text:
Talk:IBM i

Is there any reason to believe that "IBM i" isn't just a newer name for the OS that started out with the name "OS/400"?
Operating systems have often had name changes accompanying version changes or platform changes; is there any reason to believe that "IBM i" is a new technology, rather than just a new name for an OS that has had technology added to it in releases that haven't had name changes? Guy Harris (talk) 01:06, 10 May 2020 (UTC)
 * In this case: No. But there are cases in operating system history where it would be relevant to have different articles pre/post a name change, or other changes.. like Next/OpenStep vs Mac OS X and the different strains of Windows. -- Henriok (talk) 17:59, 11 May 2020 (UTC)
 * Yes, I know, but I was asking specifically about this case, which is more like "Mac OS X"/"OS X"/"macOS", where the names changed for marketing reasons but the code base changes were just release-to-release changes, without the code base changes with name changes not being more significant than the code base changes without name changes, than like NeXTStEP vs. Mac OS X, where the former acted as the basis for the latter but where a lot of changes were made to make the latter from the former, or like "Windows OT" (16-bit and Windows 95/98/Me) vs. "Windows NT" (from NT 3.1 to 10), where two different code bases implemented the same API and ABI (with many additions in the NT case). Guy Harris (talk) 18:05, 11 May 2020 (UTC)

EWLwiki (talk) 00:51, 14 May 2020 (UTC) I thank Guy Harris and others. What are the functions, objects, elements, attributes and characteristics of one operating system which become deprecated, replaced, rewritten, so that a new name is deserving for the newer operating system? Consider, are all computers essentially calculating machines. Is the abacus the forerunner of all? Here are some comments from 1997, 23 years ago. Additional points from Inside the AS/400, Featuring the AS/400e series, second edition, by Frank G. Soltis. Chapter 3, page 49. confusions about where the fine the operating system in the AS/400. OS/400 lacks most of the functions found in other operating systems. the high-level machine interface, called the MI, is a complete set of APIs for writing applications. OS/400 programs do not manage system resources. MI is technology-independent interface that has no knowledge of the memory configuration and characteristics. Thus memory management needs to be handled below the MI. OS/400 resides above the MI. No hardware-dependent components can be in OS/400, but must be beneath the MI to preserve technology independence.. the MI protects application programs and OS/400 from hardware changes. The operating-system software beneath the MI is called the licensed internal code (LIC). Page 50. OS/400 consists of objects and programs above the MI. The LKIC compress the data structures and programs below the MI.. The LIC is the link between the MI and the hardware. So the AS/400 operating system is the combination of OS/400 and the LIC. Kernel is a convenient way to describe the operation-sytem functions packaged under the MI. Work management with schedules jobs, can be predominantly I OS/400 because such functions have few hardware dependencies. Device driver support can be partially in OS/400 and partially in the LIC. Chapter 7 will show that system-wide security is in OS/400m whereas the authorization to system resources is below, in the LIC. Most major OS functions, like security, have some portions above and some portions below the MI. (end page 51) Page 52. decided to call the kernel microcode. Page 53> Internal code for the RISC-based systems is called System Licensed Internal Code (SLIC). Many changes were required to the LIC below the MI when Rochester began working on the RISC processor in 1991. Page 54. Redesigned and rewrote from scratch. Page 55. Selected C++ programming language for the new SLIC development. Page 56. The SLIC project began in June of 1992 produced more than 1 million lines of C++ code and more than 7,000 classes (classes = template that describes all objects that share the same operations and seat elements in Object-Oriented programming). Counting all the ported code, they had more than 3 million lines of trusted operating system code under the MI. SLIC is treated like the kernel of an operating system. Within the kernel, all code is assumed to be trusted. Only the SLIC developers in Rochester were allowed to generated code that runs in SLIC. No one else is allowed to write SLIC functionsRochester has never shared SLIC-level code with anyone outside the SLIC team. The IBM I technology layers have changed dramatically in the 23 years since 1997, and has much more complexity than what Dr. Frank Soltis described in his 1997 book. I will try to post newer, current content as to what IBM considers the IBM I operating system and its layers purport to be. Steve Will, the current chief scientist for IBM I, frequently speaks on the topic that IBM i is not OS/400EWLwiki (talk) 00:51, 14 May 2020 (UTC) EWLwiki (talk) 00:51, 14 May 2020 (UTC). https://www.helpsystems.com/resources/on-demand-webinars/ibm-i-its-not-just-as400-steve-will

https://www.helpsystems.com/blog/ibms-steve-will-talks-as400-cognitive-systems-and-everything-between

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DM6BiQZyOqk

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=f13ke9hY7Wk

https://www.se-radio.net/2011/07/episode-177-ibm-i-os400-operating-system-with-steve-will/

https://all400s.com/assets/Analogy.pdf EWLwiki (talk) 00:51, 14 May 2020 (UTC)

EWLwiki (talk) 03:41, 14 May 2020 (UTC) another discussion of names https://all400s.com/assets/Analogy.pdf. EWLwiki (talk) 03:41, 14 May 2020 (UTC)

 * Yes, I read Inside the AS/400 several years ago. The biggest change you mention is the rewrite of the LIC from PL/AS(?) on the IMPI machines to C++ for the RISC-based machines; that change predates the name "IBM i" - the system was still called the "AS/400" and the OS atop the LIC was still called "OS/400" at the time.
 * The "IBMs AS400 - A Simple Analogy Explains Everything" mentions a bunch of things, not all of which arrived at the same time as the "IBM i" name. Updates to RPG are about as relevant to the underlying OS as are updates to C in UN*Xes, i.e. not at all; going from C89/C90 to C99 does not make a new operating system.  The first big system-level change they mention is the addition of PASE, which dates back to at least OS/400 V5R1, so it's not something that distinguishes "IBM i" from "OS/400".  Similarly, http://www-912.ibm.com/as400/v5r2to/pdfs/j02linux.pdfhttp://www-912.ibm.com/as400/v5r2to/pdfs/j02linux.pdf Linux partitions date back to at least V5R2]; it runs in an LPAR.  So I see nothing there that distinguishes between "OS/400" and "IBM i".
 * I'll listen to the talks by Steve Will to see what changes were made at what time to see whether there's a clear line between "IBM i" and "OS/400" or "i5/OS" (or between "OS/400" and "i5/OS", for that matter). The diagram on page 5 incorporates both PASE and Linux partitions into "IBM Power Systems", although that's misleading as they were both available before IBM decided to stop marketing nearly-identical System i and System p hardware separately.  (Amusing question of the day - other than adding tag bits, what other changes to z/Architecture would be needed to make it capable of running IBM i? :-))
 * "We added new technology XXX" is not sufficient to make a new OS; plenty of OSes have added new technologies and kept their identity. For example, the OS running on my laptop replaced its init subsystem, and then apparently replaced the old launchd with a re-implementation, and added Metal and a Mach-message-based inter-process communication mechanism, neither of which were synchronized with the two name changes it got, but it's still just the latest version of the NeXTSTEP derivative it started out as in Mac OS X 10.0.  The same could be said about Windows NT, Solaris, IBM AIX, MVS/z/OS, HP-UX, etc.. Guy Harris (talk) 03:50, 14 May 2020 (UTC)
 * For the sake of posterity, I decided to change the article to treat OS/400, i5/OS and IBM i as the same operating system after re-reading the history section of Frank Soltis' book and observing that most of the major changes to the operating system occurred during the time it was known as OS/400, as per 's comments.
 * While OS/400 was an evolution of CPF, CPF is sufficiently different to warrant its own article, e.g. CPF had capability addressing, which was abandoned during the development of OS/400 Vt320 (talk) 16:29, 2 March 2021 (UTC)

Since there seems to have been some fresh confusion on this subject recently, it's worth reiterating the following points (references can be found in-line in the relevant parts of the article). Given that even IBM treated and described OS/400->i5/OS->IBM i as simple name changes, I believe the article should continue to do likewise. There is also clear precedent around using the latest name of a product line to refer to earlier releases, and using the release date of the original in the lede and infobox see macOS, iOS, OpenVMS etc. Vt320 (talk) 22:57, 23 November 2021 (UTC)
 * Most if not all of the major architectural changes and additions to the OS happened when it was called OS/400. Subsequent releases either added new hardware support, or have implemented functionality on top of the same core features which have been around since the 90s.
 * When IBM rebranded OS/400 as i5/OS, the announcement letter explicitly called it "A different name for the same operating system"
 * When IBM rebranded i5/OS as IBM i, it renamed two versions already released as i5/OS (specifically V5R4 and V6R1) to IBM i. It's difficult to claim that i5/OS and IBM i are somehow distinct operating systems when IBM retroactively renamed two of the three i5/OS releases to IBM i.

Merger proposals
I propose to merge Auxiliary storage pool into IBM i. There is relatively little content in the Auxiliary storage pool article, and I don't believe that much more needs to be said about it in a wiki article. I think that it would fit well as a feature sub-section of the IBM i article Vt320 (talk) 20:08, 2 March 2021 (UTC)
 * Support Guy Harris (talk) 20:43, 2 March 2021 (UTC)

I propose merging Qshell into IBM i. The Qshell article previously featured a lot of unencyclopaedic content, such as a list of the Unix commands it supported, and instructions on how to use it. When reduced down to a set of noteworthy statements and references, it overlaps with the description of Qshell in this article. Merging the articles will lead to a negligible increase of content in the IBM i article, and keep information about the system grouped together. Vt320 (talk) 15:08, 17 March 2021 (UTC)
 * Although I really appreciate your contributions to the IBM i and other articles, I do not support this suggestion. I don't think that removing all the noteworthy information from the Qshell article and then merging the few remaining parts as a side note to the IBM i article is a good idea. I'd rather like to see the Qshell article being much more expanded and improved as it is a unique Unix shell implementation on a non-Unix operating system and therefore worthy of a separate article in my opinion. Ghettoblaster (talk) 18:31, 17 March 2021 (UTC)
 * I don't see "To determine if the Qshell Interpreter licensed program is installed on IBM i..." as noteworthy; as Vt320 said, WP:NOTGUIDE. Are you talking about the list of included commands? Guy Harris (talk) 20:07, 17 March 2021 (UTC)
 * I agree that the current state of the article was not (yet) great, but at least it was a start that could be worked on. In the past it already contained some more useful information on how the shell differs from other Unix shells, but that got removed at some point as well. I don't think that merging all short articles into bigger ones really does help getting the content organized and expanded. And as for the command list, this is not uncommon (like in BusyBox) and is useful as well since the commands seem to be built-in and not just part of the OS as in other environments. Ghettoblaster (talk) 21:38, 17 March 2021 (UTC)
 * From a quick look at the history, the information on how the shell differs may have been copied from IBM documentation and removed because it was a copyright violation. If somebody wants to provide that information in their own words, they should go for it.
 * "Built-in" in what sense? The IBM documentation mentioned in the edit that removed the stuff that violated copyright says you can write your own utilities, although I haven't looked for documentation on how that's done.  Newer versions of the OS seem to have introduced some notion of private address spaces per process, but I don't know whether the command runs in another process or another address space. Guy Harris (talk) 21:56, 17 March 2021 (UTC)
 * And this is the kind of content I'd like to see in such an article. How is this implementation different from a user and from an architectural perspective from any other Unix shell? Unfortunately, I did not get a chance to research that myself yet. Ghettoblaster (talk) 22:11, 17 March 2021 (UTC)
 * I reinstated the command list, I was unaware of the precedent from articles like Busybox of listing commands. I still stand by removing instructional information. I am inclined to leave the Qshell article as a standalone article. I'm not sure if I will get around to contributing to it. Vt320 (talk) 01:14, 21 March 2021 (UTC)

Recommend Removal from IBM i article material that is duplicative of content found in AS/400 article
EWLwiki The IBM i article is for IBM i OS, not for extensive discussion of hardware. The IBM Power Systems article is a good location for discussion of hardware for IBM i. I ask Vt320 and Guy_Harris for consensus on removing from the IBM i article the content which is duplicative of content in the IBM_AS/400 article, specifically, discussions of hardware. These IBM i sections have content and verbiage almost identical to content found on the AS/400 page. o Origin                https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IBM_i#Origin o The Move to PowerPC. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IBM_i#The_move_to_PowerPC o Rebranding. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IBM_i#Rebranding o The IBM i article sections on History at https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IBM_i#History and Architecture also have much content that is repetitive of material in the IBM_AS/400 EWLwiki (talk) 23:59, 11 December 2021 (UTC)

 * Every single section you have listed is about the operating system, and not the hardware. It is of course difficult to not discuss hardware somewhat when discussing things like the origin of the OS (given that it was designed around the AS/400) and the move to the PowerPC-AS architecture, but at least some of that is needed for context. Vt320 (talk) 20:52, 12 December 2021 (UTC)
 * I agree with Vt320 here. The discussion of hardware here doesn't strike me as extensive; it's providing necessary context, as Vt320 notes. Guy Harris (talk) 22:14, 12 December 2021 (UTC)

OS name changes, fundamental OS changes, platform name changes, and platform changes
For the platform formerly known as AS/400 and the OS formerly known as OS/400, the following name changes and platform changes have occurred:

 * One (or more) IMPI processor changes - as noted in the AS/400 article, "There were at least two generations of IMPI processors, the second was released in 1991. "; no OS name changes were made, and any OS changes for the new processor(s) were probably just in the vertical "microcode" layer to support the new hardware. There may also have been other non-CPU hardware changes requiring software changes, but no OS name change or platform name change was made.
 * Introduction of the PowerAS-based machines (1995). This involved a complete rewrite of the vertical "microcode" layer; they took the opportunity to rewrite most of it in C++ (replacing old PL/MP code).  There may also have been changes to the XCPF layer required.  However, no OS name change or platform name change was made; the only name change was that the lower OS layer was renamed from "vertical microcode", or whatever they were calling it at that point, to "system licensed internal code".
 * PowerAS processor changes (1995, 1997, 1998) - as with the IMPI processor changes, these probably mostly involved changes to the SLIC layer, and did not involve name changes.
 * Dropping of IMPI support (1997) - OS/400 version 4 dropped support for IMPI processors. No OS name change was made.
 * Platform rename to "eServer iSeries" (2000) - the table in seems to indicate that the first machines released with the new name used the RS64 III processor, but that's unlikely to have provoked the platform name change, given that the introduction of RS64 II didn't, and the subsequent introduction of RS64 IV didn't.  The name change appears to have been the bright idea of somebody in IBM's marketing department, to try to give their z/Architecture, PowerPC, and x86 server lines similar names (eServer {z,i,p,x}Series).  The OS was not renamed at that point.
 * Platform change to use POWER4 processors (2000) - this meant that the same processors were used for all new iSeries and pSeries machines (although some previous pSeries machines used RS64 processors rather than POWERn processors). No platform name change or OS name change ensued; the OS required changes to support the new hardware.
 * Platform change to use POWER5 processors, platform name change to eServer i5, OS name change to i5/OS (2004) - not sure why IBM marketing decided that sticking the ordinal number of that particular generation of POWERn processors was a Good Idea, but expecting rationality from marketing departments is usually a mistake. This presumably involved the usual OS changes to support the new processor (and changes in AIX for the same reason), but, as IBM themselves said, the name change was just to "a different name for the same operating system".  It continued to run on pre-POWER5 machines; the previous reference says "It runs on IBM  iSeries™ servers and AS/400® Models 720, 730, 740, 170, SB2, SB3, 250, 270, 800, 810, 825, 870, 890, and IBM  i5 Models 520 and 570.", which goes back to RS64 II.
 * Rebranding to "System i5" (2005) - no OS name change.
 * Rebranding to "System i" (2006) - no OS name change.
 * Platform change to use POWER6 processors (2007) - no OS name change, even though the "5" in "i5/OS" no longer applied to all machines on which the OS ran, and no platform name change, as the "5" in "System i5" had already been dropped.
 * Replacement of of System p and System i platforms with unified "IBM Power Systems", OS rename to "IBM i" (2008) - new platform, but not a major platform change, given that both platforms were using POWERn processors and at least some common hardware already.

The one non-incremental OS change was the addition of support for PowerAS processors. The platform change to PowerAS was a non-incremental platform change. The other OS changes, and most platform changes, appear to be incremental (new features added to the OS, new processors added to the platform); maybe the merger of System p and System i wasn't incremental, although, as far as I know, the difference between System p and System i hardware had been decreasing over time already, so perhaps it was just an acknowledgement of reality.

The biggest change, from the IMPI CISC processors to the PowerAS RISC processors, was not accompanied by a platform or OS name change, so it's not as if an OS name change signals a major OS or platform change.

Yes, the latest version of IBM i won't run on any of the machines branded "AS/400", but the oldest OS release rebranded as "IBM i" was 5.4, and the OS continued to support older pre-POWER5, pre "eServer i5" machines.

So it's irrelevant to the question of whether IBM i is a separate OS from OS/400 or i5/OS (or whether OS/400 is a separate OS from i5/OS) whether the current version of IBM i runs on any machines that ran OSes branded "OS/400" or "i5/OS" - sometimes newer versions of OSes drop support for older hardware and those changes are usually not accompanied by name changes, and an OS name change doesn't necessarily accompany the dropping of support for older hardware, and even if the first version of the OS with the new name drops support for some older hardware, it's rarely if ever the case that there is no overlap between the platforms supported by the last OS version with the old name and the first OS version with the new name.

(For another example of platform changes and OS name changes, consider Apple's current UNIX-for-Macs, originally named Mac OS X and now named macOS. The major platform changes for Macs were the changes from PowerPC to x86 and from x86 to ARM, with the addition of 64-bit PowerPC and 64-bit x86 being minor changes.  Those required less OS change than the switch from IMPI to PowerAS, because macOS programs are compiled into directly machine code when the software is built rather than being done by low-level OS code (VMC/SLIC) when the program is first started; the bulk of the OS code is platform-independent.  In no case did the platform change involve an OS name change - the "Mac" in "Mac OS X" was partially dropped in Lion and fully dropped in Mountain Lion, and "OS X" became "macOS" in Sierra, but the first OS version to support x86 was Tiger and the first OS release to support ARM was Big Sur. (And. np, Apple changing from calling OS major versions "10.x", with "x" increasing by 1 from major release to major release, to calling them just "y", with "y" increasing by 1 from major release to major release, had no special significance, even though it occurred when ARM support was introduced. It was just Apple ditching the last bit of "pretend this is just at the next version after Mac OS 9", the first bit having been dropped when the name was changed to "macOS"; the original name emphasized continuity from the old, completely-different classic Mac OS, while the new name emphasized that the OS for the Macs was part of the same family of OSes as the OSes for iPhones, iPads, Apple TVs, and Apple Watches.) Guy Harris (talk) 10:41, 15 July 2022 (UTC)

 * To reiterate a point from a previous discussion - when i5/OS became IBM i, IBM renamed the two most recent i5/OS releases at that time - V5R4 and V6R1 to IBM i 5.4 and IBM i 6.1. There was no change in hardware support, just the name changed (see citations inline in article). The first release of i5/OS also ran on certain AS/400 systems. The idea that the name changes indicate a dropping of support for previous hardware is incorrect.

title: Talk:IBM i


text:
Toothache

Toothache, also known as dental pain or tooth pain, is pain in the teeth or their supporting structures, caused by dental diseases or pain referred to the teeth by non-dental diseases. When severe it may impact sleep, eating, and other daily activities.

Common causes include inflammation of the pulp, (usually in response to tooth decay, dental trauma, or other factors), dentin hypersensitivity, apical periodontitis (inflammation of the periodontal ligament and alveolar bone around the root apex), dental abscesses (localized collections of pus), alveolar osteitis ("dry socket", a possible complication of tooth extraction), acute necrotizing ulcerative gingivitis (a gum infection), and temporomandibular disorder.

Pulpitis is reversible when the pain is mild to moderate and lasts for a short time after a stimulus (for instance cold); or irreversible when the pain is severe, spontaneous, and lasts a long time after a stimulus. Left untreated, pulpitis may become irreversible, then progress to pulp necrosis (death of the pulp) and apical periodontitis. Abscesses usually cause throbbing pain. The apical abscess usually occurs after pulp necrosis, the pericoronal abscess is usually associated with acute pericoronitis of a lower wisdom tooth, and periodontal abscesses usually represent a complication of chronic periodontitis (gum disease). Less commonly, non-dental conditions can cause toothache, such as maxillary sinusitis, which can cause pain in the upper back teeth, or angina pectoris, which can cause pain in the lower teeth. Correct diagnosis can sometimes be challenging.

Proper oral hygiene helps to prevent toothache by preventing dental disease. The treatment of a toothache depends upon the exact cause, and may involve a filling, root canal treatment, extraction, drainage of pus, or other remedial action. The relief of toothache is considered one of the main responsibilities of dentists. Toothache is the most common type of pain in the mouth or face. It is one of the most common reasons for emergency dental appointments. In 2013, 223 million cases of toothache occurred as a result of dental caries in permanent teeth and 53 million cases occurred in baby teeth. Historically, the demand for treatment of toothache is thought to have led to the emergence of dental surgery as the first specialty of medicine.

Causes
Toothache may be caused by dental (odontogenic) conditions (such as those involving the dentin-pulp complex or periodontium), or by non-dental (non-odontogenic) conditions (such as maxillary sinusitis or angina pectoris). There are many possible non-dental causes, but the vast majority of toothache is dental in origin.

Both the pulp and periodontal ligament have nociceptors (pain receptors), but the pulp lacks proprioceptors (motion or position receptors) and mechanoreceptors (mechanical pressure receptors). Consequently, pain originating from the dentin-pulp complex tends to be poorly localized, whereas pain from the periodontal ligament will typically be well localized, although not always.

For instance, the periodontal ligament can detect the pressure exerted when biting on something smaller than a grain of sand (10–30 μm). When a tooth is intentionally stimulated, about 33% of people can correctly identify the tooth, and about 20% cannot narrow the stimulus location down to a group of three teeth. Another typical difference between pulpal and periodontal pain is that the latter is not usually made worse by thermal stimuli.

Pulpal
The majority of pulpal toothache falls into one of the following types; however, other rare causes (which do not always fit neatly into these categories) include galvanic pain and barodontalgia.

Pulpitis
Pulpitis (inflammation of the pulp) can be triggered by various stimuli (insults), including mechanical, thermal, chemical, and bacterial irritants, or rarely barometric changes and ionizing radiation. Common causes include tooth decay, dental trauma (such as a crack or fracture), or a filling with an imperfect seal.

Because the pulp is encased in a rigid outer shell, there is no space to accommodate swelling caused by inflammation. Inflammation therefore increases pressure in the pulp system, potentially compressing the blood vessels which supply the pulp. This may lead to ischemia (lack of oxygen) and necrosis (tissue death). Pulpitis is termed reversible when the inflamed pulp is capable of returning to a state of health, and irreversible when pulp necrosis is inevitable.

Reversible pulpitis is characterized by short-lasting pain triggered by cold and sometimes heat. The symptoms of reversible pulpitis may disappear, either because the noxious stimulus is removed, such as when dental decay is removed and a filling placed, or because new layers of dentin (tertiary dentin) have been produced inside the pulp chamber, insulating against the stimulus. Irreversible pulpitis causes spontaneous or lingering pain in response to cold.

Dentin hypersensitivity
Dentin hypersensitivity is a sharp, short-lasting dental pain occurring in about 15% of the population, which is triggered by cold (such as liquids or air), sweet or spicy foods, and beverages. Teeth will normally have some sensation to these triggers, but what separates hypersensitivity from regular tooth sensation is the intensity of the pain. Hypersensitivity is most commonly caused by a lack of insulation from the triggers in the mouth due to gingival recession (receding gums) exposing the roots of the teeth, although it can occur after scaling and root planing or dental bleaching, or as a result of erosion. The pulp of the tooth remains normal and healthy in dentin hypersensitivity.

Many topical treatments for dentin hypersensitivity are available, including desensitizing toothpastes and protective varnishes that coat the exposed dentin surface. Treatment of the root cause is critical, as topical measures are typically short lasting. Over time, the pulp usually adapts by producing new layers of dentin inside the pulp chamber called tertiary dentin, increasing the thickness between the pulp and the exposed dentin surface and lessening the hypersensitivity.

Periodontal
In general, chronic periodontal conditions do not cause any pain. Rather, it is acute inflammation which is responsible for the pain.

Apical periodontitis
Apical periodontitis is acute or chronic inflammation around the apex of a tooth caused by an immune response to bacteria within an infected pulp. It does not occur because of pulp necrosis, meaning that a tooth that tests as if it's alive (vital) may cause apical periodontitis, and a pulp which has become non-vital due to a sterile, non-infectious processes (such as trauma) may not cause any apical periodontitis. Bacterial cytotoxins reach the region around the roots of the tooth via the apical foramina and lateral canals, causing vasodilation, sensitization of nerves, osteolysis (bone resorption) and potentially abscess or cyst formation.

The periodontal ligament becomes inflamed and there may be pain when biting or tapping on the tooth. On an X-ray, bone resorption appears as a radiolucent area around the end of the root, although this does not manifest immediately. Acute apical periodontitis is characterized by well-localized, spontaneous, persistent, moderate to severe pain. The alveolar process may be tender to palpation over the roots. The tooth may be raised in the socket and feel more prominent than the adjacent teeth.

Food impaction
Food impaction occurs when food debris, especially fibrous food such as meat, becomes trapped between two teeth and is pushed into the gums during chewing. The usual cause of food impaction is disruption of the normal interproximal contour or drifting of teeth so that a gap is created (an open contact). Decay can lead to collapse of part of the tooth, or a dental restoration may not accurately reproduce the contact point. Irritation, localized discomfort or mild pain and a feeling of pressure from between the two teeth results. The gingival papilla is swollen, tender and bleeds when touched. The pain occurs during and after eating, and may slowly disappear before being evoked again at the next meal, or relieved immediately by using a tooth pick or dental floss in the involved area. A gingival or periodontal abscess may develop from this situation.

Periodontal abscess
A periodontal abscess (lateral abscess) is a collection of pus that forms in the gingival crevices, usually as a result of chronic periodontitis where the pockets are pathologically deepened greater than 3mm. A healthy gingival pocket will contain bacteria and some calculus kept in check by the immune system. As the pocket deepens, the balance is disrupted, and an acute inflammatory response results, forming pus. The debris and swelling then disrupt the normal flow of fluids into and out of the pocket, rapidly accelerating the inflammatory cycle. Larger pockets also have a greater likelihood of collecting food debris, creating additional sources of infection.

Periodontal abscesses are less common than apical abscesses, but are still frequent. The key difference between the two is that the pulp of the tooth tends to be alive, and will respond normally to pulp tests. However, an untreated periodontal abscess may still cause the pulp to die if it reaches the tooth apex in a periodontic-endodontic lesion. A periodontal abscess can occur as the result of tooth fracture, food packing into a periodontal pocket (with poorly shaped fillings), calculus build-up, and lowered immune responses (such as in diabetes). Periodontal abscess can also occur after periodontal scaling, which causes the gums to tighten around the teeth and trap debris in the pocket. Toothache caused by a periodontal abscess is generally deep and throbbing. The oral mucosa covering an early periodontal abscess appears erythematous (red), swollen, shiny, and painful to touch.

A variant of the periodontal abscess is the gingival abscess, which is limited to the gingival margin, has a quicker onset, and is typically caused by trauma from items such as a fishbone, toothpick, or toothbrush, rather than chronic periodontitis. The treatment of a periodontal abscess is similar to the management of dental abscesses in general (see: Treatment). However, since the tooth is typically alive, there is no difficulty in accessing the source of infection and, therefore, antibiotics are more routinely used in conjunction with scaling and root planing. The occurrence of a periodontal abscess usually indicates advanced periodontal disease, which requires correct management to prevent recurrent abscesses, including daily cleaning below the gumline to prevent the buildup of subgingival plaque and calculus.

Acute necrotizing ulcerative gingivitis
Common marginal gingivitis in response to subgingival plaque is usually a painless condition. However, an acute form of gingivitis/periodontitis, termed acute necrotizing ulcerative gingivitis (ANUG), can develop, often suddenly. It is associated with severe periodontal pain, bleeding gums, "punched out" ulceration, loss of the interdental papillae, and possibly also halitosis (bad breath) and a bad taste. Predisposing factors include poor oral hygiene, smoking, malnutrition, psychological stress, and immunosuppression. This condition is not contagious, but multiple cases may simultaneously occur in populations who share the same risk factors (such as students in a dormitory during a period of examination). ANUG is treated over several visits, first with debridement of the necrotic gingiva, homecare with hydrogen peroxide mouthwash, analgesics and, when the pain has subsided sufficiently, cleaning below the gumline, both professionally and at home. Antibiotics are not indicated in ANUG management unless there is underlying systemic disease.

Pericoronitis
Pericoronitis is inflammation of the soft tissues surrounding the crown of a partially erupted tooth. The lower wisdom tooth is the last tooth to erupt into the mouth, and is, therefore, more frequently impacted, or stuck, against the other teeth. This leaves the tooth partially erupted into the mouth, and there frequently is a flap of gum (an operculum), overlying the tooth. Bacteria and food debris accumulate beneath the operculum, which is an area that is difficult to keep clean because it is hidden and far back in the mouth. The opposing upper wisdom tooth also tends to have sharp cusps and over-erupt because it has no opposing tooth to bite into, and instead traumatizes the operculum further. Periodontitis and dental caries may develop on either the third or second molars, and chronic inflammation develops in the soft tissues. Chronic pericoronitis may not cause any pain, but an acute pericoronitis episode is often associated with pericoronal abscess formation. Typical signs and symptoms of a pericoronal abscess include severe, throbbing pain, which may radiate to adjacent areas in the head and neck,  redness, swelling and tenderness of the gum over the tooth. There may be trismus (difficulty opening the mouth), facial swelling, and rubor (flushing) of the cheek that overlies the angle of the jaw. Persons typically develop pericoronitis in their late teens and early 20s, as this is the age that the wisdom teeth are erupting. Treatment for acute conditions includes cleaning the area under the operculum with an antiseptic solution, painkillers, and antibiotics if indicated. After the acute episode has been controlled, the definitive treatment is usually by tooth extraction or, less commonly, the soft tissue is removed (operculectomy). If the tooth is kept, good oral hygiene is required to keep the area free of debris to prevent recurrence of the infection.

Occlusal trauma
Occlusal trauma results from excessive biting forces exerted on teeth, which overloads the periodontal ligament, causing periodontal pain and a reversible increase in tooth mobility. Occlusal trauma may occur with bruxism, the parafunctional (abnormal) clenching and grinding of teeth during sleep or while awake. Over time, there may be attrition (tooth wear), which may also cause dentin hypersensitivity, and possibly formation of a periodontal abscess, as the occlusal trauma causes adaptive changes in the alveolar bone.

Occlusal trauma often occurs when a newly placed dental restoration is built too "high", concentrating the biting forces on one tooth. Height differences measuring less than a millimeter can cause pain. Dentists, therefore, routinely check that any new restoration is in harmony with the bite and forces are distributed correctly over many teeth using articulating paper. If the high spot is quickly eliminated, the pain disappears and there is no permanent harm. Over-tightening of braces can cause periodontal pain and, occasionally, a periodontal abscess.

Alveolar osteitis
Alveolar osteitis is a complication of tooth extraction (especially lower wisdom teeth) in which the blood clot is not formed or is lost, leaving the socket where the tooth used to be empty, and bare bone is exposed to the mouth. The pain is moderate to severe, and dull, aching, and throbbing in character. The pain is localized to the socket, and may radiate. It normally starts two to four days after the extraction, and may last 10–40 days. Healing is delayed, and it is treated with local anesthetic dressings, which are typically required for five to seven days. There is some evidence that chlorhexidine mouthwash used prior to extractions prevents alveolar osteitis.

Dental trauma and cracked tooth syndrome
Cracked tooth syndrome refers to a highly variable set of pain-sensitivity symptoms that may accompany a tooth fracture, usually sporadic, sharp pain that occurs during biting or with release of biting pressure, or relieved by releasing pressure on the tooth. The term is falling into disfavor and has given way to the more generalized description of fractures and cracks of the tooth, which allows for the wide variations in signs, symptoms, and prognosis for traumatized teeth. A fracture of a tooth can involve the enamel, dentin, and/or pulp, and can be orientated horizontally or vertically. Fractured or cracked teeth can cause pain via several mechanisms, including dentin hypersensitivity, pulpitis (reversible or irreversible), or periodontal pain. Accordingly, there is no single test or combination of symptoms that accurately diagnose a fracture or crack, although when pain can be stimulated by causing separation of the cusps of the tooth, it's highly suggestive of the disorder. Vertical fractures can be very difficult to identify because the crack can rarely be probed or seen on radiographs, as the fracture runs in the plane of conventional films (similar to how the split between two adjacent panes of glass is invisible when facing them).

When toothache results from dental trauma (regardless of the exact pulpal or periodontal diagnosis), the treatment and prognosis is dependent on the extent of damage to the tooth, the stage of development of the tooth, the degree of displacement or, when the tooth is avulsed, the time out of the socket and the starting health of the tooth and bone. Because of the high variation in treatment and prognosis, dentists often use trauma guides to help determine prognosis and direct treatment decisions.

The prognosis for a cracked tooth varies with the extent of the fracture. Those cracks that are irritating the pulp but do not extend through the pulp chamber can be amenable to stabilizing dental restorations such as a crown or composite resin. Should the fracture extend though the pulp chamber and into the root, the prognosis of the tooth is hopeless.

Periodontic-endodontic lesion
Apical abscesses can spread to involve periodontal pockets around a tooth, and periodontal pockets cause eventual pulp necrosis via accessory canals or the apical foramen at the bottom of the tooth. Such lesions are termed periodontic-endodontic lesions, and they may be acutely painful, sharing similar signs and symptoms with a periodontal abscess, or they may cause mild pain or no pain at all if they are chronic and free-draining. Successful root canal therapy is required before periodontal treatment is attempted. Generally, the long-term prognosis of perio-endo lesions is poor.

Non-dental

Non-dental causes of toothache are much less common as compared with dental causes. In a toothache of neurovascular origin, pain is reported in the teeth in conjunction with a migraine. Local and distant structures (such as ear, brain, carotid artery, or heart) can also refer pain to the teeth. Other non-dental causes of toothache include myofascial pain (muscle pain) and angina pectoris (which classically refers pain to the lower jaw). Very rarely, toothache can be psychogenic in origin.

Disorders of the maxillary sinus can be referred to the upper back teeth. The posterior, middle and anterior superior alveolar nerves are all closely associated with the lining of the sinus. The bone between the floor of the maxillary sinus and the roots of the upper back teeth is very thin, and frequently the apices of these teeth disrupt the contour of the sinus floor. Consequently, acute or chronic maxillary sinusitis can be perceived as maxillary toothache, and neoplasms of the sinus (such as adenoid cystic carcinoma) can cause similarly perceived toothache if malignant invasion of the superior alveolar nerves occurs. Classically, sinusitis pain increases upon Valsalva maneuvers or tilting the head forward.

Painful conditions which do not originate from the teeth or their supporting structures may affect the oral mucosa of the gums and be interpreted by the individual as toothache. Examples include neoplasms of the gingival or alveolar mucosa (usually squamous cell carcinoma), conditions which cause gingivostomatitis and desquamative gingivitis. Various conditions may involve the alveolar bone, and cause non-odontogenic toothache, such as Burkitt's lymphoma, infarcts in the jaws caused by sickle cell disease,  and osteomyelitis. Various conditions of the trigeminal nerve can masquerade as toothache, including trigeminal zoster (maxillary or mandibular division), trigeminal neuralgia, cluster headache, and trigeminal neuropathies. Very rarely, a brain tumor might cause toothache. Another chronic facial pain syndrome which can mimic toothache is temporomandibular disorder (temporomandibular joint pain-dysfunction syndrome), which is very common. Toothache which has no identifiable dental or medical cause is often termed atypical odontalgia, which, in turn, is usually considered a type of atypical facial pain (or persistent idiopathic facial pain). Atypical odontalgia may give very unusual symptoms, such as pain which migrates from one tooth to another and which crosses anatomical boundaries (such as from the left teeth to the right teeth).

Pathophysiology
A tooth is composed of an outer shell of calcified hard tissues (from hardest to softest: enamel, dentin, and cementum), and an inner soft tissue core (the pulp system), which contains nerves and blood vessels. The visible parts of the teeth in the mouth – the crowns (covered by enamel) – are anchored into the bone by the roots (covered by cementum). Underneath the cementum and enamel layers, dentin forms the bulk of the tooth and surrounds the pulp system. The part of the pulp inside the crown is the pulp chamber, and the central soft tissue nutrient canals within each root are root canals, exiting through one or more holes at the root end (apical foramen/foramina). The periodontal ligament connects the roots to the bony socket. The gingiva covers the alveolar processes, the tooth-bearing arches of the jaws.

Enamel is not a vital tissue, as it lacks blood vessels, nerves, and living cells. Consequently, pathologic processes involving only enamel, such as shallow cavities or cracks, tend to be painless. Dentin contains many microscopic tubes containing fluid and the processes of odontoblast cells, which communicate with the pulp. Mechanical, osmotic, or other stimuli cause movement of this fluid, triggering nerves in the pulp (the "hydrodynamic theory" of pulp sensitivity). Due to the close relationship between dentin and pulp, they are frequently considered together as the dentin-pulp complex.

The teeth and gums exhibit normal sensations in health. Such sensations are generally sharp, lasting as long as the stimulus. There is a continuous spectrum from physiologic sensation to pain in disease. Pain is an unpleasant sensation caused by intense or damaging events. In a toothache, nerves are stimulated by either exogenous sources (for instance, bacterial toxins, metabolic byproducts, chemicals, or trauma) or endogenous factors (such as inflammatory mediators).

The pain pathway is mostly transmitted via myelinated Aδ (sharp or stabbing pain) and unmyelinated C nerve fibers (slow, dull, aching, or burning pain) of the trigeminal nerve, which supplies sensation to the teeth and gums via many divisions and branches. Initially, pain is felt while noxious stimuli are applied (such as cold). Continued exposure decreases firing thresholds of the nerves, allowing normally non-painful stimuli to trigger pain (allodynia). Should the insult continue, noxious stimuli produce larger discharges in the nerve, perceived as more intense pain. Spontaneous pain may occur if the firing threshold is decreased so it can fire without stimulus (hyperalgesia). The physical component of pain is processed in the medullary spinal cord and perceived in the frontal cortex. Because pain perception involves overlapping sensory systems and an emotional component, individual responses to identical stimuli are variable.

Diagnosis
The diagnosis of toothache can be challenging, not only because the list of potential causes is extensive, but also because dental pain may be extremely variable,  and pain can be referred to and from the teeth. Dental pain can simulate virtually any facial pain syndrome. However, the vast majority of toothache is caused by dental, rather than non-dental, sources. Consequently, the saying "horses, not zebras" has been applied to the differential diagnosis of orofacial pain. That is, everyday dental causes (such as pulpitis) should always be considered before unusual, non-dental causes (such as myocardial infarction). In the wider context of orofacial pain, all cases of orofacial pain may be considered as having a dental origin until proven otherwise. The diagnostic approach for toothache is generally carried out in the following sequence: history, followed by examination, and investigations. All this information is then collated and used to build a clinical picture, and a differential diagnosis can be carried out.

Symptoms
The chief complaint, and the onset of the complaint, are usually important in the diagnosis of toothache. For example, the key distinction between reversible and irreversible pulpitis is given in the history, such as pain following a stimulus in the former, and lingering pain following a stimulus and spontaneous pain in the latter. History is also important in recent filling or other dental treatment, and trauma to the teeth. Based on the most common causes of toothache (dentin hypersensitivity, periodontitis, and pulpitis), the key indicators become localization of the pain (whether the pain is perceived as originating in a specific tooth), thermal sensitivity, pain on biting, spontaneity of the pain, and factors that make the pain worse. The various qualities of the toothache, such as the effect of biting and chewing on the pain, the effect of thermal stimuli, and the effect of the pain on sleep, are verbally established by the clinician, usually in a systematic fashion, such as using the Socrates pain assessment method (see table).

From the history, indicators of pulpal, periodontal, a combination of both, or non-dental causes can be observed. Periodontal pain is frequently localized to a particular tooth, which is made much worse by biting on the tooth, sudden in onset, and associated with bleeding and pain when brushing. More than one factor may be involved in the toothache. For example, a pulpal abscess (which is typically severe, spontaneous and localized) can cause periapical periodontitis (which results in pain on biting). Cracked tooth syndrome may also cause a combination of symptoms. Lateral periodontitis (which is usually without any thermal sensitivity and sensitive to biting) can cause pulpitis and the tooth becomes sensitive to cold.

Non-dental sources of pain often cause multiple teeth to hurt and have an epicenter that is either above or below the jaws. For instance, cardiac pain (which can make the bottom teeth hurt) usually radiates up from the chest and neck, and sinusitis (which can make the back top teeth hurt) is worsened by bending over. As all of these conditions may mimic toothache, it is possible that dental treatment, such as fillings, root canal treatment, or tooth extraction may be carried out unnecessarily by dentists in an attempt to relieve the individual's pain, and as a result the correct diagnosis is delayed. A hallmark is that there is no obvious dental cause, and signs and symptoms elsewhere in the body may be present. As migraines are typically present for many years, the diagnosis is easier to make. Often the character of the pain is the differentiator between dental and non-dental pain.

Irreversible pulpitis progresses to pulp necrosis, wherein the nerves are non-functional, and a pain-free period following the severe pain of irreversible pulpitis may be experienced. However, it is common for irreversible pulpitis to progress to apical periodontitis, including an acute apical abscess, without treatment. As irreversible pulpitis generates an apical abscess, the character of the toothache may simply change without any pain-free period. For instance, the pain becomes well localized, and biting on the tooth becomes painful. Hot drinks can make the tooth feel worse because they expand the gases and likewise, cold can make it feel better, thus some will sip cold water.

Examination
The clinical examination narrows the source down to a specific tooth, teeth, or a non-dental cause. Clinical examination moves from the outside to the inside, and from the general to the specific. Outside of the mouth, the sinuses, muscles of the face and neck, the temporomandibular joints, and cervical lymph nodes are palpated for pain or swelling. In the mouth, the soft tissues of the gingiva, mucosa, tongue, and pharynx are examined for redness, swelling or deformity. Finally, the teeth are examined. Each tooth that may be painful is percussed (tapped), palpated at the base of the root, and probed with a dental explorer for dental caries and a periodontal probe for periodontitis, then wiggled for mobility.

Sometimes the symptoms reported in the history are misleading and point the examiner to the wrong area of the mouth. For instance, sometimes people may mistake pain from pulpitis in a lower tooth as pain in the upper teeth, and vice versa. In other instances, the apparent examination findings may be misleading and lead to the wrong diagnosis and wrong treatment. Pus from a pericoronal abscess associated with a lower third molar may drain along the submucosal plane and discharge as a parulis over the roots of the teeth towards the front of the mouth (a "migratory abscess"). Another example is decay of the tooth root which is hidden from view below the gumline, giving the casual appearance of a sound tooth if careful periodontal examination is not carried out.

Factors indicating infection include movement of fluid in the tissues during palpation (fluctuance), swollen lymph nodes in the neck, and fever with an oral temperature more than 37.7 °C.

Investigations
Any tooth that is identified, in either the history of pain or base clinical exam, as a source for toothache may undergo further testing for vitality of the dental pulp, infection, fractures, or periodontitis. These tests may include:

 * Pulp sensitivity tests, usually carried out with a cotton wool pledget sprayed with ethyl chloride to serve as a cold stimulus, or with an electric pulp tester. The air spray from a three-in-one syringe may also be used to demonstrate areas of dentin hypersensitivity. Heat tests can also be applied with hot Gutta-percha. A healthy tooth will feel the cold but the pain will be mild and disappear once the stimulus is removed.  The accuracy of these tests has been reported as 86% for cold testing, 81% for electric pulp testing, and 71% for heat testing.  Because of the lack of test sensitivity, a second symptom should be present or a positive test before making a diagnosis.
 * Radiographs utilized to find dental caries and bone loss laterally or at the apex.
 * Assessment of biting on individual teeth (which sometimes helps to localize the problem) or the separate cusps (may help to detect cracked cusp syndrome).

Less commonly used tests might include trans-illumination (to detect congestion of the maxillary sinus or to highlight a crack in a tooth), dyes (to help visualize a crack), a test cavity, selective anaesthesia and laser doppler flowmetry.

Establishing a diagnosis of nondental toothache is initially done by careful questioning about the site, nature, aggravating and relieving factors, and referral of the pain, then ruling out any dental causes. There are no specific treatments for nondental pain (each treatment is directed at the cause of the pain, rather than the toothache itself), but a dentist can assist in offering potential sources of the pain and direct the patient to appropriate care. The most critical nondental source is the radiation of angina pectoris into the lower teeth and the potential need for urgent cardiac care.

Differential diagnoses
When it becomes extremely painful and decayed the tooth may be known as a hot tooth.

Prevention
Since most toothache is the result of plaque-related diseases, such as tooth decay and periodontal disease, the majority of cases could be prevented by avoidance of a cariogenic diet and maintenance of good oral hygiene. That is, reduction in the number times that refined sugars are consumed per day and brushing the teeth twice a day with fluoride toothpaste and interdental cleaning. Regular visits to a dentist also increases the likelihood that problems are detected early and averted before toothache occurs. Dental trauma could also be significantly reduced by routine use of mouthguards in contact sports.

Management

There are many causes of toothache and its diagnosis is a specialist topic, meaning that attendance at a dentist is usually required. Since many cases of toothache are inflammatory in nature, over the counter non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) may help (unless contraindicated, such as with a peptic ulcer). Generally, NSAIDs are as effective as aspirin alone or in combination with codeine. However, simple analgesics may have little effect on some causes of toothache, and the severe pain can drive individuals to exceed the maximum dose. For example, when acetaminophen (paracetamol) is taken for toothache, an accidental overdose is more likely to occur when compared to people who are taking acetaminophen for other reasons. Another risk in persons with toothache is a painful chemical burn of the oral mucosa caused by holding a caustic substance such as aspirin tablets and toothache remedies containing eugenol (such as clove oil) against the gum. Although the logic of placing a tablet against the painful tooth is understandable, an aspirin tablet needs to be swallowed to have any pain-killing effect. Caustic toothache remedies require careful application to the tooth only, without coming into excessive contact with the soft tissues of the mouth.

For the dentist, the goal of treatment generally is to relieve the pain, and wherever possible to preserve or restore function. The treatment depends on the cause of the toothache, and frequently a clinical decision regarding the current state and long-term prognosis of the affected tooth, as well as the individual's wishes and ability to cope with dental treatment, will influence the treatment choice. Often, administration of an intra-oral local anesthetic such as lidocaine and epinephrine is indicated in order to carry out pain-free treatment. Treatment may range from simple advice, removal of dental decay with a dental drill and subsequent placement of a filling, to root canal treatment, tooth extraction, or debridement.

Pulpitis and its sequalae
In pulpitis, an important distinction in regard to treatment is whether the inflammation is reversible or irreversible. Treatment of reversible pulpitis is by removing or correcting the causative factor. Usually, the decay is removed, and a sedative dressing is used to encourage the pulp to return to a state of health, either as a base underneath a permanent filling or as a temporary filling intended to last for a period while the tooth is observed to see if pulpitis resolves. Irreversible pulpitis and its sequalae pulp necrosis and apical periodontitis require treatment with root canal therapy or tooth extraction, as the pulp acts as a nidus of infection, which will lead to a chronic infection if not removed. Generally, there is no difference in outcomes between whether the root canal treatment is completed in one or multiple appointments. The field of regenerative endodontics is now developing ways to clean the pulp chamber and regenerate the soft and hard tissues to either regrow or simulate pulp structure. This has proved especially helpful in children where the tooth root has not yet finished developing and root canal treatments have lower success rates.

Reversible/irreversible pulpitis is a distinct concept from whether the tooth is restorable or unrestorable, e.g. a tooth may only have reversible pulpitis, but has been structurally weakened by decay or trauma to the point that it is impossible to restore the tooth in the long term.

Dental abscesses
A general principle concerning dental abscesses is ubi pus, ibi evacua ("where there is pus, drain it"), which applies to any case where there is a collection of pus in the tissues (such as a periodontal abscess, pericoronal abscess, or apical abscess). The pus within the abscess is under pressure, and the surrounding tissues are deformed and stretched to accommodate the swelling. This leads to a sensation of throbbing (often in time with the pulse) and constant pain. Pus may be evacuated via the tooth by drilling into the pulp chamber (an endodontic access cavity). Such a treatment is sometimes termed open drainage. Drainage can also be performed via the tooth socket, once the causative tooth is extracted. If neither of those measures succeeds, or they are impossible, incision and drainage may be required, in which a small incision is made in the soft tissues directly over the abscess at the most dependent point. A surgical instrument such as a pair of tweezers is gently inserted into the incision and opened, while the abscess is massaged to encourage the pus to drain out. Usually, the reduction in pain when the pus drains is immediate and marked as the built up pressure is relieved. If the pus drains into the mouth, there is usually a bad or offensive taste.

Antibiotics
Antibiotics tend to be extensively used for emergency dental problems. As samples for microbiologic culture and sensitivity are hardly ever carried out in general dental practice, broad-spectrum antibiotics such as amoxicillin are typically used for a short course of about three to seven days. Antibiotics are seen as a "quick fix" by both dentists, who generally only have a very short time to manage dental emergencies, and by patients, who tend to want to avoid treatments (such as tooth extraction) which are perceived negatively. However, antibiotics typically only temporarily suppress an infection, and the need for definitive treatment is only postponed for an unpredictable length of time. An estimated 10% of all antibiotic prescriptions are made by dentists, a major factor in antibiotic resistance. They are often used inappropriately, in conditions for which they are ineffective, or their risks outweigh the benefits, such as irreversible pulpitis, apical abscess,  dry socket,  or mild pericoronitis. However, the reality is that antibiotics are rarely needed, and they should be used restrictively in dentistry. Local measures such as incision and drainage, and removal of the cause of the infection (such as a necrotic tooth pulp) have a greater therapeutic benefit and are much more important. If abscess drainage has been achieved, antibiotics are not usually necessary.

Antibiotics tend to be used when local measures cannot be carried out immediately. In this role, antibiotics suppress the infection until local measures can be carried out. Severe trismus may occur in when the muscles of mastication are involved in an odontogenic infection, making any surgical treatment impossible. Immunocompromised individuals are less able to fight off infections, and antibiotics are usually given. Evidence of systemic involvement (such as a fever higher than 38.5 °C, cervical lymphadenopathy, or malaise) also indicates antibiotic therapy, as do rapidly spreading infections, cellulitis, or severe pericoronitis. Drooling and difficulty swallowing are signs that the airway may be threatened, and may precede difficulty in breathing. Ludwig's angina and cavernous sinus thrombosis are rare but serious complications of odontogenic infections. Severe infections tend to be managed in hospital.

Prognosis
Most dental pain can be treated with routine dentistry. In rare cases, toothache can be a symptom representing a life-threatening condition, such as a deep neck infection (compression of the airway by a spreading odontogenic infection) or something more remote like a heart attack.

Dental caries, if left untreated, follows a predictable natural history as it nears the pulp of the tooth. First it causes reversible pulpitis, which transitions to irreversible pulpitis, then to necrosis, then to necrosis with periapical periodontitis and, finally, to necrosis with periapical abscess. Reversible pulpitis can be stopped by removal of the cavity and the placement of a sedative dressing of any part of the cavity that is near the pulp chamber. Irreversible pulpitis and pulp necrosis are treated with either root canal therapy or extraction. Infection of the periapical tissue will generally resolve with the treatment of the pulp, unless it has expanded to cellulitis or a radicular cyst. The success rate of restorative treatment and sedative dressings in reversible pulpitis, depends on the extent of the disease, as well as several technical factors, such as the sedative agent used and whether a rubber dam was used. The success rate of root canal treatment also depends on the degree of disease (root canal therapy for irreversible pulpitis has a generally higher success rate than necrosis with periapical abscess) and many other technical factors.

Epidemiology
In the United States, an estimated 12% of people reported that they had a toothache at some point in the six months before questioning. Individuals aged 18–34 reported much higher rates toothache than those aged 75 or over. In a survey of Australian schoolchildren, 12% had experienced toothache before the age of five, and 32% by the age of 12. Dental trauma is extremely common and tends to occur more often in children than adults.

Toothache may occur at any age, in any gender and in any geographic region. Diagnosing and relieving toothache is considered one of the main responsibilities of dentists. Irreversible pulpitis is thought to be the most common reason that people seek emergency dental treatment. Since dental caries associated with pulpitis is the most common cause, toothache is more common in populations that are at higher risk of dental caries. The prevalence of caries in a population is dependent upon factors such as diet (refined sugars), socioeconomic status, and exposure to fluoride (such as areas without water fluoridation).

History, society and culture
The first known mention of tooth decay and toothache occurs on a Sumerian clay tablet now referred to as the "Legend of the worm". It was written in cuneiform, recovered from the Euphrates valley, and dates from around 5000 BC. The belief that tooth decay and dental pain is caused by tooth worms is found in ancient India, Egypt, Japan, and China, and persists until the Age of Enlightenment. Although toothache is an ancient problem, it is thought that ancient people suffered less dental decay due to a lack of refined sugars in their diet. On the other hand, diets were frequently coarser, leading to more tooth wear. For example, hypotheses hold that ancient Egyptians had a lot of tooth wear due to desert sand blown on the wind mixing with the dough of their bread. The ancient Egyptians also wore amulets to prevent toothache. The Ebers papyrus (1500 BC) details a recipe to treat "gnawing of the blood in the tooth", which included fruit of the gebu plant, onion, cake, and dough, to be chewed for four days.

Archigenes of Apamea describes use of a mouthwash made by boiling gallnuts and hallicacabum in vinegar, and a mixture of roasted earthworms, spikenard ointment, and crushed spider eggs. Pliny advises toothache sufferers to ask a frog to take away the pain by moonlight. Claudius' physician Scribonius Largus recommends "fumigations made with the seeds of the hyoscyamus scattered on burning charcoal ... followed by rinsings of the mouth with hot water, in this way  ... small worms are expelled."

In Christianity, Saint Apollonia is the patron saint of toothache and other dental problems. She was an early Christian martyr who was persecuted for her beliefs in Alexandria during the Imperial Roman age. A mob struck her repeatedly in the face until all her teeth were smashed. She was threatened with being burned alive unless she renounced Christianity, but she instead chose to throw herself onto the fire. Supposedly, toothache sufferers who invoke her name will find relief.

In the 15th century, priest-physician Andrew Boorde describes a "deworming technique" for the teeth: "And if it [toothache] do come by worms, make a candle of wax with Henbane seeds and light it and let the perfume of the candle enter into the tooth and gape over a dish of cold water and then you may take the worms out of the water and kill them on your nail."

Albucasis (Abu al-Qasim Khalaf ibn al-Abbas Al-Zahrawi) used cautery for toothache, inserting a red-hot needle into the pulp of the tooth. The medieval surgeon Guy de Chauliac used a camphor, sulfur, myrrh, and asafetida mixture to fill teeth and cure toothworm and toothache. French anatomist Ambroise Paré recommended: "Toothache is, of all others, the most atrocious pain that can torment a man, being followed by death. Erosion (i.e. dental decay) is the effect of an acute and acrid humour. To combat this, one must recourse to cauterization ... by means of cauterization  ... one burns the nerve, thus rendering it incapable of again feeling or causing pain."

In the Elizabethan era, toothache was an ailment associated with lovers, as in Massinger and Fletcher's play The False One. Toothache also appears in a number of William Shakespeare's plays, such as Othello and Cymbeline. In Much Ado About Nothing, Act III scene 2, when asked by his companions why he is feeling sad, a character replies that he has toothache so as not to admit the truth that he is in love. There is reference to "toothworm" as the cause of toothache and to tooth extraction as a cure ("draw it"). In Act V, scene 1, another character remarks: "For there was never yet philosopher That could endure the toothache patiently." In modern parlance, this translates to the observation that philosophers are still human and feel pain, even though they claim they have transcended human suffering and misfortune. In effect, the character is rebuking his friend for trying to make him feel better with philosophical platitudes.

The Scottish poet, Robert Burns wrote "Address to the Toothache" in 1786, inspired after he suffered from it. The poem elaborates on the severity of toothache, describing it as the "hell o' a' diseases" (hell of all diseases).

A number of plants and trees include "toothache" in their common name. Prickly ash (Zanthoxylum americanum) is sometimes termed "toothache tree", and its bark, "toothache bark"; whilst Ctenium Americanum is sometimes termed "toothache grass", and Acmella oleracea is called "toothache plant". Pellitory (Anacyclus pyrethrum) was traditionally used to relieve toothache. In Kathmandu, Nepal, there is a shrine to Vaishya Dev, the Newar god of toothache. The shrine consists of part of an old tree to which sufferers of toothache nail a rupee coin in order to ask the god to relieve their pain. The lump of wood is called the "toothache tree" and is said to have been cut from the legendary tree, Bangemudha. On this street, many traditional tooth pullers still work and many of the city's dentists have advertisements placed next to the tree.

The phrase toothache in the bones is sometimes used to describe the pain in certain types of diabetic neuropathy.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Toothache


text:
Moira Kelly

Moira Kelly is an American actress. She is known for portraying Kate Moseley in the 1992 film The Cutting Edge as well as single mother Karen Roe on the teen drama One Tree Hill. She is also known for playing the role of Donna Hayward in Twin Peaks: Fire Walk with Me, replacing Lara Flynn Boyle in the prequel to the 1990 TV series Twin Peaks. Other roles include Dorothy Day in Entertaining Angels: The Dorothy Day Story, White House media consultant Mandy Hampton in the first season of The West Wing, and the voice of Simba's love interest Nala in The Lion King and its direct-to-video sequels The Lion King II: Simba's Pride and The Lion King 1½. She also played Hetty Kelly and Oona O'Neill in Chaplin.

Early life
Moira Kelly was born in Queens, New York. She is the daughter of a trained concert violinist, Peter, and a nurse, Anne, who are Irish immigrants. Kelly is the third of six children and was raised in Ronkonkoma, New York. She was brought up as a Catholic. Kelly attended Connetquot Senior High School in Bohemia, Long Island, graduating in the class of 1986. Later, she attended Marymount Manhattan College.

In her youth, Kelly was cast in a small role in her high school's 1984 production of Annie. Due to illness, the girl playing Miss Hannigan was replaced, causing a series of cast changes leading to her choice of career. A devout Catholic, Kelly had to decide between acting and her childhood ambition of becoming a nun.

Career
Kelly made her professional acting debut in the fact-based made-for-TV movie Love, Lies and Murder, playing teenager Cinnamon Brown, who was coerced by her father into killing his wife and her stepmother, Linda Brown. She was originally going to have a starring role as Polly Pry in Trey Parker and Matt Stone's Cannibal! The Musical, but Kelly was convinced not to do so by her agent out of concerns it could potentially ruin her career, and was ultimately replaced with Toddy Walters, though she was still credited in the end credits under her initials "M.K." as "the Dropout". She went on to have small roles in the films The Boy Who Cried Bitch, Hi-Life, and Billy Bathgate before being cast as Donna Hayward in Twin Peaks: Fire Walk with Me. For that film, she went home and got permission from her priest because of an explicit sex scene. In the same year, she starred opposite D. B. Sweeney in the romantic comedy The Cutting Edge and played two roles opposite Robert Downey Jr. in Chaplin. According to a TV Guide interview, before taking on her role in Daybreak, Kelly once again asked her priest for advice: "Being a Catholic, I wondered if it would be against my religion to play a girl who has premarital sex." The priest told her "it was okay, as long as my artistic intentions were true and I wasn't doing it for the notoriety or the money."

She has since appeared in the films With Honors, Little Odessa, The Tie That Binds, and Dangerous Beauty, amongst others, and provided the adult voice of Nala in Disney's The Lion King, The Lion King II: Simba's Pride, and The Lion King 1½. In her independent film career, Kelly had the starring role of activist Dorothy Day in Entertaining Angels: The Dorothy Day Story and starred alongside Glenn Close in The Safety of Objects. She played Helen Keller in the made-for-TV movie Monday After the Miracle, which broadcast on November 15, 1998, on CBS.

Kelly starred in the CBS drama To Have & to Hold opposite Jason Beghe before playing Mandy Hampton in the first season of The West Wing. In 2003, Kelly began playing single mother Karen Roe on the teen drama One Tree Hill. She also directed two episodes of the series: "Resolve" (2007) and "I Slept with Someone in Fall Out Boy and All I Got Was This Stupid Song Written About Me" (2006). In the fifth season, she ceased to be a regular cast member, but made guest appearances in the 100th episode and the sixth-season finale. She has made guest appearances in television shows such as Heroes, Law & Order, and Numb3rs. Kelly has also appeared in the films Remember the Daze, A Smile as Big as the Moon, Taken Back: Finding Haley, and Girl in the Bunker.

Personal life
On August 5, 2000, Kelly married Steve Hewitt, a Texas businessman. They have two children, a daughter Ella and a son Eamon. Kelly previously maintained a residence in Wilmington, North Carolina, for eleven years.

title: Moira Kelly


text:
John Griffin

John Griffin may refer to:

Lawyers

 * John Griffin (judge) (1774/1779 – after 1823), American jurist and member of the Michigan Territorial Supreme Court, 1806–1823
 * John Bowes Griffin (1903–1992), British lawyer, Chief Justice of Uganda and first Speaker of the Ugandan Parliament

Politicians

 * John Griffin (Allegany County, New York) (c. 1771–1846), New York politician
 * John Griffin (MP) (fl. 1414), English politician
 * John Gardner Griffin (1815–?), Wisconsin and Connecticut politician
 * John K. Griffin (1789–1841), U.S. Congressman from South Carolina, 1831–1841
 * John Strother Griffin (1816–1898), American surgeon and politician in Los Angeles
 * John W. Griffin (politician) (1927–2006), American local political figure in Ohio

Sports personalities

 * John Griffin (alpine skier) (1930–2005), Canadian alpine skier
 * John Griffin (baseball) (1913–1984), American baseball player
 * John Griffin (basketball) (born 1956), American college basketball player and coach
 * John Griffin (defensive back) (born 1939), American football defensive back
 * John Griffin (hurler) (born 1984), Irish hurler with the Kerry hurling team
 * John Griffin (rugby league) (fl. 1970s–1980s), New Zealand rugby player
 * John Griffin (rugby union) (1859–1895), English doctor who played international rugby for Wales
 * John Griffin (running back) (born 1988), American football player
 * John-Ford Griffin (born 1979), American Major League Baseball outfielder
 * John Griffin III, American college basketball coach
 * Corn Griffin (John Charles Griffin, 1911–1973), American boxer

Others

 * John Griffin, 4th Baron Howard de Walden (1719–1797), English nobleman and army officer
 * John Howard Griffin (1920–1980), American journalist and novelist
 * John Joseph Griffin (1802–1877), English chemist and publisher
 * John Smith Griffin (1807–1899), American missionary in Oregon Country
 * John W. Griffin (archaeologist) (1919–1993), American historian in Florida
 * Johnny Griffin (1928–2008), American bop and hard bop tenor saxophonist
 * John Griffin (businessman) (born 1942), British businessman and philanthropist
 * John H. Griffin (1914–1988), Deputy Supreme Knight of the Knights of Columbus

title: John Griffin


text:
Willem 's Gravesande

Willem Jacob 's Gravesande (26 September 1688 – 28 February 1742) was a Dutch mathematician and natural philosopher, chiefly remembered for developing experimental demonstrations of the laws of classical mechanics and the first experimental measurement of kinetic energy. As professor of mathematics, astronomy, and philosophy at Leiden University, he helped to propagate Isaac Newton's ideas in Continental Europe.

Life

Born in 's-Hertogenbosch, 's Gravesande studied law at Leiden University, where he defended a thesis on suicide and earned a doctorate in 1707. He then practised law in The Hague while also participating in intellectual discussions and cultivating his interest in the mathematical sciences. His Essai de perspective ("Essay on Perspective"), published in 1711, was praised by the influential Swiss mathematician Johann Bernoulli. In The Hague, 's Gravesande also helped to establish the Journal littéraire ("Literary journal"), a learned periodical first published in 1713.

In 1715, 's Gravesande visited London as part of a Dutch delegation sent to welcome the Hanoverian succession in Great Britain. In London, 's Gravesande met both King George I and Isaac Newton, and was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society. In 1717 he became professor of mathematics and astronomy in Leiden. From that position, he was instrumental in introducing Newton's work to the Netherlands. He also obtained the chairs of civil and military architecture in 1730 and philosophy in 1734. As a philosopher, he opposed fatalists like Hobbes and Spinoza.

's Gravesande was married to Anna Sacrelaire in 1720. They had two sons, both of whom died in adolescence. In 1724, Peter the Great offered 's Gravesande a position in the new Imperial Saint Petersburg Academy of Sciences. In 1737 he received an offer from Frederick the Great to join the Prussian Academy of Sciences in Berlin. He declined both offers, opting to remain in Leiden.

Mechanics
Gravesande's main scientific work is Physices elementa mathematica, experimentis confirmata, sive introductio ad philosophiam Newtonianam ("Mathematical Elements of Natural Philosophy, Confirmed by Experiments; or, an Introduction to Newtonian Philosophy"), published in Leiden in 1720. In that book, he laid the foundations for the teaching of Newtonian mechanics through experimental demonstrations. He presented his work before audiences that included Voltaire, Albrecht von Haller, and Émilie du Châtelet (the translator of Newton's Principia whose later commentary incorporated 's Gravesande's 1722 experimental discovery of kinetic energy). 's Gravesande's book was soon translated into English by John Theophilus Desaguliers, curator of experiments for the Royal Society.

In 1721, 's Gravesande became involved in a public controversy over whether the German inventor Johann Bessler, known as Councillor Orffyreus, had created a genuine perpetual motion machine. 's Gravesande at first argued for the feasibility of perpetual motion based on the conservation of the scalar quantity mv (mass multiplied by speed), which he erroneously believed was implied by Newtonian mechanics. However, in 1722 he published the results of a series of experiments in which brass balls were dropped from varying heights onto a soft clay surface. He found that two balls of the same size and different masses would make identical indentations when the heights they were dropped from were inversely proportional to their masses, from which he concluded that the correct expression for the "live force" of a body in motion (currently called "kinetic energy") is proportional to mv2.

Even though those results invalidated his original argument for the feasibility of perpetual motion, 's Gravesande continued to defend Bessler's work, claiming that Bessler might have discovered some new "active principle" of nature that allowed his wheels to keep turning. Similar views were defended at the time by Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz, Johann Bernoulli, and others, but the modern consensus is that Bessler was perpetrating a deliberate hoax. Russian Tsar Peter the Great was interested in Bessler's wheel and sought 's Gravesande's advice on the subject.

's Gravesande communicated his results on the impact of falling weights to Émilie du Châtelet. Similar observations were published in 1718 by Giovanni Poleni. The interpretation of 's Gravesande's and Poleni's results led to a controversy with Samuel Clarke and other Newtonians that became a part of the so-called "vis viva dispute" in the history of classical mechanics.

's Gravesande's ring

's Gravesande is also remembered for his invention of a simple experiment demonstrating thermal expansion, which has been used in physics education since. This is known today as "'s Gravesande's experiment" or "'s Gravesande's ring". The apparatus consists of a small metal ball on a chain or handle, and a metal ring on a stand. The ring is just big enough so that when the ring and ball are at the same temperature, the ball fits through the ring. However, if the ball is heated by dipping it into boiling water or playing the flame of a spirit lamp over it, the metal will expand, and the ball will no longer fit through the ring. When the ball has cooled down, it will fit through the ring again.

Works

 * Essai de perspective, 1711
 * Philosophiae Newtonianae Institutiones, in usus academicos, 1723
 * An essay on perspective, 1724
 * Mathematical elements of physicks, prov'd by experiments : being an introduction to Sir Isaac Newton's philosophy, 1720
 * Introductio ad Philosophiam, Metaphysicam et Logicam, 1736
 * Mathematical Elements of Natural Philosophy, Confirm'd by Experiments: or, An introduction to Sir Isaac Newton's philosophy (Volume I), 1747 (first printed in 1720)
 * Mathematical Elements of Natural Philosophy, Confirm'd by Experiments: or, An introduction to Sir Isaac Newton's philosophy (Volume II), 1747 (first printed in 1721)
 * Oeuvres Philosophiques et Mathématiques de Mr. G. J. 'sGravesande, ed. with memoir by J. Allamand, 1774

title: Willem 's Gravesande


text:
User talk:Caliga~enwiki

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title: User talk:Caliga~enwiki