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The Man Trap

"The Man Trap" is the first episode of season one of the American science fiction television series Star Trek. Written by George Clayton Johnson and directed by Marc Daniels, it featured design work by Wah Chang and first aired in the United States on September 8, 1966.

In the episode, the crew visit an outpost on planet M-113 to conduct routine medical exams on the residents using a Tricorder, only to be attacked by an alien that appears to change shape, and kills by extracting salt from the victim's body.

This was the first Star Trek episode to air on television, although the sixth to be filmed; it was chosen as the first of the series to be broadcast by the studio due to the horror plot. "The Man Trap" placed first in the timeslot with a Nielsen rating of 25.2 for the first half-hour and 24.2 for the remainder. It aired two days earlier on Canadian network CTV.

Plot
The USS Enterprise arrives at planet M-113 to provide supplies and medical exams for the only known inhabitants of the planet, Professor Robert Crater (Alfred Ryder) and his wife Nancy (Jeanne Bal), who operate an archaeological research station there. Captain Kirk, Chief Medical Officer Dr. Leonard McCoy, and Crewman Darnell (Michael Zaslow) transport to the surface as Kirk teases McCoy about his affection for Nancy ten years earlier. They arrive in the research station, and each of the three men sees Nancy differently: McCoy as she was when he first met her, Kirk as she should look accounting for her age, and Darnell as an attractive blonde woman whom he met on a pleasure planet. When Nancy goes out to fetch her husband, she beckons Darnell to follow her.

Professor Crater is reluctant to be examined, telling Kirk that they only require salt tablets. Before McCoy can complete the examination, they hear a scream from outside. They find Darnell dead, with red ring-like mottling on his face, a plant root in his mouth, and Nancy standing over him saying she was unable to stop Darnell from tasting the plant. On board Enterprise, Spock analyzes the plant. He confirms that it is poisonous, but that mottling is not a symptom. McCoy conducts a medical exam and, together with Spock, determines that all the salt was drained from Darnell's body. In response, Kirk transports back down to the planet with McCoy and two crewmen, Green (Bruce Watson) and Sturgeon (John Arndt). Kirk tells Professor Crater that he and his wife should stay aboard the Enterprise until they find out what killed Darnell. Crater then runs off trying to find Nancy. Nancy kills both Sturgeon and Green; their faces show the same mottling as Darnell. Nancy assumes the form of Green, and meets Kirk and McCoy. They beam back up to the ship with Sturgeon's body.

"Green" roams the corridors, stalking several crew members, killing one. It takes the form of McCoy after confirming that the real McCoy has taken a sedative to sleep. Meanwhile, Spock confirms that scans show only one person, Crater, on the planet; Kirk and Spock beam down to capture him. They find Green's body before Crater tries to frighten them away with phaser fire. After they stun him with a phaser beam, the dazed Crater reveals that the real Nancy was killed by the creature – the last member of a long-dead civilization of shape-shifters who feed on salt – a year earlier. The creature continued to take on the appearance of Nancy out of affection for Crater, and he has been feeding it, comparing it to the "now-extinct buffalo". Kirk informs Enterprise of the creature's intrusion, as the landing party and Crater transport back to the ship.

Crater refuses to help them identify the creature, so Kirk orders the fake "McCoy" to administer truth serum. Kirk arrives in sickbay to find Crater dead and Spock injured; Spock's Vulcan blood made him incompatible with the creature's needs. Back in its "Nancy" form, the creature goes to McCoy's quarters. Kirk arrives with salt tablets to lure the creature and a phaser if he provokes the creature into attacking. McCoy hesitates giving the creature the opportunity to feed on the salt tablets, boosting its energy then it attacks Kirk. Spock arrives and goes hand to hand against the creature, who retaliates, slapping him against the wall. The creature reverts to its natural appearance and starts to feed on Kirk as McCoy, stunned, stares in disbelief. Once Kirk screams, McCoy opens fire with his phaser. The creature changes back into the shape of "Nancy" to plead for its life. McCoy asks forgiveness, then fires again, killing it. As Enterprise leaves orbit, Kirk comments to Spock that he was thinking about the buffalo.

Writing

"The Man Trap" appeared in Gene Roddenberry's original pitch for Star Trek as the title of a show with a different plot: the crew face several apparitions that are "wish-fulfilment traps which become as real as flesh and blood"; the traps increase in subtlety until the crew struggle to differentiate between apparition and reality. Lee Erwin, who had previously worked on The Lieutenant with Roddenberry, was commissioned to produce a treatment; an outline featuring a salt-devouring vampire was handed in on April 8, 1966. Meanwhile, George Clayton Johnson had been assigned a storyline, tentatively titled "Chicago II", in which the crew of the Enterprise visit a planet where the culture was that of 1920s mob-era Chicago, which later evolved into "A Piece of the Action". Johnson was hired after story editor John D. F. Black recommended him to the producers. Johnson decided to use the 1953 science fiction novel The Syndic by Cyril M. Kornbluth as the basis for the story. Roddenberry felt that Johnson's treatment did not match his vision for Star Trek, but did not want to lose him entirely, and asked him to write "The Man Trap". Erwin was paid in full for his version, and given a separate "kill fee" because it would not be used.

Roddenberry wanted to see more action, so the creature's ability to create apparitions was added to the script from the original pitch. Stan Robertson at NBC suggested to Roddenberry that they might wish to get medical advice over whether the draining of a chemical from a person would kill them instantly. To find out, Roddenberry asked Kellam de Forest Research, who said that, while it had never happened in reality, a quick death would be likely. Johnson suggested that the creature in "The Man Trap" could be the last of its species. He compared its situation to the reduction in numbers of American bison. Roddenberry found the idea intriguing.

Erwin was paid a further fee to terminate his contract, and Johnson wrote a first draft teleplay titled "Damsel With a Dulcimer." While writing, Johnson consulted Black, who advised him to place the creature on the Enterprise quickly to increase the pace of the episode. This draft was delivered on May 23, but NBC felt that hallucinations were being overused; the same plot device had appeared in the pilot episode "The Cage". Johnson wrote a further draft on May 31, which reduced the number of apparitions, and was well received by Robert H. Justman. Roddenberry and Justman made further tweaks; one was to restore the name "The Man Trap" from Erwin's original treatment, another removed a scene which introduced McCoy's apprehension when using the transporter. Johnson further edited the script, but complained about the change in name. After a second edit by Johnson, it was passed from Justman to story editor Black. While the former felt that the script still needed work, Black felt it was nearly ready. Following Black's review, Roddenberry re-wrote the script between June 16 and 21. Johnson felt this re-write had "downgrad[ed] the story."

Black later said that Roddenberry removed a large part of Johnson's work, and that Johnson's original work was better than Roddenberry's edited version. Johnson was pleased with the final episode, although he was concerned that viewers might not understand Star Trek after watching "The Man Trap" owing to differences in characterization between this episode and the rest of the series. He admitted that he did not like Spock and was concerned that the character would not be understood after this episode. Roddenberry was pleased with Johnson's work, and offered him further writing work on "What Are Little Girls Made Of?", which had been written by Robert Bloch. Roddenberry only wanted Johnson to "polish" the script; Johnson, feeling he was unable to improve it without starting from scratch, turned down the offer, but expressed the desire to work on the show again. He later wrote a story outline titled "Rock-A-Bye Baby, or Die!" in which the Enterprise would have become a childlike sentient being who idolizes Kirk as its father. This was not commissioned, so "The Man Trap" was Johnson's only work on the franchise.

Guest appearances

Jeanne Bal was cast as Nancy Crater, McCoy's former love interest; the actress had previously guest-starred in Perry Mason and was one of the main performers in the sitcom Love and Marriage. Alfred Ryder was well known for his numerous appearances in similar genre series such as The Wild Wild West and The Outer Limits. After his appearance as Robert Crater in "The Man Trap", he appeared in the science fiction series The Invaders.

Actors playing two of the crewmen who died on screen later appeared in other episodes of Star Trek. Michael Zaslow, seen in "The Man Trap" as Darnell, appeared in "I, Mudd", and later had a long-running role in the soap opera Guiding Light as Roger Thorpe. John Arndt appeared in four further episodes of the original series.

Direction and filming
All previous episodes of Star Trek had overrun their filming schedules, and the producers were concerned that not enough time had been allotted to each production. Marc Daniels was recruited as director of "The Man Trap"; among his varied directing credits were episodes of I Love Lucy for Desilu Productions. Pre-production began during the six scheduled filming days for "The Enemy Within", but that episode ran long. Filming for "The Man Trap" commenced around 3:20 p.m. on June 22 and continued until 7:10 p.m. Several futuristic-looking salt shakers were sourced for scenes in "The Man Trap", but due to concerns that they would not be recognized, they were instead used from "The Man Trap" onward as McCoy's tools in sickbay.

The first full day of filming on June 23 was predominantly shot on the set representing the bridge of the Enterprise. Two small establishing shots were postponed until the filming of the next episode. The following day, corridor scenes were filmed, as was the climactic scene featuring the creature's death. At that point, Daniels estimated that he was only a third of a day behind schedule. After a break for the weekend, production resumed on June 27 for scenes in the botany lab, the briefing room and sickbay. One of Grace Lee Whitney's favorite sets to work on throughout the series was the lab, which was the sickbay redecorated, as she enjoyed working with George Takei. The animated plant in that scene was a hand puppet controlled from under the table, and Whitney later recalled that the operator could see right up her skirt throughout the shoot and would occasionally try to grope her using the puppet.

For the sickbay scenes when Spock bleeds, Daniels decided that Vulcans should have green blood. Roddenberry disliked the idea and unsuccessfully attempted to have it corrected in post-production. By the end of the fifth day of shooting, Daniels estimated that he was now only half an hour behind schedule. Days six and seven were spent on the sets used to show the surface of M-113; while the design of the planet did not match Johnson's vision, he was pleased with it nonetheless. The ruins were constructed out of cardboard boxes covered in gunite (a spray-on, cement-like product) to give them a rocky appearance. Production wrapped on June 30, at 2:55 p.m. Bob Justman later referred to Daniels as the "savior" of the series for delivering "The Man Trap" on schedule, and when the director for "The Naked Time" dropped out, Daniels took over and shot the episode back to back with "The Man Trap" a quarter of a day faster than the schedule. By the end of the original series, Daniels had filmed more episodes than any other director.

During the production of "The Man Trap", Daniels introduced a system in which actors unneeded on a shoot went to a "cast table" area to practice upcoming scenes rather than return to their dressing rooms. Producers felt that this both sped up the filming process and improved the quality of performances. The cast table system continued to be used throughout the production of the original series, even when Daniels was not directing.

In post-production, Justman recommended adding an opening narration. Roddenberry agreed and wrote new lines for a Captain's log. Alexander Courage recorded the music for this episode on August 19, the same day as the "Theme from Star Trek", using a 25-piece orchestra. While Roddenberry liked the theme, he hated the music created specifically for "The Man Trap". The optical effects were created more quickly than usual; Howard A. Anderson, Jr. took two months, three times faster than for some episodes. The overall production costs for "The Man Trap" came in under-budget at $185,401.

The creature
The producers spent some time considering the creature's appearance. Justman suggested to Gene Roddenberry that it could be some sort of "terrifying, young lady" with a similar appearance to the green skinned Orion slave girl seen in "The Cage", but blue skinned and with orange hair. While Roddenberry thought that the idea was good, he already had an agreement with NBC that it would be an animal. Johnson envisaged the creature as a refugee with "ashen skin" wearing "gunnysack clothing". Daniels had some apprehension about using a monster-of-the-week format, asking "Do you go for cheap thrills or a more intelligent approach?" He said that the crew decided to "treat everything as if it were real" in order to help the audience buy into it. It was Johnson who suggested the creature should be a shapeshifter, having used the idea in an episode of The Twilight Zone he wrote called "The Four of Us Are Dying".

The creature was designed by Wah Chang. Dancer Sandra Gimpel wore the costume on-screen. Gimpel had previously appeared as a Talosian in "The Cage". The head of the creature costume was sculpted in clay then covered in a plaster cast. Once the cast was removed, liquid latex was applied to create a flexible single-piece mask, which was then painted. Chang added a white wig and attached glass lenses to the mask for eyes. Once Gimpel was wearing the mask, cuts were made into its wrinkles to offer the actress some limited vision while wearing it. Gloves were modified by Chang to give the fingers the appearance of tentacles with suction cups. William Ware Theiss created the rest of the costume out of a fur bodysuit.

Johnson praised both Chang and Gimpel, saying that while the latter embodied the character, the design work meant that, in the final scene, it was as if the crew had to kill a "helpless dog". After filming, the costume was kept in Justman's office, becoming the first in an ever-growing number of alien costumes accumulated there. It reappeared on-screen in "The Squire of Gothos". Although referred to officially as the "M-113 creature", during production it was called the "salt sucker" and fans of the show have taken to referring to the alien as the "salt vampire".

Later appearances
Don Lanning was part of the team working on the creature effects for the 2009 film Star Trek. He was the key sculptor for the production, and personally revamped some of the aliens from the original series, including the salt vampire seen in "The Man Trap". He described the original design as "hokey", and said that he tried to change it to "something organic". The new version of the creature was unused in the film, which pleased Lanning. The creature did return in Star Trek Online, a massively multiplayer online role-playing game. Rather than a single salt vampire, the 20-player PvE mission "Mine Trap" saw a Romulan colony overrun with them. A salt vampire also makes an appearance in an episode of the animated series Star Trek: Lower Decks. In December 2019, an animated version of the creature made a brief appearance in the opening scenes of the Star Trek: Short Treks episode "Ephraim and Dot".

Themes

In his book The Influence of Star Trek on Television, Film and Culture, Lincoln Geraghty wrote that episodes such as "The Man Trap" demonstrated a recurring theme within the series: the more barren the planet, the more likely that characters will be in danger. Other episodes which he said supported this view included "The Cage" and "What Are Little Girls Made Of?" Geraghty also pointed out that elsewhere in the original series, the predominant view was that alien predators such as the salt vampire were a lower life form which should be destroyed. He said that in "The Man Trap", the alternative argument is presented: that such creatures should not be killed. However, Geraghty felt that the writers tried to prevent viewers from feeling sympathy for the creature by revealing its true appearance as it died. Paula M. Block and Terry J. Erdmann also discussed the killing of the creature in their book Star Trek: The Original Series 365, saying that it was "the right thing to do", but suggested that the nature of the death would have troubled McCoy for some time after the event although this was not shown in the series.

A vampiric alien is a recurring idea in science fiction television series, such as the Blake's 7 episode "Sand", the Babylon 5 episode "Soul Hunter" and the television film Babylon 5: The River of Souls. The theme had already been used in written form, in Gustave Le Rouge's 1908 French science fiction work Le Prisonnier de la Planète Mars.

Block and Erdmann also discussed another part of the episode where Spock is in charge on the bridge and Uhura begins to flirt with him, calling it a "quintessential scene of the series" due to the characters' sexual interest in each other. They suggested this may have been the inspiration for the Spock/Uhura relationship introduced in the 2009 reboot film Star Trek. Nichelle Nichols, who played Uhura, later said that she felt there were hints of an Uhura/Spock relationship in other episodes of the original series.

Broadcast
A month prior to the premiere of Star Trek, Desilu held a screening for NBC executives to help decide which episode to broadcast first, and several stories were considered. Executives were concerned that "Mudd's Women", one potential choice, would have reviewers discussing "space hookers"; they felt another possibility, "Where No Man Has Gone Before", contained too much exposition, even though it was filmed as a second pilot. The final choice was between "The Man Trap" and "The Naked Time". Justman felt that "The Naked Time" would make it easier for viewers to understand the characters, but later agreed with NBC's decision to show "The Man Trap" first. In the book Inside Star Trek: The Real Story, he suggests that it was "scarier and more exploitable than the others".

"The Man Trap" was the sixth episode produced. Although Roddenberry initially disagreed with NBC's decision, he and production executive Herbert Franklin Solow came to believe it was the correct choice. Shatner also disagreed with the network, feeling that "The Man Trap" was the worst episode out of those available. The episode was the first episode of Star Trek broadcast in the United States, on NBC on September 8, 1966. "The Man Trap" formed part of NBC's "Sneak a Peek Week", in which the network showed the premiere episodes of several new shows in prime time slots, ahead of the rival channels ABC and CBS, who were still showing repeats from the previous season. Leading into Star Trek was the first episode of Tarzan showing Ron Ely, and leading out was Richard Mulligan's The Hero.

"The Man Trap" placed first in its timeslot, with Nielsen ratings of 25.2 during the first half-hour; some 46.7 percent of all American televisions in use at the time were tuned in to the episode. In the same timeslot, The Tammy Grimes Show on ABC and My Three Sons on CBS received ratings of 14.1 and 9.4 respectively. During the second half of the episode, the rating for "The Man Trap" dropped to 24.2, with 42.2 percent of televisions tuned in. Bewitched on ABC increased that network's rating to 15.8, and CBS's Thursday night movie increased their rating to 10.7.

The following episodes saw a drop in ratings after "The Man Trap". "Charlie X" was broadcast the following week; the studio did not want that episode to run second, but "Where No Man Has Gone Before" was the only other completed story. It placed second in the timeslot during the first half hour, with a rating of 19.1 and an overall share of 35.9 percent of viewers. It was beaten by My Three Sons on CBS with a rating of 19.2. During the second half hour, Star Trek was pushed into third with a rating of 12.3 by the Thursday night movie on CBS and the season premiere of Bewitched, which was also the first episode of that series broadcast in color. The following week, with "Where No Man Has Gone Before", the series returned to the top place with a 19.9 rating during the first half hour, and second in the second half hour to Bewitched. The Trendex rating report for the first few weeks of Star Trek saw it ranked in 33rd spot for the period with an average rating of 18.7.

Overseas broadcasts and re-releases
The episode was not the first to be broadcast in the United Kingdom, which instead premiered Star Trek on BBC One with "Where No Man Has Gone Before" on July 12, 1969. The episodes continued to be broadcast in a different order than they had appeared in the United States. "The Man Trap" was shown nearly three months later on October 4 as the 13th episode. This was during the period when the channel was still broadcasting only in black and white; it was not until "Arena" on November 15 that the series was shown in color. During subsequent repeats of Star Trek, the channel reverted to NBC's schedule and showed "The Man Trap" as the first episode. Canadian network CTV aired episodes of the first season of Star Trek on Tuesday nights instead of Thursdays and so ran "The Man Trap" on September 6, 1966, two days before NBC. Airing American programs early was a common practice among Canadian broadcasters in order to avoid direct competition for viewers and advertisers with American border stations airing the same program at the same time. The practice became obsolete once simultaneous substitution of commercials was permitted.

A high-definition remastering of "The Man Trap", which introduced new special effects and starship exteriors as well as enhanced music and audio, was shown for the first time in the United States on September 29, 2007, in broadcast syndication. The episode was made available to over 200 local stations across the United States with the rights to broadcast Star Trek.

Critical reception
In 1966, The Hollywood Reporter said the episode was a "winner", with a lot of suspense and science fiction gadgets.

In an interview published in the 1988 book The Star Trek Interview Book, Johnson claimed that the response of critics to "The Man Trap", and the initial episodes of Star Trek in general, was "complete bewilderment". In previewing the broadcast of "The Man Trap", The Daily Reporter said that Star Trek had the "usual far-fetched suppositions" present in other science fiction works, but praise was given to the acting skills of Shatner and the plots of the initial episodes. The Edwardsville Intelligencer called the reveal of the creature in the episode "the kicker of a great sci-fi plot". Daily Variety columnist Jack Hellman gave the episode an unfavorable review over its "lack of meaningful cast leads", who "move around with directorial precision with only violence to provide the excitement." The weekly edition of the magazine offered a similar opinion, stating that the Enterprise "trudged along for a long hour with hardly any relief from violence, killing, ugly stuff and a distasteful monster".

Among more recent reviews, Zack Handlen of The A.V. Club gave the episode an "A−" rating, describing it as "done very well" with a plot that is dark and ambiguous. Torrie Atkinson and Eugene Myers reviewed the episode in 2009 for Tor.com, saying that it suitably introduced the characters, although certain elements of the show were not yet in place. These included the lack of the death of a redshirted character, as the crewmen who died in "The Man Trap" did not wear red shirts, along with the lack of red and yellow alerts, instead referred to as general quarters three and four in this episode. The duo added that the episode demonstrated that the series was "something special", and that it remained more culturally diverse than modern television. They gave it a rating of four out of six.

Ryan Britt, also writing for Tor.com, said that "The Man Trap" was not a good introduction to the series, but praised the screen time given to Rand, Uhura and Sulu. He added that the latter two were more interesting in this episode than they would be at any point until the start of the movie franchise. Britt said that "The Man Trap" was different than the rest of the series, and more akin to The Twilight Zone owing to the background of the writer. In Hollywood.com's ranking of all 79 episodes of The Original Series, Christian Blauvelt placed "The Man Trap" as 73rd, calling the creature "incredibly pointless". It was also listed as one of the show's "cheesiest classic creatures" by Wired magazine in 2007; however, Rolling Stone magazine listed it as the tenth best villain in the franchise.

The Guardian noted "The Man Trap" as an episode about a salt-eating shape-shifter, on the 50th anniversary of Star Trek's first public broadcast in 2016.

In 2018, PopMatters ranked this the 7th best episode of the original series.

Star Trek news site Trek.Report gave the episode a ranking of 3 of 5, noting that actions of the crew were not affected by the "Prime Directive", a later addition to the franchise's canon.

Home media release and other adaptations
The first adaptation of "The Man Trap" was as a re-working into a short story by author James Blish as part of the novelization Star Trek. This book contained seven short stories, each based on an episode of The Original Series, and was published in January 1967. The adaptation of "The Man Trap" appeared as the third story in the book, although it was named "The Unreal McCoy". The first home media release of "The Man Trap" was on Compact Cassette from Startone Productions in 1982. A further release on LaserDisc took place in 1985, alongside "Charlie X". Further releases of all episodes of the series were made on VHS and Betamax.

The episode was released on DVD paired with "The Naked Time" as part of the general release of the series in 1999. There were no other extras added to that series of releases, except the DVD containing "Turnabout Intruder". "The Man Trap" was later released within a DVD box set of the first season in 2004; all three seasons of The Original Series were released as full-season box sets that year. The episode was included in the remastered season one release on DVD and Blu-ray in 2009.

title: The Man Trap


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Wikipedia:Articles for deletion/Jenna Loo

Jenna Loo
Member of a non-notable high school band (Crimson Crush))
 * Vanity. Delete.  RickK 20:56, Oct 2, 2004 (UTC)
 * Delete along with all the Crimson Crush ganng. --Kbh3rd 01:30, 3 Oct 2004 (UTC)
 * Delete -- Nothing of note User:MartinSpamer
 * Delete. Vanity. jni 09:39, 4 Oct 2004 (UTC)
 * Delete band vanity. -- Cyrius|✎ 02:30, 6 Oct 2004 (UTC)
 * Keep. Not vanity. anthony (see warning) 21:44, 6 Oct 2004 (UTC)
 * Delete: a kid in a band. Geogre 02:21, 8 Oct 2004 (UTC)

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/


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Vulgarity

Vulgarity is the quality of being common, coarse, or unrefined. This judgement may refer to language, visual art, social class, or social climbers. John Bayley claims the term can never be self-referential, because to be aware of vulgarity is to display a degree of sophistication which thereby elevates the subject above the vulgar.

Evolution of the term
From the fifteenth to seventeenth centuries, "vulgar" simply described the common language or vernacular of a country. From the mid-seventeenth century onward, it began to take on a pejorative aspect: "having a common and offensively mean character, coarsely commonplace; lacking in refinement or good taste; uncultured; ill bred".

In the Victorian age, vulgarity broadly described many activities, such as wearing ostentatious clothing. In a George Eliot novel, one character could be vulgar for talking about money, a second because he criticizes the first for doing so, and a third for being fooled by the excessive refinement of the second. The effort to avoid vulgar phrasing could leave characters at a loss for words. In George Meredith's Beauchamp's Career, an heiress does not wish to make the commonplace statement that she is "engaged", nor "betrothed", "affianced", or "plighted". Though such words are not vulgarity in the vulgar sense, they nonetheless could stigmatize the user as a member of a socially inferior class. Even favored euphemisms such as toilet eventually become stigmatized like the words they replace (the so-called euphemism treadmill), and currently favored words serve as a sort of "cultural capital".

Language
Vulgarity, in the sense of vulgar speech, can refer to language which is offensive or obscene.

The word most associated with the verbal form of vulgarity is "cursing." However, there are many subsections of vulgar words. American psychologist Timothy Jay classifies "dirty words" because it "allows people interested in language to define the different types of reference or meaning that dirty words employ. One can see that what is considered taboo or obscene revolves around a few dimensions of human experience that there is a logic behind dirty word usage." One of the most commonly used vulgar terms in the English language is fuck.

title: Vulgarity


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Talk:Guinea

Outdated map of Africa
This is a minor issue, but in the infobox, the image of the globe is outdated. It fails to show the border between Sudan and South Sudan, and between Ethiopia and Eritrea. —MiguelMunoz (talk) 19:30, 21 April 2022 (UTC)

A Commons file used on this page or its Wikidata item has been nominated for deletion
The following Wikimedia Commons file used on this page or its Wikidata item has been nominated for deletion: Participate in the deletion discussion at the nomination page. —Community Tech bot (talk) 15:04, 23 March 2023 (UTC)
 * Guinea Product Exports (2019).svg

title: Talk:Guinea


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USS Lynx

USS Lynx may refer to:

 * USS Lynx (1814), a schooner commissioned in 1815 that disappeared at sea in 1820
 * USS Lynx (SP-2), a patrol boat in commission from 1917 to 1919
 * USS Lynx (AK-100), a cargo ship in commission from 1943 to 1945

title: USS Lynx


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Tylosis

Tylosis may refer to:

 * In medicine:
 * Diffuse nonepidermolytic palmoplantar keratoderma, a skin condition of the palms and soles
 * Howel–Evans syndrome, a skin condition of the palms and soles that is also associated with esophageal cancer

 * Other uses:
 * Tylosis (botany), a process in tree decay
 * Tylosis (beetle), a genus of longhorn beetle

title: Tylosis


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Talk:Online pornography addiction

Online porn addiction, unlike offline porn addiction, is currently a legal cause for divorce. – where? reference? this whole piece reads like propaganda. should be merged with pornography addiction. dab 20:40, 2 Oct 2004 (UTC)
 * I removed that paragraph, since it fails to specify WHERE. Indeed, in a no-fault divorce jurisdiction, there are no legal causes for divorce in the sense the paragraph is using. And even in fault jurisdictions, grounds for divorce vary widely. So it is essential that the jurisdiction be identified for that paragraph to have any meaning. --203.173.34.32 13:54, 25 Nov 2004 (UTC)

Merge
Why is this not merged with pornography addiction? There is significant overlap. 69.243.41.28 02:15, 29 Jan 2005 (UTC)

title: Talk:Online pornography addiction


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Ronald M. Evans

Ronald Mark Evans (born April 17, 1949 in Los Angeles, California) is an American Biologist, Professor and Head of the Salk’s Gene Expression Laboratory, and the March of Dimes Chair in Molecular and Developmental Biology at the Salk Institute for Biological Studies in La Jolla, California and a Howard Hughes Medical Institute Investigator. Dr. Ronald M. Evans is known for his original discoveries of nuclear hormone receptors (NR), a special class of transcriptional factor, and the elucidation of their universal mechanism of action, a process that governs how lipophilic hormones and drugs regulate virtually every developmental and metabolic pathway in animals and humans. Nowadays, NRs are among the most widely investigated group of pharmaceutical targets in the world, already yielding benefits in drug discovery for cancer, muscular dystrophies, osteoporosis, type II diabetes, obesity, and cardiovascular diseases. His current research focuses on the function of nuclear hormone signaling and their function in metabolism and cancer.

He received his Bachelor of Science and PhD (1974) from UCLA, followed by a postdoctoral training at Rockefeller University with James E. Darnell. He became a faculty member at the Salk Institute in 1978 and Adjunct Professor in Biology, Biomedical Sciences, Neuroscience at UCSD (1985, 1989, 1995). He was named March of Dimes Chair in Molecular and Developmental Neurobiology at the Salk Institute in 1998.

His work on nuclear receptor was well recognized, thus he is a recipient of more than 40 nationally or internationally acclaimed awards and honors. In 2003 he was awarded the March of Dimes Prize in Developmental Biology. He received the Albert Lasker Award for Basic Medical Research (2004). He is also recipient of the Harvey Prize (2006), the Gairdner Foundation International Award (2006), the Albany Medical Center Prize (2007), the Wolf Prize in Medicine (2012) and the Louisa Gross Horwitz Prize (2018). He is a member of the National Academy of Sciences since 1989, a member of American Society for Microbiology since 1993, a member of American Academy of Arts and Sciences since 1997, a member of the National Academy of Medicine since 2003, a member of European Molecular Biology Organization since 2006, a member of the American Philosophical Society since 2007, an elected fellow of the American Association for Cancer Research in 2014, named AAAS fellow in 2018 and a member of the National Academy of Inventors in 2018. Consistent with the broad impact of his work, he is listed by the Institute of Scientific Information as one of the most cited scientists of the past decade.

Research
Members of the nuclear receptor (NR) superfamily of ligand-regulated transcription factors play important roles in reproduction, development, and physiology. In humans, genetic mutations in NRs are causes of rare diseases, while hormones and drugs that target NRs are in widespread therapeutic use. In 80s, Dr. Evans successfully cloned the first nuclear hormone receptor, the human glucocorticoid receptor. This action led to the finding of a superfamily of nuclear hormone receptors, all with similar molecular and genetic structures. Other of his pioneering studies include investigate hormones’ normal activities and their roles in disease, including a major discovery of nuclear hormone receptors, which respond to steroid hormones, vitamin A, vitamin D, thyroid hormones, and bile acids. By targeting genes these receptors help control sugar, salt, calcium, cholesterol, and fat metabolism. They are primary targets in breast, prostate, and pancreatic cancers and leukemia treatment and have therapeutic roles in chronic inflammation, osteoporosis, and type 2 diabetes and asthma. His muscle metabolism studies led to the discovery of exercise mimetics, which promote the benefits of fitness without training and may help battle the obesity epidemic, diabetes, heart disease, and frailty.

Honors

 * 2021 The Asan Award in Medicine
 * 2018 The Louisa Gross Horwitz Prize (shared with Pierre Chambon and Bert W. O’Malley)
 * 2012 The Wolf Prize in Medicine
 * 2007 The Albany Medical Center Prize (shared with Solomon H. Snyder and Robert J. Lefkowitz)
 * 2006 The Harvey Prize:"Discovery of a super-family of genes encoding nuclear hormone receptors and the elucidation of their universal ability to affect gene expression and thereby virtually every developmental and metabolic pathway."
 * 2006 The Gairdner Foundation International Award
 * 2005 The Grande Médaille D'Or (Grand Gold Medal)
 * 2005 The Glenn T. Seaborg Medal
 * 2004 The Albert Lasker Award for Basic Medical Research (shared with Pierre Chambon and Elwood V. Jensen)
 * 2003 The Keio Medical Science Prize
 * 1999 The Fred Conrad Koch award
 * 1995 The Dickson Prize
 * 1994 California Scientist of the Year
 * 1993 The Edwin B. Astwood Lecture award

title: Ronald M. Evans


text:
Álvaro de Carvalho

Álvaro de Carvalho is a municipality in the state of São Paulo in Brazil. The population is 5,274 (2020 est.) in an area of 154 km2.

History
The municipality was created by state law in 1948.

Media
In telecommunications, the city was served by Telecomunicações de São Paulo. In July 1998, this company was acquired by Telefónica, which adopted the Vivo brand in 2012.

The company is currently an operator of cell phones, fixed lines, internet (fiber optics/4G) and television (satellite and cable).

Religion
Christianity is present in the city as follows:

Catholic Church
The Catholic church in the municipality is part of the Roman Catholic Diocese of Marília.

Protestant Church
The most diverse evangelical beliefs are present in the city, mainly Pentecostal, including the Assemblies of God in Brazil (the largest evangelical church in the country), Christian Congregation in Brazil, among others. These denominations are growing more and more throughout Brazil.

title: Álvaro de Carvalho


text:
Isaac Abarbanel

Isaac ben Judah Abarbanel (יצחק בן יהודה אברבנאל; 1437–1508), commonly referred to as Abarbanel (אַבַּרבְּנְאֵל; also spelled Abravanel, Avravanel or Abrabanel), was a Portuguese Jewish statesman, philosopher, Bible commentator, and financier.

Name
Some debate exists over whether his last name should be pronounced Abarbanel or Abravanel. The traditional pronunciation is Abarbanel. Modern scholarly literature, since Graetz and Baer, has most commonly used Abravanel, but his own son Judah insisted on Abarbanel, and Sefer HaTishbi by Elijah Levita, who was a nearby contemporary, twice vowels the name as Abarbinel (אַבַּרְבִּינֵאל).

The name's etymology is uncertain. Some say it comes from Ab Rabban El, meaning "father of the rabbis of God", which seems to favor the pronunciation "Abrabanel".

Biography
Abarbanel was born in Lisbon, Portugal, into one of the oldest and most distinguished Iberian Jewish families, his antecedents having escaped the massacre in Castile in 1391. A student of the rabbi of Lisbon, Joseph Chaim, he became well versed in rabbinic literature and in the learning of his time, devoting his early years to the study of Jewish philosophy. Abarbanel is quoted as saying that he counted Joseph ibn Shem-Tov as his mentor. At 20 years old, he wrote on the original form of the natural elements, on religious questions and prophecy. Together with his intellectual abilities, he exhibited a mastery of financial matters. This attracted the attention of King Afonso V of Portugal, who employed him as treasurer.

He used his high position and the great wealth he had inherited from his father to aid his co-religionists. When his patron Afonso captured the city of Arzila, in Morocco, the Jewish captives faced being sold as slaves. Abarbanel both contributed large sums to the ransom and personally arranged for collections throughout Portugal. He also wrote to his learned and wealthy friend, Vitale (Yehiel) Nissim da Pisa, on behalf of the captives.

After the death of Afonso, he was obliged to relinquish his office, having been accused by King John II of connivance with the Duke of Braganza, who had been executed on the charge of conspiracy. Abarbanel, warned in time, saved himself by a hasty flight to Castile in 1483. His large fortune was confiscated by royal decree.

At Toledo, his new home, he occupied himself at first with Biblical studies, and in the course of six months produced an extensive commentary on the books of Joshua, Judges, and Samuel. Shortly afterward, though, he entered the service of the house of Castile. Together with his friend, the influential converso Don Abraham Senior, of Segovia, he undertook to farm the revenues and to supply provisions for the royal army, contracts that he carried out to the entire satisfaction of Queen Isabella I of Castile. During the Reconquista, Abarbanel advanced considerable sums of money to the king. When the Jews were ordered banished by the Catholic Monarchs of Spain with the Alhambra Decree, he did all in his power to induce the king to revoke the edict. He unsuccessfully offered the king 30,000 ducats (approximately £60,000 at the time). He left Spain with his fellow Jews and went to Naples, where, soon after, he entered the service of the king. For a short time, he lived in peace undisturbed, but when the city was taken by the French, bereft of all his possessions, he followed the young king, Alfonso, to Messina in 1495, before going to Corfu. In 1496, he settled in Monopoli, before finally landing in Venice in 1503, where his services were employed in negotiating a commercial treaty between Portugal and the Venetian republic.

Several times during the mid to late 15th century, he personally spent large amounts of his personal fortunes to bribe the Catholic monarchs to permit the Jews to remain in Spain. Abarbanel is claimed to have offered them 600,000 crowns for the revocation of the edict. Ferdinand is said to have hesitated, but was prevented from accepting the offer by Tomás de Torquemada, the Grand Inquisitor, who dashed into the royal presence, and throwing a crucifix down before the king and queen, asked whether, like Judas, they would betray their Lord for money. In the end, he managed only to get the date for the expulsion delayed by two days.

He died in Venice in 1508 and was buried in Padua next to its rabbi, Judah Minz. Owing to the destruction of the Jewish cemetery there during the Siege of Padua in 1509, his grave is now unknown. Bones from the cemetery were reburied in 1955, and there is a tradition that the remains of Abarbanel and Minz are among them. Claimed descendants of Abarbanel include Russian author Boris Pasternak.

Works
Abarbanel wrote many works during his lifetime which are often categorized into three groups—exegesis, philosophy, and apologetics. His philosophy dealt with the sciences and how the general field relates to the Jewish religion and traditions, and his apologetics defend, the idea of the Messiah in Judaism while criticizing the Christian version. Abarbanel's exegetic writings were different from the usual biblical commentaries because he took social and political issues of the times into consideration. He believed that mere commentary was not enough, but that the actual lives of the Jewish people must be deliberated on, as well, when discussing such an important topic as the Bible. He also took the time to include an introduction concerning the character of each book on which he commented, as well as its date of composition, and the intention of the original author, to make the works more accessible to the average reader.

Exegesis

Abarbanel composed commentaries on the Torah and Nevi'im. These were published in three works: "Perush" (Commentary) on the Torah (Venice, 1579); "Perush" on the Earlier Prophets (Pesaro, 1511?); "Perush" on the Later Prophets (Pesaro, 1520?). He may also have composed a commentary on Song of Songs.

His commentaries are divided into chapters, each of which is preceded by a list of questions or difficulties that he sets out to explain over the course of the chapter. Not only did this make it easier for scholars to find the answers they were looking for, but these lists of difficulties aided the average student in studying Abarbanel's work. In his commentary on the Torah, these questions have no fixed number, sometimes amounting to over 40, but in his commentary to the Prophets he limits himself to six. Abarbanel rarely forayed into the world of grammatical or philological investigation in the vein of Abraham ibn Ezra or David Kimhi before him, instead focusing on a content-based investigation of the Scripture at hand.

Occasionally, Abarbanel digresses from the subject under discussion, particularly in his commentary on the Torah. His style and presentations are prolix and often repetitive. Some of his interpretations derive from homilies delivered in the synagogue. He vehemently fought the extreme rationalism of philosophical interpretation, as well as interpretations based on philosophical allegory. At the same time, he himself had recourse, especially in his commentary on the Torah, to numerous interpretations based on philosophy.

His opposition to philosophical allegory must also be ascribed to the conditions of his time, the fear of undermining the unquestioning faith of the simple Jew, and the danger to Jewish survival in exile. This also explains Abarbanel's faith in the Messianic concepts of Judaism, as well as his need to make his work accessible to all Jews instead of writing merely for the scholars of his time. Although his commentary often differed from kabbalistic interpretations, Abarbanel nonetheless believed that the Torah had a hidden meaning in addition to its overt significance, thus he interpreted passages in the Torah in various ways. His commentary to Deuteronomy 25:5 demonstrates both his knowledge and endorsement of kabbalists and kabbalistic understanding of Scripture. Side by side with philosophical concepts (entitled "the analytical way", "the scientific", or "the method of wisdom") he gives "the way of the Torah", i.e., the moral and religious tenets to be derived from the text.

He quoted extensively from the Midrash, but allowed himself to criticize his source, when in his view, it did not align with the literal meaning of the text. He explains, "I shall not refrain from pointing to the weakness inherent in their statements where they are homiletical in nature and are not accepted by them as authoritative" (Introduction to Joshua).

Overall, Abarbanel's exegetical writings are notable for these distinctions:

 * 1) His comparison of the social structure of society in biblical times with that of the European society in his day (for example, in dealing with the institution of monarchy, I Samuel 8). He had wide recourse to historical interpretation, particularly in his commentaries to the Major and Minor Prophets and to the Book of Daniel, but in numerous instances his interpretations are anachronistic (for example, Judges 18).
 * 2) Preoccupation with Christian exegesis and exegetes. He generally disputed their christological interpretations, especially those of Jerome. But he did not hesitate to borrow from them when their interpretation seemed correct to him. "Indeed I regard their words in this matter to be more acceptable than those of the rabbis to which I have referred" (I Kings 8, reply to the sixth question).
 * 3) His introductions to the books of the prophets, which are much more comprehensive than those of his predecessors. In them, he deals with the content of the books, the division of the material, their authors, and the time of their compilation, and also drew comparisons between the method and style of the various prophets. His investigations are made in the spirit of medieval scholasticism. He may consequently be considered as a pioneer of the modern science of Bible propædeutics.

However, the major characteristic that separated Abarbanel from his predecessors was his unflagging commitment toward using the Scripture as a means of elucidating the status quo of his surrounding Jewish community; as a historical scholar, Abarbanel was able to contemporize the lessons of the historical eras described in the Scripture and apply them successfully in his explanations of modern Jewish living. Abarbanel, who had himself taken part in the politics of the great powers of the day, believed that mere consideration of the literary elements of Scripture was insufficient, and that the political and social life of the characters in the Tanakh must also be taken into account. Due to the overall excellence and exhaustiveness of Abarbanel's exegetical literature, he was looked to as a beacon for later Christian scholarship, which often included the tasks of translating and condensing his works.

His exegetical writings are set against a richly conceived backdrop of the Jewish historical and sociocultural experience, and it is often implied that his exegesis was sculpted with the purpose of giving hope to the Jews of Spain that the arrival of the Messiah was imminent in their days. This idea distinguished him from many other philosophers of the age, who did not rely as heavily on Messianic concepts.

Philosophy
Abarbanel's Jewish predecessors in the realm of philosophy did not receive the same tolerance at his hands as the Christians did. Men such as Isaac Albalag, Shem-Tov ibn Falaquera, Gersonides, Moses ben Joshua, and others, were denounced by Abarbanel as infidels and misleading guides for assuming a comparatively liberal standpoint in religiophilosophical questions. Abarbanel was essentially an opponent of philosophy, despite his authority on the subject, because his entire understanding of the Jewish religion was based on God's revelation in Jewish history. Jewish exegesis had become philosophical and far removed from the underlying truth of the text, according to Abarbanel.

A characteristic instance of his vacillation is afforded by his most important religious work, the Rosh Amanah (The Pinnacle of Faith) (Amsterdam, 1505), whose title derives from Song of Songs 4:8. This work, devoted to the championship of the Maimonidean 13 articles of belief against the attacks of Hasdai Crescas and Joseph Albo, ends with the statement that Maimonides compiled these articles merely in accordance with the fashion of other nations, which set up axioms or fundamental principles for their science. However, he holds that Judaism has nothing in common with human science; that the teachings of the Torah are revelations from God, and therefore are all of equal value; that among them are neither principles nor corollaries from principles.

Abarbanel agrees with and supports some of Maimonides' ideas, but he assails Maimonides' conception that the prophetic visions were the creations of imagination. Abarbanel will not hear of this explanation, even for the bat kol of the Talmud, which, according to him, was an actual voice made audible by God—a miracle, in fact.

In like manner, Abarbanel exceeded all his predecessors in combating Maimonides' theory of the "Heavenly Chariot" in Ezekiel.

Works of Hope
Abarbanel felt deeply the hopelessness and despair, which possessed Spanish Jews in the years following their expulsion from Spain, and set himself, therefore, to champion and strengthen their Messianic belief. With this aim, he wrote these works:
 * 1) "The Wellsprings of Salvation" (, Maʿyānei haYəshuʿāh, 1496), which is a commentary on the Book of Daniel;
 * 2) "The Salvation of His Anointed" (, Yəshuʿot Meshiho, 1497), an interpretation of rabbinic literature about the Messiah
 * 3) "Announcing Salvation" (, 1498), a commentary on the messianic prophecies in the prophetical books

These three books are considered the separate parts of a larger work entitled Tower of Salvation (, Migdāl Yəshuʿot).

The first work is in the form of a commentary upon Daniel, in which he controverts both the Christian exposition of and the Jewish rationalistic approach to this book. Curiously enough, in opposition to the Talmud and all later rabbinical tradition, he counts Daniel among the prophets, coinciding therein—but therein only—with the current Christian interpretation. He is impelled to this by the fact that Daniel furnishes the foundation for his Messianic theory. The remainder of his commentary is devoted to an exhaustive and caustic criticism of the Christian exposition.

The second work is probably unique in being an exposition of the doctrine concerning the Messiah according to the traditional testimony of Talmud and Midrash. His third apologetic work contains a collection of Messianic passages of the Bible and their interpretations, in the course of which Abarbanel criticizes the Christian interpretation of these passages.

Other works
Other works by Abarbanel include:
 * "The Crown of the Ancients" (Ateret Zkenim)
 * "The Pinnacle of Faith" (Rosh Amanah)
 * "Inheritance of the Fathers" (Nachlat Avot)
 * "The Forms of the Elements" (Tzurot Hayesodot)
 * "New Heavens" (Shamayim Hadashim)
 * "Deeds of God" (Mifalot Elohim)
 * "Passover Offering" (Zevach Pesach)

Race and slavery
Ironically, according to David Brion Davis, a Yale historian who specializes in slavery, Abarbanel played a pivotal role in providing the conceptual basis for black slavery: "[...] the great Jewish philosopher and statesman Isaac ben Abravanel, having seen many black slaves both in his native Portugal and in Spain, merged Aristotle's theory of natural slaves with the belief that the biblical Noah had cursed and condemned to slavery both his son Ham and his young grandson Canaan. Abravanel concluded that the servitude of animalistic black Africans should be perpetual." Abarbanel's view on slavery, however, stood in direct contradiction to that of Rashi, who, citing an earlier Talmudic source, wrote that the heathen were never included in the sanction of possessing slaves as the children of Israel were permitted to do, for the Scripture says (Leviticus 25:44) : "Of them you shall buy, etc.", meaning, "Israel alone is permitted to buy from them [enslaved persons], but they are not permitted to buy [enslaved persons] from you, nor from one another."

Scholars including Jonathan Schorsch and David M. Goldenberg point out Abarbanel's comments on the Book of Amos as indicative of very humanistic sentiments: "[Abarbanel] responded with unconcealed anger to the comment of a tenth-century Karaite from Jerusalem, Yefet b. Ali, on the issue of Black [promiscuity]. Yefet had interpreted a biblical verse (Amos 9:7) to refer to Black women as being 'promiscuous and therefore no one knows who his father is.' Abarbanel: 'I don't know who told Yefet this practice of promiscuity among Black women, which he mentions. But in the country of my birth [Portugal] I have seen many of these people and their women are loyal to their husbands unless they are prisoners and captive to their enemies. They are just like any other people.'" Schorsch argues that concerning Abarbanel's views about the connection between slavery and the curse of Ham, Abarbanel was influenced by the writings of his contemporaries and predecessors, including Christian and Muslim writers, as well as the culture around him, and was hardly considered unique in his views. Abarbanel's commentary on Amos 9:7 and other writings, argues Schorsch, show the complexity of Abarbanel's views of Blacks. "Abarbanel's conflicting passages regarding Blacks were written at different times and addressed different realms of discourse, the one abstract myth, the other actual living Blacks." Schorsch shows how contemporary travel books described Ethiopians as barbarians, stealing each other's children to sell to Muslim foreigners. "Hence, the many statements that Ethiopians engaged in relations... with their siblings or parents. In this view, families, a cultured product, would not have been known to primitives who lived like animals. Yet Abarbanel dismissed all these derogatory notions when defending the behavior of actual Blacks living in Portugal."

Legacy
The Synagogue Don Isaac Abravanel in Paris, France, was named in his memory.

title: Isaac Abarbanel


text:
Oneirology

In the field of psychology, the subfield of oneirology (from Ancient Greek, oneiron, "dream"; and , , "the study of") is the scientific study of dreams. Research seeks correlations between dreaming and knowledge about the functions of the brain, as well as an understanding of how the brain works during dreaming as pertains to memory formation and mental disorders. The study of oneirology can be distinguished from dream interpretation in that the aim is to quantitatively study the process of dreams instead of analyzing the meaning behind them.

History
In the 19th century, two advocates of this discipline were the French sinologists Marquis d'Hervey de Saint Denys and Alfred Maury. The field gained momentum in 1952, when Nathaniel Kleitman and his student Eugene Aserinsky discovered regular cycles. A further experiment by Kleitman and William C. Dement, then another medical student, demonstrated the particular period of sleep during which electrical brain activity, as measured by an electroencephalograph (EEG), closely resembled that of waking, in which the eyes dart about actively. This kind of sleep became known as rapid eye movement (REM) sleep, and Kleitman and Dement's experiment found a correlation of 0.80 between REM sleep and dreaming.

Field of work
Research into dreams includes exploration of the mechanisms of dreaming, the influences on dreaming, and disorders linked to dreaming. Work in oneirology overlaps with neurology and can vary from quantifying dreams to analyzing brain waves during dreaming, to studying the effects of drugs and neurotransmitters on sleeping or dreaming. Though debate continues about the purpose and origins of dreams, there could be great gains from studying dreams as a function of brain activity. For example, knowledge gained in this area could have implications for the treatment of certain mental illnesses.

Mechanisms of dreaming
Dreaming occurs mainly during REM sleep, and brain scans recording brain activity have witnessed heavy activity in the limbic system and the amygdala during this period. Though current research has reversed the myth that dreaming occurs only during REM sleep, it has also shown that the dreams reported in non-rapid eye movement (NREM) and REM differ qualitatively and quantitatively, suggesting that the mechanisms that control each are different.

During REM sleep, researchers theorize that the brain goes through a process known as synaptic efficacy refreshment. This is observed as brain waves self-firing during sleep, in slow cycles at a rate of around 14 Hz, and is believed to serve the purpose of consolidating recent memories and reinforcing old memories. In this type of brain stimulation, the dreaming that occurs is a by-product of the process.

Stages of sleep
During normal sleep cycles, humans alternate between normal, NREM sleep and REM sleep. The brain waves characteristic of dreaming that are observed during REM sleep are the most commonly studied in dream research because most dreaming occurs during REM sleep.

REM sleep
In 1952, Eugene Aserinsky discovered REM sleep while working in the surgery of his PhD advisor. Aserinsky noticed that the sleepers' eyes fluttered beneath their closed eyelids, later using a polygraph machine to record their brain waves during these periods. In one session, he awakened a subject who was wailing and crying out during REM and confirmed his suspicion that dreaming was occurring. In 1953, Aserinsky and his advisor published the ground-breaking study in Science.

Accumulated observation shows that dreams are strongly associated with REM sleep, during which an electroencephalogram shows brain activity to be most like wakefulness. Participant-nonremembered dreams during NREM are normally more mundane in comparison. During a typical lifespan, a human spends a total of about six years dreaming (which is about two hours each night). Most dreams last only 5 to 20 minutes. It is unknown where in the brain dreams originate, if there is a single origin for dreams, if multiple portions of the brain are involved, or what the purpose of dreaming is for the body or mind.

During REM sleep, the release of certain neurotransmitters is completely suppressed. As a result, motor neurons are not stimulated, a condition known as REM atonia. This prevents dreams from resulting in dangerous movements of the body.

Animals have complex dreams and are able to retain and recall long sequences of events while they are asleep. Studies show that various species of mammals and birds experience REM during sleep, and follow the same series of sleeping states as humans.

The discovery that dreams take place primarily during a distinctive electrophysiological state of sleep (REM), which can be identified by objective criteria, led to rebirth of interest in this phenomenon. When REM sleep episodes were timed for their duration and subjects awakened to make reports before major editing or forgetting could take place, it was determined that subjects accurately matched the length of time they judged the dream narrative to occupy with the length of REM sleep that preceded the awakening. This close correlation of REM sleep and dream experience was the basis of the first series of reports describing the nature of dreaming: that it is a regular nightly occurrence, rather than an occasional phenomenon, and that it is a high-frequency activity within each sleep period occurring at predictable intervals of approximately every 60–90 minutes in all humans throughout the life span.

REM sleep episodes and the dreams that accompany them lengthen progressively across the night, with the first episode the shortest, of approximately 10–12 minutes duration, and the second and third episodes increasing to 15–20 minutes. Dreams at the end of the night may last typically 15 minutes, although these may be experienced as several distinct stories due to momentary arousals interrupting sleep as the night ends.

Dream reports can normally be made 50% of the time when an awakening occurs prior to the end of the first REM period. This rate of retrieval is increased to about 99% when awakenings occur during the last REM period of the night. This increase in the ability to recall appears to be related to intensification across the night in the vividness of dream imagery, colors and emotions. The dream story itself in the last REM period is farthest from reality, containing more bizarre elements, and it is these properties, coupled with the increased likelihood of morning waking review to take place, that heighten the chance of recall of the last dream.

Definition of a dream
The definition of dream used in quantitative research is defined through four base components: In summary, a dream, as defined by G. William Domhoff and Adam Schneider, is "a report of a memory of a cognitive experience that happens under the kinds of conditions that are most frequently produced in a state called 'sleep.
 * 1) a form of thinking that occurs under minimal brain direction, external stimuli are blocked, and the part of the brain that recognizes self shuts down
 * 2) a form of experience that we believed we experience through our senses
 * 3) something memorable
 * 4) have some interpretation of experience by self

Commonplace bizarreness in dreaming
Certain kinds of bizarre cognitions, such as disjunctive cognitions and interobjects, are common in dreams.

Interobject
Interobjects, like disjunctive cognitions, are a commonplace bizarreness of dreamlife. Interobjects are a kind of dream condensation that creates a new object that could not occur in waking life. It may have a vague structure that is described as "something between an X and a Y". Hobson dreamt of "a piece of hardware, something like the lock of a door or perhaps a pair of paint-frozen hinges."

Authentic dreaming
Authentic dreams are defined by their tendency to occur "within the realm of experience" and reflect actual memories or experiences the dreamer can relate to. Authentic dreams are believed to be the side effect of synaptic efficacy refreshment that occurs without errors. Research suggests that the brain stimulation that occurs during dreaming authentic dreams is significant in reinforcing neurological pathways, serving as a method for the mind to "rehearse" certain things during sleep.

Illusory dreaming
Illusory dreams are defined as dreams that contain impossible, incongruent, or bizarre content and are hypothesized to stem from memory circuits accumulating efficacy errors. In theory, old memories having undergone synaptic efficacy refreshment multiple times throughout one's lifetime result in accumulating errors that manifest as illusory dreams when stimulated. Qualities of illusory dreaming have been linked to delusions observed in mental disorders. Illusory dreams are believed to most likely stem from older memories that experience this accumulation of errors in contrast to authentic dreams that stem from more recent experiences.

Influences on dreaming
One aspect of dreaming studied is the capability to externally influence the contents of dreams with various stimuli. One such successful connection was made to the olfactory system, influencing the emotions of dreams through a smell stimulus. Their research has shown that the introduction of a positive smelling stimulus (roses) induced positive dreams while negative smelling stimulus (rotten eggs) induced negative dreams.

Memories and experience
Though there is much debate within the field about the purpose of dreaming, a leading theory involves the consolidation of memories and experiences that occurs during REM sleep. The electric involuntary stimulus the brain undergoes during sleep is believed to be a basis for a majority of dreaming.

The link between memory, sleep, and dreams becomes more significant in studies analyzing memory consolidation during sleep. Research has shown that NREM sleep is responsible for the consolidation of facts and episodes in contrast to REM sleep that consolidates more emotionally related aspects of memory. The correlation between REM and emotional consolidation could be interpreted as the reason why dreams are of such an emotional nature and produce strong reactions from humans.

Interpersonal attachment
In addition to the conscious role people are aware of memory and experience playing in dreaming, unconscious effects such as health of relationships factor into the types of dreams the brain produces. Of the people analyzed, those suffering from "insecure attachments" were found to dream with more frequency and more vividly than those who were evaluated to have "secure attachments".

Drugs affecting dreaming
Correlations between the usage of drugs and dreaming have been documented, particularly the use of drugs, such as sedatives, and the suppression of dreaming because of drugging effects on the cycles and stages of sleep while not allowing the user to reach REM. Drugs used for their stimulating properties (cocaine, methamphetamine, and ecstasy) have been shown to also decrease the restorative properties of REM sleep and its duration.

Dreaming disorders
Dreaming disorders are difficult to quantify due to the ambiguous nature of dreaming. However, dreaming disorders can be linked to psychological disorders such as post-traumatic stress disorder expressed as nightmares. Research into dreaming also suggests similarity and links in illusory dreaming and delusions.

Post-traumatic stress disorder
Diagnostic symptoms include re-experiencing original trauma(s), by means of flashbacks or nightmares; avoidance of stimuli associated with the trauma; and increased arousal, such as difficulty falling or staying asleep, anger, and hypervigilance.

Links to post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and dreaming have been made in studying the flashbacks or nightmares the victims would suffer. Measurement of the brain waves exhibited by the subjects experiencing these episodes showed great similarity between those of dreaming. The drugs used to treat those suffering from these symptoms of flashbacks and nightmares would suppress not only these traumatic episodes but also any other sort of dreaming function.

Schizophrenia
The symptoms of schizophrenia involve abnormalities in the perception or expression of reality primarily focused on delusions and hallucinations.

The delusions experienced by those with schizophrenia have been likened to the experience of illusory dreams that have come to be interpreted by the subject as actual experiences. Additional research into medication to suppress symptoms of schizophrenia have also shown to influence the REM cycle of those taking the medication and as a result influence the patterns of sleep and dreaming in the subjects.

title: Oneirology


text:
Talk:Dyne

Comment
Dyne is also an online community of open source developers and programmers.
 * www.Dyne.org

 * Perhaps this org merits its own article, and a disambig link from this article? Ian Cairns 21:39, 2 Oct 2004 (UTC)

Obsolete or not?
On 2 Feb, I changed the first sentence to say that the CGS system is "obsolete". This was reverted four days later. However, I think it is important to put the dyne / CGS into perspective, so now I changed "cgs" to "cgs, a predecessor of the modern SI". Hope that variant will become consensus.

Apart from that, the edit that reverted my edit had this comment:

 * CGS units are still widely used in astronomy, astrophysics and petrophysics (Oil&Gas Industry) (they are not obsolete)

From what I'm reading on the CGS page, "widely used" is an overstatement--it's more like "occasionally encountered". So in order to provide context for further edits, here are some quotes from the CGS article:
 * "The centimeter-gram-second system [...] was replaced by the MKS"
 * "the CGS system never gained wide general use outside the field of electrodynamics and was gradually superseded internationally"
 * "CGS units are still occasionally encountered in older technical literature, especially in the United States in the fields of electrodynamics and astronomy".

--193.99.145.162 11:00, 6 February 2007 (UTC)

 * Well, presumably you've seen the commentary on the talk page over at CGS as well, but I'm a graduate student in physics at the moment, and I would say based on my experience that CGS is definitely not obsolete. My classes use CGS almost exclusively; moreover, so does my research -- it's still (as far as I can tell) the standard for describing things like surface tension. Maybe I'm just a dinosaur before my time ;-) Chalkdusted 11:50, 7 May 2007 (UTC)

 * You're right, I just came to this article because one paper I'm reading on surface tension uses dyne/cm, and I needed to know what does that mean. Maybe a better replacement could be that "CGS is obsolete except for a few countries and fields of science" — and keep the "fields of science" as a sign of good will to those countries. Also, according to wikipedia on SI, that didn't evolve from CGS as the alternative seems to implicate. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 200.161.121.122 (talk) 18:07, 17 September 2008 (UTC)

 * You'll find that the existence of international standards does not necessarily translate to the fields of study themselves, but rather act as just that: a means by which the subject matter is translatable across all disciplines. Classical standards are generally in practice because they allow the resident experts in those fields to continue advancing the study of the material without breaking the fluid connection with the field's history, which is essential in any field of study.  -MVD  — Preceding unsigned comment added by MichaelVernonDavis (talk • contribs) 10:16, 9 October 2011 (UTC)

Dyne and Newton
The page says one dyne is 10−5 kg·m/s², which is 10-5 N, but then says that it is equal to 10 µN, which is 10-6 N. Which one is correct? —Preceding unsigned comment added by 200.161.121.122 (talk) 18:16, 17 September 2008 (UTC)

 * Sorry, stupid mistake. 10-5 kg.m/s² = 10 µN

title: Talk:Dyne


text:
Clonorchiasis

Clonorchiasis is an infectious disease caused by the Chinese liver fluke (Clonorchis sinensis) and two related species. Clonorchiasis is a known risk factor for the development of cholangiocarcinoma, a neoplasm of the biliary system.

Symptoms of opisthorchiasis caused by Opisthorchis viverrini and by O. felineus are indistinguishable from clonorchiasis caused by Clonorchis sinensis, leading some to argue that the disease by these three parasites should be referred to collectively as clonorchiasis.

Cause
Clonorchis sinensis is a trematode (fluke) which is part of the phylum Platyhelminthes. The parasitic worm is as long as 10 to 25 mm and lives in the bile ducts of the liver. It is a hermaphroditic fluke that requires two intermediate hosts. The eggs of the worms are passed in fecal matter into a body of water and are then ingested by mollusks. The water snail is the first intermediate host, in which a miracidium (an embryonated egg discharged in stool) goes through its developmental stages (sporocyst, rediae and cercariae). Freshwater fish are a second intermediate host for the parasitic worm. They become infected when the larva (cercaria) of the worm leaves the snail and penetrates the flesh of the fish. Humans then become infected by eating infected fish that has been undercooked, smoked, pickled, or salted, and from there the cycle repeats.

Clonorchiasis is endemic in the Far East, especially in Korea, Japan, Taiwan, and Southern China. Clonorchiasis has been reported in areas to which it is not endemic (including the United States). In such cases, the infection follows the ingestion of undercooked or pickled freshwater fish imported from one of the endemic areas and containing metacercariae.

Diagnosis
Adult C. sinensis worms can inhabit the bile ducts of humans for 20–25 years without any clear clinical symptoms. This, in addition to the nonspecific symptoms infected persons may develop, can lead to missed diagnoses.

Patients are diagnosed when C. sinensis eggs are found in stools. The formalin-ether concentration technique (FECT) method of stool examination is most effective at diagnosing light cases of infection, while the Kato-Katz (KK) method is more suitable for the diagnosing of persons with clonorchiasis. Serological methods that use enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) can help differentiate the eggs of C. sinensis from other flukes.

Prevention and control
The CDC recommends against eating raw, undercooked, or lightly salted, smoked, or pickled fish. The WHO recommends a combination of veterinary public health measures, education of food safety practices, and expanding access to anthelminthic drugs. The NHFPC of China has a recommendation similar to that of the WHO.

Health regulators including the FDA have established requirements on the freezing of fish intended for raw consumption. The European Union (EFSA) specifically require an extended time for fish suspected of containing Clonorchis or Opisthorchis compared to other parasites. According to WHO data, larvae of these two genera are killed by freezing at -10 C for 5 days.

The EFSA recommends a cooking time of 30 minutes at 70 C to kill the parasite.

Treatment
Praziquantel is the treatment of choice for clonorchiasis.

title: Clonorchiasis


text:
Wikipedia:Articles for deletion/Tan Ser Ling

Tan Ser Ling
Member of a high school band Crimson Crush also vfd

 * Delete band vanity. -- Cyrius|✎ 02:30, 6 Oct 2004 (UTC)
 * Keep. No reason for deletion.  Not vanity. anthony (see warning) 21:42, 6 Oct 2004 (UTC)
 * Delete: Band vanity. Geogre 02:19, 8 Oct 2004 (UTC)


text:
Gastão Vidigal

Gastão Vidigal is a municipality in the state of São Paulo in Brazil. The population is 4,860 (2020 est.) in an area of 181 km². The town was settled in the first part of the 20th century, at first under the name Brioso. The municipality was established in 1955 by separating it from Nhandeara, and at the same time it was renamed Gastão Vidigal after a banker who opened a branch of the Banco Mercantil de São Paulo in the town. The small town produces milk, corn, cotton, and coffee.

Media
In telecommunications, the city was served by Companhia de Telecomunicações do Estado de São Paulo until 1975, when it began to be served by Telecomunicações de São Paulo. In July 1998, this company was acquired by Telefónica, which adopted the Vivo brand in 2012.

The company is currently an operator of cell phones, fixed lines, internet (fiber optics/4G) and television (satellite and cable).

title: Gastão Vidigal


text:
SFTP

SFTP may refer to:

Computing

 * SSH File Transfer Protocol, a network protocol used for secure file transfer over secure shell
 * Secure file transfer program, an SSH File Transfer Protocol client from the OpenSSH project
 * Simple File Transfer Protocol, an unsecured file transfer protocol from the early days of the Internet
 * Screened fully shielded twisted pair, a kind of network cable

Other

 * Science for the People, a U.S. left-wing organization and magazine
 * Six Flags Theme Parks, chain of amusement parks and theme parks
 * Stray from the Path, an American metalcore band
 * Supplemental Federal Test Procedure, EPA fuel economy testing procedures which supplement FTP-75 standard

title: SFTP


text:
Henry Evans Maude

Henry Evans Maude, (1 October 1906 – 4 November 2006) was a British Colonial Service administrator, historian and anthropologist.

Life and career
Maude was born in Bankipore, India. Educated at Highgate School from 1921 to 1925, and Jesus College, Cambridge, Maude represented India at rifle-shooting in 1926.

He spent the years 1929–48 working as a civil servant and administrator in various Pacific Islands. Between 1940 and 1941, Maude was sent to the Pitcairn Islands by the Western Pacific High Commission, to modernise the government, and to establish a post office and issue stamps in order to generate revenue for the people of the island. During this time, Maude and his wife collected a great number of Polynesian archaeological items found on the Pitcairn Islands, later donated to the Auckland War Memorial Museum in New Zealand. The almost 1,500 item collection composes the largest known collection of cultural artefacts from the islands. Maude spent much time in the British colony of the Gilbert and Ellice Islands, serving as land commissioner before WWII then, after the Japanese occupation of the Gilbert Islands, as Resident Commissioner from 1946 to 1949. From 1949 to 1955, he worked for the South Pacific Commission.

From 1957 to 1961, he was a Research Fellow at the Research School of Pacific and Asian Studies (RSPAS), which is part of the Australian National University in Canberra. He has published widely on aspects of Pacific Islands history, was a co-founder of the Journal of Pacific History, and played an important role in establishing the Pacific Manuscripts Bureau.

Personal life
He was the husband of Honor Courtney Maude (née King), a British-Australian authority on Oceanic string figures. She predeceased him, dying in 2001 in Canberra, aged 95.

Death and legacy
Maude died, aged 100, on 4 November 2006. The bulk of Maude's personal papers are held at the Barr Smith Library at the University of Adelaide, where an extensive set of pages devoted to his life and work can be found. He published the work of Sir Arthur Grimble.

title: Henry Evans Maude


text:
Gavião

Gavião may refer to:

People

 * Gavião (Gê), an indigenous Gê-speaking people of Pará and Maranhão, Brazil
 * Pará Gavião language, a Gê language spoken by the Gavião of Pará and Maranhão
 * Gavião (Rondônia), an indigenous people of Rondônia, Brazil
 * Gavião of Jiparaná, a Tupian language spoken by the Gavião of Rondônia, Brazil

Places

 * Gavião, Bahia, a municipality in Bahia, Brazil
 * Gavião, Portugal, a municipality in Portalegre, Portugal
 * Gavião (parish), a civil parish in Gavião, Portugal
 * Gavião (Vila Nova de Famalicão), a civil parish in Vila Nova de Famalicão, Portugal

title: Gavião


text:
Elwood V. Jensen

Elwood Vernon Jensen (January 13, 1920 – December 16, 2012) was the Distinguished University Professor, George and Elizabeth Wile Chair in Cancer Research at the University of Cincinnati College of Medicine's Vontz Center for Molecular Studies. In 2004 he received the Albert Lasker Award for Basic Medical Research for his research on estrogen receptors. He is considered the father of the field of hormone action.

Life
Jensen was born in Fargo, North Dakota, in the United States, received his bachelor's degree from Wittenberg University in 1940 and PhD in organic chemistry from the University of Chicago in 1944. From 1947 Jensen studied steroid hormones at Chicago, where he isolated estrogen receptors and discovered their importance in breast cancer.

Jensen worked closely with Nobel laureate Charles Huggins; he joined the research team at the Ben May Laboratory for Cancer (now the Ben May Department of Cancer Research) in 1951 and became director after Huggins retired. Jensen first described the estrogen receptor in 1958 and subsequently discovered the superfamily of nuclear hormone receptors along with a unifying mechanism that regulates embryonic development and diverse metabolic pathways.

At the University of Chicago, Professor Jensen was the Charles B. Huggins Distinguished Service Professor Emeritus in the Ben May Department for Cancer Research and the Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology at the University of Chicago.

He began work at the University of Cincinnati in 2002, and continued there until 2011.

He died aged 92 of pneumonia at Cincinnati in 2012.

Awards

 * 1963, Honorary DSc, Wittenberg College
 * 1974, member of the National Academy of Sciences
 * 1980, Golden Plate Award, American Academy of Achievement
 * 2002, Brinker International Award
 * 2004, Albert Lasker Award for Basic Medical Research
 * 2005, Honorary MD, University of Athens

title: Elwood V. Jensen


text:
User:Lachaume

Hi I'm Régis, living in Morelia (Mexico). For more go to fr:Utilisateur:Lachaume. (or User:Lachaume/Jokes).

title: User:Lachaume


text: Template:PD-USGov-Interior-USGS

title: Template:PD-USGov-Interior-USGS


text:
Gavião Peixoto

Gavião Peixoto is a municipality in the state of São Paulo in Brazil. The population is 4,815 (2020 est.) in an area of 244 km². The elevation is 515 m.

The Brazilian aircraft manufacturer Embraer has a production plant at Gavião Peixoto Aerodrome, where major components are manufactured and flight testing is conducted. The Aerodrome has the longest runway in the Americas and fourth longest in the world.

Media
In telecommunications, the city was served by Telecomunicações de São Paulo. In July 1998, this company was acquired by Telefónica, which adopted the Vivo brand in 2012. The company is currently an operator of cell phones, fixed lines, internet (fiber optics/4G) and television (satellite and cable).

title: Gavião Peixoto


text:
Leonardo Agostini

Leonardo Agostini (19 September 1593 – August 1676) was an Italian antiquary of the 17th century, born in Boccheggiano, near Grosseto.

Life
Agostino was employed for some time as antiquario to Cardinal Francesco Barberini to collect works of art for the recently constructed Palazzo Barberini. His letters to the Barberini family during their period of disgrace and exile (1646–50) have provided art historians with information on the archaeological activity of the time. Appointed superintendent of antiquities in the Papal States by Pope Alexander VII, he directed excavations in Rome at the Forum and at the thermae near the church of San Lorenzo in Panisperna, where he discovered the "Barberini Hera".

In 1649 he issued a new edition of Filippo Paruta's Sicilian Medals, with engravings of 400 additional specimens. In conjunction with Gian Pietro Bellori (1615–1696) he published Gemme antiche figurate, a work on antique engraved gems, in two volumes (Rome, 1657 and 1669); the first was devoted entirely to Cardinal Francesco's   collection, which Agostini had assembled for the papal nephew, and the second to cameos and other discoveries from the auguste ruine della gran Roma (the "august ruins of great Rome"). The work, which grouped the gems according to the themes represented, was translated into Latin by Jakob Gronovius in Amsterdam, 1685.

Agostini was acquainted with all the Roman antiquarians of his day, including Bellori, Cassiano dal Pozzo and Andrea Sacchi; he preserved a volume of Annibale Carracci's ephemeral caricature sketches.

Opere

 * Notizia generale delle medaglie più rare battute nella Grecia dette medaglie greche, da Pompeio Magno sino a Claudio II detto Gothico, seguita da una Serie degli Imperatori, Imperatrici e persone illustri antiche delle quali sono state battute le medaglie da Giulio Cesare sino ad Eraclio (Biblioteca Apostolica Vaticana, Vat. Lat. 8243, cc. 1-249);
 * Il sacro Gieroglifico del nome di Christo col celeste titolo della vittoria di Costantino contro Massentio - Medaglia di Leonardo Agostini (Biblioteca Angelica, Roma, ms. 1628, cc. 182-186).

title: Leonardo Agostini


text:
Frank Pitura

Franklin Paul Pitura (October 24, 1943 – February 16, 2019) was a politician in Manitoba, Canada. He was a member of the Manitoba legislature from 1995 to 2003, representing the rural riding of Morris for the Progressive Conservative Party. Between 1997 and 1999, he served as a Cabinet Minister in the government of Premier Gary Filmon.

The son of Frank Pitura and Doris Palahniuk, he was born in Winnipeg, Manitoba, and was educated at Sanford Collegiate and the University of Manitoba. He was a government employee from 1967 to 1977, and again from 1987 to 1995. Pitura also worked as a farmer from 1977 to 1991, and was a delegate of the Manitoba Pool Elevators organization at one stage. In 1967, he married Evelyn Diehl.

The riding of Morris is generally considered safe for the Progressive Conservatives, and Pitura was elected without difficulty in the provincial election of 1995, defeating his nearest opponent (Liberal Bill Roth) by over 3000 votes. Shortly after his election, Pitura announced his opposition to the Canadian Wheat Board's monopoly status, and his support for dual marketing (though there was little he or the Filmon government could do to mandate such a change).

On January 6, 1997, Pitura was appointed acting Minister of Government Services, probably in reflection of his previous work as a government employee. In 1998, Pitura and federal Cabinet Minister Ron Duhamel announced the construction of a flood protection dike at Ste. Agathe, as a response to serious flooding the previous year.

Pitura was re-elected in Morris in the provincial election of 1999, although the Progressive Conservatives were defeated at the provincial level. After four years on the opposition benches, Pitura announced his retirement from politics shortly before the provincial election of 2003. Pitura died on February 16, 2019, aged 75.

title: Frank Pitura


text:
General Salgado

General Salgado is a municipality in the state of São Paulo, Brazil. The city has a population of 10,862 inhabitants and an area of 493.3 km².

General Salgado belongs to the Mesoregion of São José do Rio Preto.

History
The municipality was created by state law in 1944.

Media
In telecommunications, the city was served by Companhia de Telecomunicações do Estado de São Paulo until 1975, when it began to be served by Telecomunicações de São Paulo. In July 1998, this company was acquired by Telefónica, which adopted the Vivo brand in 2012.

The company is currently an operator of cell phones, fixed lines, internet (fiber optics/4G) and television (satellite and cable).

title: General Salgado


text:
Szentendre

Szentendre is a riverside town in Pest County, Hungary, between the capital city Budapest and Pilis-Visegrád Mountains. The town is known for its museums (most notably the Hungarian Open Air Museum), galleries, and artists.

Due to its historic architecture along with easy accessibility via rail and river, it has become a destination for tourists staying in Budapest. There are many facilities, including souvenir shops and restaurants, catering to these visitors.

Name
The name of the town is ultimately based on the Medieval Latin form Sankt Andrae ("St. Andrew"). Because of the diverse mix of nationalities to have once settled in Szentendre, the settlement has a variety of names according to language. The Hungarian name for the town is Szentendre; the Croatian name is Senandrija; the German name is Sankt Andrä; in Serbian, the name is Sentandreja (Сентандреја); the Slovak name is Svätý Ondrej. Its name (Sanctus Andreas) first appeared in a student's will in 1146, which was confirmed by King Géza II. The 12th-century city centre was situated around the still existing St. Andrew's Church on the other side of the Bükkös Brook.

History
The area where Szentendre is today was uninhabited when the Magyars arrived. In the 9th century, Árpád's companion, the sacral prince Kurszán, settled here. He renovated the Roman fortress that had fallen into ruin and reestablished a settlement on the remains of the Roman buildings.

Little is known about the history of Szentendre between the 9th and 10th centuries. Some sources suggest that there was a settlement called Apurig in this area. The word apor means "brook" and so presumably the settlement was located on a small river-way. Based on maps of military surveys, there were five brooks in the area: Dera, Bükkös, Öregvíz and Sztelin. It is unknown as to which brook the Apor can be identified with.

The city was largely depopulated in the Ottoman era. According to a 17th-century census, only one family and their service staff remained here at that time.

After the Ottomans were expelled from the area, foreign settlers moved to the settlement. Today evidence of the town's prosperity in this time can be seen in the baroque style of the houses, the Mediterranean atmosphere of the town's architecture, its churches, the cobblestoned streets, and its narrow alleys. During the Great Turkish War, Serbs were invited to emigrate to Hungary to evade the Ottoman Empire. Because of this invitation, there was a mass emigration of Serbs in 1690 to the Szentendre region. These Serbs left enduring traces on the townscape and its culture. The buildings in the city center have tried to preserve this Serbian influence in their architecture, but these buildings do not in fact date to the 17th century. Based on maps from the end of the century, the city center actually boasted other buildings at that time.

There was also considerable Dalmatian immigration. The Dalmatian families settled on Donkey Mountain where Dalmát Street preserves their memory today. Even in the 1980s, this street was inhabited exclusively by descendants of the original Dalmatians. These descendants now live throughout the city.

Although the Ottomans had decimated the population of the region, starting in the 1690s, the population slowly began to increase and in 1872 it reached a level when the town-like character began to dominate again instead of the village-like character. The public administration as well as the business establishments made it possible to practice all the privileges entailing a city. Szentendre was granted city-status in 1872. In 1888 the railway between Szentendre and Budapest was opened.

The calm provincial life of the city has attracted artists since the beginning of the 20th century. The Szentendre colony of artists came into existence in 1929. The so-called Szentendre School is connected with it. Today, more than two hundred fine and applied artists, authors, poets, musicians and actors live in the city.

The city was a small town until the 1970s; its population hardly attained four thousand. The city at that time included only two parts: the downtown and Donkey Mountain, the latter of which became a living space at the beginning of the twentieth century. These two parts of the town are separated from all the rest of Szentendre's areas by road 11.

Around the historical inner city some smaller settlements joined the town in the course of the centuries, some of which are present day Szentendre's traditional town areas such as Izbég and Derecske. Szentendre also contains green-belt areas such as Pannóniatelep, Püspökmajor, Pismány, Szarvashegy. By the end of the 1970s, due to a large-scale inner-city merger, the populated zone of the town enlarged considerably. By the beginning of the 21st century these areas were completely populated and the earlier small town attained the population of 25,000 in 2010. This expansion of the city practically ended traditional fruit-growing and gardening in Szentendre.

The Hungarian Open Air Museum (Skanzen), founded in 1967, shows the village and urban societies' different layers, including the various groups' interior furnishings and lifestyles from the end of the 18th to the middle of the 20th centuries. This museum includes Europe's longest museum railway line, which was built in 2009.

The museum is visited by tourists from both Hungary and abroad.

The Witcher (TV series) (Netflix, 2019) used the museum grounds to depict the village that was the original home of the character Yennefer; this location was also used in scenes with the lead character, Ciri, at a time when she was in an area with a windmill.

Railway
Szentendre is linked to Budapest by Line 5 of the BHÉV railway, which opened in 1888. This electric railway line operates a frequent train service between Szentendre and Batthyány tér metro station in Budapest via Békásmegyer.

Arts
Szentendre has been the home of generations of Hungarian artists since the early 20th century. Szentendre Artists' Colony worked in the northern part of the town.

There are many museums and contemporary galleries representing the rich traditions of the visual art.

 * List of art museums

 * Margit Anna - Imre Ámos Collection
 * Jenő Barcsay Collection
 * Béla Czóbel Museum
 * Károly Ferenczy Museum, devote to the founder of Hungarian modernism and his family
 * János Kmetty Museum
 * Margit Kovács Ceramic Collection
 * Lajos Vajda Museum
 * Szentendre Gallery
 * Gallery of the Artists' Colony
 * ArtMill

 * List of contemporary galleries

 * Aktív Art Gallery
 * Gallery Erdész
 * Műhely Gallery
 * Palmetta Design Gallery
 * ArtUnio Gallery
 * Vajda Lajos Studio

Population
In the 18th century Szentendre had Serb majority, but in the 19th century they dropped to minority due to one-child family model, ethnic Germans followed the declining Serb community. By the late 19th century rapidly growing Hungarians became the dominant ethnic group, assimilated Germans and the remaining Serbs too. In 2001, Szentendre had 22,747 inhabitants, of whom there were 21,001 ethnic Hungarians, 225 Germans, and only 100 Serbs.

 * Religions

 * Roman Catholic - 49.3%
 * Calvinist - 13.5%
 * Lutheran - 2%
 * Greek Catholic - 1.4%
 * Others (Christian) - 1.2%
 * Others (non-Christian) - 0.3%
 * Unaffiliated - 16.9%
 * No answer, unknown - 15.4%

 * Nationalities

 * Magyars - 92.3%
 * Germans - 1%
 * Slovaks - 0.6%
 * Romani - 0.5%
 * Serbs - 0.4%
 * Others - 1%
 * No answer, unknown - 4.2%

Today there are active Serbian, Croat, German, and Polish municipal minority self-governments in Szentendre.

Notable people

 * Béla Apáti Abkarovics was a Hungarian painter of Serbian roots, lived and worked in Szentendre
 * Jovan Avakumović born in 1748 in Szentendre during the Enlightenment, producing works in verse in Serbian vernacular
 * Jakov Ignjatović, Serbian 19th century novelist and prose writer
 * István Regős, Hungarian painter and artist
 * Gavril Stefanović Venclović, early 18th century Serbian poet and painter of church icons
 * Kati Wolf Hungary's contestant for Eurovision 2011.
 * Báthory Zoltán guitarist for Five Finger Death Punch.
 * Vikentije Jovanović

Twin towns – sister cities
Szentendre is twinned with:

 * 🇫🇷 Barbizon, France
 * 🏴 Godmanchester, England, United Kingdom
 * Hội An, Vietnam
 * 🏴 Huntingdon, England, United Kingdom
 * 🇷🇸 Kruševac, Serbia
 * 🇫🇷 Salon-de-Provence, France
 * Stari Grad, Croatia
 * 🇷🇴 Târgu Secuiesc, Romania
 * 🇫🇮 Uusikaupunki, Finland
 * 🇩🇪 Wertheim, Germany
 * 🇷🇴 Zalău, Romania

title: Szentendre