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Marshallian demand function

In microeconomics, a consumer's Marshallian demand function (named after Alfred Marshall) is the quantity they demand of a particular good as a function of its price, their income, and the prices of other goods, a more technical exposition of the standard demand function. It is a solution to the utility maximization problem of how the consumer can maximize their utility for given income and prices. A synonymous term is uncompensated demand function, because when the price rises the consumer is not compensated with higher nominal income for the fall in their real income, unlike in the Hicksian demand function. Thus the change in quantity demanded is a combination of a substitution effect and a wealth effect. Although Marshallian demand is in the context of partial equilibrium theory, it is sometimes called Walrasian demand as used in general equilibrium theory (named after Léon Walras).

According to the utility maximization problem, there are $$ L $$ commodities with price vector $$ p $$ and choosable quantity vector $$ x $$. The consumer has income $$ I $$, and hence a budget set of affordable packages

 * $$B(p, I) = \{x : p \cdot x \leq I\},$$

where $$ p \cdot x = \sum_i^L p_i x_i $$ is the dot product of the price and quantity vectors. The consumer has a utility function

 * $$u : \mathbb R^L_+ \rightarrow \mathbb R.$$

The consumer's Marshallian demand correspondence is defined to be

 * $$x^*(p, I) = \operatorname{argmax}_{x \in B(p, I)} u(x) $$

Revealed preference
Marshall's theory suggests that pursuit of utility is a motivational factor to a consumer which can be attained through the consumption of goods or service. The amount of consumer's utility is dependent on the level of consumption of a certain good, which is subject to the fundamental tendency of human nature and it is described as the law of diminishing marginal utility.

As utility maximum always exists, Marshallian demand correspondence must be nonempty at every value that corresponds with the standard budget set.

Uniqueness
$$x^*(p, I)$$ is called a correspondence because in general it may be set-valued - there may be several different bundles that attain the same maximum utility. In some cases, there is a unique utility-maximizing bundle for each price and income situation; then, $$x^*(p, I)$$ is a function and it is called the Marshallian demand function.

If the consumer has strictly convex preferences and the prices of all goods are strictly positive, then there is a unique utility-maximizing bundle. To prove this, suppose, by contradiction, that there are two different bundles, $$x_1$$ and $$x_2$$, that maximize the utility. Then $$x_1$$ and $$x_2$$ are equally preferred. By definition of strict convexity, the mixed bundle $$0.5 x_1 + 0.5 x_2$$ is strictly better than $$x_1, x_2$$. But this contradicts the optimality of $$x_1, x_2$$.

Continuity
The maximum theorem implies that if: then $$x^*(p, I)$$ is an upper-semicontinuous correspondence. Moreover, if $$x^*(p, I)$$ is unique, then it is a continuous function of $$p$$ and $$I$$.
 * The utility function $$u(x)$$ is continuous with respect to $$x$$,
 * The correspondence $$B(p, I)$$ is non-empty, compact-valued, and continuous with respect to $$p,I$$,

Combining with the previous subsection, if the consumer has strictly convex preferences, then the Marshallian demand is unique and continuous. In contrast, if the preferences are not convex, then the Marshallian demand may be non-unique and non-continuous.

Homogeneity
The optimal Marshallian demand correspondence of a continuous utility function is a homogeneous function with degree zero. This means that for every constant $$a>0,$$
 * $$x^*(a\cdot p, a\cdot I) = x^*(p, I).$$

This is intuitively clear. Suppose $$p$$ and $$I$$ are measured in dollars. When $$a=100$$, $$ap$$ and $$aI$$ are exactly the same quantities measured in cents. When prices and wealth go up by a factor a, the purchasing pattern of an economic agent remains constant. Obviously, expressing in different unit of measurement for prices and income should not affect the demand.

Demand curve
Marshall's theory exploits that demand curve represents individual's diminishing marginal values of the good. The theory insists that the consumer's purchasing decision is dependent on the gainable utility of a goods or services compared to the price since the additional utility that the consumer gain must be at least as great as the price. The following suggestion proposes that the price demanded is equal to the maximum price that the consumer would pay for an extra unit of good or service. Hence, the utility is held constant along the demand curve. When the marginal utility of income is constant, or its value is the same across individuals within a market demand curve, generating net benefits of purchased units, or consumer surplus is possible through adding up of demand prices.

Examples
In the following examples, there are two commodities, 1 and 2.

1. The utility function has the Cobb–Douglas form:
 * $$u(x_1,x_2) = x_1^{\alpha}x_2^{\beta}.$$

The constrained optimization leads to the Marshallian demand function:
 * $$x^*(p_1,p_2,I) = \left(\frac{\alpha I}{(\alpha+\beta)p_1}, \frac{\beta I}{(\alpha+\beta)p_2}\right).$$

2. The utility function is a CES utility function:
 * $$u(x_1,x_2) = \left[ \frac{x_1^{\delta}}{\delta} + \frac{x_2^{\delta}}{\delta} \right]^{\frac{1}{\delta}}.$$

Then $$x^*(p_1,p_2,I) = \left(\frac{I p_1^{\epsilon-1}}{p_1^{\epsilon} + p_2^{\epsilon}}, \frac{I p_2^{\epsilon-1}}{p_1^{\epsilon} + p_2^{\epsilon}}\right), \quad \text{with} \quad \epsilon = \frac{\delta}{\delta-1}.$$

In both cases, the preferences are strictly convex, the demand is unique and the demand function is continuous.

3. The utility function has the linear form:
 * $$u(x_1,x_2) = x_1 + x_2.$$

The utility function is only weakly convex, and indeed the demand is not unique: when $$p_1=p_2$$, the consumer may divide his income in arbitrary ratios between product types 1 and 2 and get the same utility.

4. The utility function exhibits a non-diminishing marginal rate of substitution:
 * $$u(x_1,x_2) = (x_1^{\alpha} + x_2^{\alpha}), \quad \text{with} \quad \alpha > 1.$$

The utility function is not convex, and indeed the demand is not continuous: when $$p_1<p_2$$, the consumer demands only product 1, and when $$p_2<p_1$$, the consumer demands only product 2 (when $$p_1=p_2$$ the demand correspondence contains two distinct bundles: either buy only product 1 or buy only product 2).

title: Marshallian demand function


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Magdeburg Cathedral

Magdeburg Cathedral (Magdeburger Dom), officially called the Cathedral of Saints Maurice and Catherine (Dom zu Magdeburg St. Mauritius und Katharina), is a Protestant cathedral in Germany and the oldest Gothic cathedral in the country. It is the proto-cathedral of the former Prince-Archbishopric of Magdeburg. Today it is the principal church of the Evangelical Church in Central Germany. The south steeple is 99.25 m (325 ft 7 in) tall, the north tower 100.98 m (331 ft 4 in), making it one of the tallest cathedrals in eastern Germany. The cathedral is likewise the landmark of Magdeburg, the capital city of the Bundesland of Saxony-Anhalt, and is also home to the grave of Emperor Otto I the Great and his first wife Edith.

The first church built in 937 at the location of the current cathedral was an abbey called St. Maurice, dedicated to Saint Maurice. The current cathedral was constructed over the period of 300 years starting from 1209, and the completion of the steeples took place only in 1520. Despite being repeatedly looted, Magdeburg Cathedral is rich in art, ranging from antiques to modern art.

Previous building

The first church was founded September 21, 937 at the location of the current cathedral was an abbey called St. Maurice (St. Moritz), dedicated to Saint Maurice and financed by Emperor Otto I, the Great. Otto wanted to demonstrate his political power after the successful Battle of Lechfeld in 955, and ordered the construction even before his coronation as Emperor on February 2, 962. Furthermore, to support his claim as successor of the Emperor of the Weströmisches Reich, he obtained a large number of antiques – for example, pillars to be used for the construction of the church. Many of those antiques were subsequently used for the second church in 1209. The church had most likely one nave with four aisles, a width of 41 meters and a length of 80 meters. The height is estimated as up to 60 meters.

The wife of Otto, Queen Eadgyth (grand-daughter of Alfred the Great), was buried in the church after her death in 946; isotopic analysis of her bones confirms her early life in Wessex. The church was expanded in 955. Hence, the church became a cathedral. In 968, Emperor Otto I selected Magdeburg as the seat of an archdiocese with Adalbert von Trier as archbishop, even though the city was not centrally located but at the eastern border of his kingdom. He did this because he planned to expand his kingdom, and also Christianity, to the east into what is nowadays Poland. This plan, however, failed. Emperor Otto I died soon thereafter in 973 in Memleben and was also buried in the cathedral next to his wife.

The entire cathedral St. Maurice was destroyed on Good Friday in 1207 by a city fire. All but the southern wing of the cloister burned down. Archbishop Albrecht II von Kefernburg decided to pull down the remaining walls and construct a completely new cathedral, against some opposition of the people in Magdeburg. Only the south wall of the cloister is still standing. The exact location of the old church remained unknown for a long time, but the foundations were rediscovered in May 2003, revealing a building 80 m long and 41 m wide. The old crypt has been excavated and can be visited by the public. The place in the north of the cathedral (sometimes called "new marketplace", Neuer Markt, now: Cathedral square = in German language: Domplatz) was occupied by an imperial palace (Kaiserpfalz), which was destroyed in the fire of Good Friday 1207. In the southeast corner of the Domplatz stood a second large church, the "North Church", which burned down 1207 and was not rebuilt after the fire. The stones of the ruin served for building the cathedral. The presumptive remains of the palace were excavated in the 1960s.

Construction of the current building
The highly educated Prince-Archbishop Albert I of Käfernburg, having traveled in Italy and France, decided to construct the new cathedral modelled upon the Gothic architecture that had intrigued him in France. The French style was completely unknown in Germany, and the hired craftsmen only gradually mastered it.

The construction of the choir started in 1209, only two years after the fire that destroyed the previous church, but this choir is still in a very Romanesque style, initially still using Romanesque groin vaults, combined with a gothic center stone, which however is not needed for Romanesque groin vaults.

The Gothic influence increased especially between 1235 and 1260 under Archbishop Wilbrand. As the construction was supervised by different people in the span of 300 years, many changes were made to the original plan, and the cathedral size expanded greatly. The people of Magdeburg were not always happy with this, since they had to pay for the construction. In some cases already constructed walls and pillars were torn down to suit the wishes of the current supervisor.

Construction stopped after 1274. In 1325, Archbishop Burchard III. von Schraplau was killed by the people of Magdeburg because of extreme taxes. Folklore says that especially the beer tax increase caused much anger. Afterwards Magdeburg was under a ban, and only after the donation of five atonement altars did the construction of the cathedral continue under Archbishop Otto von Hessen. Otto was also able to complete the interior construction, and formally opened the dome in 1363 in a week-long festival. At this time, the cathedral was dedicated not only to St Maurice as before, but also to Saint Catherine.

In 1360, the construction stopped again after the uncompleted parts have been covered provisionally. Only in 1477 did the construction start again under Archbishop Ernst von Sachsen, including the two towers. The towers were constructed by master builder Bastian Binder, the only master builder of the cathedral known by name. The construction of the cathedral was completed in 1520 with the placement of the ornamental cross on the north tower.

Luther, the Swedes, and Napoleon
On October 31, 1517 Martin Luther published the 95 Theses in Wittenberg, Germany, an event considered to mark the start of the Protestant Reformation. Luther preached in Magdeburg in 1524, and some smaller churches in the city to adopt Protestantism soon thereafter. The unpopularity of Archbishop Albrecht von Brandenburg also furthered the Reformation, and after his death in 1545 in Mainz there was no successor. Magdeburg became a leading site of the Reformation, and was outlawed by the emperor. The Catholic Church stored the cathedral treasure in Aschaffenburg for safekeeping, but it would later be lost to the Swedes in the Thirty Years' War. The priests of the cathedral also converted to Protestantism, and on the first Advent Sunday in 1567, the first Protestant worship service was held in the cathedral.

The largest bell, the "Maxima" with 10 tons in the south tower, falls down and was destroyed in the 1540th years.

Heinrich Compenius built 1604/05 his famous main organ with the "Golden Chick".

In 1631, during the Thirty Years' War (1618–1648) Magdeburg was raided, and only a small group of 4000 citizens survived the murdering, raping, and looting (known as the sack of Magdeburg) by seeking refuge in the cathedral. The head priest, Reinhard Bakes, begged on his knees for the lives of his people before the conqueror Johan t'Serclaes, Count of Tilly. The cathedral survived the fires in the city, and was dedicated again to the Catholic religion. However, as Tilly's catholic forces left Magdeburg, the cathedral was completely looted, and its colorful windows were shot out. Twenty thousand people of Magdeburg died during the war, and at the end of the war Magdeburg had a population of only 400. Magdeburg became part of Brandenburg, and was transformed into a large fortress. In 1806, Magdeburg was given to Napoleon, and the cathedral was used for storage, and also as a horse barn and sheep pen. The occupation ended in 1814, and the cathedral changed in the ownership of the Prussian state. Between 1826 and 1834 Frederick William III of Prussia financed the much-needed repairs and reconstruction of the cathedral under the leadership from Karl Friedrich Schinkel. A new main organ IV/81 with mechanical key and stop action was built 1856 to 1861 by Adolf Reubke, 1865 a new division with 6 stops was added. The cathedral organist from 1847 to 1885 was August Gottfried Ritter. He designed the stoplist for the Reubke-Organ. The glass windows were all replaced in 1900.

20th and 21st centuries

In 1901 a steam heating was installed. It needed one railway car with coal to made a temperature from 57,2 °F = 14 °C in winter. Ernst Röver build a new main organ with pneumatic key and stop action, 3 manuals and 100 stops in 1906.

The frequent Allied bombings of World War II completely destroyed the windows of the cathedral. During the heaviest bomb attacks on January 16, 1945, some vaults were destroyed. In February or March 1945 one firebomb from a deep flying attack hit the cathedral on the west facade between the towers, destroying the facade and the Röver-organ. Fortunately, the fire brigades were able to extinguish the flames on the roof structures in time, so damage to the cathedral was only moderate. Also the steam heating was destroyed in WW II and to now not rebuilt. The cathedral was opened again in 1955, and a new organ with mechanical action and 37 stops from Alexander Schuke Orgelbau was installed over the "paradies door" in 1969.

With the end of World War II and the establishment of the communist-led German Democratic Republic in 1949, Magdeburg fell under Soviet control and the ownership of the cathedral to the GDR. Communist leaders tried to suppress religion as a potential threat to communist doctrine, thus being active in church was a social disadvantage. The eradication of religion could not be accomplished, however, and weekly peace prayers were held in the cathedral beginning in 1983 in front of the Magdeburger Ehrenmal, a sculpture by Ernst Barlach. This led to the famous Monday demonstrations of 1989 (similar to those in Leipzig), which played a significant role in the German reunification process.

The cathedral is currently undergoing a reconstruction phase that began in 1983 under the East German Government. In 1990, a number of solar cells were installed on the roof, marking the first solar cell installation on a church in East Germany. The solar cells provide energy for use in the church, with excess energy being added to the regional power network. The maximum output was 418 watts. In 2004, a funding drive started in 1997 for a new main organ was completed, collecting €2.2 million. The new main organ was built by the firm of Alexander Schuke Orgelbau (Werder an der Havel) near Potsdam and was completed in May 2008 and dedicated on Trinity Sunday, May 18, 2008. Specs: ~36 tonnes, 4 manuals, 93 stops and 6193 pipes.

Barry Jordan of Port Elizabeth, South Africa was appointed as Organist and Choral director of the cathedral in August 1994.

The Magdeburger Ehrenmal (Monument) in the cathedral is once again the starting point of many Monday demonstrations, but this time the demonstrations are aimed against social reforms reducing government welfare. However, these demonstrations occur on a much smaller scale, so comparisons to the Monday demonstrations of 1989 are made mainly for publicity reasons.

In the next time the little Schuke-organ will be restored: New case and new facade pipes, new trumpets in the Great und the Pedal, and a new Vox Humana.

Bells
Many of the historic bells were used in the 16th and 17th centuries for the production of weapons. Today there are four historic bells left in the cathedral:

1) the Susanne = Osanna, 8800 kg, tone e0, manufactured in 1702 by Johann Jacobi in Berlin,

2) the Apostolica, 4980 kg, tone b0, manufactured in 1690 by Jakob Wenzel in Magdeburg, it also hits the full hours

3) the Dominica, 2362 kg, tone h0, manufactured in 1575 by Eckart Kucher in Magdeburg,

4) the Orate, 200 kg, tone e2, manufacturing date and manufacturer unknown (13th century?) The Schelle, 1500 kg, tone f1, manufactured in 1396, is only for the clock and hits the quarters of an hour.

The two largest bells and the Schelle are in the North tower, the Orate since 1994 in the spire. The "Dominica" was out of order since ≈2004, but it has been repaired in summer 2019, and now is awaiting installation together with the new "Amemus" in the North tower in the following years.

In the next years eight new bells from 440 kg to 14000 kg will be installed in both towers. The first new bells, the "Amemus" with 6525 kg (tone g0) for the North tower and the "Benedicamus" with 1300 kg (tone e1) for the South tower were manufactured in September and October 2022 by the Bell-manufacturer Bachert in Neunkirchen. The next five little bells for the south tower with the tones d1, f sharp1, g1, a1 and h1, made by Bachert, followed in 2023. The "Credamus" with 14 metric tons and the tone d0 will be installed at the former place of the "Maxima" (destroyed in 1540) in the South tower and will be the second heaviest ringing bell in Germany (after the Petersglocke in Cologne cathedral).

Architecture

The current cathedral was constructed over a period of 300 years starting from 1209, and the completion of the steeples took place only in 1520. As there were no previous examples of gothic architecture in Germany, and German craftsmen were still very unfamiliar with the style at the start of the construction. Hence they learned by doing, and their progress can be seen in small architectural changes over the construction periods, which started with the Sanctuary in the east side of the church near the river Elbe and ended with the top of the towers. This sanctuary shows a strong Romanesque architecture influence. Unlike most other Gothic cathedrals, Magdeburg Cathedral does not have flying buttresses supporting the walls.

The building has an inside length of 120 metres, and a height to the ceiling of 32 metres. The towers rise to 99.25 and 100.98 metres, and are among the highest church towers in eastern Germany. The layout of the cathedral consists of one nave and two aisles, with one transept crossing the nave and aisles. Each side of the transept has an entrance, the south entrance leading into the cloister. The ceiling in the nave is higher than in the aisles, allowing for clerestory windows to give light to the nave. There is a separate narthex (entrance area) in the west. The presbytery in the east is separated from the nave by a stone wall, serving the same function as a rood screen. The sanctuary and the apse follow the presbytery. The apse is also surrounded by an ambulatory. (See Cathedral diagram for details on cathedral layouts.)

A secondary building around a large non-rectangular cloister is connected to the south side of the cathedral. The cloister, whose south wall survived the fire of 1207 and is still from the original church, was parallel to the original church. Yet, the current church was constructed at a different angle, and hence the cloister is at an odd angle with the church.

The ground around the Elbe river in Magdeburg is soft, and it is difficult to construct tall buildings, except for one large rock. Hence the cathedral was constructed on top of this rock, called the Domfelsen in German, which means Cathedral Rock. At low water levels, this rock is visible in the Elbe. As in old times low water meant a small harvest, this rock is also called Hungerfelsen, meaning starvation rock. In any case, the rock was not big enough for the cathedral, and on the west end only the north tower could be placed on a solid rock foundation, whereas the south tower stands on soft ground. To reduce weight the south tower is therefore only an empty shell with no interior or stairs, and the three big bells, "Susanne" (e), "Apostolica" (b♭) and "Dominica" (b), are in the north tower with a solid rock foundation. However, the south tower is slightly higher than the north tower, which is optically corrected by adding an ornamental cross on the north tower.

Art
Despite having lost much to plunderers, Magdeburg Cathedral is rich in art, ranging from antiquities to modern art. Highlights include:

 * Marble porphyry and granite columns removed from buildings in Ravenna for use in the apse of the Ottonian basilica;
 * The late-antique, porphyry baptismal font.
 * The tomb of Otto I, the first Ottonian Holy Roman Emperor (962 - 973). When the tomb was opened in 1844, a skeleton and remains of clothes were found, but no grave goods, which were presumably stolen during the Thirty-Years War. The Latin inscription on the bronze plaque is modern.
 * The (incomplete) sculpture of Saint Maurice, created around 1250, is the first realistic depiction of an ethnic African in central European art. It shows the same high degree of naturalism as the founder's effigies of Naumburg Cathedral. The same sculptor carved the image of Saint Catherine.
 * The sculpture known as The Royal Couple (Herrscherpaar), located in the sixteen-sided chapel, also dates from c. 1250) may represent Otto I and his consort, Edith.
 * The sculptures of the five wise and the five foolish virgins (see The ten virgins from the List of Bible stories), also around 1250. This is the most remarkable piece of art in the cathedral. The five wise virgins are prepared and bring oil to a wedding, whereas the five foolish virgins are unprepared and bring no oil. Hence they have to go find oil and subsequently arrive late and cannot join the wedding anymore. The unknown artist masterfully expresses the emotions in the faces and the body languages of the girls, showing a much more realistic expression than what was common in art around that time. All figures are different, and have ethnic Slavic features. The sculptures are outside of the north entrance to the transept.
 * The seats in the choir from 1363 are masterfully carved and show the life of Jesus. The unknown master also created the seats in the choir in Bremen's Cathedral.
 * The Magdeburger Ehrenmal by Ernst Barlach was ordered as a heroic war memorial, but due to his voluntary participation during World War I Barlach was against the war and showed the pain and suffering of the war instead. This created a great controversy, and the work was almost destroyed. The spot in front of this sculpture was also the starting point of the Monday demonstrations.
 * The Lebensbaumkruzifix (literally: Tree of life cross) is a painted bronze sculpture from 1986 and expanded in 1988 that shows Jesus nailed to a tree instead of a cross. Jesus is attached to the tree only with his hands and feet, and is otherwise hanging freely. The sculpture was designed not only to be viewed from the front but from all sides. The tree is barren except for a small leaf of hope/life where the blood of Jesus drips on the tree. The artist, Prof. Jürgen Weber, wanted the sculpture to be the centerpiece near the altar, but the sculpture was placed on the south side of the transept against his wishes.
 * The Magdeburg Ivories, 17 carved panels thought to be created for an unidentified object in Magdeburg Cathedral around the time of its dedication and now dispersed in museums across the world, a prime example of Ottonian art.

Saint Maurice

It was not until the Middle Ages that the portrayal of blackness arose in art, evident in the sculpture of Saint Maurice in Magdeburg Cathedral. However, during this time, much of the portrayal of blackness in art was to emphasize social and racial hierarchy, so, by portraying blackness in sculpture, it was easier for viewers to understand that the use of different skin colors was to demonstrate "the other." The attention to black facial structure to portray foreignness can be traced back to Hohenstaufen iconography and the Crusades, as there was a rising interest in black social standing during the period. This led to the emergence of black portrayals in art, particularly under Frederick II, who had black Muslims brought to Lucera, Apulia, to become his personal servants. Thus they became a large part of the art he commissioned. During Fredericks's reign, due to his interest in the Hohenstaufen tradition, black people were depicted as servants, specifically intelligent guardians of the royal treasury, or in high court positions. Yet, rather than defining them through race, there was greater attention to detail in facial structure, which was used to indicate their foreignness. Looking at Saint Maurice, it is clear that he embodies the traits of the time, and the shift towards naturalism in sculpture during the Gothic period, as there is a focus on the portrayal of his distinctly black features. The statue of Saint Maurice changed the idea of black Africans in art from a violent and savage-like stereotype to that of a saint and martyr. The portrayal of Saint Maurice in a position of power is evident through his clothing, as he is dressed as a mighty knight, making it clear that he is not a servant. This sculpture not only represents blackness, but the importance of African ancestry as well, as this sculpture was one of the earliest representations of a black African in European art history. This statue thus became a model in the representation of blackness in medieval European sculpture.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Magdeburg Cathedral


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Wikipedia:Articles for deletion/Dr. Michael M. Krop High School/Problems with high school articles

Problems with High School articles

 * Your answers did not cover my questions. Please also check my comments on another article at Votes_for_deletion/Alonso_High_School and the response by another user. The difficulty is granularity. To cover a 70-year old high school in the depth you are attempting here would probably amount to writing a short book on the school. And yet you have not yet named in full the current teaching staff by department.Jallan 19:55, 25 Sep 2004 (UTC)
 * I don't think so. A 70-year old high school would probably have NATIONAL awards, that will REPLACE the State awards currently on the article.  It would probaly have Nationally or Internationally famous Ex-Alumni, that will REPLACE the local recipients of $500 grants currently on the article.  It might have few instances of events that have some national interest.--AAAAA 21:16, 25 Sep 2004 (UTC)

 * I would quite like to see such material existing on the web, but possibly another project than Wikipedia would be the proper forum, just as the rambot articles, really, are not appropriate to Wikipedia though they are tolerated here. The conflict I am having is that I really think that what you are doing is probably about the best that can be done for a normal, non-notable, high school. And it's not encyclopedic because it covers only the present. (This is a problem with many articles in Wikipedia, contributed by editors fixated only on what is current.)Jallan 19:55, 25 Sep 2004 (UTC)
 * I think Wikipedia is the perfect place. You are right that the school is still non-notable, but I have no doubt that with years it will have some kind of national interest (as most high schools will, I think).--AAAAA 21:16, 25 Sep 2004 (UTC)
 * Regarding covering the present, the problem is that this school started operations in 1998 (I believe). My main source of information is the web, and it's hard to find articles about events that happened before 2003.  I guess that with time that will change.  Also, I guess that some students of the school will eventually read the article and contribute to it.

 * What your article feels like is the beginning of a kind of web log for Dr. Michael M. Krop High School.Jallan 19:55, 25 Sep 2004 (UTC)
 * The difference between a Wikipedia article and a Web Log for a school is that a Web Log would the "journal", and an article evolves (with time) to a more enciclopedic state.--AAAAA 21:16, 25 Sep 2004 (UTC)

 * It would probably be a good thing if every high school and public school and local charity and university club and so forth had one of these.Jallan 19:55, 25 Sep 2004 (UTC)
 * I would not mind.--AAAAA 21:16, 25 Sep 2004 (UTC)

 * And I would not want Wikipedia to ever become the "main" source of information in the world. (Imagine the edit conflicts! Argggh! Millions of dollars might depend on getting a single line into a Wikipedia article and making it stay there. Kids and teachers at Dr. Michael M. Krop High School in great editorial fights to insure that the entire world sees the correct viewpoint about some event happening in Dr. Michael M. Krop High School that year because on that single article depends how the world views their school. School boards would get in on the act.Jallan 19:55, 25 Sep 2004 (UTC)
 * This WILL happen (if not happening right now already). The higher traffic Wikipedia gets (and it is climbing), the higher probability of this occurring.  I and believe it WILL happen, eventually.--AAAAA 21:16, 25 Sep 2004 (UTC)

 * Should all A students be listed in the article on graduation?Jallan 19:55, 25 Sep 2004 (UTC)
 * Maybe the limit will be the size of a Wikipedia article. Maybe these kind of lists will be deleted by average wikipedians.  I don't know.--AAAAA 21:16, 25 Sep 2004 (UTC)

 * There would be thousands of undercover Wikipedians paid to assure that what their employers want to appear is what does appear. There are suspicions that some of this is happening now.Jallan 19:55, 25 Sep 2004 (UTC)
 * I am pretty sure that this is happening already.--AAAAA 21:16, 25 Sep 2004 (UTC)

 * For something comparable, did you know that reviewers for amazon.com are sometimes sent free copies of books by publishers if they will write reviews?Jallan 19:55, 25 Sep 2004 (UTC)
 * I didn't know, but I am not surprised.--AAAAA 21:16, 25 Sep 2004 (UTC)

 * Fortunately, there will certainly be forks in Wikipedia's future and competing projects or partially competing projects, partly because no volunteer project could sustain the kind of pressure of being anything close to the single source of information on all topics. The pressure alone would be hideously counter-productive. Jallan 19:55, 25 Sep 2004 (UTC)
 * I agree.--AAAAA 21:16, 25 Sep 2004 (UTC)

 * And mirror sites will want to mirror something different to stand out, not just Wikipedia. What value to be just another of hundreds of mirror sites showing exactly the same Wikipedia content? But part of what Wikipedia must not do now is to try to be everything. There has been for a while a split on VfD between the "every high school is notable and deserves an article" group and "most high schools are not notable". The not-notable votes have tended to be outvoted resulting in keeping of what were often only stubs which never did get fixed up and only get in the way of people searching on the web for information on a school when the same bad stub comes up again and again on Wikipedia mirrors. Currently, the tendency seems to be the other way, for the first time, I think, perhaps because it has become more and more obvious that these articles don't get cleared up and that no-one knows what good articles would be for ordinary schools. The path you are following, that of recording the news of a single school year, seems to me far too granular for the Wikipedia project, to be unsustainable, unless you intend a master article on each school with dependant articles for every school year. If so, you should indicate this.Jallan 19:55, 25 Sep 2004 (UTC)
 * I have no intention of writing an article on EACH school. For now, I am only interested in ONE school.  But I am already working on getting other people involved, so the article keeps evolving for years to come.--AAAAA 21:16, 25 Sep 2004 (UTC)

 * But eventually downloading of every high school yearbook into Wiki-source or a comparable project will probably happen.Jallan 19:55, 25 Sep 2004 (UTC)
 * Probably.--AAAAA 21:16, 25 Sep 2004 (UTC)

 * The problem is that the issue is bigger than your article alone. What kind of encyclopedia article can one write about a normal high school that is not simply what is happening at the moment? Do we want mere lists of minutiae for every year for each high school? Yes, we do, if we want to find that minutiae. It would be helpful if this were on the web. But should it be in Wikipedia?Jallan 19:55, 25 Sep 2004 (UTC)
 * My opinion here is again that although at the beginning you get minutiae, since Wikipedia is an encyclopedia, with time contributors will replace MINOR information with more important and relevant information. Some information currently in the article will survive, some will be replaced.  And not every high school will include an article.  I think that even now, Wikipedia contains articles that all Wikipedians until today have written because they wanted.  There are many things or events in the world that probably deserve a space in Wikipedia, but no one has written about it yet.  What I am saying is: If there is interest in a High School, let the interested Wikipedian write about it and don't destroy his/her work.  Maybe only a few High Schools will get a Wikipedia article.  Maybe many.  But why should we bother about the ones that nobody has written about yet?  Let the interested parties write about them.--AAAAA 21:16, 25 Sep 2004 (UTC)

 * Unfortunately, on the topic you have chosen, the excellence of what you are doing is far from the only issue. Are you producing an excellent article of a kind that should not actually be in Wikipedia but in some other more specialized project?Jallan 19:55, 25 Sep 2004 (UTC)
 * Maybe, but I don't see another medium for it yet. I have contributed on different articles in Wikipedia, and just recently decided on creating an article about this school, and make it better than the school's own web site, make it informative, interesting, and of Wikipedia value.  But it obviously takes time.--AAAAA 21:16, 25 Sep 2004 (UTC)

 * I, AAAAA, have copied below what Jallan wrote at the Vfd discussion in another school, for further reference.

 * I vote to delete most high school articles not just because the article is a stub but because most schools are not notable and won't ever ever generate an encyclopedia article beyond a bad stub.Jallan 19:55, 25 Sep 2004 (UTC)
 * Maybe bad stubs should be deleted. I would not mind.  But an article with a lot of effort into it, let it live.--AAAAA 21:16, 25 Sep 2004 (UTC)

 * Most high schools are normal high schools much like any other normal high school. People mostly neither know nor care about any of them individually. Those who care about a particular school are mostly those employed at that school or by the local Board of Education or who are attending that particular school during a few years of their lives at most. Immediate family also care while a child or sibling is attending such a school. But most don't think that their school is special or notable or stands out. That most high school articles are uniformative stubs reflects the fact that the editor writing such an article either doesn't care much or just can't make a good article from information easily available oor both. What people do care about is their own years in "high school" in general rather than about the history of the particular high school or high schools that they attended.Jallan 19:55, 25 Sep 2004 (UTC)
 * In this case, this high school produces about 1000 graduates every year. This means that about 1000 prospective students (maybe more, because some have interested but never enroll) and their parents have some interest every year.  Then, they have interest during the course of the years the student is attending.  Then, they have interest after graduating, because the school is always part of their personal histories. So, in this case, 3000 people become interested every year.  Over the course of 20 years it is 60,000 people that have or might have interest in the school at one point in their lives.  And this doesn't count the people that might have interest in the school of an ex-alumni that suddenly becomes famous and starts appearing in the media.--AAAAA 21:17, 25 Sep 2004 (UTC)

 * Notable high schools, like notable people, or notable organizations of any kind, would be those mentioned in media as being recognized for some reason other than merely existing and performing their normal, mundane functions. The repetative litany that "high schools are notable" is belayed by the substance of most Wikipedia high school articles which don't provide any reason why a particular high school is notable and often don't say much at all. An encyclopedia article should not provide only the minutiae of present day information such as the name of the current prinipal and whether a football team is doing well, all likely to be out of date even a year from now. Yet a history of a high school would be mostly nothing but such disjointed minutiae: names of principals, lists of teaching staff, awards won each year by teams or bands or clubs, average grades obtained compared to other schools, additions and renovations of the building, and so forth. Such an article would be encyclopedic. But people don't write them. Jallan 19:55, 25 Sep 2004 (UTC)
 * As mentioned before, after 20 years of starting operations, a high school would be of interest or potential interest to at least 50,000 people. And with the growth in Wikipedia an in Wikipedian numbers, I am sure that articles of high schools will eventually evolve to become more "encyclopedic"--AAAAA 21:16, 25 Sep 2004 (UTC)

 * And there's no point in retaining bad stubs when it would be just as easy for a knowledgeable editor to start an article fresh. Wikipedia is not improved by bad articles that don't improve and are unlikely to improve. Jallan 19:55, 25 Sep 2004 (UTC)
 * I agree. Bad stubs should probably be removed.  Articles with quite a lot of work on them should remain.--AAAAA 21:16, 25 Sep 2004 (UTC)

A real school is a genuine community of (sometimes) thousands of people that has an impact that lasts the rest of their lives. There is always something unique and notable about such a community, the only thing that can be said in favor of deletion is that the deleter is not interested. It is their right to hold that point of view, but move on, don't prevent others from reading it. Mark Richards 06:42, 28 Sep 2004 (UTC)


text:
Victor Gbeho

James Victor Gbeho (born 12 January 1935, in Keta, Ghana) is a Ghanaian lawyer and diplomat who was President of the ECOWAS Commission from 2010 to 2012, to which position he was unanimously elected at the 37th Summit of the Authority of Heads of State and Government of the 15 Member States.

He was Ghana's Minister of Foreign Affairs from 1997 to 2001, under President Jerry Rawlings, and he was the Member of Parliament for the Anlo constituency from January 2001 to January 2005. He was subsequently a foreign policy advisor to the government of President John Atta Mills. Before his retirement as a career diplomat and politician, Gbeho worked in the Ghana Foreign and Commonwealth Service and served in various capacities at Ghana's diplomatic missions abroad. His postings included the Ghana missions in China, India, Nigeria, Germany, United Kingdom and Switzerland.

Gbeho was Deputy High Commissioner to the Court of St. James's (UK) from 1972 until 1976, Ambassador and Permanent Representative of Ghana to the European offices of the United Nations in Geneva (1978–80), with concurrent accreditation to UNIDO in Vienna, Austria, and was Ghana's Permanent Representative to the United Nations in New York City from 1980 to 1990, concurrently accredited to Cuba, Jamaica, and to Trinidad and Tobago.

In July 1994, the UN Secretary-General appointed him as special representative to Somalia. In September 1995 Jerry Rawlings, as chairman of ECOWAS, appointed Gbeho as ECOWAS special representative for Liberia.

Education
Educated at Achimota School, he is the son of Philip Gbeho.

Politics
Victor Gbeho was the member of parliament of the Anlo constituency in the 3rd parliament of the 4th republic of Ghana as an independent candidate. He was elected as the member of parliament for the Anlo constituency in the 2000 Ghanaian general elections, for which he was an independent candidate. His constituency was the second independent candidate to win the said election in the Volta Region.

Gbeho was elected with 19,083 votes out of 28,156 total valid votes cast. This was equivalent to 68.2% of the total valid votes cast.

He was elected over Clend M. Kwasi Sowu of the National Democratic Congress, Esther llan A. Nyamalor an independent candidate, Godwin Kwaku Defeamekpor of the New Patriotic Party, Clemence Kwami Abotsi of the Convention People's Party, Cornelius Kofi Binewoatsor of the National Reformed Party, Prince Richard Abotsi of the United Ghana Movement, and independent candidate Goyimwole Enukomeko Kpodo. These obtained 4,223, 3,800, 327, 249, 162, 118 and 0 votes respectively out of the total valid votes cast. These were equivalent to 15.1%, 13.6%, 1.2%, 0.9%, 0.6% and 0.4% respectively of total valid votes cast.

title: Victor Gbeho


text:
Guajira

Guajira may refer to:
 * Guajira Peninsula, a peninsula in the northernmost part of South America shared by Colombia and Venezuela
 * Guajiro people (Wayuu), a South American ethnic group inhabiting northeastern Colombia and northwestern Venezuela
 * guajiro bean (also known as the kapeshuna bean), a set of heirloom cultivars of the cowpea grown chiefly in northeastern Colombia
 * La Guajira Department, a department of Colombia which includes most of the Guajira Peninsula
 * La Guajira Desert, a desert which covers most of the Guajira Peninsula
 * Guajira (music), a style of Cuban music, song or dance
 * Guajira (TV series), a Colombian telenovela
 * Guajira (slang), is also another way to denote a woman who works and lives in a rural area.

title: Guajira


text:
Meta (prefix)

Meta (from the Greek μετά, meta, meaning 'after' or 'beyond') is an adjective meaning 'more comprehensive' or 'transcending'.

In modern nomenclature, the prefix meta- can also serve as a prefix meaning self-referential, as a field of study or endeavor (metatheory: theory about a theory; metamathematics: mathematical theories about mathematics; meta-axiomatics or meta-axiomaticity: axioms about axiomatic systems; metahumor: joking about the ways humor is expressed; etc.).

Original Greek meaning
In Greek, the prefix meta- is generally less esoteric than in English; Greek meta- is equivalent to the Latin words post- or ad-. The use of the prefix in this sense occurs occasionally in scientific English terms derived from Greek. For example, the term Metatheria (the name for the clade of marsupial mammals) uses the prefix meta- in the sense that the Metatheria occur on the tree of life adjacent to the Theria (the placental mammals).

Epistemology
In epistemology, and often in common use, the prefix meta- is used to mean 'about (its own category)'. For example, metadata is data about data (who has produced them, when, what format the data are in and so on). In a database, metadata is also data about data stored in a data dictionary, describing information (data) about database tables such as the table name, table owner, details about columns, etc. – essentially describing the table. In psychology, metamemory refers to an individual's knowledge about whether or not they would remember something if they concentrated on recalling it. The modern sense of "an X about X" has given rise to concepts like "meta-cognition" (cognition about cognition), "meta-emotion" (emotion about emotion), "meta-discussion" (discussion about discussion), "meta-joke" (joke about jokes), and "metaprogramming" (writing programs about writing programs). In a rule-based system, a metarule is a rule governing the application of other rules.

"Metagaming", accordingly, refers to games about games. However, it has a different meaning depending on the context. In role-playing games, this means that someone with a higher level of knowledge is playing; that is, that the player incorporates factors that are outside the actual framework of the game – the player has knowledge that was not acquired through experiencing the game, but through external sources. This type of metagaming is often frowned upon in many role-playing game communities because it impairs game balance and equality of opportunity. Metagaming can also refer to a game that is used to create or change the rules while playing a game. One can play this type of metagame and choose which rules apply during the game itself, potentially changing the level of difficulty. Such metagames include campaign role-playing games like Halo 3. Complex card or board games, e.g. poker or chess, are also often referred to as metagames. According to Nigel Howard, this type of metagame is defined as a decision-making process that is derived from the analysis of possible outcomes in relation to external variables that change a problem.

Abstraction and self-reference
Any subject can be said to have a metatheory, a theoretical consideration of its properties – such as its foundations, methods, form, and utility – on a higher level of abstraction. In linguistics, grammar is considered to be a metalanguage: a language operating on a higher level to describe properties of the plain language, and not itself.

Etymology
The prefix comes from the Greek preposition and prefix meta- (μετα-), from μετά, which typically means "after", "beside", "with" or "among". Other meanings include "beyond", "adjacent" and "self", and it is also used in the forms μετ- before vowels and μεθ- "meth-" before aspirated vowels.

The earliest form of the word "meta" is the Mycenaean Greek me-ta, written in Linear B syllabic script. The Greek preposition is cognate with the Old English preposition mid "with", still found as a prefix in midwife. Its use in English is the result of back-formation from the word "metaphysics". In origin Metaphysics was just the title of one of the principal works of Aristotle; it was so named (by Andronicus of Rhodes) because in the customary ordering of the works of Aristotle it was the book following Physics; it thus meant nothing more than "[the book that comes] after [the book entitled] Physics". However, even Latin writers misinterpreted this as entailing metaphysics constituted "the science of what is beyond the physical". Nonetheless, Aristotle's Metaphysics enunciates considerations of a nature above physical reality, which one can examine through certain philosophy – for example, such a thing as an unmoved mover. The use of the prefix was later extended to other contexts, based on the understanding of metaphysics as meaning "the science of what is beyond the physical".

Early use in English
The Oxford English Dictionary cites uses of the meta- prefix as "beyond, about" (such as meta-economics and meta-philosophy) going back to 1917. However, these formations are parallel to the original "metaphysics" and "metaphysical", that is, as a prefix to general nouns (fields of study) or adjectives. Going by the OED citations, it began being used with specific nouns in connection with mathematical logic sometime before 1929. (In 1920 David Hilbert proposed a research project in what was called "metamathematics.")

A notable early citation is W. V. O. Quine's 1937 use of the word "metatheorem", where meta- has the modern meaning of "an X about X".

Douglas Hofstadter, in his 1979 book Gödel, Escher, Bach (and in the 1985 sequel, Metamagical Themas), popularized this meaning of the term. The book, which deals with self-reference and strange loops, and touches on Quine and his work, was influential in many computer-related subcultures and may be responsible for the popularity of the prefix, for its use as a solo term, and for the many recent coinages which use it. Hofstadter uses meta as a stand-alone word, as an adjective, and as a directional preposition ("going meta," a term he coins for the old rhetorical trick of taking a debate or analysis to another level of abstraction, as when somebody says "This debate isn't going anywhere"). This book may also be responsible for the association of "meta" with strange loops, as opposed to just abstraction. According to Hofstadter, it is about self-reference, which means a sentence, idea or formula refers to itself. The Merriam-Webster Dictionary describes it as "showing or suggesting an explicit awareness of itself or oneself as a member of its category: cleverly self-referential". The sentence "This sentence contains thirty-six letters," and the sentence which embeds it, are examples of "metasentences" referencing themselves in this way. As maintained in the book Gödel, Escher, Bach, a strange loop is given if different logical statements or theories are put together in contradiction, thus distorting the meaning and generating logical paradoxes. One example is the liar paradox, a paradox in philosophy or logic that arises when a sentence claims its own falsehood (or untruth); for instance: "This sentence is not true." Until the beginning of the 20th century, this kind of paradox was a considerable problem for a philosophical theory of truth. Alfred Tarski solved this difficulty by proving that such paradoxes do not exist with a consistent separation of object language and metalanguage. "For every formalized language, a formally correct and factually applicable definition of the true statement can be constructed in the metalanguage with the sole help of expressions of a general-logical character, expressions of the language itself and of terms from the morphology of the language, but on the condition that the metalanguage is of a higher order than the language that is the subject of the investigation."

Meta in gaming
Metagaming is a general term describing an approach to playing a game as optimally as possible within its current rules. The shorthand meta has been backronymed as "Most Effective Tactics Available" to tersely explain the concept.

title: Meta (prefix)


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Favorite Blue

Favorite Blue was a Japanese pop band active from 1996 until 2000. Takashi Kimura became a record producer and composer of the m.o.v.e. Maya Matsuzaki left Avex and formed mamy drop.

Main Members
Takashi Kimura - Guitar, keyboard, composer, arranger

Maya Matsuzaki - Vocals, lyrics

Singles

 * 'Ai yorimo Hageshiku, Dare yorimo Itoshiku' (12 June 1996)
 * 'Active, my dream' (25 September 1996)
 * 'SHAKE ME UP!' (27 November 1996)
 * 'Movin'oN' (30 April 1997)
 * 'Change by me' (30 July 1997)
 * 'true gate' (21 August 1997)
 * 'Sayonara yori Eien no Naka de' (3 December 1997)
 * 'Missing Place' (21 January 1998)
 * 'close my love' (15 July 1998)
 * 'Let me go!' (5 November 1998)
 * 'truth of love' (2 December 1998)
 * 'PRIDE -close to you-' (31 March 1999)
 * 'solitude' (8 May 1999)
 * 'next days' (22 September 1999)
 * 'sometime, somewhere' (26 January 2000)

Albums

 * DREAM & MEMORIES (5 February 1997)
 * Missing place (18 February 1998)
 * FB in the remix (12 August 1998)
 * solitude (16 June 1999)
 * FB BEST -eternal trax- (2 February 2000)

DVD

 * FB BEST -eternal pictures- (2 February 2000)

Video

 * FB visual trax (26 August 1998)
 * FB vvisual trax II (2 February 2000)

title: Favorite Blue


text:
Thermoprotei

The Thermoprotei is a class of the Thermoproteota.

Phylogeny
The currently accepted taxonomy is based on the List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature (LPSN) and National Center for Biotechnology Information (NCBI).

title: Thermoprotei


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George Odlum

George William Odlum (24 June 1934 – 28 September 2003) was a Saint Lucian left-wing politician who served as Deputy Prime Minister and Foreign Minister. Born in Castries, Odlum studied at Bristol University and Oxford University in the United Kingdom before returning to Saint Lucia as Permanent Secretary to the Ministry of Trade. After working for the Commonwealth Secretariat and the West Indies Associated States, he formed the Saint Lucia Forum, a left-wing pressure group. This group merged with the Saint Lucia Labour Party in time for the 1974 elections; although the Party did not win, the progress they made allowed them to take power in 1979, with Odlum as Deputy Prime Minister.

Although a secret agreement originally stated that Odlum would take power after six months, his support for Cuba and similar left-wing nations led to American pressure to keep him out. After months of negotiations, Odlum was dismissed as Deputy Prime Minister, and the ensuing government weakness and infighting led to its defeat in the 1982 election. In opposition, Odlum was made Ambassador to the United Nations, resigning in 1996. When the Labour Party came to power again a year later, he became Foreign Minister, overseeing the establishment of stronger relations with both Cuba and China. Amidst controversy over his alleged alliance with the opposition, Odlum resigned in 2001. Never again returning to power, he died on 28 September 2003 following a battle with pancreatic cancer.

Odlum's legacy is controversial: while noted as a skilled orator who cared deeply for Saint Lucia's working class, his idealism, support for controversial figures such as Muammar Gaddafi and departure from two Labour administrations were noted as factors which harmed him and others around him. Despite this, his funeral saw widespread grieving, with Ralph Gonsalves, the Prime Minister of Saint Vincent and the Grenadines, describing him simply as a "giant of a man".

Early life
Odlum was born on 24 June 1934 in Castries, the son of a barber. He studied economics at Bristol University, becoming the first Afro-Caribbean head of the University of Bristol Union before moving to Magdalen College, Oxford in 1959, where he studied Philosophy, Politics and Economics and was one of the few Afro-Caribbean students to attend. At university, Odlum acted, played both football and cricket, and became noted as a successful debater. After graduating from Oxford he returned to St Lucia in 1961, becoming a Permanent Secretary in the Ministry of Trade. He moved back to the United Kingdom in 1964 to work as an economist in the Commonwealth Secretariat, leaving 3 years later. Returning to St Lucia again, he became Executive Secretary to the Council of Ministers of the West Indies Associated States.

Career
During the early 1960s, St Lucia and the other West Indies Associated States were British colonies, with a limited degree of self-rule. In St Lucia, the Saint Lucia Labour Party was considered the traditional party for "political and constitutional advance" but, despite this, it lost the general election in 1964 to the United Workers Party, a right-wing party led by John Compton that continued to rule until 1979. In response Odlum, a socialist, founded the Saint Lucia Forum, a pressure group that discussed "the socialist and black cultural ideas which were beginning to challenge the Caribbean status quo". This was part of a group of Forums established in 1970 following secret talks with other left-wing Caribbean intellectuals, including Maurice Bishop. In 1972 Odlum left his job with the Council of Ministers to form the St Lucia Action Movement, which later merged with a weakened Labour Party in time for the 1974 general election.

Odlum's faction of the Labour Party did most of the work in the election, building their power base among the banana-producing small farmers, with Odlum leading frequent strikes in an attempt to improve working conditions. His work in the 1974 election, along with his "good looks and charisma", yielded a safe seat in Castries, which he allowed his brother to run for. Odlum instead chose to campaign for a rural seat held by the United Workers Party, which he lost by a small margin. Despite the Labour Party still being in opposition in Saint Lucia, socialism and left-wing politics were on the rise in the Caribbean as a whole and, during his time out of Parliament, Odlum was the public face of socialism in the region.

Saint Lucia gained full independence in 1979. Immediately beforehand, Odlum organised large protests in front of international news cameras, further cementing his role in the region's communist and socialist movement. Three weeks after independence, the nearby country of Grenada saw the overthrow of its government by communists revolutionaries led by Maurice Bishop. When the United Workers Party called a general election in Saint Lucia three weeks later, Compton's government fell – Odlum was returned to Parliament and the Labour Party, led by Allan Louisy, came to power.

Deputy Prime Minister
Odlum's prominent role within the party led to his immediate appointment as Deputy Prime Minister, with the portfolios of foreign affairs and trade and industry. He publicly supported the Grenadian revolutionaries, who were constructing a new airport with Cuban support. Ronald Reagan alleged that this was to be used as a launching point for Soviet aircraft, and Odlum's support for it worried both the Americans (due to their concerns about the purposes of the new facility) and his fellow communists, who saw him as a "loose cannon" and thought that his continuing public championing of it would further draw American attention.

Louisy had become Prime Minister thanks to a secret agreement with Odlum that he would resign, allowing Odlum to take over, within 6 months. When the time came Louisy refused, backed by the Americans, who wanted to keep Odlum out of office at all costs. This saw Odlum turn against his own government and even vote against the budget. A second proposal that Louisy resign was rejected on 30 December 1980, with the power struggle continuing despite his agreement to hand over some of his portfolios. The dispute continued into 1981, with Odlum attracting controversy by announcing on 3 March that he had not ignored the possibility of his grouping within the Labour Party splitting and joining the United Workers Party.

The result was the 1981 dismissal of Odlum as Deputy Prime Minister and the resignation of Louisy. Louisy was succeeded not by Odlum, but by Winston Cenac, who himself resigned eight months later on 16 January 1982. Cenac was succeeded by Michael Pilgrim in an attempt by moderates in the Labour Party to avoid the possibility of Odlum leading the country. By this point Odlum had left the party, forming the Progressive Labour Party (PLP). Pilgrim's government also collapsed, necessitating an early general election in 1982 in which the Labour Party was left with only 3 of the 17 seats, returning the United Workers Party to government and seeing Odlum dismissed from Parliament. His Progressive Labour Party won only a single seat.

Ambassador and Foreign Minister
Now outside Parliament, Odlum maintained his presence in the public eye through meetings and the work of his newspaper, The Crusader. His revenge over the Labour Party finally occurred during the 1987 general election, when the PLP split the vote and denied his old allies victory. In 1995 he accepted the position of Ambassador to the United Nations from Compton, his old enemy, holding it for only a year. When Compton resigned in 1996, Odlum chose to stand for election against his successor and lost the contest.

After again allying with the Labour Party in 1997, Odlum was returned to Parliament, receiving appointment as Foreign Minister in the government of Kenny Anthony. In this position, he oversaw the improvement of diplomatic relations with Cuba, announcing that a consulate would be established there and spearheading the signing of a joint Cuban-Saint Lucian trading agreement to oversee improvements in the agricultural and healthcare sectors. Odlum's ministry also saw the diplomatic recognition of China in 1997, following month-long negotiations and the offer of several million dollars worth of aid to Saint Lucia. Taiwan responded to the announcement by breaking off relations, stating that the government's move to recognise China had harmed Taiwan's "national interests and dignity". After diplomatic relations were officially established, Odlum visited China between 5 and 12 September.

Odlum resigned in 2001 after a series of controversies. His fellow ministers accused him of conspiring against the government and attempting to have it overthrown and replaced with a new administration. Odlum, on the other hand, argued that ruling members of the Labour Party had been making efforts to remove him and that the "dastardly act" of cutting away a significant portion of his constituency in a boundary change was what had forced him over the edge. His resignation came immediately before a letter of dismissal arrived at his house.

Odlum formed the National Alliance party to contest the 2001 elections, but the party failed to win any seats.

Retirement and death
Odlum attracted controversy in November 2002 when he spoke at the funeral service for Antiguan politician Tim Hector. His speech censured the attendees for what he perceived as mourning Hector in death while failing to support him in life, asking "were you there when the ballot process was contaminated to declare him a loser? Were you there?". His speech was criticised by Vere Bird, Jr., the Antiguan Minister of Agriculture, Lands and Fisheries, who called Odlum's words "strident and ill-informed reflections".

Following a long fight against cancer, spending most of the last year of his life in and out of hospital, Odlum died on 28 September 2003 in Tapion Hospital, Castries, aged 69. The body lay in state on 5 October, where it was viewed by Pearlette Louisy, Kenny Anthony, and members of the Cabinet. Odlum's funeral was held on 6 October, with a 30-vehicle procession travelling from Vieux Fort to Castries; it was led by a pair of police outriders and a coach carrying the coffin, draped in the national flag. St Lucian citizens were reported to be openly weeping at Odlum's death. The funeral itself was held in a park, due to no church in Castries being large enough to hold the number of mourners. During the service, sections of his most famous speeches were broadcast from loudspeakers. James Fletcher, a Cabinet Secretary, had previously announced that all flags would be flown at half-mast for the day as a tribute.

Edwin Carrington, the Secretary-General of the Caribbean Community, stated that Odlum "served his country, St Lucia, with distinction" and was "charismatic, eloquent and a consummate master of communication, both in speaking and writing...one of the region's leading and most persistent exponents on the debilitating effects of the erosion of trade preferences for the region's banana industry on the livelihood of the people". Other tributes came from Ralph Gonsalves, the Prime Minister of Saint Vincent and the Grenadines, who described Odlum as "one of the region's finest political orators, who was persuasive, eloquent and was able to command attention universally, not only in his native capital city Castries but also at the United Nations, in Geneva, Cape Town or in London".

In 2004, on the anniversary of his death, a series of activities were organised in memory of Odlum. These included the dedication of a tomb at the Choc Cemetery and a service at the Mount of Prayer in Coubaril that was attended by his family and close friends.

Legacy
Odlum, known simply as "Brother George", had a controversial legacy. He was noted as one of the region's greatest orators, able to command attention not only in Saint Lucia itself, but at the United Nations and on the world stage. Supporters praised his connection with the working class, and his fight for better pay and conditions in the agricultural sector.

At the same time, both critics and supporters point towards awkward elements of his personality and career. Gonsalves, at his funeral, noted that "the strictures of bureaucratic systems he found difficult to be contained within", while his obituary in The Times described him as a man "with more flamboyance than substance". His resignation from the two Labour administrations, as well as his alliances with the UWP and other factions, were noted as contradictions which would require historical debate and assessment. His support of figures such as Fidel Castro and Muammar Gaddafi was also noted as controversial, with his relentless left-wing approach to politics being identified as damaging both to others and to the causes he championed.

title: George Odlum


text:
Bouenza Department

Bouenza (can also be written as Buenza or Bwenza ) is a department of the Republic of the Congo in the southern part of the country. It borders the departments of Lékoumou, Niari, and Pool, and internationally, the Democratic Republic of the Congo. The regional capital is Madingou. Towns and cities include Loudima, Mouyondzi, Loutété and Nkayi.

Administrative divisions
Bouenza Department is divided into one commune and ten districts:

Districts

 * 1) Madingou District
 * 2) Mouyondzi District
 * 3) Boko-Songho District
 * 4) Mfouati District
 * 5) Loudima District
 * 6) Kayes District
 * 7) * Former Nkayi District minus Nkayi Commune (?)
 * 8) Kingoué District
 * 9) * Part of the former Mouyondzi District
 * 10) Mabombo District
 * 11) * Part of the former Madingou/Mouyondzi Districts (?)
 * 12) Tsiaki District
 * 13) * Part of the former Mouyondzi District
 * 14) Yamba District
 * 15) * Part of the former Mouyondzi District

Communes

 * 1) Nkayi Commune
 * 2) Madingou Commune

Demographics
The population is 363,850 in 2023, and the area is 12,265.4 km².

Industry and agriculture
Bouenza has some industry and cash crops. Among the principal activities are a cement factory in Loutété, sugar cane plantations in Nkayi, and there are reserves of copper, lead and zinc. Hydroelectric power is provided by the Moukoukoulou Dam built in Mindouli. Farming includes bananas, palm oil, groundnuts, tobacco and beans.

title: Bouenza Department


text:
Aco (musician)

A..C..O (born February 3, 1977 ) is a Japanese singer. She made her debut in 1995 with the pop single "Fuan nano" (不安なの). She is a part of Sony Music Japan. She explores different musical styles, with the albums Absolute Ego and Material displaying electronica influences. Absolute Ego was produced by ex-Denki Groove keyboardist, Yoshinori Sunahara and The Other Side of Absolute Ego album contains remixes by Tricky, DJ Krush, and Silent Poets.

In 2003, after a two-year hiatus, she enlisted the help of the avant-garde audio-visual performance group  for her quieter, more delicate album, Irony. AllMusic described Irony as "one of the most beautiful albums to come out of Japan in 2003", with the music compared to an "airy lullaby".

Studio albums

 * 1996: Kittenish Love
 * 1997: Nude
 * 1998: Lady Soul
 * 1999: Absolute Ego
 * 2001: Material
 * 2003: Irony
 * 2006: Mask
 * 2007: Aco Best: Girl's Diary
 * 2010: Devil's Hands
 * 2012: Luck
 * 2013: TRAD
 * 2015: Valentine

Remix albums

 * 2000: The Other Side of Absolute Ego

title: Aco (musician)


text:
Cuvette Department

Cuvette is a department of the Republic of the Congo in the central part of the country. It borders the departments of Cuvette-Ouest, Likouala, Plateaux, and Sangha, and internationally, the Democratic Republic of the Congo. The capital is Owando. Cities and towns include Boundji, Makoua and Okoyo.

Administrative divisions
Cuvette Department is divided into one commune and nine districts:

Districts

 * 1) Makoua District
 * 2) Boundji District
 * 3) Mossaka District
 * 4) Loukoléla District
 * 5) Oyo District
 * 6) Ngoko District
 * 7) Ntokou District
 * 8) Tchikapika District
 * 9) Bokoma District

Communes

 * 1) Commune of Owando

title: Cuvette Department


text:
Cuvette-Ouest Department

Cuvette-Ouest (or Western Cuvette) is a department of the Republic of the Congo in the western part of the country. Cuvette-Ouest is the least populated department in the country. It borders the departments of Cuvette, Sangha, and Plateaux, and internationally, Gabon. The capital is Ewo. Principal cities and towns include Kelle.

Cuvette-Ouest has been the site of several outbreaks of the Ebola virus.

Administrative divisions
Cuvette-Ouest Department is divided into one commune and six districts:

Districts

 * 1) Ewo District
 * 2) Kelle District
 * 3) Mbomo District
 * 4) Okoyo District
 * 5) Etoumbi District
 * 6) Mbama District

Communes

 * 1) Ewo Commune

title: Cuvette-Ouest Department


text:
Likouala Department

Likouala is a department of the Republic of the Congo in the northern part of the country. It borders the departments of Cuvette and Sangha, and internationally, the Democratic Republic of the Congo and the Central African Republic. The region has an area of 66,044 km² and an estimated population of almost 360,000. The chief town is Impfondo. Principal cities and towns include Epena and Dongou.

History
The earliest inhabitants of the region were the Aka people, a Pygmy tribe. During the Bantu expansion, they were pushed into the forests by newcomers.

Historically, this department was cut off from part of Lobaye, an area of the Central African Republic.

Between 1984 and 2002 the population of Likouala Department more than tripled, due in large part to inflows of refugees from the Central African Republic, Rwanda, and the DRC. During this period, refugees made up more than half of the population, mostly concentrated in Impfondo and Betou.

Administrative divisions

Likouala Department is divided into seven districts:

Districts

 * 1) Impfondo District
 * 2) Epena District
 * 3) Dongou District
 * 4) Bétou District
 * 5) Bouanéla District
 * 6) Enyellé District
 * 7) Liranga District

Geography
Likouala is almost covered with dense and often flooded forests of lakes and very full of fish ponds. Its ground is argillaceous and sandy by places. The north of the department belongs to the mountainous Massif Oubanguien. The shallow Lac Tele is 5 km across and circular in shape.

Climate
Likouala has a tropical climate. The dry season is from March to July, the remainder of the year being dominated by the rainy season. The variations in temperatures are in general important (24° to 25°C).

Demography
The populations of Likouala would have come from North, the South, the East and the West. The Pygmies are regarded as the first occupants of this ground. The department counts many Rwandan, Central African refugees today and of Congo-Kinshasa.

Forestry
Six forest units of installation (UFA) are in the course of exploitation by several companies, of which Processing industry of the wood of Likouala (ITBL) and Likouala-Timber. Likouala currently occupies the first place in the production of wood of Congo.

Rivers and fisheries
The department has an important hydraulic network. The principal rivers are Oubangui, Likouala-aux-herbes, Libenga and Motaba. Fishing is practised in these rivers in an artisanal way. According to FAO, its halieutic potential is evaluated with 100.000 tons per annum.

Agriculture
Agriculture is of traditional type. The principal food crops are the manioc, the banana, the taros; as well as products of gathering. One also produces the coffee, the cocoa and the palm oil. The crop year of last year yielded 1500 tons of cocoa. This production is falling because of the irregularity of the marketing of the products and the closing of the principal company which ensured the marketing of the cocoa in the department, Congo Otto-Export.

Transport
Geographic insulation is a handicap. Transport is very limited; the river port and the airport are the only access routes.

Districts
The department counts seven districts. The administrations are badly equipped and lack executives and personnel. Each of the seven districts corresponds to the basins of the region's principal rivers. The districts of Liranga, Impfondo and Bétou comprised the villages located on right bank of the rivers Congo and Oubangui. The district of Dongou gathers the villages of the basin of Motaba. The district of Enyellé corresponds to the basin of Libenga and its confluence with Oubangui, to the border with the Central African Republic. The basin of Likouala-aux-herbes is divided by the district of Epena to the north and that of Bouanela in the south.

Towns and cities
The regional capital is Impfondo. Other towns include Ancien Sandjala, Boyelle, Dongou, Ibenga, Kitadi, Mabelou, Makasa, Makengo, Mongouala, and Motaba.

Wildlife and conservation
The region is undergoing a campaign to minimise hunting and reduce the impact of logging due to the establishment of nature reserves in the region.

The forest of Likouala abounds in animal species such as elephants, gorillas and chimpanzees. Likouala is home to, among other animals, the dwarf crocodile Osteolaemus tetraspis osborni.

Mythological creatures
Reports of a surviving sauropod called the Mokele Mbembe or n'yamala emanate from here.

title: Likouala Department


text:
Space race (disambiguation)

The Space Race was a competition between the United States and the Soviet Union to explore outer space.

Space race, Space Racer, and their derivations may also refer to:

Competitions and rivalries

 * Billionaire space race, the intense rivalry between billionaire entrants into NewSpace
 * Mars race, the competitive environment between various national space agencies, "New Space" and aerospace manufacturers involving crewed missions to Mars, land on Mars, or set a crewed base there
 * Space competition, an offer of a prize for the first competitor who demonstrates a space vehicle

Games

 * Space Race (video game), a 1973 arcade game by Atari
 * Looney Tunes: Space Race, a 2000 video game featuring the Looney Tunes
 * The Great Space Race, a 1984 computer game by Legend Software
 * Surviving Mars: Space Race, 2018 DLC for Surviving Mars

Music

 * Space Race (album), a 1980 album by New Zealand rock band Mi-Sex
 * "Space Race" (Mi-Sex song), the titular song by Mi-Sex on their eponymous 1980 album
 * "Space Race" (Billy Preston song) (instrumental), a song by Billy Preston
 * "Space Race", a 1984 song by The Sugarhill Gang from Livin' in the Fast Lane

Series

 * Space Race (TV series), a BBC docu-drama series first shown on BBC2
 * Space Racers, a 2014 animated children's TV show
 * Yogi's Space Race, a 1978 animated series by Hanna-Barbera Productions

Episodes

 * "Space Race" (Archer), the two-part third season finale of Archer
 * "Space Race" (Stargate SG-1), an episode of the show Stargate SG-1
 * "Space Race" (Steven Universe), a 2014 season 1 episode of Steven Universe

title: Space race (disambiguation)


text:
Niari Department

Niari (can also be written as Niadi ) is a department of the Republic of the Congo in the western part of the country. It borders the departments of Bouenza, Kouilou, and Lékoumou, and internationally, Gabon, the Democratic Republic of the Congo, and the Cabinda portion of Angola. The regional capital is Dolisie.

Administrative divisions
According to an administrational reorganisation of 2012, Niari Department is divided into fourteen districts and two communes not belonging to any district:

Districts

 * 1) Louvakou District
 * 2) Kibangou District
 * 3) Divénié District
 * 4) Mayoko District
 * 5) Kimongo District
 * 6) Moutamba District
 * 7) Banda District
 * 8) Londéla–Kayes District
 * 9) Makabana District
 * 10) Mbinda District
 * 11) Moungoundou-Sud District
 * 12) Nyanga District
 * 13) Moungoundou-Nord District
 * 14) Yaya District

Communes

 * 1) Dolisie
 * 2) Mossendjo

title: Niari Department


text:
Talk:1910s

Untitled
log#092204 follow up3 0926 0215  1910 to G-Section Architecture in Germany: Vogelweh, Kaiserslautern? 1) I knew that the architecture was made for G-Section far far before I was born. The definition of G-Section was inherient within the architecture of the building I placed about the 1890's or about just previous or early WWI.  G-1 Security IC, I report, I write (+)   G-2 Runs G-Section under Provost: I read, Seeing Eye$1  bill.   G-3 I never knew, minded own business sir.   G-4 Time valut for all Serious Incident Reports, burned        every 25 years after statistical compilation.   G-1 and G-2 were on the left: two symetrical doors in numerical and alaphabetical order. G-3 and G-4 were on the right, ass backwards to G-1 and G-2 in rank order sir.    The old steel not iron bars were in about 3 feet of concrete in old Tutonic style built to keep G-Section logic in cement concret Intel method same sane.    So I place See ID, Serious Incident Report Section (SIR) about the time Morris Code changed to voice transmission in 1902. Alex Bell in telephones. Post Frano-Prussian War, orgin in Germany. Typewriter in German copy from 1885 US Standard keyboard design about the German Standard Toilet Bowl, my MOS Sir. Speed: A1's ran Hitler's engine I noted sir, still legal in ole Deutchland Uber Speeds without Uber Alles Safety speed limits. Indeed 10X valiums are now being popped to brake 175 MPH old Prussian Generals from dancing the Samba in their braws and girdles within their young closets sir.

It's in the Architecture: OSS, 1910 G-Section sir. Melvin Pervis in 1935 was fired for squeeling obviously. "YOu got me G-Man?" Yeah? Yeah? G-Section is US Army sir, not FBI orginal Intelligence sir. Respectfully sir and ma'am. Lincoln Burrows out. Free ny brother!!
 * Whatever you're smoking, Oden, can I have some? --Lancevortex 10:18, 26 Sep 2004 (UTC)

--- "The economy in the 1910s was very good. Supervisory jobs went up by 66%. Jobs in transportation, mining, and manufacturing went up by 27%" hunh?? Where? In what country? Globally? What a bizarre passage! And "up by" compared to what period?

I agree; this summation of the world economy is in reality a summary of the economies of non-globalized national entities and empires.

Cleanup
"rect 1 1 274 191 1991 Soviet coup d'état attempt rect 275 1 533 191 World Wide Web rect 534 1 822 191 Hubble Space Telescope rect 1 191 284 360 Gulf War rect 285 191 569 360 Rwandan Genocide rect 570 191 822 360 Death of Diana, Princess of Wales rect 1 360 271 564 The Simpsons rect 272 360 447 564 1990s in economics rect 448 360 627 564 Presidency of Bill Clinton rect 628 360 822 564 Compact Disc"

-excerpt from the graphic of the 1910's. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 209.40.210.222 (talk) 02:28, 7 August 2009 (UTC)

The selection of notable events in the montage
We need to reach a consensus on the final selection of images included in the 1910s montage on the top of the page through a discussion (and not through edit wars) which would include (hopefully) many Wikipedians.

The current montage is composed of the following images:

Please share your opinion on this matter BELOW supplying reasons for or against the current images included and/or supply alternative suggestions. TheCuriousGnome (talk) 20:02, 25 March 2010 (UTC)

A collapse in morale ???
The decade was also a period of revolution in a number of countries. The Mexican Revolution spear-headed the trend in November 1910, which led to the ousting of dictator Porfirio Diaz, developing into a civil war that dragged on until mid-1920, not long after a new Mexican Constitution was signed and ratified. Russia also had a similar fate, since World War I led to a collapse in morale as well as to economic chaos.

This sentence seems weird to me. What is morale doing in there ? We're talking about history, no ?N@ldo (talk) 21:23, 7 February 2011 (UTC)

20th century
The second decade of the 20th century began on 1 january 1911 and ended 31st December 1920. The problem is that 1900 seems to belong to the 1900s as well as the 19th century. Rwood128 (talk) 11:37, 7 October 2012 (UTC)

Nomination of Portal:1910s for deletion
A discussion is taking place as to whether Portal:1910s is suitable for inclusion in Wikipedia according to Wikipedia's policies and guidelines or whether it should be deleted.

The page will be discussed at Wikipedia:Miscellany for deletion/Portal:1910s until a consensus is reached, and anyone is welcome to contribute to the discussion. The nomination will explain the policies and guidelines which are of concern. The discussion focuses on high-quality evidence and our policies and guidelines.

Users may edit the page during the discussion, including to improve the page to address concerns raised in the discussion. However, do not remove the deletion notice from the top of the page. North America1000 06:50, 23 April 2019 (UTC)

Collage
It appears an RFC on collages on Wikiproject years will be interpreted to also ban collages in decade articles. Users here may wish to participate. Koopinator (talk) 07:35, 24 December 2023 (UTC)

title: Talk:1910s


text:
Wikipedia:Village pump

Archiving
Discussions older than seven days (the date of last made comment) are moved to a subpage of each section (called section name/Archive n). These discussions can then be moved to a relevant talk page if appropriate. To view these archives and the history before September 26, 2004, see Village pump archive.

title: Wikipedia:Village pump


text:
Plateaux Department (Republic of the Congo)

Plateaux is a department of the Republic of the Congo in the central part of the country. It borders the departments of Cuvette, Cuvette Ouest, Lékoumou and Pool, and internationally, the Democratic Republic of the Congo on the east and Gabon on the west. The regional capital is Djambala. Principal cities and towns include Gamboma and Lekana.

Administrative divisions
Plateaux Department is divided into eleven districts:

Districts

 * 1) Djambala District
 * 2) Lekana District
 * 3) Gamboma District
 * 4) Abala District
 * 5) Allembé District
 * 6) Makotimpoko District
 * 7) Mbon District
 * 8) Mpouya District
 * 9) Ngo District
 * 10) Ollombo District
 * 11) Ongogni District


text:
Jan Kavan

Jan Kavan (born 17 October 1946) is a former Czech politician and diplomat.

Biography
Kavan was born in London as the son of a Czechoslovak diplomat, Pavel Kavan, and a British teacher, Rosemary Kavanová. Kavan moved back to Czechoslovakia with his parents as a child. His father was then arrested in a Communist Party purge and sentenced to 25 years in prison in a show trial in the 1950s. He was eventually released, but died in 1960 aged 46. Kavan's mother later wrote a memoir, Love and Freedom. Kavan was one of the student leaders of the Prague Spring movement in 1968. When the movement was crushed by the Soviet occupation of Czechoslovakia, Kavan emigrated to the United Kingdom, the country of his birth, where he was a member of the Labour Party from 1972 to 1990.

Kavan is member of the Czech Social Democratic Party (ČSSD). He was the Minister of Foreign Affairs of the Czech Republic from 1998 to 2002 and one of the deputy prime ministers from 1999 to 2002. He was a member of the Czechoslovak Federal Assembly from 1990 to 1992, member of the Senate of the Czech Republic from 1996 to 2000, and a member of the Chamber of Deputies from 2002 to 2006. He was elected President of the United Nations General Assembly and acted in this office from 2002 to 2003.

Before returning to former Czechoslovakia after the fall of the Communist government, Kavan spent 20 years in exile in the UK. While in exile he was the editor-in-chief of the Palach Press, a press agency. He was also editor of the East European Reporter and vice-president of the East European Cultural Foundation, both organizations having been founded by him. In 1991, back in Czechoslovakia, Kavan was wrongly accused of collaboration with the Czechoslovak secret service (StB) in the years 1969–1970. He was totally cleared of the charges by a Prague Municipal Court in 1994 and finally, after a renewed process, by a Court of Appeals in January 1996.

He received several honorary degrees, including Honorary Fellow of the London School of Economics, Honorary Professor of Human Rights, Adelphi University of New York, and a number of human rights awards including Companion of Honour (UK), International Order of Merit (UK), and Presidential Roll of Honor (USA).

Kavan was educated at the Charles University in Prague, the London School of Economics and the University of Reading. He is divorced and has four children.

title: Jan Kavan


text:
Aulus Didius Gallus Fabricius Veiento

Aulus Didius Gallus Fabricius Veiento was a Roman senator who played a major role in the courts of several Roman emperors during the first century AD. For his usefulness, Veiento was rewarded with the office of suffect consul three times in a period when three consulates were very rare for non-members of the Imperial family.

Modern authorities have interpreted the nature of Veiento's role in different ways. Older writers, following the insinuations of Cassius Dio and Pliny the Younger, tended to ascribe to Veiento a malevolent role. For example, Ronald Syme summarized his career in this sentence: "Veiento began as a dealer in petty patronage, and he ended as a merchant of honor." William C. McDermott has since provided a more balanced evaluation of this figure. This has led more recent writers to evaluate him as "one of the most interesting of his Domitian's senatorial amici, frequently but erroneously classified as an informer during the so-called reign of terror."

Life
His name suggests that Veiento was related to Aulus Didius Gallus, suffect consul of AD 39 and governor of Roman Britain. Some experts, such as Edmund Groag and Mario Torelli, thought that Veiento was the son or grandson of the governor of Britain. Olli Salomies has shown that it is more likely that Veiento was adopted by Didius Gallus at some point before Veiento became praetor.

Jones speculates that it was while he was with Didius Gallus that he first met the future emperors, "for Domitian's father and brother commanded two of Claudius's legions in the British invasions."

Career under Nero
An action Veiento took while praetor is his first certain appearance in history. According to Dio Cassius, the emperor Nero's favor of charioteers and horsekeepers had led them to make unreasonable demands. In response, Veiento replaced them with chariots drawn by trained dogs. This led Brian W. Jones to describe him as "one of the earliest known strike-breakers."

However, the year Veiento was praetor is not fixed. S. J. de Laet proposed 41; McDermott believed he was praetor in 54; Jones in 1971 pointed out that "there is nothing to prevent its being dated to around 60, to some time towards the end of the Quinquennium Neronis", although in a later publication admitted that 54 was "possible". If Veiento reached the rank of praetor at the legal age of 30, and we accept McDermott's date of 54 as when he held it, then we can deduce Veiento was born around the year AD 24.

His next appearance in history is in 62, when he was tried and exiled. Tacitus tells the story:

"A similar accusation caused the downfall of Fabricius Veiento. He had composed many libels on senators and pontiffs in a work to which he gave the title of 'Codicils.' Tullius Geminus, the prosecutor, further stated that he had habitually trafficked in the emperor's favours and in the right of promotion. This was Nero's reason for himself undertaking the trial, and having convicted Veiento, he banished him from Italy, and ordered the burning of his books, which, while it was dangerous to procure them, were anxiously sought and much read. Soon full freedom for their possession caused their oblivion."

McDermott notes, "At first glance this seems to be denigration of Veiento, but a closer look at the passage and its context reveals Veiento in a very different light." McDermott points out the context of this passage — the preceding chapters narrate the recrudescence of charges under the Lex Julia maiestatis, or treason — suggests the motivation of this prosecution was not Veiento's "Codicils", instead an excuse to confiscate his property. McDermott also notes that what Tacitus says here is not that Veiento sold "the emperor's favours and . . . the right of promotion", but that Tullius Geminus accused Veiento of this. "Such fictitious additions to the central charge of maiestas laesa were common," McDermott reminds us. Veiento was more the victim of court intrigue than the agent of it.

Career under Vespasian
Obviously Veiento returned from exile following the suicide of Nero in 68. He found favor with Vespasian through means unknown, but it resulted in his first suffect consulship. The date of his consulship may be as early as Vespasian's reign when he first became amicus Caesaris and a member of the consilium principis. He was clearly favored by Vespasian's son Titus, for his second suffect consulship was in 80.

Here Veiento's career appears to be anomalous, for there is no certain record of a cursus honorum. McDermott identifies him as the subject of a fragmentary inscription found at Arles, and his restoration of this inscription, which he admits is speculative in places, shows he was governor of three provinces (one of which was either Asia or Africa), as well as legate of an unknown legion — which would supply Veiento with a conventional career. Although Gallivan accepts the identification, other experts have yet to accept the provinces McDermott proposes for Veiento. In a response to McDermott's paper, Brian Jones asserted "there is no evidence to suggest that Quintus Vibius Crispus could not have held the offices which the inscription mentions." Further, Werner Eck offers a different restoration of the first line and argues that the inscription pertains to Marcus Pompeius Silvanus Staberius Flavianus.

Veiento's career in the Roman priesthood is far better documented. A votive inscription of Trajanic date recording Veiento's satisfaction of a vow to the goddess Nemetona in Moguntiacum (Mainz) attests to the priesthoods he held. These offices are listed as follows: Quindecimviri sacris faciundis, one of the four most prestigious ancient Roman priesthoods; Sodales Augustales; Sodales Flaviales; and Sodales Titialis. McDermott dates his membership in the Quindecimviri "possibly under Nero before his exile in 62. He may even have become a member while his adoptive father was still alive." When he became Sodales Augustales and Sodales Titialis is not known. Entrance to the Sodales Flaviales obviously should be dated soon after Vespasian's death.

Not only may this explain his dominance in Domitian's reign, for the emperor is known to have been interested in the minutiae of religion, but McDermott explains it may explain the point of Veiento's "Codicils" as an attack on the "levity and inattention to rituals" of his peers.

Career under Domitian
More details have survived about Veiento's role in Domitian's reign. Both a fragment of Statius' De bello Germanico and Juvenal's Satire IV show that Veiento, with Lucius Junius Quintus Vibius Crispus, the elderly Acilius Glabrio, the blind Lucius Valerius Catullus Messalinus, and Veiento were four of Domitian's most important advisors. Jones agrees in part with this evaluation, but argues that these amici were "summoned to court only when he needed their advice." Those who had real power were Domitian's own appointees: the urban prefect Plotius Pegasus, praetorian prefects like Lucius Laberius Maximus, the a cubiculo, and the a rationibus.

There is also evidence that Veiento accompanied Domitian on his Dacian campaign against the Chatti. Jones explains the context of the bronze tablet found at Moguntiacum due to his presence as Domitian's comes, and speculates that Veiento may have been sent to the commanders there to explain Domitian's strategy, that "must have seemed close to cowardice to most of them" yet was as effective as the Fabian strategy against Hannibal.

Lastly, it was under Domitian when Veiento was appointed consul a third time, which experts believe was in 83.

Career under Nerva
Veiento evidently survived the assassination of Domitian without loss of rank or property, for he next appears in history at a banquet hosted by the emperor Nerva during the first year of his reign (AD 97). Pliny the Younger recounts how Veiento had been invited to the same dinner as Junius Mauricus, who had been exiled due to the efforts of a delator or informer. The blind Lucius Valerius Catullus Messalinus, who had been a notorious delator during his lifetime, was mentioned, and the emperor mused, "If he had gone on living, what do you think would have become of him?" Junius Mauricus replied, "He would be dining with us." Pliny elsewhere in his letter makes it clear the comment was directed at Veiento.

The other incident recorded by Pliny is when Veiento, joined with four other ex-consuls and senators to oppose Pliny's motion to prosecute another delator, Publicius Certus, who had brought down Helvidius Priscus in 93. Despite the fact Pliny was almost alone in pursuing the matter, through his eloquence he convinced the Senate to approve the prosecution, despite a final plea against legal actions from Veiento. While the emperor Nerva failed to act on the motion to prosecute, Certus was passed over in consideration for a consulship, and in any event fell ill and died soon after this session of the Senate.

These two anecdotes have led many writers — such as Syme above — to infer that Veiento himself was an informer who accused many prominent men of crimes in order to seize their wealth; as McDermott points out, all these passages prove is that the Younger Pliny greatly disliked Veiento. McDermott notes that Tacitus, who was a member of the Quindecimviri sacris faciundis like Veiento, and either knew the man well, or knew of him, did not consider Veiento a delator. When offering a list of delatores active under Domitian, Tacitus names Mettius Carus, the blind Catullus Messalinus, and Baebius Massa, but not Veiento.

Veiento's last recorded act is on the Senate floor in 97, pleading leniency for Publicius Certus. How much longer he lived is unknown: assuming our above calculation of AD 24 for his birthdate is correct, then Veiento was about 73 at the time of his last appearance. McDermott mentions an allusion in Pliny's Panegyric to the emperor Trajan (delivered 100) to a man sitting in the Senate who had been consul three times, and wonders if it was Veiento; based on our calculations, this is plausible for he would have been 76 years old at the time.

Family
From the bronze tablet found at Moguntiacum, we know the name of Veiento's wife, Attica. Nothing certain is known of her. Juvenal makes a puzzling allusion to Eppia, the wife of a senator, who deserts her husband and family and follows a gladiator to Egypt; the senator might be Veiento. "Is Eppia the wife of Veiento whose name was Attica (both names are dactyls), or is Veiento merely a type of senex?" McDermott asks. He cannot determine whether the senator is actually the three-time consul, and if so, whether Eppia is a cover name for Attica, or perhaps the name of a second wife.

title: Aulus Didius Gallus Fabricius Veiento


text:
Pool Department

Pool (Mpumbu, Nsundi, Mbula Ntangu ) is a department of the Republic of the Congo in the southeastern part of the country. It borders the departments of Bouenza, Lékoumou, and Plateaux. Internationally, it borders the Democratic Republic of the Congo. It also surrounds the commune district of the national capital, Brazzaville.

The regional capital is Kinkala. Principal towns include Boko, Kindamba and Mindouli. In the early 2000s, the Pool region was the home of a low-level insurgency led by Pasteur Ntumi. The inhabitants of this department are the Kongo, the Téké and the Native population (Pygmies).

The region is named after the Pool Malebo (formerly Stanley Pool), a particularly wide stretch of the Congo River here.

Administrative divisions
Pool Department is divided into thirteen districts:

 * 1) Kinkala District
 * 2) Boko District
 * 3) Mindouli District
 * 4) Kindamba District
 * 5) Goma Tsé-Tsé District
 * 6) Mayama District
 * 7) Ngabé District
 * 8) Mbanza–Ndounga District
 * 9) Louingui District
 * 10) Loumo District
 * 11) Ignié District
 * 12) Vindza District
 * 13) Kimba District

title: Pool Department