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Prison abolition movement

The prison abolition movement is a network of groups and activists that seek to reduce or eliminate prisons and the prison system, and replace them with systems of rehabilitation and education that do not focus on punishment and government institutionalization. The prison abolitionist movement is distinct from conventional prison reform, which is intended to improve conditions inside prisons.

Supporters of prison abolitionism are a diverse group with differing ideas as to exactly how prisons should be abolished, and what, if anything, should replace them. Some supporters of decarceration and prison abolition also work to end solitary confinement, the death penalty, and the construction of new prisons through non-reformist reform. Others support books-to-prisoner projects and defend prisoners' right to access information and library services. Some organizations, such as the Anarchist Black Cross, seek the total abolishment of the prison system without any intention to replace it with other government-controlled systems.

Definition
Scholar Dorothy Roberts takes the prison abolition movement in the United States to endorse three basic theses:

 * 1) "[T]oday’s carceral punishment system can be traced back to slavery and the racial capitalist regime it relied on and sustained."
 * 2) "[T]he expanding criminal punishment system functions to oppress black people and other politically marginalized groups in order to maintain a racial capitalist regime."
 * 3) "[W]e can imagine and build a more humane and democratic society that no longer relies on caging people to meet human needs and solve social problems."

Thus, Roberts situates the theory of prison abolition within an intellectual tradition including scholars such as Cedric Robinson, who developed the concept of racial capitalism, and characterizes the movement as a response to a long history of oppressive treatment of black people in the United States. In Canada, many abolitionists have called Canada's prisons the "new residential schools", which were designed as a cultural genocide of Indigenous people.

Legal scholar Allegra McLeod notes that prison abolition is not merely a negative project of "opening … prison doors", but rather "may be understood instead as a gradual project of decarceration, in which radically different legal and institutional regulatory forms supplant criminal law enforcement." Prison abolition, in McLeod's view, involves a positive agenda that reimagines how societies might deal with social problems in the absence of prisons, using techniques such as decriminalization and improved welfare provision.

Like Roberts, McLeod sees the contemporary theory of prison abolition as linked to theories regarding the abolition of slavery. McLeod notes that W. E. B. Du Bois—particularly in his Black Reconstruction in America—saw abolitionism not only as a movement to end the legal institution of property in human beings, but also as a means of bringing about a "different future" wherein former slaves could enjoy full participation in society. (Angela Davis explicitly took inspiration from Du Bois's concept of "abolition democracy" in her book Abolition Democracy: Beyond Empire, Prisons, and Torture. ) Similarly, on McLeod's view, prison abolition implies broad changes to social institutions: "[a]n abolitionist framework", she writes, "requires positive forms of social integration and collective security that are not organized around criminal law enforcement, confinement, criminal surveillance, punitive policing, or punishment."

The abolition of prisons is not only about the closure of prisons. Abolitionist views is also a way to counter the hegemonic discourse, and gives an alternative ways of thinking. It is a way to reconceptualize basic notions like crime, innocence, punishment etc.

Anarchism and prison abolition
Many anarchist organizations believe that the best form of justice arises naturally out of social contracts, restorative justice, or transformative justice.

Anarchist opposition to incarceration can be found in articles written as early as 1851, and is elucidated by major anarchist thinkers such as Proudhon, Bakunin, Berkman, Goldman, Malatesta, Bonano, and Kropotkin.

Personal experiences in prison because of revolutionary activity prompted many anarchists who were “deeply affected by their experiences” to publish their criticisms. In 1886, the trial of eight anarchists following the Haymarket riots brought state repression to public attention. Lucy Parsons, an anarchist and wife of one of the Haymarket eight, embarked on a speaking tour through 17 different states speaking to a total of almost 200,000 people. A single rally in Havana, Cuba, to support the families of the eight accused anarchists raised nearly $1000. Speaking at his trial, in a widely disseminated speech, one of the co-accused, August Spies, stated: "It is not likely that the honorable Bonfield and Grinnell can conceive of a social order not held intact by the policeman's club and pistol, nor of a free society without prisons, gallows, and State's attorneys. In such a society they probably fail to find a place for themselves. And is this the reason why Anarchism is such a 'pernicious and damnable doctrine?'"The Anarchist Red Cross, a prisoner support group and the precursor to the Anarchist Black Cross, was founded roughly in 1906. By that year, groups existed in Kiev, Odessa, Bialystok, and trials of its members, led to its spread across Europe and North America. A 2018 guide to starting an Anarchist Black Cross group states that "we need to destroy all the prisons, and free all the prisoners. Our position is an abolitionist stance against the state and it’s prisons."

In 1917, the Anarchist Red Cross would disband and members joined the revolution in Russia. Following the February revolution, political prisoners were released from Russian jails, in a massive wave of amnesties. The Anarchist Red Cross reorganised in 1919 as the Anarchist Black Cross, with some members joining the anarchist insurgent, Nestor Makhno.

Makhno, a Ukrainian anarchist who was freed in 1917 from a life sentence in prison, organised a revolutionary insurgent army along anarchist principles that would come to control a territory of seven-and-a-half million people. Upon taking control of a town, Makhnovists would destroy “all remnants and symbols of slavery: prisons, police and gendarmerie posts were blown up with dynamite or put to the torch.” Prisoners in battle who were not officers were typically welcomed into the ranks of Makhnovists or freed. The Makhnovist revolutionary insurgent army adopted a declaration in 1919, stating "we are against all rigid judicial and police machinery, against any legislative code prescribed once and for all time, for these involve gross violations of genuine justice and of the real protections of the population. These ought not to be organized but should be instead the living, free and creative act of the community. Which is why all obsolete forms of justice—court administration, revolutionary tribunals, repressive laws, police or militia, Cheka, prisons and all other sterile and useless anachronisms—must disappear of themselves or be abolished from the very first breath of the free life, right from the very first steps of the free and living organization of society and the economy."The Anarchist Black Cross was reconstituted in the aftermath of the Spanish Civil War and Anarchist Revolution. The pressure from the number of anarchist prisoners in need of aid led to the closing of “most of the chapters in the United States and Europe.” Alternative groups, such as the Alexander Berkman Aid Fund and the Society to Aid Anarchist Prisoners in Russia would take their place. Another resurgence was felt in 1967, and, again, in 1979 owing to the efforts of Lorenzo Kom’boa Ervin, whose writings on prison and anarchism are credited as having spread and been foundational to Black anarchism.

Anarchists agitation against prisons in Canada has included Bulldozer, an anti-prison anarchist project founded in Toronto in 1980. Bulldozer was closed after being raided and charged with sedition. The End the Prison Industrial Complex (Epic) was formed in 2009, and Anarchist Black Cross projects emerged throughout the 2000s. Anarchists and abolitionists within Québec organise yearly noise demonstrations outside of prison facilities on New Year's Eve. A campaign to stop the construction of a migrant prison involved anarchists unloading thousands of crickets into the offices of an architectural firm in 2018.

Campaigns to free anarchist prisoners have served as the basis for calling for freedom for all prisoners. June 11, 2011, international solidarity actions for anarchist prisoners Marie Mason and Eric McDavid triggered the start of an international day and week of solidarity with all anarchist prisoners in 2015. 2022's week of solidarity included actions in Poland, Russia, Ukraine, Uruguay, Greece, the UK, and other countries. The 2022-2023 hunger strike of anarchist prisoner Alfredo Cospito led to police skirmishes with protesters in Rome, a Turin cell tower being lit on fire, and a letter with bullets was sent to a newspaper stating "if Alfredo Cospito dies judges will all be targets, two months without food, burn down the prisons." International actions to free Cospito, included the burning of a Strabag excavator in Germany. The Italian placed their embassies on "alert" in response to mobilizations.

The Rojavan Revolution, which many have considered illustrative of, and rooted in, anarchist theory, involved the mass liquidation of prisons and freeing of political prisoners and nonviolent offenders. Neighbourhood based "peace committees," composed of elected community members with, largely, no formal legal education, were created to resolve conflicts using a model of consensus and restorative justice.

Prison abolition and the New Left
Angela Davis traces the roots of contemporary prison abolition theory at least to Thomas Mathiesen's 1974 book The Politics of Abolition, which had been published in the wake of the Attica Prison uprising and unrest in European prisons around the same time. She also cites activist Fay Honey Knopp's 1976 work Instead of Prisons: A Handbook for Abolitionists as significant in the movement.

Eduardo Bautista Duran and Jonathan Simon point out that George Jackson's 1970 text Soledad Brother drew global attention to the conditions of prisons in the United States and made prison abolition a tenet of the New Left.

Liz Samuels has observed that, following the Attica Prison uprising, activists began to coalesce around a vision of abolition, whereas previously they had endorsed a program of reform.

1973 Walpole Prison uprising
In 1973, two years after the Attica Prison uprising, the inmates of Walpole prison, in Massachusetts, formed a prisoners' union to protect themselves from guards, end behavioral modification programs, advocate for the prisoner's right for education and healthcare, gain more visitation rights, work assignments, and to be able to send money to their families.

The union also created a general truce within the prison and race-related violence sharply declined. During the Kwanzaa celebration, black prisoners were placed under lockdown, angering the whole facility and leading to a general strike. Prisoners refused to work or leave their cells for three months, to which the guards responded by beating prisoners, putting prisoners in solitary confinement, and denying prisoners medical care and food.

The strike ended in the prisoners' favour as the superintendent of the prison resigned. The prisoners were granted more visitation rights and work programs. Angered by this, the prison guards went on strike and abandoned the prison, hoping that this would create chaos and violence throughout the prison. But the prisoners were able to create an anarchist community where recidivism dropped dramatically and murders and rapes fell to zero. Prisoners volunteered to cook meals. Vietnam veterans who had been trained as medics took charge of the pharmacy and distribution of medication. Decisions were made in community assemblies.

Advocates of prison abolition

Angela Davis writes: "Mass incarceration is not a solution to unemployment, nor is it a solution to the vast array of social problems that are hidden away in a rapidly growing network of prisons and jails. However, the great majority of people have been tricked into believing in the efficacy of imprisonment, even though the historical record clearly demonstrates that prisons do not work."

In 1997, Angela Davis and Ruth Wilson Gilmore co-founded Critical Resistance, which is an organization working to "build an international movement to end the Prison Industrial Complex by challenging the belief that caging and controlling people makes us safe." Other similarly motivated groups such as the Prison Activist Resource Center (PARC), a group "committed to exposing and challenging all forms of institutionalized racism, sexism, able-ism, heterosexism, and classism, specifically within the Prison Industrial Complex," and Black & Pink, an abolitionist organization that focuses around LGBTQ rights, all broadly advocate for prison abolition. Furthermore, the Human Rights Coalition, a 2001 group based in the city of Philadelphia that aims to abolish prisons, with their mission stating "to empower prisoners' families to be leaders in prison organizing and to teach them how to advocate on behalf of their loved ones in prison and expose the inhumane practices of the Department of Corrections." In addition, the California Coalition for Women Prisoners, a grassroots organization dedicated to dismantling the PIC, can all be added to the long list of organizations that desire a different form of justice system.

Project NIA, an organization founded in 2009 by Mariame Kaba, helps to end the incarceration of youth, as well as victims of violence "through community-based alternatives to the criminal legal process."

Since 1983, the International Conference on Penal Abolition (ICOPA) gathers activists, academics, journalists, and "others from across the world who are working towards the abolition of imprisonment, the penal system, carceral controls and the prison industrial complex (PIC)," to discuss three important questions surrounding the reality of prison abolition ICOPA was one of the first penal abolitionist conference movements, similar to Critical Resistance in America, but "with an explicitly international scope and agenda-setting ambition."

Anarchists wish to eliminate all forms of state control, of which imprisonment is seen as one of the more obvious examples. Anarchists also oppose prisons given that statistics show incarceration rates affect mainly poor people and ethnic minorities, and do not generally rehabilitate criminals, in many cases making them worse.

In October 2015, members at a plenary session of the National Lawyers Guild (NLG) released and adopted a resolution in favor of prison abolition.

In Canada, a number of organizations support prison abolition, which includes the Saskatchewan Manitoba Alberta Abolition Organization (SMAAC) or the Toronto Prisoners’ Rights Project. These organizations collaborate and organize on issues of prison abolition and work towards prison abolition.

Disability, mental illness and prison
Prison abolitionists such as Amanda Pustilnik take issue with the fact that prisons are used as a "default asylum" for many individuals with mental illness: Why do governmental units choose to spend billions of dollars a year to concentrate people with serious illnesses in a system designed to punish intentional lawbreaking, when doing so matches neither the putative purposes of that system nor most effectively addresses the issues posed by that population?

In the United States, there are more people with mental illness in prisons than in psychiatric hospitals. In Canada, mental health issues are 2 to 3 times more prevalent in prisons than in the general population.

Prison abolitionists contend that prisons violate the Constitutional rights (5th and 6th Amendment rights) of mentally ill prisoners on the grounds that these individuals will not be receiving the same potential for rehabilitation as the non-mentally ill prison population. This injustice is sufficient grounds to argue for the abolishment of prisons. Prisons were not designed to be used to house the mentally ill, and prison practices like solitary confinement are damaging to mental health. Additionally, individuals with mental illnesses have a much higher chance of committing suicide while in prison.

In response to the fear that prisons are needed for the most serious cases of mentally ill, Liat Ben-Mosh describe prison abolitionist's' view on the issue: "Many prison abolitionists advocate for transformative justice and healing practices in which no one will be restrained or segregated, while some, like PREAP, believe that there will always be a small percentage of those whose behavior is so unacceptable or harmful that they will need to be incapacitated, socially exiled, or restrained and that this should be done humanely, temporarily, and not in a carceral or punitive manner." Another point raised is that the current focus in criminal justice reform on nonviolent, nonserious and nonsexual offences shrinks the borders and understandings of innocence and guilt.

Aging in prison
The prison abolition movement and prison abolitionists, like Liat Ben-Moshe have taken issue with the treatment of the aging population in prisons. Prolonged sentencing policies have resulted in an increased aging population in prisons as well as the harsh conditions of imprisonment. A number of reasons can contribute to older adult's risk for illness while in prison. Prisons are not intended to be used as nursing homes, hospice or long-term care facilities for the aging prison population. Despite this, prison hospice does exist.

In Canada, individuals 50 years of age and older in federal custody account for 25% of the federal prison population. Investigations into the Canadian federal penitentiary have found that there is a general failure of the Correctional Service of Canada to meet safe and humane custody and assisting in the rehabilitation and reintegration of offenders into the community. The conditions of confinement of older individuals jeopardize the protection of their human rights. The conditions of the aging population in Canada has been denounced by persons who are incarcerated.

Proposed reforms and alternatives
Proposals for prison reform and alternatives to prisons differ significantly depending on the political beliefs behind them. Often they fall in one of three categories from the "Attrition Model", a model proposed by the Prison Research Education Action Project in 1976: moratorium, decarceration, and excarceration. Proposals and tactics often include:

 * Penal system reforms:
 * Substituting, for incarceration, supervised release, probation, restitution to victims, and/or community work.
 * Decreasing terms of imprisonment by abolishing mandatory minimum sentencing
 * Decreasing ethnic disparity in prison populations
 * Prison condition reforms
 * Crime prevention rather than punishment
 * Abolition of specific programs which increase prison population, such as the prohibition of drugs (e.g., the American War on Drugs) and prohibition of prostitution.
 * Education programs to inform people who have never been in prison about the problems
 * Fighting individual cases of wrongful conviction

The United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime published a series of handbooks on criminal justice. Among them is Alternatives to Imprisonment which identifies how the overuse of imprisonment impacts fundamental human rights, especially those convicted for lesser crimes.

Social justice and advocacy organizations such as Students Against Mass Incarceration (SAMI) at the University of California, San Diego often look to Scandinavian countries Sweden and Norway for guidance in regard to successful prison reform because both countries have an emphasis on rehabilitation rather than punishment. According to Sweden's former Prison and Probation Service Director-General, Nils Öberg, this emphasis is popular among the Swedish because the act of imprisonment is considered punishment enough. This focus on rehabilitation includes an emphasis on promoting normalcy for inmates, a charge led by experienced criminologists and psychologists. In Norway a focus on preparation for societal re-entry has yielded "one of the lowest recidivism rates in the world at 20%, [while] the US has one of the highest: 76.6% of [American] prisoners are re-arrested within five years". The Swedish incarceration rate decreased by 6% between 2011 and 2012.

Abolitionist views
Many prison reform organizations and abolitionists in the United States advocate community accountability practices, such as community-controlled courts, councils, or assemblies as an alternative to the criminal justice system.

Abolitionists like Angela Davis recommend four measures as a way to deal with violent and other serious crimes: (1) make mental health care available to all (2) everyone should have access to affordable treatment for substance use disorders (3) make a stronger effort to rehabilitate those who commit criminal offences and (4) employ reparative or restorative justice measures as an accountability tool to reconcile offenders with their victims and undo or compensate the harm done.

Organizations such as INCITE! and Sista II Sista that support women of color who are survivors of interpersonal violence argue that the criminal justice system does not protect marginalized people who are victims in relationships. Instead, victims, especially those who are poor, minorities, transgender or gender non-conforming can experience additional violence at the hands of the state. Instead of relying on the criminal justice system, these organizations work to implement community accountability practices, which often involve collectively-run processes of intervention initiated by a survivor of violence to try to hold the person who committed violence accountable by working to meet a set of demands. For organizations outside the United States see, e.g. Justice Action, Australia.

Some anarchists and socialists contend that a large part of the problem is the way the judicial system deals with prisoners, people, and capital. According to Marxists, in capitalist economies incentives are in place to expand the prison system and increase the prison population. This is evidenced by the creation of private prisons in America and corporations like CoreCivic, formerly known as Correction Corporation of America (CCA). Its shareholders benefit from the expansion of prisons and tougher laws on crime. More prisoners is seen as beneficial for business. Some anarchists contend that with the destruction of capitalism, and the development of social structures that would allow for the self-management of communities, property crimes would largely vanish. There would be fewer prisoners, they assert, if society treated people more fairly, regardless of gender, color, ethnic background, sexual orientation, education, etc.

The demand for prison abolition is a feature of anarchist criminology, which argues that prisons encourage recidivism and should be replaced by efforts to rehabilitate offenders and reintegrate them into communities.

“Nine perspectives for prison abolitionists”
Instead of prisons: a handbook for abolitionists, republished by Critical Resistance in 2005, outlines what the organization identifies as the nine main perspectives for prison abolitionists:

 * Perspective 1 The imprisonment of a human being is inherently immoral, and while total abolition of the current prison system is not an easy task, it is possible. The first step towards abolition is admitting that prisons cannot be reformed, as a carceral system is founded on brutality and contempt for those imprisoned. Additionally, the current system works to disproportionally imprison poor and working-class people, so its abolition would ensure progress towards equality. Abolitionists see many similarities between today's carceral system and the slavery establishment of the past, and would in fact say that the current system is simply reformed enslavement which perpetuates the same oppressive and discriminatory patterns. But just as superficial reforms could not alter the brutality of the slave system, reforms cannot change a system rooted in racism.

 * Perspective 2 The abolitionist message requires changing our language and definitions of punishment “treatment” and “inmates”. In order to break away from the prison system, we must use honest language and take back the power of our vocabulary.

 * Perspective 3 Imprisonment is not a proper response to deviance. Abolitionists promote reconciliation rather than punishment, a perspective seeking to restore both the criminal and the victim while limiting the disruption of their lives in the process.

 * Perspective 4 Abolitionists advocate for changes beneficial to the prisoner but do so while remaining a non-member of the system. In a similar fashion, abolitionists respect the personhood of system managers but oppose their role in the perpetuation of an oppressive system.

 * Perspective 5 The abolitionist message extends farther than the traditional helping relationship; Abolitionists identify themselves as allies of the imprisoned, respecting their perspectives as well as the requirements for abolition.

 * Perspective 6 The empowerment of prisoners and ex-prisoners is crucial to the abolitionist movement. Programs and resources dedicated to reinstating that which has been stripped from them by the prison system are fundamental in putting power back in their own hands.

 * Perspective 7 Abolitionists believe that citizens are the true source of institutional power which can lead to the abolition of the prison system. Giving or limiting support from certain policies and practices will enable the progression of the abolitionist movement.

 * Perspective 8 Abolitionists believe that crime is a consequence of a broken society, and recourses must be used towards social programs instead of the funding of prisons. They advocate for public solutions to public problems, producing effects which will benefit everyone in society.

 * Perspective 9 An emphasis is placed on the correction of society rather than the correction of an individual. It is only in a corrected or caring community that individual redemption and rehabilitation can be achieved. Thus, abolitionists see that the only adequate alternative to the prison system is building a kind of society which has no need for prisons.

title: Prison abolition movement


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William L. Guy

William Lewis Guy (September 30, 1919 – April 26, 2013) was an American politician who was the governor of the U.S. state of North Dakota from 1961 to 1973. Guy was North Dakota's longest-serving governor in state history, serving two consecutive two-year terms and two four-year terms in office.

Biography
Guy was born in Devils Lake, North Dakota. After receiving his B.S. degree from North Dakota Agricultural College (NDAC), where he was a member of Sigma Alpha Epsilon and Blue Key National Honor Society. He served in the U.S. Navy in World War II as a gunnery officer, achieving the rank of lieutenant. He received a master's degree from the University of Minnesota, and then became the assistant county agent for Cass County. With his wife, the former Jean Mason, whom he married on January 30, 1943, Guy began farming at Amenia, North Dakota, in 1948 and taught agricultural economics at NDAC during the winter quarters.

He served in the North Dakota House of Representatives for one term from 1959 to 1961. In the legislature, Guy served as assistant minority leader. He died on the morning of April 26, 2013 at West Fargo, North Dakota. He was 93. He had Alzheimer's disease.

Years as Governor
His election as governor on the Democratic-Nonpartisan League ticket finally established the two-party system in North Dakota. As governor, Guy served two two-year terms and two four-year terms. He began modernizing state government by implementing the new Office of Management and Budget. During his terms, the state hospital's patient load was reduced from 2,600 to 600 and eight regional mental health districts were established. Guy organized the five-state Old West Trail Tourist Loop. The interstate highway system, 350 Minuteman missiles, the anti-ballistic missiles site, and Garrison Diversion were large federal projects that came to North Dakota during Guy's watch. He was instrumental in bringing three sugar beet refineries and large scale coal-fired electrical generation to North Dakota. Governor Guy was selected by President Lyndon B. Johnson to observe the first presidential elections in South Vietnam. He originated the concept of an interpretive North Dakota Heritage Center and promoted its construction. The Theodore Roosevelt Rough Rider Award was established by Governor Guy as North Dakota's highest recognition. Guy organized and served as the first chairman of the Midwest Governors' Conference in 1962. In 1966, he was elected chairman of the National Governors' Conference. He was an unsuccessful candidate for the United States Senate in 1974.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: William L. Guy


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1996 CONCACAF Gold Cup

The 1996 CONCACAF Gold Cup was the third edition of the Gold Cup, the soccer championship of North America, Central America and the Caribbean (CONCACAF).

The tournament returned to the United States and California; the games were hosted by Los Angeles, San Diego, and Anaheim. The format of the tournament changed from 1993: it was expanded to nine teams, separated into three groups of three and played in January as opposed to the 1993 edition which was played in July.

The top team in each group, plus the best second-place finisher would advance to the semifinals. For the first time, a non-CONCACAF team was invited: Brazil, who sent their under-23 side. Mexico won their second straight Gold Cup, beating the Brazilians 2–0 in the final.

Squads
The 9 national teams involved in the tournament were required to register a squad of 20 players; only players in these squads were eligible to take part in the tournament.

Group A

Bracket

Semi-finals

Third place play-off

Goalscorers

Awards
The following Gold Cup awards were given at the conclusion of the tournament: the Golden Boot (top scorer) and Golden Ball (best overall player).

title: 1996 CONCACAF Gold Cup


text: User talk:66.99.30.162

title: User talk:66.99.30.162


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No. 18 Squadron RAF

No. 18 Squadron of the Royal Air Force operates the Boeing Chinook from RAF Odiham. Owing to its heritage as a bomber squadron, it is also known as No. 18 (B) Squadron.

First World War
The squadron was formed on 11 May 1915 at Northolt as part of the Royal Flying Corps. It arrived in France on 19 November 1915, principally equipped with the Vickers FB5 'Gunbus', supplemented by a few Airco DH.2s and Bristol Scouts, and operating in the Army cooperation role. By April 1916 the squadron had re-equipped with FE2bs. Victor Huston became a flying ace piloting one of these. The squadron was heavily deployed during the Battle of the Somme, where it was attached to the Cavalry Corps and trained to assist it in the event on any breakthrough, but towards the end of the year and into early 1917, was increasingly deployed on night operations as its F.E.2bs became more vulnerable during daylight operations.

The squadron re-equipped with Airco DH.4s from June 1917, although operations continued with F.E.2 until at least August 1917 as its DH.4s were equipped with the unreliable RAF 3 engine. Once these reliability problems were solved, the squadron, began to specialise in long-range attacks, but this changed in March 1918 when the Germans launched Operation Michael, the opening move of their Spring Offensive. 18 Squadron was among many units deployed to stop the German attacks, resorting to low level attacks as well as more conventional medium level operations. As the Germans switched the focus of their operations northwards in the Battle of the Lys, the squadron was again heavily involved, and on 12 April, the squadron carried out six separate attacks in the vicinity of Merville, with 13 pilots flying between them 44 flying hours that day. In September 1918, the squadron began to re-equip with Airco DH.9As, this process continuing until November that year. By the end of the war, the squadron had claimed 200 air-to-air victories. Following the Armistice of 11 November 1918 that ended the fighting on the Western Front, 18 Squadron moved into Germany in support of the Occupation of the Rhineland in early 1919, carrying mail between the British Army of the Rhine and the United Kingdom. The squadron returned to Britain in September 1919 and disbanded at Weston-on-the-Green on 31 December 1919.

Reformation
The squadron reformed at RAF Upper Heyford in Oxfordshire on 20 October 1931, equipped with the Hawker Hart light bomber. As well as training for its main role, the squadron participated in the 1932 and 1935 Hendon Air Shows as well as the Royal Review of the Royal Air Force by King George V at RAF Mildenhall in July 1935. In January 1936, the squadron moved to RAF Bircham Newton in Norfolk, with the squadron's C Flight being detached to form No. 49 Squadron on 10 February. In April 1936, the squadron's Harts were replaced by the improved Hawker Hind derivative. The squadron joined the newly established No. 1 Group RAF in July 1936, and moved back to Upper Heyford in September 1936. 18 Squadron transferred to 2 Group on 1 January 1939, re-equipping with Bristol Blenheim I monoplane twin-engined bombers in May 1939.

Second World War
On the outbreak of the Second World War, No. 18 Squadron along with 57 Squadron comprised No. 70 Wing and was still based at Upper Heyford and equipped with Blenheim Is. The wing was allocated for deployment to France as part of the BEF Air Component, with the role of strategic reconnaissance. 18 Squadron reached France by the end of September 1939, commencing operations in October and re-equipping with Blenheim IVs in February 1940. When Germany invaded France and the Low Countries, 18 Squadron took part in bombing missions against German troops as well as their envisioned reconnaissance missions. After the squadron was forced to change airfields three times in three days, it was ordered to evacuate back to England on 19 May, moving to RAF Watton in Norfolk.

The squadron was then assigned to anti-shipping duties, but during one raid over France in August 1941, one aircraft dropped a box over St Omer airfield containing an artificial leg. It was a spare for Wing Commander Douglas Bader. The squadron then moved to North Africa with the Blenheim V and took up day bombing duties. During an unescorted raid on Chouigui airfield in December 1942 led by Wing Commander Hugh Malcolm, his aircraft was shot down and he was posthumously awarded the Victoria Cross. During 1943–45, No. 18 Squadron supported the allied advance through Italy before moving to Greece in September 1945, disbanding there on 31 March 1946.

Post war
18 Squadron was reformed in 1953 at RAF Scampton, Lincolnshire and equipped with the Canberra B.2 medium bomber before disbanding again on 1 February 1957.

On 15 December 1958, No. 199 Squadron RAF, operating Canberras and Vickers Valiants in the electronic countermeasures (ECM) role, disbanded, with the Valiant equipped C Flight being redesignated No. 18 Squadron. The squadron's seven Valiants were fitted with an array of powerful jammers to interfere with communications and radar. They were initially employed for training purposes, simulating hostile jamming in Fighter Command exercises (and occasionally inadvertently jamming TV reception over much of the United Kingdom), but later added a bomber support role. The squadron was disbanded on 31 March 1963, as the RAF's Vulcan and Victor bombers were now fitted with effective ECM equipment, while the training role could be performed more economically by smaller aircraft such as the Canberra. The Squadron was next operational in 1964, equipped with the Westland Wessex HC.2 at RAF Odiham, formed when the Wessex Intensive Flying Trials Unit was disbanded and re-designated No. 18 Squadron. It moved to RAF Gütersloh, Westphalia in support of the BAOR in Germany in August 1970 but disbanded again on 20 November 1980.

The squadron was reformed on 4 August 1981 as a unit flying Chinooks HC.1s. 18 Squadron was the only Chinook squadron that took part in Operation Corporate during the Falklands War in 1982 with four detached and sent south. All were lost, except one, when the ship carrying them, the Atlantic Conveyor was sunk after being hit by an Exocet missile. The remaining aircraft (Bravo November, ZA718) flew almost continuously until the end of the conflict. Squadron Leader Richard "Dick" Langworthy AFC RAF was awarded the Distinguished Flying Cross (DFC) for his part in the air operations. In August 1983 the squadron returned to Gutersloh. 18 Squadron took part in the UK's deployment to the Gulf following the Iraqi invasion of Kuwait. After this the squadron was subject to the restructures from the Options for Change decisions which included the transfer of Gutersloh to the British Army, so December 1992 18 Squadron relocated to RAF Laarbruch. With the further drawing down of the British presence in Germany, 18 Squadron left the continent and returned to Odiham in August 1997.

The Chinook HC.2, equivalent to the US Army CH-47D standard, began to enter RAF service in 1993. The squadron's Chinook HC.2s were deployed to Iraq for Operation Telic.

In 2017, the Squadron participated in Operation Ruman: UK relief effort in the Caribbean after Hurricane Irma. In 2018, Chinook Mk5s drawn from the Squadron formed most of 1310 Flight which was deployed to Mali, to support Operation Barkhane-the French-led counter-terrorist operation in the country.

In March 2020, the squadron was awarded the right to emblazon a battle honour on its squadron standard, recognising its role in the War in Afghanistan between 2001 and 2014.

title: No. 18 Squadron RAF


text: Talk:Enchanter

title: Talk:Enchanter


text: User talk:65.160.143.10

title: User talk:65.160.143.10


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No. 27 Squadron RAF

No. 27 Squadron of the Royal Air Force operates the Boeing Chinook from RAF Odiham.

First World War
27 Squadron of the Royal Flying Corps formed at Hounslow Heath Aerodrome on 5 November 1915, being split off from 24 Squadron. Initially using aircraft borrowed from 24 Squadron, 27 Squadron moved to Swingate Down outside Dover in late November 1915, and in early February 1916, received its initial operating equipment, the Martinsyde Elephant fighter aircraft, hence the use of an elephant for the squadron badge. It transferred to France on 1 March 1916, serving as part of 9th Wing RFC. Initially the squadron was tasked with using its aircraft as escort fighters, but by the time the Battle of the Somme began, it was clear that the Elephant was unsuitable as a fighter. At the Somme, the squadron was initially tasked with mounting standing fighter patrols to protect British bombers and reconnaissance aircraft and with bomber-reconnaissance duties, taking advantage of the Martinsyde's good range and load carrying capacity, carrying out its first bombing mission on 1 July 1916. It was ordered to concentrate on bombing duties on 9 July.

The squadron continued to operate its Martinsydes into 1917, taking part in the Battle of Arras in April–May, the Battle of Messines in June, where the squadron attacked German airfields, and the Battle of Passchendaele (also known as the Third Battle of Ypres), where the squadron attacked railway targets and airfields, from July that year. It re-equipped with Airco DH.4s, which carried twice the bombload of the Martinsyde at greater speed and height, while carrying a gunner to defend against enemy fighters, from between September and December 1917, but was still equipped with a mixture of Martinsydes and DH.4s when it flew in support of the British offensive at Cambrai.

In March 1918, the squadron moved to Villers-Bretonneux east of Amiens as part of a concentration of the RFCs resources against the likely route of a suspected German offensive. The morning of 21 March brought the start of Operation Michael, the opening part of the German spring offensive. At first the squadron was deployed against railway junctions, to slow the movement of German reinforcements. On 24 March, the squadron was forced to evacuate from Villers-Bretonneux, threatened by the German advance, to Beauvois-en-Cambrésis. On 25 March, as the Germans threatened to breakthrough near Bapaume, all available squadrons, including 27 Squadron, were ordered to carry out low level attacks against the German troops. The squadron continued to fly a mixture of low level attack against troop concentrations and high level attacks over the next few days, and on 29 March was forced to move airfields again, this time to Ruisseauville. On 1 April 1918, the RFC merged with the Royal Naval Air Service to form the Royal Air Force, but this had little effect on the squadrons at the front, with 27 Squadron continuing to operate against the German offensive. On 9 April, the Germans launched the second stage of its offensive, an attack near the River Lys at the junction between the British First and Second Armies. 27 Squadron was again deployed against the offensive attacking railway targets from 12 April. It started to receive DH.9 bombers in July 1918, but as these proved to be inferior to the DH.4, managed to keep some of its DH.4s until the end of the war. The squadron was disbanded on 22 January 1920.

Inter-war period
On 1 April 1920, No. 27 was reformed by re-numbering No. 99 Squadron RAF then in India, flying Airco DH.9A light bombers from Risalpur over the North-West Frontier. Operations included Pink's War, an aerial bombardment campaign against militant Mahsud tribesmen in South Waziristan in March and April 1925, the first colonial policing action carried out solely by the RAF, without the participation of the British Army. The squadron's DH.9As were eventually replaced by Westland Wapitis in 1928, when the squadron moved to Kohat. In December 1928, Flying Officer Tusk and Leading Aircraftman Donaldson (both of 27 Squadron), flew the first mission of the Kabul Airlift. Strictly a reconnaissance flight to ascertain the situation of the British Legation in Kabul during a civil war, they were shot at by local tribesmen and forced to land at a nearby airstrip. After this they managed to dash across no-man's land and arrived at the legation to set up communications with their home base of Risalpur.

War in the East
The outbreak of the Second World War in Europe in September 1939 saw part of the squadron deployed on coastal anti-submarine and anti-shipping patrols from Madras, before on 1 October 1939, the squadron became a flying training school training pilots for the Indian Air Force, operating de Havilland Tiger Moth and Hawker Hart biplanes as well as Wapitis, and based at Risalpur. Many of the squadron's former operational pilots were employed ferrying Bristol Blenheim bombers from Egypt to India and the Far East, and in January 1941, Blenheims started to be delivered to the squadron, allowing a Blenheim-equipped 27 Squadron to be split off from the training school in February and sent to Singapore. The squadron's Blenheims were Mk IF aircraft, fitted with an under-fuselage gun-pack for use as a long-range and night fighter, and were the only RAF night fighters in the Far East. The squadron moved to Butterworth in May 1941 and to Sungai Petani in August that year. Japan invaded Malaya on 8 December 1941, and 27 Squadron flew off eight Blenheims that morning to attack Japanese invasion shipping. Poor weather prevented them from locating any Japanese ships, however, and air attacks on Sungai Petani that day wrecked the airfield and left the squadron with only four airworthy aircraft. It was evacuated to Butterworth that evening. The remaining aircraft were pulled back to Singapore by 12 December, where they, together with a few Blenheim Is from other squadrons operated under the name of 27 Squadron. The remaining Blenheims based at Singapore, including those of 27 Squadron were evacuated to Sumatra from 23 January 1941, ending up operating from Palembang. On 14 February four of its Blenheims attacked Japanese ships invading Sumatra, with the loss of two Blenheims, with all airworthy aircraft evacuating to Java on 15 February. Here the squadron effectively ceased to exist.

A new No. 27 Squadron was formed at RAF Amarda Road India on 19 September 1942, although it initially had no aircraft, not receiving its first Bristol Beaufighter until 22 October and not having a full complement of Beaufighters until 21 December. It flew its first operation, an attack on Taungoo airfield in Burma, on 24 December 1942. The squadron moved to Kanchrapara in January 1943, and to Agartala in February, joining 169 Wing of 224 Group. The squadron used its Beaufighters for ground-attack missions over Burma and anti-shipping strikes. In April 1943, the squadron received a number of de Havilland Mosquitoes for evaluation, and a flight was re-equipped with Mosquitoes in December that year. The glue-and-plywood construction of the otherwise excellent Mosquito proved to be less than optimal for tropical Burma, and the operations were plagued by technical problems. They eventually relinquished the Mosquitoes to No. 680 Squadron RAF, retaining the Beaufighters and continuing the Squadron's diet of ground attack and anti-shipping strikes, switching to air-jungle rescue in April 1945.

Following the Japanese surrender, it was deployed to Batavia during the Indonesian War of Independence, being disbanded on 1 February 1946.

Post-war service
On 24 November 1947, the squadron reformed at RAF Oakington as a Transport unit equipped with Douglas Dakota transports. It flew both routine scheduled transport routes and trained in glider towing, and took part in the Berlin Airlift in 1948–49. It was disbanded on 10 November 1950. On 15 June 1953, No. 27 Squadron reformed at RAF Scampton as part of RAF Bomber Command, with Canberra bombers. It took part in the Suez Crisis in 1956, and was disbanded at RAF Waddington on 31 December 1957. In April 1961, the squadron reformed at RAF Scampton as the first squadron to be equipped with the Avro Vulcan B2 V bomber and formed part of the UK nuclear deterrent strike force. The squadron's Vulcans were equipped with the Blue Steel one megaton stand-off bomb until 1969 when their eight aircraft were each re-equipped with a WE.177B laydown bomb of 450 kt yield. The squadron's role assigned to SACEUR in a low-level penetration role was tactical support for ground forces resisting a Soviet land attack into Western Europe by striking targets assigned by SACEUR, beyond the forward edge of the battlefield, and deep into enemy-held areas. By the end of 1971 the squadron had relinquished its nuclear delivery role, and stood down until in December 1973 it was reformed at RAF Scampton with the Vulcan B2 to operate in the Maritime Radar Reconnaissance (MRR) role assigned to SACLANT.

From 1973 to 1982 the squadron performed the duties of 'Strategic Reconnaissance' with onboard equipment to monitor the fall-out from air and ground-based nuclear tests being performed by emerging nuclear powers in the Indian sub-continent and SE Asia. The squadron's Vulcan B2s were modified (and re-designated as "Vulcan B.2 (MRR)") to carry underwing 'sniffer' and collection equipment to detect and collect samples of airborne contamination for later analysis at the Atomic Weapons Research Establishment (AWRE) at Aldermaston. The samples were collected by flying through the high altitude dust cloud of a ground-based test or the downwind contamination of the upper atmosphere after an air burst. The squadron disbanded again at Scampton in 1982.

The squadron reformed again at RAF Marham in 1983 with twelve Tornado GR1 aircraft and eighteen WE.177 nuclear bombs, and once again assigned to SACEUR in 1984, the squadron's role was low-level penetration tactical support for ground forces resisting a Soviet land attack into Western Europe by striking targets beyond the forward edge of the battlefield. The squadron's allocation of eighteen WE.177 weapons was because of the greater carrying capacity of the Tornado, which could carry two weapons. The apparent mismatch between twelve Tornado aircraft and eighteen nuclear weapons was because RAF staff planners expected up to one third attrition of aircraft in the conventional phase, with sufficient aircraft held back in reserve to deliver the squadron's full stock of nuclear weapons if the conflict escalated to the use of tactical nuclear weapons. In September 1993, the squadron's Tornado aircraft and personnel moved to RAF Lossiemouth and took on the number plate of No. 12 Squadron which had recently disbanded at RAF Marham.

Helicopters
The No. 27 Squadron number plate was transferred to RAF Odiham and became No. 27 (Reserve) Squadron, the Chinook/Puma Operational Conversion Unit, formerly No. 240 Operational Conversion Unit RAF (OCU). It regained full squadron status in January 1998 equipped with Chinooks only. In 2002 the squadron's Chinooks saw service in Afghanistan as they transported Royal Marines from 3 Commando Brigade for Operation Jacana.

The squadron also served in a transport role during the 2003 invasion of Iraq and was stationed at Basra as part of No. 1310 Flight RAF, supporting Operation Telic. In July 2006, 3 Chinook helicopters of No. 27 Squadron deployed to RAF Akrotiri in Cyprus to evacuate British citizens from Lebanon. It deployed to Afghanistan for Operation Herrick in 2011.

In March 2020, the squadron was awarded the right to emblazon a battle honour on its squadron standard, recognising its role in the War in Afghanistan between 2001 and 2014.

Cultural references
In 2007, Olly Lambert made a documentary for the BBC about a two-month deployment of 27 Squadron in Helmand, Afghanistan. It documented the daily routines and work of the squadron personnel on duty during Operation Herrick. Named "Above Enemy Lines", it was first screened on BBC One on 9 October 2007, and was noted for its graphic portrayal of the evacuation and loss of Private Christopher Gray, fatally shot in an ambush in Now Zad on 13 April 2007.

title: No. 27 Squadron RAF


text:
User:TimBray

Tim Bray
I’ve been editing, regularly but not that frequently, since 2004, usually those entries where I have a knowledge niche. I've put a lot of work into T. E. Lawrence, Sun Microsystems, Audiophile, Vancouver and XML. I am present online at ongoing and @timbray@cosocial.ca and I’m also Tim Bray.

title: User:TimBray


text:
Milanković

Milanković (Миланковић) is a Serbian surname derived from the masculine given name Milanko. It may refer to:

 * Milutin Milanković (1879–1958), Serbian mathematician, astronomer, and geophysicist
 * Nikola Milanković (born 1986), Serbian footballer
 * Veljko Milanković (1955–1993), Serbian war commander

title: Milanković


text:
Dymi, Achaea

Dymi (Δύμη) is a former municipality in Achaea, West Greece, Greece. Since the 2011 local government reform it is part of the municipality West Achaea, of which it is a municipal unit. The municipal unit has an area of 71.553 km2. Its seat of administration was the town of Kato Achaia. It is located 20 km southwest of Patras.

Subdivisions
The municipal unit Dymi is subdivided into the following communities (constituent villages in brackets):
 * Kato Achaia (Kato Achaia, Alykes, Manetaiikia, Paralia Kato Achaias, Piso Sykea)
 * Agiovlasitika (Agiovlasitika, Kapeli, Lefkos, Stenaitika)
 * Alissos (Alissos, Kamenitsa, Paralia Alissou, Profitis Elissaios)
 * Ano Achaia
 * Elaiochori
 * Kato Alissos (Kato Alissos, Gialos)
 * Niforeika (Niforeika, Paralia Niforeikon)
 * Petrochori (Petrochori, Veskoukaiika, Vythoulkas, Zampeteika, Karya, Lampraiika, Logothetis)

title: Dymi, Achaea


text:
Wikipedia:Articles for deletion/Battles in Tarrant County

Battles in Tarrant County was proposed for deletion. This page is an archive of the discussion about the proposed deletion. This page is no longer live. Further comments should be made on the article's talk page rather than here so that this page is preserved as an historic record. The result of the debate was DELETE

Page was spam. Has no content now.

 * That's a speedy. Gzornenplatz 15:14, Sep 29, 2004 (UTC)

This page is now preserved as an archive of the debate and, like other '/delete' pages is no longer 'live'. Subsequent comments on the issue, the deletion or on the decision-making process should be placed on the relevant 'live' pages. Please do not edit this page.


text:
Template talk:CcTLD

Adding
 tags
If you are getting one long line that is not word wrapping, it is either a bug in the browser or a bug in the CSS for the page. Either way it should be able to be fixed with CSS changes.

Adding
 tags actually makes it look much worse for everyone else. For example, with the 03:20 29 Sep 2004 revision, with these extra tags, it looks like this for me:

.ad .ae .af .ag .ai .al .am .an .ao .aq .ar .as .at .au .aw .az .ba .bb .bd .be .bf .bg .bh .bi .bj .bm .bn .bo .br .bs .bt .bv .bw .by .bz .ca .cc .cd .cf .cg .ch .ci .ck .cl .cm .cn .co .cr .cs .cu .cv .cx .cy .cz .de .dj .dk .dm .do .dz .ec .ee .eg .eh .er .es .et .fi .fj .fk .fm .fo .fr .ga .gb .gd .ge .gf .gh .gi .gl .gm .gn .gp .gq .gr .gs .gt .gu .gw .gy .hk .hm .hn .hr .ht .hu .id .ie .il .in .io .iq .ir .is .it .jm .jo .jp .ke .kg .kh .ki .km .kn .kp .kr .kw .ky .kz .la .lb .lc .ld .li .lk .lr .ls .lt .lu .lv .ly .ma .mc .md .mg .mh .mk .ml .mm .mn .mo .mp .mq .mr .ms .mt .mu .mv .mw .mx .my .mz .na .nc .ne .nf .ng .ni .nl .no .np .nr .nu .nz .om .pa .pe .pf .pg .ph .pk .pl .pm .pn .pr .ps .pt .pw .py .qa .re .ro .ru .rw .sa .sb .sc .sd .se .sg .sh .si .sj .sk .sl .sm .sn .so .sr .st .sv .sy .sz .tc .td .tf .tg .th .tj .tk .tl .tm .tn .to .tp .tr .tt .tv .tw .tz .ua .ug .um .us .uy .uz .va .vc .ve .vg .vi .vn .vu .wf .ws .ye .yt .za .zm .zw

The problem with this approach is that everyone's browser is a different width, and many people use different fonts or font sizes. Therefore what looks good on your browser will look bad on someone elses. So basically, please fix the HTML so it word wraps independent of screen size, rather than adding
 tags. --kjd 15:09, 29 Sep 2004 (UTC)

I've noticed that there seems to be many similarities between the ccTLDs in the "deleted/retired" and the "renamed" categories. For example, why are .su and .zr in different categories if they are under essentially the same circumstances? I suggest that these two categories be merged somehow. --Zippanova 18:38, 26 July 2005 (UTC)

Even though this is almost 6 years old, it does seem to answer my question. Good to know this, because I was just about to do the same thing. -38.116.200.70 (talk) 16:48, 27 September 2010 (UTC)

Formatting changes
I've reformatted the template:
 * lost a bunch of white space at the left and bottom, so it's now 7 lines deep, rather than 13
 * removed the vertical bars, which make it harder to read along the line; they aren't really needed in this kind of template, because it's clear that each word is a separate link
 * increased the font size, because it was hard to read at 82%

Given all this, I'd appreciate knowing why I was reverted :) sjorford (?!) 09:29, 1 September 2005 (UTC)

 * In Opera, and IE, it's showing up as one massive line for all "Active" and then everything else on the next line. Horrible mess. Will revert again - sorry, but something's wrong here. Shimgray 01:32, 2 September 2005 (UTC)

 * Damn, so it is. That'll teach me for using Firefox :) I suspect it could be to do with the width="100%" attributes - investigating. sjorford #£@%&$?!  08:18, 2 September 2005 (UTC)

 * Okay, should be fixed now - it was the dots at the start of each word that was causing the browsers to run them together as a single word. I've added &nbsp; before each dot to fool it. Can anyone confirm that this works in Opera, I don't have it installed right now. sjorford #£@%&$?!  10:32, 2 September 2005 (UTC)

 * Good in Opera and IE. Thanks! Shimgray 12:36, 2 September 2005 (UTC)

.gb
Should .gb be moved to the "retired" category? This TLD is already disused and all the subdomains have moved to .uk. --Deryck C. 05:46, 30 October 2006 (UTC)
 * i just came on this talk page to ask the same question. my answer is "yes", so i'm doing it now. tomasz. 13:03, 22 May 2007 (UTC)

Double domen
.bv is Active and Allocated/unused. Mistake? Leonarh 12:09, 10 December 2006 (UTC)

 * Removed in "active", according (the link is from IANA site). Cate |Talk 09:59, 11 December 2006 (UTC)

.um status not correct
The t/p currently has .um under the "deleted/retired" heading. This isn't correct. According to the ICANN report on the change:

In other words, .um has not been deleted. It's now unassigned. If what i'm reading is correct; .um could be headed for a comeback if someone meets the rules to operate it.

Again, according to the ICANN report:

So, to sum up, .um is now unassigned. - Thanks, Hoshie 22:16, 30 January 2007 (UTC)

 * .. but still, http://www.nic.um/ works!

um. 172800 IN      NS      NS.UU.NET. um. 172800 IN      NS      NS.ISI.EDU. um. 172800 IN      NS      VENERA.ISI.EDU.
 * ZorroIII 23:38, 9 February 2007 (UTC)

According to the IANA whois,  is still assigned to the United States Minor Outlying Islands Registry. I think it will remain assigned until it has been deleted from the root (which, as ZorroIII points out, hasn't happened yet). --Zundark 10:20, 10 February 2007 (UTC)

As of April 20th 2008, this domain has been removed from the root zone and so is now offically unnassigned. --Samspin; 14:10, 21 April 2008 (GMT)  — Preceding unsigned comment added by Samspin (talk • contribs) 13:10, 21 April 2008 (UTC)

.yu
Shuldn't .yu be moved into the Phaseout category??? Even though it is stated as active, I don't see why it is anymore less retired than .su  — ChrisDHDRFøřůM •  €D!†$   20:11, 30 April 2007 (UTC)

 * No, it shouldn't. .su is listed by Iana as being phased out. .yu is not. ---80.144.97.3 23:34, 3 June 2007 (UTC)

.dd
Shouldn't there be a link to .dd? I don't know which category it pertains... .dd was available to be assigned but was never indeed. In any case, there is a Wikipedia entry about it, so it should appear linked in the template. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 81.40.24.23 (talk) 00:08, 17 March 2008 (UTC)

.su status
.su is currently listed in the Active category. While this is true, ICAAN wants to get rid of it, do they not? So shouldn't it be listed in phaseout? Just wondering, Mnmazur (talk)
 * no, it's active with no planned phaseout in the visible future. Elk Salmon (talk) 17:49, 19 November 2009 (UTC)

The domain SU exclusively reserved, also as EU. 78.138.171.140 (talk) 05:00, 24 February 2010 (UTC)

Tooltips are useful
I disagree with this and reverted it. (missing paren (talk) 19:11, 22 July 2010 (UTC)

 * The information is useful, if you want to put the country name in parentheses next to each code. Tool-tips are completely useless when the link () element occupies exactly the same screen area (over-riding the title attribute) and marginal in other cases. Screen-shot of your version . The hidden message “Bahamas” does not actually appear. ―cobaltcigs 21:22, 22 July 2010 (UTC)

 * I cannot post a screenshot because tooltips don't appear on screenshots. However, if they aren't useful to you it doesn't mean they aren't useful to people using Firefox. (missing paren (talk) 16:22, 27 July 2010 (UTC)

Mine: User-agent: Mozilla/5.0 (X11; U; Linux i686; en-US; rv:1.9.2.8) Gecko/20100722 Firefox/3.6.8 Are you saying the tool-tips of the outer tag supersede those of inner tag in your browser? I find that difficult to believe. ―cobaltcigs 01:59, 28 July 2010 (UTC)

Format of IDN ccTLDs
If the correct format for any TLD is to write the dot before the TLD, the same rule should apply to the IDN ccTLDs as well. The current format of IDN ccTLDs in PersoArabic script has a few problems: I'm going to fix these. Please contact me if you have any objection. Behnam (talk) 15:18, 3 October 2010 (UTC)
 * has a dot in TLD name;
 * the dot is written after the TLD, not before;
 * and because of that, the wiki links are incorrect.
 * Not sure which ones you refer to, but the practice of adding the dot, is rather problematic and it would be best to completely avoid them. The dots do not actually belong to the domain names, in fact the domain name system doesn't use dots internally at all, only in its external representation. If anywhere the dots for toplevel domains should all be at the end to designate the empty root label. It is an error in the DNS to use a TLD with a leading dot, causing a failed lookup. On Wikipedia the dot is only useful to disambiguate the short names from other common words, such as 'us', 'we', 'at', etc. Furthermore, per WP:MOS articles in foreign-language scripted names must use the transliterated English form, further complicating the usefulness of the dot. Kbrose (talk) 15:31, 3 October 2010 (UTC)
 * Yes, the dots aren't part of the TLDs. But I am inclined to think the general reader of the encyclopedia probably doesn't know that (Dot-com bubble, not Com bubble).  I suggest we would reduce confusion among readers by retaining the dots in this template.  The articles are titled with dots, after all.  Also, keeping the dot much more clearly distinguishes TLDs from country codes.
 * Regarding the order of name listing, WP:MOS and WP:EN say to use the common English form of a name, so I suggest we switch back to Israel. I don't think English-speaking readers are as likely to look under "Y" for Israel as under "I".  What do you think? — Cxw (talk) 16:43, 7 October 2010 (UTC)

Defining “before” and “after” in this context might be helpful. If I understand you and this is just a display issue one probably could overcome it using right-to-left marks, the html dir attribute, etc. as appropriate. See Bi-directional text. ―cobaltcigs 18:47, 3 October 2010 (UTC)
 * The W3C uses dots to the right of masr (مصر.) and the left of r-phi (.рф) on its IDN explanation page (just before the end of the linked section). (Another example of dot to the right of masr)  I think the principle of least astonishment suggests we should follow W3C usage here, even though it isn't technically ideal, as Kbrose noted above.  What do you think? —Cxw (talk) 17:02, 12 October 2010 (UTC)
 * I'm going to make these changes. —Cxw (talk) 13:32, 15 October 2010 (UTC)
 * For completeness, note this discussion at the Manual of Style about non-English characters in article titles for IDNS. —Cxw (talk) 13:11, 22 October 2010 (UTC)

.p2p
Should .p2p be added? http://torrentfreak.com/bittorrent-based-dns-to-counter-us-domain-seizures-101130/ Terrorist96 (talk) 17:22, 30 November 2010 (UTC)

.eu italicized
Is .eu italicized for a reason? Trivialist (talk) 20:44, 12 April 2012 (UTC)

Semi-protected edit request on 20 April 2018
remove .KRD ! 195.66.166.4 (talk) 10:10, 20 April 2018 (UTC)
 * Red question icon with gradient background.svg Not done: it's not clear what changes you want to be made. Please mention the specific changes in a "change X to Y" format and provide a reliable source if appropriate. L293D (☎ • ✎) 14:32, 20 April 2018 (UTC)

Move or remove .krd, not part of ISO 3166-1
The ISO 3166-1 section currently includes .krd, the TLD for the Kurdistan region. While .krd is indeed a top level domain, .krd is not a part of ISO 3166-1 which by definition only includes two-letter country codes. Even the Wikipedia article on ISO 3166-1 respects this definition.

.krd should therefore be moved to the Others section of this template. Rbksr (talk) 12:18, 17 May 2021 (UTC)

.ευ
Not EU. --5.43.86.137 (talk); 11:55, 3 August 2022 (UTC)

"Exotic" TLDs
Similar to the .p2p mentioned above, there are .onion, .i2p, .arpa and recently .alt. Should those get an own section? Cobn3a5 (talk) 20:32, 22 October 2023 (UTC)

title: Template talk:CcTLD


text:
Wikipedia talk:WikiProject Melbourne/Parks and gardens

Of all the things we've touched on with the WikiProject, this area is going to be the one we're going to have to watch in regards to notability.

I think a strong case could be made for the inclusion of most of these. Some I haven't heard of, like Pipemakers.

I also think it would be wise to place a strong caveat on this page suggesting that people only write these if they plan to write a semi-decent article, as a stub is going to be considerably more likely to end up on VFD, and I don't want to end up having to defend it there.

I probably wouldn't suggest doing too many more, either - at least without specific discussion here, as more minor ones are likely to be impossible to defend on VFD. Ambi 15:12, 29 Sep 2004 (UTC)

Is anyone currently working on any draft articles for this? Somebody in the WWW 09:02, 18 Dec 2004 (UTC)

 * I have added Brimbank Park and Westerfolds Park to the list as these are both large suburban parks. Their size, facilities and natural river habitat and bushland within the Melbourne metropolitan area makes them notable. I believe they are both managed by Melbourne Water. These, along with Pipemakers Park, also address the balance between inner city parks and those in outer suburbs. They are important destinations for recreational cyclists and for walkers and picnicers. Maybe in the future the Mullum Mullum Linear Park may be a candidate. We need to be careful not to over focus on the inner city - Melbourne is far more than that. I might attempt to write some of the parks and gardens articles but it may not be for several months --Takver 05:39, 27 Jan 2005 (UTC)

A start
I've started Wattle Park, Melbourne, but it still needs a lot more work. Are we going to do infoboxes for this? Somebody in the WWW 03:25, 5 Jan 2005 (UTC)
 * Looks really good, how do you get the Parks Victoria links? Tim 04:24, 18 October 2005 (UTC)

Fawkner Park
I've just started on the Fawkner Park article, does anyone have any idea if there is a template I can use to set this up? I'm not quite sure whether the content is set out right, I pretty much copied the layout of the Melbourne Botanical Gardens article. Likewise re infoboxes. Tim 04:21, 18 October 2005 (UTC)

CERES
Is this a place for the CERES community environment park? --mordemur 09:12, 19 Jan 2005 (UTC)

 * I would tend to say no. I do not think CERES fits the ordinary definition of a park or garden. What do others think? --Takver 05:39, 27 Jan 2005 (UTC)
 * I agree, it's more of a community centre/facility than a park. But it is fairly related. Tim 04:22, 18 October 2005 (UTC)

Garden City
After having researched and written several of the articles, I can now see why Melbourne is talked about as the Garden City. Early planners like Charles La Trobe were clearly important in setting aside land for parks and gardens which were then designed, landscaped and developed by Clement Hodgkinson and others into a remarkable collection of urban parks and gardens, now noted for their historic, social and aesthetic importance by the National Trust of Australia, Victorian Heritage List, and even the World Heritage List (for the Carlton Gardens).

I have added a number of new parks as a result of my research, due to their heritage importance. At some stage information on the importance of parks and gardens to Melbourne's character will need to be incorporated into the main article on Melbourne. At the moment I don't think any of the articles have a problem with notability, as feared by Ambi --Takver 01:45, 8 Apr 2005 (UTC)

Progress update Jan 31, 2006
I have made an estimate of percentage complete for all Parks articles, which I calculate at 74%. Of 26 articles 8 are complete, 10 are over 80% complete, 5 have up to 60% content and 3 have not been started. Eric. Cuddy Wifter 02:23, 5 February 2006 (UTC)

Progress update April 20, 2006
There are now 31 articles listed in the Parks and Gardens section of the project. With the increase in the number of articles from 26 to 31, and very little content added to existing articles, the percentage complete for all Parks articles has drpped from 74 to 70%. Of 31 articles 9 are complete, 9 are over 80% complete, 9 are between 40 and 70% complete and 4 have not been started. - Cuddy Wifter 04:59, 20 April 2006 (UTC)

Infobox
I've created a infobox for parks and gardens pages. I think it has everything it needs, but please tell me if I've forgotten anything. I'm about to aff it to a page to see how it works. MelbourneParks -- Glennnnn 04:49, 9 July 2006 (UTC)

Progress update August 24, 2006
The number of articles has increased by 5 to 36 and the overall percentage complete is now 64%. Of 36 articles 9 are complete, 10 are over 80% complete, 9 are between 40 and 70% complete, 4 are stubs and 4 have not been started. - Cuddy Wifter 05:08, 24 August 2006 (UTC)

Progress update April 14, 2007
The number of articles is now 41 and the percentage complete is 63%. Of the 41 articles 12 are virtually complete, 7 are over 80% complete, 11 are between 40 and 70% complete, 8 are stubs and 3 have not been started. (see Proposed inclusions for articles not started). All articles have been rated in accordance with the WikiProject Australia/Assessment project. - Cuddy Wifter 23:00, 14 April 2007 (UTC)

Progress update January 20, 2008
The total number of Parks and Garden articles has increased by 4 to 45, and the percentage complete is 65%. The additions to this category are Hedgeley Dene Gardens, Ruffey Lake Park, St Kilda Botanic Gardens and Wilson Botanic Park. Of the 45 articles 12 are virtually complete, 8 are over 80% complete, 14 are between 75% and 40% complete, 8 are stubs and 3 have not been started. Cuddy Wifter (talk) 01:53, 20 January 2008 (UTC)


text:
1998 CONCACAF Gold Cup

The 1998 CONCACAF Gold Cup was the fourth edition of the Gold Cup, the soccer championship for the member associations of CONCACAF, which governs the sport in North America, Central America, and the Caribbean.

The tournament was once again held in the United States, with matches played in Los Angeles, Miami, and Oakland, California. The format of the tournament changed from 1996: it was expanded to ten teams, with four in Group A and three each in Groups B and C. The top team in each group, plus the second place in Group A would advance to the semifinals. Brazil was invited again, and brought their senior team this time. Prior to the tournament, Canada withdrew due to a lack of available players and were replaced by Jamaica.

Jamaica topped Group A over Brazil, who they tied 0–0, in a surprise result for the team. In the semi-finals, the United States beat Brazil, as Preki scored the lone goal and Kasey Keller preserved the clean sheet. The United States could not repeat that performance in front of a pro-Mexican final crowd in Los Angeles. Mexico won their third straight Gold Cup, 1–0, on a Luis Hernández goal.

Qualification
Notes:

Qualification play-off
A playoff between Cuba, the runner-up from the 1996 Caribbean Cup and Saint Kitts and Nevis, the runner-up from the 1997 Caribbean Cup, was held to determine which nation would qualify for the 1998 CONCACAF Gold Cup.

Squads
The 10 national teams involved in the tournament were required to register a squad of 20 players; only players in these squads were eligible to take part in the tournament.

Bracket

Semi-finals

Third place play-off

Goalscorers

Most Valuable Player
Source:

Team of the Tournament
Source:

title: 1998 CONCACAF Gold Cup


text:
Wikipedia:Articles for deletion/Adams constant

Adams constant was proposed for deletion. This page is an archive of the discussion about the proposed deletion. This page is no longer live. Further comments should be made on the article's talk page rather than here so that this page is preserved as an historic record. The result of the debate was DELETE

I love The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy as much as anyone else, but this is bordering on patent nonsense. This "constant" is meaningless and no one has ever used it: 5 unrelated Google hits. Best case, this is simply a non-notable neologism. Plutor 15:21, 29 Sep 2004 (UTC)

Note: The entry's creator Wereon has modified another user's page with a link to his own, and vice versa. Plutor 15:32, 29 Sep 2004 (UTC)
 * Delete -- Chris 73 Talk 15:43, Sep 29, 2004 (UTC)
 * Delete, although a point could be made that it is mostly harmless. -Vina 17:19, 29 Sep 2004 (UTC)
 * Delete. I predict 42 delete votes :O --Improv 18:12, 29 Sep 2004 (UTC)
 * Can this be merged into some page related to The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy? If not, just delete. Andris 18:21, Sep 29, 2004 (UTC)
 * Delete, unheard of neologism. Forty-two is adequately covered at The Answer to Life, the Universe, and Everything. --Goobergunch 19:48, 29 Sep 2004 (UTC)
 * "Although it has been discovered, its use has not yet been found." Oh, okay. Delete but feel free to come back with an actual article once the computer built to divine the use of the constant comes back with an answer. Spatch 20:49, 29 Sep 2004 (UTC)
 * Delete. Neologism. --Yath 23:25, 29 Sep 2004 (UTC)
 * Delete, not known under that name; already covered in 42 (number). But do not redirect because "Adams' constant" is not in actual use. [[User:Dpbsmith|Dpbsmith (talk)]] 01:12, 30 Sep 2004 (UTC)
 * Delete, quick, before someone creates pages for "Adamsogon" and "Adamsohedron" ;-)... Pnot 02:13, 30 Sep 2004 (UTC)
 * Delete. Term is not in use, valid info already found in The Answer to Life, the Universe, and Everything.   — Gwalla | Talk 20:52, 30 Sep 2004 (UTC)
 * Delete. Neologism.   — Kieff | Talk 07:02, Oct 1, 2004 (UTC)
 * BJAODN candidate. Delete. -- Mike Rosoft 21:58, 4 Oct 2004 (UTC)

This page is now preserved as an archive of the debate and, like other '/delete' pages is no longer 'live'. Subsequent comments on the issue, the deletion or on the decision-making process should be placed on the relevant 'live' pages. Please do not edit this page.


text:
Bernard Kouchner

 Bernard Kouchner (born 1 November 1939) is a French politician and doctor. He is the co-founder of Médecins Sans Frontières (MSF) and Médecins du Monde. From 2007 until 2010, he was the French Minister of Foreign and European Affairs in the center-right Fillon government under president Nicolas Sarkozy, although he had been in the past a minister in socialist governments. In 2010, The Jerusalem Post considered Kouchner the 15th most influential Jew in the world. Since 2015 Kouchner is workstream leader for the AMU (Agency for the Modernisation of Ukraine), where he contributes his expertise in healthcare.

Early life
Kouchner was born in Avignon, to a Jewish father and a Protestant mother. Kouchner's paternal grandparents were Russian-born Jews who escaped the pogroms by immigrating to France, but perished decades later in Auschwitz.

Career
Kouchner began his political career as a member of the French Communist Party (PCF), from which he was expelled in 1966 for attempting to overthrow the leadership. On a visit to Cuba in 1964, Kouchner spent the night fishing and drinking with Fidel Castro. In the protests of May 1968, he ran the medical faculty strike committee at the Sorbonne.

Co-Founder of Médecins Sans Frontières and Médecins du Monde
Kouchner worked as a physician for the Red Cross in Biafra in 1968 (during the Nigerian Civil War). His experience as a physician for the Red Cross led him to co-found Médecins Sans Frontières (Doctors Without Borders) in 1971, and then, due to a conflict of opinion with MSF chairman Claude Malhuret, he established Doctors of the World ('Médecins du Monde') in 1980. Kouchner worked as a humanitarian volunteer during the Siege of Naba'a refugee camp in Lebanon in East Beirut during the Lebanese Civil War taking risks that "other foreign aid workers weren't, even worked closely with the Shia cleric Imam Musa al-Sadr".

Career in government
From 1988, Kouchner began his government career in Socialist governments, though he was not always a member of the French Socialist Party. He became "Secrétaire d'état", a lower position in the Cabinet, for Humanitarian Action in 1988 in the Michel Rocard cabinet, then Minister of Health under Pierre Bérégovoy in 1992, during Mitterrand's presidency.

Member of the European Parliament, 1994–1997
Kouchner continued his political career in the European Parliament from 1994 to 1997. During the time, he chaired the Committee on Development and Cooperation and served on the Subcommittee on Human Rights. In addition to his committee assignments, he was a member of the Parliament's delegation for relations with the People's Republic of China.

Together with Judge Andrée Ruffo, Kouchner established the International Bureau for Children's Rights (IBCR), a non-governmental organization based in Montreal, in 1994.

Minister of Health, 1997–1999
When Lionel Jospin became Prime Minister in 1997, Kouchner became Minister of Health for the second time. He held the office until 1999.

UN Representative in Kosovo, 1999–2001
On 15 July 1999, pursuant to Security Council Resolution 1244, UN Secretary General Kofi Annan nominated Kouchner as the second UN Special Representative and Head of the United Nations Interim Administration Mission in Kosovo (UNMIK). During 18 months, he led UN efforts to create a new civil administration and political system replacing the Serbian ones, and to rebuild the economy shattered by the Kosovo War. Thus, municipal councils were elected at local level by the end of 2000. He was replaced on 21 January 2001 by Danish Social Democrat Hans Hækkerup. Later, he was awarded an honorary doctorate by the University of Pristina for his services to Kosovo.

Minister of Health, 2001–2002
Kouchner became at this time Minister of Health for the third time, until the 2002 elections.

Candidate for UN positions
In 2005, Kouchner was a candidate for the position of United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR), but lost the appointment in favor of former Portuguese Prime Minister, António Guterres, who was nominated by then-UN Secretary-General Kofi Annan.

In 2006, Kouchner was also a candidate to become Director-General of the World Health Organization. He lost before the final election round, and (Hong Kong) Chinese candidate Margaret Chan was later elected.

In 2007, the European Commission appointed Kouchner as its representative on the International Independent Group of Eminent Persons (IIGEP), a group of individuals nominated by international donor countries and the government of Sri Lanka, vested with a wide mandate to observe all investigations and inquiries conducted by and on behalf of the Commission of Inquiry into alleged human rights abuses in Sri Lanka.

Minister of Foreign Affairs, 2007–2010
After the election of Nicolas Sarkozy as President of France in 2007, Kouchner was appointed Minister of Foreign Affairs in Prime Minister François Fillon's government, even though Kouchner supported Sarkozy's Socialist rival Ségolène Royal during the campaign. He has since been expelled from the Socialist Party for his acceptance of the post.

Kouchner was dismissed in the November 2010 Fillon cabinet reshuffle.

On the U.S.-led invasion of Iraq
Kouchner is a longtime advocate of humanitarian intervention. In early 2003, he pronounced himself in favour of removing Saddam Hussein as President of Iraq, arguing that interference against dictatorship should be a global priority, and continued to say that now, the focus should be on the actual people themselves, and that they are the only ones who could answer yes or no to war.

In a 4 February 2003 editorial with Antoine Veil in Le Monde, entitled "Neither War Nor Saddam", Kouchner said that he was opposed to the impending War in Iraq, and, as the title suggests, to the remaining in power of Saddam Hussein, the removal of whom should be accomplished via a concerted UN, preferably diplomatic, solution. He later became a fierce critic of how the occupation was subsequently conducted.

On Europe
Kouchner is a well-known pro-European. He supported the ratification of the Lisbon Treaty when it was threatened to be rejected by the Irish in referendum. In the run up to the referendum in the Republic of Ireland on the ratification of the Treaty of Lisbon, Kouchner warned that any "No" vote towards the treaty would be detrimental to Ireland and the Irish economy. He also commented that "It would be very, very awkward if we were not able to count on the Irish, who have often counted on Europe". His comments were dismissed as "unhelpful" by leading Irish politicians, and some media commentators have suggested that his remarks may have galvanised the "No" campaign in the run up to the rejection of the Lisbon Treaty on 13 June 2008.

In 2012, Kouchner co-signed the George Soros call for a strengthening of the European prerogatives as an answer to the eurozone crisis.

Comments on Iran nuclear situation
In September 2007, Kouchner's public comments on the Iranian nuclear situation attracted much attention and controversy. In an interview on 16 September 2007, he said, "We will negotiate until the end. And at the same time we must prepare ourselves [...] for the worst...The worst, it's war". He stated that France was committed to a diplomatic resolution and that no military action was planned, but that an Iranian nuclear weapon would pose "a real danger for the whole world". Iranian officials criticized the comments as "inflammatory". The chief UN nuclear inspector Mohamed ElBaradei, the head of the International Atomic Energy Agency indirectly responded to Kouchner by characterizing talk of attacking Iran as "hype", saying the use of force should only be considered as a last resort and only if authorized by the UN Security Council.

"I would not talk about any use of force", he said. On 18 September 2007, Kouchner attempted to respond to criticisms. In comments to newspaper Le Monde, he stated, "I do not want it to be said that I am a warmonger! [...] My message was a message of peace, of seriousness and of determination. [...] The worst situation would be war. To avoid that, the French attitude is to negotiate, negotiate, negotiate, without fear of being rebuffed, and to work with our European friends on credible sanctions."

Comments on a unity government for Zimbabwe
On 1 July 2008, France assumed the presidency of the Council of the European Union. In his capacity as the French foreign minister, he commented after the African Union summit, that The European Union would only recognise a Zimbabwe unity government headed by Morgan Tsvangirai not Robert Mugabe.

Use of condoms to prevent AIDS in Africa
Kouchner denounced statements by Pope Benedict XVI claiming that condoms promoted AIDS, saying they were "the opposite of tolerance and understanding".

Life after politics
After leaving politics, Kouchner took on a variety of positions, including the following:
 * American University of Kurdistan (AUK), Member of the Board of Trustees
 * Aurora Prize, Member of the Selection Committee (since 2017)
 * Devex, Member of the Board of Advisors
 * Echo Foundation, Member of the International Board of Advisors
 * European Council on Foreign Relations (ECFR), Member
 * Fondation Agir Contre l'Exclusion (FACE), Member of the Board
 * International Campaign for Tibet (ICT), Member of the International Council of Advisors
 * Toledo International Centre for Peace (CITpax), Member of the Advisory Council

Personal life
Kouchner has three children (Julien, Camille and Antoine) by his first wife, Évelyne Pisier, a law professor, and one child, Alexandre, by his present wife Christine Ockrent, a TV anchor and author.

Honours

 * Golden Plate Award of the American Academy of Achievement (2005)
 * Knight of Freedom Award (2011)
 * Victor Gollancz Prize (2014) in recognition of his "lifelong, unwavering commitment to fight crimes against humanity"
 * Honorary Knight Commander of The Most Excellent Order of the British Empire

title: Bernard Kouchner


text:
No. 78 Squadron RAF

No. 78 Squadron of the Royal Air Force, is the squadron number plate of RAF (Unit) Swanwick based at London Area Control Centre, Swanwick, Hampshire. The squadron was allocated the role in early 2021.

Between January 2008 and September 2014 it operated the AgustaWestland Merlin HC3/3A transport helicopter from RAF Benson until 30 September 2014, when the Merlins were transferred to the Commando Helicopter Force of the Royal Navy's Fleet Air Arm at RNAS Yeovilton.

Between May 1986 and December 2007, No. 78 Squadron was based at RAF Mount Pleasant, Falkland Islands, operating Westland Sea King HAR3s and until 2006 the Boeing Chinook HC2.

First World War
No. 78 Squadron was formed as part of the Royal Flying Corps on 1 November 1916 for home defence at Harrietsham and tasked with protecting the southern English coast. It was originally equipped with obsolescent B.E.2 two-seat biplanes, and the closely related B.E.12 single-seater. On the night of 25 September 1917 a Captain Bell of the squadron encountered a German Gotha and attacked it over RAF Joyce Green. John Rawlings, writing in Fighter Squadrons of the Royal Air Force (1969), stated that 'it was believed that he damaged it for one of the German raiders failed to return that night, being lost at sea.' The squadron received Sopwith 1½ Strutters in late 1917, followed by Sopwith Camels in mid-1918. It arrived at Sutton's Farm, under the command of Major Cuthbert Rowden, in September 1917 and was there until December 1919, with a detachment at Biggin Hill. The squadron disbanded on 31 December 1919 following the Armistice.

Reformation and Second World War
During the buildup of the RAF in the period before World War II, No. 78 Squadron was reformed at RAF Boscombe Down on 1 November 1936, twenty-two years after it was first formed, by redesignating a flight of the Handley Page Heyford equipped No. 10 Squadron. The new squadron moved to RAF Dishforth in Yorkshire early in 1937, joining No. 4 Group RAF of RAF Bomber Command. In July 1937 it was equipped with Armstrong Whitworth Whitley night bombers.

On the outbreak of the Second World War, the squadron was designated as a training squadron. It moved to RAF Linton-on-Ouse on 15 October 1939, returning to Dishforth in July when it returned to front-line duties as a night bomber squadron. In February 1941, Whitleys from No. 78 Squadron and No. 51 Squadron, flying from Malta, were used to drop paratroops over southern Italy for Operation Colossus, the first British paratroop operation of the Second World War. In April 1941, the squadron moved to RAF Middleton St. George. In September, the squadron flew its first bombing raid against Berlin. It moved again, to RAF Croft, in October 1941.

In early 1942, the squadron started to receive four-engine Handley Page Halifaxes to replace its Whitleys, with conversion being completed in March that year, and flying its first operation with the Halifax, against Ostend on 29 April 1942. On the night of 30/31 May 1942, No. 78 Squadron contributed 22 Halifaxes to Operation Millennium, the first "1,000 bomber" raid against Cologne.

The squadron moved back to Middleton St. George in June 1942 and to Linton-on-Ouse in September 1942. In June 1943, the squadron moved to RAF Breighton to free up Linton-on Ouse for the Canadian bomber force of No. 6 Group.

In January 1944, the squadron replaced its Merlin-powered Halifax B.IIs with Halifax B.IIIs, powered by Bristol Hercules radial engines which gave greater performance. The squadron continued in the bomber mission until the end of the war in Europe, both against German cities and in direct support of allied ground forces during and after the invasion of France in June 1944. In total, the squadron had dropped 17,000 tonnes of bombs and mines during 6,337 operational sorties, losing 182 aircraft but claiming 28 enemy fighters shot down.

Transport operations (1945–1971)
In May 1945, the squadron was transferred into Transport Command, re-equipping with Douglas Dakota Mk.IVs in July–August 1945 and moving to Cairo in September, flying transport operations around the Middle East and Air-Sea Rescue patrols over the Eastern Mediterranean. It remained active in the post-war period as a transport squadron, converting to Vickers Valetta C.1s in April 1950, before being disbanded at RAF Fayid in Egypt on 30 September 1954.

The squadron was reformed on 15 April 1956 at RAF Khormaksar in Aden, operating Scottish Aviation Pioneer CC.1 single-engine STOL transports. These were replaced by larger, twin-engined, Scottish Aviation Twin Pioneer CC.1s in November 1958. The unit was awarded its squadron standard on 1 April 1962 by Her Majesty Queen Elizabeth II, having reached 25 years of service. In 1965 these were transferred to No. 21 Squadron and the squadron converted to a helicopter unit operating the Wessex. It transferred to RAF Sharjah in 1967, continuing to fly in the army support and Search and Rescue roles until being disbanded on 1 December 1971.

Helicopter operations (1986–2014)
The Squadron reformed on 22 May 1986 when No. 1310 Flight, operating Boeing Chinooks, and the Westland Sea King HAR.3 equipped No. 1564 Flight merged at RAF Mount Pleasant in the Falkland Islands.

From 1988, No. 78 Squadron was based in the Falkland Islands. The squadron operated Westland Sea King HAR.3 and Chinook HC2s.

In December 2007, No. 78 Squadron reverted to its previous identity of No. 1564 Flight and a new No. 78 Squadron stood-up at RAF Benson as part of the Joint Helicopter Command on 28 January 2008, flying the AgustaWestland Merlin HC3 and six new Merlin HC3A helicopters purchased from Denmark. The squadron shared the total fleet of twenty eight RAF Merlin helicopters with No. 28 (AC) Squadron, also based at RAF Benson.

Following the transfer of the squadron's Merlins to 846 Naval Air Squadron of the Fleet Air Arm, No. 78 Squadron was disbanded on 30 September 2014.

On 24 March 2020, the squadron was awarded a battle honour, recognising its role in the War in Iraq between 2003 and 2011.

Military air traffic control (2021 – present)
The squadron number plate was allocated to RAF (Unit) Swanwick during early 2021. The unit is embedded in the civilian London Area Control Centre, based at Swanwick in Hampshire and provides a military air traffic control service across the UK.

Aircraft operated

 * 1916–1917 Royal Aircraft Factory BE.2c and BE.2e
 * 1916–1918 Royal Aircraft Factory BE.12 and BE.12a
 * 1917-1917 Royal Aircraft Factory SE.5a
 * 1917–1918 Sopwith 1½ Strutter
 * 1917-1917 Royal Aircraft Factory FE.2d
 * 1917–1918 Royal Aircraft Factory BE.12b
 * 1918–1919 Sopwith Camel
 * 1918–1919 Sopwith Snipe
 * 1936–1937 Handley Page Heyford III
 * 1937–1939 Armstrong Whitworth Whitley I
 * 1939–1940 Armstrong Whitworth Whitley IVA
 * 1939–1942 Armstrong Whitworth Whitley V
 * 1942–1944 Handley Page Halifax II
 * 1944–1945 Handley Page Halifax III
 * 1945-1945 Handley Page Halifax IV
 * 1945–1950 Douglas Dakota
 * 1950–1954 Vickers Valetta C1
 * 1956–1959 Scottish Aviation Pioneer CC1
 * 1958–1965 Scottish Aviation Twin Pioneer CC1
 * 1965–1971 Westland Wessex HC2
 * 1986–2006 Boeing Chinook HC2
 * 1986–2007 Westland Sea King HAR3
 * 2007–2014 AgustaWestland Merlin HC3/HC3A

title: No. 78 Squadron RAF


text:
Miami River (New York)

The Miami River is a 13.7 mi stream in upstate New York and is a part of the Hudson River watershed. The river's headwaters rise in the Adirondack Mountains at 43.60306°N, -74.50333°W about 10 mi northwest of Speculator and flows southeast for about 3 mi with Pillsbury Mountain on the southwest and Page Mountain to the northeast. It turns sharply southwest for about one mile and then turns sharply east for about a mile, after which it flows mostly northeast for about 8 mi before flowing into Lewey Lake at 43.63278°N, -74.40472°W. Lewey Lake empties into Indian Lake, which is drained by the Indian River, which then flows into the Hudson River approximately 17 mi to the northeast of Lewey Lake.

title: Miami River (New York)


text: User talk:130.65.82.100

title: User talk:130.65.82.100


text:
G-code

G-code (also RS-274) is the most widely used computer numerical control (CNC) and 3D printing programming language. It is used mainly in computer-aided manufacturing to control automated machine tools, as well as for 3D-printer slicer applications. The G stands for geometry. G-code has many variants.

G-code instructions are provided to a machine controller (industrial computer) that tells the motors where to move, how fast to move, and what path to follow. The two most common situations are that, within a machine tool such as a lathe or mill, a cutting tool is moved according to these instructions through a toolpath cutting away material to leave only the finished workpiece and/or an unfinished workpiece is precisely positioned in any of up to nine axes around the three dimensions relative to a toolpath and, either or both can move relative to each other. The same concept also extends to noncutting tools such as forming or burnishing tools, photoplotting, additive methods such as 3D printing, and measuring instruments.

History
The first implementation of a numerical control programming language was developed at the MIT Servomechanisms Laboratory in the 1950s. In the decades that followed, many implementations were developed by numerous organizations, both commercial and noncommercial. Elements of G-code had often been used in these implementations. The first standardized version of G-code used in the United States, RS-274, was published in 1963 by the Electronic Industries Alliance (EIA; then known as Electronic Industries Association). In 1974, EIA approved RS-274-C, which merged RS-273 (variable block for positioning and straight cut) and RS-274-B (variable block for contouring and contouring/positioning). A final revision of RS-274 was approved in 1979, as RS-274-D. In other countries, the standard ISO 6983 (finalized in 1982) is often used, but many European countries use other standards. For example, DIN 66025 is used in Germany, and PN-73M-55256 and PN-93/M-55251 were formerly used in Poland.

During the 1970s through 1990s, many CNC machine tool builders attempted to overcome compatibility difficulties by standardizing on machine tool controllers built by Fanuc. Siemens was another market dominator in CNC controls, especially in Europe. In the 2010s, controller differences and incompatibility are not as troublesome because machining operations are usually developed with CAD/CAM applications that can output the appropriate G-code for a specific machine through a software tool called a post-processor (sometimes shortened to just a "post").

Syntax
G-code began as a limited language that lacked constructs such as loops, conditional operators, and programmer-declared variables with natural-word-including names (or the expressions in which to use them). It was unable to encode logic but was just a way to "connect the dots" where the programmer figured out many of the dots' locations longhand. The latest implementations of G-code include macro language capabilities somewhat closer to a high-level programming language. Additionally, all primary manufacturers (e.g., Fanuc, Siemens, Heidenhain) provide access to programmable logic controller (PLC) data, such as axis positioning data and tool data, via variables used by NC programs. These constructs make it easier to develop automation applications.

Extensions and variations
Extensions and variations have been added independently by control manufacturers and machine tool manufacturers, and operators of a specific controller must be aware of the differences between each manufacturer's product.

One standardized version of G-code, known as BCL (Binary Cutter Language), is used only on very few machines. Developed at MIT, BCL was developed to control CNC machines in terms of straight lines and arcs.

Some CNC machines use "conversational" programming, which is a wizard-like programming mode that either hides G-code or completely bypasses the use of G-code. Some popular examples are Okuma's Advanced One Touch (AOT), Southwestern Industries' ProtoTRAK, Mazak's Mazatrol, Hurco's Ultimax and Winmax, Haas' Intuitive Programming System (IPS), and Mori Seiki's CAPS conversational software.

title: G-code