximelagatran is a prodrug, being converted in vivo to the active agent melagatran. This conversion takes place in the liver and many other tissues through hydrolysis and dehydroxylation (replacing the ethyl and hydroxyl groups with hydrogen).

Uses
Ximelagatran was expected to replace warfarin and sometimes aspirin and heparin in many therapeutic settings, including deep venous thrombosis, prevention of secondary venous thromboembolism and complications of atrial fibrillation such as stroke. The efficacy of ximelagatran for these indications had been well documented,  except for non valvular atrial fibrillation.

An advantage, according to early reports by its manufacturer, was that it could be taken orally without any monitoring of its anticoagulant properties. This would have set it apart from warfarin and heparin, which require monitoring of the international normalized ratio (INR) and the partial thromboplastin time (PTT), respectively. A disadvantage recognised early was the absence of an antidote in case acute bleeding develops, while warfarin can be antagonised by prothrombin complex concentrate and/or vitamin K and heparin by protamine sulfate.

Side effects
Ximelagatran was generally well tolerated in the trial populations, but a small proportion (5–6%) developed elevated liver enzyme levels, which prompted the FDA to reject an initial application for approval in 2004. The further development was discontinued in 2006 following reports of hepatotoxicity. Subsequent analysis of Phase 2 clinical study data using extreme value modelling showed that the elevated liver enzyme levels observed in Phase 3 clinical studies could have been predicted; if this had been known at the time, it might have affected decisions on future development of the compound.

A chemically different but pharmacologically similar substance, AZD-0837, was developed by AstraZeneca for similar indications. It is a prodrug of a potent, competitive, reversible inhibitor of free and fibrin-bound thrombin called ARH0637. The development of AZD-0837 has been discontinued. Due to a limitation identified in long-term stability of the extended-release AZD-0837 drug product, a follow-up study from ASSURE on stroke prevention in patients with non-valvular atrial fibrillation, was prematurely closed in 2010 after 2 years. There was also a numerically higher mortality against warfarin. In a Phase 2 trial for AF the mean serum creatinine concentration increased by about 10% from baseline in patients treated with AZD-0837, which returned to baseline after cessation of therapy.

title: Ximelagatran


text:
Polity

A polity is a group of people with a collective identity, who are organized by some form of political institutionalized social relations, and have a capacity to mobilize resources.

A polity can be any group of people organized for governance, such as the board of a corporation, the government of a country, or the government of a country subdivision. A polity may have various forms, such as a republic administered by an elected representative, the realm of a hereditary monarch, and others.

When referring to a specific polity, the term "country" may refer to a sovereign state, states with limited recognition, constituent country, or a dependent territory.

Overview
In geopolitics, a polity can manifest in different forms such as a state, an empire, an international organization, a political organization or another identifiable, resource-manipulating organizational structure. A polity like a state does not need to be a sovereign unit. The preeminent polities today are Westphalian states and nation-states, commonly referred to as countries.

A polity may encapsulate a multitude of organizations; many of these may form or are involved to the apparatus of contemporary states such as their subordinate civil and local government authorities. Polities do not need to be in control of any geographic areas, as not all political entities and governments have controlled the resources of one fixed geographic area. The historical Steppe Empires originating from the Eurasian Steppe are the most prominent example of non-sedentary polities. These polities differ from states because of their lack of a fixed, defined territory. Empires also differ from states in that their territories are not statically defined or permanently fixed and consequently that their body politic was also dynamic and fluid. It is useful then to think of a polity as a political community.

A polity can also be defined either as a faction within a larger (usually state) entity or at different times as the entity itself. For example, Kurds in Iraqi Kurdistan are parts of their own separate and distinct polity. However, they are also members of the sovereign state of Iraq which is itself a polity, albeit one which is much less specific and as a result much less cohesive. Therefore, it is possible for an individual to belong to more than one polity at a time.

Thomas Hobbes was a highly significant figure in the conceptualisation of polities, in particular of states. Hobbes considered notions of the state and the body politic in Leviathan, his most notable work.

Polities do not necessarily need to be governments. A corporation, for instance, is capable of marshalling resources, has a governance structure, legal rights and exclusive jurisdiction over internal decision making. An ethnic community within a country or coast to coast entity may be a polity if they have sufficient organization and cohesive interests that can be furthered by such organization.

title: Polity