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Offices in the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth

This article discusses the organizational and administrative structure of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth.

The Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth was a confederative mixed monarchy of the period 1569–1795, comprising the Kingdom of Poland, the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and their fiefs. The Commonwealth was governed by the Parliament (Sejm) consisting of the King, the King-appointed Senate (Voivodes, Castellans, Ministers, Bishops) and the rest of hereditary nobility either in person or through the Lower Sejm (consisting of deputies representing their lands). The nobility's constitutional domination of the state made the King very weak and the commoners (burgesses and peasants) almost entirely unrepresented in the Commonwealth's political system.

Classification
The Commonwealth's administrative system was a pre-bureaucracy. In terms of Max Weber's tripartite classification of authority, it was, as with other contemporary monarchies, largely based on "traditional domination". There was, however, evidence of "rational-legal authority" in the nobility's respect for laws such as the Pacta conventa.

Senatorial offices
The privy council and upper chamber of the First Commonwealth’s Sejm (parliament, or diet) was the Senat (now Senate), comprising Bishops, Voivode, Castellan and ministers (central officials). The list of dignitaries eligible to serve in the Senat had been finalized when, in the Union of Lublin (1569), the Kingdom of Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania were transformed into the confederal state of Crown of Poland and Grand Duchy of Lithuania, the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth.

The most important official was the Primate, who was the Archbishop of Gniezno. From 1572, the first time that Poland had been without a king (the Jagiellon Dynasty having died out with King Zygmunt II August), the Archbishop of Gniezno served as interrex, i.e., as interim head of state until a new king could be elected. He represented the country and prepared elections for a new king.

In addition, the Archbishop of Gniezno had the power to call a new Senat session, if he deemed it important to do so, even in the absence of the King. He could also invoke the "de non praestanda obedientia" article, giving the country the right to legally depose the King. From among other senators, he chose his own court marshal (often a Castellan). That person acted as the Archbishop's messenger during Senat meetings, giving signs (by moving a cross) that conveyed how the Archbishop wished his allies to vote. The Archbishop of Gniezno had two deputies: the bishops of Wrocław and Poznań.

Of secular Senators, the foremost was the Castellan (Kasztelan) of Kraków. Other Castellans, however, were considered to be lesser dignitaries than the Voivodes.

The power of the Voivodes had declined since that title had been introduced about the 12th century; in the 17th century, however, they were still the highest regional dignitaries. They were the highest representatives of their Voivodeships to the Senat. They were the leaders of the Land Parliaments (Sejmiki Wojewódzkie, Voivodeship Sejmiks). They were in charge of assembling local nobility's military forces in the event of a pospolite ruszenie (levée en masse). Each chose a Deputy Voivode, who was responsible for setting local prices and measures. Voivodes were chosen by the King, except for those of Połock Voivode and Vilnius Voivode, who were elected by (and from) the local nobility (but still had to be appointed by the King).

Except for the Castellan of Kraków Land (which has its seat in a privileged city, as the Commonwealth's capital until 1596), Castellans were often considered subordinate to Voivodes. A Castellan was in charge of part of a Voivodeship (till the 15th century called a Castellany, and thereafter divided into provinces for Major Castellans and powiats for Minor Castellans).

After 1565, the principle of "incompatibilitas" ("incompatibility") forbade Voivodes and Castellans to hold a second title as a Minister, except for the post of Hetman. Ministers were comparable to modern central-government officials. They were 10 officials (5 for the Crown of Poland, 5 for Lithuania). The Ministers were the Grand Marshal of the Crown (Marszałek Wielki Koronny), Grand Marshal of Lithuania (Marszałek Wielki Litewski), Grand Chancellor of the Crown (Kanclerz Wielki Koronny), Grand Chancellor of Lithuania (Kanclerz Wielki Litewski), Vice-Chancellor of the Crown (Podkanclerzy Koronny), Vice-Chancellor of Lithuania (Podkanclerzy Litewski), Grand Treasurer of the Crown (Podskarbi Wielki Koronny), Grand Treasurer of Lithuania (Podskarbi Wielki Litewski), Court Marshal of the Crown (Marszałek Nadworny Koronny) and Court Marshal of Lithuania (Marszałek Nadworny Litewski). Court Marshals were considered subordinate to Grand Marshals. Lithuanian ministers, while vested with the same powers as Crown Ministers, were considered below them in precedence. Hetmans were also considered "Ministers" but had no seat in the Senat.

A Marshal's duties consisted in providing security to the King and keeping order where he was present. Marshals commanded two regiments of infantry, a regiment of militia, and a special court of law with a marshal's judge (sędzia marszałkowski), marshal's clerk (pisarz marszałkowski) and assessors (singular: asesor). These courts passed sentence on the spot, without possibility of appeal. For crimes such as drawing a weapon in the King's presence, the penalty was death. A Marshal's court had jurisdiction over all crimes committed against the royal court and by courtiers.

When the King traveled, Marshals supervised the local Voivodes. The Marshals decided who would be admitted to royal audience. They were the organizers and masters of royal and court ceremonies (including weddings, funerals and the like). They were the masters of the court, kept track of lesser courtiers, and (where applicable) set their salaries. Each Marshal wielded a marshal's staff, which he had received from the Chancellor (Kanclerz). In exchange, all Chancellor nominations were heralded by the Marshals. If no Marshal was present, his functions were carried out by a Grand Treasurer or secular Grand Chancellor. On formal occasions and during travel, where appropriate, a Marshal with his staff of office preceded the King. Close after the Marshals in the hierarchy were the Chancellors.

From 1507, the title of Grand Chancellor of the Crown was rotated between secular and ecclesiastic Chancellors. After the Union of Lublin (1569), the two offices, Chancellor (Kanclerz) and Vice-Chancellor (Podkanclerzy) were doubled (Chancellors of the Crown, for the Crown of Poland, and Chancellors of Lithuania). The Chancellor and his respective Vice-Chancellor (who was not a direct subordinate of the Chancellor) were responsible for the work of two Chancelleries, a Major and a Minor. These were expected to be in constant contact and to develop common policies. Their responsibilities included foreign and internal affairs.

The Chancellors' offices were the "Chancelleries" (Crown and Lithuanian, Major and Minor). The Chancelleries were staffed with a "Regens," Secretaries (singular: Sekretarz), Scriptors (singular: Pisarz), clerks and "metrykants." The Regens divided the work among the clerks. Two Secretaries (one for private, the other for official, correspondence) presented the ready letters to the King for signature. The Scriptors drafted the letters, the clerks prepared the final copies. The documents were also copied into books called "Metryki" (singular: Metryka), which were kept by two "metrykants", each, in Poland and Lithuania. The Grand Chancellor's Metrykant was called the Grand Metrykant, the Vice-Chancellor's was the Lesser Metrykant. The Chancelleries' staffs, like the Chancellors, received no wages, but the middle of each reception room featured a box into which clients were expected to deposit varying amounts of money, and no one who planned to return could afford to be stingy.

The Chancellors also had judiciary powers, exercised through assessors' courts, which were the highest appellate courts for persons subject to crown law (i.e., not subject to ecclesiastic or magnat courts). Each such court was staffed by a secretary, Referendary (Referendarz) and writer. In the 17th century, each such court was enlarged to include four assessors; and, in 1775, a metrykants and a regens.

The Chancellor often gave speeches representing the royal will. The symbol of his office was the Seal, which was used to seal all documents passing through his office. He also sealed documents signed by the monarch, and could refuse to seal a document that he considered illegal or damaging to the state (such documents had no force without his seal). When the King died, the seal was destroyed at his funeral and a new one was issued to the Chancellor by the late King's successor. Therefore, the Chancellors were considered the guardians of the King and state, ensuring that the King's folly would not endanger the state by forcing it into an unnecessary war (the wars that were prevented by the Chancellors included a great crusade against the Ottoman Empire that King Władysław IV Waza had planned in the 1630s).

The Chancellor's powers tended to be reinforced by the fact that wars required funds that were appropriated by the Senate. The richer nobles who controlled the Senate were usually loath to increase and levy taxes upon themselves, which meant that Poland herself very rarely declared wars. Usually she was attacked by her neighbors, and while she repelled all attacks till the end of the 18th century, she almost never exploited her victories. The army was undermanned and underequipped (since usually any suggestion to augment the military budget when an enemy was not on the Commonwealth's doorstep was labeled as warmongering) and the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth's lands were constantly ravaged by new invasions that crippled the economy.

Last among the ministers were the Grand Treasurers. They kept accounts of the state finances, cash flow and State Treasury, and controlled the minting of coin. Since, like the Chancellors, they received no wages, corruption ran rampant and a sizable portion of state finances was lost in their pockets. If a Treasurer moved to another post, he was obliged to render accounts of his disbursements, and if he died, his family were required to produce them. A telling story is that of Bogusław Leszczyński, who while a Grand Treasurer (1650–1658) was offered a Chancellor's post, which he accepted in 1658. He bribed the members of the Parliament to grant him "absolution", and when one of them later opposed him, he asked, curious: "Who's this son of a bitch that I failed to pay off?"

Grand Treasurers supervised lesser officials such as the Master of the Mint (mincerz), dyspensators, kurators, tax collectors (poborca podatkowy), superintendents (overseer of customs officers), customs officers (celnik) and subkolektors. It should be remembered that, in those times, goods—as well as people—were taxed not only at borders but at bridges, crossroads and city gates.

List of Senatorial offices
See Castellans of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth for details.
 * Marszałek Wielki Koronny (Latin: Mareschalus Regni Poloniae) – Grand Marshal of the Crown
 * Marszałek Wielki Litewski (Latin: Mareschalus Magni Ducis Lithuaniae) – Grand Marshal of Lithuania
 * Kanclerz Wielki Koronny (Latin: Cancellarius Regni Poloniae) – Grand Chancellor of the Crown
 * Kanclerz Wielki Litewski (Latin: Cancellarius Ducis Magnis Lithuaniae) – Grand Chancellor of Lithuania
 * Podkanclerzy Koronny (Latin: Subcancellarius Regni Poloniae) – Vice-Chancellor of the Crown
 * Podkanclerzy Litewski (Latin: Subcancellarius Magni Ducis Lithuaniae) – Vice-Chancellor of Lithuania
 * Podskarbi Wielki Koronny (Latin: Subcancellarius Regni Poloniae) – Grand Treasurer of the Crown
 * Podskarbi Wielki Litewski (Latin: Subcancellarius Magni Ducis Lithuaniae) – Grand Treasurer of Lithuania
 * Marszałek Nadworny Koronny (Latin: Mareschalus Curiae Regni Poloniae) – Court Marshal of the Crown
 * Marszałek Nadworny Litewski (Latin: Mareschalus Curiae Magni Ducis Lithuaniae) – Court Marshal of Lithuania
 * Voivodes (Palatines) (singular: Palatinus) – an ancient dignity, merged with that of Palatines: Governors of Voivodeships. The number of Voivodes slowly increased when new Voivodeships were created; at its greatest extent, the Commonwealth had 37. See Voivodes of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth for details.
 * Kasztelanowie (singular: Kasztelan) (Latin: Comes Castellanus) – Castellans: heads of kasztelanie (castellanies). Their number also varied. The most important Castellan was that of Kraków, whose position in the hierarchy was actually superior to that of a Voivode. The Castellans were of three categories:
 * Kasztelanowie Wyróżnieni – Distinguished Castellans (of Kraków, Vilnius and Trakai). They were seated among the Voivodes.
 * Kasztelanowie Więksi (Krzesłowi) – Major Castellans (there were 31).
 * Kasztelanowie Mniejsi (Drążkowi) – Minor Castellans (there were 49).
 * Kasztelanowie Konarscy (Koniuszy) – Equerry Castellans (there were 3).

The Senate also included Bishops of Poland. See Bishops of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth for details. After 1668, though there was no law explicitly forbidding it, no non Roman Catholics were nominated to the senatorial offices. Even the 1717 laws did not forbid Calvinists or the Orthodox known as "dyssydents" to sit in the Senate.

Central non-Senat-related offices
As the name suggests, non-Senat-related officials were not entitled to a vote in the Senat.

The most important such officials were the Great Secretaries (singular: sekretarz wielki), Crown and Lithuanian. Only a man of the cloth could be a Great Secretary. These functionaries were considered more consequential than any district or court official, with the exception of the Court Marshal. They could act as Chancellors when no Chancellor was in attendance. They dealt with secret letters; in Senat they read out letters of the King's and resolutions of the Sejm. The Great Secretaries often acted as Assessors and were called "innate Assessors."

Next were 4 Referendaries (singular: referendarz), 2 secular and 2 ecclesiastic, one each for the Crown and for Lithuania. They rarely left the royal court, and their duties consisted in hearing petitions and complaints, which they referred (hence their name) to the King. They also acted as judges in cases involving peasants from the King's lands, and often acted as Assessors at other courts. Close to the office of Referendary was that of the "Instygator"—what today would be termed a State Prosecutor. One each for Crown and for Lithuania, the Instygators were tasked with uncovering and dealing with crimes against the King and the country, and were authorized to prosecute any dignitary save the King. They had deputies known as "viceinstygators."

Then came the Great Writers (singular: pisarz wielki)—one for the Crown, three for Lithuania. It was their task to clarify royal decrees and send letters to those dignitaries who must hear of them. They often acted as ambassadors and Assessors.

The Crown Keeper (kustosz koronny) was the official responsible for safeguarding the Royal Treasury, where the royal insignia were kept. The keys to the Treasury were held by the Great Treasurer and six voivods, and without each of them, the Treasury could not be opened. Traditionally, the Crown Keeper was chosen from among the priests of Kraków Cathedral. The Lithuanian Keeper was actually called a Treasurer (skarbny).

From 1647, the ministers were joined by a Postmaster General (Poczmistrz generalny, also known as Poczmistrz naczelny or Generał poczmistrz), the supervisor of the Royal Post, founded in 1547.

In principle, Polish–Lithuanian officials enjoyed life tenure. Of several notable exceptions to that rule, the most important involved the Senat Marshal, who chaired Senat meetings and could suggest, but not determine, the subject of a meeting. Traditionally, the post of Senat Marshal rotated among Senators from the three prowincyje ("provinces" – major divisions) of the Republic, or Commonwealth: Wielkopolska ("Greater Poland") and Małopolska ("Lesser Poland"), in the "Polish Crown"; and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania.

The office of Marshal of the Sejm (Marszałek Sejmu) existed only during sessions of the Commonwealth's parliament (the Sejm). The Marshal chose the Secretary of the Sejm (sekretarz sejmowy), who kept the records of Sejm meetings.

The highest court for nobles was called the Crown Tribunal (Trybunł Koronny, created 1579) and was headed by a Tribunal President and a Marshal. The Marshal was chosen from and by the judges themselves, while the President dealt with ecclesiastic matters (and was himself a high-ranking priest). There was also a Lithuanian Tribunal (Trybunał Litewski) and Crown and Lithuanian Treasury courts, created in 1613 (Trybunał Skarbowy Koronny, Trybunał Skarbowy Litewski). Salaries for all judges were set at Sejm meetings.

Salt mines (żupy solne) were supervised by a żupnik. Other less important dignitaries named by the King or Sejm to deal with specific short-term questions were called "commissars", "lustrates", "revisers", "delegates", "legates" or "deputies."

Court offices
Official court posts are the most difficult to describe. Some court officials held responsibilities important to both the court and the country; the functions of others evolved over the centuries. In time (generally by the end of the 17th century), the titles of most had become merely honorary, and the King had to create another set of officials to deal with those responsibilities.

Court officials may be divided into those who served the King, and those who ensured the smooth running of his court (in the 16th century, comprising some 1,000–1,500 persons). Since the first group were not subject to the principle of incompatibilitas, they often held another title, usually that of a lesser district official such as a starosta. Of those who served the King, the most important was the Master of the Kitchen, who supervised the kitchen staff and equipment and the preparation of foods. During feasts, he announced the successive dishes.

Second in importance was the Pantler, who began setting the table. During feasts, he directed the setting of the dishes, aided by the Steward. The Carver finished setting the table with plates and utensils, and during the feast carved all the dishes that required the knife. After carving, he tasted them (by the 17th century, this was merely a tradition, left over from the days when this official used to detect poison).

Drink was seen to by the Cupbearer and the Royal Cupbearer. The first tasted of the drinks, poured them and ordered them; the second, upon receiving them from the former, served them to the King. A description of a 1596 banquet in the reign of King Sigismund III Vasa was set down by the secretary to the Papal Nuncio (ambassador), Giorgio Paolo Mucante: "Each dish was first given, with a bow, by the Master of the Kitchen to the Carver, who passed it to the Pantler. The latter dipped a prepared piece of bread into the dish, touched it to his tongue, then discarded it into a nearby silver bin. It took quite a while before the King and the Cardinal could begin eating, as they had to bear with all the ceremonies. The Carver bowed so often that I truly think that during the feast he bowed at least 3,000 times."

A second set of dignitaries was headed by the Court Marshal (see above):
 * Szambelan (Chamberlain) – in charge of the King's court and the domestic economy on Crown estates;
 * Chorąży Wielki (Standard-bearer) – carried the King's banner;
 * Miecznik Wielki (Sword-bearer) – carried the sword before the King;
 * Koniuszy Wielki (Equerry) – in charge of the King's stables and stud;
 * Łowczy Wielki (Master of the Hunt) – organized hunts, guarded the royal forests against poachers;
 * Court Treasurer – managed the King's finances, kept accounts of his personal treasure, and supervised the court's treasures;
 * Sekretarze Królewscy (Royal Secretaries) – dealt with the King's personal correspondence;
 * Kapelan (Royal Chaplain) – conducted court masses, supervised the liturgical treasures, and oversaw the court musicians;
 * and many other dignitaries, of progressively less importance, dealing with matters such as food supplies, transportation, etc.

The Queen had her own court, staffed with women; its influence in the country was much smaller.

List of court offices

 * Sekretarz wielki koronny i litewski – Crown and Lithuanian Grand Secretary;
 * Referendarz koronny i litewski – Crown and Lithuanian Referendary;
 * Podskarbi nadworny koronny i litewski – Crown and Lithuanian Court Treasurer;
 * Podkomorzy nadworny koronny i litewski – Crown and Lithuanian Court Chamberlain;
 * Chorąży wielki koronny i litewski – Crown and Lithuanian Grand Standard-bearer;
 * Chorąży nadworny koronny i litewski – Crown and Lithuanian Court Standard-bearer;
 * Miecznik koronny i litewski – Crown and Lithuanian Sword-bearer;
 * Kuchmistrz koronny i litewski – Crown and Lithuanian Master of the Kitchen;
 * Koniuszy koronny i litewski – Crown and Lithuanian Equerry;
 * Podczaszy koronny i litewski – Crown and Lithuanian Royal Cupbearer;
 * Krajczy koronny i litewski – Crown and Lithuanian Carver;
 * Stolnik koronny i litewski – Crown and Lithuanian Pantler;
 * Podstoli koronny i litewski – Crown and Lithuanian Steward;
 * Cześnik korony – Crown Cupbearer;
 * Łowczy koronny i litewski – Crown and Lithuanian Master of the Hunt;
 * Łowczy nadworny – Court Master of the Hunt;
 * Regent kancelarii koronny i litewski – Court and Lithuanian Regent of the Chancellery;
 * Metrykant koronny i litewski – Crown and Lithuanian Record-keeper;
 * Pisarz sądowy koronny i litewski – Crown and Lithuanian Judicial Notary;
 * Pisarz wielki koronny i litewski – Crown and Lithuanian Great Notary;
 * Pisarz skarbowy koronny i litewski – Crown and Lithuanian Treasury Notary;
 * Kusztosz koronny – Crown Keeper;
 * Skarbny litewski – Lithuanian Treasurer;
 * Instygator koronny i litewski – Crown and Lithuanian State Prosecutor;
 * Geometra litewski – Lithuanian Surveyor General;
 * Wojski litewski – Lithuanian Wojski;
 * Piwniczy litewski – Lithuanian Cellar-Master.

Military offices
The highest military officials were the Hetmans. As with most offices in the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, "hetman" was a job for life and its holder could not be removed even if he was a poor commander. Until the beginning of the 18th century, hetmans were not paid for their services.

Hetmans were very independent; they could maintain their own foreign contacts with the Ottoman Empire, Russia and the Tatars. They allocated their military budgets as they saw fit. As the highest military commanders and administrators, hetmans made administrative and juridical law concerning the military; from 1590, such law had the same force as the Sejm's legislation.

A Hetman's symbol of office was a mace (buława), which was added to his coat of arms. There were two kinds of hetman (in addition to the division into Crown and Lithuanian)—"Great" and "Field." Field Hetmans were subordinate to Great Hetmans, and were sometimes called "Border Hetmans" (hetmani kresowi), since they had evolved from commanders of permanent garrisons on Poland's southeastern borders (a great school of warfare, since it was an area almost constantly under attack by the Ottoman Turks and the Tatars).

The Hetmans chose a commissioner for a two-year period who commanded the Commonwealth's Cossack troops. Below the Hetmans were Deputy Hetmans titled Regimentarz, who commanded voivodeship levées en masse.

Hetman and Regimentarz were accompanied by a staff of officers titled Great Guard, Field Guard, Field Clerk, Great Quartermaster and Field Quartermaster. These officers were salaried (the Lithuanian Field Guard, Field Clerk and Quartermaster received 15,000 zlotys per annum; the Crown Field Clerk, 30,000).

The Great Guard directed the scout forces while on the march and in camp and commanded the advance guard (however, if both Hetmans were present, the Field Hetman acted as Great Guard). Field Guards were found only on the eastern borders.

The Field Clerks kept accounts of men, equipment and weapons, and paid the soldiers' wages.

The Quartermasters selected campsites, built the camps, and provided logistics and camp security.

After 1635, several new military titles were created:
 * 1637 – General of Artillery (responsible for artillery forces and their logistics);
 * 1670s – General of Logistics; General of Medics; General of Finances.

The combat readiness of troops was overseen by Inspectors General (however, it is unclear exactly when "in the 17th century" they were created).

List of military offices

 * Hetman Wielki Koronny – Crown Grand Hetman;
 * Hetman Wielki Litewski – Lithuanian Grand Hetman;
 * Hetman Polny Koronny – Crown Field Hetman;
 * Hetman Polny Litewski – Lithuanian Field Hetman;
 * Strażnik Wielki Koronny – Crown Great Guard;
 * Strażnik Wielki Litewski – Lithuanian Great Guard;
 * Strażnik Polny Koronny – Crown Field Guard;
 * Strażnik Polny Litewski – Lithuanian Field Guard;
 * Pisarz Polny Koronny – Crown Field Clerk;
 * Pisarz Polny Litewski – Lithuanian Field Clerk;
 * Oboźny Wielki Koronny – Crown Great Quartermaster;
 * Oboźny Wielki Litewski – Lithuanian Great Quartermaster;
 * Oboźny Polny Koronny – Crown Field Quartermaster;
 * Oboźny Polny Litewski – Lithuanian Field Quartermaster;
 * Sędzia Wojskowy Koronny – Crown Military Judge;
 * Sędzia Wojskowy Litewski – Lithuanian Military Judge;
 * Generał artylerii koronny i litewski – Crown and Lithuanian General of Artillery;
 * Regent Wojski litewski – Lithuanian Wojski Regent;
 * Regimentarz – Deputy Hetman;
 * Rotmistrz – Commander of an infantry or cavalry regiment;
 * Towarzysz – Cavalry officer (literally, "Companion");
 * Towarzysz husarski – Hussar officer;
 * Towarzysz pancerny – Light cavalry officer;
 * Pocztowy – Cavalry trooper.

District offices
A 1611 Constitution (amended 1633 and 1635) prescribed many officials. Exceptions to the rule, however, were the rule; Sejm rules were treated as mere recommendations. Thus Bełz Voivodeship had only 4 of the 15 prescribed dignitaries; most northern voivodeships had about 5; and in Wołyń and Bracław Voivodeships the hierarchical order was almost reversed. Each province or district had its own set of officials—a list of provinces may be found in the article on provinces and geography of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth.

District officials were appointed by the King, with a few exceptions (local parliaments—sejmiki—chose Chamberlains, District Judges, Deputy District Judges, District Clerks, and in Lithuania also Standard-bearers and District Marshals). Chamberlains, except for the name, had nothing in common with the Court officials of the same name. They administered a court of law (the Chamberlain's Court) which had jurisdiction over property disputes. The District Judge headed the District Court, which had jurisdiction over civil and some criminal matters involving local nobility.

The Starosta generalny ("General Starosta") was the official in charge of a specific territory. The Starosta grodowy ("City Starosta") was in charge of cities, while the Starosta niegrodowy ("Non-City Starosta") was responsible for administration of the Crown lands. These were to be kept in good financial and military order. While in time these administrative responsibilities became smaller (as Kings gave away more and more land), the Starosta remained in charge of the City Courts (sądy grodzkie), which dealt with most criminal matters and had jurisdiction over all local and visiting nobility. They dealt with the most severe cases (killings, rapes, robberies) and were quite harsh (highway robbery was punishable with death), which generally made Poland a safer country than its neighbors. The Starostas also held the "power of the sword", which meant that they enforced the verdicts of all other courts. Non-City Starostas had no juridical powers.

Standard-bearers carried the local banner during Royal ceremonies, and in war when local troops served in the Army. During war, Wojskis maintained order and security in their territories. In Lithuania, the responsibilities of Ciwuns were similar to those of non-city starostas (elders). District marshals presided over local parliaments (in the "Crown", District Marshals were chosen only for the duration of the parliament session, and so were much less powerful than those of Lithuania, who were chosen for life).

Crown

 * Podkomorzy – Chamberlain
 * Starosta grodowy – Mayor
 * Chorąży – Standard-bearer
 * Sędzia ziemski – District Judge
 * Stolnik – Pantler
 * Podczaszy – Royal Cupbearer
 * Podsędek – Deputy District Judge
 * Podstoli – Steward
 * Cześnik – Cupbearer
 * Łowczy – Master of the Hunt
 * Wojski większy – Major Wojski
 * Pisarz ziemski – District Clerk
 * Miecznik – Sword-bearer
 * Wojski mniejszy – Minor Wojski
 * Skarbnik – Treasurer

Lithuania

 * Marszałek ziemski – District Marshal
 * Ciwun – Bailiff
 * Podkomorzy – Chamberlain
 * Starosta grodzki – Mayor
 * Chorąży – Standard-bearer
 * Sędzia ziemski – District judge
 * Wojski większy – Major Wojski
 * Stolnik – Pantler
 * Podstoli – Steward
 * Pisarz ziemski – District Clerk
 * Podwojewódzki, Podstarosta – Deputy Voivod, Deputy Starosta
 * Sędzia grodzki – City Judge
 * Pisarz grodzki – City Clerk
 * Podczaszy – Royal Cupbearer
 * Cześnik – Cupbearer
 * Horodniczy – Castellan
 * Skarbnik – Treasurer
 * Łowczy – Master of the Hunt
 * Miecznik – Sword-bearer
 * Koniuszy – Equerry
 * Oboźny – Quartermaster
 * Strażnik – Guard
 * Krajczy – Carver
 * Leśniczy – Forester
 * Mostowniczy – Custodian of Bridges
 * Budowniczy – Architect

Prussia

 * Podkomorzy – Chamberlain
 * Chorąży – Standard-bearer
 * Sędzia – Judge
 * Ławnik – Alderman
 * Pisarz – Clerk
 * Podwojewoda – Deputy Voivod (Deputy Governor)

Borough and judicial offices
The most important official was the Starosta. He was supported by a Borough Substarosta (podstarości grodowy), Burgrave (Burgrabia), Notary (Notariusz) and Scriptor (Pisarz). The Borough Substarosta assisted the Starosta and in his absence acted in his name with all his powers. Lower city officials were the Borough Regent (rejent grodzki), Borough Notary (notariusz grodzki), Borough Scriptor (pisarz grodzki) and common clerks ("subclerks" — podpiskowie).

In the eastern territories bordering on Russia, from 1667, a "Border Judge" cooperated with Russian judges in cases involving parties from the two countries; his rulings were final.

Judges were chosen from among the local hereditary nobles and had little formal training; therefore the quality of the courts varied from judge to judge, and levels of corruption were high. Attorneys, on the other hand, were required to have professional training. Sometimes a court included an asesor, who assisted the judge and collected fines and fees. Prosecutors were extremely rare. Instygators maintained order and security on court grounds, and a court runner (woźny) delivered summons.

List of borough and judicial offices

 * Podstarosta grodowy – Borough Substarost
 * Burgrabia – Burgrave
 * Notariusz – Notary
 * Rejent grodzki – Borough Regent
 * Sędzia grodzki – Borough Judge
 * Podsędek grodzki – Borough Subjudge
 * Pisarz grodzki – Borough Clerk

In 1717 the "Numb Diet" barred non-Roman Catholics from being elected Envoys (to the Parliament), and to any other land offices if there was another Roman Catholic contender. The rights of the "Dissidents", as they were called, were reinstated in 1768, and in 1772 their representation in the Diet was limited to a statutory of two members. These rules were finally abolished in 1792 by the 3rd May Constitution.

Town and village offices
These offices were very stable, having evolved about the 13th century and lasting almost unchanged to the end of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth. The administrative system had come from Germany together with Magdeburg law.

Every city (without exception) had a Council and a Bench, the Council being the administrative branch and the Bench the judicial branch. A new Council was chosen by the old one whose term had expired. The Council was responsible for administration, law, privileges, security, finances, guild oversight, and the like. The Council chose the Mayor, and its members' decision was final—even the Starosta or Voivode could only listen to the Mayor's swearing-in and could not refuse to give him his seal. The Council met daily in the larger cities, less often in smaller ones.

The Mayor headed the Council and controlled the executive branch. He was responsible for conciliation, the care of the poor, and maintaining order by suppressing alcohol abuse and games of chance. Second to the Mayor was the Council Clerk, who ran the City Chancellery. The City Clerk (Syndyk Miejski) collected city taxes and supervised the tax collectors. Security and order in the city were the responsibility of the Hutman. He also supervised the city jail and the keyman who unlocked and locked the city gates at dawn and dusk.

The Lonar was the city treasurer, who oversaw its finances. He supervised the officials who controlled marketplace scales to ensure fair trade. Large cities also had scores of less common officials, such as Pipemasters, responsible for pipes and wells; Fire Chiefs; and City Translators, who assisted foreigners and looked out for spies.

The Bench was chaired by a wójt. He and the other Bench members were chosen by the Council for a year's term from among lesser city officials (writers, clerks, etc.).

City Chief Executioners executed not only criminals sentenced by the Bench, but often criminals sentenced by other non-military courts in Poland. They were well paid, sometimes functioned as physicians, but were also often considered social outcasts and lived outside the city walls.

A village mayor was called the sołtys and was the administrative, executive and judicial chief for the village, responsible only to the village's owner.

List of town and village offices

 * Burmistrz – City Mayor;
 * Wójt – Advocate-Mayor;
 * Pisarz rady – Council Clerk;
 * Syndyk miejski – City Clerk;
 * Hutman – Constable;
 * Lonar – City Treasurer.

Other

 * Starosta grodowy, Starosta sądowy – City Starosta, Judicial Starosta;
 * Starosta generalny wielkopolski – General Starosta of Wielkopolska;
 * Starosta generalny małopolski – General Starosta of Małopolska;
 * Burgrabia zamku krakowskiego – Burgrave of Kraków Castle;
 * Surrogat – Surrogate.

Fictional offices
Fictional or fictitious offices were a specific kind of offices, as they referred to the territories which Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth lost in the second half of the 17th century either to the Swedish Empire or the Tsardom of Russia. Following the Treaty of Oliva (1660), the Commonwealth officially lost Wenden Voivodeship, Parnawa Voivodeship, and Dorpat Voivodeship. Furthermore, as a result of the Truce of Andrusovo (1667), Poland-Lithuania lost Smolensk Voivodeship and Czernihow Voivodeship.

Despite the fact that these territories did not belong to the Commonwealth any longer, and were under foreign rule, their administration existed for further 100 years, until the Partitions of Poland, with a complex hierarchy of all kinds of regional offices. The existence of fictional titles was the result of the special role of offices in the minds of the Polish–Lithuanian nobility: even though these offices were only honorary, without any material privileges and salaries, they determined social status of their bearers. Furthermore, having a title, albeit fictional, emphasized the position of an individual nobleman as a keen citizen and co-creator of the Commonwealth.

After Czernihow Voivodeship was detached from Poland in 1667, sejmiks of the former province took place at Wlodzimierz Wolynski, some 500 kilometers west of Czernihow. Polish kings continued to present fictional titles of voivodes, senators, deputies, and starostas of Czernihow to their courtiers. In 1785, Stanisław August Poniatowski gave fictitious title of starosta of Nowogrod Siewierski to Tadeusz Czacki.


text:
Strung Out

Strung Out is an American punk rock band from Simi Valley, California, formed in 1989. They are known mainly for their musical style, which fuses aspects of melodic punk rock, progressive rock and heavy metal to form their primary sound. They have released nine studio albums on Fat Wreck Chords as well as one Live album, 2 B-sides collections, a best-of, a box set and appeared on numerous compilations and skate/surf/dirt bike/offroading videos. They have played on the Warped Tour and continue to tour internationally. The band currently have an ongoing collaboration beer with Lucky Luke Brewing Company called “Astrolux Golden Ale”. Their albums have charted on the Billboard 200.

History
The band formed in 1989 in Simi Valley, California. The original lineup consisted of vocalist Jason Cruz, guitarist Rob Ramos, bassist Jim Cherry and drummer Adam Austin. After releasing a self-titled 7" record, they became one of the first bands to be signed to Fat Wreck Chords, the record label owned and operated by Fat Mike of the band NOFX. Austin left the band in 1992, and was replaced by Brad Morrison. Jake Kiley joined as second guitarist in 1993. Morrison left the band in 1993, and was replaced by Jordan Burns, formerly of fellow Simi Valley natives Ten Foot Pole. This lineup (Cruz, Ramos, Cherry, Kiley, and Burns) wrote and recorded the band’s first album, Another Day in Paradise, which was tracked in late 1993, and released in May 1994. Suburban Teenage Wasteland Blues followed in 1996. In 1998 they released The Skinny Years...Before We Got Fat, a compilation album of their pre-Fat Wreck Chords material.

Bassist Jim Cherry was fired from the band in 1999 and went on to play in Pulley and Zero Down. Initially, Jim was replaced by Craig Riker (Jughead’s Revenge), who played on the track Klawsterfobia (Short Music for Short People). This was a brief stint, ultimately being replaced by Chris Aiken, whose musical background had a strong impact on the 2000 eight-song EP, The Element of Sonic Defiance.

In 2002, the band released their fourth full-length album An American Paradox, their first release to appear in the Billboard 200. The initial production run contained a bonus song entitled "Don't Look Back". A video was filmed for the song "Cemetery" and was included on several punk rock video compilations. In 2003 they recorded and released a live album as part of the Fat Wreck Chords Live in a Dive series. Exile in Oblivion, was released on November 2, 2004, with a video filmed for the song "Analog." Strung Out released their sixth full-length album, Blackhawks Over Los Angeles on June 12, 2007.

In March 2009, Strung Out released a collection of rarities & B-sides entitled Prototypes and Painkillers. The album is the second such compilation from the band who previously compiled similar material on The Skinny Years: Before We Got Fat in 1998.

On September 29, 2009, Strung Out released their 7th studio album titled Agents of the Underground.

On July 19, 2011, they released the compilation album Top Contenders: The Best of Strung Out. In contains remastered versions of 23 songs, and 3 new songs; "City Lights", "Saturday Night", and "Here We Are".

On August 2, 2012, drummer Jordan Burns revealed to Punknews.org that Strung Out planned to release a new album. Transmission.Alpha.Delta was announced as the title of the album, initially scheduled to be released in the summer of 2014. The album was delayed and released on March 24, 2015.

On February 19, 2018, the band announced on their Facebook page that Jordan Burns is no longer the drummer. Soon after it was revealed that RJ Shankle of the band Runaway Kids was selected to be the new drummer of Strung Out. Daniel Blume was tapped to fill in for RJ on select dates throughout 2018, while RJ fulfilled his prior obligations with Runaway Kids.

On April 18, 2018, the band released an eight-song EP called Black Out the Sky, which was inspired by Alice in Chains' 1994 acoustic EP Jar of Flies.

On January 7, 2019 both Strung Out and Jason Cruz posted to their respective social media accounts that the band was in the studio recording a new album. Cruz later confirmed that the album was not an acoustic recording like Black Out The Sky but rather a full punk rock album. In another series of posts by Jason Cruz revealed Agents of the Underground producer Cameron Webb would be returning to produce the upcoming album.

On May 15, 2019, Jason Cruz announced the name of the upcoming Strung Out album, Songs of Armor and Devotion on Episode 15 of the Dying Scene Podcast. The album was released August 9, 2019. It embodied a return to speed, upping the tempo from the previous two albums. Regarded as one of, if not the most, technically ambitious Strung Out records to date.

In January 2023, the band officially revealed that they were in the studio working on a new album with new drummer Daniel Blume, following RJ Shankle's departure in late 2022. It was revealed on April 21, 2023 via the band's social media that the title of the album would be Dead Rebellion.

In March of 2024, the band went out on tour in support of Dead Rebellion, this time without Jake Kiley.

Band members
Current members
 * Jason Cruz – lead vocals (1989–present)
 * Rob Ramos – guitar, backing vocals (1989–present)
 * Chris Aiken – guitar (2024-present) ; bass (1999–2024) ; backing vocals (1999–present)
 * Daniel Blume – drums (2022–present)
 * Derik Envy – bass, backing vocals (2024–present)

Former members
 * Jim Cherry – bass, backing vocals (1989–1999; died 2002)
 * Adam Austin – drums (1989–1992)
 * Brad Morrison – drums (1992–1993)
 * Jordan Burns – drums (1993–2018)
 * RJ Shankle – drums (2018–2022)
 * Jake Kiley - guitar, backing vocals (1993-2024)

Studio albums

 * Another Day in Paradise (1994)
 * Suburban Teenage Wasteland Blues (1996)
 * Twisted by Design (1998)
 * An American Paradox (2002)
 * Exile in Oblivion (2004)
 * Blackhawks Over Los Angeles (2007)
 * Agents of the Underground (2009)
 * Transmission.Alpha.Delta (2015)
 * Songs of Armor and Devotion (2019)
 * Dead Rebellion (2024)

Compilation albums

 * The Skinny Years...Before We Got Fat (1998)
 * Prototypes and Painkillers (2009)
 * Top Contenders: The Best of Strung Out (2011)

Live albums

 * Live in a Dive (2003)

EPs

 * Seven Inch (1993)
 * Crossroads & Illusions (1998)
 * The Element of Sonic Defiance (2000)
 * Black Out the Sky (2018)

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Strung Out


text:
Talk:Avianca Flight 203

Untitled
So why isnt this terrorism? 199.245.163.1 18:34, 22 October 2004 (UTC)

 * Because the attackers were drug barons motivated by profit, not terrorists fighting for a political cause. GCarty 15:21, 12 February 2006 (UTC)

 * Nowhere in Wikipedia's definition of terrorism does it say that terrorism is necessarily politically motivated. It's a strategy, not an ideology. Apart from that, would you really say the Medellín cartel was not a political force?--84.188.184.226 18:14, 21 July 2006 (UTC)

May I say that it was a terrorism attack? At least to our eyes, us Colombians. The conclusion to the investigation of this incident was it was a bomb to kill a certain politician aboard that aircraft, to which the Medellin Drug Cartel took responsabily off and even though the head of the cartel, Pablo Escobar; used to be a polititian before he got sent to jail, a drug cartel is not a political force.

Anyway, a bomb in a plane is terrorism. It should be categorized under that category. Thank you, Minako-Chan* 21:02, 17 March 2007 (UTC)

PD: I hope what I have just writen is ok.

picture of the wreckage
I happen to have a picture of the wreckage though the source is known. Could I upload it? Minako-Chan* 22:03, 10 March 2007 (UTC)

By "though the source is known", do you in fact mean "though the source is unknown"? If you do then no. If, however, you do know the source, then even if it is copyrighted, we can use it as fair use, and you can go ahead and upload. Blood Red Sandman (Talk)   (Contribs) 22:11, 10 March 2007 (UTC)

yeah, I mistakenly wrote "known" instead of "unknown". Sorry guys! I found the image a long time ago but i'll see if I find the source. Minako-Chan* 20:57, 17 March 2007 (UTC)

title: Talk:Avianca Flight 203


text:
Talk:Offices in the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth

Lists are always more useful if they are preceded by an introductory paragraph giving the reader some context (dates, for a start). Lists are scarcely part of Wikipedia until the items in them have some linking. This is doubtless on the way. --Wetman 17:35, 22 Oct 2004 (UTC)

Permission granted
I hereby give Wikipedia permission to use and reproduce all and any materials from my article '163xPolishTitles'. --Piotr Konieczny aka Prokonsul Piotrus 19:21, 6 Dec 2004 (UTC)

Division
How about dividing this article onto several smaller ones? All of us who are preparing biographical articles on various members of szlachta are often linking the titles they held - and they all lead to this monstruous article. How about preparing a set of small stub-like articles saying that:

''Blahblahblah was one of the titles used in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. It was awarded to.... for....; see also: Offices in Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth'' and place all of such stubs in one category, let's say Category:Offices in Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth? Halibutt 08:19, Jan 18, 2005 (UTC)

 * Tak, najlepiej zrobic odzielne ale rowniez pozostawic ten jeden w calosci. Narazie nieistniejace artyuly o marshalkach, kanclerzach itd, przekierunkowalem tutaj. Pare zrobilem jak np Stolnik, Podczaszy - ale to kropla w morzu :) .--Emax 08:39, Jan 18, 2005 (UTC)

 * Popieram Emaxa, zeby ten artykul zostawic w calosci. Ale faktycznie przydalby sie mu cleanup (zwlaszcza bold w tekscie mnie denerwuje), i moze przeniesienie wszystkich list w jedno miejsce - lub faktycznie do osobnego artykulu? (List of official titles in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth?)--Piotr Konieczny aka Prokonsul Piotrus 12:31, 18 Jan 2005 (UTC)

 * Masz racje, liste mozna przeniesc do odzielnego artykulu.--Emax 19:07, Jan 18, 2005 (UTC)

Ok, since you decided not to speak English... Lista jako taka powinna dopiero powstać. Póki co nie mamy listy, tylko baaaardzo długi artykuł, a to nie to samo.
 * Oczywiście, jakaś centralna instancja odwoławcza byłaby nie od rzeczy, ale nie należy dać się zwariować... Halibutt 01:49, Jan 19, 2005 (UTC)

 * Moze zrobic categorie "Polish titles" lub "Polish offices"? Bo raz, wiekszosc istniala przed RON (i istnieje nadal, jak np Marszalek sejmu), a po drugie Category:Offices in Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth jest dosc dlugie.--Emax 01:01, Jan 22, 2005 (UTC)
 * Sounds good. Czy sa jakies podobne kategorie? Np. Category:Official titles? --Piotr Konieczny aka Prokonsul Piotrus Talk 13:29, 22 Jan 2005 (UTC)
 * Chyba jest tylko Category:Titles--Emax 13:41, Jan 22, 2005 (UTC)
 * No to wystarczy, mozemy zrobic Polish Titles jako podkategorie tej kategorii. Jestem za. --Piotr Konieczny aka Prokonsul Piotrus Talk 14:02, 22 Jan 2005 (UTC)
 * Jeszcze jedna propozycja :) Moze zrobic Category:Polish titles and military ranks ?--Emax 17:15, Jan 22, 2005 (UTC)
 * I think that Category:Polish titles would be enough.--Piotr Konieczny aka Prokonsul Piotrus Talk 22:12, 18 January 2006 (UTC)
 * How about a second Category:Polish military ranks, if there isn't one? Hetman might be listed in both categories.  logologist|Talk 23:40, 18 January 2006 (UTC)

Kings
Is the Crown an Office of the Commonwealth? If not, why not? Septentrionalis 04:13, 18 January 2006 (UTC)
 * Hmm, I guess that's kind of a technical question. Kings were elected, as were few official (members of the Crown Tribunal. Maybe we can say that the King was the highest official, we need to define offical first. --Piotr Konieczny aka Prokonsul Piotrus Talk 22:12, 18 January 2006 (UTC)
 * The King of Poland was the chief executive of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. He was also, as Grand Duke of Lithuania, the ex officio sovereign of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania.  There was no other king within the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth.  Therefore, any historical niceties aside, it is much less misleading to consider him the King of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth than merely the King of Poland (just as the writ of Britain's Prince of Wales, such as it is, is not in fact limited to Wales).  Should one object that the Polish-Lithuanian King was not actually called that, then for that matter neither was the "Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth" actually called that.  logologist|Talk 23:23, 18 January 2006 (UTC)

Names
This article needs a copyedit - for example, we should decide whether to use English translations or Polish names I'd prefer Polish names, like kanclerz to chancellor, as kanclerz allows us to have a more specific article. But the alternative - Chancellor (Poland) is also viable. Any comments?--Piotr Konieczny aka Prokonsul Piotrus Talk 22:12, 18 January 2006 (UTC)
 * Wherever a clear English equivalent — especially a cognate term — exists, it's best to use that. Only "untranslatable" expressions should be imported into the target language.  logologist|Talk 23:03, 18 January 2006 (UTC)
 * Could you list those which have a clear equivalent and others? I am really having trouble with miecznik / sword-bearer and such and deciding whether they are equivalent or not.--Piotr Konieczny aka Prokonsul Piotrus Talk 00:33, 19 January 2006 (UTC)

For future reference - and because it's on my 'to do list', eventually - this is the list of current subarticles/redirects:
 * English:
 * Assessor - I don't expect this to be expanded soon.
 * Castellan - a para on Polish castellans in the general stub article. Should we eventually create Kasztelan or Castellan (Poland)?
 * Polish - all the others (from Category:Polish titles).

--Piotr Konieczny aka Prokonsul Piotrus Talk 00:46, 19 January 2006 (UTC)

My proposal is to use Polish name (English translation name in parenthesis) on the first use, the use Polish name only, and have the articles at Polish names. I just don't like the current state which is quite chaotic. --Piotr Konieczny aka Prokonsul Piotrus Talk 00:46, 19 January 2006 (UTC)

Chancellery "regent"
Is the original Polish in fact "regent," or perhaps something like "rejent"?

Suggest giving the original Polish terms, at the first mentions of PLC officers. logologist|Talk 19:40, 20 January 2006 (UTC)

 * It was rejens (source: Bielewicz). I agree with this suggestion.--Piotr Konieczny aka Prokonsul Piotrus Talk 16:55, 22 January 2006 (UTC)

Failed Good Article
There are too many lists, not enough pictures or references. joturner 16:23, 22 January 2006 (UTC)

Podskarbi
Shouldn't he be translated as Deputy Treasurer, if podkanclerz(y) is translated as Deputy Chancellor? There was no full Skarbnik (Treasuer) in PLC to add to the confusion, but the adjective Grand (wielki) was sometimes added to this, making it a rather funny if again confusing combinatio of 'podskarbi wielki' (Grand Lesser Treasurer, or Grand Deputy Treasuer.)--Piotr Konieczny aka Prokonsul Piotrus Talk 16:56, 22 January 2006 (UTC)

Deputy vs. Lesser
Just wondering if there is a convention that 'pod' should be in titles translated as deputy instead of lesser? Not that I mind either way, but it would be good to have a naming convention for consistency.--Piotr Konieczny aka Prokonsul Piotrus Talk 17:01, 22 January 2006 (UTC)

Dang. I don't have all day to try figure out how to post a comment on Wikipedia - something about looking for a small + sign at the top. So maybe someone could write me at www.zverte.com and fix this post. I have noticed that two words are translated as 'cupbearer' - podczaszy and cześnik but podczaszy is also translated 'deputy cupbearer. The Lithuanian translations are pataurininkis (podczaszy) and taurininkas (cześnik) where pa would translate as deputy or lesser. This needs to be resolved in some manner. Thanks. (Abakan 21:21, 20 October 2007 (UTC))

Strange senators
I cannot find a reference that the following were indeed senatorial offices: --Piotr Konieczny aka Prokonsul Piotrus Talk 17:06, 22 January 2006 (UTC)
 * 1) Marszałek Izby poselkiej — Marshal of the Chamber of Deputies
 * 2) Generał wielkopolski — General of Greater Poland
 * 3) Marszałek Trybunału Koronnego — Marshal of the Crown Tribunal
 * 4) Marszałek Trybunału Litewskiego — Marshal of the Lithuanian Tribunal

Revision
I've completed a preliminary revision of this article, inserting some intralinear questions regarding officials' titles and functions. I was able to locate or guess most English equivalents. In some places, where I didn't have a clue, I left the questionable clause or phrase unchanged, rather than guess wildly. A thorough review of the article, as it now stands, would be in order, to ensure accuracy. logologist|Talk 11:33, 23 January 2006 (UTC)
 * I think everything up to 'District offices' is correct, although some copyediting - like ensuring that both Polish and English names are used on the first instance, making sure all names have Polish versions for verifications and such may still be needed. For District offices, I think there is some confusion especially regarding different starosta types. I'll read up on that and try to expand and clarify the starosta in PLC issue, time permiting.--Piotr Konieczny aka Prokonsul Piotrus Talk 23:21, 23 January 2006 (UTC)
 * The section on "District offices," meaning urzędy w prowincyjach (18th-century spelling), refers to gród and miasto (it would be well, at the outset, to explicitly use these Polish words). Are we speaking here of two distinct types of communities — perhaps, "castle" and "town"?  Or are these essentially synonyms in the period under discussion (the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth)?logologist|Talk 00:10, 24 January 2006 (UTC)
 * Something to research. Perhaps Gord (Slavic settlement) can prove useful to us?--Piotr Konieczny aka Prokonsul Piotrus Talk 01:15, 29 January 2006 (UTC)
 * Another potential terminological pitfall to watch out for (though I think, in general, it's clarified by context): in English, "court" may mean either dwór or sąd.  logologist|Talk 00:10, 24 January 2006 (UTC)

Not senators
I am pretty sure that the below posts are not senatorial offices, so I am moving them here till we figure out where to add them:--Piotr Konieczny aka Prokonsul Piotrus Talk 17:28, 17 March 2006 (UTC)
 * Marszałek Sejmu — Marshal of the Chamber of Deputies
 * Generał wielkopolski — General of Greater Poland
 * Marszałek Trybunału Koronnego — Marshal of the Crown Tribunal
 * Marszałek Trybunału Litewskiego — Marshal of the Lithuanian Tribunal

List of specific offices
At my sandbox I have prepared lists of voivodes, castellans and other officials. I have not moved it to mainspace yet, because I am still thinking about organisation of the article. Eventually I'd like to easily find on Wiki lists of offices and office holders divided by time (chronologically) and place (geographically), not only hierachicaly (as the current article has it). But adding my current lists to this article would increase its size making it rather ugly. I will be creating stubs soon, but renaming and moving is likely: any advice appreciated.--Piotr Konieczny aka Prokonsul Piotrus Talk 17:37, 17 March 2006 (UTC)
 * Voivodes of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth - done.--Piotr Konieczny aka Prokonsul Piotrus Talk 03:52, 1 April 2006 (UTC)

Koniuszy translation
Why is koniuszy translated as Equerry instead of Master of the Horse?--Piotr Konieczny aka Prokonsul Piotrus Talk 03:52, 1 April 2006 (UTC)

Rotmistrz
The text reads:"Rotmistrz — Commander of an infantry or cavalry regiment". Rota, however was not a regiment, but a company, and Rotmistrz was only exceptionally assigned the duties of a regiment commander. --Jidu Boite (talk) 13:57, 3 May 2010 (UTC)

Latin
I would like to point out that the official language of the Republic until 1795 was Latin. Therefore all the offices listed have Latin names, which were regularly used in official documents, but are missing in this article. -159.205.240.233 (talk) 21:47, 18 June 2016 (UTC)

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text: Category:Pop music

title: Category:Pop music


text:
Rudolfo Anaya

Rudolfo Anaya (October 30, 1937 –June 28, 2020) was an American author. Noted for his 1972 novel Bless Me, Ultima, Anaya was considered one of the founders of the canon of contemporary Chicano and New Mexican literature. The themes and cultural references of the novel, which were uncommon at the time of its publication, had a lasting impression on fellow Latino writers. It was subsequently adapted into a film and an opera.

Early life and education
Rudolfo Anaya was raised in Santa Rosa, New Mexico. His father, Martín Anaya, was a vaquero from a family of cattle workers and sheepherders. His mother, Rafaelita (Mares), was from a family composed of farmers from Puerto De Luna in the Pecos Valley of New Mexico. Anaya grew up with two half-brothers, from his mother's previous marriage, and four sisters. The beauty of the desert flatlands of New Mexico, referenced as the llano in Anaya's writings, had a profound influence on his early childhood.

Anaya's family relocated from rural New Mexico to Albuquerque in 1952, when he was in the eighth grade. He attended Albuquerque High School, graduating in 1956. This experience later appeared as an autobiographical allusion in his novel Tortuga. When he was 16 he sustained a spinal cord injury which left him temporarily paralyzed. Following high school, he earned a B.A. in English and American Literature from the University of New Mexico in 1963. He went on to complete two master's degrees at the University of New Mexico, one in 1968 for English and another in 1972 for guidance and counseling. While earning his master's degrees, Anaya worked as a high school English teacher in the Albuquerque public schools from 1963 until 1968. In 1966, he married Patricia Lawless, who continued to support his writing.

Career
He began writing his best-known work Bless Me, Ultima in 1963, with the manuscript completed and published by Quinto Sol in 1972. Initially, Anaya faced tremendous difficulty getting his work published by mainstream publishing houses because of its unique combination of English and Spanish language, as well as its Chicano-centric content. Independent publishing house Quinto Sol quickly published the book after awarding it the Premio Quinto Sol in 1971 for best novel written by a Chicano. The book went on to sell over 300,000 copies in 21 printings. The themes and cultural references touched on in the novel were uncommon at the time of its publication. Consequently, it ended up having a lasting impact on a generation of Latino writers.

Following the book's success, Anaya was invited to join the English faculty at the University of New Mexico in 1975, where he taught until his retirement in 1993.

Anaya traveled extensively through both China in 1984, and South America following his retirement. His experiences in China are chronicled in his travel journal, A Chicano in China, published in 1986.

During the 1990s, Anaya found an even wider audience as mainstream publishing house Warner books signed him on for a six-book deal beginning with the novel Alburquerque. He subsequently created the Sonny Baca mystery series which included Zia Summer, Rio Grande Fall, Jalamanta: A Message from the Desert, and Shaman Winter. The Anaya Reader, a collection of his works, followed.

Bless Me, Ultima was released as a feature film on February 22, 2013. It was subsequently adapted into an opera three years later. Anaya also published a number of books for children and young adults. His first children's book was The Farolitos of Christmas, published in 1995.

Anaya's non-fiction work has appeared in many anthologies. In 2015, 52 of his collected essays exploring identity, literature, immigration, and politics were published as The Essays with Open Road Media. In summarizing his career, Anaya stated "What I’ve wanted to do is compose the Chicano worldview—the synthesis that shows our true mestizo identity—and clarify it for my community and for myself."

Anaya lived in Albuquerque, where each day he spent several hours writing. He died at his home on June 28, 2020, at the age of 82. He had been suffering from a long illness in the time leading up to his death.

Fiction

 * Bless Me, Ultima (1972), ISBN 0-446-67536-9
 * Heart of Aztlan (1976), ISBN 0-915808-18-8
 * Tortuga (1979), ISBN 0-915808-34-X
 * Silence of the Llano: Short Stories (1982), ISBN 0-89229-009-9
 * The Legend of La Llorona: A Short Novel (1984), ISBN 0-89229-015-3
 * Lord of the Dawn: the Legend of Quetzalcóatl (1987), ISBN 0-8263-1001-X
 * Alburquerque (1992), ISBN 0-8263-1359-0
 * Jalamanta: A Message from the Desert (1996), ISBN 0-446-52024-1
 * Serafina's Stories (2004), ISBN 0-8263-3569-1
 * The Man Who Could Fly and Other Stories (2006), ISBN 0-8061-3738-X
 * Randy Lopez Goes Home: A Novel (Chicana & Chicano Visions of the Americas Series) (2011), ISBN 0806141891
 * The Old Man's Love Story (Chicana & Chicano Visions of the Americas series) (2013), ISBN 0806143576
 * The Sorrows of Young Alfonso (Chicana & Chicano Visions of the Americas series) (2016), ISBN 978-0806152264

Sonny Baca series
The occult detective fiction series following the titular character Sonny Baca.
 * Zia Summer (1995), ISBN 0-446-51843-3
 * Rio Grande Fall (1996), ISBN 0-446-51844-1
 * Shaman Winter (1999), ISBN 0-446-52374-7
 * Jemez Spring (2005), ISBN 0-8263-3684-1

Books for children

 * The Farolitos of Christmas: A New Mexico Christmas Story (1987), ISBN 0-937206-05-9
 * Maya's Children: The Story of La Llorona (1996), illustrated by Maria Baca, ISBN 0-7868-0152-2
 * Farolitos for Abuelo (1998), illustrated by Edward Gonzalez, ISBN 0-7868-0237-5
 * My Land Sings: Stories from the Rio Grande (1999), illustrated by Amy Córdova, ISBN 0-688-15078-0
 * Elegy on the Death of César Chávez (2000), illustrated by Gaspar Enriquez, ISBN 0-938317-51-2
 * Roadrunner's Dance (2000), illustrated by David Diaz, ISBN 0-7868-0254-5
 * The Santero's Miracle: A Bilingual Story (2004), illustrated by Amy Córdova, Spanish translation by Enrique Lamadrid, ISBN 0-8263-2847-4
 * The Curse of the ChupaCabra (2006), ISBN 0-8263-4114-4
 * The First Tortilla (2007), illustrated by Amy Córdova, Spanish translation by Enrique Lamadrid, ISBN 0-8263-4214-0
 * ChupaCabra and the Roswell UFO (2008), ISBN 0-8263-4469-0

Non-fiction and anthologies

 * Voices from the Rio Grande: Selections from the First Rio Grande Writers Conference (1976)
 * Cuentos: Tales from the Hispanic Southwest (1980), with Jose Griego y Maestas, ISBN 0-89013-111-2
 * A Ceremony of Brotherhood, 1680–1980 (1981), edited with Simon J. Ortiz
 * Cuentos Chicanos: A Short Story Anthology (rev. ed. 1984), edited with Antonio Márquez, ISBN 0-8263-0772-8
 * A Chicano in China (1986), ISBN 0-8263-0888-0
 * Voces: An Anthology of Nuevo Mexicano Writers (1987, 1988), editor, ISBN 0-8263-1040-0
 * Aztlán: Essays on the Chicano Homeland (1989), edited with Francisco A. Lomelí, ISBN 0-929820-01-0
 * Tierra: Contemporary Short Fiction of New Mexico (1989), editor, ISBN 0-938317-09-1
 * Flow of the River (2nd ed. 1992), ISBN 0-944725-00-7
 * Descansos: An Interrupted Journey (1995), with Denise Chávez and Juan Estevan Arellano, ISBN 0-929820-06-1
 * Muy Macho: Latino Men Confront Their Manhood, edited and introduction by Ray Gonzales, ISBN 0-385-47861-5
 * Chicano/a Studies: Writing into the Future (1998), edited with Robert Con Davis-Undiano

Poetry

 * Adventures of Juan Chicaspatas (1985), ISBN 0-934770-45-X

Published or performed plays

 * The Season of La Llorona
 * Ay, Compadre! (1994)
 * The Farolitos of Christmas (1987)
 * Matachines (1992)
 * Billy the Kid (1995)
 * Who Killed Don Jose? (1995)
 * Rosa Linda (2013)
 * Bless Me, Ultima (2018)

Bibliographical Resources

 * works and editions: https://faculty.ucmerced.edu/mmartin-rodriguez/index_files/vhAnayaRudolfo.htm

Musical adaptations

 * "La Llorona" (2002) an opera based on his play The Seasons of La Llorona. Libretto by Rudolfo Anaya. Composer, Daniel Steven Crafts  Premiere 2008 National Hispanic Cultural Center
 * "Cancion al Rio Grande" (2007) an orchestral setting of his poem of the same name, written for inclusion into the work for tenor and orchestra, From a Distant Mesa composed by Daniel Steven Crafts. Premiere 2012, New Mexico Philharmonic.

Awards and honors
Source:

 * Premio Quinto Sol literary award, for Bless Me, Ultima, 1970
 * NM Governor's Public Service Award, 1978, 1980
 * Natl Chicano Council on Higher Education fellowship, 1978–79
 * NEA fellowships, 1979, 1980
 * American Book Award, Before Columbus Foundation, for Tortuga, 1980
 * D.H.L., Univ. of Albuquerque, 1981
 * Corporation for Public Broadcasting script development award, for "Rosa Linda," 1982
 * Award for Achievement in Chicano Literature, Hispanic Caucus of Teachers of English, 1983
 * Kellogg Foundation fellowship, 1983–85
 * D.H.L., Marycrest Coll., 1984
 * Mexican Medal of Friendship, Mexican Consulate of Albuquerque, 1986
 * PEN-West Fiction Award, 1992, for Alburquerque
 * NEA National Medal of Arts Lifetime Honor, 2001
 * Outstanding Latino/a Cultural Award in Literary Arts or Publications, American Association of Hispanics in Higher Education (AAHHE), 2003
 * People's Choice Award, 2007 New Mexico Book Awards
 * Notable New Mexican 2007
 * Robert Kirsch Award 2011
 * Lifetime Achievement Award in Literature from the Paul Bartlett Re Peace Prize, 2014
 * Inducted into Albuquerque's Wall of Fame, 2014
 * 2015 National Humanities Medal

title: Rudolfo Anaya


text: Category:Elections in Belarus

title: Category:Elections in Belarus


text:
Scorer's function

In mathematics, the Scorer's functions are special functions studied by and denoted Gi(x) and Hi(x).

Hi(x) and -Gi(x) solve the equation

 * $$y''(x) - x\ y(x) = \frac{1}{\pi}$$

and are given by

 * $$\mathrm{Gi}(x) = \frac{1}{\pi} \int_0^\infty \sin\left(\frac{t^3}{3} + xt\right)\, dt,$$
 * $$\mathrm{Hi}(x) = \frac{1}{\pi} \int_0^\infty \exp\left(-\frac{t^3}{3} + xt\right)\, dt.$$

The Scorer's functions can also be defined in terms of Airy functions:

 * $$\begin{align}

\mathrm{Gi}(x) &{}= \mathrm{Bi}(x) \int_x^\infty \mathrm{Ai}(t) \, dt + \mathrm{Ai}(x) \int_0^x \mathrm{Bi}(t) \, dt, \\ \mathrm{Hi}(x) &{}= \mathrm{Bi}(x) \int_{-\infty}^x \mathrm{Ai}(t) \, dt - \mathrm{Ai}(x) \int_{-\infty}^x \mathrm{Bi}(t) \, dt. \end{align} $$

title: Scorer's function


text: Category:Gaelic football

title: Category:Gaelic football


text:
William Darke

William Darke (1736 – November 26, 1801) was an American soldier who served with British forces before the Revolutionary War. He served with British regulars commanded by Major General Edward Braddock in his 1755 expedition to the French-controlled Ohio Valley, as part of the French and Indian War. The British forces were defeated and Braddock died.

Darke survived to be commissioned as a captain at the beginning of the American Revolutionary War. He was made prisoner at the Battle of Germantown. He was commanding colonel of the Hampshire and Berkeley regiments at the capture of General Cornwallis. Darke was often a member of the Virginia legislature and, during the convention of 1788, voted for the Federal Constitution.

As lieutenant-colonel of the regiment of "Levies" in 1791, he commanded the left wing of St. Clair's army at its defeat by the Miami Indians on November 4, 1791. He made two unsuccessful charges in that fight: his younger son, Captain Joseph Darke, died in the second, and he himself was wounded and barely survived. Darke wrote a letter to President George Washington that described the battle. Afterward, Darke served as a major-general of the Virginia militia.

Early life
William Darke was born in Bucks County, Pennsylvania on May 6, 1736, the son of Joseph Darke and his wife, according to the "Hopewell Friends History." He was descended from early Quaker settlers at the Falls in Bucks County. He was a cousin of Benjamin Rush, signer of the Declaration of Independence.

As a young child in 1740, Darke moved with his family moved to the Elk Branch near Shepherdstown, Virginia. Darke had two brothers and one sister. As a child he contributed to the household: he fished, ploughed, and planted. He was described as "a strong man of his hands", and "herculean".

Military career
During the French and Indian War, Darke served with George Washington in the 1755 Braddock Expedition under the command of British General Edward Braddock. Braddock's plan was to capture Fort Duquesne from the French to gain control over the Ohio River and valley. Even though there were many casualties and the British were defeated, Darke was not injured. Braddock died in the battle.

In the American Revolutionary War, Darke served as a Continental Army captain in the 8th Virginia Regiment; he was wounded and taken prisoner at the Battle of Germantown in 1777. He was held in a British prison ship in New York Harbor until his exchange in 1780. He was promoted to lieutenant colonel and was probably present at the siege of Yorktown in 1781.

After the war, he was sent out against the insurgents in the Whiskey Rebellion in 1784. With peace established, Darke served in the Virginia Convention in 1788 and subsequently was elected to and served in the Virginia legislature. As a lieutenant colonel in the Kentucky militia, Darke commanded the left wing at the disastrous Battle of the Wabash in 1791 during the Northwest Indian War. His son Captain Joseph Darke died as a result of wounds received in the battle.

In 1790, General Josiah Harmar, with a poorly trained and ill-equipped army and volunteer militia, was sent to attack the Northwestern Confederacy of Indians on the upper Maumee River. Harmar was soundly defeated. President George Washington reinforced the army and assigned General Arthur St. Clair to command. St. Clair went north from Fort Washington, Ohio and built Fort Hamilton and Fort Jefferson. On October 1791, St. Clair left Fort Jefferson and camped at a spot later called Fort Recovery on November 3, 1791. On November 4, his army of 1,400 men was surprised at sunrise by a large party of Indians. Within a few hours, St. Clair was forced to retreat under cover provided by Darke. Nine hundred men, women and children were reportedly killed.

Personal life
Darke married Sarah, the widow of William Delayea, an Indian fighter. The two had four children: John, Joseph, Samuel, and Mary. His three sons all died while young men. Darke took in Thomas Worthington, the 14-year-old orphaned son of a family friend, and gave him an education. Worthington became the sixth governor of Ohio. William Darke has descendants through son John's daughter Elizabeth and through daughter Mary's two marriages.

Legacy
Darke County, Ohio is named for him, as is Darkesville, West Virginia.

title: William Darke


text:
Timothy syndrome

Timothy syndrome is a rare autosomal-dominant disorder characterized by physical malformations, as well as neurological and developmental defects, including heart QT-prolongation, heart arrhythmias, structural heart defects, syndactyly (webbing of fingers and toes), and autism spectrum disorders. Timothy syndrome represents one clinical manifestation of a range of disorders associated with mutations in CACNA1C, the gene encoding the calcium channel Cav1.2 α subunit.

Signs and symptoms
The most striking sign of Timothy syndrome type 1 is the co-occurrence of both syndactyly (about 0.03% of births) and long QT syndrome (1% per year) in a single patient. Other common symptoms include cardiac arrhythmia (94%), heart malformations (59%), and autism or an autism spectrum disorder (80% who survive long enough for evaluation). Facial dysmorphologies such as flattened noses also occur in about half of patients. Children with this disorder have small teeth, which is due to poor enamel coating, are prone to dental cavities and often require removal. The average age of death due to complications of these symptoms is 2.5 years,  although there have been multiple reports of patients living in to their mid- or late-twenties.

Timothy syndrome type 2 has largely the same symptoms as the classical form. Differences in the type 2 form are the lack of syndactyly, the presence of musculoskeletal problems (particularly hyperflexible joints), and often hip dysplasia. Patients with Timothy syndrome type 2 also have more facial deformities, including protruding foreheads and tongues.

Children with Timothy syndrome tend to be born via caesarean section due to fetal distress.

Pathophysiology

There are two recognized types of Timothy syndrome, classical (type-1) and a second type (type-2). They are both caused by mutations in CACNA1C, the gene encoding the calcium channel Cav1.2 α subunit. Timothy syndrome mutations in CACNA1C cause delayed channel closing, also known as voltage-dependent inactivation, thus increased cellular excitability.

Both types of Timothy syndromes are caused by mutations in CACNA1C. These mutations are in exon 8 (type 2) and exon 8a (classical form, type 1). Exons 8 and 8A are mutually exclusive exons. Exon 8a is highly expressed in the heart, brain, gastrointestinal system, lungs, immune system, and smooth muscle. Exon 8 is also expressed in these regions and its level is roughly five-fold higher than exon 8a expression.

One mutation is found in patients with classical Timothy syndrome, G406R, located just past the sixth membrane-spanning segment of domain 1 (D1S6). The conserved glycine at this position seems to be vital for proper voltage-dependent inactivation, as the mutant is lacking in this respect. Timothy syndrome type 2 mutations are similar, being the identical G406R mutation in the other splice form. A second mutation resulting in G402S, located a few amino acids upstream, was originally also given the name of type 2, but it is now recognized as a variant that causes non-syndromic LQT8. The effect of the G406R mutations on channel function is identical in the two forms of Timothy syndrome. The lack of proper voltage-dependent inactivation in these mutants causes prolonged inward current and depolarization during cardiac action potentials. This leads to long QT syndrome and resultant arrhythmia. Because exon 8 has greater expression in the heart versus exon 8a, patients with Timothy syndrome type 2 have worsened cardiac defects compared to those with the classical form.

A pig model of the disease, carrying the same mutation as the one found in patients, allowed to identify that the calcium overload state leads the development of a substrate for functional reentry characterised by slowing of cardiac impulse propagation. Single cell studies identified that CaMKII autophosphorylation reduced the peak sodium current, thus causing the slowing of conduction.

Diagnosis
Syndactyly and other deformities are typically observed and diagnosed at birth. Long QT syndrome sometimes presents itself as a complication due to surgery to correct syndactyly. Other times, children collapse spontaneously while playing. In all cases, it is confirmed with ECG measurements. Sequencing of the CACNA1C gene further confirms the diagnosis.

Treatment
Surgery is typically used to correct structural heart defects and syndactyly. Propranolol or other beta-adrenergic blockers are often prescribed, as well as insertion of a pacemaker to maintain proper heart rhythm. With the characterization of Timothy syndrome mutations indicating that they cause defects in calcium currents, calcium channel blockers may be effective as a therapeutic agent.

Prognosis
The prognosis for patients diagnosed with Timothy syndrome is very poor. Of 17 children analyzed in one study, 10 died at an average age of 2.5 years. Of those that did survive, three were diagnosed with autism, one with an autism spectrum disorder, and the last had severe delays in language development. One patient with the G402S mutation was largely normal with the exception of heart arrhythmia. Likewise, the mother of two Timothy syndrome patients also carried the mutation, but lacked any obvious phenotype. In both of these cases, however, the lack of severity of the disorder was due to mosaicism.

History
Some of the abnormalities observed in Timothy syndrome were described in the 1990s. However, it was linked with calcium channel abnormalities in 2004, and the disorder was thence named "Timothy syndrome" in honor of Katherine W. Timothy, who was among the first to identify a case and performed much of the phenotypic analysis that revealed other abnormalities.

title: Timothy syndrome


text:
Hating America: The New World Sport

Hating America: The New World Sport (ISBN 0-06-058010-0) is a 2004 book by John Gibson, a Fox News pundit. The book discusses world reaction to the foreign policy of the United States after the September 11 Terrorist Attacks.

The book received mixed reviews, typically down partisan and ideological lines. Publishers Weekly said that "by lumping this reluctance under the rubric of hatred, Gibson reduces serious policy differences to emotional animus," while a Townhall.com review notes that "Gibson found countless examples of America-hatred, supporting his thesis that many in the international community would like to see the downfall of America."

In a document on Anti-Canadian sentiment in the United States for the International Journal of Canadian Studies, Trevor W. Harrison discussed a chapter in the book that touches on Anti-Americanism in Canada. Gibson writes that Canada, South Korea, and Belgium are all members of an "axis of envy."

title: Hating America: The New World Sport


text:
Wikipedia:Articles for deletion/Baby Boom

Baby Boom
This page has been split into the following: baby boom, baby boomer, year 2000 baby boom and post-WW2 baby boom. The original article refers to baby boom as if it were a single instance, and has now been made redundant by the better categorisation above. Nicholas

 * Redirect Delete . Not well written in the first place, and is now no longer needed. Nicholas 17:39, 22 Oct 2004 (UTC)
 * Of course, I meant redirect :)
 * Redirect to baby boom. [[User:Meelar|Meelar (talk)]] 18:13, Oct 22, 2004 (UTC)
 * Merge non-duplicate info into other articles, then redirect to baby boom. -Sean Curtin 01:40, Oct 23, 2004 (UTC)
 * Keep as merged redirect. D AVODD  [[User_talk:Davodd|« TALK »]] 17:49, Oct 23, 2004 (UTC)

POST SNAFU NOTICE: Baby Boom is an ICONIC TERM widely used in literature, reportage, .... the list goes on and on and on; but is apparently unknown to our childrens generation. The upshot of this vote was the redirect went to Baby Boom (movie) leaving about 35 links using baby boom as an iconic discriptor pointing the wrong places. This was a very poor chain of decisions starting with the cultural ignorance that lead to this Vfd. I'm herewith fixing the redirect to at least point to the Baby boomer article which is on point. Another spin off, is the creation of Baby boom as a seperate article with some merit. What a F%#%&*#$ Mess!!! Please see Me... and do pennanceFra nkB 09:14, 9 April 2006 (UTC)
 * Notified all voters above as follows:
 * I assume by "iconic" you are talking about the post-WW II baby boom rather than other baby booms in history. There is nothing keeping you or anyone else from altering the current Baby Boom article (a redirect page) to better fit into WP. This forum was simply a vote on whether to delete Baby Boom from WP - that proposition failed. I think we all agree an article by that name should exist here. If you do not like the current content of that page, I suggest you be bold and change it, rather than complaining about the folks who voted to keep it around to be changed by future editors. When you do this, you also may want to include a link to a generic Baby Boom (disambiguation) page to assist readers who are trying to find info on the film, the TV series and the various books that went by that name, since they all are proper nouns with the second "B" capitalized. - Davodd 10:15, 9 April 2006 (UTC)


text:
User:FrankP

= Frank Pennycook = I've been a wikipedian since 2004, but I've not always been very active. I have various interests in maths, science, history, philosophy and religion.

Recently I have been concentrating on relatively small edits and fixes on pages as I notice them, topics including the UK (where I am from) and climate change, as well as offering third opinions in cases of dispute.

maths
I studied originally as a mathematician, and worked as a programmer and data scientist. I still retain interests in these fields, as well as general scientific topics.

history
I'm interested in many kinds of historical topics but especially in the early modern era (16th - 17th centuries), also the politics of the 1930s and World War 2 especially the intelligence war.

philosophy
I have studied philosophy, in particular political philosophy, where my focus was on the difficulties of engaging with extremist views within liberal democratic societies.

religion
I am an atheist with a fascination for the study of religion and myth. I've been self-studying koine Greek to the point where I can have a reasonable bash at reading New Testament passages and other contemporary writings. I have in the past conducted funeral ceremonies as a celebrant for the British Humanist Association as a service for people who wish a non-religious ceremony. Due to incompatibility with family commitments I'm not offering this publicly right now, but I do occasionally perform a ceremony or provide advice for close friends or family.

politics
Politically I have generally been a left-liberal, although in recent years I have tended more and more towards cynicism. I am passionate about sustainability and was involved in environmental education and activism for a substantial part of my career (going back to the early 1990s). I am concerned about threats to civil liberties. In the UK, for example, there are restrictions on demonstrations in Parliament Square and the continued growth of surveillance of many kinds. I also support the abolition of the British monarchy, in order to make Britain a republic.

technical
For political and technical reasons, I use free software, such as pelican, apache and zim. My preferred operating system has for the last couple of decades been debian, and for the past few years I've been running it in a nosystemd configuration.

title: User:FrankP


text:
FatWallet

FatWallet was a comparison shopping website, centering on a set of forums that allowed users to publish deals and rebate offers on products and services, with computer-related products and electronics most prominent in the listings. It was headquartered in Beloit, Wisconsin, and ceased operation on October 9, 2017.

Coupons and Cash Back
FatWallet featured a "Coupons" section where users could find discounts from online retailers.

Before being acquired, FatWallet also featured its own "Cash Back" rebate shopping section, in which members received back a percentage of purchases made through referral links to partnered retailers. FatWallet has since ended the cash back program and now directs its members to the program offered by Rakuten.

Forums
FatWallet users posted the sale prices of major retailers, often before they were officially released in retailers' advertisements, which involved the site in a legal dispute in 2002 involving Black Friday advertisements. Several retailers, including Walmart, Target, Best Buy and Staples, have served FatWallet with "take-down" notices pursuant to the Digital Millennium Copyright Act, claiming that their sale prices were copyrighted and must be removed from the FatWallet site. In addition, Wal-Mart served FatWallet with a subpoena to reveal the identity of the users who had posted Wal-Mart's prices, but the demand was later dropped.

Although FatWallet initially complied with the take-down notices due to the fear of liability, within two weeks it reposted the prices and argued that the prices were facts rather than expression, and therefore not subject to copyright. FatWallet filed a lawsuit in the U.S. District Court for the Northern District of Illinois against three of the retailers, seeking damages for knowing assertion of invalid copyright claims and a declaratory judgment that the take-down provisions of the DMCA were unconstitutional. The case, FatWallet, Inc. v. Best Buy Enterprise Services, Inc., was dismissed. The court ruled that FatWallet lacked standing to sue for any harm done to its users for having their postings temporarily removed, and FatWallet did not assert any injury to itself that the court found cognizable.

Since its launch, FatWallet has expanded its forums to include discussion on other financial topics such as investments, banking and credit cards. The Finance forum has been mentioned in The Wall Street Journal and The New York Times referencing personal finance topics including on credit cards and 401K investment tips.

FatWallet launched "Best Deals" in 2009 (initially called "Today's Top Deals"), which features researched deals found on the internet by staff and members. Best Deals also features an "Expert Picks" section where staff research bigger ticket retail products like laptops, computers and HDTVs for the best value for the price, and post their endorsements each week.

Relocation
Between March and April 2011, FatWallet moved to Beloit, Wisconsin, from Rockton, Illinois, in order to avoid termination of affiliate contracts with online retailers such as Amazon.com, which provide about 30% of the company's revenue. An Illinois law passed in March 2011 in anticipation of passage of the U.S. Main Street Fairness Act, required online retailers with Illinois affiliates to collect and remit sales taxes to the state.

Acquisitions
FatWallet was sold to Ebates (now Rakuten Rewards) in 2011, at the same time as AnyCoupons, and later merged with Ebates to form a new company called Performance Marketing Brands. Former owner and founder Tim Storm stayed on as a strategic adviser for the new company.

FatWallet's parent company, Ebates (now Rakuten Rewards) was sold to Rakuten, as announced September 9, 2014. FatWallet was wholly sold during the transaction.

Shutdown
On September 20, 2017, Tim Storm posted on his Facebook page the following:

Shortly thereafter, a FatWallet employee confirmed that FatWallet's owner, Rakuten, would be shutting down the website, but was unable to provide further details.

On September 22, 2017, FatWallet General Manager Ryan Washatka officially confirmed the site would be shutting down, although the timeline was yet to be determined.

On October 9, 2017, at approximately 4:00 p.m. EST, the site went offline and began redirecting to Ebates.com.

Awards
FatWallet was twice named one of the "50 Best Places To Work in America" by the Best Places To Work Institute and Entrepreneur magazine. It was ranked at #20 on the list for best small businesses in 2010, and #13 in 2011. Founder Tim Storm was also named as one of four finalists for Entrepreneur of 2010 by Entrepreneur.com.

title: FatWallet


text: Category:French physicians

title: Category:French physicians


text: Category:1566 deaths

title: Category:1566 deaths


text: Category:1566 births

title: Category:1566 births


text: Category:Faroese language

title: Category:Faroese language


text:
Box social

Box social is a term for a social event that was widely used in the early 1900s with varying definitions in Canada, the United Kingdom and the United States.

American usage
In the U.S. state of Vermont the tradition is that women decorate a cardboard box and fill it with a lunch or dinner for two. The men bid on the women's boxes anticipating a meal with the woman whose box it is. Generally the boxes are anonymous, so the men don't know which woman belongs to which box, nor what the box contains, the mystery and sometimes humorous results adding to the fun. However, it is not unknown for a young woman to surreptitiously drop hints to a favored man indicating which box is hers, as a way of rigging the results. The bidding involves teasing, joking, and competition. The event frequently takes place in a town hall, school gymnasium, or church hall.

The practice had fallen out of favor with young people in the 1970s–1990s, but has seen some resurgence in recent years. The rules today have become less rigid. Men now provide boxes as well, but the goal remains the same: raising money for a school, church, or civic project.

A notable example from pop culture is the second act of the musical Oklahoma!, which is set at a box social.

title: Box social


text:
Talk:Dependent variable

If $$f(x)=y$$ then y is the dependent variable. -[unsigned by 204.50.150.168 at 11:43, 22 October 2004]

Regarding the first sentence: "In experimental design, a dependent variable is a variable dependent on another variable (called the independent variable)". I think trying to define one item by using a word of the item in question makes it unclear. E.g. "a dependent variable is a variable dependent on another variable..." It might be best to use another word other than dependent to make it a bit more understandable. Just my $0.02. -therearenospoons 02:38, 22 February 2006 (UTC)

 * The definition is obviously tautological. Two other definitions were used in earlier versions of this article, and neither of them had this problem. Why not return to one of them? They were:

 * a variable whose values in different treatment conditions are compared
 * a variable which is not manipulated by an experimenter

 * John FitzGerald 19:40, 20 March 2006 (UTC)
 * Response variable is the more common term. Dependent has fallen into disuse, because dependent and independent already have assigned meanings in statistics.--Theblackgecko 22:44, 11 April 2006 (UTC)

A Google search for combinations of dependent variablee and experimental design produced 285,000 hits, while a similar search with response variable sunstituted for dependent variable produced only 71,000, so dependent variable doesn't seem to have fallen into disuse. If you could qualify the assertion (for example, among whom has it fallen into disuse?) and add the other meaning of dependent variable to the article that would be helpful. John FitzGerald 03:00, 21 July 2006 (UTC)

Looks like there is some confusion from the overlap of the usage of dependent variables by statistics and in experiments. Would it be better to split this article in two? Littlepinkpig 00:37, 22 September 2006 (UTC)

Saving this text because it is useful, but not immediately relevant to the article. Perhaps it could be a "see also" item, or integrated into an existing page. LightYear 05:04, 22 November 2006 (UTC)

"There are also continuous variables, for example if you were timing the beetroot experiment, time would be a continuous variable because it is never going to change, regardless of other variables."

In the first paragraph:
 * In analysis, researchers usually want to explain why the dependent variable has a given value

Perhaps it would make sense to change this to:
 * In analysis, researchers usually want to explain why the dependent variable has an observed value

Thoughts? Lbthrice 03:16, 28 January 2007 (UTC)

 * Good suggestion, but perhaps a certain value is better, since in analysis, as apposed to physical science, there may be no guarantee that the dependent variable has been observed as such. Perhaps it was calculated, suggested, reported or otherwise came about. --LightYear 01:00, 29 January 2007 (UTC)

cleanup
See talk:independent variable. Michael Hardy 22:45, 9 March 2007 (UTC)

title: Talk:Dependent variable


text:
Talk:Purple Heart

Appearance
Is there a specific reason that the colors are capitalized under the Appearance header? RaD Man 17:44, 22 Oct 2004 (UTC)

Common Title for war movies
Term "Purple Heart" has been used at least 3 times as the title for war movies. See imdb.com for details. —The preceding unsigned comment was added by Bbirrell (talk • contribs) 05:47, 11 June 2005.

Moved Here
Moved the below section here, since its become obsolete due to BRAC. There is an office in Fort Knox now that handles all the award determinations for the Army. Also, this appears to have been a strictly Army specific section, and was slightly misleading as this is not how USAF, USN, USMC, or USCG vets would go about getting a replacement PH Medal.

 * A Purple Heart may be issued to a fallen veteran's next of kin in the event that they are deceased. Issue will be made automatically by the Commanding General, PERSCOM, upon receiving a report of death indicating entitlement. For those who became Prisoners of War after 25 April 1962, the Purple Heart will be awarded to individuals wounded while prisoners of foreign forces, upon submission by the individual to the Department of the U.S. Army of an affidavit that is supported by a statement from a witness, if this is possible. Documentation and inquiries should be directed to Commander, PERSCOM, ATTN: TAPC-PDA, Alexandria, VA 22332-0471. Any member of the U.S. Army who believes that he or she is eligible for the Purple Heart, but through unusual circumstances no award was made, may submit an application through military channels, to Commander, PERSCOM, ATTN: TAPC PDA, Alexandria, VA 22332-0471. Application will include complete documentation, to include evidence of medical treatment, pertaining to the wound.

A Commons file used on this page or its Wikidata item has been nominated for deletion
The following Wikimedia Commons file used on this page or its Wikidata item has been nominated for deletion: Participate in the deletion discussion at the. —Community Tech bot (talk) 21:37, 14 February 2022 (UTC)
 * Purple Heart Medal.png

A Commons file used on this page or its Wikidata item has been nominated for deletion
The following Wikimedia Commons file used on this page or its Wikidata item has been nominated for deletion: Participate in the deletion discussion at the. —Community Tech bot (talk) 20:10, 2 July 2022 (UTC)
 * Purple.heart.jpg

Notable Recipients addition
Yogi Berra was a 10-time world series winner, and considered by some to be the greatest catcher in major league baseball. He received a purple heart for his service in WWII from 1943-1945. 2601:40D:4280:25A0:9D6C:D0A5:6C07:D84F (talk) 00:38, 20 July 2022 (UTC)

Why are Mr. Dole and Mr. Kerry listed as Presidential candidates, but not Mr. McCain? Is this an incompletion, or is there a reason? SandyJax (talk) 18:52, 10 August 2022 (UTC)

 * This should be considered. We should honor all purple heart recipients. 45.22.130.42 (talk) 05:14, 27 February 2024 (UTC)

title: Talk:Purple Heart


text: Category:1230s births

title: Category:1230s births


text: Category:1230s deaths

title: Category:1230s deaths


text:
Category:Disco songs

This is a category for articles about disco songs.

title: Category:Disco songs


text: Category:230s births

title: Category:230s births


text:
Wikipedia talk:WikiProject Military history/Arab-Israeli conflict related pages

Darke County
Why is Darke County, Ohio on this page? Is it because there is a town called Palestine, Ohio there? PedanticallySpeaking 17:46, Oct 22, 2004 (UTC)


text:
Wikipedia:Articles for deletion/Granny Goose

from VfD:

Seems to be the day for commerce. From the folks that brought you Starbucks and Miss Tuna. — Bill 21:46, 15 Oct 2004 (UTC)
 * Delete: This one's a good test case. Unlike the other two, I've never encountered the brand before.  So, what did I learn?  That it is a brand of chips (potato chips a la America, not a la UK) somewhere.  Where?  Where is it based?  When was it founded?  What are its annual sales?  What is unique or notable about this one...except that it has a goose for its logo?  What I learned is that they make potato chips and someone is obsessed with logos. Geogre 02:14, 16 Oct 2004 (UTC)
 * Delete unless a clear case can be made for motability. -- Jmabel | Talk 02:53, Oct 16, 2004 (UTC)
 * Delete. AFAIK, these chips were only made and sold west of Utah, and the company's goose was cooked in 2000. Therefore, they're rather non-notable today. Garrett Albright 03:57, 16 Oct 2004 (UTC)
 * D Wolfman 16:47, 16 Oct 2004 (UTC)
 * Keep. Was a notable company. Origin of the phrase "Interesting! Provocative! Well-seasoned!" Didn't know they'd gone out of business, although that explains why I haven't seen them around lately (and they were everywhere when I was a kid).   — Gwalla | Talk 22:02, 16 Oct 2004 (UTC)
 * Yeah, and the cowboy actor Phil Carey played Granny Goose. Their ads were ... cute.  But it's still not notable.  Delete.  RickK 23:16, Oct 16, 2004 (UTC)
 * Keep, don't see any reason to delete. Just because the company is gone doesn't necessarily mean it's non-notable. [[User:Rhymeless|Rhymeless | (Methyl Remiss)]] 04:16, 17 Oct 2004 (UTC)
 * The advertising was quite memorable. The guy who plays "Asa Buchanan" on "One Life to Live" was the Granny Goose cowboy character.  Still, if the responsible party can't be bothered to go beyond the painfully obvious, this should be deleted.  Granny Goose deserves an article as does Chicken of the Sea, IMO, but this isn't even a start. - Lucky 6.9 05:18, 17 Oct 2004 (UTC)

 * Keep and expand. I would like to read more information about this company and was unaware that they went out of business.  Further more, just because you haven't heard of a company does not make it less notable, nor does the fact that it is no longer in business.  RaD Man 23:40, 18 Oct 2004 (UTC)
 * Keep and exchange the scissors for a pencil. — siro  χ  o  11:31, Oct 19, 2004 (UTC)
 * Keep. All companies are notable. anthony (see warning) 17:18, 19 Oct 2004 (UTC)
 * Every single company that has ever existed is notable, as is every single person who has ever existed, according to Anthony. Anthony is seriously looking to get Wikipedia to become the phone book.  RickK 21:53, Oct 19, 2004 (UTC)
 * Phone numbers and addresses generally aren't notable, so your accusation is completely without merit. anthony (see warning) 22:59, 19 Oct 2004 (UTC)

end moved discussion