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Bibracte

Bibracte, a Gallic oppidum (fortified settlement), was the capital of the Aedui and one of the most important hillforts in Gaul. It was located near modern Autun in Burgundy, France. The material culture of the Aedui corresponded to the Late Iron Age La Tène culture.

In 58 BC, at the Battle of Bibracte, Julius Caesar's armies defeated the Helvetii 16 miles south of the fort. In 52 BC, Vercingetorix was proclaimed head of the Gaulish coalition at Bibracte. A few decades after the Roman conquest of Gaul, Bibracte was abandoned in favour of Autun, 25 kilometres away. Once abandoned, Bibracte remained undisturbed and unexamined until discovered by modern archaeology.

Jacques-Gabriel Bulliot initiated the first excavations at the site between 1867 and 1895. His nephew Joseph Déchelette, author of a famous Manuel d'Archéologie, continued the excavations between 1897 and 1907.

The modern site, known as Mont Beuvray, is generally identified as ancient Bibracte. The site straddles the borders of the French départements of Nièvre and Saône-et-Loire in Burgundy. The site is an archaeological park at the centre of a protected forest. It is the focus of cooperative European archaeological efforts, a training ground for young archaeologists, and a centre for interpreting Gaulish culture for a popular audience. Important international excavations have been undertaken at Mont Beuvray by teams from the universities of Sheffield, Kiel, Budapest, Vienna and Leipzig.

On December 12, 2007, the site of Bibracte received the "Great Site of France" designation.

Before the Roman conquest in 52 BC the great Celtic city of Bibracte had more than thirty thousand inhabitants, protected by a huge stone wall of the Murus Gallicus type which enclosed an area of 135 hectares.

Etymology
The origin of the word Bibracte is still poorly understood. The term may have come from the Celtic *bibro- / *bebro- (beaver) followed by the collective suffix -akti (cf. Irish, Gallic aktā) or from the Latin biffractrus (twice fortified). The latter version, however, is thought questionable from a strategic view, since it is very difficult to protect a battlement over a long distance, a problem which a double battlement would only have exacerbated. Moreover, the stone facing of the outer surrounding wall was reused for the construction of the second wall, meaning it is unlikely that Bibracte was surrounded by two walls at the same time.

Three inscriptions dedicated to the goddess Bibracte which were found at Autun in the 17th century provide another explanation for the name, but two of the inscriptions carved into the stone have disappeared and the authenticity of the third, engraved on a brass medallion, has been the object of debate. Some scholars of the era have cited other evidence to justify placing the Aeduian oppidum on the site of Autun (the former Augustodunum), which was effectively the capital of the Aedui in the first century.

Discovery of Bibracte
Bibracte is mentioned only twice in Roman sources. The first mention is found in Julius Caesar's Commentaries on the Gallic War in the year 58 BC. It was mentioned again in 52 BCE, when he was questioning the intentions of his Aedui allies, who had joined the revolt and crowned Vercingetorix king of the Gauls at Bibracte. Inscriptions from the era announced that the capital of the Aedui received the name Augustodunum (the citadel of Augustus) during the reign of Augustus, which gave rise to the current Autun.

Starting in the 16th century, a passion for local history arose among scholars, aristocrats, and clergy, which led to the question of the location of Bibracte. One theory placed Bibracte at Autun: the Gallic city at the site of the Gallo-Roman city. Another placed it at Beaune and was defended by the scholar Hugues de Salins. A third located the city on the slopes of Beuvrect or Bevrect, today known as Mont Beuvray. This last theory was based on three major arguments. First, there is a connection between the names Bibracte and Beuvrect. Second, medieval chronicles situated the city at Beuvrect. This was reinforced by the existence of an annual fair on the first Wednesday, Thursday, and Friday of May, the age of which is attested to in texts from the 13th century. Finally, the discovery of pottery, coins, and the observations of the priest of Saint-Léger-sous-Beuvray in 1725 supported it.

Generally, the Autun hypothesis received the greatest approval at first. Moreover, Autun was renamed Bibracte after the French Revolution and remained so for some time. Only the research of Jacques Gabriel Bulliot in the 19th century shifted scholarly opinion in favor of Mont Beuvray. In 1851, Bulliot communicated with the Congress of the French Society of Archeology about an ancient chapel (the Saint Martin chapel on Mont Beuvray) established to Christianize the Aedui. He also returned to Mont Beuvray to take more notes. He discovered what he thought was the embankment of a Roman camp (actually a nemeton) at the summit of Mont Beuvray next to the chapel. He documented it and considered placing Bibracte at Mont Beuvray instead of Autun, contrary to the unanimous opinion of the Aedui Society. The publication of his Essay on the Roman System of Defense in the Aedui country between the Saône and the Loire, in which he revealed his convictions, was not taken seriously by the members of the Society of Archeology.

Emperor Napoleon III took an interest in the battles of the Gallic Wars and an officer named Stoffel, charged by the Emperor with conducting investigations of the Roman victory over the Helvetii, visited Bulliot, who shared with him his opinions about the location of Bibracte. Stoffel was not interested, but he commissioned Xavier Garenne, another member of the Aedui Society, to make a survey of Mont Beavray. At the same time, the Viscount of Aboville, the owner of the land, conducted research and shared it with the Archbishop of Reims, who was a member of the Aedui Society and a friend of Bulliot, though he did not share Bulliot's theory about the location of Bibracte. Interested by these investigations, the Archbishop shared the various findings with the Emperor who, in 1867, assigned Bulliot to do research at Mont Beavray and funded his work.

Bulliot excavated the site from 1867 to 1905, removing all doubt about the location of Bibracte. His nephew Joseph Déchelette, whom he introduced to excavation, continued the work until 1907, comparing Bibracte to other sites in Europe such as Stradonice in Bohemia, the Manching in Germany and Velem-Zenst-Vid in Hungary, which were precursors of the cultural unification of the Celtic world and of the civilization of oppida.

Chronology of the population of Beuvray

During the excavations of the gate, five artifacts were discovered, the oldest of which demonstrated human habitation on Mont Beuvray in the Neolithic Era. Dating techniques have shown that the oppidum was founded at end of the 3rd century BCE, on an area of 200 hectares protected by the exterior rampart. An interior rampart was built later, for reasons unknown.

Because the Aedui had the status of "friend of the Roman people," contacts with Roman merchants were probable before the conquest of Gaul by Julius Caesar. This privileged status prevented Bibracte from suffering much from conflict: in 58 BCE, at Montmort 25 kilometers south of the site, Julius Caesar's armies defeated the Helvetii, forcing them to return to Switzerland and gradually be incorporated into what became the Roman Empire. In 52 BCE, an assembly of Gallic peoples at Bibracte gave Vercingetorix supreme command of the Gallic armies. Despite this insurrection, Caesar treated the city mercifully after his victory at Alesia. He stayed there during the winter of 52-51 BCE to write his Commentaries on the Gallic War. These mentioned the names of certain notables of the Aedui aristocracy such as Dumnorix, vergobret of the Aedui, and his brother Diviciacus, the druid. The city's industry boomed in the decades following the war.

Strabo the geographer, writing a generation later than Caesar, identified Bibracte as again an Aedui stronghold.

After the founding of Autun (Augustodunum) 25 kilometers away c. 15 BCE, during the reign of Augustus, Bibracte was gradually abandoned by its inhabitants. However, cults continued to practise their rites in its temples and its fountains and its aristocratic residences were maintained. Two main hypotheses have been advanced concerning the abandonment of the site over several decades. Migration could have been caused by economic reasons or by a desire to integrate with the Roman model; a part of the dominant Aedui class, already pro-Roman during the Gallic War, definitely realized the strategic importance of the new city located on the principal axes of communication and wanted to conform to the Roman model of flatland cities, while a more traditional population remained for a time on the Bibracte site.

It is known from 13th century texts that a festival every first Monday of May survived. In the 15th and 16th centuries, a Franciscan convent was established on Mont Beuvray. It was abandoned, but the festival continued.

Influence and power
The power of the Aedui capital was related in the Commentaries on the Gallic War, which underlined the many alliances held by the Aedui with neighboring peoples. Julius Caesar also mentioned the wars that set the Aedui against the Arverni and the Sequani for hegemony over a large part of Gaul. These references were not impartial, since Rome had been allied with the Aedui, "our blood brothers", since at least the 2nd century BCE. Moreover, they maintained commercial links and military alliances: Rome helped the Aedui in the 2nd century to defeat an Arverni army and rose to their defense against the invasion of the Helvetii that precipitated the Gallic War.

Gabriel de Mortillet, in his classification of ancient peoples, included the site's residents under the name "Beavraisian", a category abandoned by modern scholars.

In addition to this powerful alliance with Rome, the Aedui were part of a confederation of Celtic tribes that included: Whose influence extended across a large part of Gaul.
 * The Ambarri (in Ain)
 * The Brannovices
 * The Bellovaci
 * The Bituriges (in Berry)
 * The Parisii
 * The Segusiavi (Forez, adjacent to the Arverni)
 * The Senones (Sens region)

Commerce

In his History of Gaul, the historian Camille Jullian writes these lines about the Aedui: "Bibracte, I am sure, was the source and the guarantee of their power. Around Bibracte were very good roads, uniting the three biggest basins of France."

So, the Roman products traveling up the Rhône (the waterways were the fastest means of travel at the time) and taking after that the Saône, the Loire or the Allier, passed through Aedui territory before joining the basins of the Loire and Seine. The Aedui were located at a commercial crossroads between the Celtic world and Rome. They allowed the diffusion of Roman products through Gaul as early as the 2nd century BCE, allowing their allies to benefit from their commerce with Rome and definitely with Greek colonies such as Massilia. These exchanges are confirmed by the large quantities of amphoras and ceramics from Italy found in waste tanks and in the paving of houses.

In addition, the Aedui installed a system of customs that taxed products passing through their territory to increase their wealth, as attested in the texts of Julius Caesar: "It was typical of Dumnorix: the man was audacious, his generosity made him popular, and he wanted political change. For years, he has had the control of the customs and all the other taxes of the Aedui, because when he bid, no one dared bid against him." The Aedui and the Sequani fought each other to control the Arar (now the Saône) because controlling the river allowed taxation of Roman and Celtic products traveling north.

In the centre of the oppidum many cellars and certain public buildings that stored large quantities of cereals and wine imported from the southern countries have been found. One of these wooden cellars has recently been reconstructed. Without a doubt, it was in these buildings that the Aedui centralized their harvests and imports.

Politics
The political system of the Aedui was essentially structured according to indications in the Commentaries on the Gallic War. At the head of the Aedui state sat a senate comprising one member of each Aedui aristocratic family. What is today called executive power was held by the vergobret, the supreme magistrate, who exercised his functions over the course of a year. He was forbidden from leaving the borders of the territory during this period, which prevented him from commanding the army outside the borders. This measure, along with that which authorized only one voice per aristocratic family in the senate, aimed to prevent any individual or their family from monopolizing the reins of power. The vergobret was publicly elected by a council directed by the druids. Among the Aedui, it seems like the vergobret also exercised a judiciary role, since Caesar reports that he had "the right to life and death over his fellow citizens". Finally, it is thought that the vergobret was responsible for the administration of the territory.

Furthermore, it is known that the druids held high functions since Diviciacus came to Rome to plead the case of the Aedui during the Germanic invasion led by Ariovistus on the account of the Sequani; he also directed the Aedui cavalry during the Gallic War after the death of his brother Dumnorix. Therefore, it is thought that some druids held high military positions.

Archeological research on Mont Beuvray
From 1865 to 1895, Gabriel Bulliot identified Bibracte in 1867 and began excavations there (notably the Celtic artisanal neighborhood surrounding the Rebout gate), with the aid of funds allocated by Napoleon III. In fact, having a passion for history, the emperor set off vast campaigns of excavations to uncover sites of the Gallic War in order to write his History of Julius Caesar. Joseph Déchelette, the nephew of Bulliot, took up his work again from 1895 to 1907. He was killed during World War I and the excavations fell into neglect. In 1984, the excavations began again under the impetus of François Mitterrand, who proclaimed Bibracte a site of national interest in 1985. This term, invented for the occasion, allowed the site to be subsidized. The label of "national interest" was created afterward in order to designate exhibitions or sites which benefit from a program of diffusion and enlargement of the public by the Minister of Culture. This gives the necessary impetus to a project of excavations of European scope. Thus, in 1989, the European Archeological Center of Mont Beuvray was created, which includes the site, the museum, and the research center of Glux-en-Glenne. It was inaugurated in 1995. The excavations were conducted by Vincent Guichard and put into practice by many French and foreign teams; the excavations notably concentrated on the Gallic neighborhood of Rebout, on the vast Gallo-Roman ensemble of the Pasture of the Convent and the Roman residence of the Horse Park.

Specialists, researchers, professors and students from all over Europe come together on the site every summer to excavate different parts of the site. These have included, among others: Each university excavates the site as part of tri-annual projects consisting of several weeks of work on the terrain followed by a detailed study of the excavation and of the objects discovered, which are then stored at the site's research center.
 * Austria: University of Vienna
 * Belgium: Université Libre de Bruxelles
 * Czech Republic: Masaryk University
 * France: University of Franche-Comté, University of Burgundy, University of Paris 1 Pantheon-Sorbonne, Pierre and Marie Curie University, François Rabelais University
 * Germany: University of Kiel, University of Leipzig, Ludwig Maximilian University of Munich, University of Mainz
 * Hungary: Eötvös Loránd University
 * Italy: University of Bologna
 * Poland: Rzeszów University
 * Slovenia: University of Ljubljana
 * Spain: University of Madrid and University of Zaragoza
 * Switzerland: University of Lausanne
 * United Kingdom: University of Edinburgh

Archeological prospecting on Mont Beuvray
The early prospecting technique used by Bulliot was rudimentary. It consisted of observing the irregularities in the landscape, since the mountain was practically unchanged since the period under study. This allowed him to recreate a plan of the battlements with nearly no excavation. He used this technique to make a scale plan with the help of army topographers, who made a series of topographical recreations of the landscape. However, only the recreation of the Porrey neighborhood still exists to this day.

In recent years, the same technique has been used in the Porrey neighborhood with more precise tools, such as theodolites and GPS. Aerial and electromagnetic prospecting is made impossible by the forest and vegetation on the mountain since the end of grazing and the excavations of Joseph Déchelette, as well as the nature of the subsoil. One costly but faster technique, tested in 2007, is LIDAR, the use of airborne laser scanners, which are unhindered by the vegetation and can recreate in minutes what usually takes weeks to do on the ground. This will be done in order to attempt to make a complete map of the city and to archive the topography of the location.

Organization
The research done by Bulliot and Déchelette at the end of the 19th century and at the beginning of the 20th century recreated an organization of the site into neighborhoods, with construction mostly following a central road from the Gate of Rebout to the Great Gates. This organization differs from that of oppida like Manching, where there is a regular urban framework; this is explained by the relief of the terrain, as the battlements encircle three summits with some relatively steep slopes.

Since 1984, the excavations have seemed to confirm Déchelette's and Bulliot's hypotheses in broad terms, while nevertheless contributing certain nuances.

Battlements
Bibracte was protected by strong Murus Gallicus style battlements, which excavations have been able to reconstruct. The city had a progression of two different surrounding walls and at least five restorations of the inner surrounding wall, revealed, among other things, by the study of the Rebout gate. Surprisingly, the inner encircling wall was constructed after the outer wall. The city, therefore, shrank in area from 200 to 135 hectares (494 to 334 acres).

The internal wall, discovered by Bulliot, is a Murus Gallicus that delimits an area of 135 hectares for a length of 5 km per battlement. It is estimated that construction of the wall required more than 10,000 cubic meters of wood, between 10,000 and 20,000 cubic meters of earth and about thirty tons of iron.

The outer wall encircles an area of 200 hectares and was the subject of research beginning in 1992 for initial probing. This archeological research revealed that the battlement originally had a height between four and five meters (13 and 16 feet) without its yet-unknown top (e.g., palisades or towers) and an identical depth, and was preceded by a ditch between 2 and 4 m deep and between 6 and 10 m wide. A study was conducted between 1995 and 2002 with many probes along with those by the University of Vienna. The researchers were able to ascertain that this battlement was a Murus Gallicus that had been dismantled in order to construct the inner wall. The dating, however, remains imprecise, and places this event during the 2nd century.

The battlement is punctuated by about fifteen gates, including the famous Gate of Rebout (20 meters (66 feet) in width and 40 meters (131 feet) in depth). The gate of Rebout was the first location excavated by Bulliot, where he worked for nine weeks, and was the first site for new excavations from 1984 to 1986 which also studied the ditches adjoining the battlements. These excavations revealed five levels of different restorations, including a palisade from the Neolithic Era (dated with carbon-14). The latter has been the object of a reconstruction since 1996 which currently marks the entry into the old oppidum. At the present time, research has not been able to detect a trace of a method for locking the gate or a defensive device for it. Some hypotheses have advanced the idea of a double gate surmounted by a wooden guard tower like that of the Manching oppidum, but nothing has yet confirmed this.

The recent research on the battlements, since 2005, has concentrated on a line of fortification downhill from the Gate of Rebout. Dating seems to indicate that this construction took place after that of the gate and therefore constituted an advance fortification. At the same time, some aristocratic tombs have been discovered between the two lines of battlements.

Public buildings
Excavations conducted between 2012 and 2017 uncovered the remains of a large monumental public building dating to the La Tène period, c. 70 BC. In the first phase of construction (c. 70 BC) a terrace was built, surrounded by a murus gallicus stone wall with a large entrance on the east side. On the terrace a 44-metre-long square building was constructed out of wood, with galleries surrounding a central courtyard. Around 30 BC a monumental building was erected in the central space and the galleries were replaced with a palisade. In c. 15 BC the previous building was levelled and a vast platform was built which was surrounded by stone walls. In the centre the space was possibly occupied by a new central building. Next to this another platform was built, also surrounded by a stone wall, with an internal gallery built from wood. These constructions have been compared to other known public buildings and temples from the La Tène period, though the precise purpose of the buildings at Bibracte is yet to be determined. According to Hantrais et al. (2020) "The characteristics of this monumental construction indicate that it was certainly a public building with original architectural features and techniques. Yet, although this monumental building is very well documented archaeologically, its exact function remains enigmatic."

Artisans' neighborhoods of Côme Chaudron and Champlain
Excavations in the neighborhoods known as the Côme Cauldron and the Champlain, near the Rebout Gate, have revealed a neighborhood dedicated to metalwork and to artisans' lodging. This metalworking seems to have been very specialized, incorporating blacksmiths, bronzeworkers, and enamellers, whose workshops had already been restored by Bulliot, and probably also involved goldsmiths and minters.

Excavations on the site of Beuvray, in the region of the Champlain, and on the surrounding massifs revealed the existence of mines for the extraction of metals, including gold, iron, and tin ore. This research will continue and will attempt to restore the workshops for the smelting of the metals extracted outside the oppidum. In fact, given the specialization of the workshops in Bibracte, it seems that the metals arrived in bars which were therefore cast outside the oppidum.

Another artisanal neighborhood has been found in the region of one of the summits of the site, at the Rock of the Wyvern, an area which had been little investigated at the time of Bulliot and Déchelette's research. This neighborhood will be the object of future excavations which will attempt to determine the function of the neighborhood.

Housing
Predominantly made of wood and earth, the Gallic houses used stone only sparingly, which was saved for the ramparts. Little is known of the houses' structure as wood rots and decomposes. There are, however, stone constructions in the horse Park district, probably aristocratic residences and a public building with columns, near the convent's pasture. These were probably constructed soon after the Gallic Wars.

Horse Park
At the center of Mont Beuvray, the plateau known as the Horse Park holds several Roman-style stone houses which were excavated in the 19th century. The houses include, in particular, the residence PC1 (so named by Bulliot), which is a veritable gold mine for the researchers. In fact, it developed from a wood construction (of Roman inspiration) into a domus with an atrium containing an impluvium, porticos, and thermae heated by hypocaust, along with a system of sewers. In its final stage, the residence measured 55 by 67 meters, covering an area of around 3500 square meters, about four times the size of the domus found on the site of Pompeii. It is estimated that there were about fifteen domus' in this area, such as PC2, a smaller residence that faces PC1 on the other side of the central road. There are also homes of the villa rustica type (the Italian rural residences) like PC33. However, it is still not known whether this was a residential neighborhood reserved for only the elite, since excavations have also revealed the presence of forges near the domus.

Monumental basin

At the centre of the main road, in the area of the Pasture of the Monastery, stands a pink granite monumental basin which is thought to have had a sacred function. It could possibly represent a sacred point of the city's founding, or a water shrine. Water left the basin through the northern opening downstream, continuing through a pipe. The supply of water, however, has not yet been discovered. The basin was waterproofed with a coat of red clay, precluding a feed from a spring, and no supply pipe has been found. The manner of granite carving is unusual and shows Mediterranean influences. It has similarities to later Gallo-Roman stone basins and could be considered the oldest known example of this type.

The design of the basin has an astronomical and mathematical significance:

1) The minor axis of the basin is aligned with the winter solstice sunrise and summer solstice sunset.

2) The basin has a geometric design based on two circles intersecting at 1/5 of their diameter, forming a precise 3:4:5 Pythagorean triangle between the centre of the circles, the centre of the basin and the end of the basin.

3) The basin has a length/breadth/height ratio of 3/1/0.5, equivalent to 36/12/6 units with a value of 30.4cm. A similar unit of measurement has been identified at the oppidum of Manching in Germany and described as a 'Celtic foot'.

Based on these characteristics, it has been suggested that the basin represents a druidic monument.

Maumené (2018) suggests that the main axis of the basin is orientated towards a celestial alignment with the constellation of Gemini, reflecting the religious importance of the Dioscuri (Divine Twins) in the Gallic pantheon. The boat-like shape of the basin might be related to the mythology of the solar boat, which is also associated with the Divine Twins.

Almagro-Gorbea (2017) suggests that the Bibracte basin "seems to be correlated to the druid Diviciacus, an expert in the philosophy of nature", in reference to Cicero's statement that “there are indeed Druids in Gaul — for I knew one of them myself, Divitiacus, the Aeduan ... He claimed to have that knowledge of nature which the Greeks call  'physiologia'".

Various classical authors referred to the druids as philosophers, who possessed a knowledge of astronomy and adhered to Pythagorean beliefs and practices. Hippolytus of Rome stated that the druids "investigated to the very highest point the Pythagorean philosophy" and foretold certain events "from calculations and numbers by the Pythagorean art".

Some modern authors have suggested that Bibracte was the site of a druidic school, as described by Julius Caesar in the Gallic War:

"“The Druids usually hold aloof from war, and do not pay war‑taxes with the rest; they are excused from military service and exempt from all liabilities. Tempted by these great rewards, many young men assemble of their own motion to receive their training; many are sent by parents and relatives. Report says that in the schools of the Druids they learn by heart a great number of verses, and therefore some persons remain twenty years under training. [...] The cardinal doctrine which they seek to teach is that souls do not die, but after death pass from one to another; and this belief, as the fear of death is thereby cast aside, they hold to be the greatest incentive to valour. Besides this, they have many discussions as touching the stars and their movement, the size of the universe and of the earth, the order of nature, the strength and the powers of the immortal gods, and hand down their lore to the young men.”"

The later Aeduan capital of Augustodunum was the location of the Menian schools, which were dedicated to the study of liberal arts and law. The schools are mentioned by Tacitus in his account of the Revolt of Sacrovir:

"'Augustodunum had been seized by armed cohorts of Sacrovir, whose intention was to enlist those cadets of the great Gallic families who were receiving a liberal education at the city-schools'"

Places of worship
The oppidum of Bibracte has about ten springs and five fountains dating from the Gallic or Gallo-Roman periods. The Saint Pierre Fountain was a place of worship and pilgrimage, in which coins and votive offerings were found. At the summit of the mountain, a Celtic place of worship (nemeton) a hectare large has been exhumed, surrounded by a palisade and concentric ditches. Under the current chapel from the 19th century, the 1988 excavations discovered a Gallo-Roman temple.

Necropolis
Located below the present-day museum parking lot, the necropolis underwent archaeological excavations, with the aim of saving it, when the museum was created and the route départementale was diverted. Over a surface area of 1.5 hectares, 70 funeral enclosures, used following incineration, were found, each having an eastern entry. The crematorium was found further south. Other funerary urns were discovered at the foot of the Rebout Gate, possibly the remains of a local aristocratic family. More cemeteries are presumably situated on the former site access paths, as was often the case at the time, but have not yet been excavated.

Basilica
In the area of the Convent Pasture the excavations revealed, under a large domus of the Augustan era, the presence of an exceptional public monument, which was at the time unique in Gaul: a Roman basilica with three naves and an internal peristyle with a peripheral ambulatory, displaying four rows of eight columns or eight pilasters. It was connected on the east with a small square, 22 meters on a side, bordered to the north and south with porticos which were extensions of the walls of the annexes of the basilica. On the west it was connected to the main road of Bibracte with another square, 17 meters on the side. Some architectural elements have been found that attest the presence of limestone columns with Attic bases and Doric and Corinthian capitals. These elements formed a monumental urban project of the greatest importance. These public buildings date to the period between 50 and 40 BCE and between 35 and 25 BCE. At this date, the basilica and the square were carefully leveled and replaced by a large private residence, doubtless in connection with the move of the Aedui capital to Autun. The basilica of Bibracte confirms the exceptional importance of the site and revealed that the Romanization of the Aedui was considerably more rapid than previously believed. The basilica of Bibracte is currently the oldest representation of Roman monumental stone architecture in non-Mediterranean Europe.

Museum of Celtic Civilization
The site hosts the Museum of Celtic Civilization, designed by Pierre-Louis Faloci and opened to the public in 1996. Pierre-Louis Faloci is also the architect of Bibracte's Center of European Archeological Research, which was opened in 1994. The architectural design corresponds to the evolution of the ages of humanities: it has a base of carved stone, walls of polished stone, and a metal roof. One of the facades, which are large picture windows, is hidden by a wall of stone (on the valley side), while that which faces the site allows free view to the visitors. The museum has few proper collections, as many of those exhibited are loaned from other museums. The Coligny calendar and the Gundestrup cauldron have both been exhibited there.

Permanent exhibits
The 2000 square meters of the exhibit in the museum are laid out over two stages. The first stage (and the first in the tour) recounts the discovery of the site and the place of Bibracte in the global context of the European Celtic culture. The majority of the following subjects are covered: war, the age of the oppida, Mediterranean commerce, and agriculture. The ground floor, which consists of several alcoves, recounts the life of the Aedui at Bibracte. Objects of daily life, jewelry, funereal urns, and artisanal workshops are reconstructed or exhibited there.

Temporary exhibits
Several summer exhibits have been featured at the museum, each addressing a precise subject of the Celtic world:
 * 1995: Celtic Europe at the time of Bibracte
 * 1996: History seen from above
 * 1997: A look at the Celts in Slovenia
 * 1998: At the border of East and West
 * 1999: The tombs of the last Celtic aristocrats
 * 2000: The Gallic druids
 * 2001: The time of the Gauls in the provinces
 * 2002: On Caesar's trail
 * 2003: Blacksmiths and metal merchants
 * 2004: The white gold of Hallstatt
 * 2005: Wine, the nectar of the Gods
 * 2006: The treasures of women
 * 2007: A round trip between Bibracte and Kathmandu
 * 2008: Situlae, images of a vanished world
 * 2009: La Tène
 * 2010: The Gauls do the head

Research center
Located four kilometers from Mont Beuvray, in the commune of Glux-en-Glenne (Nièvre), is one of the most important libraries on the Celtic world. There is also an archeological depot there, the administration of the archeological park, several technical establishments, a lecture hall, and, in the village, a dining hall and several gîtes. In this center, archeologists, students, and researchers congregate from all over Europe to excavate the site of Bibracte. The research center also accommodates the regional center for preservation of relics and archeological collections, becoming the reference center of Burgundy in this field.

Reference works

 * Christian Goudineau and Christian Peyre, ''Bibracte et les Éduens, À la découverte d'un peuple gaulois, éditions Errance, 1993
 * Christian Goudineau, Regards sur la Gaule, éditions Errance, 1998, pp. 65–82
 * Anne-Marie Romero, Bibracte. Archéologie d'une ville gauloise, Bibracte-Centre archéologique européen, 2006
 * Stephan Fichtl, La ville celtique, Les oppida de 150av. J.-C. à 15ap. J.-C., éditions Errance, 2005
 * K. Gruel et D. Vitali, L'oppidum de Bibracte. Un bilan de onze années de recherches (1984–1996), Gallia, 55, 1998, pp. 1–140 Read online
 * "Bibracte, capitale des Éduens", L'Archéologue-Archéologie nouvelle, 4, mars 1994, pp. 36–45 et 6, juin 1994, pp. 62–72

Old works

 * Jacques Gabriel Bulliot, Fouilles du Mont-Beuvray (ancienne Bibracte) de 1867 à 1895, Dejussieu (Autun), 2volumes, 1899
 * Joseph Déchelette, Les fouilles du Mont-Beuvray de 1897 à 1901, Picard (Paris), Dejussieu (Autun), 1904
 * Joseph Déchelette, L'oppidum de Bibracte. Guide du touriste et de l'archéologue au Mont Beuvray et au Musée de l'Hôtel Rolin, Picard (Paris), Dejussieu (Autun), 1903
 * Joseph Déchelette, Manuel d'archéologie préhistorique, celtique et gallo-romaine, éditions Picard, Collection Grands manuels Picard, 2000

Works from the collection Archeological Excavations of Bibracte

 * Guillaumet J.-P., Szabo M. (under the direction of), Études sur Bibracte, (Studies on Bibracte) Glux-en-Glenne: BIBRACTE, 2005, 313 p.,
 * Paunier D., Luginbühl T., Les sites de la maison 1 du Parc aux Chevaux (PC 1). Des origines de l'oppidum au règne de Tibère (The Sites of House 1 of the Horse Park (PC1). The Origins of the Oppidum in the Reign of Tiberius), Glux-en-Glenne : Bibracte, 2004, 472 p.
 * Olmer F., Les amphores de Bibracte, 2. Le commerce du vin chez les Eduens d'après les timbres d'amphores, Glux-en-Glenne : Bibracte, 2003, 375 p.
 * Buchsenschutz O., Guillaumet J.-P., Ralston I. (sous la direction de), La Porte du Rebout, Glux-en-Glenne : Centre *Archéologique Européen du Mont Beuvray (CAE), 1999, 320 p.

title: Bibracte


text:
The Stars Shine Down

The Stars Shine Down is a 1992 novel by Sidney Sheldon.

Plot summary
The novel tells the story of Lara Cameron, a successful real estate developer who came from a broken family in Nova Scotia. Lara's mother and her male twin die during their birth and her Scottish father, who collects rents for boarding houses, doesn't want her. Early in life, she learns to fend for herself and how to get her own way in a male-dominated world. After her father's death due to a sudden heart failure, Lara takes up her father's job along with her own kitchen work in the boarding house. She meets a man called Charles Cohn who is much impressed by her. He hands her a contract for building. To acquire a fine piece of land, she makes a deal with the owner of the boarding house to secure her first building in exchange for her body. Thrilled at her success, she moves to Chicago to start her real estate empire. Even though she encounters many problems, she is able to overcome them all and become one of America's most successful businesswomen, and receives the nickname, "Iron Butterfly." She falls in love with a talented pianist, Philip Adler, and marries him. She is on the verge of losing everything she has achieved as well as the one man she loves, but the Iron Butterfly miraculously recovers from all her shattered dreams and gains back all her hopes and the only man whom she ever truly loved.

Reception
Kirkus Reviews gave a positive review, calling it "compulsively readable". A negative review for Publishers Weekly criticized the characterization, and called the book "a barely tepid potboiler".

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: The Stars Shine Down


text:
Renascence

Renascence may refer to:

 * Renascence (comics) or Wind Dancer, a fictional character in the Marvel Universe
 * "Renascence" (poem), a 1912 poem by Edna St. Vincent Millay
 * Renascence (journal), an academic journal

title: Renascence


text:
Silversun

Silversun is a science fiction children's television series made in Australia by the Australian Broadcasting Corporation (ABC). The show features the adventures of the adolescent members of the crew of the Star Runner, an interstellar spaceship carrying a cargo of 550 cryonically suspended colonists ("cryons") to their new home, the Silver Sun.

In the year 2052, the Star Runner and its crew are two years into their 90-year journey to a livable planet 45 light years from Earth. The crew's goal is to get the "New Settlers" safely to the Silver Sun and begin a colony there. Because of the 90-year-length of the journey, the crew are mostly teenagers who will take over command of the Star Runner as the adults get older.

Main cast

 * Thomas Blackburne as Tane Wilson: A skilled cadet pilot.
 * Cleopatra Coleman as Zandie Brokow: A strong-minded, often outspoken ex-cryon crew member of the Star Runner.
 * Ryan Corr as Sheng Zammett: A brilliantly minded cadet scientist.
 * Karli Dinardo as Cinnamon Everson: Steve and Karen's young daughter.
 * Cherise Donovan as Leonella Reiss: A cadet medical officer. Daughter of Lillian.
 * Angus McLaren as Degenhardt Bell: A cadet often found in the hold as the caretaker of the cryons.
 * Eloise Mignon as Mara Lomax: A cadet medical officer aspiring towards leadership.
 * Orpheus Pledger as Tycho Everson: Steve and Karen's young son.
 * Sarah Walker as Pancha McCaskill: Cadet computer officer of the Star Runner. Her brain implant gives her a telepathic link to the ship's computer systems.
 * Michelle Pettigrove as Doctor Lillian Reiss: Star Runner's chief medical officer, Cyriax's second-in-command and occasionally overprotective mother of Leonella.
 * Teague Rook as Steve Everson: Star Runner's stern engineer, husband of Karen and father of Cinnamon and Tycho.
 * Yesse Spence as Karen Everson: Star Runner's astronomer and navigator, wife of Steve and mother of Cinnamon and Tycho.
 * Jeremy Stanford as Commander Aaron 'Skipper' Cyriax: Commanding officer of the Star Runner.

Additionally, Jeremy Stanford portrays an illusion of himself from an alien virus, and his clone, known as "C2" or "Will Power".

Guest cast
In order of appearance:
 * Joan Murray as Eileen Lomax: Mara's grandmother back on earth. (3 episodes)
 * Nathan Vernon as Jarrax Wells: Leonella's ex-boyfriend back on Earth. (1 episode)
 * Don Halbert as Interviewer (1 episode, uncredited)
 * Tracy Mann as Holophone voice over (2 episodes, credited in 1)
 * Victoria Eagger as Commodore Sorenson: A leading figure of the Silver Sun Fleet at Star Command. (1 episode)
 * Adrian Mulraney as Commander John Darius: Commanding officer of the Infinity. (2 episodes)
 * Michael Harrison as Julian Strega: A highly intelligent cadet pilot serving on board the Infinity. (4 episodes)
 * Anthony Mays as Strega stunt double (1 episode)

Production
The ABC began showing Silversun on 11 October 2004 at 5:00 pm daily as part of its children's lineup. The final episode was broadcast on 3 December 2004. Forty episodes of the program were produced, each at twenty-two minutes. The program was originally aired on the Seven Network in two groups of twenty episodes, and then shown again without a mid-way break on the ABC.

Silversun was re-run on Sunday mornings beginning 3 April 2005, until 1 January 2006. It was rerun again in 2009 each weekday at 5:00 pm, finishing on 17 September 2009. The ABC has no plans to create a second season of the program.

Many episodes revolved around the relationships and issues experienced by the young crew as part of adolescence. Some episodes dealt with issues of ethics and choices unique to science fiction, such as the question of whether the commander's clone should be treated as human or not, the unique human problems encountered by a crew on a lifelong voyage to the stars, and an encounter with a pulsar whose pulse cycle is in phase with the brainwaves of the crewmember Pancha, to her detriment.

Although some first-season episodes are self-contained, the majority deal with multi-episode plot conflicts occurring on board the Star Runner. These included the illegal re-animation of the character Zandie by the rogue crewmember Degenhardt in the earlier episodes, the crew's encounter with a wormhole, the infection of Commander Cyriax by an alien parasite, his subsequent cure through the use of a harvest clone of him discovered in suspension among the settler pods, and the clone's accidental awakening to full consciousness. The final episode ended in a cliffhanger.

title: Silversun


text:
Talk:Programmable ROM

what is the typical uses of PROM

Dates?
Does anyone know when the first "PROM's" were developed or actually made and used?

sorry, it does say invented in 1956

The picture of an NEC uPD23128C chip is not really appropriate here. That chip is a mask ROM, not a PROM. Datasheet for that mask ROM can be downloaded at http://www.datasheetarchive.com/search.php?q=UPD23128 —Preceding unsigned comment added by MarkK321 (talk • contribs) 12:24, 23 July 2009 (UTC)

Suggest merge
Polyfuse should be merged here to put it in context; it covers material that belongs in this article. --Wtshymanski (talk) 16:52, 15 May 2012 (UTC)

 * oppose Yet again, this is Wtshymanski doing his "I don't know what a Polyfuse is, but if it's not clear to me how it's different from a broader case it can't be any different from the broader case."
 * No, polyfuse is too far from PROM in general for this to be a good merge. Andy Dingley (talk) 18:08, 15 May 2012 (UTC)
 * Could you give some examples of where you'd find a polyfuse that isn't in a PROM? --Wtshymanski (talk) 18:13, 15 May 2012 (UTC)
 * PROM is an application. Polyfuse is one implementation technology for achieving it. Although the technologies might have commonality, the scope of the articles, and the needs of their readership, don't. Andy Dingley (talk) 00:13, 16 May 2012 (UTC)
 * So there are no uses of polyfuses that aren't in PROM? --Wtshymanski (talk) 02:40, 16 May 2012 (UTC)
 * Firstly that just doesn't matter. As above, one's an application, the other is (one of several) chip-design-level techniques for building them.
 * Also AIUI (which isn't much on chip design, I admit) there are several techniques for building PROMs and when PROM means a memory unit for data storage of a substantial amount of data, polyfuse isn't the favoured technique for doing it. Polyfuses are used more for low data volume needs like device serial numbers and on-site configuration. I don't know if this is because of manufacturing benefits or in-use benefits. Andy Dingley (talk) 09:04, 16 May 2012 (UTC)
 * One example is entirely adequate to prove you wrong (as usual). Polyfuses are also used in early type OTP programable array logic (PAL).  Current examples use FLASH technology.  There are probably many other examples.   86.169.33.6 (talk) 08:58, 16 May 2012 (UTC)

 * oppose Not exclusive to PROM.  Also polyfuse was not the only way a PROM was manufactured.  Other fuse types have also been used.  But since Wtshymanski only knows anout polyfuses, everyone else (including the manufacturers) must be wrong.  Based on the largely disruptive editing history, two or more opposes are unlikely to prevent Wtshymanski merging the articles anyway.  I note that WP:M has been breached in that the target article has not (as usual for Wtshymanski) been tagged.  After all, he doesn't want too many people knowing what he is up to. 86.169.33.6 (talk) 08:58, 16 May 2012 (UTC)

I've renamed polyfuse to polyfuse (PROM). polyfuse is now a redir to resettable fuse, as the primary topic for that name, and the source of most of the inbound links. Andy Dingley (talk) 09:45, 25 September 2012 (UTC)
 * Renamed

External links modified
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Early history source
This might be useful to expand out early history in this article. Section 7 of this book talks about nichrome-based fuses in early PROMs and discuses their regrow problems, silicon-based fuses, Intel FAMOS PROM technology, and more. • Sbmeirow  •  Talk  • 01:53, 15 September 2018 (UTC)

title: Talk:Programmable ROM


text:
Wikipedia:Articles for deletion/Mindanao-Eastern Visayas rain forests

Mindanao-Eastern Visayas rain forests
Nonsense. utcursch 09:45, Oct 12, 2004 (UTC)

 * Speedy delete this pls. Mandel 09:49, Oct 12, 2004 (UTC)


text:
User:Stvboy

Just starting up.... :)

_steve.

title: User:Stvboy


text:
Frederick Victor Branford

Frederick Victor Branford (1892–1941) was a British poet, known for verse of World War I and the years after.

Biography
Born Frederick Victor Rubens Branford Powell, the son of actors Mary Branford and Joynson Powell, he was given the second name of Mary's brother Victor Branford and was known in the family as 'Freddie' Powell. After the death of his mother he was brought up by his aunt Dorothy and after her separation from Lionel Branford, they lived in Ardgay, Scotland. (Alasdair Alpin MacGregor's The Goat Wife tells the evocative story of his hard working and resourceful Aunt Dorothy, who left a comfortable existence in Edinburgh for life as a solo crofter in the Easter Ross village of Ardgay (then known locally as "High Wind"). Branford appears in the book as "Victor".) He may have felt closer to the Branfords than to his father and published his poetry under the surname of Branford.

He was educated at Edinburgh University and Leiden University. Serving as a captain in the Royal Naval Air Service during World War I, Branford was very badly wounded at the Battle of the Somme, when he was shot down over the Belgian coast and swam ashore to the Netherlands, where he was interned. Most of his poems were written in a long period of recovery from his injuries, which left him totally disabled. He lived on a disability pension for the rest of his life.

Branford stopped writing poetry in 1923, disillusioned with the prospects for future peace. He remarried in 1937, his second wife was his cousin Margaret Branford, the playwright daughter of John Branford.

Works

 * Titans and Gods (1922)
 * Five Poems (1922)
 * The White Stallion (1924)

title: Frederick Victor Branford


text:
Category:Modernist women writers

This category brings together articles on women writers who contributed to the emergence of Modernist literature and to those who continue to develop that tradition from the beginning of the 20th century up to the present day.

title: Category:Modernist women writers


title: File:F4ce.jpg


text:
Talk:Marcellin Champagnat

Untitled
Marcellin Champagnat was born in 1789 near St. Etienne (Loire), France. He was the youngest of ten children.

Ordained as a catholic priest in 1816, Champagnat’s first posting was as curate to the parish of Lavalla-en-Gier.

The region of Marlhes in which Fr. Champagnat lived and worked had been badly affected by the French Revolution and Napoleonic Wars and the local community was poor and uneducated. In 1817 with two other young men, Champagnat founded the Marist Brothers with a mission to educate young people in the rural areas of France, whose education had ceased because of poverty. Champagnat and his Marist Brothers established a network of village schools.

He died in 1840 aged 51 at Our Lady of the Hermitage in the Gier River valley about 30 kilometres from where he commenced his work.

=Early Years= http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marcellin_Champagnat#Early_years smacks of Haiography and legend, and not fact.--Whiteguru (talk) 07:29, 15 February 2011 (UTC)

Removed the detail saying that the aunt of St. Marcellin was the sister of Saint Joseph. Will try to update this section later and get some additional sources in websites and books. --Allenjambalaya (talk) 06:55, 2 August 2011 (UTC)

Is this text taken from some other web page?
One of the paragraphs says "St Marcellin Champagnat founded our worldwide community of Brothers." This sounds like it is taken from some document of the Marist Order. So (1) the text needs to be changed to avoid plagiarism, and (2) proper citation is needed for where the information is to be found. Ileanadu (talk) 04:34, 6 June 2015 (UTC)
 * Yes, and as a lede it needs to be much shorter.--Richardson mcphillips (talk) 04:37, 6 June 2015 (UTC)

=Major Format Problems =

There are some major problems with the format of this article. For one thing, there is text that should be after the table of contents (TOC) but instead appears before it. The sections should be in chronological order, but some are not. The "Early Life" section appears twice, once before the TOC and once after it, in the middle of another section. Some of the stuff that appears before the TOC needs to be sourced. I will attempt some basic restructuring of the section, but I think it needs some rewriting, especially if some of this has been lifted from another website. Ileanadu (talk) 04:42, 6 June 2015 (UTC)

Text edited. Ileanadu (talk) 05:33, 6 June 2015 (UTC)

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title: Talk:Marcellin Champagnat


text:
Karl Leisner

Karl Leisner (28 February 1915 in Rees – 12 August 1945 in Planegg, Germany) was a Roman Catholic priest interned in the Dachau concentration camp. He died of tuberculosis shortly after being liberated by the Allied forces. He has been declared a martyr and was beatified by Pope John Paul II on 23 June 1996.

Life
Leisner was born on 28 February 1915, the oldest of five children. When he was six years old, the family moved to Kleve, a city on the lower Rhine, where his father worked as a civil servant. He attended school and completed his gymnasium studies in 1934. During his youth, he became an altar boy and, at the suggestion of the high school chaplain, formed a Catholic youth group, the Saint Werner Group. These youth groups combined prayer with outdoor activities, such as camping and cycling. Leisner turned out to be a natural leader and became a youth leader in the 1930s, during the era in which the Nazis were beginning to take control of all youth organizations. In order to avoid Nazi interference, Leisner would often take his group on camping trips to Holland or Belgium.

In 1934, when he was nineteen, Leisner entered the seminary in Munich, and was named Diocesan Youth Leader by Clemens August von Galen, Bishop of Münster. He spent six months in compulsory agricultural work during which, despite Nazi opposition, he organized Sunday Mass for his fellow workers. His home was raided by the Gestapo, who seized his diaries and papers. These meticulously preserved documents tell how the spiritual young man became a religious leader.

On 25 March 1939, Galen ordained Leisner a deacon. Shortly after his ordination, during a medical examination, the doctor told the new deacon that he had contracted tuberculosis. In those days, the sole treatment available for the disease was good food and fresh air. These were to be found at a sanitorium in St. Blasien, in the Black Forest, where he was sent and began to recover. It was during his recovery that a fellow patient heard him criticize Adolf Hitler. The Gestapo arrested him as a political prisoner on 9 November 1939, when he was twenty-five. He was interned first in Freiburg and later in Mannheim. Leisner was initially imprisoned in the Sachsenhausen concentration camp, but was moved to the Dachau concentration camp on 14 December 1940, where he became prisoner No. 22,356. Since he was a deacon, Leisner was assigned to the priests' block.

Prisoners often had to work outside in snow or rain and then had to sleep in their wet prison clothes. Cold weather, poor rations and harsh treatment proved a dangerous combination for someone already suffering to tuberculosis. Such conditions caused Leisner's condition to become active. Then, during an inspection, two Gestapo guards beat him unconscious and he spent several hours on the floor of his hut. By March 1942, he was spitting blood and was forced to report to the infirmary where medical experiments were known to be performed. He was put in a room that was crowded with over 100 tuberculosis patients. In Dachau, there was never any attempt to cure a disease and very little care was given to the sick. During inspections of the infirmary, any patient thought to be incurable was executed.

On 17 December 1944, Gaudete Sunday, a fellow prisoner, French Bishop Gabriel Piguet, secretly ordained him a priest. The necessary paperwork with the authorization for the ordination, as well as other necessary items, were smuggled into the camp by "Mädi", the "Angel of Dachau", a young woman named Josefa Mack. (Mack went on to become a School Sister of Notre Dame in Munich, called Sister Maria Imma.) Some imprisoned Protestant pastors helped organize the event and a Jewish violinist played music near the barracks to create a diversion.

The newly ordained priest only celebrated a single Mass and was so ill that he had to postpone his first Mass for over a week. When Dachau was liberated on 4 May 1945, Leisner was taken to a sanatarium in Planegg, near Munich. He died there a few months later, on 12 August 1945.

Leisner's body was taken to Kleve and buried in a local cemetery on 20 August 1945. His remains were exhumed and re-interred in the crypt of the Cathedral of Xanten in 1966.

Beatification
On a visit to Berlin in 1996, Pope John Paul II recognized Leisner as a martyr for the Catholic faith and beatified him, together with Bernhard Lichtenberg, another Nazi resister. His feast day is 12 August.

The canonization process for Leisner has not yet been completed.

Media
Some works have been published in English about Leisner. One is The Victory of Father Karl by Otto Pies, published in 1957. It was a translation of Stephanus heute; Karl Leisner, Priester und Opfer. A radio drama adaptation was produced for "The Hour of St. Francis" with the same title. A half-hour docudrama on videotape was released by the Daughters of St. Paul in 1984, also with the same title.

Leisner and Schoenstatt
Karl Leisner got to know the Schoenstatt movement as a teenager and belonged to a Schoenstatt group - which included the future Bishop of Münster, Heinrich Tenhumberg - up till his final days. Throughout his life, the few but intense times of personal encounter with Our Lady in the Original Shrine in Schoenstatt remained the decisive milestones for Karl Leisner on his path of calling. "Christ, my passion" - led by this ideal, he worked in the diocesan youth and wrestled his way to a decision for a celibate life as a priest. In the Dachau concentration camp he founded, together with Josef Fischer, the first Schoenstatt group in Dachau, which had to end its meetings in the 1942 starvation year. From 1943 Karl Leisner belonged to the group "Victor in vinculis Mariae" (victor in the shackles of Mary) and thus to the circle of Schoenstaetters around the founder Josef Kentenich. From the ideal and the fraternity of this group, Karl Leisner drew the strength to accept his fate, which was burdened by the tuberculosis of the lung as well as the difficult conditions in the concentration camp, as the will of God and to offer his life as a martyr.

title: Karl Leisner


text:
Differential wheeled robot

A differential wheeled robot is a mobile robot whose movement is based on two separately driven wheels placed on either side of the robot body. It can thus change its direction by varying the relative rate of rotation of its wheels and hence does not require an additional steering motion. Robots with such a drive typically have one or more castor wheels to prevent the vehicle from tilting.

Details

If both the wheels are driven in the same direction and speed, the robot will go in a straight line. If both wheels are turned with equal speed in opposite directions, as is clear from the diagram shown, the robot will rotate about the central point of the axis. Otherwise, depending on the speed of rotation and its direction, the center of rotation may fall anywhere on the line defined by the two contact points of the tires. While the robot is traveling in a straight line, the center of rotation is an infinite distance from the robot. Since the direction of the robot is dependent on the rate and direction of rotation of the two driven wheels, these quantities should be sensed and controlled precisely.

A differentially steered robot is similar to the differential gears used in automobiles in that both the wheels can have different rates of rotations, but unlike the differential gearing system, a differentially steered system will have both the wheels powered. Differential wheeled robots are used extensively in robotics, since their motion is easy to program and can be well controlled. Virtually all consumer robots on the market today use differential steering primarily for its low cost and simplicity.

Kinematics of Differential Drive Robots
The illustration on the right shows the differential drive kinematics of a mobile wheeled robot. The variables are expressed using the following notation: $X$ and $Y$  are the global coordinate system. Using the point midway between the wheels as the origin of the robot, one can define $X_{B}$ and $Y_{B}$  as the locale body coordinate system. The orientation of the robot with respect to the global coordinate system is the angle $\varphi$. The radius of the wheels is $r$ and the width of the vehicle $b$. Assuming that the wheels are at any time in contact with the ground (there is no slip), the wheels describe arcs in the plane in such a way that the vehicle always rotates around a point (referred to as $ICR$  - instantaneous center of rotation). The ground contact speed of the left wheel $v_{L}$ and the right wheel $v_{R}$  lead to a rotation of the vehicle by the angular velocity $\omega$. Following the definition of angular velocity, one obtains:$$\begin{align} \omega \cdot (R+b/2) &= v_{R} \\ \omega \cdot (R-b/2) &= v_{L} \\ \end{align}$$Solving these two equations for $\omega$  and $R$, while the latter is defined as the distance from $ICR$  to the center of the robot$$\begin{align} \omega &= (v_{R}-v_{L})/b   \\ R &= b/2 \cdot (v_{R}+v_{L}) / (v_{R}-v_{L}) \\ \end{align}$$Using the equation for the angular velocity, the instantaneous velocity $$V$$ of the point midway between the robot's wheels is given by$$V = \omega \cdot R = \frac{v_{R}+v_{L}}{2}$$The wheel tangential velocities can also be written as$$\begin{align}v_{R} & = r \cdot \omega_{R} \\ v_{L} & = r \cdot \omega_{L}  \end{align}$$where $$\omega_{R}$$ and $$\omega_{L}$$are the left and the right angular velocities of the wheels around their axes. The robot kinematics in local body coordinates can thus be written as$$\begin{bmatrix} \dot{x}_{B}\\ \dot{y}_{B}\\ \dot{\varphi} \end{bmatrix} =

\begin{bmatrix} v\, {x}_{B} \\ v\, {y}_{B} \\ \omega \end{bmatrix} \overbrace{=}^{v=r \omega}

\begin{bmatrix} \frac{r}{2} & \frac{r}{2}\\ 0 &0\\ -\frac{r}{b}       & \frac{r}{b} \end{bmatrix} \begin{bmatrix} \omega_{L}\\ \omega_{R} \end{bmatrix}$$Using a coordinate transformation (Rotation of axes), the robot's kinematic model in global coordinates can finally be obtained$$\begin{bmatrix} \dot{x}\\ \dot{y}\\ \dot{\varphi} \end{bmatrix} =

\begin{bmatrix} \cos{\varphi} & 0\\ \sin{\varphi} &0\\ 0       & 1  \end{bmatrix} \begin{bmatrix} V\\ \omega \end{bmatrix}$$where $$V$$ and $$\omega$$ are the control variables.

Differential Drive Controller
One might face a situation where the velocity $V$ and the angular velocity $\omega$  are given as inputs, and the angular velocities of the left $\omega_{L}$ and right wheels $\omega_{R}$  are sought as control variables (see figure above). In this case, the already mentioned equation can be easily reformulated. Using the relations $R = V/\omega$ and $\omega_{R} = v_{R}/r$  in

$$\omega \cdot (R+b/2) = v_{R}$$one obtains the equation for the angular velocity of the right wheel $\omega_{R}$

$$\omega_{R} =  \frac{V+\omega \cdot b/2}{r}$$

The same procedure can be applied to the calculation of the angular velocity of the left wheel $\omega_{L}$

$$\omega_{L} = \frac{V-\omega \cdot b/2}{r}$$

Examples of differential wheeled robots

 * Alice
 * Armadillo, Robotican
 * Big Trak
 * Edison
 * Giraff
 * Khepera and e-puck
 * Magni
 * Pioneer, PeopleBot, PowerBot & PatrolBot- the ActivMedia Robotics mobile robots.
 * Roomba
 * RoboMow
 * Sbot
 * SCUTTLE An open-source payload-capable robot for hobby and university research.
 * Shonkbot, a minimal-cost, Arduino-based teaching robot
 * Thymio

title: Differential wheeled robot


text:
American Thermoplastic Company

American Thermoplastic Company (ATC) is an American manufacturer of binders and other plastics products.

ATC was founded in 1954 in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania.

title: American Thermoplastic Company


text:
Junicode

Junicode ("Junius-Unicode") is a free and open-source (SIL Open Font License) old-style serif typeface developed by Peter S. Baker of the University of Virginia. The design is based on a 17th-century typeface used in Oxford, England.

Junicode contains many special characters and ligatures for medievalists, along with numerous other Unicode glyphs. The font has OpenType features for advanced typesetting and includes true small caps.

Since August 2023, Junicode has been a variable font and remains under active development.

Design
The designs of the Junicode roman characters are based on a 17th-century typeface design used at the Oxford University Press, also known as Clarendon Press. Peter Baker based the Junicode roman design on those used in George Hickes' ''Linguarum Vett. Septentrionalium Thesaurus'' (1703–1705), naming the typeface Junicode ("Junius Unicode") after Franciscus Junius, who had commissioned the original typeface used for the Anglo-Saxon texts in that volume, "Pica Saxon". The designs represent an intermediate stage between earlier 16th century typefaces (such as Garamond) and later 18th century typefaces (such as Caslon). The Junicode roman character design shares a number of features with these earlier and later typefaces.

Junicode has an individual Greek typeface, Foulis Greek. The design is a traditional revival as well. It is based on the Greek Double Pica cut by Alexander Wilson (c. 1714–1786), a Scottish doctor, astronomer, and typefounder. Wilson's typeface was used in 1756–1758 for a renowned edition of Homer's epics (the Iliad and the Odyssey), printed by Robert Foulis and Andrew Foulis of the Foulis Publishing House and printers to the University of Glasgow. The characters previously included in Junicode font, since version 1.000, moved into a separate font.

Origins and uses
The Junicode font was developed especially for medievalists, due to the need for a font to cover the large number of special characters and ligatures used in medieval manuscripts. The font has complete support for the Medieval Unicode Font Initiative version 4.0 in the regular and italic faces.

Despite the specialization of Junicode for the needs of medievalists, the font is quite complete and supports a large number of Unicode characters. In the regular style, over 3000 characters are available. This makes Junicode useful for a wide range of languages that utilize the Latin alphabet, including scholarly texts and publications that require special diacritics not traditionally found in conventional fonts. It exists in regular, italic, bold and bold italic styles, with the regular style having the largest character set. Regular and bold styles have small caps and all styles have swash alternates, although not a complete set of italic swash capitals.

Junicode has a very wide linespacing in many applications due to its numerous tall characters with stacked diacritics.

Availability and development
Junicode is free and open source software licensed under the SIL Open Font License, and is released in the TrueType format, which is used on most operating systems. Additionally, specific packages for Junicode are available for open source systems such as Debian, Ubuntu, and FreeBSD.

The Junicode font is developed in the FontForge typeface editing program. The font includes TrueType hinting, generated by the ttfautohint program.

title: Junicode


text:
User:Markus.Waibel

Short description
Please visit my homepage at http://mwaibel.info for more information on me and my current activities.

My contributions to Wikipedia
I've written and improved a number of articles in and around my current research field.

Links

 * My homepage
 * The Robots Podcast
 * The Talking Robots Podcast

title: User:Markus.Waibel


text:
Cape Race

Cape Race is a point of land located at the southeastern tip of the Avalon Peninsula on the island of Newfoundland, in Newfoundland and Labrador, Canada. Its name is thought to come from the original Portuguese name for this cape, "Raso", meaning flat or low-lying. The Cape appeared on early sixteenth century maps as Cabo Raso and its name may derive from a cape of the same name at the mouth of the Tagus River in Portugal. The cape was the location of the Cape Race LORAN-C transmitter until the system was decommissioned in 2010. It is also home to the Cape Race Lighthouse, notable for having received the distress call from the RMS Titanic.

Geography
Dense fog, rocky coasts, and its proximity to trans-Atlantic shipping routes have resulted in many shipwrecks near Cape Race over the years. One of the most famous was the SS Arctic. Cape Race is a flat, barren point of land jutting out into the Atlantic Ocean, its cliffs rising almost vertically to 30.5 m above sea level. On average it is shrouded in fog on 158 days of the year.

History
In 1583, having claimed the port of St John's for Queen Elizabeth I, Sir Humphrey Gilbert, on board the ship Squirrel, and accompanied by the ships Golden Hind and Delight, passed by Cape Race on his way back to England. Squirrel would sink en route, taking Gilbert with her. From 1859 to 1866, the New York City Associated Press kept a newsboat at Cape Race to meet ocean liners passing by on their way from Europe so that news could be telegraphed to New York. These news items carried the byline "via Cape Race". In 1904, the first wireless station in Newfoundland was built at Cape Race. On the night Titanic sank, wireless operator Jack Phillips was sending telegraphs to Cape Race for relay to New York City. When Cyril Evans, wireless operator of the Leyland Line SS Californian, sent an iceberg warning to the RMS Titanic, only a few miles away, Phillips was so annoyed with the loud signal (due to the proximity) and responded "Keep out, Shut up, I'm working Cape Race," meaning that he was transmitting to the Cape Race Marconi Station. This would become a famous incident, as the bored and angry Evans soon switched off the wireless and went to sleep, and Titanic hit an iceberg only fifteen minutes later. After Titanic's distress call, Cape Race played a major role in relaying news of the sinking to other ships and land locations. On September 11, 1990, a Boeing 727 trijet went missing off the coast of Cape Race with 16 people on board. The aircraft was never foumd.

Marconi's station (MCE) was rebuilt on the same site and opened as a "wireless interpretation centre" to commemorate the 100th anniversary of Titanics sinking in 2012.

title: Cape Race


text: User talk:212.238.191.138

title: User talk:212.238.191.138