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Green Hill Zone

Green Hill Zone (グリーンヒルゾーン) (or simply Green Hill) is the first level of the platform game Sonic the Hedgehog, which released for the Sega Genesis in 1991. The level is grassy and lush, with environmental features such as palm trees, vertical loops and cliffs, and is the home of numerous forest animals. Like the game's other levels, Green Hill comprises 3 acts; in the third, Sonic fights antagonist Doctor Eggman before moving to the second level, Marble Zone. It was constructed by level designer Hirokazu Yasuhara with its musical theme by Masato Nakamura.

Green Hill Zone is considered to be a classic video game level, akin to the first stage of Super Mario Bros., World 1-1. The level and its music have also received positive opinions from critics. It has appeared in other games in the series, such as Sonic Adventure 2, Sonic Generations, Sonic Mania, Sonic Forces, and Sonic Frontiers. Critics have noted a Green Hill-like aesthetic in levels of other games.

Description
Green Hill is the first level of Sonic the Hedgehog. Located on South Island, it is a lush, grassy stage with unique features like droopy palm trees and crumbling cliffs. In addition, as with later levels in the game, Green Hill has environmental features and obstacles like ramps, vertical loops, tunnels, spring-boards, spikes, and checkpoints. It is normally populated by woodland creatures, but antagonist Doctor Eggman imprisons them inside robots known as Badniks prior to the events of the game, so the player must destroy them to free the animals. Green Hill consists of three acts, and the end of Act 3 features a boss battle with Robotnik. After beating Robotnik, Sonic moves on to the second level, the lava-themed Marble Zone.

Development
Sonic the Hedgehog was created by the newly formed Sonic Team, a 15-member Sega subsidiary formed to create a character that could compete with Nintendo's Mario. The game's level design was handled by Hirokazu Yasuhara, and the musical theme was composed by Masato Nakamura from the Japanese band Dreams Come True. In designing Green Hill, Yasuhara was inspired by the U.S. state of California, while the game's color scheme in general was influenced by the work of pop artist Eizin Suzuki.

The game's programmer, Yuji Naka, stated that it took him almost a year to create Green Hill and that it was created and destroyed multiple times before arriving at the final version.

Appearances
While the original game was a 2D side-scroller, Green Hill was remade in full 3D as a secret level in the 2001 game Sonic Adventure 2; the player unlocks it after collecting all 180 of the emblems found by completing the game's many objectives. The 2011 game Sonic Generations, a title that revisits past entries in the Sonic series, features both 2D ("Classic") and 3D ("Modern") versions of Green Hill, as well as of numerous other Sonic levels. A reinterpretation of the level appears in the 2017 title Sonic Mania. Green Hill reappears in Sonic Forces, having partially turned to desert due to resource depletion by Eggman's industries. Digital recreations of Green Hill appear in the 2022 game Sonic Frontiers as part of the game's Cyber Space levels.

In addition, Green Hill appears as a stage in the 2.5D fighting game Sonic Battle, in the tennis video game Sega Superstars Tennis, in the sports video game Mario & Sonic at the Sochi 2014 Olympic Winter Games, in the mobile title Sonic Dash, in the crossover adventure game Lego Dimensions, and in the crossover fighting games Dengeki Bunko: Fighting Climax and the Super Smash Bros. series. In the 2020 film Sonic the Hedgehog, Green Hill is depicted as Sonic's original home. The film series also features Sonic and his friends living a small town in Montana named Green Hills.

Merchandise
A Lego Ideas set based on the level was released on January 1, 2022. It received mixed reception from Alice Clarke of Kotaku, who called it "not the most thrilling build", remarking that its price was high, but that Sonic fans would love it.

Reception
Green Hill Zone has been recognized by critics as a classic, well-known video game level. It has been described as "classic" by Samit Sarkar of Polygon and by Jim Sterling and Chris Carter of Destructoid. Comparably, Joe Skrebels of Official Nintendo Magazine called it "nostalgic", while Christopher Grant from Joystiq considered it to have a place "in the center of your retro-gaming shrine". Kevin Wong of Complex stated that the game's and level's popularity were such that "even if you didn't have a Genesis, this was the level you played at the department store while your parents went shopping." Craig Snyder at MakeUseOf named the level as one of the five best levels in video games, calling it "a great way to prepare for what’s to come".

The level's background music was particularly noted as memorable. Andy Kelly from Computer and Video Games called the Green Hill theme a "monumental slice of Sega nostalgia", and GamesRadar writer Justin Towell also referred to it as classic. Game Informer's Tim Turi found the level's music "catchy", and Wong ranked it as the thirteenth greatest piece of gaming music from the 16-bit era.

Legacy
Later Sonic games often included callbacks to Green Hill. Turi noted that Emerald Hill from Sonic the Hedgehog 2, Mushroom Hill from Sonic & Knuckles, and Seaside Hill from Sonic Heroes all fit the same general mold as Green Hill, claiming that "gamers have played Green Hill Zone dozens of times." However, he opined that the Sonic Generations version of the original Green Hill "trounces them all" in both its 2D and 3D incarnations. Justin Baker of Nintendo World Report and Skrebels both analogized Windy Hill from Sonic Lost World to Green Hill, while Carter thought similarly of The Legend of Zelda downloadable content levels. The decision to include Green Hill in other games in the series, such as Sonic Forces, has been a source of debate among some fans, who believe that Sega has overused the stage since its debut.

The version of Green Hill featured in Sonic Mania became one of that game's most "hotly contested" speedrun courses due to its added complexity in comparison to the original. The fastest route through the level was noted as constantly shifting between the top, middle, or bottom segments as speedrunners further optimized the path. Trihex, a notable speedrunner, called the level "a monster" due to its difficulty, including timed platforms.

To mark Sonic's fifteenth anniversary in 2006, Sega released a papercraft version of Green Hill as a PDF on its website. In 2011, not long after the release of Sonic Generations, Sega held a contest inviting gamers to upload YouTube video playthroughs of the game's 3D version of Green Hill completed in less than one minute and fifty seconds; winners were eligible for Sonic merchandise.

During the 30th anniversary of Sonic, Nakamura and Dreams Come True released "Tsugi no Se~no! De - On The Green Hill - DCT version", a single of the Green Hill Zone theme which introduced lyrics to the theme for the first time was released on July 7, 2021. A music video followed just a few months after the single's release in September of that year. An alternate version of the track with more Genesis/Megadrive sounding instruments was released sometime after the single and was titled the "Masado & Miwasco version".

title: Green Hill Zone


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Gerard Lake, 1st Viscount Lake

Gerard Lake, 1st Viscount Lake (27 July 1744 – 20 February 1808) was a British general. He commanded British forces during the Irish Rebellion of 1798 and later served as Commander-in-Chief of the military in British India.

Background
He was the son of Lancelot Charles Lake (d. 1751) of Harrow-on-the-Hill and his wife Letitia Gumley, daughter of John Gumley. He was educated at Eton College.

Lake entered the foot guards in 1758, becoming lieutenant (captain in the army) in 1762, captain (lieutenant-colonel) in 1776, major in 1784, and lieutenant colonel in 1792, by which time he was a general officer in the army. He served with his regiment in Germany between 1760 and 1762, and with a composite battalion in the Battle of Yorktown of 1781. After this he was equerry to the Prince of Wales, afterwards George IV. His younger brother Warwick served as a groom of the bedchamber for the Prince, and later oversaw his stables of racehorses.

In 1790, he became a major-general, and in 1793 was appointed to command the Guards Brigade in the Duke of York and Albany's army in Flanders during the French Revolutionary Wars. He was in command at the successful Battle of Lincelles on 18 August 1793, and served on the continent (except for a short time when seriously ill) until April 1794. He later sold his lieutenant-colonelcy in the guards, and became colonel of the 53rd Regiment of Foot and governor of Limerick in Ireland. In 1797 he was promoted to lieutenant-general.

American War of Independence
As lieutenant-colonel Lake went out with drafts to America in the spring of 1781, made the campaign in North Carolina under Lord Cornwallis, and commanded the grenadiers of the guards and of the old 80th royal Edinburgh regiment in a sortie, under Colonel Robert Abercromby, from the British lines at York Town, which inflicted heavy loss on the French and American besiegers, on 11 October that year. After the surrender of Cornwallis's force [on 19 October 1781] Lake remained prisoner on parole until the end of the war. Hugh Wodehouse Pearse reports that "Lake was one of the three field officers selected by lot to take charge of the troops in captivity, but, as he was anxious for private reasons to proceed to England, Major Gordon of the 76th [sic] [80th] Regiment generously volunteered to take his place. Major, then Lieut.-Colonel, Gordon died in captivity.

1798 rebellion in Ireland
In December 1796 he was appointed commander in Ulster and issued a proclamation ordering the surrender of all arms by the civil population, during which time he was 'untroubled by legal restraints or by his troops' violent actions'. Historians have generally seen Lake's Dragooning of Ulster in 1797 as effective in disarming and crippling the Society of United Irishmen in that province, although his effectiveness has been questioned. Lake succeeded Sir Ralph Abercromby as Commander-in-Chief, Ireland in April 1798 and turned his attention to Leinster, where 'public floggings and torture of suspected rebels became widespread and added to the general atmosphere of terror'. Rather than cowing the province into submission, 'his crude methods probably contributed to the outbreak of insurrection' in May 1798. Lake continued to deal harshly with opposition, and issued orders to take no prisoners during the rebellion.

In May Lake commanded troops in County Kildare, and, after the unsuccessful rebel attack on Naas on 24 May, he assisted General Ralph Dundas in ensuring the rebel surrender after the Battle of Kilcullen, which Dundas arranged on humane terms. Another rebel force on the nearby Curragh were also persuaded to surrender, but while this was being arranged by Lake the rebels were mistakenly attacked by separate government forces coming from the opposite direction, resulting in the Gibbet Rath executions on 29 May. As a result, central Kildare remained quiet for the rest of 1798.

Lake then took overall command of a force of some 20,000 troops to crush the Wexford rebels and defeated the main rebel army at Vinegar Hill (near Enniscorthy, County Wexford) on 21 June. His harsh treatment towards Irish rebels found bearing arms brought him into conflict with Lord Cornwallis who was appointed Lord Lieutenant of Ireland in June 1798 and instituted an amnesty act to encourage rebels to lay down their arms.

Cornwallis sent Lake to oppose a French expedition of 1,000 troops which had landed at Killala Bay, County Mayo on 23 August. On 29 August, Lake arrived at Castlebar with a force of 1,700 (composed of mainly of militia, fencibles and yeomanry) and witnessed the rout of his troops under General Hely-Hutchinson (afterwards 2nd Earl of Donoughmore) at the Battle of Castlebar. Lake failed to rally his largely inexperienced troops and was forced to retreat to Tuam; the speed of which (and abandonment of material, artillery and Lake's personal baggage) led the rout to become known as the 'Races of Castlebar'. Hely-Hutchinson shouldered much of the blame, but it was accepted that Lake's troops were inexperienced and a head-on battle with the seasoned French force was probably to be avoided. However, rumours also abounded that Lake had been drinking heavily the night before the battle and was only woken with difficulty while the French were already attacking.

He defeated the French at the Battle of Ballinamuck on 8 September.

Indian campaigns
In 1799, Lake returned to England, and soon afterwards travelled to British India where he was appointed Commander-in-Chief. He took up his duties at Calcutta in July 1801, and applied himself to the improvement of the East India Company army, especially in the direction of making all arms, infantry, cavalry and artillery, more mobile and more manageable. In 1802 he was made a full general.

On the outbreak the Second Anglo-Maratha War in 1803 General Lake took the field against Daulat Scindia, and within two months defeated the Marathas at Kol (now called Aligarh), after storming Aligarh Fort during the Battle of Ally Ghur (1 September 1803). He then took Delhi (11September) and Agra (10October), and won a victory at the Battle of Laswari (1 November), where the power of Scindia was completely broken with the loss of 31 disciplined battalions, trained and officered by Frenchmen, and 426 pieces of ordnance. This defeat, followed a few days later by Major-General Arthur Wellesley's victory at the Battle of Argaon, compelled Scindia to come to terms, and a treaty was signed in December 1803.

Operations continued against Yashwantrao Holkar, who, on 17 November 1804, defeated Lake at the Battle of Farrukhabad. Lake was now very frustrated by the Jats and Yashwantrao Holker at Bharatpur which held out against five assaults early in 1805. Cornwallis succeeded Lord Wellesley as Governor-General of India in July of that year – superseding Lake at the same time as commander-in-chief – and determined to put an end to the war. Cornwallis, however, died in October of the same year and Lake pursued Holkar into the Punjab. However, after seeing the stronger position of Holkar and his effort to gather all Indian princes under one flag against the British, the British East India Company signed a peace treaty with Holkar which returned to him all his territory and promised no further interference from the Company.

Lord Wellesley in a despatch attributed much of the success of the war to Lake's matchless energy, ability and valour. For his services, Lake received the thanks of Parliament, and, in September 1804, was rewarded by being created Baron Lake of Delhi and Laswary and of Aston Clinton in the County of Buckingham. From 1801 to 1805 Lake was Commander-in-Chief, India, then again from 1805 to 1807 as his successor John Graves Simcoe had died before heading off to India. At the conclusion of the war he returned to England, and in 1807 he was created Viscount Lake of Delhi and Laswary and of Aston Clinton in the County of Buckingham.

One of his sons Major George Augustus Frederick Lake accompanied him in Ireland and then India, acting as his aide-de-camp and military secretary during the campaign: at one stage offering his mount when the elder Lake's horse had been shot from under him at an engagement near the village of Mohaulpoor. Minutes after seeing his father mounted Major Lake was seriously wounded in the presence of his father. Major G A F Lake recovered from his wound and went on to command the 29th Regiment of Foot during the Peninsular Campaign. He was killed in action at the Battle of Roliça, Portugal on 17 August 1808.

Parliamentary career
Like many contemporaries, Lake pursued both a parliamentary and military career. He represented Aylesbury in the British House of Commons from 1790 to 1802, and he also was brought into the Irish House of Commons by the government as member for Armagh Borough in 1799 to vote for the Act of Union.

Later years
Viscount Lake was recorded as being an inveterate gambler who lost most of his family's fortune. He died in London on 20 February 1808 leaving his children with little or no inheritance. This was seen by many at court and the then prime minister the Duke of Portland, as a sad end for such a stalwart of Empire and his children. Portland made a special request to King George III to remedy the situation, particularly with respect to the unmarried Lake daughters.

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title: Gerard Lake, 1st Viscount Lake


text: User talk:216.114.229.197

title: User talk:216.114.229.197


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Category:Archaeological cultures

An archaeological culture is a pattern of similar artefacts and features found within a specific area over a limited period of time. They are sometimes termed Techno-Complexes (Technology-Complexes) to differentiate them from sociological cultures. As the archaeological cultures refer only to material items, sometimes even the purpose of which is uncertain, the word "culture" can be misleading.

This category currently also includes archaeological industries which are similar to archaeological cultures but are limited only to artefact types.

title: Category:Archaeological cultures


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User talk:209.175.47.158

"Disputed Kings and Queens of Narnia" listed at Redirects for discussion
The redirect [//en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Disputed_Kings_and_Queens_of_Narnia&redirect=no Disputed Kings and Queens of Narnia] has been listed at redirects for discussion to determine whether its use and function meets the redirect guidelines. Anyone, including you, is welcome to comment on this redirect at  until a consensus is reached. Utopes (talk / cont) 22:06, 8 April 2024 (UTC)

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German Air Force

The German Air Force (Luftwaffe, ) is the aerial warfare branch of the Bundeswehr, the armed forces of Germany. The German Air Force (as part of the Bundeswehr) was founded in 1956 during the era of the Cold War as the aerial warfare branch of the armed forces of West Germany. After the reunification of West and East Germany in 1990, it integrated parts of the air force of the former German Democratic Republic, which itself had been founded in 1956 as part of the National People's Army. There is no organizational continuity between the current German Air Force and the former Luftwaffe of the Wehrmacht founded in 1935, which was completely disbanded in 1945/46 after World War II. The term Luftwaffe that is used for both the historic and the current German air force is the German-language generic designation of any air force.

The commander of the German Air Force is Lieutenant General Ingo Gerhartz. As of 2015, the German Air Force uses eleven air bases, two of which host no flying units. Furthermore, the Air Force has a presence at three civil airports. In 2012, the German Air Force had an authorized strength of 28,475 active airmen and 4,914 reservists.

History

After World War II, German aviation was severely curtailed, and military aviation was completely forbidden after the Allied Control Commission disbanded the Nazi-era Luftwaffe in August 1946. This changed in 1955 when West Germany joined NATO, as the Western Allies believed that Germany was needed to counter the increasing military threat posed by the Soviet Union and its Warsaw Pact allies. Therefore, on 9 January 1956, a new German Air Force called Luftwaffe was founded as a branch of the new Bundeswehr.

Many well-known fighter pilots of the Wehrmacht's Luftwaffe joined the new post-war air force and underwent refresher training in the US before returning to West Germany to upgrade on the latest U.S.-supplied hardware. These included Erich Hartmann, Gerhard Barkhorn, Günther Rall and Johannes Steinhoff. Steinhoff became commander-in-chief of the Luftwaffe, with Rall as his immediate successor. Another pilot of World War II, Josef Kammhuber, also made a significant career in the post-war Luftwaffe, retiring in 1962 as Chief Inspector of the Air Force (Inspekteur der Luftwaffe).

Despite the partial reliance of the new air force on airmen who had served in the Wehrmacht 's air arm, there was no organizational continuity between the old and the new Luftwaffe. This is in line with the policy of the Bundeswehr on the whole, which does not consider itself a successor of the Wehrmacht and does not follow the traditions of any other previous German military organization.

First years
The first volunteers of the Luftwaffe arrived at the Nörvenich Air Base in January 1956. In the same year, the Luftwaffe was given with its first aircraft, the US-made Republic F-84 Thunderstreak. At first, the Luftwaffe was divided into two operational commands, one in Northern Germany, aligned with the British-led Second Allied Tactical Air Force, and the other in Southern Germany, aligned with the American-led Fourth Allied Tactical Air Force.

In 1957, the Luftwaffe took command of the Army Air Defence Troops located in Rendsburg and began the expansion of its own air defense missile capabilities. The first squadron to be declared operational was the Air Transport Wing 61 at Erding Air Base, followed by the 31st Fighter-Bomber Squadron at Büchel Air Base. In 1958, the Luftwaffe received its first conscripts. In 1959, the Luftwaffe declared the 11th Missile Group in Kaufbeuren armed with MGM-1 Matador surface-to-surface tactical nuclear cruise missiles operational. The same year Fighter Wing 71 (Jagdgeschwader 71) equipped with Canadair CL-13 fighters became operational at Ahlhorner Heide Air Base. All aircraft sported—and continue to sport—the Iron Cross on the fuselage, harking back to the pre-March 1918 days of World War I, while the national flag of West Germany is displayed on the tail.

Cold War
In 1963, the Luftwaffe saw its first major reorganization. The two operational Air Force Group Commands – Command North and Command South were both split into two mixed Air Force divisions containing flying and air defense units and one Support division. Additionally, a 7th Air Force division was raised in Schleswig-Holstein containing flying units, missile units, support units, and the German Navy's naval aviation and placed under command of Allied Forces Baltic Approaches.

In 1960, the Luftwaffe received its first Lockheed F-104 Starfighter jets. The Starfighter remained in service for the entire duration of the Cold War, with the last being taken out of service in 1991. The Luftwaffe received 916 Starfighters, 292 of which crashed, resulting in the deaths of 116 pilots. The disastrous service record of the Starfighter led to the Starfighter crisis in 1966 as a reaction to 27 Starfighter crashes with 17 casualties in 1965 alone. The West German public referred to the Starfighter as the Witwenmacher (widow-maker), fliegender Sarg (flying coffin), Fallfighter (falling fighter) and Erdnagel (tent peg, literally "ground nail").

On 25 August 1966, the German Defence Minister Kai-Uwe von Hassel relieved the Chief Inspector of the Air Force Generalleutnant Werner Panitzki, and transferred Colonel Erich Hartmann, commanding officer of the 71st Fighter Squadron, as both had publicly criticized the acquisition of the Starfighter as a "purely political decision". On 2 September 1966, Johannes Steinhoff, with Günther Rall as deputy, became the new Chief Inspector of the Air Force. Steinhoff and his deputy Günther Rall noted that the non-German F-104s proved much safer. The Americans blamed the high loss rate of the Luftwaffe F-104s on the extremely low-level and aggressive flying of German pilots rather than any faults in the aircraft. Steinhoff and Rall went to America to learn to fly the Starfighter under Lockheed instruction and noted some specifics in the training (a lack of mountain and foggy-weather training), combined with handling capabilities (rapidly initiated, high G turns) of the aircraft that could cause accidents. Steinhoff and Rall, therefore, changed the training regimen for the F-104 pilots, and the accident rates fell to those comparable or better than other air forces. They also brought about the high level of training and professionalism seen today throughout the Luftwaffe, and the start of a strategic direction for Luftwaffe pilots to engage in tactical and combat training outside of Germany. However, the F-104 never lived down its reputation as a "widow-maker", and was replaced by the Luftwaffe with the McDonnell Douglas F-4 Phantom II fighter and the Panavia Tornado fighter-bomber in many units much earlier than in other national air forces.

On Steinhoff's initiative, the Luftwaffe opened the German Air Force Command USA/Canada (Deutsches Luftwaffenkommando USA/Kanada) in Fort Bliss, where the Luftwaffe trained its missile and air defense troops, and pilots received their basic training. At the same time, the Luftwaffe opened a Tactical Training Command in Beja, Portugal, where pilots were trained in Close Air Support missions.

Between 1967 and 1970, the Luftwaffe undertook a major reorganization of its forces. The two operational commands were disbanded and the four mixed Air Force divisions were divided into two flying divisions and two air defense divisions. The remainder of the units were divided into functional commands:
 * Air Force Operation Command (Luftwaffenführungsdienstkommando), with the signal regiments, the radar, and the signals intelligence units
 * Air Force Training Command (Luftwaffenausbildungskommando), with the schools and training regiments
 * Air Force Support Command (Luftwaffenunterstützungskommando), with all logistical, maintenance, and repair units, and the Material Office of the Air Force
 * Air Force Transport Command (Lufttransportkommando), with the air transport squadrons.

Over the next decade, the Luftwaffe received large amounts of new equipment, including in 1968 the first C-160 Transall transport planes, in 1974 the F-4 Phantom II fighter-bombers, in 1978 the first Alpha Jet Version A light attack jets and in 1979 the first of 212 Panavia Tornado fighters.

In 1986, the air defense forces began to replace their Nike Hercules missile systems with state-of-the-art surface-to-air missile systems: first to arrive was the MIM-104 Patriot system, followed one year later by Roland short-range missile system.

Nuclear sharing
Germany is participating in NATO's nuclear sharing concept. Nuclear sharing is a concept that involves member countries without nuclear weapons of their own in the planning for the use of nuclear weapons by NATO, and in particular, provides for the armed forces of these countries to be involved in delivering these weapons in the event of their use.

Soon after its founding, the German Air Force began to train with the US Seventeenth Air Force in handling, arming, and delivering nuclear weapons. At first, the F-104 Starfighter was intended to be used solely as a nuclear delivery platform, armed with nuclear air-to-air and air-to-surface missiles, as well as nuclear bombs. The Tornado was the second air force plane fielded that was capable of delivering nuclear ammunition, although it was limited to delivering B61 nuclear bombs.

From 1965 through 1970, Missile Wings 1 and 2 fielded 16 Pershing 1 missile systems with nuclear warheads under U.S. Army custody. In 1970, the system was upgraded to Pershing 1a with 72 missiles. Although not directly affected by the 1988 Intermediate-Range Nuclear Forces Treaty, the Luftwaffe unilaterally removed the Pershing 1a missiles from its inventory in 1991, and the missiles were destroyed. At the end of the Cold War, more than 100,000 soldiers served in the Luftwaffe.

The United States still lends nuclear weapons for hypothetical use by the Luftwaffe under the nuclear sharing agreement. In 2007, 22 B61 nuclear bombs were still kept in Germany, stored at the Büchel Air Base for use with Tornado IDS fighter-bombers of the Tactical Air Force Wing 33. The American nuclear weapons formerly stored at Nörvenich Air Base, Ramstein Air Base, and Memmingen Air Base were all withdrawn from Germany during the mid-and-late-1990s.

By international treaties between Germany and the "Big Four" powers in Europe (that formerly occupied Germany), East Germany was a nuclear-free zone. The Big Four powers are the United States, Russia, the United Kingdom, and France, and the latter three have no nuclear weapons in Germany anymore.

Reunification

After German reunification in October 1990, the aircraft and personnel of the former GDR air force, the Luftstreitkräfte der NVA were taken. The remnants of the East German Air Force were placed under the newly formed 5th Air Force Division (5. Luftwaffendivision) in Strausberg. In 1993, the division was renamed 3rd Air Force Division (3. Luftwaffendivision), moved to Gatow in Berlin and in 1995 assigned to NATO. By 1990, the East German plane markings had been replaced by the Air Force Iron Cross, the first time Soviet-built aircraft had served in a NATO air force. However, as the Luftstreitkräfte der NVA were supplied exclusively with Eastern Bloc-produced aircraft, such as the Sukhoi Su-17, MiG-21, MiG-23 and MiG-29 fighters, most of the equipment was not compatible with the West German NATO equipment and therefore taken out of service and sold or given to new members of NATO in Eastern Europe, such as Poland and the Baltic states.

An exception to this was the Fighter Wing 3 "Vladimir Komarov " (Jagdfliegergeschwader 3 " Vladimir Komarov ") in Preschen Air Base. The Fighter Wing 3 flew brand new MiG-29 fighters. On 1 June 1993, the wing was renamed Fighter Wing 73 (Jagdgeschwader 73) and on 1 October 1994 completed its move to its new home at Laage Air Base. The pilots of JG 73 were some of the most experienced MiG-29 pilots in the world. One of their primary duties was to serve as aggressor pilots, training other pilots in dissimilar combat tactics. The United States sent a group of fighter pilots to Germany during the Red October exercise to practise tactics against the aircraft they were most likely to meet in real combat. The MiG-29s of JG 73 were fully integrated into the Luftwaffe 's air defence structure and the first Soviet Bloc aircraft to be declared operational within NATO. With the introduction of the Eurofighter Typhoon imminent, the decision was taken to withdraw the MiG-29. All German MiG-29s, save one, were sold to Poland for the symbolic price of €1 apiece. On 9 August 2004, the last MiG-29s landed in Poland where they continue to serve in the 41st Tactical Squadron of the Polish Air Force.

Operations in the Balkans
The Luftwaffe experienced combat action for the first time since World War II during September 1995 in the course of Operation Deliberate Force, when six IDS Tornado fighter-bombers, equipped with forward looking infrared devices, and escorted by eight ECR Tornados, supported NATO's artillery missions on positions of the Bosnian Serbs around Sarajevo, Bosnia & Herzegovina.

In March 1999, the Luftwaffe became involved in a direct combat role as part of the Kosovo War along with the other NATO powers. This event was noted as significant in the British press with The Sun running the headline "Luftwaffe and the RAF into battle side by side". The Luftwaffe sent in Fighter Bomber Wing 32, equipped with ECR Tornados, which flew missions to suppress enemy air defenses in and around Kosovo.

These fighter-bombers were equipped with an electronic countermeasures pod, one AIM-9 Sidewinder air-to-air missile for self-defence, and an AGM-88 HARM air-to-ground missile (anti-radar). The bomber wing flew 2108 hours and 446 sorties, firing 236 HARM missiles at hostile targets. No manned Luftwaffe planes were lost in combat during this campaign.

2000s
In 2005 and 2008, Luftwaffe F-4F Phantom II fighter planes took part in the Baltic Air Policing operation (of NATO), and these fighters were supplemented in 2009 by units flying the Typhoon.

In 2006, to support military operations in Afghanistan, the Luftwaffe sent over several Panavia Tornado reconnaissance planes from the 51st Reconnaissance Wing "Immelmann" (Aufklärungsgeschwader 51 "Immelmann"), stationed in Mazar-i-Sharif, Northern Afghanistan. There have also been assorted German Army helicopters flying from the Luftwaffe Air Base in Mazar-i-Sharif. Also, Luftwaffe C-160 Transall have flown transport plane missions in and around Afghanistan.

Since the 1970s, the West German (and, post-reunification, German) Luftwaffe (as well as many other European air forces) has actively pursued the construction of European internationally made warplanes, such as the Panavia Tornado and the Eurofighter Typhoon introduced into the Luftwaffe in 2006.

On 13 January 2004, the Minister of Defence, Peter Struck, announced major changes in the future of the German armed forces. A major part of this announcement was a plan to cut the number of fighter planes from 426 in early 2004, to 265 by 2015. Assuming that the plans to order 180 Typhoons is carried out in full, and all of the F-4 Phantoms are removed from service, this would cut the number of Tornado fighter-bombers down to just 85.

In the past, the Bundesmarine's naval air wing (Marineflieger) received 112 Tornado IDS planes. However, in late 2004, the last unit of Bundesmarine Tornados was disbanded. The entire maritime combat role was assigned to the Luftwaffe, one unit of which has had its Tornado fighters equipped to carry Kormoran II missiles and American HARM missiles.

2010s
As of 2014, a significant proportion of Germany's military aircraft was reported to be unserviceable. It was reported that around half of the Eurofighters and Tornados were not currently airworthy and that the aging C-160 fleet remained in limited service while awaiting the introduction of the Airbus A400M, the first of which was delivered in December 2014. Ursula von der Leyen admitted that, due to the poor state of the Bundeswehr 's equipment, Germany was no longer able to fulfill its NATO commitments.

The German Air Force was one of the founding members of the European Air Transport Command headquartered in Eindhoven - The Netherlands and most of the Transport & Tanker assets have been transferred under EATC management. The replacement of four Airbus A310 MRTT by the Airbus A330 MRTT was approved in 2018 by joining the acquisition of four by the Royal Netherlands Air Force.

Future plans are the replacement of the aging Sikorsky CH-53 Sea Stallion, which was acquired in the 1970s, by Boeing CH-47 Chinook or Sikorsky CH-53K King Stallion. A bid for a heavy transport helicopter program or STH (Schwerer Transporthubschrauber) was initiated in 2018. However, the award was suspended in 2020 due to the high price tag on both helicopters.

The Luftwaffe participated in the Israeli Air Force exercise "Blue Flag", the country's largest international air combat exercise, designed to simulate extreme combat scenarios. The German Air Force's six Eurofighter Typhoon fighter jets were from Tactical Air Force Squadron 73 Steinhoff from Rostock. It is the first German participation in the Blue Flag exercise.

In 2018, the Air Force issued a request for information from manufacturers about four potential aircraft to replace the aging Panavia Tornados - the Eurofighter Typhoon, F-15 Advanced Eagle, F/A-18E/F Super Hornet and F-35 Lightning. In January 2019, it was announced that the F-35 Lightning had been dropped from the shortlist, with the Eurofighter Typhoon and Boeing F/A-18E/F Super Hornet under consideration.

The German Air Force will acquire three C-130J Super Hercules Transport and three KC-130J Tanker Aircraft (delivery planned 2020–2021), which will be jointly operated with the French Air Force's two C-130J and two KC-130J Aircraft (delivery planned 2018–2019).

2020s
In April 2020, the German government announced its intention to gain approval for the purchase of 30 Boeing F/A-18E/F Super Hornets, 15 EA-18G Growlers, and 55 Eurofighter Typhoons as replacements for the Tornado fleet. However, as of the same month such approval was unlikely to occur before 2022. The Super Hornet was selected due to its compatibility with nuclear weapons and availability of an electronic attack version. As of March 2022, the Super Hornet has not been certified for the B61 Mod 12 nuclear bombs, but Dan Gillian, head of Boeing's Super Hornet program, previously stated that "We certainly think that we, working with the U.S. government, can meet the German requirements there on the [German's] timeline."

In December 2021, Air Transport Wing 63 in Hohn Air Base and with it, the last remaining German C-160 Transalls were disbanded, with the A400M and C-130J serving as the German tactical transport aircraft in the future.

In March 2022, German Minister of Defence Christine Lambrecht announced that Germany intends to buy 35 Lockheed Martin F-35A Lightning II fighter jets instead of Super Hornets to replace the Tornado, the only aircraft Germany possess capable of carrying US nuclear weapons. Another ten may be added to the initial order. Germany intends to also order 15 Eurofighter Typhoon electronic warfare aircraft in place of Growlers.

In April 2022, as a continuation of the STH program, Germany has chosen the CH-47F Chinook to replace its aging fleet of Sikorsky CH-53 Sea Stallion. According to Reuters report, Germany will purchase 60 CH-47Fs with a contract worth around 5 billion EUR (US$5.40 billion).

In August 2022, Germany sent six Eurofighter Typhoon fighter jets, three Airbus A330 MRTT tankers and four Airbus A400M Atlas transports to take part in Exercise Pitch Black in Australia, in the air force's largest peacetime deployment.

From June 12 to June 23, 2023, the German Air Force hosted Air Defender 23, the largest exercise of NATO air forces since its creation with 25 nations and up to 10,000 troops participating.

Structure

The current commander of the German Air Force is Lieutenant General Ingo Gerhartz. The Inspector of the Air Force (Inspekteur der Luftwaffe) is the commander of Air Force Command (Kommando Luftwaffe), a body created in 2013 by the merger of the Air Force Office (Luftwaffenamt), German Air Staff (Führungsstab der Luftwaffe), and Air Force Forces Command (Luftwaffenführungskommando). Similar to the Air Staff of the United States Air Force, the German Air Force Command is a force-providing command, not an operational command. The Air Force Command is tasked with ensuring the combat readiness of the German Air Force combat units, which during operations would either be commanded by a NATO command or the Joint Operations Command of the Bundeswehr. The Air Force command directly controls three higher commands.

The creation of the Air Force Command was part of a reorganization of the Bundeswehr as a whole, announced by Thomas de Maizière in 2011, which also involved the Air Force shrinking to 23,000 soldiers and thus undergoing major restructuring at all levels. In addition to the higher command authorities, the three air divisions, the Air Force Training Command, and Air Force Weapon Systems Command were disbanded. The three surface-to-air missile units will merge into a single wing in Husum in Northern Germany. The wing fields 14 MIM-104 Patriot and 4 MANTIS systems. The three air transport wings will be merged into a single wing based at Wunstorf Air Base, which will field 40 A400M Atlas transport planes. The Luftwaffe will field three Multirole Eurofighter Wings, each with two squadrons for a total of 143 Eurofighter Typhoon. A fighter-bomber wing fielding Panavia Tornado IDS planes remains in service at Büchel Air Base. The Reconnaissance Wing 51 will remain in service at Schleswig Air Base and add one drone squadron to its Panavia Tornado ECR squadron.

The Kommando Luftwaffe has two main elements subordinate to it:
 * Air Operations Command (Zentrum Luftoperationen der Luftwaffe), responsible for providing command and control to air operations
 * Air Force Forces Command (Luftwaffentruppenkommando)

Individual Air Force units are either part of the Air Force Operational Forces Command or the Support Forces Command. They only fall under the command of the Air Operations Command when on deployment or attached to EU or NATO organizations.

Air Operations Command
The main subordinate elements of the Air Operations Command are:
 * Air Operations Center (NATO CAOC Uedem), in Uedem, responsible for NATO's Integrated Air Defense System North of the Alps
 * Air Force Support Group (Luftwaffenunterstützungsgruppe), in Kalkar
 * Control and Reporting Center 2 (Einsatzführungsbereich 2), in Erndtebrück
 * Operations Squadron 21, in Erndtebrück
 * Operations Support Squadron 22, in Erndtebrück
 * Sensor Platoon I, in Lauda
 * Remote Radar Post 240 "Loneship", in Erndtebrück with GM 406F
 * Remote Radar Post 246 "Hardwheel", on Erbeskopf with HADR
 * Remote Radar Post 247 "Batman", in Lauda with GM 406F
 * Remote Radar Post 248 "Coldtrack", in Freising with GM 406F
 * Remote Radar Post 249 "Sweet Apple", in Meßstetten with HADR
 * Sensor Platoon II, in Auenhausen
 * Remote Radar Post 241 "Crabtree", in Marienbaum with Hughes HR-3000
 * Remote Radar Post 242 "Backwash", in Auenhausen with GM 406F
 * Remote Radar Post 243 "Silver Cork", in Visselhövede with GM 406F
 * Remote Radar Post 244 "Round up", in Brockzetel with HADR
 * Remote Radar Post 245 "Bugle", in Brekendorf with GM 406F
 * Control and Reporting Training Inspection 23, in Erndtebrück
 * Education and Training Center, in Erndtebrück
 * Education, Test and Training Group, in Erndtebrück
 * Control and Reporting Center 3 (Einsatzführungsbereich 3), in Schönewalde
 * Operations Squadron 31, in Schönewalde
 * Operations Support Squadron 32, in Schönewalde
 * Sensor Platoon III, in Cölpin
 * Remote Radar Post 351 "Matchpoint", in Putgarten with RRP-117
 * Remote Radar Post 352 "Mindreader", in Cölpin with RRP-117
 * Remote Radar Post 353 "Teddy Bear", in Tempelhof with RRP-117
 * Remote Radar Post 356 "", in Elmenhorst with RRP-117
 * Sensor Platoon IV, in Regen
 * Remote Radar Post 354 "Blackmoor", in Döbern with RRP-117
 * Remote Radar Post 355 "Royal Flash", in Gleina with RRP-117
 * Remote Radar Post 357 "", on Döbraberg with RRP-117
 * Remote Radar Post 358 "Snow Cap", on Großer Arber with RRP-117
 * Deployable Control and Reporting Centre, in Schönewalde
 * Air Force Command Support Center (Führungsunterstützungszentrum der Luftwaffe), in Köln-Wahn
 * German Representation at NATO's Allied Air Command, at Ramstein Air Base
 * German Representation at Joint Air Power Competence Centre, in Kalkar
 * German Representation at European Air Transport Command, in Eindhoven Air Base
 * German Representation at NATO Airborne Early Warning & Control Force Command, at NATO Air Base Geilenkirchen
 * German Representation at Alliance Ground Surveillance, in Sigonella Air Base

Air Force Forces Command
The main subordinate elements of the Air Force Operational Forces Command are:

Directly subordinated institutions:
 * Air Force Air and Space Medicine Center, at Köln-Wahn Air Base

Subordinated flying units:
 * Tactical Air Force Wing 31 "Boelcke", at Nörvenich Air Base, with Eurofighter Typhoon
 * Tactical Air Force Wing 33, at Büchel Air Base, with Tornado IDS
 * Tactical Air Force Wing 51 "Immelmann", at Schleswig Air Base, with Tornado IDS/ECR
 * Tornado flight training returned from Holloman AFB, USA to Schleswig-Jagel as a squadron under the Immelmann Wing
 * Tactical Air Force Wing 71 "Richthofen", at Wittmundhafen Air Base, with Eurofighter Typhoon
 * Tactical Air Force Wing 73 "Steinhoff", at Laage Air Base, with Eurofighter Typhoon (Typhoon OCU)
 * Tactical Air Force Wing 74, at Neuburg Air Base, with Eurofighter Typhoon
 * Air Transport Wing 62, at Wunstorf Air Base with A400M Atlas
 * Helicopter Wing 64, at Laupheim Air Base and Holzdorf Air Base
 * Flying Group, at Laupheim Air Base with CH-53 Sea Stallion and H145M LUH SOF
 * Air Transport Group, at Holzdorf Air Base with CH-53 Sea Stallion
 * Executive Transport Wing, at Köln-Wahn Airport
 * 1st Air Transport Squadron at Köln-Wahn Airport with Airbus A330 MRTT
 * 2nd Air Transport Squadron at Köln-Wahn Airport with A340-300 VIP, Airbus A321, A319CJ, Global 5000 and
 * 3rd Air Transport Squadron at Berlin-Tegel Airport with AS532 U2 Cougar
 * Air Force Tactical Training Command USA, Sheppard AFB, Texas
 * German Representation at Euro NATO Joint Jet Pilot Training, Sheppard AFB, Texas with T-6 Texan II and T-38C Talon
 * German Air Force Training Squadron 2, at NAS Pensacola, Florida
 * German Air Force Training Squadron 3, at Phoenix Goodyear Airport, Arizona
 * Electronic Warfare Flying Weapon Systems Center, in Kleinaitingen

Subordinated ground based units:
 * Air Defence Missile Wing 1 "Schleswig-Holstein", in Husum Air Base
 * Air Defence Missile Group 21, in Sanitz and Prangendorf with MIM-104 Patriot
 * Air Defence Missile Group 24, in Bad Sülze with MIM-104 Patriot
 * Air Defence Missile Group 26, in Husum Air Base with MIM-104 Patriot
 * Air Defence Missile Group 61, in Todendorf with MANTIS (part of the Royal Netherlands Army's Joint Ground-based Air Defence Command since April 2018)
 * Air Defence Missiles Tactical Training and Instruction Center, in Fort Bliss, Texas
 * Air Defence Missiles Training Center, in Husum
 * Air Force Regiment "Friesland", at Jever Air Base
 * Battalion I (Infantry), at Jever Air Base
 * Battalion II (Logistics, Sappers, Firefighters), at Diepholz Air Base
 * Air Force Officer School, in Fürstenfeldbruck
 * Air Force Non-Commissioned Officer School, in Appen and Heide
 * Air Force Training Battalion, in Germersheim
 * Air Force Support Group, at Köln-Wahn Air Base

Subordinated support units:
 * Weapon System Support Center 1, at Erding Air Base
 * Maintenance Center 11, at Erding Air Base
 * Maintenance Center 12, in Ummendorf
 * Maintenance Center 13, at Landsberg/Lech Air Base
 * Maintenance Center 14, at Ingolstadt/Manching Air Base
 * Weapon System Support Center 2, at Diepholz Air Base
 * Maintenance Center 21, at Diepholz Air Base (will move to Holzdorf Air Base)
 * Maintenance Center 23, at Wunstorf Air Base
 * Maintenance Center 24, at Trollenhagen Air Base (will move to Laage Air Base)
 * Maintenance Center 25, in Erndtebrück
 * Maintenance Center 26, at Wunstorf Air Base
 * Air Force Technical Training Center, at Faßberg Air Base
 * Air Force Technical Training Center North, at Faßberg Air Base
 * Air Force Technical Training Center South, at Kaufbeuren Air Base
 * Air Force Professional College, at Faßberg Air Base
 * German Representation at the NATO Programming Center, in Glons, Belgium

North American training centers
In light of the destroyed infrastructure of West Germany post–World War II, the restrictions on aircraft production placed on Germany and the later restrictive flying zones available for training pilots, the reconstructed Luftwaffe trained most of its pilots tactically away from Germany, mainly in the United States and Canada where most of its aircraft were sourced.

During the 1960s and 1970s, a very large number of Luftwaffe jet crashes—the Luftwaffe suffered a 36 percent crash rate for F-84F Thunderstreaks and an almost 30 percent loss of F-104 Starfighters—created considerable public demand for moving Luftwaffe combat training centers away from Germany.

As a result, the Luftwaffe set up two tactical training centers: one, like those of many of the NATO forces, at the Royal Canadian Air Force base at Goose Bay; and the second in a unique partnership with the United States Air Force at Holloman Air Force Base in New Mexico (F-104 pilots had already been trained at Luke Air Force Base, Arizona, since 1964). Both facilities provide access to large unpopulated areas, where tactical and combat training can take place without danger to large populations.

On 1 May 1996, the Luftwaffe established the German Air Force Tactical Training Center (TTC) in concert with the United States Air Force 20th Fighter Squadron at Holloman Air Force Base in New Mexico, which provides aircrew training in the F-4F Phantom II. The TTC served as the parent command for two German aircrew training squadrons. The F-4 Training Squadron oversaw all German F-4 student personnel affairs and provided German instructor pilots to cooperate in the contracted F-4 training program provided by the U.S. Air Force (20th Fighter Squadron). A second TTC unit, the Tornado Training Squadron, provided academic and tactical flying training, by German air force instructors, for German Tornado aircrews.

The first contingent of Tornado aircraft arrived at Holloman in March 1996. More than 300 German air force personnel were permanently assigned at Holloman to the TTC, the only unit of its kind in the United States. The German Air Force Flying Training Center was activated on 31 March 1996, with German Air Force Chief of Staff Gen. Portz and U.S. Air Force Chief of Staff Gen. Michael Ryan present. The Luftwaffe had stationed up to 800 personnel at Holloman for training exercises, due to limited training space in Europe.

In September 2004, the Luftwaffe announced a reduction in its training program by about 20%. By the end of 2006, 650 Luftwaffe personnel and 25 Tornado aircraft were assigned to Holloman.

On 12 April 2016, the Ministry of Defence decided to close the TTC by 2019 to consolidate the reduced operation of remaining Tornado aircraft in Germany. Approximately 450 personnel and 14 Tornado aircraft were stationed Holloman at the time. Training for the Tornado transitioned to the Tactical Air Force Wing 51 "Immelmann" at Schleswig Air Base and the remaining Air Force Tactical Training Command USA relocated to Sheppard Air Force Base by December 2019.

Air bases
In 2020, the Air Force uses 12 air bases, four of which host no flying units. Furthermore, the Air Force has a presence at three civilian airports incl. the Airport Berlin Tegel which has been closed in November 2020:

Personnel
In 2012, the Air Force had an authorized strength of 44,565 active airmen/women and 4,914 reservists. The civil personnel within the Air Force is being reduced to 5,950 officials and employees. Most of the civilian employees work in maintenance and the Air Force Fire Department. On 20 September 2011 defense minister Thomas de Maizière announced that the Air Force would shrink to 23,000 airmen/women.

Training
The Luftwaffe has set up a total of 5 training institutions, namely the Offizierschule der Luftwaffe, Unteroffizierschule der Luftwaffe, Luftwaffenausbildungsbataillon, Fachschule der Luftwaffe and Technische Ausbildungszentrum der Luftwaffe, for training catering both personnel in active service and civilians willing to enter the Luftwaffe.

Roundel and serial number

Originally German Air Force aircraft carried an Iron Cross—appearing to be closely modeled on that used by the 1916-17 era Imperial German Luftstreitkräfte through the spring of 1918, but no longer have the white border around the crosses' "ends" (thusly resembling the orthogonal white "flanks" of the earlier, 1918-1945 era Balkenkreuz national marking)—as an identifying feature on all four wing positions and on both sides on the rear of the fuselage and a small tricolor German flag painted on the vertical stabilizer. Each aircraft also carried a serial number consisting of two letters, which identified the service and combat wing, followed by three numbers identifying the squadron and the number of the plane within the squadron, almost graphically resembling the USAF's own buzz numbers of the same period.

This system was changed in 1968. The large Iron Cross and serial numbers have since been replaced on all aircraft by a four-digit registration code, marked on the aircraft somewhat in the manner of the earlier alphanumeric Geschwaderkennung combat wing code characters used by their World War II predecessor—separated by an Iron Cross in the middle: the first pair of numbers identify the type of aircraft and the second pair are sequential for each type. For example, the Tornado IDS of the Air Force are numbered from 4301 to 4622, while the Tornado ECR of the Air Force is numbered from 4623 to 4657 and the numbers from 3001 to 3399 are being used for the Eurofighter. The 4-digit serial number is often portrayed in print with a "+" between the two pairs of numbers as a placeholder to indicate where the Iron Cross would separate the numbers when painted on the aircraft, for example the new A350 fleet (1001 to 1003) can be written as "10+01", etc.

Uniform
The ranks of the Air Force are identical to the ranks of the German Army. The Air Force field dress is the same as the army field dress. The dress uniform of the Air Force is dark blue with gold-yellow wings as collar patches. As headdress a dark blue side cap or dark blue peaked cap can be worn. Members of the German Air Force Regiment wear a dark blue beret.

Commissioned officer ranks
The rank insignia of commissioned officers.

Other ranks
The rank insignia of non-commissioned officers and enlisted personnel.

Aircraft

NOTE: Germany is participating in the MRTT program for their aerial refueling needs, along with contracting Noordzee Helikopters Vlaanderen to provide H145 rotorcraft training

Radars
The Air Force has several radar types under its command including the Ground Master 406F a RRP 117 system, a Hensoldt ASR-S radar and the Italian made Selex RAT-31DL radar which provides a 3D picture of controlled airspace.

title: German Air Force


text:
Poás Volcano

The Poás Volcano (Volcán Poás), is an active 2697 m stratovolcano in central Costa Rica and is located within Poas Volcano National Park. It has erupted 40 times since 1828, including April 2017 when visitors and residents were evacuated. The volcano and surrounding park were closed for nearly 17 months, with a 2.5 kilometer safety perimeter established around the erupting crater. On September 1, 2018, the park reopened with limited access only to the crater observation area and required a reservation to be made on the National Park Website. Adjacent trails to Lake Botos as well as the museum at the visitor center remained closed. The volcano erupted briefly twice in September 2019.

Crater lakes
There are two crater lakes near the summit. The northern lake is known as the Laguna Caliente ("hot lagoon") and is located at a height of 2,300 m in a crater approximately 0.3 km wide and 30 m deep. It is one of the world's most acidic lakes. The acidity varies after rain and changes in volcanic activity, sometimes reaching a pH of almost 0. The bottom of this lake is covered with a layer of liquid sulfur. Acidity, lake temperature fluctuations, and a complex, toxic sulfur and iron chemistry (conjectured to be like conditions on early Earth and Mars) limits aquatic life to specially-adapted Acidiphilium bacteria. Above ground, acid gases create acid rain and acid fog, causing damage to surrounding ecosystems and often irritation of eyes and lungs.

Lake Botos, the southern lake, fills an inactive crater, which last erupted in 7500 BC. It is cold and clear, and is surrounded by a cloud forest within the National Park boundaries.

Eruptive history

On May 17, 1953, an eruption occurred that started a cycle that lasted until 1956. At least two people were reported missing.

Poás was near the epicenter of a 6.1-magnitude earthquake in January 2009 that killed at least forty people and affected Fraijanes, Vara Blanca, Cinchona (the most affected area), the capital San José, and the Central Valley region of Costa Rica.

There was also eruptive activity in 2009 involving minor phreatic eruptions and landslides within the northern active crater. Poás eruptions often include geyser-like ejections of crater-lake water.

On February 25, 2014, a webcam from the Volcanological and Seismological Observatory of Costa Rica (OVSICORI) captured the moment a dark cloud exploded about 1,000 feet in the air from a massive crater of the Poás Volcano. This volcano remains active today. Poás is one of 9 volcanoes currently monitored by the Deep Earth Carbon Degassing Project. The project is collecting data on the carbon dioxide and sulfur dioxide emission rates from subaerial volcanoes.

2017 Activity
On April 9, 2017, National Park officials placed restrictions on visitors at Poas due to an increased volume of toxic gases at the summit crater. An explosion on April 12 caused park officials to close the popular park to visitors. The measure was termed "temporary." Some nearby residents were also evacuated.

On April 14, 2017, two eruptions at 07:39 and 07:57 created an over three kilometer ash and vapor column. Further explosions occurred April 16.

Following a substantial blast on April 22 that sent incandescent rocks over a large area which damaged park buildings and infrastructure, Costa Rica President Luis Guillermo Solis toured the surrounding towns the following two days. Business owners described the negative financial impacts the volcano park closure were causing, and Solis released a video in Spanish and English urging potential tourists to visit the nearby community shops and restaurants. He also promised emergency agencies would continue to make updated reports on the eruption. As of September 1, 2018, the National Park has re-opened with limited access and revised regulations. Visitors are required to make an online reservation to enter the park and the number of visitors and time allowed at the crater is limited. Only the main crater observation area is open as of September 2018. As of April 2023, while some adjacent trails remain closed, the trail to the Lake Botos is open.

2019 Activity

 * February 11, 2019: According to the Volcanological and Seismological Observatory of Costa Rica (OVSICORI), the eruption began at 1:50 a.m. Monday and sent a column of ash 200 meters above the crater.
 * September 30, 2019, 05:41: Eruption of ash and solid material, with a 2 kilometer column, in contrast of previous water vapor activities on September 23, 2019.

IUGS geological heritage site
In respect of it being 'an iconic and type example of an arc shield-like massive stratovolcano and type example of an active crater lake complex', the International Union of Geological Sciences (IUGS) included 'The Poás volcano' in its assemblage of 100 'geological heritage sites' around the world in a listing published in October 2022. The organisation defines an IUGS Geological Heritage Site as 'a key place with geological elements and/or processes of international scientific relevance, used as a reference, and/or with a substantial contribution to the development of geological sciences through history.'

title: Poás Volcano


text:
Neustadt, Eichsfeld

Neustadt is a village and a former municipality in the Eichsfeld district, in Thuringia, Germany. Since 1 December 2010, it is part of the municipality Am Ohmberg.

title: Neustadt, Eichsfeld


text:
In flight

In baseball, the rules state that a batted ball is considered in flight when it has not yet touched any object other than a fielder or his equipment. Such a ball can be caught by a fielder to put the batter out.

Once a batted ball touches the ground, a fence or wall, a foul pole, a base, the pitcher's rubber, an umpire, or a baserunner, it is no longer in flight. A batted ball that passes entirely out of the playing field ceases to be in flight when that occurs; if it was between the foul poles at that moment, then it is a home run which entitles the batter (and any other runners on base) to score.

A special rule exists in covered baseball facilities (retractable or fixed roofed), where a batted ball striking the roof, roof supporting structure, or objects suspended from the roof (e.g., speakers) while in fair territory is still considered to be in flight. Rules for batted balls striking any of those objects in foul territory differ between ballparks, with most considering such a ball to still be in flight, and some considering it to be a foul ball and dead from the time it strikes.

Fly out
If a batted ball (other than a foul tip, with less than 2 strikes) is caught in flight, the batter is out—called a fly out—and all runners must tag up, meaning that they are out if a fielder with possession of the ball touches their starting base (time-of-pitch base) before they do. A batted ball cannot be ruled foul or fair while in flight; a batted ball that is past first or third base will be called foul or fair based on where it ceases to be in flight, or where it is first touched by a fielder, whichever occurs first. A fly out on a ball in foul territory is also called a foul out. A foul tip, which by definition is always caught in flight, is a strike by special rule, and not an out, unless caught as a 3rd strike.

Home run
If a batted ball passes out of the playing field in flight and is fair, it is an automatic home run, entitling the batter and all runners to score without liability to be put out. However, if the fence or other barrier is less than 250 feet from home plate, a ball hit past that fence in flight and fair shall be ruled an automatic double. In the United States, such short fences are very rare even in the lowest-level amateur ballfields. Fields with short fences can be commonplace in some countries where baseball is less popular; often, soccer fields have to be used, resulting in a very short left or right field.

The shortest fair fences in Major League Baseball are both in Boston's Fenway Park; the shortest fence that is nearly perpendicular to the foul line is the Green Monster. The left foul pole, renamed "Fisk's Pole" in honor of Carlton Fisk's famous home run in the 1975 World Series, stands 310 feet away from home plate. The right field foul pole, known as Pesky's Pole, is 302 feet down the right field line, although the wall there is nearly parallel to the foul line as it curves back to the distant right field wall at 380 feet. From 1958 through 1961, the Los Angeles Dodgers played home games in Los Angeles Memorial Coliseum, a stadium built for track and field; without the ability to move any of the permanent stadium structure, the Dodgers configured the field to result in a 251-foot left field foul line distance.

title: In flight


text:
Silkerode

Silkerode is a village and a former municipality in the district of Eichsfeld in Thuringia, Germany. Since 1 December 2011, it is part of the municipality Sonnenstein, of which it is an Ortschaft.

title: Silkerode


text:
Steinrode

Steinrode is a former municipality in the district of Eichsfeld in Thuringia, Germany. Since 1 December 2011, it is part of the municipality Sonnenstein, of which it is an Ortschaft. The Ortschaft Steinrode consists of the villages Werningerode and Epschenrode.

title: Steinrode


text:
Talk:Naval Flight Officer insignia

Coast Guard Flight Officer
I found several links to pictures of a Coast Guard Flight Officer Badge, but nothing to signify what a CGFO does in the Coast Guard, whether it's an officer or enlisted qualification, or even if this is still an open career path. Although I trained with Coast Guard Student Naval Aviators when I went through flight school, I can attest that there are no Coast Guard Student Naval Flight Officers amongst the USN, USMC, and German Navy SNFO's, or USAF, Saudi, Singapore, German, and Italian Air Force Student Navigators that I currently instruct at NAS Pensacola, Florida. Anyone have more info on Coast Guard Flight Officers that could be used to create a nice stub? Chris 19:24, 30 Sep 2004 (UTC)

 * It was hard to find info about it, but the CG Historian's Office had a little which said it was a badge mainly used in the 1920s and 1930s. I wrote an article based on what I had.  I found a reference to the badge being awarded in the 1980s but it apparently was a special case. Husnock 6 Oct 2004

title: Talk:Naval Flight Officer insignia


text:
Stöckey

Stöckey is a village and a former municipality in the district of Eichsfeld in Thuringia, Germany. Since 1 December 2011, it is part of the municipality Sonnenstein, of which it is an Ortschaft.

title: Stöckey


text: File:A5200 Missile Command.png

title: File:A5200 Missile Command.png


text:
Cajarc

Cajarc is a commune in the Lot department, Occitania, France.

It is a stopping place on the Via podiensis, the medieval pilgrimage route from Le Puy-en-Velay to Santiago de Compostela, but also attracts tourists on account of its medieval town centre, its plan d'eau, a 4 km-long dammed section of the river Lot, and its beautiful setting in the Lot valley and the surrounding limestone plains (le causse). Its major cultural event is Africajarc, a four-day festival of contemporary African music and culture which runs in the last week of July each year; in 2008 it celebrated its tenth anniversary.

Notable people
Cajarc was the birthplace of playwright, novelist and screenwriter Françoise Sagan (1935–2004) born Françoise Quoirez.

President of France Georges Pompidou was an MP for the area in the National Assembly.

title: Cajarc


text:
File:A5200 Rescue On Fractalus.png

Fair use in Atari 5200, First-person shooter and Rescue on Fractalus!
It is believed that this image is fair use for the following reasons:

 * Atari has not released any screenshots into the public domain;
 * The image is of a low resolution
 * It serves to illustrate the article in question;
 * The image does not limit the copyright owners' rights to distribute the video game in any way;
 * The image is being used for informational purposes only;
 * Its use is not believed to detract from the original game in any way;
 * Its use does not infringe on Atari's ability to sell the game, which is old and hasn't been sold by Atari in decades.

Source
Screenshot of game so copyright held by creators/manufacturers. Fair use assertion still valid.

title: File:A5200 Rescue On Fractalus.png


text:
Talk:List of Italian musical terms used in English

issimo does not mean very
molto means very. There's a difference between molto staccato, and staccatissimo. -issimo is a standard Italian superlative. Superlative, means most - the top end of the scale. It's the same in English, you have adjective, comparitive, and superlative. E.g. Quick, quicker, quickest.

Forte (Strong), Piu Forte (stronger), Fortissimo (strongest)

So, the literal translations leave a bit to be desired. Whatever you do, don't use Google translate for this, it's notoriously unreliable. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 122.58.211.224 (talk) 07:49, 15 December 2021 (UTC)

Musical terminology
Hmm, it looks like this may have been rendered redundant by the article musical terminology. Would anyone object if I fold in the entries here into musical terminology and make this into a redirect to that article? Opus33 19:31, 30 Sep 2004 (UTC)

 * I'm actually working on that now—I'll merge this page into musical terminology sometime in the near future. --bdesham 18:25, 25 Nov 2004 (UTC)

 * OK, take note to link Adagio to Adagio .—Trevor Caira 17:57, 29 Nov 2004 (UTC)

 * Am in the process of merging Musical terminology, Italian musical terms and Tempo into Glossary of music performance directions. Musical terminology should be used to encompass more general terms like counterpoint, serialism, sonata, etc. --bleh fu 04:32, Jan 20, 2005 (UTC)

Hmmm, this discussion has fallen by the wayside, it seems. More useful might be a grid of terms and abbreviations by columns in various languages. For example, English "W.B" (WHole Bow) on the same row as German "G.B" (Ganz Bogen). Until that happens, I don't see the value of merging the table of Italian terms, with translations, into a long list of others... There seems to be a jinx on saying "I'll do it" here, so I'll only commit to thinking about it. Stay tuned... __Just plain Bill 19:23, 11 February 2007 (UTC)

 * FWIW I vote for the merge. Too easy to unintentionally omit things from this Italian-specific list.  (Lots of common ones missing now; I won't bother to enumerate.)  I envision the best of both approaches: a fully comprehensive list, a la musical terminology, yet in tabular form, like "List of Italian...", with columns "Term", "Literal Meaning", "Meaning", "Language of Origin" and whatever else makes sense.  I intentionally order the columns this way -- giving priority to "Literal Meaning" -- as scanning the literal meaning -- arguably synonymous with "original meaning" -- can obviously give insights that the translation cannot.

 * I do also like Just Plain Bill's idea about showing the equivalent terms for various languages, but doing it all in one unified table, supporting all applicable languages and terms, seems like it could get ugly, fast.

 * In any case, I will not do it. (And I'm not just trying to counter the "jinx"; I really won't!)  — Preceding unsigned comment added by 74.199.78.192 (talk) 16:00, 12 April 2012 (UTC)

Presto link
Why does the link to the term "Presto" take me to a page about Penis?

 * Vandalism. It has been corrected. Please sign your posts on talk pages per Sign your posts on talk pages. Thanks! Hyacinth 11:39, 22 March 2006 (UTC)

Musical Instuments
You missed a miriad of instruments.

Saxophone, named after Adolph Sax, A woodwind with a brass body, generally bright, not used in Orchestras often

Trombone

French Horn

Sousaphone

Baritone

Clarinet

Flute  (piccolo should be a subsection of flute)

Oboe

Bassoon

guitars

percussion instruments

and several more.

Orchestra should be removed here and put under a new section titled Ensembles which would include Orchestra, Concert Orchestra, concert Band, Big (jazz) Band, Solo, Duet, Trio, Quartet, Quintet, etc., choir.

 * I'm not sure, but this article seems to deal with terms that were originally Italian and have moved to a more cosmopolitan musical language. I don't have firsthand knowledge of the others, but the saxophone (from, as you said, Adolph Sax) would not apply.  --99.224.71.89 (talk) 02:05, 2 January 2008 (UTC)

List
Surely this article should be called List of Italian etc...? 80.47.199.0 12:24, 14 April 2007 (UTC)

Why Italian terms are used in music.
I think that some of you are ignoring an important fact about music history. Some of you are using the fact that Italian terms were used in music because "most of the composers of the Renaissance period were Italian." Italian terms were first used in printed sheet music due to the fact that the "father of modern music printing was a man named Ottaviano Petrucci, a printer and publisher who flourished in large measure thanks to a twenty-year monopoly of printed music in Venice during the 16th century" therefore establishing a tradition of Italian terms in music.

--JBrill0808 07:30, 19 June 2007 (UTC)

Lentando; mosso
Does lentando belong on this page? See and. Cheers,   A rbitrarily 0    ( talk ) 00:43, 3 August 2010 (UTC)

Yes. Done. Also adding "mosso", as in "poco piu mosso"; see -- Jo3sampl (talk) 14:53, 27 September 2011 (UTC)

Italian Word for Italian Words in Music?
Isn't there an Italian word for "Italian words in music"? I thought it was something that started with an "s" like "sprezzatura" or something. Or maybe it only refers to the words relating to dynamics? And please don't reply by telling me what "sprezzatura" means (I already looked it up) I'm just saying that I vaguely recall that it sounded something like that. Zyxwv99 (talk) 16:25, 19 December 2011 (UTC)

Clarification on where "arco" is shown
Under 'Techniques', we see: Coll'arco	with the bow	Cancels col legno and pizzicato (in a string passage, arco is usually expected and is not written.) I propose: Coll'arco	with the bow	Cancels col legno and pizzicato (in a string passage, arco is usually expected and is not written except at the end of col legno or pizzicato passages.)

Comments? -- Jo3sampl (talk) 02:46, 21 January 2012 (UTC)
 * Done. -- Jo3sampl (talk) 02:45, 16 February 2012 (UTC)

Ciaccona vs Chaconne
In the solo violin J.S.Bach manuscript it is written in italian: "Ciaccona" ([|Ciaccona]) 151.66.134.119 (talk) 23:55, 9 July 2012 (UTC)

I see what you did there.
The definitions table looks like an Italian flag. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 94.174.141.143 (talk) 12:10, 2 May 2014 (UTC)
 * I noticed this too. Why? It doesn't aid reading at all, in fact I find non-standard, rather dark backgrounds actually make reading physically painful. Hairy Dude (talk) 05:09, 28 February 2016 (UTC)

Merge Convenienze into this page
The article at Convenienze seems to be not much more than a dictionary definition (WP:NOTDICTIONARY), and I'm not sure if it's likely to be expanded upon. I think the info is best captured in this list article. Cripesohblimey (talk) 09:08, 30 April 2020 (UTC)
 * ✅ Klbrain (talk) 09:51, 7 November 2020 (UTC)


text: User talk:62.194.77.88

title: User talk:62.194.77.88


text:
User talk:0101WONGv

Welcome
Hello, and welcome to Wikipedia. Thank you for your contributions. I hope you like the place and decide to stay. Here are a few good links for newcomers: I hope you enjoy editing here and being a Wikipedian! By the way, you can sign your name on Talk and vote pages using three tildes, like this: ~ ~ ~. Four tildes (~ ~ ) produces your name and the current date. If you have any questions, see the help pages, add a question to the village pump or ask me on my Talk page. Again, welcome! silsor 19:34, Sep 30, 2004 (UTC)
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Mu Qing
What the hell are you doing? I've blocked you for 24 hours so you'll think about what you're doing and learn how to be a productive member of the Wikipedia community. RickK 05:51, Oct 1, 2004 (UTC)

title: User talk:0101WONGv


text:
User talk:MacGyverMagic/WikiMagic/Gangleri

''Note to admins: User:Gangleri is allowed to edit this subpage. [[User:MacGyverMagic|Mgm|(talk)]] 19:36, Sep 30, 2004 (UTC)''

Optical magic, Mathematical magic, Magic and / or cryptic words

 * Note to People finding this talk because searching on words like cryptology, cryptic, encryption, decryption ...
 * It is just noted here that historicaly magical squares have been used to encrypt messages since oldest times.

1

 * Dear MacGyverMagic I am not quite shure, if my work fits in with what you are doing at the WikiMagic. From you may start at different pages. The first five show an "holusion" three dimensional effect. Hope you can see it. The page generates randomly the 384 possible Most-perfect magic squares of order 4. Some variants start from 1 to 16, some from 0 to 15, some use odd numbers only altenatively begining with +1 and -1 and so on.
 * "is:stórhundrað" is the Icelandic word for 120 (the sum of the numbers 0 to 15)and has somthing to about how I found the formula. "is:spá" means prediction and uses the 16 newer runes, "is:fleygletur" means cuneiforms and starts from nothing to 15, because the usage of 0 is another long story. "is:rómverskur" uses roman numbers. I stopped to look for other old numbering systems some days but have some more in mind.
 * These 4x4 squares are known from India. They have the property that you can make somthing like "fractal transformations". You may divide the square into four 2x2 squares and turn the upper-left and the buttom-rigth in one direction and the other in the other direction and still get a Most-perfect magic square. You can mirror the upper-left and the buttom-rigth on one diagonal and the remaining on its perpendicular diagonal. You also can only mirror the uper-left and buttom-right regarding the center of the whole 4x4 square. Or you do last mentioned transformation with the upper-right and bottom-left only. (Doing it with both is nothing new.)

2

 * The code is written in PHP and starts with a simple formula of the "straight neighbour values" (not placed diagonal) of a random number. At the 4x4 square these neigbours are always the same. This means all 16 numbers have 4 neigbours only (ond only the relative orther between these neighbours is changed) so it is easy to place them randomly if you know them or if you have a formula.
 * I can imagine that it could look good here or it could be placed at source.wikipedia if it is worth something. I have never used Java or Flash. Some properties of the squares could be shown moving the subsquares or the focus of attention and so on. I imagine that it would be interesting having the squares repeated both horizontaly and verticaly. Then it will be possible to show differen patterns by witch the original squares could be analysed and shaw that these patterns as you will see in step three of the "Sri Rama Chakra" example (if this does not show parallel lines) are all the same (only shifted in the endless field).
 * The higher order perfect magical squares (2^n)x(2^n) are generated on a generalisation of "straight neighbour values" to somthing you could call "associated key values" and their complements based on the original formula. You just have to choose in what direction you would like to expand the "original cell" from which you are starting and where to place the last key values.
 * Note: The code will not generate "all known perfect magical squares of this order" as it would say today if you see what you cannot see (puzzled ?). It does not generate 4*n (as for n=3) eigther.
 * Meditating about the squares and reflecting the own toughts its worth and a point to thing about how cognition works and how patterns are involved. I explained you the fractal property and maybe you said "Wow!". I told about key values and complements and you probably sad "Oh no!". But is fractal a pattern of the square or somthing we need to be able to continue our taughts (the proces of thinking), to comunicate, and justify our opinion? As I saw on squares of higher order fractal it is not a class property.
 * The squares could be a part to start as a demonstration / exercise of the algebraic properties of their transformations in another part of Vikipedia. Here at some point the squares and their transformations are "identical". But remember the transformations can be aplied to itself. (See Note 2)

3

 * Both kind of Java scripts moving and quite could be shown. The squares are such that they "remind" us about equilibrium and harmony. I was thinking that you could place them on a tablet and hold it with one finger only. Any change at one place involves a lot of other changes at other places. This means that growth is not possible in this system. By growth at some point there must be a decrease in another point. There is only transformation. We do not like to be reminded about this and say that this is philosolhy or "de:Weltanschauung" (?) and here is no place for thinks like this.
 * If numbers are starting from 0 to 15, 63 ... (see note 3) and are writen binary we see lots of interfearing patterns remind us about waves. Every plane of magic sqaures can be shown as interfearing / waving fields, but in this case the wave length is shorter then the square order. For each potence of 2 there are horizontal and / or vertical waves. To generate the squares the assignment of the potences of 2 to the amplitude of these waves does not mather (as long as it is unique) and I need to verify if the relative position of waves to each other cares.
 * Note 3: The analysis can be done also with the odd number equivalent of the square.
 * It is a starting point to thig about lots of issues: horizont of interest, horizont of perception, horizont of cognition, inherent pattern, morphic field. Analysing the addition and / substraction of two squares is both a helpfull tool to understand vizualize the properties of the squares and a step to a higher algebraic object too. This is comming to a closed algebraic structure where all elements where inheriditing the most of the properties mentioned at the definition from . To come the whole way back again from the puzzeleing things of this embarassing mathematical objects: The odd thing is that they do not fullfill the last 8 characters from that definition: "from 1 to n^2".

4

 * I wanted to stop but ...

 * Note 2: coming bak correcting the text I just want to point out what this means and what philosophical implications it has.
 * I realised some months before how complicated it is to focus at a particular property, to identify new properties, not to be influenced about others taughs, old taughts and so on. But the properties to be analysed are all there and they are there all the time. It is as known in quantum theory.
 * It is just like the iceberg picture in the logo of wikisource. We see / understand only a part of it at the same time and to see it all / to understand it we need to transform it. In the case of the iceberg we need to dive and you need to press CTRL-A at the first link I mentioned . We visualy can see only a surface not a space and if a computer tomograph is used we visuial still can see only a surface, maybe a more relevant surface for the focus of our attention.
 * But what is that thing which is only one thing and we need to transform it in order to see / understand what it is. I'm not puzzeling, I'm puzzeled myself. But magic squares where allways linked closed to some religius taugths too. So let write some issues I was puzzeled myself. Each magical square can be mirored and turned and doing so there are 8 different transformations. In addition the perfect magical squares allows also arbitrary shifting both horizontaly and verticaly. This means 8*4*4 and as there are only 384 squares (we know this, others have to find it out first) there are only three (see Note:) relevant squares which can not be transformed from one in to the others by standard technics. The technic of comparing two variants (in our case squares) by and referencing the relative row and column positions (or changes, deltas) in a matrix (transformation) will result in having the same amount of matrixes (transformations) and each matrix stands also for a variant (in our case a square). We may give some of the matrixes special names as "shift two colums horizontaly" and some not because we do not like to remember "shift one column left, rotate, shift one row up" unless this is a code for our safe, we remembered jumping like this as a kid on the street or whatever help we have to keep this in mind or would opone to remind it. But at the end we will see "there is nothing new", we just exhausted all the combinations and turned in a circle (to be more precised in different circles).
 * Normaly esentially different magic squares are counted. This method is generaly used for all magic squares and does not relate to what was called "arbitrary shifting" before. Thuse this method of counting gives a n^2 (n = order of the square) higher number.
 * Generation of an additional (in our case a the third if we know two already) square (class) is possible referencing an already known variant of one class depending (?) on a variant from another classes. The matrix will differ from all the ones known before. This is an iterative method to and exhaustive work is necessary to found all possible new classes.
 * This sounds very, very embarasing and as more precise wording would be used, as easier it would be to follow, as soon as no possible ambiguity is left, no magic is left or supposed here.
 * Now listen to the words and note of the ethymology of them too: One (transformation) comes from the other and the third comes trough the seccond from the first and there are all one. --- A obviuosly wrong description of the simple and evident fact on the upper paragraph would be: The generation (of the new transformation) is the combination of (a transformation from) the first with (one of) the seccond.
 * I supose that to generate comes from genesis or is related to it. These wordings have been used culturaly and religiusly and the alegorical form allowed to interpret whatever to this words. Whatever? Realy? I was puzzeled another time. In order to understand the properties of the 384 (squares, I do not want to be cryptic) and maybe also before I found the 129th realising the fractal property I substracted and also added oftenly two arbitrary squares out of the 128. At some point I noticed that when the reference Indian square (I used that time) is turned clockwise with 90° and added to itselves it gives 4 subsquares all having the numbers 9, 16, 25, 18. Thats odd!? And I was long time thinking about. I even did not realized that 9, 16, 25 are the first Pythagorean numbers (and I studied some years mathematics) but this (the Pythagorean numbers) was not the point. What importance has 18? 18 in four subsquares? Some years ago I was reading a book about Kabbalah and I remebered the significance.  At least it was good point to tranquilize and stop further researches at that time. I reverted to something I knew allready. That is a circle. And I remebered the book of Kohelet, Ecclesiastes about what is realy new.

 * To be appeded other time: relation to manipulation, intended omissions, confusion, ...
 * Noncryptic message: In moste cases you see somthing else as written. Sorry for all spelling errors. Regards Gangleri 06:32, 2004 Sep 27 (UTC)
 * PS: The text is not straight forward because first while rewritten, more and more ideas where involved, introduced and seccond it is not written in a native language. I applogize for this stile and you should know that thats me. I do not object criticism and hope that WikiMagic people are alowed to be a little diferent. Gangleri


text:
Wikipedia:WikiProject Television/British television task force/Channels

Welcome to the British TV channels task force! Formerly the WikiProject British TV channels, the project became a task force under the new WikiProject British television on 29 December 2011. Our aim is to create good articles for all British TV Channels.

If you'd like to join us, please add your username to the membership page.

Adding to your userpage will create this userbox:

Hierarchy definition
Purely British TV channels should be included in Category:Television channels in the United Kingdom.

Where the UK just broadcasts a foreign network as it is broadcast in that country (eg Fox News or TV5 that article should be included in Category:Foreign television channels broadcasting in the United Kingdom

Related portals

 * BBC Portal

Project banner
The WikiProject British TV channels project banner template should be added (not subst:ed) to the talk page of every article within the scope of the project. While the template does not require any additional parameters, it has a number of optional ones that add various extra features to the banner.

Infoboxes
A new infobox for British and Irish TV channels has been designed.

Instructions for use are at Template talk:Infobox television channel

A list of pages that include this template can be found at Special:Whatlinkshere/Template:Infobox television channel

Stubs
Articles that are TV channels that are stubs should be tagged with the template UK-tv-channel-stub which looks like

This will add these channels to Category:United Kingdom television channel stubs

Tools

 * Main tool page: toolserver.org

 * Reflinks - Edits bare references - adds title/dates etc. to bare references
 * Checklinks - Edit and repair external links
 * Dab solver - Quickly resolve ambiguous links.
 * Peer reviewer - Provides hints and suggestion to improving articles.

Resources

 * 1) Barb Audience share report
 * 2) DTT channel line-up (Freeview/BT Vision/Top Up TV)
 * 3) Freesat channel line-up
 * 4) Sky channel line-up
 * 5) Virgin TV channel line-up
 * 6) The TV Room: channel idents
 * 7) TV ARK: channel idents
 * 8) UK TV listings

External watchlist

 * Wikiproject Watchlist - WikiProject British TV channels


text:
Sidney Frank

Sidney E. Frank (October 2, 1919 – January 10, 2006) was an American businessman and philanthropist. He became a billionaire through his promotion of Grey Goose vodka and Jägermeister.

Early life, family, education
Frank was born to a Jewish family in Montville, Connecticut. His father and mother were Abraham and Sarah Frank. He grew up in Norwich, Connecticut, and graduated from the Norwich Free Academy in 1937. He attended Brown University (class of 1942) but left because he could only afford one year of tuition. He later made enormous gifts to the university to help ensure that no student would ever be forced to leave Brown because of inability to pay tuition. During World War II, Frank worked for Pratt and Whitney as a manufacturer's representative in India exploring ways to improve engine performance enabling aircraft to deal with the high altitudes encountered in the CBI theater. This was particularly important in improving the performance of transport aircraft flying supplies into China. The use of alcohol injection for aircraft engines was one of the approaches taken.

Career
Frank's first wife, Louise "Skippy" Rosenstiel, was the daughter of Lewis Rosenstiel, founder of Schenley Industries, one of the largest American distillers and spirit importers. Frank joined Schenley after his marriage and rose to the company presidency, but was forced out in a family dispute in 1970.

In 1973 his wife died and he started his own company, Sidney Frank Importing Company, where he served as chairman and chief executive officer. The company is based in New Rochelle, New York, where Frank lived (he had a home in Rancho Santa Fe, California, as well).

In 1973, he secured the importing rights to Jägermeister, a traditional German digestif.

Frank's first big success with his own company was with Jacques Cardin brandy, a brand he purchased from Seagram in 1979.

In the 1980s, Jägermeister became popular with college students in Louisiana and Frank promoted it heavily, turning a specialty brand developed to help with digestion into a mainstream success widely drunk in ice cold shots and used in Jello shooters.

In 1997, he developed Grey Goose vodka, made in France by François Thibault, and was so successful in promoting it that he sold the brand to Bacardi for $2 billion in June 2004. In the last years of his life, Frank bought the Travel Savvy and Business Traveler magazine titles for $4 million.

Philanthropy
Frank gave large bonuses to his employees and made a $12 million donation to The Norwich Free Academy in 2005. In October 2005, Frank donated £500,000 and a statue by sculptor Stephen Kettle to Bletchley Park Trust to fund a new Science Center dedicated to Alan Turing and, as a great supporter of the Supermarine Spitfire, commissioned a life-size statue of its designer, R. J. Mitchell, and funded a website dedicated to Mitchell's life: [http://www.rjmitchell-spitfire.co.uk RJ Mitchell. A life in aviation].

He gave a donation of $5 million to the New York Medical College psychiatry department, leading to the creation of the Sidney Frank fellowship which gives medical students early exposure to the field of psychiatry.

His foundation has been a supporter of the Israel Olympic Committee and has helped to offer scholarships in several Israeli sports. In 2004, Frank gave $100 million to his alma mater Brown University, at the time the largest single contribution in the university's history and still tied with two other gifts for that distinction. The gift provided for the Sidney E. Frank Scholarship which funds tuition for around 130 undergraduate students from low income families each year. In 2005, Frank donated $5 million to Brown to help with its Hurricane Katrina relief efforts. In 2006, Brown University named its Life Sciences building (the largest capital project to date) after Frank, in recognition of a $20 million gift to support its construction. Frank is the single most generous donor in the university's history.

Personal life, death and aftermath
Frank married twice. His first wife, Louise "Skippy" Rosenstiel, was the daughter of Lewis Rosenstiel; she died in 1973, at the age of 50. They had two children: Matthew Frank and Cathy Frank Finkelstein Halstead, who was married and divorced from James A. Finkelstein, a son of Jerry Finkelstein's. In 1975, he married Marian Elinor Ombres.

Frank died January 10, 2006, on a private plane in flight between San Diego, California, and Vancouver, British Columbia, at the age of 86 from heart failure. He was declared dead in San Francisco, California. On his plane were several nurses and medical doctors as well as a defibrillator, but he could not be revived. Services were held at Riverside Memorial Chapel. He is buried in the Rosenstiel family plot at United Jewish Cemeteries in Cincinnati. His daughter Cathy Frank Halstead is currently chairwoman of Sidney Frank Importing Company. She is also an artist and a co-founder of the Tippet Rise Art Center in Montana.

Daughter Cathy Frank figured prominently in a highly publicized case regarding her grandfather's will that led to the disbarment of the controversial lawyer Roy Cohn. In 1975, Cohn had entered the hospital room of a dying and comatose Rosenstiel, forced a pen to his hand, and lifted it to the will in an attempt to make himself and Cathy Frank beneficiaries. The resulting marks were determined in court to be indecipherable and in no way a valid signature. In 1986, Cohn was disbarred for unethical and unprofessional conduct in the case, as well as for misappropriation of clients' funds and lying on a bar application.

Sidney Frank, and his son Matthew Frank, also sued the Rosenstiel estate, each in a separate action.

Jägermeister bought the entire company and Cathy Frank is no longer an officer in the Jägermeister owned company.

Sidney Frank Importing Company (SFIC) changed its name to Mast-Jägermeister US after its takeover by the German herbal liqueur producer in 2015.

title: Sidney Frank