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New Testament apocrypha

The New Testament apocrypha (singular apocryphon) are a number of writings by early Christians that give accounts of Jesus and his teachings, the nature of God, or the teachings of his apostles and of their lives. Some of these writings were cited as scripture by early Christians, but since the fifth century a widespread consensus has emerged limiting the New Testament to the 27 books of the modern canon. Roman Catholic, Eastern Orthodox, and Protestant churches generally do not view the New Testament apocrypha as part of the Bible.

Definition
The word apocrypha means 'things put away' or 'things hidden', originating from the Medieval Latin adjective apocryphus, 'secret' or 'non-canonical', which in turn originated from the Greek adjective ἀπόκρυφος, 'obscure', from the verb ἀποκρύπτειν , 'to hide away'. in turn comes from the Greek prefix, meaning 'away', and the Greek verb , meaning 'to hide'.

The general term is usually applied to the books that were considered by the church as useful, but not divinely inspired. As such, to refer to Gnostic writings as "apocryphal" is misleading since they would not be classified in the same category by orthodox believers. Often used by the Greek Fathers was the term antilegomena, or 'spoken against', although some canonical books were also spoken against, such as the Apocalypse of John in the East. Often used by scholars is the term pseudepigrapha, meaning 'falsely inscribed' or 'falsely attributed', in the sense that the writings were written by an anonymous author who appended the name of an apostle to his work, such as in the Gospel of Peter or the Ethiopic Apocalypse of Enoch: almost all books, in both Old and New Testaments, called "apocrypha" in the Protestant tradition are pseudepigrapha. In the Catholic and Orthodox traditions, what are called the apocrypha by Protestants include the deuterocanonical books: in the Catholic tradition, the term apocrypha is synonymous with what Protestants would call the pseudepigrapha, the latter term of which is almost exclusively used by scholars.

Development of the New Testament canon
That some works are categorized as New Testament apocrypha is indicative of the wide range of responses to the ministry of Jesus. During the first centuries following Jesus' ministry, considerable debate was held in regards to safeguarding the authenticity of his teachings. Three key methods developed to address this survive to the present day: ordination, where groups authorize individuals as reliable teachers of the message; creeds, where groups define the boundaries of interpretation of the message; and canons, which list the primary documents certain groups believe contain the message originally taught by Jesus.

The first centuries of Christianity saw substantial debate in regards to which books should be included in the canons. In general, those books that the majority regarded as the earliest books about Jesus were the ones included. Books that were not accepted into the canons are now termed apocryphal; some were virgorously suppressed and survive only as fragments, or only in mention in the writings of those condemning them. The earliest lists of canonical works of the New Testament were not quite the same as modern lists; for example, the Book of Revelation was regarded as disputed by some Christians (see Antilegomena), while the Shepherd of Hermas was considered genuine by others, and appears (after the Book of Revelation) in the Codex Sinaiticus.

The Syriac Peshitta, used by all the various Syrian churches, originally did not include 2 Peter, 2 John, 3 John, Jude and Revelation. This canon of 22 books is the one cited by John Chrysostom (~347–407) and Theodoret (393–466) from the School of Antioch. Western Syrians have added the remaining five books to their New Testament canons in modern times (such as the Lee Peshitta of 1823). Today, the official lectionaries followed by the Malankara Syrian Orthodox Church and the East Syriac Chaldean Catholic Church, which is in communion with the Holy See, still only present lessons from the 22 books of the original Peshitta.

The Armenian Apostolic church at times has included the Third Epistle to the Corinthians in its biblical canon, but does not always list it with the other 27 canonical New Testament books. The church did not accept Revelation into its Bible until 1200 CE. The New Testament of the Coptic Bible, adopted by the Egyptian Church, includes the two Epistles of Clement.

Modern scholarship and translation
English translations were made in the early 18th century by William Wake and by Jeremiah Jones, and collected in 1820 by William Hone's Apocryphal New Testament. The series Ante-Nicene Fathers, volume 8, contains translations by Alexander Walker. New translations by M. R. James appeared in 1924, and were revised by J.K. Eliott, The Apocryphal New Testament, Oxford University Press, 1991. The "standard" scholarly edition of the New Testament Apocrypha in German is that of Schneemelcher, and in English its translation by Robert McLachlan Wilson.

Constantin von Tischendorf and other scholars began to study New Testament apocrypha seriously in the 19th century and produce new translations. The texts of the Nag Hammadi library are often considered separately but the current edition of Schneemelcher also contains eleven Nag Hammadi texts.

Books that are known objectively not to have existed in antiquity are usually not considered part of the New Testament apocrypha. Among these are the Libellus de Nativitate Sanctae Mariae (also called the "Nativity of Mary") and the Latin Infancy gospel. The latter two did not exist in antiquity, and they seem to be based on the earlier Infancy gospels.

Infancy gospels
Information about the childhood of Jesus was supplied by a number of 2nd-century and later texts, known as infancy gospels, none of which were accepted into the biblical canon. Despite this, some scholars have noted that the very number of surviving infancy manuscripts attests to their continued popularity.

Most of these manuscripts were based on the earliest infancy gospels, namely the Infancy Gospel of James (also called the "Protoevangelium of James") and the Infancy Gospel of Thomas, and on their later combination into the Gospel of Pseudo-Matthew (also called the "Infancy Gospel of Matthew" or "Birth of Mary and Infancy of the Saviour").

The other significant early infancy gospels are the Syriac Infancy Gospel, the History of Joseph the Carpenter, and the Life of John the Baptist.

Jewish-Christian gospels
The Jewish–Christian Gospels were gospels of a Jewish Christian character quoted by Clement of Alexandria, Origen, Eusebius, Epiphanius, Jerome and probably Didymus the Blind. Most modern scholars have concluded that there existed one gospel in Aramaic/Hebrew and at least two in Greek, although a minority argue that there were only two: one Aramaic/Hebrew and one Greek.

None of these gospels survive today, but attempts have been made to reconstruct them from references in the Church Fathers. The reconstructed texts of the gospels are usually categorized under New Testament Apocrypha. The standard edition of Schneemelcher describes the texts of three Jewish–Christian gospels as follows:
 * 1) The Gospel of the Ebionites ("GE") – 7 quotations by Epiphanius.
 * 2) The Gospel of the Hebrews ("GH") – 1 quotation ascribed to Cyril of Jerusalem, plus GH 2–7 quotations by Clement, Origen, and Jerome.
 * 3) The Gospel of the Nazarenes ("GN") – GN 1 to GN 23 are mainly from Jerome; GN 24 to GN 36 are from medieval sources.

Some scholars consider that the two last named are in fact the same source.

Non-canonical gospels

 * Gospel of Marcion (mid-2nd century)
 * Gospel of Mani (3rd century)
 * Gospel of Apelles (mid–late 2nd century)
 * Gospel of Bardesanes (late 2nd–early 3rd century)
 * Gospel of Basilides (mid-2nd century)
 * Gospel of Thomas (1st century; sayings gospel)

Passion Gospels
A number of gospels are concerned specifically with the "Passion" (from the Latin verb patior, passus sum; "to suffer, bear, endure", from which also "patience, patient", etc.) ) of Jesus:
 * Gospel of Peter
 * Gospel of Nicodemus (also called the "Acts of Pilate")
 * Pseudo-Cyril of Jerusalem, On the Life and the Passion of Christ
 * Gospel of Bartholomew
 * Questions of Bartholomew
 * Book of the Resurrection of Jesus Christ, by Bartholomew the Apostle

Although three texts take Bartholomew's name, it may be that either the Questions of Bartholomew or the Resurrection of Jesus Christ is in fact the unknown Gospel of Bartholomew.

Harmonized gospels
A number of texts aim to provide a single harmonization of the canonical gospels, that eliminates discordances among them by presenting a unified text derived from them to some degree. The most widely read of these was the Diatessaron.

Gnostic texts
In the modern era, many Gnostic texts have been uncovered, especially from the Nag Hammadi library. Some texts take the form of an expounding of the esoteric cosmology and ethics held by the Gnostics. Often this was in the form of dialogue in which Jesus expounds esoteric knowledge while his disciples raise questions concerning it. There is also a text, known as the Epistula Apostolorum, which is a polemic against Gnostic esoterica, but written in a similar style as the Gnostic texts.

Dialogues with Jesus

 * Apocryphon of James (also called the "Secret Book of James")
 * Book of Thomas the Contender
 * Dialogue of the Saviour
 * Gospel of Judas (also called the "Gospel of Judas Iscariot")
 * Gospel of Mary
 * Gospel of Philip
 * Greek Gospel of the Egyptians (distinct from the Coptic Gospel of the Egyptians)
 * The Sophia of Jesus Christ

General texts concerning Jesus

 * Coptic Apocalypse of Paul (distinct from the Apocalypse of Paul)
 * Gospel of Truth
 * Gnostic Apocalypse of Peter (distinct from the Apocalypse of Peter)
 * Letter of Lentulus
 * Pistis Sophia
 * Second Treatise of the Great Seth

Sethian texts concerning Jesus
The Sethians were a gnostic group who originally worshipped the biblical Seth as a messianic figure, later treating Jesus as a re-incarnation of Seth. They produced numerous texts expounding their esoteric cosmology, usually in the form of visions:

 * Apocryphon of John (also called the "Secret Gospel of John")
 * Coptic Gospel of the Egyptians (distinct from the Greek Gospel of the Egyptians)
 * Trimorphic Protennoia

Ritual diagrams
Some of the Gnostic texts appear to consist of diagrams and instructions for use in religious rituals:
 * Ophite Diagrams
 * Books of Jeu

Acts
Several texts concern themselves with the subsequent lives of the apostles, usually with highly supernatural events. Almost half of these, anciently called The Circuits of the Apostles and now known by the name of their purported author, "Leucius Charinus" (supposedly a companion of John the apostle), contained the Acts of Peter, John, Andrew, Thomas, and Paul. These were judged by the Patriarch Photios I of Constantinople in the ninth century to be full of folly, self-contradiction, falsehood, and impiety. The Acts of Thomas and the Acts of Peter and the Twelve are often considered Gnostic texts. While most of the texts are believed to have been written in the 2nd century, at least two, the Acts of Barnabas and the Acts of Peter and Paul are believed to have been written as late as the 5th century.

 * Acts of Andrew
 * Acts of Barnabas
 * Acts of John
 * Acts of Mar Mari
 * Acts of the Martyrs
 * Acts of Paul
 * Acts of Paul and Thecla
 * Acts of Peter
 * Acts of Peter and Andrew
 * Acts of Peter and Paul
 * Acts of Peter and the Twelve
 * Acts of Philip
 * Acts of Pilate
 * Acts of Thomas
 * Acts of Timothy
 * Acts of Xanthippe, Polyxena, and Rebecca
 * The Lost Chapter of the Acts of the Apostles

Epistles
There are also non-canonical epistles (or "letters") between individuals or to Christians in general. Some of them were regarded very highly by the early church. Those marked with a lozenge (♦) are included in the collection known as the Apostolic Fathers:

 * Epistle of Barnabas ♦
 * First Epistle of Clement ♦
 * Second Epistle of Clement ♦
 * Epistle of Ignatius to the Smyrnaeans ♦
 * Epistle of Ignatius to the Trallians ♦
 * Epistle of Ignatius to the Ephesians ♦
 * Epistle of Ignatius to the Magnesians ♦
 * Epistle of Ignatius to the Romans ♦
 * Epistle of Ignatius to the Philadelphians ♦
 * Epistle of Ignatius to Polycarp ♦
 * Epistle of Polycarp to the Philippians ♦
 * Epistle of Mathetes to Diognetus ♦
 * Martyrdom of Polycarp ♦
 * Epistle to the Laodiceans (an epistle in the name of Paul)
 * Epistle to Seneca the Younger (an epistle in the name of Paul)
 * Third Epistle to the Corinthians - accepted in the past by some in the Armenian Orthodox church.

Apocalypses
Several works frame themselves as visions, often discussing the future, afterlife, or both:

 * Apocalypse of Paul (distinct from the Coptic Apocalypse of Paul, also called Apocalypse of the Virgin)
 * Apocalypse of Peter (distinct from the Gnostic Apocalypse of Peter)
 * Apocalypse of Pseudo-Methodius
 * Apocalypse of Thomas (also called the Revelation of Thomas)
 * Apocalypse of Stephen (also called the Revelation of Stephen)
 * First Apocalypse of James (also called the First Revelation of James)
 * Second Apocalypse of James (also called the Second Revelation of James)
 * Second Apocalypse of John (also called the [First] Apocryphal Apocalypse of John)
 * The Shepherd of Hermas (also included in the collection known as the Apostolic Fathers)

Fate of Mary
Several texts (over 50) consist of descriptions of the events surrounding the varied fate of Mary (the mother of Jesus):

 * The Home Going of Mary
 * The Falling Asleep of the Mother of God
 * The Descent of Mary

Miscellany
These texts, due to their content or form, do not fit into the other categories:

 * Apostolic Constitutions (church regulations supposedly asserted by the apostles)
 * Book of Nepos
 * Canons of the Apostles
 * Cave of Treasures (also called The Treasure)
 * Clementine literature
 * Didache (possibly the first written catechism) (also included in the collection known as the Apostolic Fathers.)
 * Liturgy of St James
 * Penitence of Origen
 * Prayer of Paul
 * Sentences of Sextus
 * Physiologus
 * Book of the Bee

Fragments
In addition to the known apocryphal works, there are also small fragments of texts, parts of unknown (or uncertain) works. Some of the more significant fragments are:

 * The Gospel of the Saviour
 * The Naassene Fragment
 * The Fayyum Fragment
 * The Secret Gospel of Mark, whose authenticity has been challenged
 * The Oxyrhynchus Gospels
 * The Egerton Gospel

Lost works
Several texts are mentioned in many ancient sources and would probably be considered part of the apocrypha, but no known text has survived:

 * Gospel of Eve (a quotation from this gospel is given by Epiphanius (Haer. xxvi. 2, 3). It is possible that this is the Gospel of Perfection he alludes to in xxvi. 2. The quotation shows that this gospel was the expression of complete pantheism)
 * Gospel of the Four Heavenly Realms
 * Gospel of Matthias (probably different from the Gospel of Matthew)
 * Gospel of Perfection (used by the followers of Basilides and other Gnostics. See Epiphanius, Haer. xxvi. 2)
 * Gospel of the Seventy
 * Gospel of Thaddaeus (This may be a synonym for the Gospel of Judas. The name Thaddeus was often used to not to confuse Jude the Apostle for Judas Iscariot)
 * Gospel of the Twelve
 * Memoria Apostolorum

Close candidates for canonization
While many of the books listed here were considered heretical (especially those belonging to the gnostic tradition—as this sect was considered heretical by Proto-orthodox Christianity of the early centuries), others were not considered particularly heretical in content, but in fact were well accepted as significant spiritual works. Those marked with a lozenge (♦) are also included in the collection known as the Apostolic Fathers.

While some of the following works appear in complete Bibles from the fourth century, such as 1 Clement and The Shepherd of Hermas, showing their general popularity, they were not included when the canon was formally decided at the end of that century.
 * Epistle of Barnabas ♦
 * First Epistle of Clement ♦
 * Second Epistle of Clement ♦
 * Epistle of Ignatius to the Smyrnaeans ♦
 * Epistle of Ignatius to the Trallians ♦
 * Epistle of Ignatius to the Ephesians ♦
 * Epistle of Ignatius to the Magnesians ♦
 * Epistle of Ignatius to the Romans ♦
 * Epistle of Ignatius to the Philadelphians ♦
 * Epistle of Ignatius to Polycarp ♦
 * Epistle of Polycarp to the Philippians ♦
 * Epistle of Mathetes to Diognetus ♦
 * Martyrdom of Polycarp ♦
 * Shepherd of Hermas ♦
 * Didache ♦
 * Apocalypse of Peter
 * Third Epistle to the Corinthians

Present day
Among historians of early Christianity, the books are considered invaluable, especially those that almost made it into the final canon, such as Shepherd of Hermas. Bart Ehrman, for example, said:

"The victors in the struggles to establish Christian Orthodoxy not only won their theological battles, they also rewrote the history of the conflict; later readers then naturally assumed that the victorious views had been embraced by the vast majority of Christians from the very beginning ... The practice of Christian forgery has a long and distinguished history ... the debate lasted three hundred years ... even within 'orthodox' circles there was considerable debate concerning which books to include."

Historical development towards today's canon
The historical debate primarily concerned whether certain works should be read in the church service or only privately. These works were widely used but not necessarily considered Catholic or 'universal.' Such works include the Didache, Shepherd of Hermas, 1 Clement, 2 Clement, the Epistle of Barnabas, and to a lesser extent the Apocalypse of Peter.

Considering the generally accepted dates of authorship for all of the canonical New Testament works (c. 100 CE), as well as the various witnesses to canonicity extant among the writings of Ignatius, Polycarp, Irenaeus, etc., the four gospels and letters of Paul were held by the gentile Christian community as scriptural, and 200 years were needed to finalize the canon; from the beginning of the 2nd Century to the mid-4th Century, no book in the final canon was ever declared spurious or heretical, except for the Revelation of John which the Council of Laodicea in 363–364 CE rejected (although it accepted all of the other 26 books in the New Testament). This was possibly due to fears of the influence of Montanism which used the book extensively to support their theology. See Revelation of John for more details.

Athanasius wrote his Easter letter in 367 CE which defined a canon of 27 books, identical to the current canon, but also listed two works that were "not in the canon but to be read:" The Shepherd of Hermas and the Didache. Nevertheless, the early church leaders in the 3rd and 4th Centuries generally distinguished between canonical works and those that were not canonical but 'useful,' or 'good for teaching,' though never relegating any of the final 27 books to the latter category. One aim with establishing the canon was to capture only those works which were held to have been written by the Apostles, or their close associates, and as the Muratorian fragment canon (ca. 150–175 CE) states concerning the Shepherd of Hermas:

"...But Hermas wrote The Shepherd very recently, in our times, in the city of Rome, while bishop Pius, his brother, was occupying the chair of the church of the city of Rome. And therefore it ought indeed to be read; but it cannot be read publicly to the people in church either among the Prophets, whose number is complete, or among the Apostles, for it is after their time."

title: New Testament apocrypha


text:
Talk:Biscayne National Park

Stiltsville?
Anyone here familiar with the history of Stiltsville? A mention here might be appropriate, or a separate page. -- Kaszeta 13:10, 7 Oct 2004 (UTC)

Translation into Chinese Wikipedia
The 16:28, 3 October 2007 Whhalbert version of this article is translated into Chinese Wikipedia.--Philopp (talk) 21:38, 24 November 2007 (UTC)

Image needs replacement
Hello all...

An image used in the article, specifically Image:Biscayne.JPG, has a little bit of a licensing issue. The image was uploaded back when the rules around image uploading were less restrictive. It is presumed that the uploader was willing to license the picture under the GFDL license but was not clear in that regard. As such, the image, while not at risk of deletion, is likely not clearly licensed to allow for free use in any future use of this article. If anyone has an image that can replace this, or can go take one and upload it, it would be best.

You have your mission, take your camera and start clicking.--Jordan 1972 (talk) 01:47, 30 September 2008 (UTC)

Islandia
This article and the one on Islandia are contradictory with regard to its current corporate status; this one cites an article from a later date than the Islandia article which claims dissolution. Does someone know how to show which is actually correct and edit accordingly? 75.216.11.84 (talk) 00:04, 29 October 2012 (UTC)
 * Fixed, although I don't have access to the Miami Herald article cited in the Islandia article. Town no longer exists.   Acroterion   (talk)   16:40, 20 November 2012 (UTC)

History
Article is really coming along nicely...a couple points.
 * Are there any other famous or infamous characters from the earliest days of exploration...such as Spanish explorers or pirates?
 * What more can we expand on in regards to the native American settlers? During the Ice Ages, Biscayne was all land due to the lower sea levels...

The rest of the history sections appear well organized and detailed...I don't think much more needs to be done.--MONGO 21:07, 25 November 2012 (UTC)

 * There were some Spanish explorers in the area: specifically, Juan Ponce de León was the first European in Biscayne Bay. As for Native Americans, their presence is mostly known by shell middens on the keys since the flooding of the bay. It doesn't appear that much or any submarine archaeology has been done. There is a fair amount of material on the Tequesta people, but not necessarily related to the park. However, that reminds me that Biscayne has some responsibility for interpretation of the Miami Circle in downtown Miami; I'll see what I can find.   Acroterion   (talk)   19:03, 26 November 2012 (UTC)
 * Good...that will fill in a gap or two. Nice work.--MONGO 03:06, 28 November 2012 (UTC)
 * I found some interesting material about the Cold War, with Cuban exiles being trained by the CIA on Elliott Key and a deposed Venezuelan president holed up on Soldier Key.  Acroterion   (talk)   03:20, 28 November 2012 (UTC)
 * Sounds like that wouldn't hurt to mention in passing...that sort of "trivia" actually makes the article richer. I always thought the only thing notable about this guy was that he led the first government expedition to Yellowstone...but with some digging, he turned out to have more than one facet, each interesting in their own way.--MONGO 03:31, 28 November 2012 (UTC)
 * Wanted to add that more is better early, so as the article evolves the trimming will end up being stuff that is less interesting or important. Random snippets of trivia that are less well known but still facinating is what makes the article captivating.--MONGO 03:45, 28 November 2012 (UTC)
 * Yes, there will definitely need to be a weeding-out phase, not to mention a copyediting phase for flow: right now it's a series of declarative statements strung together, divided by references.  Acroterion   (talk)   04:46, 28 November 2012 (UTC)

Commons
I added a link to Wikimedia Commons, expanded the image repository there and took the liberty of adding more images to the article. Feel free to remove the images I added or adjust as wished. In the ecology section I'll try and do some expansion on the issues as time permits.--MONGO 16:31, 1 December 2012 (UTC)

Park service links
The Park Service has moved around a number of links that I used in references, and some links, such as the statistics for acreage or visitation, are dead. The Park Service has a terrible record for keeping their IT systems up and running, I suspect this is just a temporary event, consistent with other NPS IT snafus (NHRP down on weekends, etc.). I've fixed most of the links, and I'll attempt to substitute refs where I can if they don't come back today.  Acroterion   (talk)   15:31, 24 November 2014 (UTC)

Glades and Tequesta cultures
The 3rd paragraph of the lede states:
 * "The people of the Glades culture inhabited the Biscayne Bay region as early as 10,000 years ago before rising sea levels filled the bay. The Tequesta people occupied the islands and shoreline from about 4,000 years before the present to the 16th century"

But the Glades culture articles says that "[t]he Glades culture is an archaeological culture in southernmost Florida that lasted from about 500 BCE until shortly after European contact." And the Tequesta article says that they "lived in that region since the 3rd century BC (the late Archaic period of the continent), and remained for roughly 2,000 years". Is the chronology of human occupation given in this article correct? If it is, maybe someone could have a go at improving the Glades culture and Tequesta articles. BabelStone (talk) 13:00, 25 November 2014 (UTC)

Looking for information about Virginia and Hall Tannehill.
Looking for information about Virginia and Hall Tannehill. They lived on The oceanside of Elliot key Until at least 1983. Hall is my uncle, Virginia (Lambert) my aunt. I helped build part of their house there on Elliot key. i’m looking for any information about the relationship to Biscayne national park and it’s history.

I’m looking for information to find out if Ryan Tannehill (Quarterback of Tennessee Titans) is related to Hall Tannehill. 2600:1700:A151:2440:2CD3:ACA5:98ED:67CA (talk) 23:16, 11 September 2022 (UTC)

 * This talk page is intended to be used only for discussing improvements to the article. We are not a research service. - Donald Albury 00:32, 12 September 2022 (UTC)

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Talk:Biscayne National Park


text:
Talk:Basil II

Comments
The page for Battle of Kleidion says that the blinding of 14,000 soldiers is probably an exageration. What is the consensus of historians?

 * It's probably exaggerated, I reworded that bit so hopefully it reflects that now. I'll see if I can find where that claim originally comes from. Adam Bishop 04:45, 8 Oct 2004 (UTC)

Probably is not definitely, all contemporary sources state he blinded 14,000 soldiers so until you can find some soures which can prove otherwise your statements are just POV and will be removed Struscle 13:27, 19 February 2006 (UTC)

 * Can you state names of all those "contemporary sources"?Ive never encountered with even a single one really contemporary work who would mention such mass blinding of captured Bulgarians.All sources who mentions it are of much later date(or you wold consider queen Victoria to be you contemporary?),as well as is most probably Basil's II.famous nickname.So when he state that it is probably exaggerated,he is right.Moreover,great possibility exists that it is only a legend.Maybe a legend that have its origin in actually much smaller episode,exaggerated in later tales .--94.113.101.25 (talk) 13:50, 25 June 2013 (UTC)

Sources for bliding actions
John Skylitzes http://www.popovashapka.com/macedoniainfo/history/middle_early_samoil.htm#5 I don't know how reliable the above sources are, regarding the illuminated Chronicle of Manasses very few references can be found. The best link collection is probably this one : http://makedonija.150m.com/makedonija/medievalsourcesmacedonianhistory.htmCristianChirita 14:13, 23 February 2006 (UTC)
 * 1) One source is Chronicle of Manasses which dates 4 centuries after the event.
 * 2) Cited sources:

 * That is what I was refering.I know there are some mentions of this blinding,but as far as I know no really contemporary exists so we could be more sure that such mass-blinding really did occuered.--94.113.101.25 (talk) 15:55, 3 July 2013 (UTC)

Literary References
I'm thinking the very interesting section summarizing Basil Bulgaroktonus belongs in a literary article of its own, with a citation and link in this one.

Cranston Lamont 04:20, 7 April 2006 (UTC)

 * Why? Adam Bishop 04:33, 7 April 2006 (UTC)

My thinking was that the book discussion concerned, not Basil's life, but a novel based on his life. But that's as far as I care to push my personal opinion.

Cranston Lamont 16:13, 7 April 2006 (UTC)

 * Oh, I see...yeah, that could probably be moved to a separate article on the book itself, if the book is at all notable. If it isn't, we should probably just cut out all the irrelevant info here. Adam Bishop 16:31, 7 April 2006 (UTC)

rm ugly pics of unexplained events; copyright status needs to be verified, too
Please verify, and feel free to find some better pics.CristianChirita 15:20, 5 May 2006 (UTC)

Bulgar-slayer
I changed the title of "Bulgar - slayer" to "Bulgar - Killer", since the exact translation of Βουλγαροκτόνος is this one, from the word "κτήνω" (Ktino) = kill, and NOT the word "σφάζω" (sfazo)= slay. The translation Bulgar-slayer would have been right if the word was "Βουλγαροσφάχτης". —Preceding unsigned comment added by 84.254.0.168 (talk • contribs)

 * That may be true, but we call him Bulgar-slayer, so don't change it. Adam Bishop 16:41, 21 August 2006 (UTC)
 * Adam is correct. We go by what the common use by English-speaking historians - which is "slayer" - which is smoother grammatically.50.111.26.55 (talk) 00:32, 10 January 2020 (UTC)

Campaigns
I am proposing that the in the section about the campaigns against the Arabs that all of the instances of the word Arab be changed to Fatimids. My reason being that the campaigns were against a dynasty originating in Egypt called the Fatimid dynasty and not was no truly even the Arab dynasties that had started in the Arabian peninsula.
 * This is silly. You think the Fatamids were of Egyptian or Berber blood, and not an Arab dynasty? The native Egyptians lost their country in the fourth century B.C. to the Macedonians, and were always a conquered nation after that - Romans, Byzantines, Arab caliphates, and Ottomans.50.111.32.130 (talk) 08:36, 21 August 2021 (UTC)

"Sister" Anna
A point has been raised on Gen-Med recently that no primary source calls Anna his "sister" exactly, but rather his "kinswoman". Can anyone provide a reliable source that calls her his sister? Wjhonson (talk) 00:24, 24 March 2009 (UTC)

 * I don't think that is in dispute but in any case see, Catherine Holmes. Basil II and the Governance of Empire (976-1025) (Oxford, 2005), p. 4. That should pretty much settle it.--Marshal Bagramyan (talk) 05:11, 17 August 2009 (UTC)

Question of sources
It's somewhat disconcerting to see that sources dating back to 1851 are being used extensively to sources material in this article. While they might not necessarily conflict with some well-known details of Basil's life, might it not be wiser to direct readers to more updated – and thus more accessible – literature? Though I have yet to read it, Catherine Holmes' recent work, Basil II and the Governance of Empire (976-1025), concerns the life of Basil and might prove a better source. Mark Whittow's Making of [Orthodox] Byzantium would also make another reliable source for Basil's reign as well. A clarification of the publication details of sources (case in point, the use of the Russian Primary Chronicle – which edition? which translation?) would also be most welcome. Some food for thought. Regards, --Marshal Bagramyan (talk) 05:11, 17 August 2009 (UTC)

 * A few points. Any reference is better than no reference at all, which was essentially the case before I began editing this article. Very little narrative history is written these days. Narrative history does not date in the way that interpretative history does so that the use of old narrative history (if contemporary interpretation is eschewed) is academically valid, as long as no important new primary sources have been discovered since it was written. Most importantly Finlay is the only source available online which goes into any useful detail concerning the conquest of Bulgaria. History isn't nuclear physics, things written in 1850 or 1900 about a historical subject can still be valid; indeed in these days of competitive academics looking for tenure and high book sales there is a pressure to come up with "novel" approaches to subjects, which may prove to be extreme and biased, that did not influence the historians of old.

 * The Primary Chronicle reference (in the bibliography section at the foot of the page) gives the publisher, editors/translators and date, surely enough information for any interested person to track it down with.Urselius (talk) 14:44, 29 September 2009 (UTC)

 * Although I agree with Urselius' remarks, Bagramyan does make a good point: aside from the historical narrative itself, our perceptions of what Basil did, how and why he did it have changed a lot since Finlay. It has been demonstrated that he actually promoted the military aristocracy to high office during his reign, for instance, while in the 19th century he was still regarded as the champion of the poor soldier-farmers and all that. Also, Paul Stephenson does raise some interesting points on the traditional interpretation of the historical narrative itself, re the war with Bulgaria (a potential truce between Spercheios and Kleidion). In short, the article does need more input from recent sources, especially if we want a deeper analysis of his reign. Constantine  ✍  15:34, 29 September 2009 (UTC)

 * I intended introducing some more modern references, but there are huge gaps in all the modern works I've seen concerning the campaigns against Bulgaria. Most mention Spercheios and Kleidion and often very little else. If you have a full list of all the actions it becomes clear that there was a definite plan to Basil's war - make inroads into Moesia, then clear the area around Thessalonica, push from Philippopolis to the Danube at Vidin to cut off Moesia from Macedonia, absorb the remainder of Moesia, isolate highland Macedonia from all sides then grind down all futher resistance from the Bulgaro-Macedonian aristocracy by continued military pressure, bribery and threats. This is shown in greatest detail by Finlay, from modern sources Haldon, Fine and others have to be stitched together to form anything as useful. This is something I wanted to do but I have had little time to do so recently.Urselius (talk) 10:57, 30 September 2009 (UTC)

Contradiction
Basil the Porphyrogenitus and Basil the Young to distinguish him from his ancestor Basil I the Macedonian, was a Byzantine emperor from the Macedonian dynasty who reigned from 10 January 976 to 15 December 1025.

This article has taken out Basil II's Armenian roots. Basil I was Armenian, so if he is Basil II's ancestor then Basil is Armenian too. Tracing Basil II's lineage shows this as well. If no objections in the next few days, I will edit the article to reflect his Armenian heretage.--Moosh88 (talk) 09:49, 15 April 2011 (UTC)

 * Sources are unclear as to the origins of the Macedonian dynasty. Basil I was the protege of a wealthy woman from southern Greece who is usually described as being Slavic in origin, the same has also been claimed for Basil himself. Some Byzantine families had well attested Armenian origins - Kourkuas - Tszimiskes - Taronites etc. but the Macedonians do not have the same undisputed Armenian heritage. Besides Basil IIs mother Theophano was Laconian and his gt. grandmother Zoe was Athenian so he was definitely genetically more Greek than Armenian or Slavic, whatever were the origins of Basil I.[User:Urselius|Urselius]] (talk) 10:23, 15 April 2011 (UTC)

Basil's Epithet
The Byzantine chronicler Ephraim was the first who named Basil II - “Bulgar-slayer” about 400 years after the emperor’s reign (Ephraim: Aenii Historia Chronica, Athens, 1990, pg. 109). By then (400 years latter), when the reference “Bulgar-slayer” was used for the first time, the term “Bulgarians” (Vulgaroi) was completely adopted by the Byzantines, as a designating exonym for the peoples also called “South Slavs” that they had fought against (Stilpon Kyriakides: The Northern Ethnological Boundaries of Hellenism, Tessalonica, 1955, pg. 37 ; Krste P. Misirkov: „За македонцките работи“ (On the Macedonian matters), Sofia, 1903, pg. 117, 122). If someone says I’m wrong, I need sources. Bobi987 Ivanov (talk) 21:21, 29 March 2014 (UTC)

 * The first recorded coupling of the term Boulgaroktonos with Basil II dates from a number of generations after his death, when it is used in a poem from the reign of Manuel I Komnenos, dating to around 1166.Stephenson, p. 89 - Stephenson, Paul (2003). The Legend of Basil the Bulgar-Slayer. New York: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-81530-4

 * Stephenson says "Basil is not called Voulgaroktonos in the body of the poem, but this epithet does appear in the introductory lemma. The lemma was added to explain the original location and context of the poem..." Do we know when was the lemma added? Bobi987 Ivanov (talk) 22:41, 29 March 2014 (UTC)

 * In fact, what do we know about this poem? What's the title? Who wrote it? Where's it written? Stephenson doesn't give us much information. Bobi987 Ivanov (talk) 20:22, 30 March 2014 (UTC)

 * Have you read Stephenson's book? The reference is there, the poem is approximately dated and is a perfectly fine primary source. Constantine  ✍  08:20, 31 March 2014 (UTC)
 * Anyhow, seeing as the lemma of the poem in question is quite likely a later (13th century) addition, I am removing it from the article. The gist of Stephenson's argument about the epithet coming into widespread use in the later 12th century remains unaltered, as Choniates, Mesarites and Kaloyan attest to it. Constantine  ✍  08:37, 31 March 2014 (UTC)

Transliteration
Shouldn't the transliteration of Βασίλειος be Vasileios? The β in Medieval Greek was pronounced as it is in Modern Greek.

--CimonT (talk) 18:03, 9 August 2015 (UTC)

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CE
Tidied a few citations and references.Keith-264 (talk) 18:52, 12 March 2017 (UTC)

Russia
Taking the long view of history, the single greatest achievement of the reign of Basil II was the conversion of the Kievan Rus to Christianity and the subsequent entry of Russia into Byzantine/Orthodox civilisation. This topic could really benefit from its own section within the article and a prominent place within the assessment section. Urselius (talk) 08:59, 12 October 2018 (UTC)

Psellus' description of Basil II
Psellus was born in the reign of Basil II, he was at the heart of Byzantine imperial bureaucracy and undoubtedly had access to people of an older generation who had personally known the emperor and to anecdotes about him of very recent origin. There are two descriptions of aspects of Basil II that have been recently edited out that I think are important, and should be re-instated in some form. First - Psellus describes how Basil had a habit of twirling his side-whiskers with his fingers when deep in thought or angry. Not important of itself, but it is an almost unique insight to a habitual personal mannerism of an early Medieval monarch. I cannot think of another description of anyone living around 1000AD that is so personal in tone. As such I think it should be restored. Second - Psellus describes Basil's scorn for the learned classes of Byzantium. This has important implications. Psellus was a prominent member of the learned classes of Byzantium, and his description of Basil's less than flowing speech patterns is from the viewpoint of a man taught to speak in a manner directly derived from Classical Greco-Roman rhetoric. Basil's speech was not halting, but it was brusque and did not flow in the 'well oiled' way of a Byzantine rhetorician. The politics of the Byzantium until 1204 would be in many ways determined by the flux of power between brusque military men, like Basil, and polished bureaucrats like Psellus. The failure of the succession of the Macedonian house led to a period of domination by the bureaucracy, which, in turn was largely responsible for the military disasters of the period 1050-1084, despite the efforts of the soldier emperors Isaac Komnenos and Romanos Diogenes. In the person of Alexios Komnenos the military aristocracy gained political ascendancy and kept it. Basil's attitude to the likes of Psellus, and its reciprocal, is therefore a pointer to a factor of quite immense importance in Byzantine history. Urselius (talk) 09:37, 21 October 2018 (UTC)
 * I will restore these descriptions of Psellus. However, as Constantine pointed out, Psellus, a primary source, is not very reliable as he is biased. Векочел (talk) 16:00, 21 October 2018 (UTC)
 * Psellus must be considered biased when giving an assessment of his reign, as it is his opinion, which is coloured by many factors; it is rather difficult to think that he would distort Basil's physical description... On the rest, I agree with Urselius, although Kaldellis for instance has some interesting comments on the "bureaucratic domination" that followed Basil. BTW, the sources I pointed you to also contain some character assessments. Again, instead of approaching the subject in a bit-by-bit manner, I would recommend stepping back, gaining a grasp of the topic, and in the meantime honing your editorial judgment and skills on some other topic. Constantine  ✍  17:24, 21 October 2018 (UTC)

 * Psellus' view of Basil II was certainly biased, which is something of added interest. Where physical and mannerism descriptions of Western European figures of the Medieval period exist they tend to be reported in secondary works, especially in more populist works. For example Henry II of England's red hair, penchant for flashy short cloaks and tragi-comical outbursts of temper are referred to in many historical works. Perhaps because of its limited general interest, there are remarkably few populist works in English about Byzantine History. Most of the books on Byzantium that are available are hyper academic in tone, and as a result the descriptions of the physical and psychological aspects of individuals are few and far between. That leaves a dilemma for us, to use primary sources, biased as they may be, or to lose descriptions that make historical figures appear more human and therefore identifiable with? My inclination is towards the former. Urselius (talk) 08:02, 22 October 2018 (UTC)
 * I also agree, provided that it is made clear that the description comes from Psellus, and may not be the absolute and indisputable truth; the difference is that, while we must perforce rely on primary sources for a physical description, we should not do the same for the policies and activities of a ruler, which is what professional historians are for. Constantine  ✍  15:17, 22 October 2018 (UTC)
 * I think that there are adequate secondary sources available to cover policy and politics. Unfortunately, many modern historians eschew passing on both physical and character descriptions derived from primary material. I was once paid £50 (and 5 free copies) by a journal for a Napoleonic history article I wrote - just saying ;)

Just found a journal article on the physical descriptions of emperors in Byzantine writing. Have added it to the Psellus description here. Will be useful for other articles also. Urselius (talk) 11:14, 22 October 2018 (UTC)

Broken short references
The following short references do not have matching full references: If you would like help with making the reference formatting consistent in preparation for FA candidacy, ping me from here. – Jonesey95 (talk) 14:54, 11 March 2019 (UTC)
 * Brooke 1968
 * Skylitzes 1999 (also missing page number)
 * Blöndal & Benedikt 2007
 * Norwich (1993) (also, this short ref uses parentheses for the year, inconsistent with the majority of short refs)
 * Template:Harvnp (currently ref 137)
 * Stephenson 2003
 * Let me see what I can do. Векочел (talk) 01:23, 7 June 2019 (UTC)

Grave desecration following 1204
At the end of the "later years" section, it is stated that "During the pillage of 1204, Basil's grave was desecrated by the invading Crusaders of the Fourth Crusade". However, the given source simply states that "even the tombs of emperors, including that of the great Justinian I, were opened up and their precious contents removed". Even if it appears likely that the desecration of Basil's grave did really happen, I believe that we need a more specific source backing this claim. A similar story also appears at Epitaph on the tomb of Basil II where it is also reported that the corpse was dumped into the street, yet none of the sources used there seem to mention the issue. I remember having read somewhere that when Constantinople was retaken in 1261, the Greeks found Basil's corpse on a rooftop with a flute in his hands, mockingly arranged to look like he was playing it. Unfortunately I can't recall where I did read it and if it were a reliable source. Khruner (talk) 19:31, 31 August 2020 (UTC)
 * By 1204, the body would have been long decayed.
 * They knew embalming methods, the many references to the incorruptible bodies of saints, ascribed at the time to their holiness, tends to suggest that in some cases the embalming was very effective. Urselius (talk) 11:41, 21 August 2021 (UTC)

Religion
May someone tell me why I can't change the religion to "Eastern Orthodox" Christianity ?

As Chalcedonian Christianity wasn't a real religion, it's just a periodical name.

Thanks. John.sa1025 (talk) 15:47, 11 October 2021 (UTC)

 * Because the Latin and Greek churches were not in schism at the time, or at least neither had recognised that the conditions for a schism existed. Until the schism became 'active' there was, at least in theory, just one church from Norway to Crete and from Portugal to Anatolia. Urselius (talk) 19:42, 11 October 2021 (UTC)
 * Well I assume you're mistaken because, since the Eastern Christianity (or Church) was at its own after the Byzantine Empire completely lost Rome and Ravenna. And at that time there was a Latin Church in the West in Norway and Portugal, and Orthodox Church in Crete and Anatolia, separately. And Chalcedonian title was just a name for a period, just like Nicene period. I don't say there wasn't unity between churches, they were like one, but facts need to be more clear. After all, Basil II's life is written in a synaxarion which is a daily service book for life of saints served in Orthodox Churches as far as I know, and it was written at his command. I hope my message received well to you, thanks and regards. John.sa1025 (talk) 10:45, 12 October 2021 (UTC)
 * No, it did not happen when the Byzantines lost Rome and/or Ravenna. The issue wasn't simply a political one. It was a slow process that culminated in the Great Schism. It is wrong to say Basil II was Eastern Orthodox, because there was no division in the Church yet. In fact, Rome and Constantinople still acknowledged each other's roles in the still united Church. A good example to look at would be Justinian I. Although he lived five centuries prior to Basil II's time, the Church was still the united Chalcedonian Church. The Chalcedonian Church refers to the united pre-Great Schism Church accepting the Council of Chalcedon, which saw Nestorianism and Monophysitism declared heresies. The same idea goes for the Nicene Church after the First Council of Nicaea, which saw Arianism declared a heresy. There was the Roman Rite and Byzantine Rite, yes, if we are talking about the lingual and traditional differences (among other things), but there wasn't a schism to call it separate yet. These differences in rite still exist, regardless of the Great Schism. As for the Synaxarion of Basil II, it is used in the Byzantine Rite. It is not exclusive to Eastern Orthodoxy. It is also used in Byzantine Catholicism. 20DKB03 (talk) 22:06, 12 October 2021 (UTC)
 * I'm not you sure understand me, but ok if you don't need to change his religion, I myself believe he was Eastern Christian. And you did mention Justinian I, which was 500 years earlier and there WAS a Chalcedonian Christianity but NOT at 10th and 11th Centuries, and minus that Council of Chalcedon was held for religious matters but not to unify churches. I'm not saying the churches weren't unified, I say they were unified indeed, but that doesn't mean there was a Chalcedonian Christianity in name, specially after 500 years. And about the Synaxarion, you said it already it is exclusively to Eastern Orthodox and Byzantine Catholicism (Eastern Catholic), which these both are exclusive to the Eastern rite, also called "Byzantine Rite". John.sa1025 (talk) 03:34, 13 October 2021 (UTC)
 * I responded to each of your points. Eastern Christianity just refers to the Eastern rites. It does not consider communion, including non-Eastern Catholic/Orthodox Churches in it. The distinction between Western and Eastern Christianity traces itself back to the Occident–Orient division of the Roman Empire, where culture, tradition, language, and ritual were different. Basil II was under the Byzantine Rite, so it is correct to say he was an Eastern Christian, but that does not automatically mean separation since of course it was pre-Great Schism and, more importantly, the Byzantine Rite is not bound to the Eastern Orthodox Church. For example, today, you can be a Catholic and be considered an Eastern Christian (Eastern Catholic Churches). You can also be an Orthodox and be considered a Western Christian (Western Orthodox Churches). I mentioned Justinian I because it was the same united church that Basil II was a part of. Minor schisms had occurred during those five centuries, but they were all resolved and simply confirmed the beliefs of this Chalcedonian Church. If you say yourself that there was indeed a unified church, then I do not see the point of you saying Basil II was Eastern Orthodox in the infobox. When this is said, it draws a clear line between Eastern Orthodoxy and Catholicism, and this is simply untrue prior to the Great Schism when the two were legitimately separated. And no, my exclusivity point does not hint at your point. I explicitly said otherwise, that it is also used in Byzantine Catholicism, which was contrary to you only mentioning Eastern Orthodox services since it is found in Catholicism too. Also, the Byzantine Rite is not in of itself the "Eastern Rite". The Byzantine Rite was originally known — and is still sometimes referred to — as the Greek Rite, or the Rite of [the See of] Constantinople. The "Eastern Rite" is neither a rite nor another name for one, it is simply a category for the rites of Eastern Christianity. 20DKB03 (talk) 12:42, 13 October 2021 (UTC)
 * I just think you don't understand what I mean and you put points here and there, I just said at first: when the Byzantine Empire lost control of the Roman see or western see, there where the east and west churches shown up, there wasn't any separation in faith, but only regional, and some traditional separation, no scheme yet. And I say it again, there's no Chalcedonian Christianity except for the period of the Chalcedonian era which maximized extend at 8th century (And refer to the Council of Chalcedon's terms, BUT not a religion). When there occurred to be two churches, separated, but not schemed yet or at least there wasn't any disputes between them until the Great Scheme. Otherwise I wonder why English Wikipedia (or you) do NOT consider Charlemagne Or Otto II & III The Holy Roman Emperor/s as "Chalcedonian" too but Wiki just put in info "Roman Catholic" instead. But mostly I think if you're a westerner and a western catholic, you couldn't understand what do I mean, (Western Orthodox Churches) has newly appeared, I just meant the Byzantine Rite is exclusive to Eastern Christians and Eastern Rites (check the link you sent, I'm not sure you read it), whatever if there is variant or not. Thanks for discussion, you can keep Basil II's religion as Chalcedonian but seems only you or few could believe that, for me, I don't believe, I have my own resources and my own knowledge which depending on them I intended to help Wikipedia and share my knowledge, apparently you refused. Thanks again, please, I don't expect any reply, please. Let's end it here. John.sa1025 (talk) 07:45, 14 October 2021 (UTC)

title: Talk:Basil II


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Thomas Weelkes

Thomas Weelkes (1576 (?) – 1623) was an English composer and organist. He became organist of Winchester College in 1598, moving to Chichester Cathedral. His works are chiefly vocal, and include madrigals, anthems and services.

Life
There is no documentary evidence about Weelkes's early years. According to the biographer David Brown, circumstantial evidence points to the possibility that Weelkes was a son of John Weeke, rector of Elsted in Sussex and his wife Johanne. If this was so, the boy was the Thomas Weeke baptised at Elsted on 25 October 1576; he had at least five siblings. Brown adds that there is no firmer evidence about Weelkes's childhood and musical training, although one piece of information is found in the preface to Weelkes’s collection Ballets and Madrigals (1598), where he states that he had been in the service of "his master Edward Darcy Esquire, Groom to her Majesty’s Privy Chamber". In the preface to his first volume of madrigals (1597) Weelkes states that he was a very young man at the time of their composition – "my yeeres yet unripened" – which, in Brown's view, confirms that he was born in the middle or later 1570s. By 1597 Weelkes, by his own account, had enjoyed the "undeserved love, and liberall good will" of George Phillpot, who lived at Compton, near Winchester. Towards the end of 1598 he was appointed organist of Winchester College at a salary of 13s. 4d. a quarter, with board and lodging.

Weelkes remained at the college for three or four years, and, according to Brown, during this period he composed his finest madrigals. They appeared in two volumes (1598 and 1600); Brown calls the second – works for five and six voices – "one of the most important volumes in the English madrigal tradition."

At some time between October 1601 and October 1602 Weelkes joined the choir of Chichester Cathedral as organist and informator choristarum (instructor of the choristers) with, in addition, a well-paid lay-clerkship. He obtained the degree of Bachelor of Music from New College, Oxford in July 1602. On 20 February he 1603 married Elizabeth Sandham, the daughter of a wealthy Chichester merchant; they had at least three children.

On the title page of Weelkes's fourth and final volume of madrigals, published in 1608, he refers to himself as a Gentleman of the Chapel Royal. The records at the Chapel Royal do not mention him, but the musicologist Walter S. Collins observes, "one would hardly dare publish such a claim if it were not true". Brown infers that Wilkes may have been a Gentleman Extraordinary – a temporary rather than a permanent appointment.

While Weelkes was at Chichester members of its choir were often in trouble with the authorities for poor behaviour. As the Oxford Dictionary of National Biography puts it, Weelkes "was not the only disorderly member of the cathedral establishment, though in due course he would become its most celebrated." In 1609 he was charged with unauthorised absence from Chichester, but no mention of drunken behaviour is made until 1613, and in The Musical Quarterly John Shepherd has suggested caution in assuming that Weelkes's decline began before that date.

In 1616 Weelkes was reported to the bishop for being "noted and famed for a comon drunckard [sic] and notorious swearer & blasphemer". The Dean and Chapter dismissed him for being drunk at the organ and using bad language during divine service. He was reinstated and remained in the post until his death, although his behaviour did not improve; in 1619 he was again reported to the bishop:

"Dyvers tymes & very often come so disguised eyther from the Taverne or Ale house into the quire as is muche to be lamented, for in these humoures he will bothe curse & sweare most dreadfully, & so profane the service of God … and though he hath bene often tymes admonished … to refrayne theis humors and reforme hym selfe, yett he daylye continuse the same, & is rather worse than better therein."

In 1622 Elizabeth Weelkes died. Weelkes was, by this time, reinstated at Chichester Cathedral, but appears to have been spending a great deal of time in London. He died in London in 1623, in the house of a friend and was buried on 1 December 1623 at St Bride's Fleet Street. His will, made the day before he died at the house of his friend Henry Drinkwater of St Bride's parish, left his estate to be shared between his three children, with a 50-shilling legacy left to Drinkwater for his meat, drink and lodging.

Music
Weelkes is best known for his vocal music, especially his madrigals and church music. He wrote more Anglican services than any other major composer of the time, mostly for evensong. Many of his anthems are verse anthems, which would have suited the small forces available at Chichester Cathedral. It has been suggested that larger-scale pieces were intended for the Chapel Royal. His coronation anthem, O Lord, grant the King a long life, was performed at the Coronation of Charles III and Camilla in 2023.

Only a small amount of instrumental music was written by Weelkes, and it is rarely performed. His consort music is sombre in tone, contrasting with the often gleeful madrigals.

Madrigals
Weelkes's madrigals are often compared to those of John Wilbye (who the Dictionary of National Biography described as the most famous of the English madrigalists): it has been suggested that the personalities of the two men - Wilbye appears to have been a more sober character than Weelkes - are reflected in the music. Both men were interested in word painting. Weelkes' madrigals are very chromatic and use varied organic counterpoint and unconventional rhythm in their construction.

Weelkes was friendly with the madrigalist Thomas Morley who died in 1602, when Weelkes was in his mid-twenties (Weelkes commemorated his death in a madrigal-form anthem titled A Remembrance of my Friend Thomas Morley, also known as "Death hath Deprived Me"). Some of Weelkes's madrigals were reprinted in popular collections during the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, but none of his verse anthems were printed until 1966, since when he has become recognised as one of the most important church composers of his time.

title: Thomas Weelkes


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Vijaya Wimalaratne

Major General Vanigamuni Indrajith Vijeyakumar Mendis Wimalaratne, RWP, RSP, VSV, USP (විජය විමලරත්න; 25 August 1940 – 8 August 1992) was a senior Sri Lanka Army officer. One of the most distinguished field commanders in Sri Lanka, Wimalaratne raised the Gajaba Regiment, he commanded the 1st Brigade during the Vadamarachchi Operation, he commanded the Amphibious Task Force Commander during Operation Balavegaya and was the Commander Security Forces – Jaffna at the time of his death in a land mine explosion at Point Arali in the Kayts Island while making preparations to re-capture Jaffna.

Early life and education
Born on 25 August 1940, second of a family of eight boys, Wimalaratne was educated at Royal College, Colombo.

Early career
Wimalaratne joined the Ceylon Army as an Officer Cadet in August 1962 and underwent training at the Indian Military Academy, in Dehradun as part of the first batch of four Ceylonese cadets sent to Dehradun. There he was the first foreign cadet to be appointed Battalion Cadet Adjutant in his final term. On his return, he was commissioned as a second lieutenant in the newly formed Gemunu Watch on 1 August 1963, leaving soon after for a jungle warfare course in Malaysia at the British Army Jungle Warfare Training School. Serving with the 1st Battalion, Gemunu Watch as a subaltern, he was appointed adjutant of the 2nd (Volunteer) Battalion, Gemunu Watch in 1968. In 1970, he was appointed as an instructor conducting the jungle warfare phase for Officer Cadets at the Army Training Center (ATC) in Diyatalawa. He served till 1979 becoming the Chief Instructor of the Army Training Center, having introduced training on urban warfare and counter-insurgency. In 1976, Major Wimalaratne served as the liaison officer to the Indian Prime Minister Indira Gandhi when she took part in the Non-Aligned Summit in Colombo. He attended the British Army Staff College at Camberley.

Gajaba Regiment
In 1983, Major Wimalaratne was appointed as the first commanding officer of the Gajaba Regiment when it was formed on 14 October 1983 with the amalgamation of the Rajarata Rifles and Vijayabahu Infantry Regiment at the Saliyapura Army Camp. Promoted to lieutenant colonel, he played a major role in forming and expanding the Gajaba Regiment as one of the elite infantry regiments in the army and is remembered as its founder. Wimalaratne served as the commanding office the 1st Gajaba Battalion from its formation in October 1983 to August 1987. The 1st Gajaba Battalion was deployed to the Jaffna peninsula between 1983 and 1984 and again in 1985 with the escalation of the Sri Lankan Civil War. In addition, during this time Wimalaratne served as Acting Commander, North Central Command and Deputy Commander (Operations), Security Forces Jaffna. In 1985, he help initiate the Army Special Forces program having established the first Special Forces Squadrons.

Operation Liberation
Operation Liberation (commonly known as the Vadamarachchi Operation) was launched after months of planning on 26 May 1987. Colonel Wimalaratne was one of the field commanders of the operation, serving as the Brigade Commander of the 1st Brigade which consisted of the 1st Gemunu Watch and 1st Gajaba Battalion. The brigade group consisting of the 1st Brigade and 3rd Brigade, commanded by Brigadier Denzil Kobbekaduwa it was the largest formation deployed by the Sri Lankan Army at that point and the first conventional battle to take place in the civil war. The objective was to take the territory of Vadamarachchi in the Jaffna peninsula from LTTE (Tamil Tiger) control. 1st Brigade broke-out of Thondamanaru area with the infantry wading across the lagoon, but was stopped by a mine-field. With the combat engineers clearing a path across, 1st Gajaba Battalion broke-out and reaching the coast, troops from the 1st Brigade defeating the defensive line commanded by the LTTE leader Soosai, made a 90 degree turn undertaking a pincer movement capturing Valvettithurai. By 31 May, the government declared that the Vadamarachchi region recaptured. During the operation Kobbekaduwa and Wimalaratne were nearly killed when the house closed to them exploded due to a bobby-trap.

JVP Insurrection
With the second phase of Operation Liberation being abandoned with the Indian intervention by Operation Poomalai and the arrival of the Indian Peace Keeping Force (IPKF), the 1987–1989 JVP insurrection began in the south of the country. Colonel Wimalaratne was appointed Commander, Garrison Command - Colombo; in charge of defense of the capital in late 1987. In 1988, he received concurrent appointment as the Principal Staff Officer, Joint Operations Command (JOC) and serving as its Director Operations. He held both posts until the insurrection was subdued in late 1989 with the capture of the leader of the JVP.

Northern front
Promoted to brigadier, he volunteered to take up command in Jaffna under Major General Kobbekaduwa, who was the general officer commanding, 2nd Division with the resumption of hostilities after the IPKF withdrew. In June 1990, the LTTE laid siege around Jaffna Fort and Wimalaratne played a major role in evacuating the garrison. The army had nominated Wimalaratne for the National Security and Strategic Study course at the National Defence College in India, however he had turned down the opportunity to remain in the front. On 10 July 1991 the LTTE launched a surprise attack on the strategic base of Elephant Pass and laid siege to the garrison. The Commander of the Army, Lieutenant General Hamilton Wanasinghe appointed Wimalaratne as the Amphibious Task Force Commander in the Operation Balavegaya which was going to be the first amphibious operation undertaken by the Sri Lanka Army. Under the Overall Command of Major General Kobbekaduwa, Wimalaratne lead the Amphibious Task Force on a successful landing in the evening of 15 July 1991 after the first attempt was delayed due to heavy resistance from the enemy. The task force broke out of the breach head and move 12 miles to relieve the siege of the garrison. During the operation, Wimalaratne was almost killed when an LTTE mortar landed in the spot he had been standing minutes prior. In January 1991, Brigadier Wimalaratne succeeded Brigadier Jaliya Nanmuni as Brigade Commander, 21 "Jaffna" Brigade.

Death
In July 1992, Major General Denzil Kobbekaduwa who was now General Officer Commanding Northern Sector and Brigadier Vijaya Wimalaratne who was the Commander, 21 "Jaffna" Brigade, began planning an offensive code named "Operation Final Countdown" to recapture the northern peninsula from the LTTE. Final preparations were underway and the senior commanders decided to visit Araly Point on Kayts which was the launching pad for the offensive. According to the official statement by the army, on their return, the Land Rover driven by Brigadier Vijaya Wimalaratne was destroyed by a land mine blast. Brigadier Wimalaratne was killed instantly along with Commodore (posthumously Rear Admiral) Mohan Jayamaha, Commander Northern Naval Area and seven others including Commander Asanga Lankathilaka, Lt. Colonels G.H. Ariyaratne, A. Palipahana, H.R. Stephen, all three battalion commanders and Major N.S. De Alwis, General Kobbekaduwa's ADC. General Kobbekaduwa was found alive critically wounded and transferred by helicopter to Colombo where he succumbed to his wounds. It has been claimed by Jane's Information Group that the assassination was by the LTTE.

Funeral
His remains were brought to Colombo and kept at his brother's residence for morning. The funeral took place at the Colombo General Cemetery with full military honors, having been posthumously promoted to the rank of major general.

Legacy
General Vijaya Wimalaratne is considered as the founder of the Gajaba Regiment and one of the finest field commanders of the Sri Lanka Army. A statue of General Vijaya Wimalaratne was erected at Kiribathgoda Town.

President Chandrika Kumaratunga, appointed a Presidential Commission of Inquiry, made up of Tissa Dias Bandaranayake (Chair), Justice D. P. S. Gunasekera and Gamini Ameratunga, High Court Judge to investigate the death of General Kobbekaduwa. A witness, Rohini Hathurusinghe gave evidence that Major General Vijaya Wimalaratne and Major General Ananda Weerasekara conspired to kill Kobbekaduwa with a bomb planted in his jeep, which caused a major national scandal. A report from the Criminal Investigation Department found Hathurusinghe's evidence could not be corroborated, yet Bandaranayake allowed her testimony. Justice Gunasekera and Ameratunga resigned from the commission. Televised, the commissioned became a media sensation and a statue of Wimalaratne was destroyed by a mob. Hathurusinghe changed her story and accused the Chairmen of the commission of getting her to falsely accuse the army officers. Although the validity of Hathurusinghe's evidence was questioned, The Asia Times commented that "a second and last Presidential Commission came up with highly speculative conclusions."

Awards and decorations
Wimalaratne had been awarded the Rana Wickrama Padakkama and Rana Sura Padakkama for gallantry and the Republic of Sri Lanka Armed Services Medal, Army 25th Anniversary Medal, President's Inauguration Medal, Sri Lanka Armed Services Long Service Medal, Vadamarachchi Operation Medal and the Purna Bhumi Padakkama. He was posthumously awarded Vishista Seva Vibhushanaya, Uttama Seva Padakkama and Desha Putra Sammanaya.

Family
Major General Vijaya Wimalaratne was married to Manel Wimalaratne and they had a two sons and a daughter. He had nine brothers in his family. His son Dr Hiran Wimalaratne, is a Colonel in the Sri Lanka Army Medical Corps and his daughter Dr Nishanthi Wimalaratne serves in the Cardio-logical Unit of the Colombo General Hospital.

External list

 * Great Generals remembered with respect, gratitude and affection, Ministry of Defence
 * Eelam War II - "Operation Balavegaya", LankaLibrary Forum
 * Lieutenant General Denzil Lakshman Kobbekaduwa, LankaLibrary Forum

title: Vijaya Wimalaratne


text:
Aberdeen Journals

Aberdeen Journals Ltd. is a newspaper publisher based in Aberdeen, Scotland.

The company publishes the The Press and Journal, the Evening Express, the Aberdeen Citizen and Scot-Ads newspapers. It was owned by Northcliffe Newspapers Group, which is owned by Daily Mail & General Trust from 1995 until 2006, when Aberdeen Journals was sold to Dundee based D. C. Thomson & Co. Ltd.

The Press and Journal was first published as a weekly title on 29 December 1747 and was known as The Aberdeen's Journal.

It was published on a weekly basis for 128 years until August 1876, when it became a daily newspaper. In November 1922, the paper was renamed The Aberdeen Press & Journal when its parent firm joined forces with the Free Press. The Press & Journal, often called the P&J, is a daily morning regional newspaper. It is printed 6 days a week as a compact. The Press & Journal produces 6 geographic editions.

Daily readership – 138,000 Weekly readership – 287,000 Circulation – 67,781 (July-Dec 2011, 99,1% paid)

The current editor of The Press and Journal is Frank O’Donnell.

The Evening Express is a daily local evening newspaper which was first published in November 1879.

The current editor of the Evening Express is Craig Walker.

title: Aberdeen Journals


text:
Indiana Institute of Technology

Indiana Institute of Technology (Indiana Tech) is a private university in Fort Wayne, Indiana. It was founded in 1930 as Indiana Technical College by John A. Kalbfleisch, who was also the school's first president.

The university today is organized into three colleges. The university specializes in career-oriented degree programs in business, engineering, computer science, education, criminal justice, and others. In addition to the traditional semester-long class format, Indiana Tech also offers accelerated degree programs and online programs via its College of Professional Studies.

Beyond its main campus in Fort Wayne, Indiana Tech maintains regional classroom and enrollment centers in 13 locations, including Elkhart, Evansville, Fishers, Greenwood, Huntington, Indianapolis, Jeffersonville, Kendallville, Mishawaka, Munster, and Warsaw in Indiana; and Louisville and Fort Wright in Kentucky. Indiana Tech also has two enrollment centers in the Chicago area, located in Naperville and Wilmette, Illinois.

Student athletics, both organized and intramural, are an important part of student life. Indiana Tech fields eleven men's and eleven women's teams that compete in the NAIA, in which Indiana Tech is a member of the Wolverine-Hoosier Athletic Conference for all intercollegiate athletics.

History
The Indiana Institute of Technology was founded as Indiana Technical College in 1930 as a for-profit private technical college by John A. Kalbfleisch, a former president of Indiana Business College, a for-profit business school. Indiana Tech was formally incorporated in 1931 and opened for classes that same year. The school was rechartered in August 1948 as a non-profit, endowed college.

In 1953, Indiana Tech purchased the 20 acre campus of Concordia College, east of downtown Fort Wayne, from the Lutheran Church–Missouri Synod as that school was being replaced by Concordia Senior College in a new suburban location north of the city. In 1963, Indiana Tech's name was changed from Indiana Technical College to Indiana Institute of Technology.

Academics
Indiana Tech offers associate, bachelor's, master's, and doctoral degrees.

Indiana Tech is organized into the following colleges:

 * College of Business
 * Talwar College of Engineering and Computer Sciences
 * College of Arts and Sciences

Former law school
Indiana Tech Law School began classes in the Fall semester of 2013. The American Bar Association (ABA) granted provisional accreditation to Indiana Tech Law School as of March 12, 2016. Indiana Tech had to maintain provisional accreditation for a minimum of two years prior to seeking full ABA accreditation. However, due to the stated loss of nearly $20 million in operating losses with anticipated higher losses in the future, the Indiana Tech Board of Trustees voted unanimously to cease operation of the law school effective June 30, 2017.

Accreditation
Indiana Tech is accredited by the Higher Learning Commission, while the biomedical, mechanical, computer and electrical engineering programs are also accredited by the Accreditation Board for Engineering and Technology (ABET), the College of Business has received specialized accreditation for its business programs through the International Assembly for Collegiate Business Education (IACBE), and the Health Information Technology and Health Information Management Programs are accredited by the Commission on Accreditation for Health Informatics and Information Management Education (CAHIIM).

Athletics
The Indiana Tech athletic teams are called the Warriors. The school's colors are orange and black with white accent. The university is a member of the National Association of Intercollegiate Athletics (NAIA), primarily competing in the Wolverine-Hoosier Athletic Conference (WHAC) for most of its sports since the 1998–99 academic year; while its women's wrestling team competes in the Mid-South Conference (MSC); and its ice hockey team competes in Varsity Division and Division III of the American Collegiate Hockey Association (ACHA). The Warriors previously competed in the Chicagoland Collegiate Athletic Conference (CCAC) from about 1978–79 to 1997–98; and in the Mid-Central College Conference (MCCC; now currently known as the Crossroads League since the 2012–13 school year) from 1959–60 to 1977–78.

Indiana Tech competes in 26 intercollegiate varsity sports: Men's sports include baseball, basketball, bowling, cross country, golf, ice hockey, lacrosse, soccer, tennis, track & field, volleyball, rugby, and wrestling; while women's sports include basketball, bowling, cross country, golf, ice hockey, lacrosse, soccer, softball, tennis, track & field, volleyball and wrestling; and co-ed sports include eSports.

Accomplishments
Indiana Tech athletes have achieved notable success at the individual and team levels. Warrior teams have won 11 national titles, including in women's lacrosse and most recently in men's and women's track and field, with the Warrior men earning four straight NAIA national titles starting with the 2013 outdoor national championship. The women's track and field team has been similarly dominant, with the team earning back-to-back outdoor NAIA national titles in 2013 and 2014.

Over the years, Indiana Tech teams have collectively earned 99 national tournament appearances, 34 WHAC regular season championships, and 17 WHAC tournament championships. Individually, the university has produced 451 All-Americans, 308 Daktronics NAIA Scholar-Athletes, and 32 NAIA Individual National Champions.

Esports
In August 2016, Indiana Tech announced the launch of a varsity eSports program that began competition during the fall 2017 academic year. The program competes in the National Association of Collegiate Esports (NACE), of which Indiana Tech is a founding member. Indiana Tech has eSports teams for four games: Overwatch, League of Legends, Rocket League, and Hearthstone.

Student life
Indiana Tech has a variety of activities and organizations contributing to student life on campus, including many events organized each year through its office of Student Life. The main campus features a movie theater showing free weekly features; a performing arts theater for live performances; a rec center with a bowling alley, video gaming, pool and ping-pong tables and more; an art gallery featuring three or four new exhibits each year; and two main dining facilities, including a cafe featuring Starbucks coffee in its new Academic Center, as well as a third option in the new Max's Bistro, located in Summit Hall. Indiana Tech also regularly hosts outside performing arts groups and notable speakers from diverse backgrounds in education, business, public service, law and more.

Indiana Tech is also home to a variety of clubs, honor societies, student professional organizations, a local sorority and a national fraternity.

Greek organizations
 * Sigma Phi Epsilon national fraternity
 * Delta Alpha Nu local sorority

Clubs
 * Alpha Chi Honor Society
 * Cyber Defense Team
 * Delta Epsilon Iota Career-Focused Honorary Society
 * Fellowship of Christian Athletes
 * Sport Recreation and Leisure Society
 * Green Club
 * Book Club
 * Beach Volleyball Club
 * Flix' Movie Club
 * Math Club
 * Multicultural Club
 * Psychology Club

Professional organizations
 * Association for Computing Machinery
 * Society of Automotive Engineers
 * Institute of Electrical & Electronics Engineers
 * Society for Human Resource Management
 * American Society of Mechanical Engineers
 * Society of Manufacturing Engineers
 * Society of Women Engineers
 * National Society of Black Engineers
 * Phi Epsilon Kappa
 * Biomedical Engineering Society
 * Indiana Student Education Association
 * Collegiate Cyber Defense
 * Society of Future Accountants
 * Pre Law Society

Notable alumni

 * Rodney Bartholomew, professional basketball player
 * JuJuan Cooley, professional basketball player
 * Josh Judy, Major League Baseball pitcher

title: Indiana Institute of Technology


text:
American Hero

American Hero may refer to:

 * American Hero (novel), written by Larry Beinhart
 * American Hero (film), a 2015 American-British film
 * American Hero (video game), a cancelled interactive movie game for Atari Jaguar
 * American Heroes, a book by Oliver North
 * American sub or American hero, a sandwich

title: American Hero


text:
R. I. T. Alles

Ralph Ignatius Thomas Alles (3 October 1932 − 28 November 2013) was a Sri Lankan educationalist. He served as the State Secretary for Ministry of Education from 1989 to 1993, was the founding principal of D. S. Senanayake College Colombo 07, and was the founder of the Gateway Group and acted as its chairman until his death.

Alles was educated at St. Aloysius' College, Galle and later at St. Anthony's College.

He started his career as a teacher, eventually becoming an assistant principal at Royal College Colombo in Colombo, a leading public school in Sri Lanka, and helped to establish D. S. Senanayake College, Colombo. In 25 years at the school, he was a Director of Studies at Zahira College, Colombo in Sri Lanka. There after he established the Gateway International School.

title: R. I. T. Alles


text:
Concordance system

Concordance democracy is a type of governing / ruling a country that aims to involve as many different groups as possible (parties, associations, minorities, social groups) in the political process and to make decisions by reaching a consensus. In this respect, concordance democracy is a form of consensus democracy. The counter-model to concordance democracy is called competitive democracy or majority democracy.

In Swiss politics, the concordance system (German Konkordanzsystem) is the integration of the major political parties into the seven-member Federal Council.

The concordance system is based on two principles

 * an arithmetic rule of proportionality: the Federal Council should be representative of the political forces of the country, that is, its composition should be similar to that of the Federal Assembly.
 * a political rule of consensus: the government must reach a compromise, even though it is composed of antagonistic parties.

One of the reasons explaining the system, which also exists at the cantonal level, is the perceived "threat" of direct democracy, since a sizeable opposition could in principle "paralyse" the government by submitting too many referendum proposals.

The fact that the members of the government must reach common decisions and stand by them is referred to as the principle of collegiality (German Kollegialitätsprinzip), grounded in the Federal Constitution (art. 177 al.1). The members of the Federal Council are supposed to forgo party politics and promote a cooperative spirit among the members of the executive. They must defend the government's official positions even if doing so goes against their personal views or those of their party.

History
In 1848 the new Federal Constitution made Switzerland a federation of States, and no longer a Confederation. It thus introduced an executive organ at the federal level, the Swiss Federal Council. The membership of the Federal Council has never been changed in its entirety, since there have always been partial elections of some of its members. Technically, Switzerland has always had the same stable and consensual government, in contrast to most western democracies, which see regular alternance between left and right major parties. The concordance system started in 1891 with the election of Josef Zemp, a Christian Conservative, to the Federal Council, which had previously been composed entirely of Free Democrats. The fact that this led to a reduced opposition from outside the government has since been referred to by some Swiss political scientists as "The Zemp effect". From 1959 to 2003, the Federal Council comprised two Free Democrats, two Social Democrats, two Christian Democrats, and one member of the Swiss People's Party, based on an unwritten rule known as the "magic formula". Since 2003, however, the composition has changed to reflect the rise of the Swiss People's Party.

title: Concordance system


text:
John O'Dreams

John O'Dreams is a song by English musician Bill Caddick who featured it on his album, Rough Music, in 1976. Its melody bears an exceptionally strong resemblance to the second theme of the first movement of Tchaikovsky's Pathetique Symphony.

Singers Gordon Bok, Éilís Kennedy, Christy Moore, Jean Redpath, Max Boyce, Garnet Rogers and The Clancy Brothers with Robbie O'Connell, Arcady with Niamh Parsons well as the late Mick Moloney have recorded versions of the song.

Lyrics

 * When midnight comes and people homeward tread [Alternate: When midnight comes good people homeward tread]
 * Seek now your blanket and your feather bed
 * Home comes the rover, his journey's over [Alternate: Home is the rover, his journey over]
 * Yield up the night time to old John O' Dreams
 * Yield up the night time to old John O' Dreams

 * Across the hill, the sun has gone astray
 * Tomorrow's cares are many dreams away
 * The stars are flying, your candle is dying [Alternate: The stars are flying, the wind is sighing]
 * Yield up the darkness to old John O' Dreams
 * Yield up the darkness to old John O' Dreams

 * Both man and master in the night are one
 * All things are equal when the day is done
 * The prince and the ploughman, the slave and the freeman
 * All find their comfort with old John O' Dreams
 * All find their comfort with old John O' Dreams

 * When sleep it comes the dreams come running clear [Alternate: Now as you sleep the dreams come winging clear]
 * The hawks of morning cannot reach you here [Alternate: The hawks of morning cannot harm you here]
 * Sleep is a river, flows on forever [Alternate: Sleep is your river, float on forever]
 * And for your boatman choose old John O' Dreams
 * And for your boatman choose old John O' Dreams

 * When midnight comes and people homeward tread [Alternate: When midnight comes good people homeward tread]
 * Seek now your blanket and your feather bed
 * Home comes the rover, his journey's over [Alternate: Home is the rover, his journey's over]
 * Yield up the night time to old John O' Dreams
 * Yield up the night time to old John O' Dreams

title: John O'Dreams


text:
Actinomyces

Actinomyces is a genus of the Actinomycetia class of bacteria. They all are gram-positive and facultatively anaerobic, growing best under anaerobic conditions. Actinomyces species may form endospores, and while individual bacteria are rod-shaped, Actinomyces colonies form fungus-like branched networks of hyphae. The aspect of these colonies initially led to the incorrect assumption that the organism was a fungus and to the name Actinomyces, "ray fungus" (from Greek, ray or beam, and , fungus).

Actinomyces species are ubiquitous, occurring in soil and in the microbiota of animals, including the human microbiota. They are known for the important role they play in soil ecology; they produce a number of enzymes that help degrade organic plant material, lignin, and chitin. Thus, their presence is important in the formation of compost. Certain species are commensal in the skin flora, oral flora, gut flora, and vaginal flora of humans and livestock. They are also known for causing diseases in humans and livestock, usually when they opportunistically gain access to the body's interior through wounds. As with other opportunistic infections, people with immunodeficiency are at higher risk. In all of the preceding traits and in their branching filament formation, they bear similarities to Nocardia.

Like various other anaerobes, Actinomyces species are fastidious, thus not easy to culture and isolate. Clinical laboratories do culture and isolate them, but a negative result does not rule out infection, because it may be due simply to reluctance to grow in vitro.

Genomics
Phylogenetic trees based on 16S ribosomal RNA (16SrRNA) sequences have shown that the genus Actinomyces is quite diverse, exhibiting polyphyletic branching into several clusters. The genera Actinomyces and Mobiluncus form a monophyletic clade in a phylogenetic tree constructed using RpoB, RpoC, and DNA gyrase B protein sequences. This clade is also strongly supported by a conserved signature indel consisting of a three-amino-acid insertion in isoleucine tRNA synthetase found only in the species of the genera Actinomyces and Mobiluncus.

Pathology
Actinomycota are normally present in the gingiva, and are the most common cause of infection in dental procedures and oral abscesses. Many Actinomyces species are opportunistic pathogens of humans and other mammals, particularly in the oral cavity. In rare cases, these bacteria can cause actinomycosis, a disease characterized by the formation of abscesses in the mouth, lungs, or the gastrointestinal tract. Actinomycosis is most frequently caused by A. israelii, which may also cause endocarditis, though the resulting symptoms may be similar to those resulting from infections by other bacterial species. Aggregatibacter actinomycetemcomitans has been identified as being of note in periodontal disease, especially aggressive and localized form.

The genus is typically the cause of oral-cervicofacial disease. It is characterized by a painless "lumpy jaw". Lymphadenopathy is uncommon in this form of the disease. Another form of actinomycosis is thoracic disease, which is often misdiagnosed as a neoplasm, as it forms a mass that extends to the chest wall. It arises from aspiration of organisms from the oropharynx. Symptoms include chest pain, fever, and weight loss. Abdominal disease is another manifestation of actinomycosis. This can lead to a sinus tract that drains to the abdominal wall or the perianal area. Symptoms include fever, abdominal pain, and weight loss. Actinomyces species have also been shown to infect the central nervous system in a dog "without history or evidence of previous trauma or other organ involvement."

Pelvic actinomycosis is a rare but proven complication of use of intrauterine devices. In extreme cases, pelvic abscesses might develop. Treatment of pelvic actinomycosis associated with intrauterine devices involves removal of the device and antibiotic treatment.

Diagnosis
Actinomycosis may be considered when a patient has chronic progression of disease across tissue planes that is mass-like at times, sinus tract development that may heal and recur, and refractory infection after a typical course of antibiotics.

Treatment
Treatment for actinomycosis consists of antibiotics such as penicillin or amoxicillin for 5 to 12 months, as well as surgery if the disease is extensive.

Species
The genus Actinomyces comprises the following species:

 * "A. actinomycetemcomitans" Iinuma et al. 1994

 * "A. bouchesdurhonensis" Fonkou et al. 2018
 * A. bovis Harz 1877 (Approved Lists 1980)
 * A. bowdenii Pascual et al. 1999

 * "A. capricornis" Saito et al. 2021

 * A. catuli Hoyles et al. 2001

 * "A. culturomici" Fonkou et al. 2018

 * A. dentalis Hall et al. 2005
 * A. denticolens Dent and Williams 1984

 * A. faecalis Zhou et al. 2021

 * A. gaoshouyii Meng et al. 2017

 * A. gerencseriae Johnson et al. 1990

 * "A. glycerinitolerans" Palakawong Na Ayudthaya et al. 2016

 * A. graevenitzii Pascual Ramos et al. 1997

 * A. haliotis Hyun et al. 2014

 * "A. houstonensis" Clarridge and Zhang 2002
 * A. howellii Dent and Williams 1984

 * "A. ihuae" Fonkou et al. 2018
 * "A. ihumii" Ndongo et al. 2016

 * A. israelii (Kruse 1896) Lachner-Sandoval 1898 (Approved Lists 1980)

 * A. johnsonii Henssge et al. 2009

 * A. lilanjuaniae Li et al. 2019
 * "A. lingnae" Clarridge and Zhang 2002

 * A. marmotae Yang et al. 2021
 * "A. marseillensis" Fonkou et al. 2018
 * A. massiliensis Renvoise et al. 2009
 * "A. mediterranea" Fonkou et al. 2018

 * "A. minihominis" Bilen et al. 2018

 * A. naeslundii corrig. Thompson and Lovestedt 1951 (Approved Lists 1980)

 * "A. oralis" Fonkou et al. 2018
 * A. oricola Hall et al. 2003
 * A. oris Henssge et al. 2009
 * "A. pacaensis" Fonkou et al. 2018

 * "A. polynesiensis" Cimmino et al. 2016

 * A. procaprae Yang et al. 2021

 * "A. provencensis" Ndongo et al. 2017

 * A. qiguomingii Zhu et al. 2020
 * A. radicidentis Collins et al. 2001

 * A. respiraculi Zhou et al. 2021

 * A. ruminicola An et al. 2006

 * A. slackii Dent and Williams 1986
 * "A. succiniciruminis" Palakawong Na Ayudthaya et al. 2016

 * A. timonensis Renvoise et al. 2010

 * A. trachealis Zhou et al. 2021

 * "A. urinae" Morand et al. 2016
 * A. urogenitalis Nikolaitchouk et al. 2000

 * A. viscosus (Howell et al. 1965) Georg et al. 1969 (Approved Lists 1980)

 * A. vulturis Meng et al. 2017
 * A. weissii Hijazin et al. 2012

 * A. wuliandei Zhu et al. 2020

title: Actinomyces


text:
Wag the Dog (novel)

American Hero is a 1993 satirical conspiracy novel, reissued as Wag the Dog: A Novel in 2004, written by Larry Beinhart. It speculates that Operation Desert Storm had been scripted and choreographed as a ploy to get George H. W. Bush reelected to a second term (taking cues from Margaret Thatcher's similar war in the Falkland Islands), while at the same time analyzing exactly why that conflict had been so popular. The book formed the inspiration and basis for the 1997 film, Wag the Dog.

Plot
On his death bed, Lee Atwater devises a plan to secure president George H. W. Bush's reelection by having a war professionally produced by Hollywood agent David Hartman. The plan is set in motion after Atwater's death, and Hartman hires movie director John Lincoln Beagle to produce the fake war. Beagle cancels other film projects to be able to prioritize the production of the war, among them one with movie star Magdalena Lazlo who hires private investigator Joe Broz to find out why her film was discontinued. Broz, who works for the Los Angeles branch of the large private security company Universal Security (U.Sec.), first moves in with Lazlo as her chauffeur/bodyguard to perform background investigation. When he discovers that Lazlo's house has been bugged by his employer U.Sec., the two stage a simulated love affair to confuse their observers. As part of this cover story, Broz pretends to have taken over as Lazlo's agent, a social ascent that gives him better access to the people that might be behind what the two assume to be a conspiracy against Lazlo. Meanwhile, Beagle has brainstormed for possible war scenarios and has decided to produce a remake of World War II dubbed "WWII--the video." The situation escalates when an aide to Beagle, an aspiring script writer, contacts Broz with a script for Lazlo and when U.Sec., assuming that the aide wants to leak details about Beagle's secret project, steps in and kills the writer. Lazlo and Broz, together with the latter's ex-Marine friends finally begin to understand the background situation better and manage to steal a memo from Beagle outlining the project. In return, U.Sec. kidnaps Lazlo and trades her for the memo. After a martial arts showdown, all parties agree to a truce, but at a film gig in Mexico, U.Sec. decides to act unilaterally, killing Lazlo and a stranger they mistake for Broz. The detective, heartbroken, then turns to drinking and eventually knocks at a fictional author's door to tell his story.

Notably, the final plot element is present only in some editions of the novel and is omitted from individual translations.

Reception
The novel has received only limited critical attention. It is featured in depth in a chapter in Stacy Olster's The Trash Phenomenon and in several academic publications by Sebastian M. Herrmann. Olster reads the novel in the context of postmodern cultural recycling and as commentary on a cultural shift away from text, stating, "For Beinhart, 'images have now replaced words as repositories of history' leading to a situation in which 'changes of history can be achieved by changes in imagery'." Herrmann lauds the novel's postmodern quality and its "diegetic and narrative games" and reads its central concern with the manipulation of political reality as indicative of an "epistemic panic" and, in consequence, as indicative of early forms of post-truth politics. Reviews focused mostly on the plot and were mixed. In The New York Times, Caryn James called the book "surprisingly flat", whereas Richard Eder in the Los Angeles Times praised it as a "funny, ingenious and outrageous political thriller".

title: Wag the Dog (novel)


text:
Evening Express

Evening Express may refer to:

 * Evening Express (Scotland), a local newspaper serving the city of Aberdeen in Scotland
 * Evening Express (Portland), a defunct daily newspaper in Portland, Maine, US
 * Evening Express, a program on HLN
 * New York Evening Express, a defunct 19th century newspaper in New York City
 * Evening Express (1849 to 1902), then the Evening Express and Evening Mail (1902–1917), defunct newspaper published in Cardiff

title: Evening Express


text:
Blue John Cavern

The Blue John Cavern is one of the four show caves in Castleton, Derbyshire, England. The others are Peak Cavern, Treak Cliff Cavern and Speedwell Cavern.

Description
The cavern takes its name from the semi-precious mineral Blue John, which is still mined in small amounts outside the tourist season and made locally into jewellery. The deposit itself is about 250 million years old.

The miners who work the remaining seams are also the guides for underground public tours. The eight working seams are known as Twelve Vein, Old Dining Room, Bull Beef, New Dining Room, Five Vein, Organ Room, New Cavern and Landscape.

In 1865, Blue John Cavern was the site of the first use of magnesium to light a photograph underground. It was taken by Manchester photographer Alfred Brothers.

Blue John
In the UK Blue John, or "Derbyshire Spar", is found only in Blue John Cavern and the nearby Treak Cliff Cavern. It is a type of banded fluorite. The most common explanation for the name is that it derives from the French bleu-jaune, meaning 'blue-yellow', but other derivations have been suggested.

In popular media
"The Terror of Blue John Gap", a short horror story by Sir Arthur Conan Doyle, was probably based on this cave.

In the late 1950s, the cavern was photographed in 3D by Stanley Long of VistaScreen, for sale at the souvenir booth and through mail order.

The cavern was featured on the 2005 TV programme Seven Natural Wonders as one of the wonders of the Midlands. The cave and jewellery production of Blue John was featured in the 2010 series of How it's Made.

Blue John Cavern is also visited by a couple in the 2013 film Sightseers.

title: Blue John Cavern