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Palestine Children's Relief Fund

The Palestine Children's Relief Fund (PCRF) is a registered 501(c)(3) non-governmental organization established in 1991, by, according to its website, "concerned people in the U.S. to address the medical and humanitarian crisis facing Palestinian youths in the Middle East." The main objective of the PCRF is to locate in the United States and Europe free medical care for children who cannot be adequately treated in the Middle East. Since 1991, tens of thousands of young people have received medical treatment through the PCRF.

The PCRF was founded by Steve Sosebee, who served as the organization's President for 30 years.

Humanitarian activities
The Palestine Children's Relief Fund sends medical equipment, supplies, and American medical personnel to the region to treat difficult cases and train Palestinian surgeons. Several injured or sick children are being treated in the U.S. for free. The PCRF relies on volunteers throughout the U.S. who act as host families and donors. The organization also helps suffering children from other Middle Eastern nations, based on medical need. The PCRF has built two pediatric cancer departments in the West Bank and the Gaza Strip. In addition to physical medical care, the PCRF operates a mental health program in Gaza.

1991: Establishment
The Palestine Children's Relief Fund was established in 1991. It was founded by Steve Sosebee, a former journalist who, while on assignment in Hebron, brought Palestinian children in need to Akron, Ohio, to receive free medical care. Sosebee later met Huda al Masry, a Palestinian social worker with the YMCA in Jerusalem. Sosebee and al Masry married in 1993, and had two daughters.

2004–2007: Attempted donation by the Holy Land Foundation, and Open Heart
In 2004, the Holy Land Foundation—a group which was shut down by the United States government because it was suspected of funneling donations to terrorist organizations—attempted to make a donation of $50,000 to the PCRF. Steve Sosebee, president of the PCRF, said at the time that if the PCRF received the donation, the money would be used to fund its relief services. That same year, NBC televised the fictional film Homeland Security featuring a scene in which the PCRF is referred to as a terrorist organization and "a front for Islamic Jihad". As a result, Sosebee received numerous phone calls and e-mails asking about how the PCRF uses its funds.

In 2006, the PCRF, in cooperation with the British Arts Council, produced the 22-minute documentary film Open Heart. Directed by Claire Fowler, the film is about a nine-month-old boy named Jamal with congenital heart disease, and the efforts by his family, a British surgeon, and the PCRF to provide him treatment.

2009–2020: Pediatric cancer units
In 2009, al Masry died of cancer, and Sosebee moved to Palestine with his daughters. There, the PCRF built the first public pediatric cancer department in Bethlehem, and named it after al Masry. In 2016, Sosebee married pediatric oncologist Dr. Zeena Salman. In February 2019, the PCRF built a second cancer department, this time in the Gaza Strip.

2021–present: Ongoing work
During the 2021 Israel–Palestine crisis, online streamers and other online content creators on platforms such as Twitch and YouTube held fundraisers in support of the PCRF, most notably Vaush, who raised $292,284.71. On 17 May 2021, Israeli airstrikes damaged PCRF offices in Gaza City. In November 2023, the al-Rantisi hospital in Gaza City, which is run by the PCRF, was struck by an Israeli airstrike, killing eight people and damaging the building.

On November 16, 2023, PCRF awarded America Near East Refugee Aid, in partnership with World Central Kitchen, a $1.5 million grant to provide hot meals for distribution to displaced individuals in Gaza during the 2023 Israel–Hamas war.

Founder Steve Sosebee departed the organization on December 31, 2023, after serving 30 years, to pursue other humanitarian efforts in Palestine.

Reception
, PCRF has held a four-star charity rating since September 2012 from Charity Navigator, an independent evaluator of charities' fiscal management. The organization has received support and endorsements from U.S. Senator Paul Sarbanes, former U.S. Congressman Albert Wynn, and actor and humanitarian Richard Gere.

In October 2006, former U.S. president Jimmy Carter issued a video endorsement of the organization.

title: Palestine Children's Relief Fund


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Mark Twain's Library of Humor

Mark Twain's Library of Humor is an 1888 anthology of short humorous works compiled by Mark Twain, pen name of Samuel Langhorne Clemens, William Dean Howells and Charles Hopkins Clark.

In 1880, George Gebbie suggested to Mark Twain that he publish an anthology of humorous works. The idea evolved into a project financed by Clemens to produce an anthology of American humor with himself as editor and Howells and Clark assisting. Clemens did the least work on the project but remained in control and had the final say in everything. He realized how minor his role had been and wanted to put Howells's name on the title page. Still, a legal agreement with Harper and Brothers that Howells' name would only appear on their publications prevented this. Harper and Brothers wanted US$2,500 (approximately $50,000 with inflation) for a release, compelling Howells to sign the Introduction as "The Associate Editors." The book was published in 1888 by Charles L. Webster & Company. When that firm collapsed in 1894, Harper and Brothers took over the publication of all of Clemens' works. The Library of Humor was a valuable piece, containing many copyrighted works by many distinguished and popular authors. Secretary of Harper and Brothers Frederick A. Duneka had it revamped and expanded by Burges Johnson for a multi-volume revival in 1906. The title and Apology were kept, but the result was wildly different (Clemens's reaction is suggested by the title of Johnson's Fall 1937 article in the Mark Twain Quarterly, "When Mark Twain Cursed Me"); so different that one authority has said that it should have been called The Harper Library of Humor.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Mark Twain's Library of Humor


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title: Category:James Bond books


text: Category:Iranian translators

title: Category:Iranian translators


text: Category:Iranian journalists

title: Category:Iranian journalists


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Fialho Gouveia

José Manuel Bastos Fialho Gouveia (30 April 1935 – 2 October 2004) was a Portuguese television entertainment pioneer and former radio host, having hosted Portugal's first television talk show.

Born in Montijo, the son of a railroad company employee and an elementary school teacher, Gouveia studied Romance Philology at the University of Lisbon, but dropped out for a career in radio.

Known for a 30-year career in radio and TV, Gouveia hosted Zip Zip, Portugal's first talk show, in 1969, alongside Carlos Cruz and Raúl Solnado. The show made him instantly famous and is still considered a landmark in the history of Portuguese television. Gouveia was also a popular host for other programs, namely game shows, working with Cruz behind the cameras, and became one of the mainstays of Portugal's RTP up to the early 1990s.

After being admitted to hospital in Coimbra, on 24 August 2004, for bacteria-induced respiratory and circulatory problems, Gouveia died from multiple organ failure. He was first married to Maria Helena Varela Santos (the first TV announcer in Portugal), with whom he had two children: Paulo and Maria João. Later, he married Beatriz, the mother of his third child, José Eduardo Fialho Gouveia, who is also a television presenter (Bairro Alto, RTP) and journalist (Sol).

title: Fialho Gouveia


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Australian literature

Australian literature is the written or literary work produced in the area or by the people of the Commonwealth of Australia and its preceding colonies. During its early Western history, Australia was a collection of British colonies; as such, its recognised literary tradition begins with and is linked to the broader tradition of English literature. However, the narrative art of Australian writers has, since 1788, introduced the character of a new continent into literature—exploring such themes as Aboriginality, mateship, egalitarianism, democracy, national identity, migration, Australia's unique location and geography, the complexities of urban living, and "the beauty and the terror" of life in the Australian bush.

Overview
Australian writers who have obtained international renown include the Nobel-winning author Patrick White, as well as authors Christina Stead, David Malouf, Peter Carey, Bradley Trevor Greive, Thomas Keneally, Colleen McCullough, Nevil Shute and Morris West. Notable contemporary expatriate authors include the feminist Germaine Greer, art historian Robert Hughes and humorists Barry Humphries and Clive James.

Among the important authors of classic Australian works are the poets Henry Lawson, Banjo Paterson, C. J. Dennis and Dorothea Mackellar. Dennis wrote in the Australian vernacular, while Mackellar wrote the iconic patriotic poem My Country. Lawson and Paterson clashed in the famous "Bulletin Debate" over the nature of life in Australia with Lawson considered to have the harder edged view of the Bush and Paterson the romantic. Lawson is widely regarded as one of Australia's greatest writers of short stories, while Paterson's poems remain amongst the most popular Australian bush poems. Significant poets of the 20th century included Dame Mary Gilmore, Kenneth Slessor, A. D. Hope and Judith Wright. Among the best known contemporary poets are Les Murray and Bruce Dawe, whose poems are often studied in Australian high schools.

Novelists of classic Australian works include Marcus Clarke (For the Term of His Natural Life), Miles Franklin (My Brilliant Career), Henry Handel Richardson (The Fortunes of Richard Mahony), Joseph Furphy (Such Is Life), Rolf Boldrewood (Robbery Under Arms) and Ruth Park (The Harp in the South). In terms of children's literature, Norman Lindsay (The Magic Pudding), Mem Fox (Possum Magic), and May Gibbs (Snugglepot and Cuddlepie) are among the Australian classics, while Melina Marchetta (Looking for Alibrandi) is a modern YA classic. Eminent Australian playwrights have included Ray Lawler, David Williamson, Alan Seymour and Nick Enright. Among prominent short story writers are Steele Rudd, Henry Lawson, Beverley Farmer, Kate Grenville, and Helen Garner.

Although historically only a small proportion of Australia's population have lived outside the major cities, many of Australia's most distinctive stories and legends originate in the outback, in the drovers and squatters and people of the barren, dusty plains.

David Unaipon is known as the first Aboriginal author. Oodgeroo Noonuccal was the first Aboriginal Australian to publish a book of verse. A ground-breaking memoir about the experiences of the Stolen Generations can be found in Sally Morgan's My Place.

Charles Bean, Geoffrey Blainey, Robert Hughes, Manning Clark, Claire Wright, and Marcia Langton are authors of important Australian histories.

Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander writers and themes

Writing by Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people

While his father, James Unaipon (c.1835-1907), contributed to accounts of Aboriginal mythology written by the missionary George Taplin, David Unaipon (1872–1967) provided the first accounts of Aboriginal mythology written by an Aboriginal: Legendary Tales of the Aborigines. For this he is known as the first Aboriginal author. Oodgeroo Noonuccal (1920–1993) was a famous Aboriginal poet, writer and rights activist credited with publishing the first Aboriginal book of verse: We Are Going (1964). Sally Morgan's novel My Place was considered a breakthrough memoir in terms of bringing indigenous stories to wider notice. Leading Aboriginal activists Marcia Langton (First Australians, 2008) and Noel Pearson (Up from the Mission, 2009) are active contemporary contributors to Australian literature.

The voices of Indigenous Australians are being increasingly recognised and include the playwright Jack Davis and Kevin Gilbert. Writers coming to prominence in the 21st century include Kim Scott, Alexis Wright, Kate Howarth, Tara June Winch, Yvette Holt and Anita Heiss. Indigenous authors who have won Australia's high prestige Miles Franklin Award include Kim Scott who was joint winner (with Thea Astley) in 2000 for Benang and again in 2011 for That Deadman Dance. Alexis Wright won the award in 2007 for her novel Carpentaria. Melissa Lucashenko won the award in 2019 for her novel Too Much Lip, which was also short-listed for the Stella Prize for Australian women's writing.

Letters written by notable Aboriginal leaders like Bennelong and Sir Douglas Nicholls are also retained as treasures of Australian literature, as is the historic Yirrkala bark petitions of 1963 which is the first traditional Aboriginal document recognised by the Australian Parliament. AustLit's BlackWords project provides a comprehensive listing of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Writers and Storytellers.

Writing about Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples At the point of the first colonization, Indigenous Australians had not developed a system of writing, so the first literary accounts of Aboriginal people come from the journals of early European explorers, which contain descriptions of first contact, both violent and friendly. Early accounts by Dutch explorers and by the English buccaneer William Dampier wrote of the "natives of New Holland" as being "barbarous savages", but by the time of Captain James Cook and First Fleet marine Watkin Tench (the era of Jean-Jacques Rousseau), accounts of Aborigines were more sympathetic and romantic: "these people may truly be said to be in the pure state of nature, and may appear to some to be the most wretched upon the earth; but in reality they are far happier than ... we Europeans", wrote Cook in his journal on 23 August 1770.

Many notable works have been written by non-indigenous Australians on Aboriginal themes. Examples include the poems of Judith Wright; The Chant of Jimmie Blacksmith by Thomas Keneally, Ilbarana by Donald Stuart, and the short story by David Malouf: "The Only Speaker of his Tongue". Histories covering Indigenous themes include Watkin Tench (Narrative of the Expedition to Botany Bay et Complete Account of the Settlement at Port Jackson); Roderick J. Flanagan (The Aborigines of Australia, 1888); The Native Tribes of Central Australia by Spencer and Gillen, 1899; the diaries of Donald Thomson on the subject of the Yolngu people of Arnhem Land (c.1935-1943); Alan Moorehead (The fatal Impact, 1966); Geoffrey Blainey (Triumph of the Nomads, 1975); Henry Reynolds (The Other Side of the Frontier, 1981); and Marcia Langton (First Australians, 2008). Differing interpretations of Aboriginal history are also the subject of contemporary debate in Australia, notably between the essayists Robert Manne and Keith Windschuttle.

Early and classic works

For centuries before the British settlement of Australia, European writers wrote fictional accounts of an imagining of a Great Southern Land. In 1642 Abel Janszoon Tasman landed in Tasmania and after examining notches cut at considerable distances on tree trunks, speculated that the newly discovered country must be peopled by giants. Later, the British satirist, Jonathan Swift, set the land of the Houyhnhnms of Gulliver's Travels to the west of Tasmania. In 1797 the British Romantic poet Robert Southey—then a young Jacobin—included a section in his collection, "Poems", a selection of poems under the heading, "Botany Bay Eclogues," in which he portrayed the plight and stories of transported convicts in New South Wales.

Among the first true works of literature produced in Australia were the accounts of the settlement of Sydney by Watkin Tench, a captain of the marines on the First Fleet to arrive in 1788. In 1819, poet, explorer, journalist and politician William Wentworth published the first book written by an Australian: A Statistical, Historical, and Political Description of the Colony of New South Wales and Its Dependent Settlements in Van Diemen's Land, With a Particular Enumeration of the Advantages Which These Colonies Offer for Emigration and Their Superiority in Many Respects Over Those Possessed by the United States of America, in which he advocated an elected assembly for New South Wales, trial by jury and settlement of Australia by free emigrants rather than convicts

The first novel to be published in Australia was a crime novel, Quintus Servinton: A Tale founded upon Incidents of Real Occurrence by Henry Savery published in Hobart in 1830. Early popular works tended to be the 'ripping yarn' variety, telling tales of derring-do against the new frontier of the Australian outback. Writers such as Rolf Boldrewood (Robbery Under Arms), Marcus Clarke (For the Term of His Natural Life), Henry Handel Richardson (The Fortunes of Richard Mahony) and Joseph Furphy (Such Is Life) embodied these stirring ideals in their tales and, particularly the latter, tried to accurately record the vernacular language of the common Australian. These novelists also gave valuable insights into the penal colonies which helped form the country and also the early rural settlements.

In 1838 The Guardian: a tale by Anna Maria Bunn was published in Sydney. It was the first Australian novel printed and published in mainland Australia and the first Australian novel written by a woman. It is a Gothic romance.

Miles Franklin (My Brilliant Career) and Jeannie Gunn (We of the Never Never) wrote of lives of European pioneers in the Australian bush from a female perspective. Albert Facey wrote of the experiences of the Goldfields and of Gallipoli (A Fortunate Life). Ruth Park wrote of the sectarian divisions of life in impoverished 1940s inner city Sydney (The Harp in the South). The experience of Australian PoWs in the Pacific War is recounted by Nevil Shute in A Town Like Alice and in the autobiography of Sir Edward Dunlop. Alan Moorehead was an Australian war correspondent and novelist who gained international acclaim.

A number of notable classic works by international writers deal with Australian subjects, among them D. H. Lawrence's Kangaroo. The journals of Charles Darwin contain the famous naturalist's first impressions of Australia, gained on his tour aboard the Beagle that inspired his writing of On the Origin of Species. The Wayward Tourist: Mark Twain's Adventures in Australia contains the acclaimed American humourist's musings on Australia from his 1895 lecture tour.

In 2012, The Age reported that Text Publishing was releasing an Australian classics series in 2012, to address a "neglect of Australian literature" by universities and "British dominated" publishing houses—citing out of print Miles Franklin award winners such as David Ireland's The Glass Canoe and Sumner Locke Elliott's Careful, He Might Hear You as key examples.

Children's literature
Ethel Turner's Seven Little Australians, which relates the adventures of seven mischievous children in Sydney, has been in print since 1894, longer than any other Australian children's novel. The Getting of Wisdom (1910) by Henry Handel Richardson, about an unconventional schoolgirl in Melbourne, has enjoyed a similar success and been praised by H. G. Wells and Germaine Greer.

Other perennial favourites of Australian children's literature include Dorothy Wall's Blinky Bill, Ethel Pedley's Dot and the Kangaroo, May Gibbs' Snugglepot and Cuddlepie, Norman Lindsay's The Magic Pudding, Ruth Park's The Muddleheaded Wombat and Mem Fox's Possum Magic. These classic works employ anthropomorphism to bring alive the creatures of the Australian bush, thus Bunyip Bluegum of The Magic Pudding is a koala who leaves his tree in search of adventure, while in Dot and the Kangaroo a little girl lost in the bush is befriended by a group of marsupials. May Gibbs crafted a story of protagonists modelled on the appearance of young eucalyptus (gum tree) nuts and pitted these gumnut babies, Snugglepot and Cuddlepie, against the antagonist Banksia men. Gibbs' influence has lasted through the generations – contemporary children's author Ursula Dubosarsky has cited Snugglepot and Cuddlepie as one of her favourite books.

In the middle of the twentieth century, children's literature languished, with popular British authors dominating the Australian market. But in the 1960s Oxford University Press published several Australian children's authors, and Angus & Robertson appointed their first specialist children's editor. The best-known writers to emerge in this period were Hesba Brinsmead, Ivan Southall, Colin Thiele, Patricia Wrightson, Nan Chauncy, Joan Phipson and Eleanor Spence, their works primarily set in the Australian landscape. In 1971, Southall won the Carnegie Medal for Josh. In 1986, Patricia Wrightson received the international Hans Christian Andersen Award.

The Children's Book Council of Australia has presented annual awards for books of literary merit since 1946 and has other awards for outstanding contributions to Australian children's literature. Notable winners and shortlisted works have inspired several well-known Australian films from original novels, including the Silver Brumby series, a collection by Elyne Mitchell which recount the life and adventures of Thowra, a Snowy Mountains brumby stallion; Storm Boy (1964), by Colin Thiele, about a boy and his pelican and the relationships he has with his father, the pelican, and an outcast Aboriginal man called Fingerbone; the Sydney-based Victorian era time travel adventure Playing Beatie Bow (1980) by Ruth Park; and, for older children and mature readers, Melina Marchetta's 1993 novel about a Sydney high school girl Looking for Alibrandi. Robin Klein's Came Back to Show You I Could Fly is a story about the beautiful relationship between an eleven-year-old boy and an older, drug-addicted girl.

Jackie French, widely described as Australia's most popular children's author, has written about 170 books, including two CBCA Children's Book of the Year Award winners. One of them, the critically acclaimed Hitler's Daughter (1999), is a "what if?" story that explores mind-provoking issues about what would have happened if Adolf Hitler had had a daughter. French is also the author of the highly praised Diary of a Wombat (2003), which won awards such as the 2003 COOL Award and 2004 BILBY Award, among others. It was also named an honour book for the CBCA Children's Book of the Year Award for picture books.

Paul Jennings is a prolific writer of contemporary Australian fiction for young people whose career began with collections of short stories such as Unreal! (1985) and Unbelievable! (1987); many of the stories were adapted as episodes of the award-winning television show Round the Twist.

The world's richest prize in children's literature has been received by two Australians, Sonya Hartnett, who won the 2008 Astrid Lindgren Memorial Award and Shaun Tan, who won in 2011. Hartnett has a long and distinguished career, publishing her first novel at 15. She is known for her dark and often controversial themes. She has won several awards, including the Kathleen Mitchell Award and the Victorian Premier's Award for Sleeping Dogs, Guardian Children's Fiction Prize and the Aurealis Award, Best Young Adult Novel (Australian speculative fiction) for Thursday's Child and the CBCA Children's Book of the Year Award: Older Readers for Forest. Tan won this for his career contribution to "children's and young adult literature in the broadest sense". Tan has been awarded various literary awards, including the Deutscher Jugendliteraturpreis in 2009 for Tales from Outer Suburbia and a New York Times Best Illustrated Children's Books award in 2007 for The Arrival. Alongside his numerous literary awards, Tan's adaption of his book The Lost Thing also won him an Oscar for best animated short film. Other awards Tan has won include a World Fantasy Award for Best Artist, and a Hugo Award for Best Professional Artist.

Expatriate authors

A generation of leading contemporary international writers who left Australia for Britain and the United States in the 1960s have remained regular and passionate contributors of Australian themed literary works throughout their careers including: Clive James, Robert Hughes, Barry Humphries, Geoffrey Robertson and Germaine Greer. Several of these writers had links to the Sydney Push intellectual sub-culture in Sydney from the late 1940s to the early 1970s; and to Oz, a satirical magazine originating in Sydney, and later produced in London (from 1967 to 1973).

After a long media career, Clive James remained a leading humourist and author based in Britain whose memoir series was rich in reflections on Australian society (including his 2007 book Cultural Amnesia). Robert Hughes has produced a number of historical works on Australia (including The Art of Australia (1966) and The Fatal Shore (1987)).

Barry Humphries took his dadaist absurdist theatrical talents and pen to London in the 1960s, becoming an institution on British television and later attaining popularity in the USA. Humphries' outlandish Australian caricatures, including Dame Edna Everage, Barry McKenzie and Les Patterson have starred in books, stage and screen to great acclaim over five decades and his biographer Anne Pender described him in 2010 as the most significant comedian since Charles Chaplin. His own literary works include the Dame Edna biographies My Gorgeous Life (1989) and Handling Edna (2010) and the autobiography My Life As Me: A Memoir (2002). Geoffrey Robertson KC is a leading international human rights lawyer, academic, author and broadcaster whose books include The Justice Game (1998) and Crimes Against Humanity (1999). Leading feminist Germaine Greer, author of The Female Eunuch, has spent much of her career in England but continues to study, critique, condemn and adore her homeland (recent work includes Whitefella Jump Up: The Shortest Way to Nationhood, 2004).

Other contemporary works and authors
Martin Boyd (1893–1972) was a distinguished memoirist, novelist and poet, whose works included social comedies and the serious reflections of a pacifist faced with a time of war. Among his Langton series of novels—The Cardboard Crown (1952), A Difficult Young Man (1955), Outbreak of Love (1957)—earned high praise in Britain and the United States, though despite their Australian themes, were largely ignored in Australia.

Patrick White (1912–1990) became the first Australian to be awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature in 1973 "for an epic and psychological narrative art which has introduced a new continent into literature". White's first novel, Happy Valley (1939) was inspired by the landscape and his work as a jackaroo on the land at Adaminaby in the Snowy Mountains, but became an international success and won the Australian Literary Society's gold medal. Born to a conservative, wealthy Anglo-Australian family, he later wrote of conviction in left-wing causes and lived as a homosexual. Never destined for life on the land, he enrolled at Cambridge where he became a published poet. White developed as a novelist, but also had major theatrical success—including The Season at Sarsaparilla. White followed The Tree of Man with Voss, which became the first winner of the Miles Franklin Award. A subsequent novel, Riders in the Chariot also received a Miles Franklin award—but White later refused to permit his novels to be entered for literary prizes. He turned down a knighthood, and various literary awards—but in 1973 accepted the Nobel prize. David Marr wrote of biography of White in 1991.

J. M. Coetzee, who was born in South Africa and was resident there when awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature in 2003, now lives in Adelaide, South Australia, and is an Australian citizen. Colleen McCullough's The Thorn Birds, 1977, is Australia's highest selling novel and one of the biggest selling novels of all time with around 30 million copies sold by 2009. Thomas Keneally wrote The Chant of Jimmie Blacksmith, 1972 and Schindler's Ark, 1982. This latter work was the inspiration for the film Schindler's List. Other notable Australian novels converted to celluloid include: Paul Brickhill's The Great Escape; Pamela Lyndon Travers' Mary Poppins; Morris West's The Shoes of the Fisherman and Bryce Courtenay's The Power of One.

Careful, He Might Hear You by Sumner Locke Elliott won the Miles Franklin Award in 1963, and was the subject of a 1983 Australian film. Author David Ireland won the Miles Franklin Award three times, including for The Glass Canoe (1976). Peter Carey has also won the Miles Franklin Award three times (Jack Maggs 1998; Oscar and Lucinda 1989; and Bliss 1981). He has twice won the Booker Prize with 1988's Oscar and Lucinda and 2001's True History of the Kelly Gang. DBC Pierre's Vernon God Little won the Booker Prize in 2003. Other notable writers to have emerged since the 1970s include Kate Grenville, David Malouf, Helen Garner, Janette Turner Hospital, Marion Halligan, Susan Johnson, Christopher Koch, Alex Miller, Shirley Hazzard, Richard Flanagan, Gerald Murnane, Brenda Walker, Rod Jones and Tim Winton.

James Clavell in The Asian Saga discusses an important feature of Australian literature: its portrayal of far eastern culture, from the admittedly even further east, but nevertheless western cultural viewpoint, as Nevil Shute did. Clavell was also a successful screenwriter and along with such writers as Thomas Keneally (see above), has expanded the topics of Australian literature far beyond that one country. Other novelists to use international themes are David Malouf, Beverley Farmer and Rod Jones. The Secret River (2005) is an historical fiction by Kate Grenville imagining encounters between Aboriginal and colonial Australia which was shortlisted for the Man Booker Prize. The Slap (2008) was an internationally successful novel by Christos Tsiolkas which was adapted for television by ABC1 in 2011, and was described in a review by Gerard Windsor as "something of an anatomy of the rising Australian middle class".

1991–1996: Grunge lit
Grunge lit (an abbreviation for "grunge literature") is an Australian literary genre usually applied to fictional or semi-autobiographical writing concerned with dissatisfied and disenfranchised young people living in suburban or inner-city surroundings. It was typically written by "new, young authors" who examined "gritty, dirty, real existences", of lower-income young people, whose lives revolve around a nihilistic pursuit of casual sex, recreational drug use and alcohol, which are used to escape boredom or a general flightiness. Romantic love is seldom, as instant gratification has become the norm. It has been described as both a sub-set of dirty realism and an offshoot of Generation X literature. The term "grunge" is from the 1990s-era music genre of grunge.

The genre was first coined in 1995 following the success of Andrew McGahan's first novel Praise which had been released in 1991 and became popular with sub-30-year-old readers, a previously under-investigated demographic. Other authors considered to be "grunge lit" include Linda Jaivin, Fiona McGregor and Justine Ettler. Since its invention, the term "grunge lit" has been retrospectively applied to novels written as early as 1977, namely Helen Garner's Monkey Grip. Grunge lit is often raw, explicit, and vulgar, even to the point of Ettler's The River Ophelia (1995) being called pornographic.

The term "grunge lit" and its use to categorize and market this diverse group of writers and authorial styles has been the subject of debate and criticism. Linda Jaivin disagreed with putting all these authors in one category, Christios Tsiolkas called the term a "media creation", and Murray Waldren denied grunge lit even was a new genre; he said the works actually are a type of the pre-existing dirty realism genre.

1998–2010s: Post-grunge lit
Post-grunge lit is a genre of Australian fiction from the late 1990s, 2000s and 2010s. It is called "post-grunge lit" to denote that this genre appeared after the 1990s Australian literary genre known as grunge lit. Michael Robert Christie's 2009 PhD dissertation, "Unbecoming-of-Age: Australian Grunge Fiction, the Bildungsroman and the Long Labor Decade" states that there is a genre called "post Grunge [lit]" which follows the grunge lit period. Christie names three examples of Australian "post-grunge lit": Elliot Perlman's Three Dollars (1998), Andrew McCann's Subtopia (2005) and Anthony Macris' Capital. Christie's dissertation interprets and explains these three post-grunge lit works "as responses to the embedding of Neoliberalism in Australian and global political culture".

Kalinda Ashton (born 1978) has been called a post-grunge writer, in part due to influences from grunge lit author Christos Tsiolkas. Ashton is the author of the novel The Danger Game. Samantha Dagg's 2017 thesis on grunge lit and post-grunge lit states that Luke Carman is a post-grunge writer. Carman's first work, a collection of interlinked semi-autobiographical short stories, explores the authentic experiences of working-class Australians in the suburbs, including issues such as drug addiction and a sense of disillusionment.

Australian writing in languages other than English
Australia has migrant groups from many countries, and members of those communities (not always of the first generation) have produced Australian writing in a variety of languages. These include Italian, Greek, Arabic, Chinese, Vietnamese, Lao, Filipino, Latvian, Ukrainian, Polish, Russian, Serbian, Yiddish and Irish.

Comparatively little attention has been devoted to such writing by mainstream critics. It has been argued that, in relation to the national literary landscape, such literary communities have a quite separate existence, with their own poetry festivals, literary competitions, magazine and newspaper reviews and features, and even local publishers. Some writers, like the Greek Australian Dimitris Tsaloumas, have published bilingually. There are now signs that such writing is attracting more academic interest. Some older works in languages other than English have been translated and received critical and historical attention long after their first publication; for example, the first Chinese-language novel to be published in Australia (and possibly the West), The Poison of Polygamy (1909–10) by Wong Shee Ping, was published in English for the first time in 2019, in a bilingual parallel edition.

Histories

History has been an important discipline in the development of Australian writing. Watkin Tench (1758–1833) - a British officer who arrived with the First Fleet in 1788 - later published two books on the subject of the foundations of New South Wales: Narrative of the Expedition to Botany Bay and Complete Account of the Settlement at Port Jackson. Written with a spirit of humanity his accounts are considered by writers including Robert Hughes and Thomas Keneally to be essential reading for the early history of Australia/ Charles Bean was the official war historian of the First World War and was influential in establishing the importance of ANZAC in Australian history and mythology, with such prose as "Anzac stood, and still stands, for reckless valor in a good cause, for enterprise, resourcefulness, fidelity, comradeship and endurance, that will never own defeat". (see works including The Story of ANZAC: From the Outbreak of War to the End of the First Phase of the Gallipoli Campaign 4 May 1915, 1921).

Australia in the War of 1939–1945 is a 22-volume official history dedicated to Australia's Second World War efforts. the series was published by the Australian War Memorial between 1952 and 1977. The main editor was Gavin Long. A significant milestone was the historian Manning Clark's six-volume History of Australia, which is regarded by some as the definitive account of the nation. Clark had a talent for narrative prose and the work (published between 1969 and 1987) remains a popular and influential work. Clark's one time student Geoffrey Blainey stands as another to have deeply influenced Australian historiography. His important works include The Tyranny of Distance (1966) and Triumph of the Nomads: A History of Ancient Australia (1975). Robert Hughes' much-debated history  The Fatal Shore: The epic of Australia's founding (1987) is a popular and influential work on early Australian history. Marcia Langton is one of the principal contemporary Indigenous Australian academics and her 2008 collaboration with Rachel Perkins chronicles Australian history from an Indigenous perspective: First Australians. An Illustrated History.

Writing and identity
A complicated, multi-faceted relationship to Australia is displayed in much Australian writing, often through writing about landscape. Barbara Baynton's short stories from the late 19th century/early 20th century convey people living in the bush, a landscape that is alive but also threatening and alienating. Kenneth Cook's Wake in Fright (1961) portrayed the outback as a nightmare with a blazing sun, from which there is no escape. Colin Thiele's novels reflected the life and times of rural and regional Australians in the 20th century, showing aspects of Australian life unknown to many city dwellers.

In Australian literature, the term mateship has often been employed to denote an intensely loyal relationship of shared experience, mutual respect and unconditional assistance existing between friends (mates) in Australia. This relationship of (often male) loyalty has remained a central subject of Australian literature from colonial times to the present day. In 1847, Alexander Harris wrote of habits of mutual helpfulness between mates arising in the "otherwise solitary bush" in which men would often "stand by one another through thick and thin; in fact it is a universal feeling that a man ought to be able to trust his own mate in anything". Henry Lawson, a son of the Goldfields wrote extensively of an egalitarian mateship, in such works as A Sketch of Mateship and Shearers, in which he wrote:

 * They tramp in mateship side by side -
 * The Protestant and Roman
 * They call no biped lord or sir
 * And touch their hat to no man.

What it means to be Australian is another issue that Australian literature explores. Miles Franklin struggled to find a place for herself as a female writer in Australia, fictionalising this experience in My Brilliant Career (1901). Marie Bjelke Petersen's popular romance novels, published between 1917 and 1937, offered a fresh upbeat interpretation of the Australian bush. The central character in Patrick White's The Twyborn Affair tries to conform to expectations of pre–World War II Australian masculinity but cannot, and instead, post-war, tries out another identity—and gender—overseas. Peter Carey has toyed with the idea of a national Australian identity as a series of 'beautiful lies', and this is a recurrent theme in his novels. Andrew McGahan's Praise (1992), Christos Tsiolkas's Loaded (1995), Justine Ettler's The River Ophelia (1995) and Brendan Cowell's How It Feels (2010) introduced a grunge lit, a type of 'gritty realism' take on questions of Australian identity in the 1990s, though an important precursor to such work came some years earlier with Helen Garner's Monkey Grip (1977), about a single mother living on and off with a male heroin addict in Melbourne share housing.

Australian literature has had several scandals surrounding the identity of writers. In the 1930s, a misunderstanding with a printer caused Maude Hepplestone's bush poetry collection "Songs of the Kookaburra" to be mistakenly lauded internationally as a modernist masterpiece. The 1944 Ern Malley affair led to an obscenity trial and is often blamed for the lack of modernist poetry in Australia. To mark the 60th anniversary of the Ern Malley affair, another Australian writer, Leon Carmen, set out to make a point about the prejudice of Australian publishers against white Australians. Unable to find publication as a white Australian he was an instant success using the false Aboriginal identity of "Wanda Koolmatrie" with My Own Sweet Time. In the 1980s Streten Bozik also managed to become published by assuming the Aboriginal identity of B. Wongar. In the 1990s, Helen Darville used the pen-name "Helen Demidenko" and won major literary prizes for her Hand that Signed the Paper before being discovered, sparking a controversy over the content of her novel, a fictionalised and highly tendentious account of the Nazi occupation of the Ukraine. Mudrooroo—previously known as Colin Johnson—was acclaimed as an Aboriginal writer until his Aboriginality came under question (his mother was Irish/English and his father was Irish/African-American, however he has strong connections with Aboriginal tribes); he now avoids adopting a specific ethnic identity and his works deconstruct such notions.

Poetry

Poetry played an important part in early Australian literature. The first poet to be published in Australia was Michael Massey Robinson (1744–1826), convict and public servant, whose odes appeared in The Sydney Gazette. The first book of verse by a native-born Australian poet, Australasia, was published by explorer and author William Charles Wentworth in 1823, espousing his ideals of Australian identity. Charles Harpur and Henry Kendall were the first poets of any consequence.

Henry Lawson, son of a Norwegian sailor born in 1867, was widely recognised as Australia's poet of the people and, in 1922, became the first Australian writer to be honoured with a state funeral. Two poets who are amongst the great Australian poets are Christopher Brennan and Adam Lindsay Gordon; Gordon was once referred to as the "national poet of Australia" and is the only Australian with a monument in Poets' Corner of Westminster Abbey in England. Both Gordon's and Brennan's (but particularly Brennan's) works conformed to traditional styles of poetry, with many classical allusions, and therefore fell within the domain of high culture.

However, at the same time Australia had a competing, vibrant tradition of folk songs and ballads. Henry Lawson and Banjo Paterson were two of the chief exponents of these popular ballads, and 'Banjo' himself was responsible for creating what is probably the most famous Australian verse, "Waltzing Matilda". At one point, Lawson and Paterson contributed a series of verses to The Bulletin magazine in which they engaged in a literary debate about the nature of life in Australia. Lawson said Paterson was a romantic and Paterson said Lawson was full of doom and gloom. Lawson is widely regarded as one of Australia's greatest writers of short stories, while Paterson's poems "The Man From Snowy River" and "Clancy of the Overflow" remain amongst the most popular Australian bush poems. Romanticised views of the outback and the rugged characters that inhabited it played an important part in shaping the Australian nation's psyche, just as the cowboys of the American Old West and the gauchos of the Argentine pampa became part of the self-image of those nations.

Other poets who reflected a sense of Australian identity include C J Dennis and Dorothea McKellar. Dennis wrote in the Australian vernacular ("The Songs of a Sentimental Bloke"), while McKellar wrote the iconic patriotic poem "My Country". Prominent Australian poets of the 20th century include Dame Mary Gilmore, A. D. Hope, Judith Wright, Gwen Harwood, Kenneth Slessor, Les Murray, Bruce Dawe and more recently Robert Gray, John Forbes, John Tranter, John Kinsella and Judith Beveridge.

Contemporary Australian poetry is mostly published by small, independent book publishers. However, other kinds of publication, including new media and online journals, spoken word and live events, and public poetry projects are gaining an increasingly vibrant and popular presence. 1992–1999 saw poetry and art collaborations in Sydney and Newcastle buses and ferries, including Artransit from Meuse Press. Some of the more interesting and innovative contributions to Australian poetry have emerged from artist-run galleries in recent years, such as Textbase which had its beginnings as part of the 1st Floor gallery in Fitzroy. In addition, Red Room Company is a major exponent of innovative projects. Bankstown Poetry Slam has become a notable venue for spoken-word poetry and for community intersection with poetry as an art form to be shared. With its roots in Western Sydney it has a strong following from first and second generation Australians, often giving a platform to voices that are more marginalised in mainstream Australian society.

The Australian Poetry Library contains a wide range of Australian poetry as well as critical and contextual material relating to them, such as interviews, photographs and audio/visual recordings. it contains over 42,000 poems, from more than 170 Australian poets. Begun in 2004 by leading Australian poet John Tranter, it is a joint initiative of the University of Sydney and the Copyright Agency Limited (CAL) with funding by the Australian Research Council.

Plays
European traditions came to Australia with the First Fleet in 1788, with the first production being performed in 1789 by convicts : The Recruiting Officer by George Farquhar. Two centuries later, the extraordinary circumstances of the foundations of Australian theatre were recounted in Our Country's Good by Timberlake Wertenbaker: the participants were prisoners watched by sadistic guards and the leading lady was under threat of the death penalty. The play is based on Thomas Keneally's novel The Playmaker. After Australian Federation in 1901, plays evidenced a new sense of national identity. On Our Selection (1912) by Steele Rudd, told of the adventures of a pioneer farming family and became immensely popular. In 1955, Summer of the Seventeenth Doll by Ray Lawler portrayed resolutely Australian characters and went on to international acclaim. A new wave of Australian theatre debuted in the 1970s with the works of writers including David Williamson, Barry Oakley and Jack Hibberd. The Belvoir St Theatre presented works by Nick Enright and David Williamson. Williamson is Australia's best known playwright, with major works including: The Club, Emerald City, and Brilliant Lies.

In The One Day of the Year, Alan Seymour studied the paradoxical nature of the ANZAC Day commemoration by Australians of the defeat of the Battle of Gallipoli. Ngapartji Ngapartji, by Scott Rankin and Trevor Jamieson, recounts the story of the effects on the Pitjantjatjara people of nuclear testing in the Western Desert during the Cold War. It is an example of the contemporary fusion of traditions of drama in Australia with Pitjantjatjara actors being supported by a multicultural cast of Greek, Afghan, Japanese and New Zealand heritage. Eminent contemporary Australian playwrights include David Williamson, Alan Seymour, Stephen Sewell, the late Nick Enright and Justin Fleming. The Australian government supports a website (australianplays.org The Home of Australian Playscripts | AustralianPlays.org) that aims to combine playwright biographies and script information. Scripts are also available there.

Science fiction and fantasy
Australia, unlike Europe, does not have a long history in the genre of science fiction. Nevil Shute's On the Beach, published in 1957, and filmed in 1959, was perhaps the first notable international success. Though not born in Australia, Shute spent his latter years there, and the book was set in Australia. It might have been worse had the imports of American pulp magazines not been restricted during WWII, forcing local writers into the field. Various compilation magazines began appearing in the 1960s and the field has continued to expand into some significance. Today Australia has a thriving SF/Fantasy genre with names recognised around the world. In 2013 a trilogy by Sydney-born Ben Peek was sold at auction to a UK publisher for a six-figure deal.

Crime
The crime fiction genre is currently thriving in Australia, most notably through books written by Kerry Greenwood, Shane Maloney, Peter Temple, Barry Maitland, Arthur Upfield and Peter Corris, among others.

High-profile, highly publicised court cases and murders have seen a significant amount of non-fiction crime literature, perhaps the most recognisable writer in this field being Helen Garner. Garner's published accounts of three court cases: The First Stone, about a sexual harassment scandal at the University of Melbourne, Joe Cinque's Consolation, about a young man murdered by his girlfriend in Canberra, and This House of Grief, about Victorian child-killer Robert Farquharson. Each of Garner's works incorporates the style reminiscent of a fictional narrative novel, a stylistic device known as the non-fiction novel.

Chloe Hooper published The Tall Man: Death and Life on Palm Island in 2008 as a response to the death of an Aboriginal man, Cameron Doomadgee, in police custody in Palm Island, Queensland.

Literary journals
The first periodical that could be called a literary journal in Australia was The Australian Magazine (June 1821 - May 1822). It featured poetry, a two-part story and articles on theology and general topics. Most of the others that followed in the 19th century were based in either Sydney or Melbourne. Few lasted long due to difficulties that included a lack of capital, the small local market and competition from literary journals from Britain.

Most recent Australian literary journals have originated from universities, and specifically English or Communications departments. They include:
 * Meanjin
 * Overland
 * HEAT
 * Southerly
 * Westerly

Other journals include:
 * Quadrant
 * Australian Book Review
 * Island
 * Voiceworks
 * Wet Ink (now closed)
 * The Lifted Brow
 * Red Leaves / 紅葉
 * Kill Your Darlings

A number of newspapers also carry literary review supplements:
 * Australian Literary Review

Awards
Current literary awards in Australia include:
 * Anne Elder Award
 * The Australian/Vogel Literary Award
 * Children's Book Council of Australia
 * Ditmar Award Science Fiction (includes Fantasy & Horror)
 * Kenneth Slessor Prize for Poetry
 * Mary Gilmore Prize for a first book of poetry
 * Miles Franklin Award
 * New South Wales Premier's Literary Awards
 * Patrick White Award
 * Peter Blazey Fellowship
 * Prime Minister's Literary Awards
 * Queensland Premier's Literary Awards
 * Stella Prize
 * Victorian Premier's Literary Award
 * Western Australian Premier's Book Awards

Australian authors are also eligible for a number of other literary awards, such as the:
 * Booker Prize
 * Commonwealth Writers' Prize
 * Women's Prize for Fiction

title: Australian literature


text:
Precision approach path indicator

A precision approach path indicator (PAPI) is a system of lights on the side of an airport runway threshold that provides visual descent guidance information during final approach. It is generally located on the left-hand side of the runway approximately 300 meters beyond the landing threshold of the runway.

Design and installation
A typical engineering design specification for a PAPI light unit is shown below: [[File:PAPI-Section.svg|thumb|350px|Schematic diagram of longitudinal section

1 = Axis datum 2 = Light source 3 = Red filter 4 = Lenses 5 / 6 = Light beam- white/red]] Optical construction:
 * Two lamps for redundancy;
 * Anodized aluminium reflectors;
 * Red color filter;
 * One or two lenses;
 * Lamps and reflectors replaceable without recalibration.

Each light unit consists of one or more light sources, red filters and lenses. A color filter may not be necessary with colored LED lights. Each light unit emits a high-intensity beam. The lower segment of the beam is red, and the upper part is white. The transition between the two colours must take place over an angle not greater than three minutes of arc. This characteristic makes the color change very conspicuous, a key feature of the PAPI signal. To form the PAPI guidance signal, the color transition boundaries of the four units are fixed at different angles. The lowest angle is used for the unit furthest from the runway, the highest for the unit nearest to the runway. The designated glideslope is midway between the second and third light unit settings.

A PAPI installation consists of a bar of four units. Units should be frangible but not susceptible to jet blast. The inner edge of the PAPI installation should be situated 15 meters from the runway edge, and not closer than 14 meters to any runway or taxiway. The units should be spaced 9 meters apart. An abbreviated system, A-PAPI, can be used for some categories of aircraft operations. It consists of two units with the inner unit located 10 meters from the runway edge.

The PAPI should be located on the left-hand side of the runway at right angles to the runway center line, although can be located on the right-hand side of the runway if required. The red lights are always on the side closest to the runway. If the PAPI is on the right-hand side of the runway (non-standard), the red lights will be on the left. At some locations PAPIs are installed on both sides of the runway but this level of provision is beyond the requirements of ICAO.

The optimum distance from the runway threshold depends on the wheel clearance over the threshold of the types of aircraft expected to land on the runway; compatibility with non-visual glide paths such as ILS down to the minimum possible range and height; and any difference in elevation between the PAPI installation and the runway threshold. This optimum distance may be adjusted depending on runway length and obstacle clearance. Harmonisation between PAPIs and an ILS system must take into account the distance between eye height and ILS receiver height for various aircraft.

For a typical 3 degree approach slope, PAPI lights should be angled as follows: 3°30', 3°10', 2°50', 2°30' (3.50°, 3.17°, 2.83°, 2.50°).

Interpretation
The ratio of white to red lights seen is dependent on the angle of approach to the runway. Above the designated glide slope a pilot will see more white lights than red; below the ideal angle more red lights than white will be seen. At the optimum approach angle the ratio of white to red lights will be equal, for most aircraft.

Student pilots in initial training may use the mnemonic until they are used to the lights' meaning.
 * WHITE on WHITE - "Check your height" (or "You're gonna fly all night") (too high)
 * RED on WHITE – "You're all right"
 * RED on RED – "You're dead" (too low)

PAPIs are calibrated relative to the Minimum Eye Height over Threshold (MEHT). For certain aircraft with a low pilot eye height, the pilot will see a "slightly low" indication even though they are on the ILS glideslope. Pilot eye height is usually above the ILS receiver antenna. Concorde had a particularly high eye height because the main undercarriage was so far behind the cockpit, so the pilots needed to land with a "slightly high" indication.

The light characteristics of all light units are identical. In good visibility conditions the guidance information can be used at ranges up to 5 mi by day and night. At night the light bars can be seen at ranges of at least 20 mi.

PAPI systems are readily available from airfield lighting manufacturers worldwide. PAPI is normally operated by air traffic control (ATC). If ATC services are not normally provided at an aerodrome, PAPI along with other airport lights may be activated by the pilot by keying the aircraft microphone with the aircraft's communication radio tuned to the CTAF or dedicated pilot controlled lighting (PCL) frequency.

History
The precision approach path indicator system was first devised in 1974 by Tony Smith and David Johnson at the Royal Aircraft Establishment in Bedford, England. It took them a further two years to fully develop the technology. Engineering firm Research Engineers (RE) were also heavily involved in the project, having produced and supplied PAPI units for the first trials that were conducted. The same design is still in use today.

Smith and Johnson's work was honoured by a commendation from the RAE, a Fellowship from the Aeronautical Society, an award from the American Flight Safety Foundation, and a Gold Medal from the British Guild of Air Pilots.

PAPIs were used by NASA's Space Shuttle for its safe landing, for which Johnson was interviewed by UK local news media and TV.

An earlier glideslope indicator system, the visual approach slope indicator (VASI), only provided guidance down to heights of 60 m whereas PAPI provides guidance down to flare initiation (typically 15 m).

2008 saw the advent of new PAPI devices manufactured using solid state LED lamps instead of incandescent lamps. The LEDs produce sufficient brightness to satisfy ICAO light intensity and beamspread standards, and average lifetime with the LED based systems is 50,000 hours or more. By using LEDs, the device's power consumption is lowered considerably. The LED systems run internally on DC voltage, so the DC voltage requirements, along with the LEDs' inherently low power consumption, now allow for solar-powered PAPIs, enabling them to function completely independently of a power grid.

The PAPI system is co-opted for use by the Final Approach Runway Occupancy Signal (FAROS) system being introduced by several major airports in the United States for the purpose of allowing pilots to resolve a runway incursion without requiring a priori notice of an occupied runway from the control tower. In FAROS, automated line-of-sight runway sensors detect if a vehicle has committed a runway incursion, and if so, will flash the PAPI lights to alert the pilot of an aircraft on final approach that the runway is currently occupied. The pilot then becomes responsible for resolving the conflict by notifying the air traffic controller and executing a go-around. Once the tower has ascertained that the runway has been cleared, the ground controller resets the PAPI so that landing operations may resume normally.

title: Precision approach path indicator


text:
Papi

Papi or PAPI may refer to:

Places

 * Papi District, an administrative subdivision of Iran
 * Papı, a village in Azerbaijan
 * Papi Hills, Andhra Pradesh, India

Arts and entertainment

 * "Papi" (song), a 2011 song by Jennifer Lopez from Love?
 * "Papi", a track from the album Straight Outta Oz by Todrick Hall
 * Papi (The L Word character), a character in the TV series The L Word
 * Papi (film), a 2018 Belgian-Ugandan-French film
 * Papi, a character from the Japanese manga series Monster Musume
 * Mr. Papi, a character in games by Sunflat Games
 * Paapi, a 1977 Indian film by O. P. Ralhan
 * Paapi - Ek Satya Katha, a 2013 Indian film by Aziz Sejawal

PAPI

 * Performance Application Programming Interface in computer science
 * Personality and Preference Inventory, a personality measure designed for the workplace
 * Precision approach path indicator, a visual guidance system for aircraft pilots

Other uses

 * Papi (name), including a list of people with the name
 * Papi language, spoken in a single village in Papua New Guinea

title: Papi


text:
MMDF

MMDF, the Multichannel Memorandum Distribution Facility, is a message transfer agent (MTA), a computer program designed to transmit email.

History
MMDF was originally developed at the University of Delaware in the late 1970s, and provided the initial means of operating CSNET, the predecessor to NSFNET. It grew in popularity throughout the 1980s, and was selected by the Santa Cruz Operation as the MTA it would distribute with SCO UNIX in 1989. It was also adopted as the basis for other commercial efforts, including the gateway used to connect the MCI Mail service to Internet mail. A re-coded variant of MMDF, called Pascal MDF (PMDF) was written at the University of Pennsylvania for VMS and was eventually commercialized through Ned Freed's Innosoft, which subsequently ported PMDF to Tru64 Unix and Solaris. In 1999 PMDF was translated from Pascal to C. The C version of PMDF became the basis of the Sun Java System Messaging Server of Sun Microsystems, while rights to PMDF itself were purchased by Process Software, which then ported PMDF to Linux.

Design philosophy
As its name denotes, MMDF is an MTA oriented around the idea of channels. Each means of formatting and transporting mail into or out of the mail system is a channel, and is implemented by a separate executable. This makes MMDF a highly modular system, with each module having all of the idiosyncratic syntax and semantic information necessary for a particular email technology or network, as well as the least privilege necessary, with the authority of each module partitioned from others. An inbound channel receives messages (via the protocol and in the format it implements) and an outbound channel delivers messages (via its relevant protocol and mapping into the relevant format). Internally, MMDF uses a canonical representation for message content and header, including addresses.

Some examples of MMDF channels are SMTP, UUCP, and local (for delivering mail into local mailboxes and accepting mail submitted on the local system). MMDF was used on the CSNET network.

Message flow
A message that flows through MMDF will typically follow this path:
 * An inbound channel accepts a message.
 * It invokes the core of the MMDF system, a program called submit, and feeds it the message as well as the out-of-band information for the message - return address, recipient, etc.
 * Submit stores the message text after doing any necessary header rewriting, determines what channel(s) will be used to deliver the message, and injects the message into the queues for those channels.
 * Depending on configuration, submit may then call deliver, or deliver may run later as part of periodic processing. Deliver does no direct processing of messages; instead it invokes outbound (delivery) channels, tells them which messages to process, and gives them a list of recipient addresses for each message.
 * Each outbound channel delivers the message to those recipients who are to be reached by that channel, and reports to deliver which addresses were successfully delivered to.
 * Deliver then updates the queues to mark the addresses that were delivered to, removes the message from any queues that have been completely processed, and if all queues have been processed removes the message text itself.

Configuration
MMDF approaches administrative configuration differently than other popular MTAs. In the choice between placing specialized knowledge into the software, versus requiring that it be created through administrator's configuration instructions, MMDF chose the former. Hence, arbitrary header rewriting is performed by hard-coded software, with configuration limited to choices among existing rewriting alternatives. This makes configuration simpler and safer for administrators, who use simple key-value textual tables. It also takes more effort to create a new rewriting choice, but that effort needs to occur only one time, by a single technical expert.

The main types of tables are domain, channel, and alias tables. DNS can be and usually is used for these purposes as well, in the form of "DNS tables" that have the same key-value form. The meaning and effect of entries in these tables are more obvious than the configuration data of more generalized MTAs, but their restricted form also limits the effects that can be produced.
 * Domain tables are used for domain name canonicalization.
 * Channel tables select the outbound channel on the basis of the next-hop domain name, and also encode per-domain-name parameters for the particular channel, such as the UUCP node name or IP address.
 * Alias tables set up both simple aliases and mailing lists.

Market share
By the end of 2006, MMDF had a market share well behind other mailers such as sendmail, postfix, qmail, exim, and Microsoft Exchange. MMDF is considered legacy software.

title: MMDF


text:
Talk:Slavery in the colonial history of the United States

Legal Status
From the article, "The first Africans to be brought to North America landed in Virginia in 1619. Whether they were outright slaves or other kinds of unfree laborers, such as indentured servants, is unclear." I believe it was actually clear. I recall watching a PBS show on this several years ago, but I need to search for better references than my own memory. Indentured servants had a distinct legal status in the American colonies. Recalling from history class (I was mostly raised in Virginia and nearly every year we went to Jamestown on field trips), it was not abnormal for "patrons" of indentured servants to sue the servants for various things that would extend the servitude of those servants, possibly for as long as life. There was one such case, I believe that the African was actually suing his "patron", but the magistrate, for one reason or other, ruled that the African was property of the "patron" and did not have legal basis to sue. Based on this legal precedent, the institution was transformed from servitude to slavery.

In addition, I think it should be researched and included in this article regarding what had transpired with the Germans in colonial Pennsylvania. Asacan 03:33, 22 September 2005 (UTC)

 * I think the whole article has to be re-written. There is not enough emphasis on slavery in the North. My ancestors were primarily puritans who came over from England before 1650 and settled in CT, MA and NH. I learned that many of them were slave owners, to my shock and horror. In fact one of my ancestors supposedly "brought the first negro" to the MA Bay Colony. I have seen copies of declarations of manumissions online signed by ancestors as well as references to slaves passing in wills. Horrible stuff to read. FrancisDane (talk) 17:51, 24 December 2010 (UTC)

How many slaves?
About how many slaves were there in america in the early 1800's — Preceding unsigned comment added by 69.50.55.121 (talk) 19:25, 6 November 2005 (UTC)

 * See article on Slavery in the United States, as this was after the US was established.Parkwells (talk) 16:54, 15 January 2018 (UTC)

Photo
Why is the 19c photograph of a 19c slave on the "Slavery in Colonial America" page? It would fit better on the "History of Slavery in the United States" page. Drfryer 02:47, 2 July 2006 (UTC)

Aftermath
What were the effects of slavery after it was over, in numbers? Marcher Lord 20:41 November 26, 2006 (UTC)

 * A LOT —Preceding unsigned comment added by 216.186.63.29 (talk) 20:18, 24 October 2007 (UTC)

South Carolina (especially Charleston) Jews and the African Slave Trade
I'm in the process of looking in to this, but MUCH more research needs to be done about the VERY prominent role that these Charleston Jews played in the African slave trade, the slave trade which was overwhelmingly centered in the city of Charleston in North America (especially after The North became increasingly abolitionist-oriented) until about 1807, when the slave trade was outlawed (though it certainly continued, albeit quietly).

Also, South Carolina eventually had more African slaves living in the state than non-slaves (as Wikipedia says: "For most of its history, black slaves made up a majority of South Carolina's population.") and the slave owners constantly feared a large slave-uprising or insurrection; indeed, even in modern times African-Americans are about 1/3 the population of the state of South Carolina, possibly a bit more.

It seems that wherever there was a very early North or South American synagogue or large Jewish presence you also find a prominent slave market, both in North and South America (along with the Caribbean and North Africa). All evidence points to the fact that it was a very large role that Jews played -- not to mention the fact that many of these Sephardic Jews hailed from the Netherlands, and everyone knows that the Dutch played a huge part in the African slave trade (History of the Jews in the Netherlands), and that they had been recently expelled from Spain and Portugal (Alhambra decree), but the crypto-Jews remained -- Spain and Portugal were both THE dominant shipping powers around this time. The oldest synagogue in North or South America was established in 1636 (the Kahal Zur synagogue in the Dutch capital of Recife, Brazil). Eventually Brazil had more African slaves than any other place on Earth. There were also many Sephardic Jews living in North Africa (a traditional Sephardi area) which served as a jumping off point where the slaves were gathered (see Triangular trade) by both local Arabs and these Sephardi Jew collaborators and then shipped to North or South America.

There was also an amazingly large slave market in Newport, Rhode Island, which is the site of the oldest synagogue in North America (Touro Synagogue); check out these stats: "As early as 1708 African slaves outnumbered indentured servants in Rhode Island eight to one. In fact, between 1705 and 1805, Rhode Island merchants sponsored at least 1,000 slaving voyages to West Africa and carried over 100,000 slaves back to America.  More slave ships would leave Colonial Newport than any other American port of that time.  By 1770, one out of every three Newport families owned at least one slave".

Does anyone have any reliable links or book recommendations so that we can write a section about this on the page? I've found many but am looking for more. Thank you. --Pseudothyrum 02:35, 18 December 2006 (UTC)

 * Maybe your search should start with Mein Kampf —Preceding unsigned comment added by 66.75.1.255 (talk) 17:23, 2 September 2007 (UTC)

 * I am not sure you can infer that the Jews were overly involved in the slave trade by the fact that there were synagogues at major slave trade centers. I don't know about Charleston, but in Rhode Island one of the major slave traders was the Brown family, who established Brown University. Stephen Hopkins, one of the RI signers of the Dec of Independence was a Rhode Islander who owned slaves and was thrown out of the Society of Friends as a result. A lot more research needs to be done on this article, but I wouldn't venture down the Jews as slavetraders route without a LOT more research. FrancisDane (talk) 17:43, 24 December 2010 (UTC)

 * Hopkins outlawed slave trade in Rhode Island in 1774...before he signed the DoI. He didn't outlaw ownership yet, which occurred in 1784. He passed one of the first anti-slavery law in US history. All this info is on his wiki and sourced. The Society of Friends didn't outlaw slavery until 1807 so anyone claiming that a Hopkin's was kicked out of the Quakers for this reason is lying.
 * Also, the Brown family made very little from slave trade since the heads of the family were some of the first abolitionists in the country. Once again sourced and already in wiki. Only one member of the family was pro-slavery, out of 4 members. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 15.227.185.71 (talk) 20:28, 12 October 2012 (UTC)

 * It was much more substantial than you suggest. Brown University has conducted a major study of its connections to and dependence on slavery as supporting its founding and growth. Other studies have also shown the importance of the slave trade to New England wealth, as its ships were involved in the slave trade as part of the Triangle Trade, mostly transporting slaves to the Caribbean and southern colonies, and sugar and other goods to England and the colonies.Parkwells (talk) 17:02, 15 January 2018 (UTC)

 * Charleston was the major city in South Carolina, as a port that shipped out rice, sugar and cotton commodity crops. This is why it was a major slave market; it was at the center of an area that demanded slave labor to support its plantation agricultural economy.Parkwells (talk) 17:02, 15 January 2018 (UTC)

Indentured Servitude – Deletion of a sentence
I deleted the first sentence “British colonists were cruel with the most of the slaves in Latin America, West Africa, and medieval Europe.” Because a) It implies that “British colonists” were cruel to slaves in Latin America etc… b) It has nothing to do with the next sentence “Some Historians, notably Edmund……” and c) The early colonies & colonists were English. Britain, as political entity only came into existence with the1707 “Act of Union” nearly a hundred years after the founding of most of the colonies. I suspect that this sentence is a hangover from an earlier version of this article.Jalipa 18:03, 18 February 2007 (UTC)

Focus of article on the US
Another editor highlighted the fact that this article is primarily about slavery in the American colonies that became the United States. That may or may not be appropriate. This article is listed as the "main article" under Slavery in the United States. Maybe this article should be renamed Slavery in the Thirteen Colonies?

Otherwise, it should be broadened to incorporate the very different history of slavery elsewhere in the Americas. — Malik Shabazz (Talk | contribs) 04:39, 20 September 2007 (UTC)

450,000 slaves
Saw Dr. Gates talking about his tv special tracing the genetic background of African Americans. He stated only about 450,000 slaves came from Africa to the British colonies and the US. About 75% were imported before 1776.

Also Henry Adams in his history of US from 1800-1816 wrote that one reason for small number of slaves in New England was because of the climate; they died in large numbers from pulmonary diseases. I am not knowledgeable enough to know how reliable either fact is - but someone who is may find it worth while adding them to this article. Nitpyck (talk) 00:34, 28 July 2009 (UTC)

 * This is contradicted on this Smithsonian webpage relating slavery in North America.
 * https://www.smithsonianmag.com/history/misguided-focus-1619-beginning-slavery-us-damages-our-understanding-american-history-180964873/ — Preceding unsigned comment added by 2605:A601:150:2200:64BD:9B5D:D2C0:641 (talk) 22:13, 7 February 2019 (UTC)

Article Title
Isn't the title of this article an anachronism? There was no United States until after the colonial period. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 75.161.220.145 (talk) 01:36, 2 March 2010 (UTC)

 * I agree. Slavery in the Thirteen Colonies would be a much better title.Harrypotter (talk) 14:11, 10 March 2010 (UTC)

 * I disagree. There is no confusion about what the expression "colonial United States" refers to.  The general article on this time period is titled Colonial history of the United States and this slavery article title is perfectly consistent with that article. Tom (North Shoreman) (talk) 16:12, 22 March 2010 (UTC)

America: Past and Present as a source
I would caution using the textbook "America: Past and Present" as a source. One of the classes I am currently taking uses "APP" as its primary text. Let me tell you, this thing is biased, but it's not an overt bias. The authors don't outright state their opinions, but the words they use generally promote their viewpoint. They don't necessarily attack certain groups through their writing, but there are subtle things. I'm not saying this article shouldn't cite "APP", but the bits cited should be looked through carefully. The text is probably only useful for cold, hard facts. As far as I can tell it doesn't skew the facts. --- cymru lass (hit me up)⁄(background check) 22:31, 26 August 2010 (UTC)

Indentured servitude another view
Slavery in Britain and Ireland casts a different light upon the use of the term "indentured servant" in this article. The current article makes it sound like it was solely a contractual arrangement akin to old time apprenticeships. According to the referenced article cited above, it was far more than that. Indentured servants also included a great number of prisoners and people on their last leg basically forced into an indentured servitude situation and brought over to America. The British sent many lower class people over from the rest of the "UK". I think this fact is vastly underplayed in this article. Black slavery certainly being prominant, but the original white slaves should be brought into a more accurate context with the referenced article cited above. -- T HE F OUNDERS I NTENT  PRAISE

Quotes removed
These quotes, in my opinion, are not specific enough for the article's topic, American colonial slavery.

Fernand Braudel on American slavery Fernand Braudel has written:
 * Such hardships are not to be laid at the door simply of the planters, the mine-owners, the moneylending merchants of the Consulado in Mexico City or elsewhere, the harsh officials of the Spanish crown, the sugar- and tobacco-dealers, the slave-traders, or the grasping captains of trading vessels.... they were essentially middlemen, agents for other people.... In reality the root of the evil lay back across the Atlantic, in Madrid, Seville, Cadiz, Lisbon, Bordeaux, Nantes or Genoa, without question in Bristol, and in later years Liverpool, London and Amsterdam. (Braudel, 1984, p. 393).

Braudel quotes Karl Marx: ""The veiled slavery of the wage-workers in Europe needed, for its pedestal, slavery pure and simple in the New World." — Preceding unsigned comment added by Cmguy777 (talk • contribs) 17:46, 8 August 2011 (UTC)

Why only talk about African
I tried to add that a massive number of slaves were also Irish, close to 500k worth of them before 1700. A mod keeps deleting my post and I believe this is extremely biased. Can someone who is a regular contributor please add this information since it is extremely racist/biased that the Irish are not mentioned at all? I have never posted to Wiki before today — Preceding unsigned comment added by 15.227.185.71 (talk) 20:02, 12 October 2012 (UTC)
 * http://www.globalresearch.ca/the-irish-slave-trade-the-forgotten-white-slaves/
 * http://www.nytimes.com/2008/04/27/books/review/Lau-t.html
 * "“White Cargo” is meticulously sourced and footnoted — which is wise, given its contentious material"

 * In this section the article says that the main geographical area of Irish enslavement was the Caribbean, though there were in fact Irish enslaved in colonial America. And to some degree this hinges on the interpretation of slavery vs. indentured servants. So I wonder if mainstream historians have changed their views on this issue afte "White Cargo" was published. That is why I asked for more references. O.Koslowski (talk) 05:21, 13 October 2012 (UTC)

 * the article is about slavery, which has a carefully defined legal status that did not apply to the Irish who were indentured for a fixed term. As Bryan Giemza notes, "White Cargo: The Forgotten History of Britain’s White Slaves in America (2007), is careful not to conflate the history of indenture with African slavery." [Bryan Giemza,  Southern Cultures Spring 2012 p 39] Rjensen (talk) 12:58, 13 October 2012 (UTC)

Irish indentured were NOT given a fixed term, ever. Existing documents have proved that. The first Africans brought to the US also had indentured status because that was the only legal to have slaves. When the Spanish brought them from they were Baptized, which was why they were called Indentured servants. Why don't both of you actually learn history instead of what you are told to learn? Oliver Cromwell did not classify a single Irishman as an indentured servant. The ONLY Irish indentured servants were the ones that came here on their own because of the famine caused by Cromwell, the other 300,000 Irish that were brought here were brought in chains.

So you guys are both saying that all the historians who vetted the history book above are lying? The documents that are in the book are forgeries? Cromwell's own words are fake? The Royal historian of England is lying also? Stanford University is lying too?

Who can I talk to since neither of are willing to help update this info? — Preceding unsigned comment added by 15.227.185.71 (talk) 17:57, 15 October 2012 (UTC)

 * The section on "indentured servitude" could use work, but your comments seem to have more than a little anachronism. In the 17th century, "rights" were quite limited for most British people - women, wives, children, the poor, and lower classes (eg, apprentices, agricultural workers, laborers), did not ever enjoy freedom the way it's understood today, and they were often defined as someone's property. Also as noted, the book you rely on also talks about more than just the Irish and more than just the colonies that are the subject of this article, so your focus also seems off. Alanscottwalker (talk) 14:36, 20 December 2014 (UTC)

External links modified
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 * Added archive https://web.archive.org/20100926142019/http://www.africanaonline.com:80/2010/08/introduction-american-slavery/ to http://www.africanaonline.com/2010/08/introduction-american-slavery/

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Spain
you removed everything about Spain but given that Colonial United States covers all powers that covered the present US with colonies (and Spain esp. in Fla and the Carolina fits). Your deletion seems wrong, although shortening it might be a real plus. Alanscottwalker (talk) 18:38, 28 August 2016 (UTC)

 * the article is about the USA not Spain--the deleted info had zero impact on US history, so it's just filler that diverts readers away from the actual story. People who are really interested in Spanish  policy will not be looking at this article, I suggest.  Rjensen (talk) 23:46, 28 August 2016 (UTC)

 * About the USA? Surely not, it's about before the USA. The article is about slavery, including the European colonial administrations with respect to slavery in what became the US and Spain was part of that.   I do take back, though, that everything about Spain was removed but in order to have an encyclopedic presentation, we should have a brief summary re Spain's colonies in that section as we do British, French, and Dutch. Alanscottwalker (talk) 11:52, 29 August 2016 (UTC)

 * the Spanish influence re slavery had disappeared by the time the areas involved became part of the USA. Including them here falsely promotes the idea among readers that they did have a continuity. By contrast French (& Spanish) slavery in Louisiana (pre 1803) did have a major continuity and is properly included. Rjensen (talk) 12:47, 29 August 2016 (UTC)

 * No. To the extent there was a break in continuity -- which is hardly as categorical as you posit, since the entire Atlantic slave system is very much tied up with all of this throughout -- the text would discuss any 'break.' But it remains that the Colonial United States history cannot excise the Spanish, even in slavery, and far from false, that's completing the information for the reader. -- Alanscottwalker (talk) 12:57, 29 August 2016 (UTC)

 * the tinySpanish colony lasted a few months and was abandoned in 1526--a century before the English arrived to found South Carolina...so what's the evidence for continuity? or for importance? Rjensen (talk) 13:22, 29 August 2016 (UTC)

 * Importance? The earliest or one of the earliest African slave experiences in the colonial period is important to the topic.  As for continuity, if by that you mean slave experience in the colonies, then yes it has continuity. Alanscottwalker (talk) 13:46, 29 August 2016 (UTC)

 * Not good enough--the Indians had slavery for centuries before that. there was zero continuity & the episode was unknown in colonial South Carolina & had zero influence (unlike Louisiana).  Rjensen (talk) 14:44, 29 August 2016 (UTC)

 * No. Highly irrelevant. The Indians did not have pre-Columbian African slavery unlike their Columbian era colonial successors, and African slavery is the focus of this subject. And none of your arguments even approach having any validity with respect to Fla., where slavery (since you put such odd emphasis for actual history on some mere unbroken line) from Spanish to British to American. Alanscottwalker (talk) 14:58, 29 August 2016 (UTC)

---This article incorrectly states that slaves first arrived in North America in 1619. The Spanish had settlements in 1526 in South Carolina and they brought slaves with them. Prior to that, the Portuguese, Spanish, English, French, Dutch and others brought slaves in the early 1500's. This is the Smithsonian's webpage with more details: — Preceding unsigned comment added by Rtwhitaker (talk • contribs) 22:27, 7 February 2019 (UTC)

 * false: it says The first Africans to be brought to British North America landed in Virginia in 1619. They arrived on a Dutch ship that had captured them from the Spanish. We have several articles which cover the Spanish colonies, and that is where users will look for the story. Rjensen (talk) 22:46, 7 February 2019 (UTC)

Clearing up Common Misconceptions
There are several common misconceptions that MUST be addressed when discussing this topic due to ideological subversion.

1) Why no mention of freedman or free Americans of African descent? Some of them participated in Americas founding fighting the British in exchange for their freedom.  Some people believe all blacks were enslaved in the United States.  This wasn't even true before its founding.

2) Why is there nothing in here about American abolitionists from Massachusetts and other northern states? They helped found the Republican party.  And what about Lincoln's 13th amendment which he delayed negotiating the end of the civil war against popular opinion to achieve.  All you hear about were the perpetrators, but never the heroes who risked their lives and in Lincoln's case died ridding America of this original sin born out of compromise in our struggle against British colonialism.  America helped prove colonialism was doomed.

3) America didn't invent slavery. Slavery has existed since the dawn of man when one tribe defeated another.  In prehistoric times, it was common for ALL MEN to be killed after the defeat of a conquered tribe.  Child bearing women and toddlers in some cultures were made slaves.  Slave markets existed in ancient Rome and Muslim controlled parts of Africa like Sudan.  The Barbary Pirates took white slaves as did the Vikings and Romans.  The word slavic shares the same root.  African slaves were sold not just in America but as far away as Polynesia by Muslim slave traders.  Slavery is a human shame, not an American one.

4) Although first England than the United States and eventually the entire western world abolished slavery and indentured servitude, it still exists today. Literally 10s of millions of slaves still exist today in Africa and the Middle East.  Human trafficking is still a big problem in the United States today with dozens of missing kids recently found.  Some places like China have work camps for the Uighars, who are Chinese Muslims. Obsessing about racially enforced African slavery in America helps none of these people.  If you really hate slavery, you should fight it now - not rehash America's civil war in which as many as 750,000 Americans North and South including African Americans from Massachusetts gave their lives.  What right do people who immigrated to this country in the 20th century or later have to tear down the Lincoln statue in Lincoln Square in Boston.  It was paid for by African American veterans of the Civil War. Leave the legacy and history of the people who built and worked to perfect this country alone and fight present oppressions instead. Otherwise, you are just opening up old wounds and dividing and conquering your own country. That helps no one. No country is perfect because no human being is perfect including you.

And before you accuse me of racism, you should know that I have slave ancestry on my mother's side, not in the United States, but the Caribbean. Stop stealing my identity and using it against me. — Preceding unsigned comment added by Praetorex (talk • contribs) 06:45, 18 October 2020 (UTC)

 * , You seem to be at the wrong article, this article is about slavery in the colonial period. Alanscottwalker (talk) 14:05, 18 October 2020 (UTC)

Indentured servants section uncited
This section skimps on cites as well as facts. I know it will need to be highly summarized with there being a dedicated Indentured servitude in British America page, but here is some information from historians to help build a better section.

Historian Lerone Bennett Jr. wrote an article on "White Servitude in America" that "white servitude was the historic foundation upon which the system of black slavery was constructed"  Professor Frank Tracy Carlton  notes that there were several distinct groups of indentured servants, not just those who were "free-willers" (the only ones mentioned currently in the article). Many were the subject of being kidnapped, and kidnapping became so prevalent in England that the kidnappers were given a name "spirits" for 'spiriting people away' across the sea. (Professor Bennett also mentions kidnappers/"spirits") Another large group were criminals that Britain wanted to get rid of. Historian Marcus Jernegan agrees, citing groups such as people with contracts, those kidnapped by spirits, and criminals. Historian Charles McLean Andrews notes that criminals forced into indentured servitude were common enough to be given the colloquial name "seven year passengers" and is particularly notable after the year 1717, which is the year that the Transportation Act 1717 was passed. An article in Johns Hopkins University Historical Studies gives more detail of who these "seven year passengers" were.

There are slave narratives which are also relevant to this section. Peter Williamson (memoirist) wrote in his narrative about how he was spirited away at a very young age and sold into slavery in: French and Indian Cruelty, exemplified in the Life and various Vicissitudes of Fortune of Peter Williamson, who was carried off from Aberdeen in his Infancy and sold as a slave in Pennsylvania, and Ellen Craft's popular and influential narrative Running a Thousand Miles for Freedom; Or, The Escape of William and Ellen Craft from Slavery states this: (page 2 ) It may be remembered that slavery in America is not at all confined to persons of any particular complexion; there are a very large number of slaves as white as any one; but as the evidence of a slave is not admitted in court against a free white person, it is almost impossible for a white child, after having been kidnapped and sold into or reduced to slavery, in a part of the country where it is not known (as often is the case), ever to recover its freedom.

I have myself conversed with several slaves who told me that their parents were white and free; but that they were stolen away from them and sold when quite young. As they could not tell their address, and also as the parents did not know what had become of their lost and dear little ones, of course all traces of each other were gone.

This word history website points out that the word 'kidnap' is rooted in the force-able selling of young children from England into indentured servitude came about because of spiriting. This 1901 English Dictionary contains the following definition: (first column on the left of page 691) "Originally, to steal or carry off (children or others) in order to provide servants or labourers for the American plantations; hence, in general use, to steal (a child), to carry off(a person) by illegal force."

The section makes indentured servitude sound almost like a laudable coming of age hollywood movie and that's highly misleading considering how brutal it really was for most of the people actually involved or victimized by it. Progressingamerica (talk) 17:17, 27 March 2021 (UTC)

 * Indentured servitude was not agricultural chattel slavery in any way, shape, or form, and the basis for agricultural chattel slavery in the Atlantic world was—wait for it—slavery, which was nothing new; Europeans began enslaving indigneous people immediate everywhere they showed up during the Age of Sail. In Spanish-dominated settler societies, for example, including Spanish colonies conquered by the United States, some indigenous slaves were referred to as genízaro—a word derived from the Turkish janissary/yeñiçeri, a class of troops made of formerly-Christian child slaves raised as soldiers from birth.Janissaries were probably one model for The Unsullied slave army in Game of Thrones... notably not portrayed as what we might call, from a modern viewpoint, Caucasians enslaved by Middle Eastern and Central Asian people when the books were made into a TV series though, undoubtedly a wise choice on their part.Ellen Craft in the above passage is talking about the one-drop rule and being a victim of white supremacy even though her physical appearance allowed her to pose as her husband's slave owner during their escape from the United States; nothing to do at all with indentured servitude. The "indenture" in "indentured" refers to the fact that the relationship was literally governed by a contract which could be adjudicated in court because an indentured person had the rights of a free person.Indentured servants could certainly be mistreated, but that had been a crime since around the 13th century—this article is about how it was legal to beat, murder, or work to death slaves, and otherwise treat them as a piece of property and as someone who had no access to courts (as formally ruled by SCOTUS in Dred Scott v. Sandford), not crimes like kidnapping children or for another example stuff like the Knight−Berry−DeJesus kidnappings, which could much more legitimately be called slavery than indentured servants with contracts... but again, this article is about the societal institution of slavery as a means of obtaining free labor in the colonial history of the United States. -- ‿Ꞅ truthious 𝔹 andersnatch ͡ |℡| 22:56, 29 March 2021 (UTC)

"Native Americans" missing indigenous methodologies
Responsible scholarship incorporates othered knowledge not only as information but also method: the first two citations appearing here to justify what is a colonial discussion of non-European civilization do not derive their authority from 'lived experience.' Nikamavrody (talk) 09:09, 12 July 2024 (UTC)