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Near-death studies

Near-death studies is a field of psychology and psychiatry that studies the physiology, phenomenology and after-effects of the near-death experience (NDE). The field was originally associated with a distinct group of North American researchers that followed up on the initial work of Raymond Moody, and who later established the International Association for Near-Death Studies (IANDS) and the Journal of Near-Death Studies. Since then the field has expanded, and now includes contributions from a wide range of researchers and commentators worldwide. Research on near-death experiences is mainly limited to the disciplines of medicine, psychology and psychiatry.

Near-death experience
The near-death experience is an experience reported by people who have come close to dying in a medical or non-medical setting. The aspect of trauma, and physical crises, is also recognized as an indicator for the phenomenon. Five percent of the adult American population have had an NDE, according to Linda J. Griffith and Bruce Greyson. Surveys conducted in the US, Australia and Germany suggest that 4 to 15% of the population have had NDEs, according to IANDS. Researchers study the role of physiological, psychological and transcendental factors associated with the NDE. These dimensions are also the basis for the three major explanatory models for the NDE.

Some general characteristics of an NDE include: subjective impressions of being outside the physical body; visions of deceased relatives and religious figures; and transcendence of ego and spatiotemporal boundaries.

NDE researchers have also found that the NDE is not a uniquely western experience. Several elements and features of the NDE appear to be similar across cultures,    but the details of the experience (figures, beings, scenery), and the interpretation of the experience, vary between cultures. A few researchers have "challenged the hypothesis that near-death experience accounts are substantially influenced by prevailing cultural models".

Scientists correlate these events to a stressed and dying brain. These visions and life changes could be caused by oxygen shortage, imperfect anesthesia and the body's neurochemical responses to trauma. But many NDErs still believe that they were more than just simple hallucinations or dreams. They believe these messages and the experience happened to them for a greater reason.

Elements of the NDE
According to the NDE-scale a near-death-experience includes a few, or several, of the following 16 elements:

 * 1) Time speeds up or slows down.
 * 2) Thought-processes speed up.
 * 3) A return of scenes from the past.
 * 4) A sudden insight, or understanding.
 * 5) A feeling of peace or pleasantness.
 * 6) A feeling of happiness, or joy.
 * 7) A sense of harmony or unity with the universe.
 * 8) Confrontation with a brilliant light.
 * 9) The senses feel more vivid.
 * 10) An awareness of things going on elsewhere, as if by extrasensory perception (ESP).
 * 11) Experiencing scenes from the future.
 * 12) A feeling of being separated from the body.
 * 13) Experiencing a different, unearthly world.
 * 14) Encountering a mystical being or presence, or hearing an unidentifiable voice.
 * 15) Seeing deceased persons or religious spirits.
 * 16) Coming to a border, or point of no return.

In a study published in The Lancet van Lommel and colleagues list ten elements of the NDE:

 * 1) Awareness of being dead.
 * 2) Positive emotions.
 * 3) Out of body experience.
 * 4) Moving through a tunnel.
 * 5) Communication with light.
 * 6) Observation of colours.
 * 7) Observation of a celestial landscape.
 * 8) Meeting with deceased persons.
 * 9) Life review.
 * 10) Presence of border.

After-effects
The NDE is associated with a number of after-effects,    or life-changing effects. The effects, which are often summarized by researchers, include a number of value, attitude and belief changes that reflect profound changes in personality, and a new outlook on life and death, human relations, and spirituality. Many of the effects are considered to be positive or beneficial. Van Lommel and colleagues conducted a "longitudinal follow-up research into transformational processes after NDEs" and found a "long-lasting transformational effect of the experience".

However, not all after-effects are beneficial. The negative effects can be very large and prevalent. In some cases, changes in attitudes and behaviour can lead to distress and psychosocial, spiritual or physiological problems. The negative effects of NDE often have to do with adjustment to the new situation following a near-death experience, and the issues that comes with reintegration into ordinary life. According to Bruce Greyson, those who experienced NDE may also have difficulty maintaining relationships due to the fear of rejection or being ridiculed when discussing the events. This fear of being judged or ridiculed also causes a problem when needing to talk to a professional. Some NDErs have received negative reactions from professionals, thereby discouraging many who are in need of help. Consequently, many NDErs find great difficulty in sharing the experience of NDE and how it impacted their life. Another category, so-called distressing or unpleasant near-death experiences, has been investigated by Greyson and Bush.

Explanatory models
Explanatory models for the phenomenology and the elements of the NDE can, according to sources,    be divided into a three broad categories: psychological, physiological, and transcendental. In a study published in 1990, Owens, Cook and Stevenson presented results that lent support to all of these three interpretations. Christian Agrillo notes that literature reports two main theoretical frameworks: (1) "biological/psychological" (in-brain theories), or (2) "survivalist" (out-of-brain theories).

Each model contains a number of variables:

 * Psychological theories have suggested that the NDE can be a consequence of mental and emotional reactions to the perceived threat of dying,  or a result of expectation.   Other psychological variables that are considered by researchers include: imagination,  depersonalization,  dissociation,  proneness to fantasy,  and the memory of being born.
 * Physiological theories tend to focus on somatic, biological or pharmacological explanations for the NDE, often with an emphasis on the physiology of the brain. Variables that are considered, and often summarized by researchers, include: anoxia; cerebral hypoxia; hypercarbia;  endorphins;   serotonin  or various neurotransmitters;   temporal lobe dysfunction or seizures;   the NMDA receptor;  activation of the limbic system;  drugs;  retinal ischemia; and processes linked to rapid eye movement sleep or phenomena generated on the border between sleep and wakefullness.
 * Transcendental theories,   consider a number of categories that fall outside the scope of physiological or psychological explanations. This explanatory model considers whether the NDE might be related to: the existence of an afterlife,  a changing state of consciousness, mystical (peak) experiences, or mind-body separation.

Several researchers in the field have expressed reservations towards explanations that are purely psychological or physiological. Van Lommel and colleagues have argued for the inclusion of transcendental categories as part of the explanatory framework. Other researchers, such as Parnia, Fenwick, and Greyson, have argued for an expanded discussion about the mind-brain relationship as well as the possibilities of human consciousness.

Precursors
Individual cases of NDEs in literature have been identified in ancient times. During the 1880s and 1890s, near-death phenomena were part of the investigation of paranormal phenomena. Precursors to the field of near-death studies include the work of paranormal investigators, such as William Crookes and Frederick W.H. Myers, and the work of parapsychological societies, such as the Society for Psychical Research (SPR) in England, and its American counterpart. The work attracted skepticism from contemporary branches of science. Also in the 1800s, two efforts moved beyond studying individual cases—one privately done by Mormons and one in Switzerland.

The early 1900s was a period of disinterest in the topic, only marked by occasional contributions, including the commentaries of Gardner Murphy and the research of Donald West. In 1948 West investigated the occurrence of psi-phenomena in a small sample of the British population. He found that "14 percent of his sample had undergone a hallucinatory experience and 9 percent had reported seeing apparitions of the dead". During the 1970s the work of Elisabeth Kübler-Ross attracted attention and she addressed the topic publicly. Interest in the topic was also spurred by autobiographical accounts, such as the books of George Ritchie.

Formative period – early profiles
Commentators note that the launch of the field of near-death studies started with work of Raymond Moody. Moody got interested in the subject of near-death experiences at the start of his career. In the mid-seventies, while doing his medical residency as a psychiatrist at the University of Virginia, he conducted interviews with near-death experiencers. He later published these findings in the book Life After Life (1976). In the book Moody outlines the different elements of the NDE. These features were picked up by later researchers, and the book brought public attention to the topic of NDEs.

Early contributions to the field of near-death studies also include the work of Russell Noyes, who collected NDE stories from personal accounts and medical records. According to commentators his work signalled the first big shift in perspective within the field, pulling the methodology away from parapsychology and towards the principles of medicine. In the 1970s Noyes and Kletti reported on the phenomenon of depersonalization related to life-threatening danger.

The late seventies saw the establishment of the Association for the Scientific Study of Near-Death Phenomena, an initial group of academic researchers, including John Audette, Raymond Moody, Bruce Greyson, Kenneth Ring and Michael Sabom, who laid the foundations for the field of near-death studies, and carried out some of the first NDE research in the wake of Moody's work. The Association was a forerunner to the International Association for Near-death Studies (IANDS), which was founded in the early eighties and which established its headquarters at the University of Connecticut, Storrs. This group of researchers, but especially Ring, was responsible for launching Anabiosis, the first peer-reviewed journal within the field. The journal later became Journal of Near-Death Studies.

Even though NDEs were introduced to the academic setting, the subject was often met with academic disbelief, or regarded as taboo. The medical community has been reluctant to address the phenomenon of NDEs, and funding for research has been limited. However, both Ring and Sabom made contributions that were influential for the newly established field. Ring published a book in 1980 called Life at Death: A Scientific Investigation of the Near-Death Experience. In the book Ring identified the core near-death experience, with its corresponding stages. This early research was followed in 1984 by Ring's book Heading Toward Omega: In Search of the Meaning of the Near-Death Experience, where he described the mystical and transcendent features of the NDE, and the futuristic visions described by near-death experiencers. The early work of Michael Sabom also brought attention within the academic community. Besides contributing material to academic journals, he wrote a book called Recollections of Death (1982) which is considered to be a significant publication in the launching of the field.

Some of the early retrospective work was being carried out by Greyson and Stevenson who published their findings in the American Journal of Psychiatry in 1980. The authors used questionnaires, interviews, and medical records in order to study the phenomenology of NDEs and suggested that social and psychological factors explained some, but not all, components of the NDE. Greyson has also addressed different aspects of the NDE, such as the psychodynamics of the experience, the typology of NDEs, the varieties of NDEs, and the biology of NDEs. In addition, he brought attention to the NDE as a focus of clinical attention, suggesting that the aftermath of the NDE, in some cases, can lead to psychological problems. As research in the field progressed, both Greyson and Ring developed measurement tools that can be used in a clinical setting. According to Kinsella, no other researcher, besides Moody, has done more to "influence public opinion on the subject of NDEs" than Kenneth Ring. However, Bruce Greyson has the greatest output of material and remains the leading scholar in the field.

The 1980s also introduced the research of Melvin Morse, who profiled near-death studies. Morse and colleagues investigated NDEs in a pediatric population. They found that children reported NDEs that were similar to those described by adults. Morse later published two books, co-authored with Paul Perry, that were aimed at a general audience: Closer to the light: learning from children's near-death experiences (1990) and Transformed by the light: the powerful effect of near-death experiences on people's lives (1992). British neuropsychiatrist Peter Fenwick started to collect NDE stories in the 1980s, following their appearances in television programs. The responses from near-death experiencers later served as the basis for his book published in 1997, The Truth in the light, co-authored with his wife Elizabeth Fenwick. In the book the authors investigated more than 300 NDEs and concluded that the "subjective experience" is the key to understanding the phenomenon of NDEs. Co-operating with other researchers, such as Sam Parnia, Fenwick has reviewed and researched the potential relationship between near-death experiences and cardiac arrest.

Early investigations into the topic of near-death experiences were also conducted at the University of Virginia, where Ian Stevenson founded the Division of Perceptual Studies in the late sixties. The division went on to produce research on a number of phenomena that were not considered to be mainstream. In addition to near-death experiences this included: reincarnation and past lives, out-of-body experiences, apparitions and after-death communications, and deathbed visions. Stevenson, whose main academic interest was the topic of reincarnation and past lives, also made contributions to the field of near-death studies. In a 1990 study, co-authored with Owens and Cook, the researchers studied the medical records of 58 people who were thought to have been near death. The authors judged 28 candidates to actually have been close to dying, while 30 candidates, who merely thought they were about to die, were judged to not have been in any medical danger. Both groups reported similar experiences, but the first group reported more features of the core NDE than the other group.

According to Loseu and colleagues, who published an analysis of the published literature in the field of near-death studies, there was a peak in the output of articles in the 15-year period between 1980 and 1995, followed by a decreasing trend.

Later period – new profiles, prospective studies
The first decades of near-death research were characterized by retrospective studies. From 1975 to 2005, some 2500 self reported individuals in the US had been reviewed in retrospective studies of the phenomena with an additional 600 outside the US in the West, and 70 in Asia. However, the late 1980s marked the beginning of prospective studies in the field. Prospective studies (which are more expensive) review groups of individuals and find who had an NDE. They had identified 270 individuals by 2005.

Pim van Lommel (cardiologist) was one of the first researchers to bring the study of NDEs into the area of Hospital Medicine. In 1988 he launched a prospective study that spanned 10 Dutch hospitals. 344 survivors of cardiac arrest were included in the study. 62 patients (18%) reported NDE. 41 of these patients (12%) described a core experience. The aim of the study was to investigate the cause of the experience, and assess variables connected to frequency, depth, and content. Prospective studies were also taking place in the U.S. Schwaninger and colleagues collaborated with Barnes-Jewish Hospital, where they studied cardiac arrest patients over a three-year period (April 1991 – February 1994). Only a minority of the patients survived, and from this group 30 patients were interviewable. Of these 30 patients 23% reported an NDE, while 13% reported an NDE during "a prior life-threatening illness".

In a prospective study from 2001, conducted at Southampton General Hospital, Parnia and colleagues found that 11.1% of 63 cardiac-arrest survivors reported memories of their unconscious period. Several of these memories included NDE features. Greyson conducted a 30-month survey of patients admitted to the cardiac inpatient service of the University of Virginia Hospital. He found that NDEs were reported by 10% of patients with cardiac arrest and 1% of other cardiac patients. Up to 2005, 95% of world cultures have been documented making some mention of NDEs. In all, close to 3500 individual cases between 1975 and 2005 had been reviewed by some 55 researchers or teams of researchers.

During the next decade, prospective studies were also starting to emerge from other parts of the world. In a study from 2010 Klemenc-Ketis and colleagues reported on out-of-hospital cardiac arrest survivors, later admitted to intensive care units, at medical centers in Slovenia. 21.2% of the patients in the study reported NDEs. The researchers also found that "NDE occur more often in patients with higher petCO2 and pCO2"; "higher serum levels of potassium correlate with higher score on Greyson’s NDE scale"; and "NDEs occur more often in patients with previous NDEs".

The work of Jeffrey Long has also attracted attention to the topic of NDEs in both the academic, and the popular field. Long is a near death experience researcher who believes in life after death. In 2010 he released a book, co-authored with Paul Perry, called Evidence of the Afterlife: The Science of Near-Death Experiences. In the book Long presented results from research conducted over the previous decade.

Based on the results from an analysis of scholarly NDE-related periodical literature, the decade between 2001 and 2011 signaled an expansion of the field of near-death studies by including new authors and new publication venues. Research has also entered into other fields of interest, such as the mental health of military veterans. Goza, Holden & Kinsey studied NDEs among combat veterans. They found, among other things, that combat soldiers reported "less intense" near-death experiences, compared to NDErs in the civilian population.

The first clinical paper from The AWARE-project (AWAreness during REsuscitation), another prospective study, was published in 2014. The research was a multicenter observational study including US, UK and Austrian medical sites. In the study Parnia and colleagues found that 9% of patients who completed stage 2 interviews reported experiences compatible with NDEs. A follow-up study, AWARE II, was completed in November 2022 (not yet peer-reviewed), and has resulted in 28 participants completing interviews, with 6 reporting a NDE.

In a study from 2020 Charland-Verville and colleagues studied the near-death experiences of 158 participants through text mining. This study found that analyzing these experiences by the way participants explain them through speech can allow researchers to understand even more about NDEs, rather than just relying on the memories and self-reports of participants, which are less confidential than scientific evidence. It was also demonstrated that non-verbal communication like gestures and emotions can allow researchers to further understand NDEs and their effect on people who have had them.

Psychometrics
Several psychometric instruments have been adapted to near-death research. In 1980, Ring developed the Weighted Core Experience Index in order to measure the depth of NDEs, and this index has been used by other researchers for this purpose. The index has also been used to measure the impact of near-death experiences on dialysis patients. According to some commentators the index has improved the consistency in the field. However, Greyson notes that although the index is a "pioneering effort", it is not based on statistical analysis, and has not been tested for internal coherence or reliability. In 1984 Ring developed an instrument called the Life Changes Inventory (LCI) in order to quantify value changes following an NDE. The instrument was later revised and standardized and a new version, the LCI-R, was published in 2004.

Greyson developed The Near-Death Experience Scale. This 16-item scale was found to have high internal consistency, split-half reliability, and test-retest reliability and was correlated with Ring's Weighted Core Experience Index. Questions formulated by the scale address such dimensions as: cognition (feelings of accelerated thought, or "life-review"), affect (feelings of peace and joy), paranormal experience (feelings of being outside of the body, or a perception of future events) and transcendence (experience of encountering deceased relatives, or experiencing an unearthly realm). A score of 7 or higher out of a possible 32 was used as the standard criterion for a near-death experience. The scale is, according to the author, clinically useful in differentiating NDEs from organic brain syndromes and nonspecific stress responses. The NDE-scale was later found to fit the Rasch rating scale model. The instrument has been used to measure NDEs among cardiac arrest survivors, coma survivors, out-of-hospital cardiac arrest patients/survivors,  substance misusers, and dialysis patients.

In the late 1980s Thornburg developed the Near-Death Phenomena Knowledge and Attitudes Questionnaire. The questionnaire consists of 23 true/false/undecided response items assessing knowledge, 23 Likert scale items assessing general attitudes toward near-death phenomena, and 20 Likert scale items assessing attitude toward caring for a client who has had an NDE. Content validity was established by using a panel of experts selected from nursing, sociology, and psychology. The instrument was also found to satisfy the criteria for internal consistency. The instrument has been used to measure attitudes toward, and knowledge of, near-death experiences in a college population, among clergy, among registered psychologists, and among hospice nurses.

Martial and colleagues developed the Near-Death Experience Content (NDE-C) scale, a 20-item scale constructed in order to reassess the Greyson NDE-scale and to validate the new NDE-C scale. The authors found weaknesses in the original NDE-scale, but good psychometric properties for the new NDE-C scale.

Greyson has also used mainstream psychological measurements in his research, for example: The Dissociative Experiences Scale, a measure of dissociative symptoms; and The Threat Index, a measure of the threat implied by one's personal death.

Research organizations and academic locations
The field of near-death studies includes several communities that study the phenomenology of NDEs. One of the most influential is IANDS, an international organization based in Durham, North Carolina, US, that promotes research and education on the phenomenon of near-death experiences. Among its publications is the peer-reviewed Journal of Near-Death Studies. The organization also maintains an archive of near-death case histories for research and study.

Another research organization, the Louisiana-based Near Death Experience Research Foundation, was established by radiation oncologist Jeffrey Long in 1998. The foundation maintains a website and a database of near-death cases.

Several universities have been associated with near-death studies: the University of Connecticut (US), Southampton University (UK), University of North Texas (US) and the Division of Perceptual Studies at the University of Virginia (US).

Conferences
IANDS holds conferences on the topic of near-death experiences. The first meeting was a medical seminar at Yale University, New Haven, Connecticut, in 1982. The first clinical conference was in Pembroke Pines, Florida, and the first research conference was in Farmington, Connecticut in 1984. Since then conferences have been held in major U.S. cities, almost annually. Many of the conferences have addressed a specific topic, defined in advance of the meeting. In 2004 participants gathered in Evanston, Illinois, under the headline: "Creativity from the light". A few of the conferences have been arranged at academic locations. In 2001 researchers and participants gathered at Seattle Pacific University. In 2006 the University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center became the first medical institution to host the annual IANDS conference.

The first international medical conference on near-death experiences was held in 2006. Approximately 1,500 delegates, including people who claim to have had NDEs, attended the one-day conference in Martigues, France. Among the researchers at the conference were Moody and anesthetist and intensive care doctor Jean-Jacques Charbonnier.

Relevant publications
IANDS publishes the quarterly Journal of Near-Death Studies, the only scholarly journal in the field. IANDS also publishes Vital Signs, a quarterly newsletter that is made available to its members and that includes commentary, news and articles of general interest.

One of the first introductions to the field of near-death studies was A Collection of Near-Death Research Readings: Scientific Inquiries Into the Experiences of Persons Near Physical Death, edited by Craig R. Lundahl and released in 1982. An early general reader was The Near-Death Experience: Problems, Prospects, Perspectives, published in 1984. In 2009, the Handbook of Near-Death Experiences: thirty years of investigation was published. It was an overview of the field based on papers presented at the IANDS conference in 2006. Making Sense of Near-Death Experiences: A Handbook for Clinicians was published in 2011. The book had many contributors and described how the NDE could be handled in psychiatric and clinical practice. In 2017 the University of Missouri Press published The Science Of Near-death Experiences, a compilation of articles that were originally published in the medical journal Missouri Medicine between 2013 and 2015.

Recognition and criticism
According to literature the field of near-death studies is associated with discovery, challenges, and controversy. Skepticism towards the findings of near-death studies, and the validity of the near-death experience as a subject for scientific study, has been widespread. According to Knapton, in The Daily Telegraph, the subject was, until recently, controversial. Both scientists and medical professionals have, in general, tended to be skeptical. According to commentators in the field the early study of near-death experiences was met with "academic disbelief". Acceptance of NDEs as a legitimate topic for scientific study has improved, but the process has been slow.

According to literature "psychiatrists have played a role in the recognition of the "near-death" phenomenon as well as popularization of the subject and subsequent research". Kinsella noted that "Growing scholarly interest has followed popular interest in the subject". While there is not yet any academic consensus as to what the philosophical implications of NDE studies might be, the question of whatever the true and fundamental nature of human consciousness might be yet remains both unanswered, and highly contentious. Still, NDE researchers are in general agreement that NDE research is now a legitimate academic field of scientific research, and many recent discoveries in this field give rise to the hopes by some researchers that a "breakthrough" in the modern day understanding of the dying process may be imminent.

Skeptics have remarked that it is difficult to verify many of the anecdotal reports that are being used as background material in order to outline the features of the NDE.

Internet Infidels commentator Keith Augustine has criticized the survivalist interpretation of NDEs. He also criticized "weaknesses in the research methodology, paucity of the data, and gaps in the arguments". Greyson responded by suggesting that the materialist model favored by Augustine is supported by even less data than the "mind-brain separation model" favored by many researchers within the field of near-death studies.

The findings of NDE research have been contested by several writers in the fields of psychology and neuroscience. Susan Blackmore has contested the findings of NDE research, and has instead argued in favour of a neurological explanation. Psychologist Christopher French has reviewed several of the theories that have originated from the field of near-death studies. This includes theories that present a challenge to modern neuroscience by suggesting a new understanding of the mind-brain relationship in the direction of transcendental, or paranormal, elements. In reply to this French considers the conventional scientific understanding, and introduces several non-paranormal factors, as well as psychological theory, that might explain those near-death experiences that defy conventional scientific explanations. However, he does not rule out a future revision of modern neuroscience, awaiting new and improved research procedures.

Jason Braithwaite, a Senior Lecturer in Cognitive Neuroscience in the Behavioural Brain Sciences Centre, University of Birmingham, issued an in-depth analysis and critique of the survivalist's neuroscience of some NDE researchers, concluding, "it is difficult to see what one could learn from the paranormal survivalist position which sets out assuming the truth of that which it seeks to establish, makes additional and unnecessary assumptions, misrepresents the current state of knowledge from mainstream science, and appears less than comprehensive in its analysis of the available facts."

Martens noted the "lack of uniform nomenclature", and "the failure to control the studied population with an elimination of interfering factors", as examples of criticism directed towards near-death research. Engmann points out that NDE research does not fulfil quality criteria of medical studies, namely objectivity.

But criticism of the field has also come from commentators within its own ranks. In an open letter to the NDE community Ring has pointed to the "issue of possible religious bias in near-death studies". According to Ring the field of near-death studies, as well as the larger NDE movement, has attracted a variety of religious and spiritual affiliations, from a number of traditions, which makes ideological claims on behalf of NDE research. In his view this has compromised the integrity of research and discussion.

title: Near-death studies


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Drug interaction

In pharmaceutical sciences, drug interactions occur when a drug's mechanism of action is affected by the concomitant administration of substances such as foods, beverages, or other drugs. A popular example of drug–food interaction is the effect of grapefruit on the metabolism of drugs.

Interactions may occur by simultaneous targeting of receptors, directly or indirectly. For example, both Zolpidem and alcohol affect GABAA receptors, and their simultaneous consumption results in the overstimulation of the receptor, which can lead to loss of consciousness. When two drugs affect each other, it is a drug–drug interaction (DDI). The risk of a DDI increases with the number of drugs used.

A large share of elderly people regularly use five or more medications or supplements, with a significant risk of side-effects from drug–drug interactions.

Drug interactions can be of three kinds:

 * additive (the result is what you expect when you add together the effect of each drug taken independently),
 * synergistic (combining the drugs leads to a larger effect than expected), or
 * antagonistic (combining the drugs leads to a smaller effect than expected).

It may be difficult to distinguish between synergistic or additive interactions, as individual effects of drugs may vary.

Direct interactions between drugs are also possible and may occur when two drugs are mixed before intravenous injection. For example, mixing thiopentone and suxamethonium can lead to the precipitation of thiopentone.

Interactions based on pharmacodynamics
Pharmacodynamic interactions are the drug–drug interactions that occur at a biochemical level and depend mainly on the biological processes of organisms. These interactions occur due to action on the same targets; for example, the same receptor or signaling pathway.

Pharmacodynamic interactions can occur on protein receptors. Two drugs can be considered to be homodynamic, if they act on the same receptor. Homodynamic effects include drugs that act as (1) pure agonists, if they bind to the main locus of the receptor, causing a similar effect to that of the main drug, (2) partial agonists if, on binding to a secondary site, they have the same effect as the main drug, but with a lower intensity and (3) antagonists, if they bind directly to the receptor's main locus but their effect is opposite to that of the main drug. These may be competitive antagonists, if they compete with the main drug to bind with the receptor. or uncompetitive antagonists, when the antagonist binds to the receptor irreversibly. The drugs can be considered heterodynamic competitors, if they act on distinct receptor with similar downstream pathways.

The interaction my also occur via signal transduction mechanisms. For example, low blood glucose leads to a release of catecholamines, triggering symptoms that hint the organism to take action, like consuming sugary foods. If a patient is on insulin, which reduces blood sugar, and also beta-blockers, the body is less able to cope with an insulin overdose.

Interactions based on pharmacokinetics
Pharmacokinetics is the field of research studying the chemical and biochemical factors that directly affect dosage and the half-life of drugs in an organism, including absorption, transport, distribution, metabolism and excretion. Compounds may affect any of those process, ultimately interfering with the flux of drugs in the human body, increasing or reducing drug availability.

Based on absorption
Drugs that change intestinal motility may impact the level of other drugs taken. For example, prokinetic agents increase the intestinal motility, which may cause drugs to go through the digestive system too fast, reducing absorption.

The pharmacological modification of pH can affect other compounds. Drugs can be present in ionized or non-ionized forms depending on pKa, and neutral compounds are usually better absorbed by membranes. Medication like antacids can increase pH and inhibit the absorption of other drugs such as zalcitabine, tipranavir and amprenavir. The opposite is more common, with, for example, the antacid cimetidine stimulating the absorption of didanosine. Some resources describe that a gap of two to four hours between taking the two drugs is needed to avoid the interaction.

Factors such as food with high-fat content may also alter the solubility of drugs and impact its absorption. This is the case for oral anticoagulants and avocado. The formation of non-absorbable complexes may occur also via chelation, when cations can make certain drugs harder to absorb, for example between tetracycline or the fluoroquinolones and dairy products, due to the presence of calcium ions. . Other drugs bind to proteins. Some drugs such as sucralfate bind to proteins, especially if they have a high bioavailability. For this reason its administration is contraindicated in enteral feeding.

Some drugs also alter absorption by acting on the P-glycoprotein of the enterocytes. This appears to be one of the mechanisms by which grapefruit juice increases the bioavailability of various drugs beyond its inhibitory activity on first pass metabolism.

Based on transport and distribution
Drugs also may affect each other by competing for transport proteins in plasma, such as albumin. In these cases the drug that arrives first binds with the plasma protein, leaving the other drug dissolved in the plasma, modifying its expected concentration. The organism has mechanisms to counteract these situations (by, for example, increasing plasma clearance), and thus they are not usually clinically relevant. They may become relevant if other problems are present, such as issues with drug excretion.

Based on metabolism

Many drug interactions are due to alterations in drug metabolism. Further, human drug-metabolizing enzymes are typically activated through the engagement of nuclear receptors. One notable system involved in metabolic drug interactions is the enzyme system comprising the cytochrome P450 oxidases.

CYP450
Cytochrome P450 is a very large family of haemoproteins (hemoproteins) that are characterized by their enzymatic activity and their role in the metabolism of a large number of drugs. Of the various families that are present in humans, the most interesting in this respect are the 1, 2 and 3, and the most important enzymes are CYP1A2, CYP2C9, CYP2C19, CYP2D6, CYP2E1 and CYP3A4. The majority of the enzymes are also involved in the metabolism of endogenous substances, such as steroids or sex hormones, which is also important should there be interference with these substances. The function of the enzymes can either be stimulated (enzyme induction) or inhibited (enzyme inhibition).

Through enzymatic inhibition and induction
If a drug is metabolized by a CYP450 enzyme and drug B blocks the activity of these enzymes, it can lead to pharmacokinetic alterations. A. This alteration results in drug A remaining in the bloodstream for an extended duration, and eventually increase in concentration.

In some instances, the inhibition may reduce the therapeutic effect, if instead the metabolites of the drug is responsible for the effect.

Compounds that increase the efficiency of the enzymes, on the other hand, may have the opposite effect and increase the rate of metabolism.

Examples of metabolism-based interactions
An example of this is shown in the following table for the CYP1A2 enzyme, showing the substrates (drugs metabolized by this enzyme) and some inductors and inhibitors of its activity:

Some foods also act as inductors or inhibitors of enzymatic activity. The following table shows the most common:

Renal and biliary excretion
Drugs tightly bound to proteins (i.e. not in the free fraction) are not available for renal excretion. Filtration depends on a number of factors including the pH of the urine. Drug interactions may affect those points.

With herbal medicines
Herb-drug interactions are drug interactions that occur between herbal medicines and conventional drugs. These types of interactions may be more common than drug-drug interactions because herbal medicines often contain multiple pharmacologically active ingredients, while conventional drugs typically contain only one. Some such interactions are clinically significant, although most herbal remedies are not associated with drug interactions causing serious consequences. Most catalogued herb-drug interactions are moderate in severity. The most commonly implicated conventional drugs in herb-drug interactions are warfarin, insulin, aspirin, digoxin, and ticlopidine, due to their narrow therapeutic indices. The most commonly implicated herbs involved in such interactions are those containing St. John’s Wort, magnesium, calcium, iron, or ginkgo.

Examples
Examples of herb-drug interactions include, but are not limited to:

 * St. John's wort affects the clearance of numerous drugs, including cyclosporin, SSRI antidepressants, digoxin, indinavir, and phenprocoumon. It may also interact with the anti-cancer drugs irinotecan and imatinib.
 * Salvia miltiorrhiza may enhance anticoagulation and bleeding among people taking warfarin.
 * Allium sativum has been found to decrease the plasma concentration of saquinavir, and may cause hypoglycemia when taken with chlorpropamide.
 * Ginkgo biloba can cause bleeding when combined with warfarin or aspirin.
 * Concomitant Ephedra and caffeine use has been reported to, in rare cases, cause fatalities.

Mechanisms
The mechanisms underlying most herb-drug interactions are not fully understood. Interactions between herbal medicines and anticancer drugs typically involve enzymes that metabolize cytochrome P450. For example, St. John's Wort has been shown to induce CYP3A4 and P-glycoprotein in vitro and in vivo.

Underlying factors
The factors or conditions that predispose the appearance of interactions include factors such as old age. This is where human physiology changing with age may affect the interaction of drugs. For example, liver metabolism, kidney function, nerve transmission, or the functioning of bone marrow all decrease with age. In addition, in old age, there is a sensory decrease that increases the chances of errors being made in the administration of drugs. The elderly are also more vulnerable to polypharmacy, and the more drugs a patient takes, the higher is the chance of an interaction.

Genetic factors may also affect the enzymes and receptors, thus altering the possibilities of interactions.

Parients with hepatic or renal diseases already may have difficulties metabolizing and excreding drugs, what may exacerbate the effect of interactions.

Some drugs present an intrinsic increased risk for a harmful interaction, including drugs with a narrow therapeutic index, where the difference between the effective dose and the toxic dose is small. The drug digoxin is an example of this type of drug.

Risks are also increased when the drug presents a steep dose-response curve, and small changes in the dosage produce large changes in the drug's concentration in the blood plasma.

Epidemiology
As of 2008, among adults in the United States of America older than 56, 4% were taking medication and/ or supplements that put them at risk of a major drug interaction. Potential drug-drug interactions have increased over time and are more common in the less-educated elderly even after controlling for age, sex, place of residence, and comorbidity.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Drug interaction


text: User talk:64.68.165.172

title: User talk:64.68.165.172


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User talk:Lalala10203

Hi, we've listed Tim garton on Votes for deletion. Please consider The perfect article and manual of style before creating other articles. Thanks.

Hello and welcome to Wikipedia! Hope you like it here, and stick around.

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 * Try the Tutorial, and feel free to experiment in the test area.
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title: User talk:Lalala10203


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Birdsongs of the Mesozoic

Birdsongs of the Mesozoic is an American musical group founded in Boston, Massachusetts, United States, in 1980.

The music of Birdsongs of the Mesozoic is almost entirely instrumental, and incorporates many different musical elements; critic Rick Anderson writes, "Very few bands have ever managed to straddle the worlds of modern classical music and rock as successfully as this one did." In his liner notes for their Beat of the Mesozoic EP, Boston rock critic Eric Van dubbed them "the world's hardest-rocking chamber music quartet." Another memorable description came from Jim Sullivan of the Boston Globe: "classical-punk-jazz-car-wreck music."

Origins
Birdsongs owes its origins to the 1978 breakup of the Boston post-punk band Moving Parts, which included Erik Lindgren (vocals, keyboards) and Roger Miller (vocals, guitar). Miller went on to form the seminal post-punk group Mission of Burma (1979–1983; 2002–present), while Lindgren concentrated on production work in his home recording studio.

While the Parts' breakup had been civil, Lindgren felt the need for an act of overt reconciliation, and in late 1980, he offered free studio time to his former bandmate should Miller have any non-Burma material he wanted to record. Miller had just written his first solo piano pieces in years, and jumped at the offer. Lindgren volunteered to provide some keyboard overdubs. Given that musical differences had led to the breakup of their earlier band, both musicians were surprised at the effectiveness of the collaboration. Burma tape loop artist Martin Swope was then enlisted for further overdub work on electric guitar.

The recording project might have ended there had not Boston's Modern Method record label approached Miller and asked for a Burma track for a compilation album. Miller instead offered "Pulse Piece" from the sessions, naming the makeshift group "Birdsongs of the Mesozoic," a reference to a Birdsongs of America album that Swope had sampled during the sessions and to then-new theories about the dinosaur ancestry of birds (Miller having been a dinosaur aficionado as a young child). The Mesozoic era covered the period of roughly 66 million years ago to 248 million years ago, and is sometimes called the "age of dinosaurs." The band created a Pterosaur silhouette as a logo, which they still use as of 2007, in a slightly modified version.

Birdsongs established and performs live
Nothing further might have come from the project had not Modern Method also asked Miller if Birdsongs could perform at the album's 1981 record release party. For this performance, a lineup was assembled consisting of Miller on piano, Lindgren on synthesizer, Swope on guitar, and Rick Scott on electronic organ, with all members doubling on percussion instruments. Miller and Scott had both previously lived in Ann Arbor, Michigan, where they had been bandmates in the short-lived Red Ants.

While there had been no intention to play more than the one gig, audience response was so strong that further shows were booked. The ensemble became a significant side project for Miller and Swope, and recorded a six-song eponymous EP (virtually the entire repertoire at the time) for Burma's label Ace of Hearts. Birdsongs opened for Burma at least once, and Burma's drummer Peter Prescott contributed to Birdsongs recordings and performances.

When Miller's tinnitus worsened in 1982, the existence of Birdsongs as a quieter alternative was a significant factor in Miller's decision to end Mission of Burma in 1983. In fact, he stopped writing Burma material and began writing more aggressive material for Birdsongs, such as "Shiny Golden Snakes" (which became the lead track of their first full-length album, Magnetic Flip.) After Burma's breakup, Birdsongs became democratized, and Swope, Scott, and especially Lindgren began composing original material. They toured regularly, mostly in the eastern United States and usually at rock music venues. Birdsongs of the Mesozoic opened for bands like Siouxsie and the Banshees, Echo and the Bunnymen, The Fall and Prescott's Volcano Suns. Jon Pareles, music critic of The New York Times, gave a positive review to the group's New York City debut, comparing their basic style to the minimalism of Philip Glass delivered with the energy and brevity of rock music: "In fact, most of the music is far more eventful, and less repetitious, than the average pop hit single."

They did occasional cover songs, which demonstrated the breadth of their influences: Adaptations of Stravinsky's The Rite of Spring, the theme songs to two animated television shows (Rocky & Bullwinkle and The Simpsons) and two different versions of Brian Eno's "Sombre Reptiles".

After Miller and Swope leave
In 1987 Miller left the group he founded to concentrate on his Maximum Electric Piano project, which he had recently begun as a side project to Birdsongs. Miller was replaced by another Ann Arbor expatriate, saxophonist/keyboardist Steve Adams of Your Neighborhood Saxophone Quartet (who had shared many bills with Birdsongs). With Adams on board, Birdsongs music had a new jazz element to their sound. Within six months, however, Adams was offered a position in the Rova Saxophone Quartet, and was replaced by saxophonist/flautist/keyboardist Ken Field. This lineup recorded two albums for Cuneiform Records (the first featuring Adams as well).

Swope left in 1993 and was replaced by guitarist Michael Bierylo. This lineup has remained stable to 2009, and has recorded several further albums for Cuneiform. The music of the current lineup has less punk sound and more modern classical and jazz colorings than the original line-up, but their music is still very eclectic.

In 2006, Birdsongs released Extreme Spirituals, a collection of traditional American gospel songs and spirituals, with singer Oral Moses.

Discography

 * Studio albums
 * Magnetic Flip (Ace of Hearts, 1984)
 * Faultline (Cuneiform, 1989)
 * Pyroclastics (Cuneiform, 1992)
 * Dancing on A'A (Cuneiform, 1995)
 * Petrophonics (Cuneiform, 2000)
 * The Iridium Controversy (Cuneiform, 2003)
 * Live albums
 * 2001 Live Birds (NEARfest Records, 2006)

 * Collaborative albums
 * 1001 Real Apes (Pel Pel, 2006)
 * Extreme Spirituals (Cuneiform, 2006)
 * EPs
 * Birdsongs of the Mesozoic (Ace of Hearts, 1983)
 * Beat of the Mesozoic (Ace of Hearts, 1986)
 * Compilations
 * Sonic Geology (Rykodisc, 1988)
 * The Fossil Record 1980-1987 (Cuneiform, 1993)
 * Dawn of the Cycads (Cuneiform, 2008)

title: Birdsongs of the Mesozoic


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Natasha Kaplinsky

Natasha Margaret Kaplinsky (born 9 September 1972) is an English newsreader, TV presenter and journalist, best known for her roles as a studio anchor on Sky News, BBC News, Channel 5 and ITV News. As of September 2022, she is the president of the British Board of Film Classification.

After two years on Sky News, Kaplinsky joined BBC News in 2002 where she co-hosted Breakfast until 2005, when she became the host of the Six O'Clock News. In October 2007, Kaplinsky was recruited to help relaunch Five (now known as Channel 5), reportedly for the highest fee ever paid to a UK newsreader, where she presented a new look, retitled Five News with Natasha Kaplinsky for three years. After leaving Channel 5, she went on to join ITV News as a presenter.

Kaplinsky has hosted light entertainment and factual programmes during her career, including Children in Need and Born to Shine. She was the subject of an episode of Who Do You Think You Are. She was the winner of the first series of BBC's Strictly Come Dancing in 2004. Kaplinsky has co-founded a mother and baby company, Mum & You.

In 2014, the then PM David Cameron asked Kaplinsky to become a Holocaust Commissioner leading a project to interview 112 survivors. She was awarded an OBE in 2017 for her services to the Holocaust Commission.

Early life
Kaplinsky was born to Raphael Kaplinsky, a South African political refugee, Professor of International Development at the Open University, and his wife, Catherine Kaplinsky (née Charlewood), a psychotherapist.

Kaplinsky's paternal grandparents were Jewish, originating from the town of Slonim (then part of Poland, now located in western Belarus), and emigrated to South Africa in 1929. Kaplinsky was born in Brighton, but spent her early life in Kenya; she has stated that she was fluent in Swahili. The family emigrated to the United Kingdom and Kaplinsky was brought up in Barcombe, East Sussex. She attended Ringmer Community College, until the age of sixteen when she moved to Varndean College in Brighton.

After graduating with a degree in English from Hertford College, Oxford in 1995, one of Kaplinsky's first jobs was working in the press offices of Labour leaders Neil Kinnock and John Smith.

Kaplinsky was the subject of an episode of the BBC's Who Do You Think You Are?, in which well-known people trace their family trees. Kaplinsky's programme was broadcast on 6 September 2007. She followed her paternal line to Slonim and was shown official documentation relating to her cousin's family. This included the death of family members during the "liquidation" – massacre – of the Słonim Ghetto by the Germans and another's escape to the partisans in the Second World War and eventual immigration to Australia. Her maternal line included an apothecary to King George III.

Early career
Kaplinsky started out presenting on F2F, a youth chat show, for Granada Talk TV in 1996 with co-host Sacha Baron Cohen. She then moved to presenting early morning news bulletins at Meridian. Within six months, she was co-presenting their evening news programme Meridian Tonight. In 1999, Kaplinsky moved to ITV's London News Network where she hosted London Today and London Tonight as well as a political programme called Seven Days.

In November 2000, Kaplinsky joined Sky News, where she initially co-presented breakfast news programme Sunrise; she later moved to early evening bulletin Live at Five, which she presented alongside Jeremy Thompson.

BBC News
Kaplinsky joined the BBC in November 2002 to present BBC Breakfast from Monday to Thursday with Dermot Murnaghan, before moving on the host the BBC News at Six.

In 2006, Kaplinsky became only the third (and youngest) woman to present the BBC's Ten O'Clock News.

Kaplinsky was recruited from the corporation to join Five to help relaunch the channel.

Five News
On 18 February 2008, Kaplinsky relaunched Five.

On 21 August 2008, Kaplinsky began her first maternity leave from Five, followed by a second period after the birth of her daughter.

On 14 October 2010, Kaplinsky announced that she was leaving her job at Channel 5 at the end of 2010, having spent most of her three years at the network on maternity leave. On 23 December 2010, she presented her final bulletin for Five News.

ITV
Kaplinsky's first presenting role with ITV was in the summer of 2011, when she hosted a new Sunday entertainment series Born to Shine, which raised awareness for the charity Save the Children, of which Natasha is an ambassador.

In September 2011, she made a return to London Tonight, fronting the programme in place of then lead anchor Nina Hossain. In addition, she occasionally presented numerous ITV News programmes.

On 19 August 2013, Kaplinsky presented The People's Medal, a documentary about The Queen's Birthday Honours List.

On 29 October 2013, Kaplinsky hosted the documentary On the Run, alongside journalist Mark Williams-Thomas. The pair then presented a second documentary, Missing Without Trace, on 12 November 2013.

Strictly Come Dancing
In 2004, Kaplinsky participated in the first series of the celebrity ballroom dancing competition Strictly Come Dancing and went on to win the competition with partner Brendan Cole. Kaplinsky then co-presented the first half of the second series in 2004 with Bruce Forsyth, when regular presenter Tess Daly went on maternity leave. Kaplinsky returned to the show in 2012, taking part in the Christmas Special and in 2018 as part of the BAFTA tribute to Sir Bruce Forsyth.

British Board of Film Classification
In 2022, she became the latest president of the British Board of Film Classification (BBFC), after the former president, Patrick Swaffer, stepped down after a 10-year contract.

Personal life
On 21 August 2005, Kaplinsky married Justin Bower. In April 2008, Kaplinsky announced she was pregnant with their first child, six weeks after her debut on Five News. On 25 September 2008, Five News revealed that Kaplinsky had given birth to a son. On 9 April 2010, Kaplinsky gave birth to a daughter. Speaking live on the 14 October 2020 on ITVs This Morning Kaplinsky revealed she had suffered multiple miscarriages and had participated in Channel 5's discussion, Miscarriage: Our Story broadcast 15 October 2020.

On 8 February 2011, Kaplinsky commented in a BBC radio interview on Steve Wright in the Afternoon that she and Bower had performed as disguised extras for the English National Ballet although she "had insisted that her name was not used in the programme". In a production of Romeo and Juliet at the London Coliseum, she performed as "Wench Number 7".

Kaplinsky is teetotal and a vegetarian.

2018 boat accident
In April 2018, Kaplinsky, her father and eight-year-old daughter, Angelica were seriously hurt when the boat they were holidaying in burst into flames off the Greek island of Corfu. The family were rescued by local fishermen, who helped put out a fire that had spread from the engine room and towed them ashore. Kaplinsky's daughter was flown back to Britain for emergency treatment. A Corfu Port Authority spokesman said: "The vessel suffered a mechanical failure which caused a fire in the engine room, which was immediately extinguished by the people on the boat." At first the girl was rushed to hospital in Corfu Town with burns to her face and hands. "Her mother and grandfather were treated at a private clinic. It was then decided to fly them home."

Charity
Kaplinsky became a celebrity ambassador for the UK charity Save the Children in 2010. For over a decade she has been an active ambassador and fundraiser for Save the Children, travelling extensively for them around the world.

She is a patron of the Bevern Trust and she is an ambassador for Wellbeing of Women. Kaplinsky is also Patron for the National Maternity Support Foundation and The Willow Foundation.

Kaplinsky volunteered to record 112 testimonies of Holocaust survivors who had never spoken before. She continues to serve as a board member for the Holocaust Memorial Foundation.

She was appointed Officer of the Order of the British Empire (OBE) in the 2017 Birthday Honours for services to the Holocaust Commission.

In October 2018, Kaplinsky and Michael Sheen became vice presidents (an ambassadorial role) of the Royal Society for Public Health (RSPH).

In July 2019, it was announced that Kaplinsky had taken on the role as Barnardo's President. Kaplinsky was welcomed into this position at the annual Parliamentary reception by Javed Khan, CEO of Barnardo's, as well as other celebrity champions. Kaplinsky said, "I'm delighted to be joining Barnardo's as the charity's new President. There are so many challenges for children these days. It must be frightening growing up now. They have so many concerns, environmental changes, the internet, difficulties breaking into jobs, and believing they'll never be affording a house. It's even harder for the most vulnerable children Barnardo's supports – like children growing up in the care system. My aim is to visit as many services as I can and meet as many young people as possible, to learn more about the challenges they face and how the charity is helping them."

title: Natasha Kaplinsky


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Orbital eccentricity

Kepler orbits.svg:

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In astrodynamics, the orbital eccentricity of an astronomical object is a dimensionless parameter that determines the amount by which its orbit around another body deviates from a perfect circle. A value of 0 is a circular orbit, values between 0 and 1 form an elliptic orbit, 1 is a parabolic escape orbit (or capture orbit), and greater than 1 is a hyperbola. The term derives its name from the parameters of conic sections, as every Kepler orbit is a conic section. It is normally used for the isolated two-body problem, but extensions exist for objects following a rosette orbit through the Galaxy.

Definition
In a two-body problem with inverse-square-law force, every orbit is a Kepler orbit. The eccentricity of this Kepler orbit is a non-negative number that defines its shape.

The eccentricity may take the following values:
 * Circular orbit: e = 0
 * Elliptic orbit: 0 < e < 1
 * Parabolic trajectory: e = 1
 * Hyperbolic trajectory: e > 1

The eccentricity e is given by

$$e = \sqrt{1 + \frac{2 E L^2}{m_\text{red}\, \alpha ^2}}$$

where $E$ is the total orbital energy, $L$ is the angular momentum, $m_{red}$ is the reduced mass, and $$\alpha$$ the coefficient of the inverse-square law central force such as in the theory of gravity or electrostatics in classical physics: $$F = \frac{\alpha}{r^2}$$ ($$\alpha$$ is negative for an attractive force, positive for a repulsive one; related to the Kepler problem)

or in the case of a gravitational force: $$e = \sqrt{1 + \frac{2 \varepsilon h^{2}}{\mu^2}}$$

where $ε$ is the specific orbital energy (total energy divided by the reduced mass), $μ$ the standard gravitational parameter based on the total mass, and $h$ the specific relative angular momentum (angular momentum divided by the reduced mass).

For values of e from 0 to 1 the orbit's shape is an increasingly elongated (or flatter) ellipse; for values of e from 1 to infinity the orbit is a hyperbola branch making a total turn of 2 arccsc(e), decreasing from 180 to 0 degrees. Here, the total turn is analogous to turning number, but for open curves (an angle covered by velocity vector). The limit case between an ellipse and a hyperbola, when e equals 1, is parabola.

Radial trajectories are classified as elliptic, parabolic, or hyperbolic based on the energy of the orbit, not the eccentricity. Radial orbits have zero angular momentum and hence eccentricity equal to one. Keeping the energy constant and reducing the angular momentum, elliptic, parabolic, and hyperbolic orbits each tend to the corresponding type of radial trajectory while e tends to 1 (or in the parabolic case, remains 1).

For a repulsive force only the hyperbolic trajectory, including the radial version, is applicable.

For elliptical orbits, a simple proof shows that $$\arcsin(e)$$ yields the projection angle of a perfect circle to an ellipse of eccentricity e. For example, to view the eccentricity of the planet Mercury (e = 0.2056), one must simply calculate the inverse sine to find the projection angle of 11.86 degrees. Then, tilting any circular object by that angle, the apparent ellipse of that object projected to the viewer's eye will be of the same eccentricity.

Etymology
The word "eccentricity" comes from Medieval Latin eccentricus, derived from Greek ἔκκεντρος ekkentros "out of the center", from ἐκ- ek-, "out of" + κέντρον kentron "center". "Eccentric" first appeared in English in 1551, with the definition "...a circle in which the earth, sun. etc. deviates from its center". In 1556, five years later, an adjectival form of the word had developed.

Calculation
The eccentricity of an orbit can be calculated from the orbital state vectors as the magnitude of the eccentricity vector: $$e = \left | \mathbf{e} \right |$$ where:
 * $e$ is the eccentricity vector ("Hamilton's vector").

For elliptical orbits it can also be calculated from the periapsis and apoapsis since $$r_\text{p} = a \, (1 - e )$$ and $$r_\text{a} = a \, (1 + e )\,,$$ where $a$  is the length of the semi-major axis.$$ \begin{align} e &= \frac{ r_\text{a} - r_\text{p} }{ r_\text{a} + r_\text{p} } \\ \, \\ &= \frac{ r_\text{a} / r_\text{p} - 1 }{ r_\text{a} / r_\text{p} + 1 } \\ \, \\ &= 1 - \frac{2}{\; \frac{ r_\text{a} }{ r_\text{p} } + 1 \;} \end{align} $$ where:
 * $r$$a$ is the radius at apoapsis (also "apofocus", "aphelion", "apogee"), i.e., the farthest distance of the orbit to the center of mass of the system, which is a focus of the ellipse.
 * $r$$p$ is the radius at periapsis (or "perifocus" etc.), the closest distance.

The semi-major axis, a, is also the path-averaged distance to the centre of mass, while the time-averaged distance is a(1 + e e / 2).

The eccentricity of an elliptical orbit can be used to obtain the ratio of the apoapsis radius to the periapsis radius: $$\frac{r_\text{a} }{ r_\text{p} } = \frac{\,a\,(1 + e)\,}{\,a\,(1 - e)\, }  = \frac{1 + e }{ 1 - e } $$

For Earth, orbital eccentricity $e ≈ 0.017$, apoapsis is aphelion and periapsis is perihelion, relative to the Sun.

For Earth's annual orbit path, the ratio of longest radius ($r$$a$) / shortest radius ($r$$p$) is $$ \frac{\, r_\text{a} \,}{ r_\text{p} } = \frac{\, 1 + e \,}{ 1 - e } \text{ ≈ 1.03399 .}$$

Examples

The table lists the values for all planets and dwarf planets, and selected asteroids, comets, and moons. Mercury has the greatest orbital eccentricity of any planet in the Solar System (e = $e$), followed by Mars of 0.093 4. Such eccentricity is sufficient for Mercury to receive twice as much solar irradiation at perihelion compared to aphelion. Before its demotion from planet status in 2006, Pluto was considered to be the planet with the most eccentric orbit (e = $e$). Other Trans-Neptunian objects have significant eccentricity, notably the dwarf planet Eris (0.44). Even further out, Sedna has an extremely-high eccentricity of $0.206$ due to its estimated aphelion of 937 AU and perihelion of about 76 AU, possibly under influence of unknown object(s).

The eccentricity of Earth's orbit is currently about 0.016 7; its orbit is nearly circular. Neptune's and Venus's have even lower eccentricities of 0.008  6 and 0.006  8 respectively, the latter being the least orbital eccentricity of any planet in the Solar System. Over hundreds of thousands of years, the eccentricity of the Earth's orbit varies from nearly 0.003 4 to almost 0.058 as a result of gravitational attractions among the planets.

Luna's value is 0.054 9, the most eccentric of the large moons in the Solar System. The four Galilean moons (Io, Europa, Ganymede and Callisto) have their eccentricities of less than 0.01. Neptune's largest moon Triton has an eccentricity of $0.248$ (0.000 016), the smallest eccentricity of any known moon in the Solar System; its orbit is as close to a perfect circle as can be currently measured. Smaller moons, particularly irregular moons, can have significant eccentricities, such as Neptune's third largest moon, Nereid, of $0.855$.

Most of the Solar System's asteroids have orbital eccentricities between 0 and 0.35 with an average value of 0.17. Their comparatively high eccentricities are probably due to under influence of Jupiter and to past collisions.

Comets have very different values of eccentricities. Periodic comets have eccentricities mostly between 0.2 and 0.7, but some of them have highly eccentric elliptical orbits with eccentricities just below 1; for example, Halley's Comet has a value of 0.967. Non-periodic comets follow near-parabolic orbits and thus have eccentricities even closer to 1. Examples include Comet Hale–Bopp with a value of 0.995 1, Comet Ikeya-Seki with a value of 0.999  9 and Comet McNaught (C/2006 P1) with a value of 1.000  019. As first two's values are less than 1, their orbit are elliptical and they will return. McNaught has a hyperbolic orbit but within the influence of the planets, is still bound to the Sun with an orbital period of about 105 years. Comet C/1980 E1 has the largest eccentricity of any known hyperbolic comet of solar origin with an eccentricity of 1.057, and will eventually leave the Solar System.

Oumuamua is the first interstellar object to be found passing through the Solar System. Its orbital eccentricity of 1.20 indicates that Oumuamua has never been gravitationally bound to the Sun. It was discovered 0.2 AU (30 000  000 km; 19  000  000 mi) from Earth and is roughly 200 meters in diameter. It has an interstellar speed (velocity at infinity) of 26.33 km/s (58 900 mph).

Mean average
The mean eccentricity of an object is the average eccentricity as a result of perturbations over a given time period. Neptune currently has an instant (current epoch) eccentricity of 0.011 3, but from 1800 to 2050 has a mean eccentricity of $0$.

Climatic effect
Orbital mechanics require that the duration of the seasons be proportional to the area of Earth's orbit swept between the solstices and equinoxes, so when the orbital eccentricity is extreme, the seasons that occur on the far side of the orbit (aphelion) can be substantially longer in duration. Northern hemisphere autumn and winter occur at closest approach (perihelion), when Earth is moving at its maximum velocity—while the opposite occurs in the southern hemisphere. As a result, in the northern hemisphere, autumn and winter are slightly shorter than spring and summer—but in global terms this is balanced with them being longer below the equator. In 2006, the northern hemisphere summer was 4.66 days longer than winter, and spring was 2.9 days longer than autumn due to orbital eccentricity.

Apsidal precession also slowly changes the place in Earth's orbit where the solstices and equinoxes occur. This is a slow change in the orbit of Earth, not the axis of rotation, which is referred to as axial precession. The climatic effects of this change are part of the Milankovitch cycles. Over the next 10 000 years, the northern hemisphere winters will become gradually longer and summers will become shorter. Any cooling effect in one hemisphere is balanced by warming in the other, and any overall change will be counteracted by the fact that the eccentricity of Earth's orbit will be almost halved. This will reduce the mean orbital radius and raise temperatures in both hemispheres closer to the mid-interglacial peak.

Exoplanets
Of the many exoplanets discovered, most have a higher orbital eccentricity than planets in the Solar System. Exoplanets found with low orbital eccentricity (near-circular orbits) are very close to their star and are tidally-locked to the star. All eight planets in the Solar System have near-circular orbits. The exoplanets discovered show that the Solar System, with its unusually-low eccentricity, is rare and unique. One theory attributes this low eccentricity to the high number of planets in the Solar System; another suggests it arose because of its unique asteroid belts. A few other multiplanetary systems have been found, but none resemble the Solar System. The Solar System has unique planetesimal systems, which led the planets to have near-circular orbits. Solar planetesimal systems include the asteroid belt, Hilda family, Kuiper belt, Hills cloud, and the Oort cloud. The exoplanet systems discovered have either no planetesimal systems or a very large one. Low eccentricity is needed for habitability, especially advanced life. High multiplicity planet systems are much more likely to have habitable exoplanets. The grand tack hypothesis of the Solar System also helps understand its near-circular orbits and other unique features.

title: Orbital eccentricity


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Darren Johnson

Darren Paul Johnson (born 1966) is a former English politician who was a prominent member of the Green Party of England and Wales. He represented the Green Party on the London Assembly from 2000 to 2016 and was a Green councillor in the London Borough of Lewisham. He is now a writer and has had several rock music biographies published.

Early life and career
Johnson was born in Southport, Lancashire, and at school, studied A-Levels in English, Theatre Studies and Journalistic Studies. Johnson admitted to his "shame" that his first foray into politics was standing in a school mock election in 1979 as a Conservative Party candidate.

He lived in Hull for three years before moving with a friend to Wembley in London in 1990. He also lived in Finsbury Park and Golders Green before settling in Lewisham. His first job in London was "in accounts with an advertising firm in Goodge Street". He took a degree at Goldsmiths College (part of the University of London) in 1994, eventually gaining a first-class BA (hons.) degree in Politics and Economics. He apparently "started to work on his PhD until the London Assembly distracted him". He was also once a "paid consultant to Friends of the Earth".

Political career
Johnson joined the Green Party in 1987 at the age of 20 "after the Chernobyl Disaster", which "had a big impact" on him. He was Male Principal Speaker of the party in 2002.

According to the Knitting Circle (a website with "resources on lesbian and gay issues"), his campaigning experience includes infiltrating "the military base at Aldershot dressed as Ivan the Terrible during an arms fair. He was saluted by the guards as he drove through the gates in a large limousine with tinted windows. He tried to buy arms with Monopoly money".

London Assembly member
In 2000, Johnson was elected to the inaugural London Assembly as part of a three-strong Green Group, including Jenny Jones AM and Victor Anderson (who resigned in March 2003 and was replaced by Noel Lynch for the remainder of the term). The 2004 elections would see the Greens lose the seat held by Lynch, leaving Johnson and Jones as the two remaining members of the Green Group. Both won re-election in the 2008 election, when the Greens held on to their two seats. He served as Deputy Chair of the Assembly 2008-09 and again in 2012-13 and was elected Chair of the Assembly in May 2009 and again in 2013.

As a London Assembly Member, Johnson was Chair of the Housing Committee and a member of the Business Management and Administration Committee, Budget and Performance Committee and the London Fire and Emergency Planning Authority (LFEPA). Johnson issued a report on the sustainability measures involved in planning for London's hosting of the Olympics in 2012, and also chaired an inquiry on nuclear waste trains for the London Assembly. He was previously Chair of the Environment Committee (between 2004/9 and 2010/11). The committee produced a number of reports, including investigations into the loss of street trees, and the effects of paving over front gardens in the city. Along with his long-standing colleague Jenny Jones, he stood down at the 2016 election.

Lewisham councillor
In the 2002 local elections, Johnson was elected as a councillor for the Brockley ward in the London Borough of Lewisham, the Greens' first councillor in Lewisham, polling 1026 votes and coming top in the ward. He was re-elected in 2006, when the Greens gained a further five seats in Lewisham. He came top of the ward again, polling 1583 votes. In 2010, he was the only Green councillor in Lewisham to be re-elected and served until 2014 when he did not seek re-election.

In his time as a councillor, Johnson was successful in getting the council to adopt a Fair Trade policy. He opposed the closure of Ladywell Leisure Centre and put forward alternative sites for a new school. He also successfully campaigned for a new pedestrian crossing on Brockley Road, secured improvements to the traffic calming scheme and managed to halt evictions at St Norberts Allotments. In addition, he served as a member of Lewisham 's Housing Select Committee, Sustainable Development Select Committee, Council Urgency Committee, Elections Committee, Licensing (Supplementary) Committee, Licensing Committee, Overview and Scrutiny Committee and Marsha Phoenix Memorial Trust. He has represented Lewisham on the Local Government Association General Assembly.

Mayoral candidate
Johnson was the Green Party's candidate for Mayor of London in 2000 and 2004. In the 2000 election, he won 2.2% of first preference votes (38,121 votes), taking sixth place. He also came third in unallocated second preference votes with 192,764-second preferences (13.6%), thus coming fifth overall. In the 2004 election, he received 57,331 votes in the first round (2.9%) taking seventh place, and took 10.9% of unallocated second preferences (208,686).

Johnson chose not to seek selection as mayoral candidate for a third time. On 12 March 2007, the London Green Party voted to select Siân Berry as their mayoral candidate in the 2008 mayoral election, replacing Johnson. The winner in this election was Boris Johnson.

Parliamentary candidate
Having fought Brent South in 1992, Johnson was the Green Party's parliamentary candidate in the Lewisham Deptford constituency in 2001, 2005 and 2010. He came fourth in the constituency in the 2001 general election, polling 1,901 votes (6.5%). In the 2005 general election, Johnson, backed by the Fire Brigades Union (after being the only London Assembly member to vote against cuts in the brigade), received 11.1% of the votes (3,367 votes), coming fourth. In the 2010 general election he came fourth again, but his vote slipped back to 2,772 (6.7%).

Suspension by the Green Party
On 28 May 2024, Johnson revealed he had been suspended by the Green Party, following social media posts he made about the Cass Review.

Personal life and writing
Johnson, who is gay, lives in St Leonards, East Sussex. Johnson is a keen supporter of live music (rock and folk) and writes a live review blog. His book The Sweet in the 1970s was published by Sonicbond Publishing on 30 July 2021. This was followed by a second book Suzi Quatro in the 1970s published by the same publisher in July 2022; and a third book Slade in the 1970s published in May 2023.

title: Darren Johnson


text:
Christoph Friedrich von Ammon

Christoph Friedrich von Ammon (January 16, 1766 – May 21, 1850) was a German theological writer and preacher. He was born at Bayreuth, Bavaria and died at Dresden.

He studied at Erlangen, held various professorships in the philosophical and theological faculties of Erlangen and Göttingen, succeeded Franz Volkmar Reinhard (1753–1812) in 1813 as court preacher and member of the Upper Consistory of the Church of Saxony at Dresden, retired from these offices in 1849. Seeking to establish for himself a middle position between rationalism and supernaturalism, he declared for a "rational supernaturalism," and contended that there must be a gradual development of Christian doctrine corresponding to the advance of knowledge and science. But at the same time he sought, like other representatives of this school of thought, such as Karl Bretschneider and Julius Wegscheider, to keep in close touch with the historical theology of the Protestant churches. The term Offenbarungsrationalismus ("epiphanic rationalism") has been used to express Ammon's intermediate views. He was a man of great versatility and extensive learning, a philologist and philosopher as well as a theologian, and a very voluminous author. His principal theological work was the "Fortbildung des Christenthums zur Weltreligion", in 4 volumes (Leipzig, 1833–1840); "Entwurf einer reinen biblischen Theologie" appeared in 1792 (2nd edition, 1801), "Summa Theologiae Christianas" in 1803 (other editions, 1808, 1816, 1830); "Das Geschichte des Lebens Jesu" in 1842, and "Die wahre und falsche Orthodoxie" in 1849.

Von Ammon's style in preaching was terse and lively, and some of his discourses are regarded as models of pulpit treatment of political questions.

title: Christoph Friedrich von Ammon


text:
Wikipedia:Articles for deletion/Spam Over Internet Telephony

Spam Over Internet Telephony was proposed for deletion. This page is an archive of the discussion about the proposed deletion. This page is no longer live. Further comments should be made on the article's talk page rather than here so that this page is preserved as an historic record. The result of the debate was DELETE

Substub article describing a piece of idiolect jargon made up by a trade-rag gossip columnist and copied by a couple of others. This term is not in active use in the anti-spam or Internet telephony trades. The originating article admits that the term has no referent as yet (i.e. there is not, today, any spam over Internet telephony). Thus, this article describes nothing, and calls it by a made-up name. —FOo 20:03, 24 Oct 2004 (UTC)
 * True that it describes nothing, and under a made-up name. This doesn't axe many thousands of articles about fictional material, though; and this SPIT seems likely to eventuate, sooner rather than later. The concern about whether it might is real and notable: '''Weak Keep. — Bill 22:43, 24 Oct 2004 (UTC)
 * I agree that telemarketing or other spammy behaviors can be perpetrated using VoIP systems. It is also true that murder can be perpetrated using a laser. But unless an article entitled Murder by laser has something particular to say about that sort of murder (as, say Newsgroup spam has to say about that kind of spam) then it is a rather odd sort of article. Moreso if no murder had ever been perpetrated by laser, but a company has just come out with a laser-proof vest and is using the term "Murder By Laser (MUBBLE)" in its press releases. —FOo 22:25, 25 Oct 2004 (UTC)
 * I'm neutral at the moment, as it could be kept if fleshed out more. If nothing happens to it soon, maybe . DELETE. it should be axed. If it was just this one nut with a book/product to hock. Does anyone know why it is SPIT and not SPOT or SPOIT.--ZayZayEM 03:30, 25 Oct 2004 (UTC)
 * Because the guy who invented the term wanted to make up something that sounded icky? If I put an article on my blog tomorrow that suggests that "spam over VRML messaging" be called spvrm and pronounced "sperm", that doesn't merit a Wikipedia article either. Especially if I'm doing it to promote a product that I'm selling to combat this nonexistent spvrm. —FOo 14:45, 25 Oct 2004 (UTC)
 * Delete: Not in use now, not real now, probably won't be called that when it does happen. Unsolicited faxes were called junk faxes, for junk mail.  E-mail got called spam.  No telling what junk calls will be called or how anyone will know that it was VOIP that made them possible. Geogre 05:18, 25 Oct 2004 (UTC)
 * Agreed that the ultimate name for this could be anything, but the phenomenon already exists at least in nascent form. Large companies using VOIP technology distribute voice-mail "state of the company" messages to all employee phones simultaneously (my personal experience).  There are anecdotal accounts of friends with VOIP receiving advertisement voicemail simultaneously (cannot cite a reference, sorry).  But all that said, a deletion of the current negligible content will not be harmful when a new such article is created later by someone else. Nonuthin 02:47, Oct 28, 2004 (UTC)
 * Delete. Ambi 07:07, 26 Oct 2004 (UTC)
 * Delete, and charge the inventor with attempted neologism. --Michael Snow 02:46, 1 Nov 2004 (UTC)

This page is now preserved as an archive of the debate and, like other '/delete' pages is no longer 'live'. Subsequent comments on the issue, the deletion or on the decision-making process should be placed on the relevant 'live' pages. Please do not edit this page.


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Tabatha Cash

Tabatha Cash (born 27 December 1973) is a French former pornographic actress and currently the editor in chief of France's Hot Vidéo magazine as well as the head of the Hot Video group.

Career
Cash quit school at 15 in Paris and entered the porn industry in 1992. In May 1993 Cash won a Hot D'Or for Best European Starlet (roughly the equivalent to the AVN Best New Starlet award) during the International Film Festival in Cannes. The following year she won Best European Actress at the Hot d'Or ceremony. Although according to the Internet Adult Film Database (IAFD) she performed in her last video in 1994, videos that include her appearances have continued to be released steadily.

Appearances
Outside pornography, she has worked as a presenter on SkyRock Radio in France, and starred in the mainstream movie, Raï, playing the central female character, a young Algerian woman. She was also on French national TV Canal+, and her face and figure have been seen on the cover of magazines such as Elle, Cosmopolitan, Glamour and GQ. Cash was also featured in the 1995 calendar of the magazine Max.

Publishing
In July 2014, after the death of her husband and Hot Video group owner Frank Vardon in January, Cash took control of the Hot Video group and its five branches which includes its magazine and media operations. She is also the editor in chief of the magazine. This was announced via a contest in the magazine that culminated with a cover spread and article about its new editor.

Personal life
Cash was romantically involved with far-right political activist Serge Ayoub in the 1990s. At age 20, Cash married Franck Vardon, editor of Hot Vidéo, and settled down to be a stay-at-home mom.

Awards

 * 1993, Hot d'Or, Best European Starlet
 * 1994, Hot d'Or, Best European Actress

title: Tabatha Cash


text: User talk:69.139.130.86

title: User talk:69.139.130.86


text:
Jean-Baptiste Vaquette de Gribeauval

Lieutenant General Jean-Baptiste Vaquette de Gribeauval (15 September 1715 – 9 May 1789) was a French artillery officer and engineer who revolutionised the French cannon, creating a new production system that allowed for lighter, more uniform guns without sacrificing range. His Gribeauval system superseded the de Vallière system. These guns proved essential to French military victories during the Napoleonic Wars. Gribeauval is credited as the earliest known advocate for the interchangeability of gun parts. He is thus one of the principal influences on the later development (over many decades by many people) of interchangeable manufacture.

Early life
Jean-Baptiste was born in Amiens, the son of a magistrate. He entered the French royal artillery in 1732 as a volunteer, and became an officer in 1735. For nearly twenty years regimental duty and scientific work occupied him, and in 1752 he became captain of a company of miners. In 1755, he was employed in a military mission in Prussia.

In 1757, being then a lieutenant colonel, he was lent to the Austrian army on the outbreak of the Seven Years' War, and established the Austrian sapper corps. He led the sapping operations at the Siege of Glatz and the defence of Schweidnitz. At Schweidnitz, his 1748 design of fortification gun was tested and significantly improved by Master Carpenter Richter.

In 1762, he reported back to the Paris authorities on the Austrian artillery system compared with the existing French de Vallière guns. While with the Austrian army he also worked on the continued development of mining in siegecraft.

The empress Maria Theresa rewarded him for his work with the rank of Feldmarschallleutnant and the Grand Cross of the Military Order of Maria Theresa. On his return to France he was made maréchal de camp (major general), in 1764 Inspector of artillery, and in 1765 lieutenant général and commander of the Order of St Louis.

Gribeauval system
Subsequently, he was for some years in disfavour at court. However, he became first inspector of artillery in 1776, in which year also he received the grand cross of the St Louis Order. He was now able to carry out the reforms in the artillery arm which are his chief title to fame. The Table des constructions des principaux attirails de l'artillerie ... de M. de Gribeauval covers all the French artillery equipment in detail. He was also responsible for the règlement for the French artillery issued in 1776. Although much of the work is not directly attributable to Gribeauval, these systems of organisation and uniformity in ordnance have been called le système Gribeauval.

title: Jean-Baptiste Vaquette de Gribeauval


text:
User talk:Gecktrix

what's up

title: User talk:Gecktrix


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BCI

BCI may refer to:

Organizations

 * Bar Council of India
 * Barts Cancer Institute, London, UK
 * Bat Conservation International
 * Battery Council International, American trade association
 * BCI, an investigative law enforcement agency for the U.S. state of Ohio
 * BCI Bus, an Australian bus and coach manufacturing company
 * BCI Engineers & Scientists, Inc., formerly Bromwell & Carrier, Inc.
 * Better Cotton Initiative
 * Bonobo Conservation Initiative
 * British Columbia Investment Management Corporation
 * Broadcasting Commission of Ireland
 * Broward Correctional Institution, Florida, US
 * Business Continuity Institute, UK

Banks

 * Banco de Crédito e Inversiones, a Chilean bank
 * Banca Commerciale Italiana, a defunct Italian bank
 * Banco Comercial e de Investimentos, in the list of banks in Mozambique
 * Bank of the Cook Islands

Education

 * Benedict XVI Catholic Institute, Negombo, Sri Lanka
 * Bluevale Collegiate Institute, Ontario, Canada
 * Brantford Collegiate Institute, Ontario, Canada
 * Brockville Collegiate Institute, Ontario, Canada
 * Bahria College Islamabad, Pakistan

Science

 * Boa constrictor imperator
 * Book Citation Index
 * Brain–computer interface

Other

 * Barro Colorado Island, in Panama Canal
 * Black Crown Initiate
 * Baoulé language, ISO-639-2 language code bci
 * Barcaldine Airport, IATA airport code "BCI"

title: BCI


text:
Talk:Mossflower (book)

My Martin the Warrior link doesn't work even though I created an article The link works on some pages but not this one and a few others.

title: Talk:Mossflower (book)