text:
Sustainable energy

Energy is sustainable if it "meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs." Definitions of sustainable energy usually look at its effects on the environment, the economy and society. These impacts range from greenhouse gas emissions and air pollution to energy poverty and toxic waste. Renewable energy sources such as wind, hydro, solar, and geothermal energy can cause environmental damage, but are generally far more sustainable than fossil fuel sources.

The role of non-renewable energy sources in sustainable energy is controversial. Nuclear power does not produce carbon pollution or air pollution, but has drawbacks that include radioactive waste, the risk of nuclear proliferation, and the risk of accidents. Switching from coal to natural gas has environmental benefits, including a lower climate impact, but may lead to a delay in switching to more sustainable options. Carbon capture and storage can be built into power plants to remove their carbon dioxide emissions, but this technology is expensive and has rarely been implemented.

Fossil fuels provide 85% of the world's energy consumption, and the energy system is responsible for 76% of global greenhouse gas emissions. Around 790 million people in developing countries lack access to electricity, and 2.6 billion rely on polluting fuels such as wood or charcoal to cook. Cooking with biomass plus fossil fuel pollution causes an estimated 7 million deaths each year. Limiting global warming to 2 C-change will require transforming energy production, distribution, storage, and consumption. Universal access to clean electricity can have major benefits to the climate, human health, and the economies of developing countries.

Climate change mitigation pathways have been proposed to limit global warming to 2 C-change. These include phasing out coal-fired power plants, conserving energy, producing more electricity from clean sources such as wind and solar, and switching from fossil fuels to electricity for transport and heating buildings. Power output from some renewable energy sources varies depending on when the wind blows and the sun shines. Switching to renewable energy can therefore require electrical grid upgrades, such as addition of energy storage. Some processes that are difficult to electrify can use hydrogen fuel produced from low-emission energy sources. In the International Energy Agency's proposal for achieving net zero emissions by 2050, about 35% of the reduction in emissions depends on technologies that are still in development as of 2023.

Wind and solar market share grew to 8.5% of worldwide electricity in 2019 and costs continue to fall. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) estimates that 2.5% of world gross domestic product (GDP) would need to be invested in the energy system each year between 2016 and 2035 to limit global warming to 1.5 C-change. Governments can fund the research, development, and demonstration of new clean energy technologies. They can also build infrastructure for electrification and sustainable transport. Finally, governments can encourage clean energy deployment with policies such as carbon pricing, renewable portfolio standards, and phase-outs of fossil fuel subsidies. These policies may also increase energy security.

Definitions
The United Nations Brundtland Commission described the concept of sustainable development, for which energy is a key component, in its 1987 report Our Common Future. It defined sustainable development as meeting "the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs". This description of sustainable development has since been referenced in many definitions and explanations of sustainable energy.

There is no universally accepted interpretation of how the concept of sustainability applies to energy on a global scale. Working definitions of sustainable energy encompass multiple dimensions of sustainability such as environmental, economic, and social dimensions. Historically, the concept of sustainable energy development has focused on emissions and on energy security. Since the early 1990s, the concept has broadened to encompass wider social and economic issues.

The environmental dimension of sustainability includes greenhouse gas emissions, impacts on biodiversity and ecosystems, hazardous waste and toxic emissions, water consumption, and depletion of non-renewable resources. Energy sources with low environmental impact are sometimes called green energy or clean energy. The economic dimension of sustainability covers economic development, efficient use of energy, and energy security to ensure that each country has constant access to sufficient energy. Social issues include access to affordable and reliable energy for all people, workers' rights, and land rights.

Environmental impacts
The current energy system contributes to many environmental problems, including climate change, air pollution, biodiversity loss, the release of toxins into the environment, and water scarcity. As of 2019, 85% of the world's energy needs are met by burning fossil fuels. Energy production and consumption are responsible for 76% of annual human-caused greenhouse gas emissions as of 2018. The 2015 international Paris Agreement on climate change aims to limit global warming to well below 2 C-change and preferably to 1.5 °C (2.7 °F); achieving this goal will require that emissions be reduced as soon as possible and reach net-zero by mid-century.

The burning of fossil fuels and biomass is a major source of air pollution, which causes an estimated 7 million deaths each year, with the greatest attributable disease burden seen in low and middle-income countries. Fossil-fuel burning in power plants, vehicles, and factories is the main source of emissions that combine with oxygen in the atmosphere to cause acid rain. Air pollution is the second-leading cause of death from non-infectious disease. An estimated 99% of the world's population lives with levels of air pollution that exceed the World Health Organization recommended limits.

Cooking with polluting fuels such as wood, animal dung, coal, or kerosene is responsible for nearly all indoor air pollution, which causes an estimated 1.6 to 3.8 million deaths annually, and also contributes significantly to outdoor air pollution. Health effects are concentrated among women, who are likely to be responsible for cooking, and young children.

Environmental impacts extend beyond the by-products of combustion. Oil spills at sea harm marine life and may cause fires which release toxic emissions. Around 10% of global water use goes to energy production, mainly for cooling in thermal energy plants. In dry regions, this contributes to water scarcity. Bioenergy production, coal mining and processing, and oil extraction also require large amounts of water. Excessive harvesting of wood and other combustible material for burning can cause serious local environmental damage, including desertification.

Sustainable development goals
Meeting existing and future energy demands in a sustainable way is a critical challenge for the global goal of limiting climate change while maintaining economic growth and enabling living standards to rise. Reliable and affordable energy, particularly electricity, is essential for health care, education, and economic development. As of 2020, 790 million people in developing countries do not have access to electricity, and around 2.6 billion rely on burning polluting fuels for cooking.

Improving energy access in the least-developed countries and making energy cleaner are key to achieving most of the United Nations 2030 Sustainable Development Goals, which cover issues ranging from climate action to gender equality. Sustainable Development Goal 7 calls for "access to affordable, reliable, sustainable and modern energy for all", including universal access to electricity and to clean cooking facilities by 2030.

Energy conservation
Energy efficiency—using less energy to deliver the same goods or services, or delivering comparable services with less goods—is a cornerstone of many sustainable energy strategies. The International Energy Agency (IEA) has estimated that increasing energy efficiency could achieve 40% of greenhouse gas emission reductions needed to fulfil the Paris Agreement's goals.

Energy can be conserved by increasing the technical efficiency of appliances, vehicles, industrial processes, and buildings. Another approach is to use fewer materials whose production requires a lot of energy, for example through better building design and recycling. Behavioural changes such as using videoconferencing rather than business flights, or making urban trips by cycling, walking or public transport rather than by car, are another way to conserve energy. Government policies to improve efficiency can include building codes, performance standards, carbon pricing, and the development of energy-efficient infrastructure to encourage changes in transport modes.

The energy intensity of the global economy (the amount of energy consumed per unit of gross domestic product (GDP)) is a rough indicator of the energy efficiency of economic production. In 2010, global energy intensity was 5.6 megajoules (1.6 kWh) per US dollar of GDP. United Nations goals call for energy intensity to decrease by 2.6% each year between 2010 and 2030. In recent years this target has not been met. For instance, between 2017 and 2018, energy intensity decreased by only 1.1%. Efficiency improvements often lead to a rebound effect in which consumers use the money they save to buy more energy-intensive goods and services. For example, recent technical efficiency improvements in transport and buildings have been largely offset by trends in consumer behaviour, such as selecting larger vehicles and homes.

Renewable energy sources
Renewable energy sources are essential to sustainable energy, as they generally strengthen energy security and emit far fewer greenhouse gases than fossil fuels. Renewable energy projects sometimes raise significant sustainability concerns, such as risks to biodiversity when areas of high ecological value are converted to bioenergy production or wind or solar farms.

Hydropower is the largest source of renewable electricity while solar and wind energy are growing rapidly. Photovoltaic solar and onshore wind are the cheapest forms of new power generation capacity in most countries. For more than half of the 770 million people who currently lack access to electricity, decentralised renewable energy such as solar-powered mini-grids is likely the cheapest method of providing it by 2030. United Nations targets for 2030 include substantially increasing the proportion of renewable energy in the world's energy supply. According to the International Energy Agency, renewable energy sources like wind and solar power are now a commonplace source of electricity, making up 70% of all new investments made in the world's power generation. The Agency expects renewables to become the primary energy source for electricity generation globally in the next three years, overtaking coal.

Solar

The Sun is Earth's primary source of energy, a clean and abundantly available resource in many regions. In 2019, solar power provided around 3% of global electricity, mostly through solar panels based on photovoltaic cells (PV). Solar PV is expected to be the electricity source with the largest installed capacity worldwide by 2027. The panels are mounted on top of buildings or installed in utility-scale solar parks. Costs of solar photovoltaic cells have dropped rapidly, driving strong growth in worldwide capacity. The cost of electricity from new solar farms is competitive with, or in many places, cheaper than electricity from existing coal plants. Various projections of future energy use identify solar PV as one of the main sources of energy generation in a sustainable mix.

Most components of solar panels can be easily recycled, but this is not always done in the absence of regulation. Panels typically contain heavy metals, so they pose environmental risks if put in landfills. It takes fewer than two years for a solar panel to produce as much energy as was used for its production. Less energy is needed if materials are recycled rather than mined.

In concentrated solar power, solar rays are concentrated by a field of mirrors, heating a fluid. Electricity is produced from the resulting steam with a heat engine. Concentrated solar power can support dispatchable power generation, as some of the heat is typically stored to enable electricity to be generated when needed. In addition to electricity production, solar energy is used more directly; solar thermal heating systems are used for hot water production, heating buildings, drying, and desalination.

Wind power
Wind has been an important driver of development over millennia, providing mechanical energy for industrial processes, water pumps, and sailing ships. Modern wind turbines are used to generate electricity and provided approximately 6% of global electricity in 2019. Electricity from onshore wind farms is often cheaper than existing coal plants and competitive with natural gas and nuclear. Wind turbines can also be placed offshore, where winds are steadier and stronger than on land but construction and maintenance costs are higher.

Onshore wind farms, often built in wild or rural areas, have a visual impact on the landscape. While collisions with wind turbines kill both bats and to a lesser extent birds, these impacts are lower than from other infrastructure such as windows and transmission lines. The noise and flickering light created by the turbines can cause annoyance and constrain construction near densely populated areas. Wind power, in contrast to nuclear and fossil fuel plants, does not consume water. Little energy is needed for wind turbine construction compared to the energy produced by the wind power plant itself. Turbine blades are not fully recyclable, and research into methods of manufacturing easier-to-recycle blades is ongoing.

Hydropower
Hydroelectric plants convert the energy of moving water into electricity. In 2020, hydropower supplied 17% of the world's electricity, down from a high of nearly 20% in the mid-to-late 20th century.

In conventional hydropower, a reservoir is created behind a dam. Conventional hydropower plants provide a highly flexible, dispatchable electricity supply. They can be combined with wind and solar power to meet peaks in demand and to compensate when wind and sun are less available.

Compared to reservoir-based facilities, run-of-the-river hydroelectricity generally has less environmental impact. However, its ability to generate power depends on river flow, which can vary with daily and seasonal weather. Reservoirs provide water quantity controls that are used for flood control and flexible electricity output while also providing security during drought for drinking water supply and irrigation.

Hydropower ranks among the energy sources with the lowest levels of greenhouse gas emissions per unit of energy produced, but levels of emissions vary enormously between projects. The highest emissions tend to occur with large dams in tropical regions. These emissions are produced when the biological matter that becomes submerged in the reservoir's flooding decomposes and releases carbon dioxide and methane. Deforestation and climate change can reduce energy generation from hydroelectric dams. Depending on location, large dams can displace residents and cause significant local environmental damage; potential dam failure could place the surrounding population at risk.

Geothermal
Geothermal energy is produced by tapping into deep underground heat and harnessing it to generate electricity or to heat water and buildings. The use of geothermal energy is concentrated in regions where heat extraction is economical: a combination is needed of high temperatures, heat flow, and permeability (the ability of the rock to allow fluids to pass through). Power is produced from the steam created in underground reservoirs. Geothermal energy provided less than 1% of global energy consumption in 2020.

Geothermal energy is a renewable resource because thermal energy is constantly replenished from neighbouring hotter regions and the radioactive decay of naturally occurring isotopes. On average, the greenhouse gas emissions of geothermal-based electricity are less than 5% that of coal-based electricity. Geothermal energy carries a risk of inducing earthquakes, needs effective protection to avoid water pollution, and releases toxic emissions which can be captured.

Bioenergy
Biomass is renewable organic material that comes from plants and animals. It can either be burned to produce heat and electricity or be converted into biofuels such as biodiesel and ethanol, which can be used to power vehicles.

The climate impact of bioenergy varies considerably depending on where biomass feedstocks come from and how they are grown. For example, burning wood for energy releases carbon dioxide; those emissions can be significantly offset if the trees that were harvested are replaced by new trees in a well-managed forest, as the new trees will absorb carbon dioxide from the air as they grow. However, the establishment and cultivation of bioenergy crops can displace natural ecosystems, degrade soils, and consume water resources and synthetic fertilisers. Approximately one-third of all wood used for traditional heating and cooking in tropical areas is harvested unsustainably. Bioenergy feedstocks typically require significant amounts of energy to harvest, dry, and transport; the energy usage for these processes may emit greenhouse gases. In some cases, the impacts of land-use change, cultivation, and processing can result in higher overall carbon emissions for bioenergy compared to using fossil fuels.

Use of farmland for growing biomass can result in less land being available for growing food. In the United States, around 10% of motor gasoline has been replaced by corn-based ethanol, which requires a significant proportion of the harvest. In Malaysia and Indonesia, clearing forests to produce palm oil for biodiesel has led to serious social and environmental effects, as these forests are critical carbon sinks and habitats for diverse species. Since photosynthesis captures only a small fraction of the energy in sunlight, producing a given amount of bioenergy requires a large amount of land compared to other renewable energy sources.

Second-generation biofuels which are produced from non-food plants or waste reduce competition with food production, but may have other negative effects including trade-offs with conservation areas and local air pollution. Relatively sustainable sources of biomass include algae, waste, and crops grown on soil unsuitable for food production.

Carbon capture and storage technology can be used to capture emissions from bioenergy power plants. This process is known as bioenergy with carbon capture and storage (BECCS) and can result in net carbon dioxide removal from the atmosphere. However, BECCS can also result in net positive emissions depending on how the biomass material is grown, harvested, and transported. Deployment of BECCS at scales described in some climate change mitigation pathways would require converting large amounts of cropland.

Marine energy
Marine energy has the smallest share of the energy market. It includes OTEC, tidal power, which is approaching maturity, and wave power, which is earlier in its development. Two tidal barrage systems in France and in South Korea make up 90% of global production. While single marine energy devices pose little risk to the environment, the impacts of larger devices are less well known.

Fossil fuel switching and mitigation
Switching from coal to natural gas has advantages in terms of sustainability. For a given unit of energy produced, the life-cycle greenhouse-gas emissions of natural gas are around 40 times the emissions of wind or nuclear energy but are much less than coal. Burning natural gas produces around half the emissions of coal when used to generate electricity and around two-thirds the emissions of coal when used to produce heat. Natural gas combustion also produces less air pollution than coal. However, natural gas is a potent greenhouse gas in itself, and leaks during extraction and transportation can negate the advantages of switching away from coal. The technology to curb methane leaks is widely available but it is not always used.

Switching from coal to natural gas reduces emissions in the short term and thus contributes to climate change mitigation. However, in the long term it does not provide a path to net-zero emissions. Developing natural gas infrastructure risks carbon lock-in and stranded assets, where new fossil infrastructure either commits to decades of carbon emissions, or has to be written off before it makes a profit.

The greenhouse gas emissions of fossil fuel and biomass power plants can be significantly reduced through carbon capture and storage (CCS). Most studies use a working assumption that CCS can capture 85–90% of the carbon dioxide emissions from a power plant. Even if 90% of emitted is captured from a coal-fired power plant, its uncaptured emissions would still be many times greater than the emissions of nuclear, solar or wind energy per unit of electricity produced. Since coal plants using CCS would be less efficient, they would require more coal and thus increase the pollution associated with mining and transporting coal. The CCS process is expensive, with costs depending considerably on the location's proximity to suitable geology for carbon dioxide storage. Deployment of this technology is still very limited, with only 21 large-scale CCS plants in operation worldwide as of 2020.

Nuclear power
Nuclear power has been used since the 1950s as a low-carbon source of baseload electricity. Nuclear power plants in over 30 countries generate about 10% of global electricity. As of 2019, nuclear generated over a quarter of all low-carbon energy, making it the second largest source after hydropower.

Nuclear power's lifecycle greenhouse gas emissions—including the mining and processing of uranium—are similar to the emissions from renewable energy sources. Nuclear power uses little land per unit of energy produced, compared to the major renewables. Additionally, Nuclear power does not create local air pollution. Although the uranium ore used to fuel nuclear fission plants is a non-renewable resource, enough exists to provide a supply for hundreds to thousands of years. However, uranium resources that can be accessed in an economically feasible manner, at the present state, are limited and uranium production could hardly keep up during the expansion phase. Climate change mitigation pathways consistent with ambitious goals typically see an increase in power supply from nuclear.

There is controversy over whether nuclear power is sustainable, in part due to concerns around nuclear waste, nuclear weapon proliferation, and accidents. Radioactive nuclear waste must be managed for thousands of years and nuclear power plants create fissile material that can be used for weapons. For each unit of energy produced, nuclear energy has caused far fewer accidental and pollution-related deaths than fossil fuels, and the historic fatality rate of nuclear is comparable to renewable sources. Public opposition to nuclear energy often makes nuclear plants politically difficult to implement.

Reducing the time and the cost of building new nuclear plants have been goals for decades but costs remain high and timescales long. Various new forms of nuclear energy are in development, hoping to address the drawbacks of conventional plants. Fast breeder reactors are capable of recycling nuclear waste and therefore can significantly reduce the amount of waste that requires geological disposal, but have not yet been deployed on a large-scale commercial basis. Nuclear power based on thorium (rather than uranium) may be able to provide higher energy security for countries that do not have a large supply of uranium. Small modular reactors may have several advantages over current large reactors: It should be possible to build them faster and their modularization would allow for cost reductions via learning-by-doing.

Several countries are attempting to develop nuclear fusion reactors, which would generate small amounts of waste and no risk of explosions. Although fusion power has taken steps forward in the lab, the multi-decade timescale needed to bring it to commercialization and then scale means it will not contribute to a 2050 net zero goal for climate change mitigation.

Energy system transformation
The emissions reductions necessary to keep global warming below 2°C will require a system-wide transformation of the way energy is produced, distributed, stored, and consumed. For a society to replace one form of energy with another, multiple technologies and behaviours in the energy system must change. For example, transitioning from oil to solar power as the energy source for cars requires the generation of solar electricity, modifications to the electrical grid to accommodate fluctuations in solar panel output or the introduction of variable battery chargers and higher overall demand, adoption of electric cars, and networks of electric vehicle charging facilities and repair shops.

Many climate change mitigation pathways envision three main aspects of a low-carbon energy system:

 * The use of low-emission energy sources to produce electricity
 * Electrification – that is increased use of electricity instead of directly burning fossil fuels
 * Accelerated adoption of energy efficiency measures

Some energy-intensive technologies and processes are difficult to electrify, including aviation, shipping, and steelmaking. There are several options for reducing the emissions from these sectors: biofuels and synthetic carbon-neutral fuels can power many vehicles that are designed to burn fossil fuels, however biofuels cannot be sustainably produced in the quantities needed and synthetic fuels are currently very expensive. For some applications, the most prominent alternative to electrification is to develop a system based on sustainably-produced hydrogen fuel.

Full decarbonisation of the global energy system is expected to take several decades and can mostly be achieved with existing technologies. In the IEA's proposal for achieving net zero emissions by 2050, about 35% of the reduction in emissions depends on technologies that are still in development as of 2023. Technologies that are relatively immature include batteries and processes to create carbon-neutral fuels. Developing new technologies requires research and development, demonstration, and cost reductions via deployment.

The transition to a zero-carbon energy system will bring strong co-benefits for human health: The World Health Organization estimates that efforts to limit global warming to 1.5 °C could save millions of lives each year from reductions to air pollution alone. With good planning and management, pathways exist to provide universal access to electricity and clean cooking by 2030 in ways that are consistent with climate goals. Historically, several countries have made rapid economic gains through coal usage. However, there remains a window of opportunity for many poor countries and regions to "leapfrog" fossil fuel dependency by developing their energy systems based on renewables, given adequate international investment and knowledge transfer.

Integrating variable energy sources
To deliver reliable electricity from variable renewable energy sources such as wind and solar, electrical power systems require flexibility. Most electrical grids were constructed for non-intermittent energy sources such as coal-fired power plants. As larger amounts of solar and wind energy are integrated into the grid, changes have to be made to the energy system to ensure that the supply of electricity is matched to demand. In 2019, these sources generated 8.5% of worldwide electricity, a share that has grown rapidly.

There are various ways to make the electricity system more flexible. In many places, wind and solar generation are complementary on a daily and a seasonal scale: there is more wind during the night and in winter when solar energy production is low. Linking different geographical regions through long-distance transmission lines allows for further cancelling out of variability. Energy demand can be shifted in time through energy demand management and the use of smart grids, matching the times when variable energy production is highest. With grid energy storage, energy produced in excess can be released when needed. Further flexibility could be provided from sector coupling, that is coupling the electricity sector to the heat and mobility sector via power-to-heat-systems and electric vehicles.

Building overcapacity for wind and solar generation can help ensure that enough electricity is produced even during poor weather. In optimal weather, energy generation may have to be curtailed if excess electricity cannot be used or stored. The final demand-supply mismatch may be covered by using dispatchable energy sources such as hydropower, bioenergy, or natural gas.

Energy storage
Energy storage helps overcome barriers to intermittent renewable energy and is an important aspect of a sustainable energy system. The most commonly used and available storage method is pumped-storage hydroelectricity, which requires locations with large differences in height and access to water. Batteries, especially lithium-ion batteries, are also deployed widely. Batteries typically store electricity for short periods; research is ongoing into technology with sufficient capacity to last through seasons. Costs of utility-scale batteries in the US have fallen by around 70% since 2015, however the cost and low energy density of batteries makes them impractical for the very large energy storage needed to balance inter-seasonal variations in energy production. Pumped hydro storage and power-to-gas (converting electricity to gas and back) with capacity for multi-month usage has been implemented in some locations.

Electrification
Compared to the rest of the energy system, emissions can be reduced much faster in the electricity sector. As of 2019, 37% of global electricity is produced from low-carbon sources (renewables and nuclear energy). Fossil fuels, primarily coal, produce the rest of the electricity supply. One of the easiest and fastest ways to reduce greenhouse gas emissions is to phase out coal-fired power plants and increase renewable electricity generation.

Climate change mitigation pathways envision extensive electrification—the use of electricity as a substitute for the direct burning of fossil fuels for heating buildings and for transport. Ambitious climate policy would see a doubling of energy share consumed as electricity by 2050, from 20% in 2020.

One of the challenges in providing universal access to electricity is distributing power to rural areas. Off-grid and mini-grid systems based on renewable energy, such as small solar PV installations that generate and store enough electricity for a village, are important solutions. Wider access to reliable electricity would lead to less use of kerosene lighting and diesel generators, which are currently common in the developing world.

Infrastructure for generating and storing renewable electricity requires minerals and metals, such as cobalt and lithium for batteries and copper for solar panels. Recycling can meet some of this demand if product lifecycles are well-designed, however achieving net zero emissions would still require major increases in mining for 17 types of metals and minerals. A small group of countries or companies sometimes dominate the markets for these commodities, raising geopolitical concerns. Most of the world's cobalt, for instance, is mined in the Democratic Republic of the Congo, a politically unstable region where mining is often associated with human rights risks. More diverse geographical sourcing may ensure a more flexible and less brittle supply chain.

Hydrogen
Hydrogen gas is widely discussed in the context of energy, as an energy carrier with potential to reduce greenhouse gas emissions. This requires hydrogen to be produced cleanly, in quantities to supply in sectors and applications where cheaper and more energy efficient mitigation alternatives are limited. These applications include heavy industry and long-distance transport.

Hydrogen can be deployed as an energy source in fuel cells to produce electricity, or via combustion to generate heat. When hydrogen is consumed in fuel cells, the only emission at the point of use is water vapour. Combustion of hydrogen can lead to the thermal formation of harmful nitrogen oxides. The overall lifecycle emissions of hydrogen depend on how it is produced. Nearly all of the world's current supply of hydrogen is created from fossil fuels. The main method is steam methane reforming, in which hydrogen is produced from a chemical reaction between steam and methane, the main component of natural gas. Producing one tonne of hydrogen through this process emits 6.6–9.3 tonnes of carbon dioxide. While carbon capture and storage (CCS) could remove a large fraction of these emissions, the overall carbon footprint of hydrogen from natural gas is difficult to assess, in part because of emissions (including vented and fugitive methane) created in the production of the natural gas itself.

Electricity can be used to split water molecules, producing sustainable hydrogen provided the electricity was generated sustainably. However, this electrolysis process is currently more expensive than creating hydrogen from methane without CCS and the efficiency of energy conversion is inherently low. Hydrogen can be produced when there is a surplus of variable renewable electricity, then stored and used to generate heat or to re-generate electricity. It can be further transformed into liquid fuels such as green ammonia and green methanol. Innovation in hydrogen electrolysers could make large-scale production of hydrogen from electricity more cost-competitive.

Hydrogen fuel can produce the intense heat required for industrial production of steel, cement, glass, and chemicals, thus contributing to the decarbonisation of industry alongside other technologies, such as electric arc furnaces for steelmaking. For steelmaking, hydrogen can function as a clean energy carrier and simultaneously as a low-carbon catalyst replacing coal-derived coke. Hydrogen used to decarbonise transportation is likely to find its largest applications in shipping, aviation and to a lesser extent heavy goods vehicles. For light duty vehicles including passenger cars, hydrogen is far behind other alternative fuel vehicles, especially compared with the rate of adoption of battery electric vehicles, and may not play a significant role in future.

Disadvantages of hydrogen as an energy carrier include high costs of storage and distribution due to hydrogen's explosivity, its large volume compared to other fuels, and its tendency to make pipes brittle.

Transport

Transport accounts for 14% of global greenhouse gas emissions, but there are multiple ways to make transport more sustainable. Public transport typically emits fewer greenhouse gases per passenger than personal vehicles, since trains and buses can carry many more passengers at once. Short-distance flights can be replaced by high-speed rail, which is more efficient, especially when electrified. Promoting non-motorised transport such as walking and cycling, particularly in cities, can make transport cleaner and healthier.

The energy efficiency of cars has increased over time, but shifting to electric vehicles is an important further step towards decarbonising transport and reducing air pollution. A large proportion of traffic-related air pollution consists of particulate matter from road dust and the wearing-down of tyres and brake pads. Substantially reducing pollution from these non-tailpipe sources cannot be achieved by electrification; it requires measures such as making vehicles lighter and driving them less. Light-duty cars in particular are a prime candidate for decarbonization using battery technology. 25% of the world's Carbon dioxide emissions still originate from the transportation sector.

Long-distance freight transport and aviation are difficult sectors to electrify with current technologies, mostly because of the weight of batteries needed for long-distance travel, battery recharging times, and limited battery lifespans. Where available, freight transport by ship and rail is generally more sustainable than by air and by road. Hydrogen vehicles may be an option for larger vehicles such as lorries. Many of the techniques needed to lower emissions from shipping and aviation are still early in their development, with ammonia (produced from hydrogen) a promising candidate for shipping fuel. Aviation biofuel may be one of the better uses of bioenergy if emissions are captured and stored during manufacture of the fuel.

Buildings and cooking
Over one-third of energy use is in buildings and their construction. To heat buildings, alternatives to burning fossil fuels and biomass include electrification through heat pumps or electric heaters, geothermal energy, central solar heating, reuse of waste heat, and seasonal thermal energy storage. Heat pumps provide both heat and air conditioning through a single appliance. The IEA estimates heat pumps could provide over 90% of space and water heating requirements globally.

A highly efficient way to heat buildings is through district heating, in which heat is generated in a centralised location and then distributed to multiple buildings through insulated pipes. Traditionally, most district heating systems have used fossil fuels, but modern and cold district heating systems are designed to use high shares of renewable energy.

Cooling of buildings can be made more efficient through passive building design, planning that minimises the urban heat island effect, and district cooling systems that cool multiple buildings with piped cold water. Air conditioning requires large amounts of electricity and is not always affordable for poorer households. Some air conditioning units still use refrigerants that are greenhouse gases, as some countries have not ratified the Kigali Amendment to only use climate-friendly refrigerants.

In developing countries where populations suffer from energy poverty, polluting fuels such as wood or animal dung are often used for cooking. Cooking with these fuels is generally unsustainable, because they release harmful smoke and because harvesting wood can lead to forest degradation. The universal adoption of clean cooking facilities, which are already ubiquitous in rich countries, would dramatically improve health and have minimal negative effects on climate. Clean cooking facilities, e.g. cooking facilities that produce less indoor soot, typically use natural gas, liquefied petroleum gas (both of which consume oxygen and produce carbon-dioxide) or electricity as the energy source; biogas systems are a promising alternative in some contexts. Improved cookstoves that burn biomass more efficiently than traditional stoves are an interim solution where transitioning to clean cooking systems is difficult.

Industry
Over one-third of energy use is by industry. Most of that energy is deployed in thermal processes: generating heat, drying, and refrigeration. The share of renewable energy in industry was 14.5% in 2017—mostly low-temperature heat supplied by bioenergy and electricity. The most energy-intensive activities in industry have the lowest shares of renewable energy, as they face limitations in generating heat at temperatures over 200 C.

For some industrial processes, commercialisation of technologies that have not yet been built or operated at full scale will be needed to eliminate greenhouse gas emissions. Steelmaking, for instance, is difficult to electrify because it traditionally uses coke, which is derived from coal, both to create very high-temperature heat and as an ingredient in the steel itself. The production of plastic, cement, and fertilisers also requires significant amounts of energy, with limited possibilities available to decarbonise. A switch to a circular economy would make industry more sustainable as it involves recycling more and thereby using less energy compared to investing energy to mine and refine new raw materials.

Government policies
Well-designed government policies that promote energy system transformation can lower greenhouse gas emissions and improve air quality simultaneously, and in many cases can also increase energy security and lessen the financial burden of using energy.

Environmental regulations have been used since the 1970s to promote more sustainable use of energy. Some governments have committed to dates for phasing out coal-fired power plants and ending new fossil fuel exploration. Governments can require that new cars produce zero emissions, or new buildings are heated by electricity instead of gas. Renewable portfolio standards in several countries require utilities to increase the percentage of electricity they generate from renewable sources.

Governments can accelerate energy system transformation by leading the development of infrastructure such as long-distance electrical transmission lines, smart grids, and hydrogen pipelines. In transport, appropriate infrastructure and incentives can make travel more efficient and less car-dependent. Urban planning that discourages sprawl can reduce energy use in local transport and buildings while enhancing quality of life. Government-funded research, procurement, and incentive policies have historically been critical to the development and maturation of clean energy technologies, such as solar and lithium batteries. In the IEA's scenario for a net zero-emission energy system by 2050, public funding is rapidly mobilised to bring a range of newer technologies to the demonstration phase and to encourage deployment.

Carbon pricing (such as a tax on emissions) gives industries and consumers an incentive to reduce emissions while letting them choose how to do so. For example, they can shift to low-emission energy sources, improve energy efficiency, or reduce their use of energy-intensive products and services. Carbon pricing has encountered strong political pushback in some jurisdictions, whereas energy-specific policies tend to be politically safer. Most studies indicate that to limit global warming to 1.5°C, carbon pricing would need to be complemented by stringent energy-specific policies. As of 2019, the price of carbon in most regions is too low to achieve the goals of the Paris Agreement. Carbon taxes provide a source of revenue that can be used to lower other taxes or help lower-income households afford higher energy costs. Some governments, such as the EU and the UK, are exploring the use of carbon border adjustments. These place tariffs on imports from countries with less stringent climate policies, to ensure that industries subject to internal carbon prices remain competitive.

The scale and pace of policy reforms that have been initiated as of 2020 are far less than needed to fulfil the climate goals of the Paris Agreement. In addition to domestic policies, greater international cooperation is required to accelerate innovation and to assist poorer countries in establishing a sustainable path to full energy access.

Countries may support renewables to create jobs. The International Labour Organization estimates that efforts to limit global warming to 2 °C would result in net job creation in most sectors of the economy. It predicts that 24 million new jobs would be created by 2030 in areas such as renewable electricity generation, improving energy-efficiency in buildings, and the transition to electric vehicles. Six million jobs would be lost, in sectors such as mining and fossil fuels. Governments can make the transition to sustainable energy more politically and socially feasible by ensuring a just transition for workers and regions that depend on the fossil fuel industry, to ensure they have alternative economic opportunities.

Finance
Raising enough money for innovation and investment is a prerequisite for the energy transition. The IPCC estimates that to limit global warming to 1.5 °C, US$2.4 trillion would need to be invested in the energy system each year between 2016 and 2035. Most studies project that these costs, equivalent to 2.5% of world GDP, would be small compared to the economic and health benefits. Average annual investment in low-carbon energy technologies and energy efficiency would need to be six times more by 2050 compared to 2015. Underfunding is particularly acute in the least developed countries, which are not attractive to the private sector.

The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change estimates that climate financing totalled $681 billion in 2016. Most of this is private-sector investment in renewable energy deployment, public-sector investment in sustainable transport, and private-sector investment in energy efficiency. The Paris Agreement includes a pledge of an extra $100 billion per year from developed countries to poor countries, to do climate change mitigation and adaptation. However, this goal has not been met and measurement of progress has been hampered by unclear accounting rules. If energy-intensive businesses like chemicals, fertilizers, ceramics, steel, and non-ferrous metals invest significantly in R&D, its usage in industry might amount to between 5% and 20% of all energy used.

Fossil fuel funding and subsidies are a significant barrier to the energy transition. Direct global fossil fuel subsidies were $319 billion in 2017. This rises to $5.2 trillion when indirect costs are priced in, like the effects of air pollution. Ending these could lead to a 28% reduction in global carbon emissions and a 46% reduction in air pollution deaths. Funding for clean energy has been largely unaffected by the COVID-19 pandemic, and pandemic-related economic stimulus packages offer possibilities for a green recovery.

title: Sustainable energy


text:
Emo (disambiguation)

Emo (originally short for "emotional hardcore" or "emocore") is a subculture and a style of rock music.

Emo may also refer to:

Businesses

 * Certa (oil), an Irish oil company formerly known as Emo
 * Chamber of Electrical Engineers of Turkey, established in 1954
 * Educational Management Organization or for-profit school
 * Emo Speedway, a racetrack in Emo, Ontario
 * Emo's, a nightclub in Austin, Texas

Music

 * Emo (album), an album by Screeching Weasel
 * Emo, an album by Sari Kaasinen
 * "Emo", a song by Blink-182 from the band's album Dude Ranch

Places

 * Emo, County Laois, a village in Ireland
 * Emo Court, a mansion in County Laois, Ireland
 * Emo, Ontario, a town in Canada
 * Villa Emo, a villa in Italy
 * Emo Park, a city park in Adelaide, South Australia
 * East Moriches, a town on Long Island

People

 * Emo (name)
 * E-Mo, a character in the U.S. TV series A Gifted Man
 * A character in the 3D animated short film Elephants Dream
 * Uncle Emo, a character in Story Teller (magazine)

Other

 * EMO (trade show), an international metal-working industry trade show held in Europe
 * Extra man offense in field lacrosse
 * Emergency Management Office, also referred to as an "Office of Emergency Management"

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Emo (disambiguation)


text:
Pessac-Léognan

Pessac-Léognan is a wine growing area and Appellation d'Origine Contrôlée, in the northern part of the Graves region of Bordeaux. Unlike most Bordeaux appellations, Pessac-Léognan is equally famous for both red and (dry) white wines, although red wine is still predominant. It includes the only red-wine producer outside the Haut-Médoc classified in the Bordeaux Wine Official Classification of 1855, the premier cru Château Haut-Brion, and also includes all of the châteaux listed in the 1953/59 classification of Graves. These classed growths account for a third of the wine produced in Pessac-Léognan.

Geography
Pessac-Léognan, France lies on the left bank of the Garonne. It is immediately south of the city of Bordeaux (with a small portion to the west): indeed some of the northern vineyards of Pessac-Léognan are completely surrounded by the housing estates of Bordeaux, as a result of the city's southward expansion. It consists of 8 communes: (from north to south) Mérignac, Talence, Pessac, Gradignan, Villenave-d'Ornon, Cadaujac, Léognan and Martillac. A significant part of the area is forested. It includes 1580 hectares of vines. The soil is very gravelly.

History
Pessac-Léognan has a long wine-making history. Red wine from this region (and the rest of Graves) was the wine originally loved by the English as claret, during the 300 years that Aquitaine was under English rule, from 1152 to 1453. The area includes the oldest named property in Bordeaux, Château Pape Clément, founded by Pope Clement V in 1306. In the mid-seventeenth century, Château Haut-Brion became the first château of international renown, being praised by Samuel Pepys in 1663, while the Médoc was still swamp.

However, the appellation of Pessac-Léognan is relatively recent, dating to 1987. Before then, the area was part of the Graves AOC, and known informally as Haut-Graves.

Red wine
As with the Médoc to the north, Cabernet Sauvignon is the predominant grape, but a somewhat greater proportion of Merlot is typically used in the blend. Cabernet Franc is also used, with small amounts of Petit Verdot and Malbec. Styles vary more widely than in most Bordeaux AOCs, but typical flavours are blackcurrant and cedar, and the wines are often described as 'earthy'.

White wine
Sauvignon blanc and Sémillon are the grapes used, usually blended. The wine is typically fermented in barrels at a low temperature. Nectarine is a typical flavor when the wines are young, maturing (over 7–15 years) into flavours of nuts, honey and custard. They are said to be among France's greatest whites.

Food matching
The traditional pairing for reds is with roast lamb, although they are flexible enough to have with ham, beef or game. The whites complement fish and seafood.

First growth (1855 classification)
Château Haut-Brion

Cadaujac
Château Bouscaut, Château Bardins

Léognan
Domaine de Chevalier, Château Carbonnieux, Château de Fieuzal, Château Haut-Bailly, Château Malartic Lagravière, Château Olivier

Martillac
Château Latour-Martillac, Château Smith Haut Lafitte, Clos Marsalette, Château D'Eyran,

Pessac
Château Haut-Brion, Château Pape Clément, Château Le Sillage, de Malartic

Talence
Château La Mission Haut-Brion, Château Laville Haut-Brion, Château La Tour Haut-Brion

Villenave d'Ornon
Château Couhins, Château Couhins-Lurton

Other notable châteaux
Château Les Carmes Haut-Brion, Château La Louvière, Château Rochemorin, Château Cruzeau, Château Haut-Lagrange

title: Pessac-Léognan


text:
Lawrence Academy

Lawrence Academy may refer to:

 * Lawrence Academy (Groton, Massachusetts), Groton, Massachusetts (private, secondary, boarding school).
 * Lawrence Academy (North Carolina), Merry Hill, North Carolina (private, day school, K–12).
 * Lawrence Academy (Falmouth, Massachusetts), a heritage building in Falmouth, Massachusetts.

title: Lawrence Academy


text:
Demon Attack

Demon Attack is a fixed shooter video game created by Rob Fulop for the Atari 2600 and published by Imagic in 1982. The game involves the player controlling a laser cannon from the surface of a planet, shooting winged demons that fly down and attack the player in different sets of patterns.

Fulop designed the game after leaving Atari, saying he was not properly reimbursed for his work on a port of Space Invaders. He co-founded the company Imagic in 1981 and began developing Demon Attack. It was the first game he developed that had a graphic artist, Michael Becker, who created eight-phase animations for the demons. On the games release in 1982, it received positive critical attention for its graphics and gameplay and became one of the best-selling Atari 2600 games, and the best-selling game developed by Imagic.

Programmer Gary Kato created a port of Demon Attack for the Intellivision console which added a final boss mothership. The boss was similar in gameplay to the final boss in Phoenix (1980), a game Atari has exclusive console rights too. This led to Atari filing a suit against Imagic. A settlement was reached in January 1983, with Imagic being allowed to release Demon Attack for several video game consoles and home computers in the 1980s.

Gameplay
Demon Attack is set on a surface of a planet, when strange winged creatures float above, threatening the player. They attack, leading the player to retaliate by shooting at them with a laser cannon.

Matthew House of AllGame described the game as a fixed shooter. The players start with three lives, called bunkers in the game, which are displayed at the bottom of the screen. Each time the players are hit by enemy fire, they lose a bunker, and the game ends when all bunkers are depleted. The waves of enemies grow more complex as the game progresses, with wave five having enemies divide into two smaller enemies after being shot. Later waves feature enemies who will dive towards the laser canon.

The players can move left and right at the bottom of the screen to avoid enemies. The game offers different modes of play, including a Tracer Shot mode, which allows the player to guide lasers after they are shot. Two-player games can either be played competitively against each other or as a co-op mode. In the co-op mode, the two players alternate every four seconds on who controls moving and firing the ship's laser. In competitive mode, each player controls their own laser cannon at simultaneously with their own score and bunker count. If one player loses all their bunkers, the other player continues until all bunkers are lost.

In the Intellivision version, the boss fight with the demon flagship named Pandemonium appears after three waves of enemies are defeated. It is destroyed by eroding its shield with lasers shots and aiming for a small rotating wheel of vulnerability.

Development
Prior to working on Demon Attack, Rob Fulop worked at Atari developing sound effects for pinball machines as a summer job while studying electrical engineering at the University of California. Fulop's later projects included adaptations of arcade games such as Night Driver and Missile Command for the Atari 2600 and Space Invaders for the Atari 8-bit computers. He said that he expected a strong Christmas bonus from Atari based on how well Space Invaders had done commercially, but he only received a voucher for a free turkey dinner. Fulop then left Atari, and upon seeing how well Activision has been doing, he co-founded the company Imagic on July 17, 1981.

Fulop said that "I was angry at Atari and wanted to make something so good, they'd cry when they saw it. A lot of the best work is motivated by a desire to show someone what they've missed out on". This led to him designing Demon Attack. He said the game was modeled after Galaxian. The game took nine months to create. Demon Attack was the second original game Fulop had begun developing, as he had also worked on an original game at Atari that was never completed. The first complete version of Demon Attack just had one pattern of enemies repeated endlessly. Fulop focused on creating more motions for the enemies to give them more of an organic movement pattern. It was the first game he developed that had a graphic artist, Michael Becker, who created eight-phase animation for the demons. Fulop later said that "I had to fight to keep the game in the lab for the last month, my mistake in finishing everything before polishing the motion - marketing was eager to ship it - I insisted on holding it back. It got quite heated".

Fulop only created the original game for the Atari 2600 and consulted on the Intellivision adaptation. Pat Ransil of Imagic said that the Atari 2600's hardware permitted smooth and easy movement across the screen horizontally, so Fulop designed the enemy demons to move on a mostly horizontal plane. Gary Kato designed the Intellivision version of the game, which allowed the demons to move in any direction, as the system allowed for that in an easier way. Kato's version of Demon Attack features a final boss and less colorful enemies than the Atari 2600 version, but featured other visual elements such as displaying the Moon's surface and having Earth in the background. Kato said he could not make the game look like the Atari version on the Intellivision, and credited Becker, who he described as Imagic's "head art guy", for creating the look of the boss enemy Pandemonium. Kato said "when my eyes saw this, my mouth was hanging open, as soon as people started coming into work, I rushed back down and said...I have to have this in the game!" Kato concluded that if any art looked good in the game, it was created by Becker, while anything that did not look strong was his own. Fulop has said he worked closely with David Johnson on the Atari Computer version of the game, but that he generally just wrote three-page documents for the other versions on how the algorithms of his code worked. There was no shared code for the later ports. Johnson would also code the Magnavox Odyssey 2 version of the game. A similar mother ship appears in the Commodore 64 version of the game.

Release
Demon Attack was released in March 1982 for the Atari 2600 along with two other Imagic games: Star Voyager and Trick Shot. Becker created the cover art for the game from model toys painted silver and blue.

By the end of 1982, the Atari 2600 version of Demon Attack was the third highest selling console game of the year, only being beaten by Pitfall! and Pac-Man. The game was also released for other consoles such as the Intellivision and Magnavox Odyssey 2. The Intellivision version was the 9th highest grossing game of 1982. The Magnavox Odyssey 2 version of Demon Attack was the first cartridge for the system by an independent publisher. It was also ported to several home computers, including the TI-99/4A, the Atari 8-bit computers, Commodore 64, VIC-20, TRS-80 Color Computer and IBM PCjr. The game was retitled Super Demon Attack for its release on the TI-99/4A computer and a port of the Odyssey 2 version called Demon Attack Plus when it was released for the Philips Videopac+ G7400 in France. Demon Attack was included in the Activision Anthology compilation, but was removed for the Game Boy Advance release.

Kato's version of Demon Attack for the Intellivision features a final boss named Pandemonium that is similar to the boss in the arcade game Phoenix (1980). Fulop had played Kato's version of the game and disliked the addition of the boss. He said: "That, to me, was totally stupid. I mean, it's exactly the same game [as Phoenix]". Atari had the exclusive rights to produce Phoenix for home consoles and filed suit against the company Imagic, believing that the Intellivision version of Demon Attack was too derivative of the arcade game. A settlement was reached in January 1983, with Imagic still being allowed to release Demon Attack. When asked about the legal issues between Atari and Imagic related for Demon Attack, Fulop responded that he "kept out of a lot of that. It was basically a silly hustling and political thing. I think I went to one deposition, that was it [...] No one really cared too much about it". Demon Attack went on to became the best selling Imagic game.

Reception
In the British magazine Computer and Video Games, a reviewer wrote that Demon Attack's enormous success was due to the tough game play and exceptional graphics. Reviews in other publications praised the graphics, with Jan Yarnot of The Space Gamer and Randi Hacker in Electronic Fun with Computers & Games describing the enemies as being "excellent" and "vibrantly colorful" respectively. Bill Kunkel and Arnie Katz wrote in Video went as far to say that Demon Attack had the best graphics among the most recent Atari 2600 games. Commenting on the gameplay, Yarnot said that the different enemy patterns made the game appropriately challenging. A reviewer in JoyStik How to Win at Video Games also commented that enemy movement was unpredictable, concluding that the game was "simply one of the best game cartridges of its type available today". Yarnot commented negatively that the difficulty did not increase after the 12th wave, with earlier enemy patterns being repeated. Reviewing later ports, Phil Wiswell of Video Games said that while the Atari 2600 version was very good, the Intellivision version was even better, declaring that it has "one of the nicest TV-game graphics ever". A reviewer in Blip compared Demon Attack and Phoenix, finding the Intellivision version was the best of the three, saying its addition of the final battle made it and Phoenix and the Atari 2600 version of Demon Attack feel like a Galaxian spin-offs. The reviewer from Computer and Video Games compared the Intellivision game to Atari's Phoenix, stating Demon Attack had a slight edge, concluding that "Phoenix is pretty tough but for my money Demon Attack is tougher and prettier". A review in Ahoy! found the VIC-20 version excellent but said that it was not enhanced in any major way over the Atari 2600 game. Art Lewis of Electronic Fun with Computers & Games found the Odyssey 2 port not as smoothly colorful or as polished as the Atari 2600 original. Michael Blanchet, author of How to Beat the Video Games, praised the Odyssey 2 port as setting a new standard for games for the system, concluding that players should "find out what millions of Atari and Intellivision owners already know - Imagic's Demon Attack is one heck of a game".

Demon Attack won the 1983 Arcade Award for "Video Game of the Year", with Kunkel and Katz saying the game had superior graphics, sound and was "a challenge to the mental and physical capabilities of home arcaders". Video Games Player tallied twenty writers, editors and critics of the video game field and had Demon Attack voted as the "Space Game of the year" in their 1983 Golden Joystick Awards.

From retrospective reviews, a reviewer from Computer and Video Games found the game to be a clone of Galaxian and Phoenix but still found it to be a great game. GameSpy included the game in their Hall of Fame in 2002. GameSpy writer William Cassidy wrote that original Space Invaders-styled games on home consoles ranged from forgettable to pretty good, but Demon Attack was a standout due to its fast-paced action, responsive control, and audio-visual appeal. Brett Weiss included the game in his book The 100 Greatest Console Video Games 1977-1987 (2014), due to its popularity on its release, and that it remained "a dynamic nicely animated shooter". Retro Gamer included Demon Attack in their list of top ten games for the Intellivision, compliments the versions graphics, mothership boss, and that it was superior to the Atari 2600 version. The publication would also name the game in their list of best Atari 2600 (at 13th) and VIC-20 games (at 6th).

Legacy
On the game's success, Fulop responded that he knew the game would do well, but did not think it would do as well as it did. Fulop felt that Cosmic Ark, his next game at Imagic, was not going to be as strong, noting that he "wasn't hungry in the same way - wasn't into 'making them cry'". Fulop said that Imagic wanted to make a sequel to Demon Attack, but "I was too stupid to realize the sequel makes a lot more money". He made other games for the Atari 2600 and later went on to develop games like Night Trap and create the popular Petz series.

Ian Bogost and Nick Montfort in their book Racing the Beam (2009) stated that Demon Attack "broke the mold" of development in console games by having a dedicated artist for game development with Michael Becker's contributions to the game, noting that prior to this, an artist working in game development would only work on the box art or designed a game's printed manual.

title: Demon Attack


text:
Schenectady Locomotive Works

The Schenectady Locomotive Works built railroad locomotives from its founding in 1848 through its merger into American Locomotive Company (ALCO) in 1901.

After the 1901 merger, ALCO made the Schenectady plant its headquarters in Schenectady, New York.

One of the better-known locomotives to come out of the Schenectady shops was Central Pacific Railroad type 4-4-0 No. 60, the Jupiter (built in September 1868), one of two steam locomotives to take part in the "Golden Spike Ceremony" to celebrate the completion of the First transcontinental railroad. Although the original was scrapped in 1909, a full-scale, operating replica was completed in 1979, and now is part of an operational display at the Golden Spike National Historic Site.

Preserved Schenectady locomotives
Following is a list (in serial number order) of preserved Schenectady locomotives built before the ALCO merger. All locations are in the United States unless otherwise noted.

title: Schenectady Locomotive Works


text:
RAF Kirkistown

Royal Air Force Kirkistown or more simply RAF Kirkistown is a former Royal Air Force satellite airfield located 6.3 mi of Ballyhalbert, County Down, Northern Ireland.

It was a satellite to the RAF Fighter Command airfield at Ballyhalbert on the Ards Peninsula.

History
RAF Ballyhalbert opened officially on 28 June 1941 and the Kirkistown satellite airfield opened in July 1941. On 22 January 1942, No. 504 Squadron RAF moved to Kirkistown. In 1945, Ballyhalbert Airfield was designated a Royal Naval Air Station as "H.M.S. Corncrake", and Kirkistown Airfield was known as "H.M.S. Corncrake II". The following units were here at some point:
 * No. 485 Squadron RNZAF (1942)
 * 808 Naval Air Squadron
 * 818 Naval Air Squadron
 * 835 Naval Air Squadron
 * 881 Naval Air Squadron
 * 885 Naval Air Squadron
 * 887 Naval Air Squadron
 * No. 1493 (Target Towing) Flight RAF (April – May 1942) became No. 1493 (Fighter) Gunnery Flight RAF (May – November 1942)
 * No. 2898 Squadron RAF Regiment
 * No. 4117 Anti-Aircraft Flight RAF Regiment

Current use
Today the site is home to Kirkistown Circuit, a regular venue for car and motorcycle races. The circuit utilises the northern parts of the former air base's runways and perimeter roadways.

title: RAF Kirkistown


text:
Florida Everblades

The Florida Everblades are a professional minor league ice hockey team based in Estero, Florida, in the Cape Coral-Fort Myers metropolitan area. They play in the ECHL and are affiliated with the St. Louis Blues of the National Hockey League (NHL) and the Springfield Thunderbirds of the American Hockey League (AHL) starting in the 2024–25 ECHL season. Their home games are played at Hertz Arena.

The Everblades were founded in 1998. They play in the South Division of the Eastern Conference in the ECHL. They have failed to qualify for the playoffs just once in team history (2013–14) and have made seven appearances in the Kelly Cup finals, winning in 2012, 2022, 2023, and 2024; the latter three appearances constituted the first three-peat in ECHL history.

History

The team was founded in 1998 by Craig Brush, Peter Karmanos Jr., and Thomas Thewes and was named based on the Florida Everglades. The Everblades' logo features a gator-head design fused in the form of an ice skate. Barnstorm Creative Group, a Vancouver graphic design company, designed the logo. Barnstorm was contacted by Carolina Hurricanes owner Peter Karmanos Jr., who came up with the idea of choosing the Everblades' colors as blue and green, in tribute to the Hartford Whalers team that Karmanos moved to Raleigh, North Carolina. The Everblades' inaugural home opener featured a pre-game ceremony in which a large alligator was brought onto the ice to pay tribute to the team's name and logo, as well as Florida's vast population of reptile species. The Everblades won their first Kelly Cup on May 23, 2012, against the Las Vegas Wranglers. Brandon MacLean scored the championship-winning-goal in overtime during game five. Everblades goaltender, John Muse, was named the most valuable player of the 2012 Kelly Cup playoffs.

2004 American Conference finals
In game five of the 2004 American Conference finals, the Everblades faced the Reading Royals in the final game of an epic series. Florida won the first two games at home, but Reading evened the series at home, the next two of the best-of-five series. In game five, the score was tied at the end of regulation, 2–2, so the game was sent to overtime. John McNabb of the Everblades scored on a breakaway to defeat the Royals in front of a record crowd of 7,080 fans at Hertz Arena.

2005 playoff brawl
One famous event that stands out among Blades' fans was during the 2005 ECHL playoffs. With the Everblades hosting the Greenville Grrrowl on April 22, 2005, for the first game of the American Conference semifinals, the teams engaged in a third-period line brawl that would see both teams combine for 197 minutes in penalties.

The brawl stemmed from previous incidents throughout the game. Prior to the brawl, Everblades forward Greg Hornby checked Greenville's Vladimir Gusev hard into the boards behind the net, causing Gusev to leave the game injured. As a result, the pace of the game, as well as checking, would pick up.

With the Blades up 4–1 with under six minutes to play in the third period, Greenville pest Krys Barch screened the net during a Greenville shooting attempt. Everblades defenceman Tim O'Connell checked Barch from behind numerous times, hoping to clear him from in front of the net. Barch, having been fed up with being pressured, turned around, attempting to sucker-punch O'Connell. Instead, O'Connell quickly skated away from the crease before Barch turned around. Barch ended up punching Everblades goalie Tyler MacKay. O'Connell then jumped on top of Barch, and all the players on the ice dropped the gloves for a wild line brawl that saw Florida goalie MacKay and others getting ejected for fighting.

After the mayhem, Craig Kowalski took MacKay's place as netminder. Shortly thereafter, the Everblades' Simon Tremblay fought Greenville's Adam Nightingale as the last fight of the evening. The Everblades went on to win the game, 4–1, and eventually to sweep the series, three games to none. Barch was assessed a one-game suspension for his role in the brawl.

Game two featured no fights and the Everblades won in overtime, 3–2.

2012 Kelly Cup Finals
Florida won the 2012 Kelly Cup playoffs with a 4–1 victory at home in front of a standing-room-only crowd of 7,290. The first period saw Las Vegas Wranglers goalie Joe Fallon beaten by Justin Shugg and Mike Ratchuk, but Las Vegas edged back to even the score by the third, with Ash Goldie and Peter MacArthur beating John Muse to force the overtime. At 4:54 into the overtime, after Ryan Donald passed to Matt Beca, who in turn sent the puck to Brandon MacLean, who beat Fallon and secured the victory.

The win earned Florida the 2012 Kelly Cup and secured a perfect home record of 11–0 in the postseason (two victories over Greenville and three each over Elmira, Kalamazoo, and Las Vegas). Additionally, John Muse earned the Kelly Cup Finals MVP award.

Ownership and affiliation changes
In April 2013, owner Peter Karmanos, Jr. announced he would be selling the team along with Germain Arena to "simplify things" in his life, as he had just retired from the company he founded, Compuware. The team was made for sale and was being shopped by Park Lane, a sports investment-banking firm that specializes in the sale of sports teams. In 2018, Karmanos gave up majority control of the Hurricanes to new majority owner Thomas Dundon. After the 2018–19 season, the Everblades dropped the Hurricanes affiliation for the first time and partnered with the Nashville Predators. It was then announced on August 5, 2019, that Karmanos had sold both the team and arena to David Hoffmann, a Naples, Florida, resident and real estate investor. Starting in the 2022–23 season, the Everblades ended their affiliation with the Predators and entered a multi-year agreement with the Florida Panthers. On June 13, 2024, team president Craig Brush announced that the team would not be renewing its agreement with the Panthers. On July 10 of that year, the Everblades announced a new multi-year agreement with the St. Louis Blues.

Logos
Through the Everblades' history, they have had five anniversary logos: the fifth anniversary logo in 2002–03, the 10th anniversary logo in 2007–08, the 15th anniversary logo in 2012–13, the 20th anniversary logo in 2017–18, and the 25th anniversary logo in 2022–23.

Season-by-season record
1 The 2008–09 team played 71 games because of scheduling changes caused by the Augusta Lynx and Fresno Falcons ceasing operations mid-season. Four of the five teams (Florida, Charlotte, South Carolina, Mississippi) played 71 games, with Gwinnett playing 72.

2 The 2019–20 ECHL season was suspended on March 12, 2020 due to the COVID-19 pandemic, and the rest of the season was cancelled on March 14, 2020.

Retired numbers
Berg and Buckley's numbers were retired during a pre-game ceremony on October 19, 2007, as the Everblades hosted the Mississippi Sea Wolves, in what would be the Sea Wolves' first official regular season game after being placed on a two-year hiatus due to the aftermath of Hurricane Katrina. Banners made with their jersey numbers were hung to the rafters of Germain Arena.

Hartlieb's number was retired in a ceremony before a game against the Orlando Solar Bears on October 19, 2012. Hartlieb was presented with an ECHL Championship ring (he filled in on with the team in the 2011–12 regular season, but did not appear in the playoffs), and hoisted the Kelly Cup. A banner made with his number was hung to the rafters of Germain Arena next to Berg and Buckley's.

Notable players
Florida Everblades alumni that advanced to play in the NHL after playing for the club:

 * Mike Angelidis
 * Keith Aucoin
 * Clark Bishop
 * Patrick Bordeleau
 * Eric Boulton
 * David Brine
 * Brett Carson
 * Devin Cooley
 * Scott Darling
 * Kristers Gudlevskis
 * Matt Hendricks
 * Hayden Hodgson
 * Tanner Jeannot
 * Ty Jones
 * Anton Khudobin
 * Connor Knapp
 * Greg Koehler
 * Greg Kuznik
 * Drew Larman
 * Chad LaRose
 * Martin Lojek
 * Steven Lorentz
 * Brett Lysak
 * Jeff Malott
 * Eric Manlow
 * Kenndal McArdle
 * Jason Morgan
 * Alex Nedeljkovic
 * Tommy Novak
 * Doug O'Brien
 * Ryan O'Byrne
 * Justin Peters
 * Justin Shugg
 * Cole Smith
 * Dalton Smith
 * Jared Staal
 * Mark Stuart
 * Damian Surma
 * Brody Sutter
 * Rob Zepp

Florida Everblades that played in the NHL before playing with the team:

 * Akim Aliu
 * Ken Appleby
 * Justin Auger
 * Chris Beckford-Tseu
 * Brad Brown
 * Kevin Brown
 * Barry Brust
 * Brett Bulmer
 * Mike Card
 * Brad Church
 * Matt Corrente
 * Kevin Czuczman
 * Trevor Daley
 * Stefan Della Rovere
 * Nicolas Deschamps
 * Jon DiSalvatore
 * David Dziurzynski
 * Brad Fast
 * Paul Healey
 * Riku Helenius
 * Shane Hnidy
 * Josh Ho-Sang
 * Brayden Irwin
 * Bryce Lampman
 * Nick Lappin
 * Pat MacLeod
 * Tom McCollum
 * Grant McNeill
 * Mike Morrison
 * Kevin Quick
 * Brian Rafalski
 * Remi Royer
 * Richard Shulmistra
 * Matthew Spiller
 * Nick Tarnasky
 * Kris Vernarsky
 * Allen York

All-time franchise record holders

 * Games Played: Mathieu Roy – 374
 * Goals: John McCarron – 152
 * Assists: John McCarron – 212
 * Points: John McCarron – 364
 * Power play goals: Mathieu Roy – 40
 * Penalty minutes: Mathieu Roy – 560
 * Goaltender Games Played: Marc Magliarditi – 139
 * Goaltender Wins: Marc Magliarditi – 81
 * Goaltender Goals against average (Min 15 games): Tyler MacKay – 1.92
 * Goaltender Save percentage (Min 15 games): Anthony Peters – .934

Individual records and streaks
Individual records
 * Most goals - game: 4 (5 times, last by John McCarron, Dec. 3, 2016 vs. Orlando)
 * Most assists - game: 4 (12 times, last by Brandon Fortunato, Dec. 18, 2019 vs. Atlanta)
 * Most points - game: 6 (twice, both by Jacob Micflikier, last on Nov. 5, 2009 at Charlotte)
 * Most shots - game: 12 (3 times, last by Kevin Baker, Jan. 13, 2009 at Charlotte)
 * Most penalty minutes - game: 37 (Kyle Kos, Mar. 22, 2003 at South Carolina)
 * Most saves - game: 58 (Rob Zepp, Dec. 27, 2003 at Gwinnett)
 * Most saves - period: 25 (twice, last by Rob Zepp, Dec. 27, 2003 at Gwinnett (1st))

Individual streaks
 * Consecutive game goal scoring streak: 9 (Keith Anderson 10/18/03 – 11/8/03 and Brendan O'Donnell 3/25/16 – 04/09/16)
 * Consecutive game assist streak: 10 (Daniel Sisca (12/9/05 – 12/28/05))
 * Consecutive game point streak: 16 (Tom Buckley (10/26/01 – 12/7/01))
 * Consecutive games started streak: 15 (twice, last by Craig Kowalski (2/10/07 – 3/10/07))
 * Longest winning streak: 9 (Tyler MacKay (2/25/05 – 3/19/05))
 * Longest unbeaten streak: 11 (Tyler MacKay (2/19/05 – 3/19/05) (9–0–2))
 * Longest shutout streak: 163:43 (Randy Petruk (11/3/01 – 12/14/01))

ECHL Hall of Fame
Former Florida Everblades goalie Marc Magliarditi was inducted into the ECHL's Hall of Fame on January 23, 2013. Magliarditi played for the Everblades from 1998 through 2001.

Florida Everblades President and General Manager Craig Brush was inducted into the ECHL Hall of Fame on February 5, 2016. Brush has served as the team's President and General Manager since the team's inception in 1998 and he oversees all aspects of both the hockey club and the sports complex. Brush also served as the Chairman of the ECHL Board of Governors for three seasons from 2003 through 2006.

E.A. Gingher Memorial Trophy
The Everblades have won the E.A. Gingher Memorial Trophy five times, in 2004, 2005, 2012, 2018 and 2022. In 2004, the trophy was given to the champion of the Eastern Conference; the Everblades beat the Reading Royals 3–2 to win the conference but lost the Kelly Cup to the Idaho Steelheads. In 2005, the Gingher trophy was given to the American Conference champion. The Everblades beat the Charlotte Checkers 4–2 to win the conference before losing to the Trenton Titans in the Cup finals. In 2012, the Everblades won the Gingher Memorial Trophy by defeating the Kalamazoo Wings 4–1 in the Eastern Conference finals and went on to win the Kelly Cup over the Las Vegas Wranglers. In 2018, the Everblades went 12–2 through three rounds of conference playoffs and won the Gingher Memorial Trophy before losing the Kelly Cup in seven games to the Colorado Eagles. In 2022, the Everblades went 12–3 through three rounds of conference playoffs and won the Gingher Memorial Trophy by defeating the Newfoundland Growlers 4–1 in the Eastern Conference finals and went on to win the Kelly Cup in five games against the Toledo Walleye.

Brabham Cup
In the 1999–00, 2008–09, 2017–18, and 2020–21 seasons, the Everblades won the Brabham Cup, a trophy given to the team that has the best regular season record in the league. The Everblades took the trophy with 108 points in 1999–2000 and 112 points in 2017–18. The 2008–09 and 2020–21 trophies were awarded to the team with the best points percentage due to imbalanced schedules, where the Everblades had 0.725 and 0.667 winning percentages, respectively.

Kelly Cup
The Florida Everblades won the Kelly Cup in 2012 taking the series 4 games to 1 over the Las Vegas Wranglers. A decade later, they won the Cup in 2022 in another five game series, defeating the Toledo Walleye 4 games to 1. The Everblades would repeat as champions in 2023 4 games to none over the Idaho Steelheads. In 2024, the Everblades became the first team to win three straight Kelly Cups by defeating the Kansas City Mavericks 4 game to 1.

Individual and Team Honors
1998–99: John Brophy Award (Bob Ferguson)

1999–00: Brabham Cup John Brophy Award (Bob Ferguson) Plus Performer Award (Andy MacIntyre)

2000–01: Executive of the Year (Craig Brush)

2003–04: Gingher Memorial Trophy

2004–05: Gingher Memorial Trophy Reebok Goaltender of the Year (Chris Madden)

2005–06: Sportsmanship Award (Steve Saviano) Reebok Equipment Manager of the Year (John Jennings)

2008–09: Brabham Cup CCM U+ Most Valuable Player (Kevin Baker) Leading Scorer (Kevin Baker)

2011–12: Gingher Memorial Trophy Kelly Cup Kelly Cup Playoffs Most Valuable Player (John Muse)

2012–13: Leading Scorer (Mathieu Roy)

2015–16: ECHL CCM Rookie of the Year (Matt Willows) ECHL Community Service Award (Rob Florentino)

2017–18: Brabham Cup Gingher Memorial Trophy John Brophy Award (Brad Ralph)

2020–21: Brabham Cup Goaltender of the Year (Jake Hildebrand) Plus Performer Award (John McCarron)

2021–22: Gingher Memorial Trophy Kelly Cup Kelly Cup Playoffs Most Valuable Player (Cam Johnson)

2022–23: Gingher Memorial Trophy Kelly Cup Kelly Cup Playoffs Most Valuable Player (Cam Johnson)

2023–24: Gingher Memorial Trophy Kelly Cup Kelly Cup Playoffs Most Valuable Player (Oliver Chau)

title: Florida Everblades


text: Category:Self

title: Category:Self


text:
Category:Austin vehicles

This category contains automobiles made by the British Austin Motor Company.

title: Category:Austin vehicles