text:
Talk:Bridgeman Art Library v. Corel Corp.

Other genres?
Robert J Nagle 18:45, 24 February 2007 (UTC) I would like to know if Bridgeman could be applied to other genres like motion pictures. Anyone know? does this apply also to quasi-2D works of art, such as reliefs, mosaics or coins (see also Image_talk:RomanChariot.jpg? dab 15:06, 15 Oct 2004 (UTC)
 * Or what about ancient inscriptions and Michaelangelo's Sistine Chapel ceiling painting?

As far as I know, this doesn't only apply to photographs. In that it applies to anything besides the exact pictures involved in the suit, it applies to exact replicas. I seem to recall a suit over a toy manufacturer that sued another one over a copy of an exact scale replica who lost, and the judge cited this case as a reason.

 * Robert J Nagle: I'm interested in finding out more about this reproduction of 3-D objects issue as relates to copyright. Can you provide more deatils so that I can search for it with some confidence? Thank you, Wordreader (talk) 15:10, 29 May 2012 (UTC)

the specific case
Could someone add some information about the case itself, not only about the general implications of the court's ruling?

 * Yes, exactly. For an article so widely cited by Wikipedia it is sad it is only a stub! --Fastfission 21:28, 13 July 2005 (UTC)
 * Agree Fastfission Scott 13:19, 26 September 2005 (UTC)

 * IANAL, but I think the key problem here is how to add information about the case itself without either violating Westlaw's copyrights, or making a trip to the archives of the presiding court to get at the original documents directly. --Kgf0 20:51, 23 September 2005 (UTC)
 * Westlaw doesn't have copyrights on the text of the cases themselves, which are in the public domain by default (the article we have on them mentions a few of said cases; and the mere compiling of case data would fall under Feist v. Rural). Anyway, there is certainly no problem in using Westlaw to read the case documents and then synthesize them into an article. The text of the decision is actually linked-to from this article. --Fastfission 21:42, 23 September 2005 (UTC)
 * I was not aware of the HyperLaw case detailed on the Westlaw page - thanks for pointing it out. Thanks too for putting another item on my to-do list ;-P  --Kgf0 22:39, 23 September 2005 (UTC)
 * Always my pleasure. ;-) The case itself looks mind-numbingly boring, as I skimmed over the decision, which is probably why nobody has written it up yet. The summary is more interesting than the case itself, which seems to plod over very uninteresting details and differences between UK and US copyright law. --Fastfission 00:44, 24 September 2005 (UTC)

What is the big deal, A decision has been made
And I thought so... Whats the problem? It's easly understood. Does anyone profit here on Wikipedia? I don't think so. It's an exchange of information. Good article and listen up.

Scott 01:43:57, 2005-09-08 (UTC)

 * The big deal is that the case is relevant to the work of Wikipedia. Is that not obvious? --bodnotbod 18:50, 6 November 2005 (UTC)

The article is missing info on the parties involved...
The article doesn't tell me who was claiming they should have copyright and which party were arguing for the right to copy. Perhaps, if you're familiar with the law, you can figure it out from which name comes first. But I'm not familiar, so I can't. --bodnotbod 18:50, 6 November 2005 (UTC)
 * Looking at the transcript, it seems that Bridgeman Art Library was sueing Corel Corp. for making photographs of slides Bridgeman Art Library had made. --Fastfission 21:23, 6 November 2005 (UTC)
 * I tried to make sense of the rather dull transcript about the facts of the case. Hopefully somebody can go over them to make sure I didn't mess anything up too much in either the context or the ruling. --Fastfission 21:15, 7 November 2005 (UTC)
 * It's not that complicated. Bridgeman sold sets of slides of public domain artwork. Corel scanned in the slides, put the results on CD, and shipped the disk as clip art with one of their products. --John Nagle 19:18, 26 February 2006 (PST)

2-D & 3-D art

 * copied from Today's featured article/December 23, 2005

You know, I'm not so sure that File:Joseph Smith first vision stained glass.jpg is really PD. A stained glass window isn't quite 2-D art in the same way that a painting is; there is considerable art in photographing it. An alternative image we could use is File:Joseph Smith receiving golden plates.jpg. Is there any U.S. legal precedent known on whether or not stained glass windows are considered 2-D art for the purposes of Bridgeman Art Library v. Corel Corp.?--Pharos 22:16, 22 December 2005 (UTC)
 * I think there is solid footing that this image is public domain. In Bridgeman, the court said, "The Court of Appeals affirmed a district court order compelling the defendants to cancel a recordation of copyright in the plastic reproduction on the ground that the reproduction was not "original" within the meaning of the 1909 Copyright Act, holding that the requirement of originality applies to reproductions of works of art. Only "a distinguishable variation" -- something beyond technical skill -- will render the reproduction original.". See also the courts reasoning that the change of medium is immaterial. . Finally, the source is clearly identified on commons, and no copyright is asserted by the owner to dispute its public domain status which is notable since pbs claims copyright on many of its other pages.

 * Although, the wikipedia article says that the decision applies only to photos of paintings, I could find no dictum limiting the ruling to paintings. Other than the fact that paintings were at issue int he case, there is no support for such a limited reading. In fact just the opposite is true - relying on this is reasonable (and in fact preferable). FYI Corel had a Religious stained glass Photo CD (see also here) available at the time the decision was made. Trödel• talk 23:16, 22 December 2005 (UTC)

I removed the 2-D comment per the discussion above and because the case is not limited to 2-D art. User:Fastfission restored and rewrote the sentence: "The case would likely not apply to photographs of three-dimensional objects, as the photographic arrangement would plausibly require some creativity." I disagree - this is not supported by the courts ruling. Although, an attorney representing a photographer of three-dimensional objects could make that argument in good faith. For us to draw this conclusion before the question has been presented before a court is pure speculation. Additionally, the court in Bridgeman, relied upon Batlin where the object was 3-D and the new art was also 3-D, so the court makes no 2D/3D distinction that this sentence implies. If I were to sum the holding I would say, "The court ruled that originality must consist more than merely technical skill in determining whether a reproduction of a copyrightable work is itself copyrightable independent of the original work." or something more elegant with the same idea :) Trödel• talk 15:18, 24 December 2005 (UTC)
 * The actual ruling discusses this a number of times though of course does not resolve it in all instances. For example, Most photographs are "original" in one if not more of the three respects set out in the treatise and therefore are copyrightable. Plaintiff's problem here is that it seeks protection for the exception that proves the rule: photographs of existing two-dimensional articles (in this case works of art), each of which reproduces the article in the photographic medium as precisely as technology permits. Its transparencies stand in the same relation to the original works of art as a photocopy stands to a page of typescript, a doodle, or a Michelangelo drawing. It is fairly clear to me that the implication is that a photograph of a three dimensional object would likely not "stand in the same relation" to the original work of art.
 * The use of Batlin only reinforces this: it was a 3-D reproduction of a 3-D object. There is nothing at all in the ruling to imply that a 2-D photograph of a 3-D object would be non-copyrightable, and there is in fact much to the contrary. If one did a 3-D sculpture based on a 2-D photograph, I imagine it would have copyrightable claims as well under this ruling. Anyway I do not think it is much of a stretch to make these interpretations as you are implying.
 * Of course the question of something like stained glass is something very thorny which is not at all addressed in this ruling (whether stained glass is 2-D or 3-D is up for interpretation, in my opinion), and any speculation along those lines would be simply speculation. --Fastfission 16:45, 24 December 2005 (UTC)
 * I agree that it is not directly addressed, and stained glass is very tricky. I think to assert so definatively that there is a bright line between 2-D and 3-D nature of the work does a disservice to the main holding, which is that it is the originality that counts. Additionally, your example that a 3-D sculpture based on a 2-D photograph is not a good one, because, in most cases, the sculpture would have to introduce significant originality into the work as well as interpretation. It is the very opposite problem of the 2D photo of a 3D public domain work - normal photographs of a 3D work require little originality from the photographer, although I can see situations where the photographer could introduce originality and assert copyright. However, I think it is safe to conclude that in general normal photos taken of 3D works absent an assertion of originality would not be copyrightable. For example, if I took pictures of public domain scupltures at a museum, they would, IMO, not be copyrightable by me, because I have no artistic talent. Additiionally, if a case were brought on a stained glass work it would probably hinge on the originality of the photograph not the 2D or 3D nature, i.e. the artistic originality in the way the light shined through, and other original ideas of the artist.
 * We should reword this sentence to make it not so definitive, because the issue is not that simple. Sorry this comemnt is so much like a run-on thought dump Trödel• talk 17:55, 24 December 2005 (UTC)

Application
It must be stressed that this rulling only applies in the United States, for other countries this ruling would be void. So it depends onn where you use the picture. Any views on this? Enlil Ninlil 03:57, 27 February 2006 (UTC)

Corbis has a trick for obtaining copyright in their reproductions of public domain images. They add a DRM watermark to the image, and then they register a copyright on the DRM information. They then claim that using the image with the DRM watermark violates their copyright, and that removing it violates the DMCA.

This has not, as far as I know, been litigated. --Nagle 02:25, 8 March 2006 (UTC)

IANAL, but it seems to me that Bridgeman is a weak foundation for a Wikipedia copyright practice, even in the USA. It's only binding within the US Second Circuit, and presumably could be ignored by courts in the other 47 states. RossPatterson 16:17, 30 June 2007 (UTC)

 * Nobody has challenged Bridgeman vs. Corel in court, and a US museum consortium discouraged Bridgeman from appealing, for fear they'd get an even broader appellate decision on record. The consensus now is that the decision is valid. It follows from Feist Publications v. Rural Telephone Service, the Supreme Court decision that phone books and similar data listings are not copyrightable. "The threshold of originality is low, but it exists". There's some remaining whining from the museum community, but not much.   --John Nagle (talk) 03:30, 22 May 2008 (UTC)

Be wary
I noticed the outdated generic copyright statement for flags state they may be considered under this law. While I expect this is true, what a number of people are forgetting about is that a fair number flags are new and therefore the flag design it self could potentially be copyrighted. If it is, this issue is irrelevant. We can obtain a accurate representation of the flag anywhere but if the flag is copyrighted why does it matter? Nil Einne 13:06, 2 April 2006 (UTC)

william H. Foster painting
I am trying to obtain answers regarding a painting and if it has any value, would this be a sourse to have questions answered?

I live in a rural area outside of Portland, Oregon, so am looking for help in this area. 216.134.165.2 15:33, 30 April 2006 (UTC)

 * This is not a good place to ask about this. You might try the Reference Desk. --Fastfission 15:37, 30 April 2006 (UTC)

GA Review
This is a good start on a GA article, but there are some issues that need to be addressed before it meets GA criteria.
 * Per 1(b) and 1(c) there should not be sections made up of only one or two lines. These should either be expanded or folded into other sections.
 * Per 2(a) and 2(b) if you are using only in-line citations, there should be more citation than currently exists in the article. At the least, the references section should include the mention of one or two umbrella sources that could be assumed by the reader to support the information not directly addressed by an in-line citation.
 * It might eb useful to have some sort of image beyond the seal, although that is not necessary to meet GA standards.

Please consider adressing these concerns and re-submitting for GA. - Mocko13 14:16, 17 February 2007 (UTC)

Example of this Issue In Real Life
I am a poet and I illustrate my poems with images. Usually I do this with my own images taken on a digital camera; however some subject matter does not lend itself to being photographed. For an example, see the following link which is a poem about a succubus/incubus (demon from mediaeval mythology) and which I've illustrated using a sample from a work by a Renaissance painter, courtesy of the Art Renewal Center:

http://www.dimension.entadsl.com/betty/pome.html (this is a link to my own web page)

The Art Renewal Centre is an organisation that routinely makes its money by selling such reproductions, though the way they phrased it was to request a 'donation' for use of the digitised image. The Bridgeman Art Library v. Corel Corp. case would suggest that this case is the reason why the ARC called it a 'donation'. In fact I responded by saying there was no money in poetry web-sites and offering to post a link to their site instead - a proposition to which they did not object.

Now, if I publish a book of my poetry and include these pictures, they may agree to that too. However, if they want payment, then the Bridgeman case would suggest that they can't enforce such a wish in US law. If I publish my book in the UK, would they then be able to pursue me under UK law..? I'd hope to negotiate a similar deal with them before it ever got anywhere near such a theoretical scenario, but there is a wider principle at work here.

Precedents in US courts do also apply as precedents in UK courts, on the basis that 'Common Law' is common to all those nations whose civel legal system is based on the Anglo-Saxon common-law principle, and not on the Roman system found in Continental Europe. Clearly there has been a difference in interpretation of precedents in this area between the US and the UK, so it is a potential minefield.

My question would be - could a US-based art gallery or similar organisation pursue me under say, French law for a book published in France, for use of an image it published on a US web site, when US law gives it no protection against such re-use..?

Andy Morley

 * Wikipedia does not give legal opinions (see our legal disclaimer). For an issue like this, you should ask an attorney.  ShadowHalo 01:56, 24 May 2007 (UTC)

 * Poet Morley: Bridgeman photographed the public domain art works that Corel then copied, repackaged, and sold. Although their photos were not deemed of sufficient originality to copyright protect in the US, Corel still owns those photos, but not an exclusive right to the original images. There was no finding by the court that Bridgeman has to share those photos with anyone upon demand. When Corel wanted the high-quality images, they had to buy the slides, like anybody else. Since producing even slavish reproduction photos costs money and even the very housing and preservation of the original works is quite expensive, it seems reasonable enough that they should be able to charge for access of their photo reproductions. It's a fine line, I know. But, to my knowledge, this ruling didn't address that topic nor did it address an entity's right to charge fees based on the usage of those reproduction photos ($ for private one-time use,$$ for use on 100 t-shirts, $$$ for use in a printed book, $$$$ for use on a website, etc). Just because an art work is in the public domain doesn't mean that you can demand a copy of it on a t-shirt without paying for the t-shirt. If you try to print a lower resolution image in a book, it will look as cheesy as a high-school newsletter; You have to use the best quality images available to you. the quality of your finished product will probably make the investment worthwhile. Maybe you can come to an agreement that doesn't involve an exchange of money, like you did before. And always follow your copyright attorney's advice. Editors, please point out where I have a poor understanding of this subject. Thank you! Wordreader (talk) 16:00, 29 May 2012 (UTC)

Museums Copyright Group
From their website, the Museums Copyright Group seems to be a private lobbing group formed to support the Museum Point Of View on copyright issues. As such they are very much not neutral on this issue, and their opinion, and the opinion of their hired expert, should be viewed through its obvious POV. Now I am no legal expert, and a UK court might at some future date side with the group, but right now the article reads as if this is already the case. As a result I think some wording should be added to clarify the section. Although it may be difficult to do so with also seeming POV. —MJBurrage • TALK  • 21:25, 29 June 2007 (UTC)

 * Agreed -- I also think that presenting an (uncited) reenactment of the case as evidence that UK law was badly applied is giving undue weight to an opposing view. I will remove the section for now--others can put it back. -- Myke Cuthbert (talk) 17:25, 9 July 2007 (UTC)

Appellate court affirms and extends Bridgeman decision
There's a new decision of interest here, Meshwerks vs. Toyota. Meshworks created 3D meshes of Toyota cars. The Tenth Circuit Court of Appeals ruled on June 17, 2008, that plain meshes which simply reflect the geometry of an underlying object are not original works and as such are not copyrightable. The decision references Bridgeman four times, and on page 18, comments favorably on Bridgeman. This decision extends the Bridgeman reasoning into 3D.

The court quotes the language "[T]he law is becoming increasingly clear: one possesses no copyright interest in reproductions . . . when these reproductions do nothing more than accurately convey the underlying image.", and writes "After all, the putative creator who merely shifts the medium in which another’s creation is expressed has not necessarily added anything beyond the expression contained in the original." "In Bridgeman Art Library, the court examined whether color transparencies of public domain works of art were sufficiently original for copyright protection, ultimately holding that, as “exact photographic copies of public domain works of art,” they were not." --John Nagle (talk) 04:56, 22 June 2008 (UTC)

Eastern America Trio Products v. Tang Electronic Corp
There's a reference to "Eastern America Trio Products v. Tang Electronic Corp" in the article. That needs better explanation. Eastern is really a design patent and trade dress case, about a look-alike telephone. The only copyright issue revolved around one company copying images from another company's catalog. It was not asserted that the original images were in the public domain. That ruling contains the line "There is a very broad scope for copyright in photographs, encompassing almost any photograph that reflects more than "slavish copying." That's not really relevant to Bridgeman vs. Corel, which is about "slavish copying". --John Nagle (talk) 16:33, 17 January 2009 (UTC)

Citations needed.
The section on the effect on US Law says, "The case has enabled broad public use and reuse of older artwork in a large variety of contexts. It has also persuaded several important libraries to drop restrictions on the redistribution of images of out-of-copyright manuscripts."

If citations can be supplied for these two sentences, then the ranking of this article could definitely be raised well beyond class=C, especially since the size of the article has almost doubled. Anyone up to the challenge? --DThomsen8 (talk) 13:28, 12 July 2009 (UTC)

 * It's the basis for the presence of tens of thousands of images (maybe hundreds of thousands) on Wikimedia Commons -- look at Commons:Template:PD-Art and the links from there... AnonMoos (talk) 17:26, 12 July 2009 (UTC)

 * I know that, and it is a believable and common sense fact that makes the statement plausible, but there should be at least one source independent of Wikipedia, perhaps in a newspaper. Also, at least one example of an important library that has dropped restrictions on manuscript copies would be welcome, too. Perhaps I am the editor to take up the challenge, but not right now. --DThomsen8 (talk) 19:26, 12 July 2009 (UTC)

Removal of sourced content from section "Effect on U.K. law"
I went through the article history of the removal of this sourced content from the section Effect on U.K. law, In July 2009, the non-applicability of this ruling outside the United States was used in a legal demand sent by lawyers representing the National Portrait Gallery of London to a user of Wikimedia Commons for possible copyright infringement for uploading numerous reproductions of public domain paintings from its collections to the site, contending that skill and labour was required in their restoration. In this case however, both the user and the server that the images were uploaded to, are located within the United States. and found these assertions of their opinion by editors in the history, by virtue of their logged actions with respect to the removal:

Disagree to the removal (in chronological order): Sometimes it is difficult to determine what consensus is on Wikipedia. This does not appear to be one of those times. —Aladdin Sane (talk) 17:05, 26 November 2009 (UTC)
 * User:Catgut
 * User:AnonMoos
 * User:Aladdin Sane
 * User:Arthur Rubin
 * User:RepublicanJacobite

 * I support the removal at present, though not the edit warring. The section cites only to a BBC article that does not mention Bridgeman at all.  Unless you can present a secondary source commenting on the Gallery's mention of Bridgeman in their demand letter, there is no reason to treat it as an incident worthy of note in this article.  postdlf (talk) 17:18, 26 November 2009 (UTC)
 * I'm still waiting for the counter-argument to my statement, or the addition of sources to the article that actually support the section's inclusion. Otherwise, the section should be removed.  postdlf (talk) 02:50, 28 November 2009 (UTC)

 * Sorry, I thought your re-edit had improved the article greatly. The information about the threat made needs to stay in the encyclopedia of  articles.  I personally find it educational both for myself, and for the other  registered editors here.  These are instructions for how not to put your foot in it.

 * However, I can buy the argument, "This isn't the right article for a legal threat that may or may not have mentioned Bridgeman, we need to move the information to another article". What that article is, I haven't a clue.  I could imagine an article (or 1200 or 12,000) on the subject of "legal threats", "chilling effect",  SLAPP, censorship by intimidation, and, and, oh heck, it keeps going on and on.

 * The point being, the only ones with a vested interest in removing the information using a dismissive or contemptuous argument are [redacted] lawyers who get to charge $500/hr to corps for sending out mass C&D letters to well-meaning editors all over the Internet, or who are entirely naive and just fell off the turnip truck (and I note that those who did just fall off the turnip truck aren't reading articles like this one). When we make a mistake, they (the lawyers) make money.  The educational value of keeping these documented tactics documented far outweigh the "it's boring in this article" arguments.

 * No, I edit in the scope of fictional subjects, where editors are constantly adding "boring fancruft" that sometimes needs pruning. This article is not one of those; just the opposite.  Its educational value to the reader is massive.  Any detail related to it belongs here or in a related article (which should then be added to the "See also" section).

 * The fact that any documented threat was made to a Foundation editor such as myself or yourself at all goes past the admittedly limited precedential value in this legal decision, and rises right up to the level of what we're trying to do as editors. This article is used as a reference at WP:MCQ, and issues related to the Wikimedia Foundation projects need to stay here or be moved to close-by article, so we understand, and can easily reference,  how not to make a copyright mistake and get slapped with a C&D or equally obnoxious communication (or even a lawsuit).  (I note that all these things necessitate some form of "outing" which is contrary to our culture.)  The value of having the online encyclopedia at all is mass education online, and this documented case of a threat being made goes straight to the heart of the matter of being online, and what it's like here.

 * Note, contextually my comments are from referenced experience, having been online for well over 20 years.

 * Please note, my references for my opinion are too numerous to count, but for the uninformed reader (who, I note, is who we write these articles for) interested in the history of the subject of "getting in trouble for being online", start at Steve Jackson Games, Inc. v. United States Secret Service (be sure to spend some time at the archive and look around) and then work your way forward for 20 years, because it's an ugly history that has only gotten worse, not better. (Ah, I don't even have to mention RIAA, MPAA, BSA...to make my point.)  I would like to note that as a contrast to this phenomenon of being online, Kurt Denke, the perfect lawyer, wrote the perfect response to a C&D threat that has been reposted at Audioholics, proving there is hope in the distant future, for us.  Someday, when copyright and other IP law catch up to what we're doing here...  In the meantime, WP:MCQ could use a bit more help than it gets currently.

 * In conclusion, I can buy the idea of the information being moved, I cannot buy the idea of it being removed. —Aladdin Sane (talk) 05:08, 28 November 2009 (UTC)

 * Respectfully, your comment did not address my specific points. The statement that Bridgeman was raised in the demand letter is unsourced.  Being unsourced, there's no support for the interpretation of the demand letter as significant to the topic of this article.  So the section should be removed under any interpretation of relevant policy or guidelines (e.g., WP:V, WP:UNDUE, WP:OR).  The general goal on Wikipedia to present information on all topics (not just information on misuse of legal threats or the legal system generally) obviously must be satisfied within the limitations of content quality controls.  As for "moving" it, see National Portrait Gallery copyright conflicts.  I wouldn't object to that being included as a "see also" link in this article.  postdlf (talk) 14:16, 28 November 2009 (UTC)

 * I did see it, now. Thank you for the reference to the proper article for the info.  I wish there were a shortcut called WP:IBUYIT.  I added the reference to the 'See also' section here.  Now I'm comfortable with the removal of the info.  How do we get the others to stop edit-warring so the info can be removed?  —Aladdin Sane (talk) 22:46, 28 November 2009 (UTC)
 * Cross our fingers? But I think people are much less likely to revert registered users than an IP.  My removal of the section referred to this talk page, so hopefully anyone who still has a problem with it will come here to discuss.  Cheers, postdlf (talk) 13:34, 29 November 2009 (UTC)
 * (...and thanks for your understanding and comments, btw.) postdlf (talk) 13:38, 29 November 2009 (UTC)

Thanks. I agree that the legal threat is notable, especially as the EFF has gotten involved. But it's really only tangentially related to Bridgeman Art Library v. Corel Corp. The legal threat mentioned Bridgeman, but only to say that Bridgeman didn't apply. Should the National Portrait Gallery case go to court it might be interesting from the perspective of choice of law in international copyright, but that's not really what Bridgeman is famous for. And right now, there's no court case. There's just a legal threat, which in my IANAL opinion will probably be abandoned now that the EFF is involved. We can't read into who's right and who's wrong from a legal threat. We can't even say what National Portait Gallery thinks the legal situation is from a legal threat. They might have made the threat even though they knew they had little chance of winning a court battle, hoping that the individual would back down without obtaining legal help, and/or they might choose not to persue the case even though they think they have a good chance of winning a court battle, in the hopes that a better case to set a precedent with will come along. 173.170.157.188 (talk) 16:04, 29 November 2009 (UTC)

 * As of the end of 2009, the "legal threat" seems to have been empty. There's no news of any lawsuit that I can find.  It seems the National Portrait Gallery never followed up on their threat to sue. --John Nagle (talk) 07:10, 1 January 2010 (UTC)

Case Precedent
I find the "Subsequent Jurisprudence" section somewhat lacking and a bit misleading, especially as it's detached from the cases which predated Bridgeman.

This reference: Eastern America Trio Products v. Tang Electronic Corp, 54 USPQ2d 1776, 1791 (S.D.N.Y. 2000), where it was ruled that "[t]here is a very broad scope for copyright in photographs, encompassing almost any photograph that reflects more than 'slavish copying'.

Is relatively unimportant insofar as it's a case in the same district as Bridgeman and the quote is merely an echo of Bridgeman at 196, which itself is an echo of the sentiments expressed in Burrow-Giles Lithographic Co. v. Sarony, 111 U.S. 53, 59, 4 S. Ct. 279, 282, 28 L. Ed. 349 (1884), which is really pretty essential precedent for any discussion of mechanical generation of creative work. Burrow-Giles established that photographs fall under copyright protection. And the "slavish copying" quote is from Feist, so I question the authority of referencing a secondary internet source rather than the actual case law.

In addition, Alfred Bell & Co. v. Catalda Fine Arts, Inc. (2nd Cir. 1951), is unmentioned despite addressing a nearly identical issue as Bridgeman and coming from a higher court. Catalda didn’t have access to the original public domain works and instead made copies of Bell’s painstakingly accurate mezzotints. Catalda claimed they weren’t sufficiently original to get copyright protection, and the court disagreed.

This bit: The Bridgeman case has caused great concern among various museums, which receive income from licensing photographic reproductions of objects and works in their collections. Some of them have argued, as above, that the case has limited precedential value, or that (even though it was a federal court case) it has no application outside of the state of New York.

Is misleading and somewhat contradicts the legally accurate intro to the section: "As the decision of a federal district court, Bridgeman is not binding precedent on other federal or state courts, but it has nevertheless been highly influential as persuasive authority, and is widely followed by other federal courts." Which correctly states that district court cases are not binding precedent. the "even though it was a federal court case" parenthetical betrays a lack of understanding for the tiered nature of the US federal court system. I considered going into relative court authority but it seemed to be a digression.

These cases don't really fall under "Subsequent Jurisprudence" insofar as they're precedent (but then again, so is Feist). How would I go about integrating these concepts into the page? — Preceding comment added by Arttechlaw (talk • contribs) 17:03, 20 June 2012 (UTC)
 * That's more like material for a law review article. There's an upcoming session at Wikimania on this issue . That might produce more reliable sources. There's some minor debate in the legal community as to whether Meshwerks went too far, but no later cases. Wikipedia has been relying on Bridgeman vs. Corel for over a decade; there's been one legal threat, and no lawsuits. This seems to be a settled issue. --John Nagle (talk) 22:50, 20 June 2012 (UTC)

 * Relying on a lower court case is rarely a safe thing to do, and the law isn't settled until the Supreme Court or Congress weighs in on it. Adding case precedents would put the issue in more perspective. Were there any developments on this front at the Wikimedia conference? My colleague commented that the only lawyer on all of the law panels was from Israel and didn't know much about US Copyright law. Arttechlaw (talk • contribs) 16:04, 21 July 2012 (UTC)

 * The issue had a slot at Wikimania 2012 but I haven't found any papers or transcripts from that talk. Nobody seems to be writing much about this issue any more. It seems to be regarded as settled. The last big challenge was the National Portrait Gallery and Wikimedia Foundation copyright dispute in 2009.  That ended with a whimper: "Facing a protracted legal battle and negative press, the National Portrait Gallery eventually backed away from their complaint against Coetzee and Wikimedia. The Gallery no longer has any high-res images on their website; fortunately, high-resolution images of the museum’s entire collection are available, however, on Wikimedia." --John Nagle (talk) 18:57, 30 August 2012 (UTC)

so if i take a picture of the Mona Lisa

 * a) with an expensive, pro quality camera that produces a high quality print of the masterpiece. I got not copyright protection for my photo.
 * b) with a lousy camera phone that produces a blurry, cheap image, i got copyright protection because it 's original?

Ebaychatter0 (talk) 06:57, 29 August 2012 (UTC)
 * This isn't the place to debate the decision. Bloodzeed (talk) 17:13, 30 August 2012 (UTC)

UK Intellectual Property Office now follows Bridgeman
"Simply creating a copy of an image won't result in a new copyright in the new item." - UK Intellectual Property Office John Nagle (talk) 05:49, 19 December 2015 (UTC)

Authority of US district courts.
A useful reference on the authority of US district courts.. US District courts do not have binding authority over other district courts. But they have persuasive authority - previous decisions by another district court are regularly cited as precedent. John Nagle (talk) 04:33, 19 September 2016 (UTC)

External links modified
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Image
Can anyone explain the relevance of the image currently used in the infobox? Is it one of the images that was on the contentious CD-ROM at the heart of this case? Or is it just some random (supposedly) out-of-copyright 2-D artwork? Either way, shouldn't its relevance be explained in the caption? And if it is just a random artwork, can't we use an image of one of the artworks that actually was in dispute? GrindtXX (talk) 20:16, 19 January 2019 (UTC)
 * Agree - it's a very interesting image, but I will replace it with the one that launched the case. Johnbod (talk) 18:41, 8 February 2019 (UTC)


text:
Devario

Devario is a genus of fish in the family Cyprinidae native to the rivers and streams of South and Southeast Asia. These fishes have short barbels and many species having vertical or horizontal stripes. These species consume various small, aquatic insects, crustaceans and worms, as well as, in the case of fry, plankton.

Species
Currently, 46 species in this genus are recognized:

 * Devario acrostomus (F. Fang & Kottelat, 1999)
 * Devario acuticephala (Hora, 1921)
 * Devario aequipinnatus (McClelland, 1839) (Giant danio)
 * Devario affinis (Blyth, 1860)
 * Devario annandalei (Chaudhuri, 1908)
 * Devario anomalus Conway, Mayden & Tang, 2009
 * Devario apogon (Chu, 1981)
 * Devario apopyris (F. Fang & Kottelat, 1999)
 * Devario assamensis (Barman, 1984)
 * Devario auropurpureus (Annandale, 1918)
 * Devario browni (Regan, 1907)
 * Devario chrysotaeniatus (Chu, 1981)
 * Devario coxi Kullander, Rahman, Norén & Mollah, 2017
 * Devario deruptotalea Ramananda & Vishwanath, 2014
 * Devario devario (F. Hamilton, 1822) (Bengal danio)
 * Devario fangae Kullander, 2017
 * Devario fangfangae (Kottelat, 2000)
 * Devario fraseri (Hora, 1935) (Fraser's danio)
 * Devario gibber (Kottelat, 2000)
 * Devario horai (Barman, 1983)
 * Devario interruptus (Day, 1870)
 * Devario kakhienensis (J. Anderson, 1879)
 * Devario kysonensis (Nguyễn, Nguyễn & Mùa, 2010)
 * Devario laoensis (Pellegrin & Fang, 1940)
 * Devario leptos (F. Fang & Kottelat, 1999)
 * Devario maetaengensis (F. Fang, 1997) (Fire bar danio)
 * Devario malabaricus (Jerdon, 1849) (Malabar danio)
 * Devario manipurensis (Barman, 1987)
 * Devario memorialis Sudasinghe, Pethiyagoda & Meegaskumbura, 2020 (Aranayake devario)
 * Devario micronema (Bleeker, 1863)
 * Devario monticola Batuwita, de Silva & Udugampala, 2017 (Mountain danio)
 * Devario myitkyinae Kullander, 2017
 * Devario naganensis (Chaudhuri, 1912)
 * Devario neilgherriensis (Day, 1867) (Nilgiri danio)
 * Devario ostreographus (McClelland, 1839)
 * Devario pathirana (Kottelat & Pethiyagoda, 1990) (Barred danio)
 * Devario peninsulae (Smith, 1945)
 * Devario regina (Fowler, 1934) (Queen danio)
 * Devario salmonatus (Kottelat, 2000)
 * Devario shanensis (Hora, 1928) (Hora danio)
 * Devario sondhii (Hora & Mukerji, 1934)
 * Devario spinosus (Day, 1870)
 * Devario strigillifer (Myers, 1924)
 * Devario suvatti (Fowler, 1939)
 * Devario xyrops F. Fang & Kullander, 2009 (Blue moon danio)
 * Devario yuensis (Arunkumar & Tombi Singh, 1998)

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Devario


text:
Talk:Mahadev Desai

Untitled
Don't you think that it looks like that the "early life" part is a copyright violation? see http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mahadev_Desai&diff=prev&oldid=95689088 Yann 21:05, 28 April 2007 (UTC)

Early life
Mahadev Desai was born on 1 January 1892 in the village of Saras in Surat district of Gujarat. His father Haribhai Desai was a teacher in the primary school of Saras. Mahadev's mother Jamnabehn belonged to Dihen, the ancestral place of this Desai clan. She was sharp in intelligence as well as in her nature. The village-folk respected her. Mahadev resembled his father in build and his mother in appearance. He was seven years old when his mother died in 1899.

Haribhai was a straightforward and simple man who would not hesitate to trust anyone readily. He had a good memory, keen intellect and beautiful handwriting. He was fond of Gujarati literature and read books with perseverance. Although he had not studied Sanskrit, he had read Ramayana, Mahabharata, Gita and Upanishads with the help of commentaries and explanations. Very fond of Bhajans, he used to sing them early in the morning.

Mahadev was educated in a manner befitting a brilliant son of a poor but cultured father. He got married to Durgabehn in 1905, when the bridegroom was thirteen years old and the bride twelve. After the marriage, Mahadev passed his matriculation examination the following year, precisely at the age of 14. He stood first in the Surat High School and maintained it in the Matriculation examination. Thereafter, he joined Elphinstone College in January 1907. Haribhai's salary at that time was forty rupees a month; therefore, it was almost impossible for him to meet the cost of Mahadev's higher education. In the circumstances, Mahadev applied for free admission to Gokuldas Tejpal Boarding House and was, fortunate in getting the admission. He unexpectedly got a college scholarship which was earlier gracefully rejected by his friend Vaikunth Lallubhai Mehta in his favour. This enabled him to continue his studies without being a burden on his father.

Mahadev had no inclination for games, indoor or outdoor; nor could he play any. He liked walking. When the Navajivan was stationed at Pankor Naka and Sarangpur Gate in Ahmedabad, he often used to walk from the Sabarmati Ashram to the office and back. He walked briskly, at an average of four miles an hour. In the days of army recruitment in 1918, Mahadev was staying at Hindu Anath Ashram in Nadiad. To get accustomed to long marching practice, he always got up early in the morning and walked a distance of nine miles to and fro. Even after such a tiresome walk of 18 miles, he used to work for Gandhi the whole day. When Gandhi shifted his abode from Wardha to Sevagram, Mahadev continued to live at Maganwadi in Wardha. From there he would start on foot, at noon, for Sevagram, a distance of five and a half miles, and walk back in the evening to his home in Maganwadi. At times he would go and come back, twice a day, in the scorching heat of Central India, covering twenty two miles in a single day. Even after such long walks, he did not put away his routine activity of reading, writing and spinning.

In spite of his lack of interest in games, Mahadev was full of sportsmanship. He overlooked defects in others, but was always ready to see and acquire their virtues. He may be labeled a man of serious temperament but was warmhearted, jovial in nature, and possessed the art of combining fun and humour in a natural and easy way in the midst of serious and important work, so much so that there was always around him an atmosphere of playfulness, mirth and enthusiasm. This quality of his endeared him to all. After passing B.A. degree examination in1910, Mahadev was anxious to study for M. A. But since the subject of his choice was not prescribed that year, he opted for LLB On the other hand, in order not to burden his father, he decided to improve his educational qualification on his own and sought to earn his livelihood by some kind of a job. He got one with the Oriental Translator's office. During this time the Gujarat Forbes Society announced a prize of one thousand rupees for the best Gujarati translation of On compromise written by Lord Morley. Mahadev offered himself for the competition and won the prize. He passed his LLB examination by the end of 1913. His father was then the Head Master of a Women's Training College in Ahmedabad. So Mahadev decided to cast his lot with Ahmedabad, with a view to save establishment expenditure. He stayed for 15 to 18 months in Ahmedabad and when his father retired, Mahadev with the help of his friend Vaikunth L Mehta secured an appointment as inspector in the Central Co-operative Bank of Bombay. But his destiny was fast drawing him into the folds of Gandhi.

In January 1915, Gandhi left South Africa and came back to India. In May 1915, he started his Ashram in a hired bungalow near Kochrab in Ahmedabad. After some time, he issued a draft of objectives and rules for the proposed Ashram and requested his friends and well-wishers, all over the country, to send their opinion and criticism. Responding to that Mahadev and Narahari Parikh offered their criticism jointly and awaited a reply from Gandhi.Shortly thereafter, Gandhi came to speak at a public meeting in Premabhai Hall. Mahadev and Narahari followed Gandhi when he started back for his Ashram. Intercepting him on his way, they inquired if he had received their letter. In reply Gandhi said: "Yes, I have received a letter signed by two persons. Are you the two?" Both replied in affirmative. Thereupon Gandhi took them to the Ashram and explained his ideals and his concept for nearly an hour and a half. When they came out, it had began to drizzle and at the same time something was stirring within their hearts too. Silently they reached Ellis Bridge, and Mahadev broke the silence: "Narahari, I have a mind to go and sit at the feet of this man". "We shall be most blessed if we can do so", replied Naraharibhai. This was their spontaneous response, the first springing up of a desire to join the Ashram. Mohanlal Pandya and Dayaljibhai were the two persons who strengthened their initiation and ultimately led them both into the hands of Gandhi.

Narahari Parikh was the first to join Gandhi's Ashram in Apri11917. Kaka Kalelkar had already started living in the Ashram when Narahari Parikh went there. Mahadev had to make up his mind; nonetheless, he continued to remain in touch with the Ashram and especially with Gandhi. It was during one such meeting in Bombay that Gandhi expressed his mind, in the following words, to Mahadev Desai: It is not without reason that I have asked you to visit me every day. I want you to come and stay with me. I have found in you just the type of young man for whom I have been searching for the last two years. Will you believe me if I tell you that I have got in you the man I wanted-the man to whom I can entrust all my work some day and be at ease, and on whom I can rely with confidence? You have to come to me ...I am confident that you will be useful to me in various ways because of your good qualities. This was a clarion call. It was irresistible. Mahadev could not concentrate his mind on any other thing. The thought of his new master was uppermost in his mind. With a mind to join Gandhi, Mahadev with his wife Durgabehn went to meet Gandhi on 3 November 1917, at Godhra, where Gandhi was attending the first Gujarat Political Conference. After the conference Gandhi was to go straight to Champaran. Gandhi told the couple to accompany him on his tour to Bihar and then finally decide what to do. Mahadevbhai and Durgabehn joined his entourage.

After his visit to Champaran, Mahadev came back to Dihen to consult his father and get his blessings. Narahari Parikh was then with Gandhi in Champaran. They were anxiously awaiting the news of Mahadev's arrival. Mahadev came the next day. That was the beginning of a relationship destined to last for a quarter of a century, till his death on 15 August 1942. Mahadev not only remained with Gandhi but also merged himself completely with his master. He began writing his diary from 13 November 1917 and continued writing it until 14 August 1942 the day before he died. In 1918 he was with Gandhi during the mill workers' strike in Ahmedabad. In 1919 when Gandhi was arrested for the first time in Punjab for breaking a prohibitory order of entering Punjab, Gandhi nominated Mahadev as his heir but Mahadev humbly accepted to follow Hanuman's ideal of serving his master. In 1920 he came in touch with prominent leaders like Chittaranjan Das, Motilal Nehru and Rabindranath Tagore.

In 1921 Gandhi sent Mahadev to Allahabad on Pandit Motilal Nehru's request to run his paper, the Independent. After some time the government arrested Motilal and Jawaharlal. Being unable to bear the editorial castigations, the Government also arrested George Joseph, its second editor, and ordered the paper to pay a security deposit. In the mean time preparations were a foot for the Congress session to be held at Ahmedabad. For this purpose Gandhi was also in Ahmedabad. Deshbandhu Chittaranjan Das, the president elect of the Ahmedabad Congress, was arrested in December 1921. At Allahabad, when the security deposit of the Independent was confiscated. Mahadev wrote: We owe our new avatar to those who "seeing see not, hearing hear not, nor either understand "the whole policy of repression is a deliberate, calculated dive into the abyss of darkness. Our security was forfeited because the article Mrs. Nehru's Message and Let Us Also See It Through were considered to be "interfering with the administration of law and the maintenance of law and order." We may frankly say that we do not recognize any law made by Government..... Truth, Non-violence and other laws of our Ethical Code are sufficient to keep us true to us and to God..... It is likely that this endeavour, like its predecessor, may also be suppressed.....The tyrant is potent enough to arrest everyone of the activities of our mortal frame, but he cannot touch the immortal spirit within. He may force the one to submit to his law, he may not dream of forcing his law on the other. I may be killed which only means, "I change, but I cannot die". With the caption 'I change, but I cannot Die', Mahadevbhai started publishing the paper by printing it on a cyclostyle machine. He too was arrested and convicted for a year's jail term which he passed in Naini, Agra and Lucknow jails respectively.

In his absence, the paper was taken over by Devdas Gandhi. Durgabehn preferred to stay back in Allahabad and help Devdas in running the cyclostyle machine, sticking wrappers on the copies and writing addresses on them. In those days, women rarely did such work, especially in the northern region of India. Madan Mohan Malaviyaji was greatly pleased to see Durgabehn working like this. Mahadev was released from Lucknow jail in 1923. In the same year his father died. In 1924 he took over as editor of Navajivan and also saw his home blessed with a son. From 1925 he started rendering Gandhi's autobiography into English and published it serially in Young India. In 1926 he became the chairman of the executive committee of Satyagraha Ashram, received a prize from the Gujarati Sahitya Parishad for his article in Navajivan, took part in Bardoli Satyagraha along with Sardar Patel in 1928 and then became a member of the inquiry committee. In 1929 he traveled to Burma with Gandhi, courted arrest and imprisonment in 1930 for taking part in the Salt Satyagraha. After his release from jail he accompanied Gandhi to the Round Table Conference, in the company of Mirabehn, Devdas Gandhi and Pyarelal. Mahadev was the only person to accompany Gandhi when the latter had a meeting with King George V.

In 1932, he was again incarcerated with Gandhi and Sardar Patel in Yeravda Central Prison. He was released and re-arrested in 1933 and detained in Belgaum Jail. Here, he wrote Gita According to Gandhi, which was published posthumously. In 1936, Mahadev was invited to preside over a separate session on journalism held under the auspices of Gujarati Sahitya Parishad. His address delivered at the conference is relevant even today.

In 1938 the annual gathering of the Gandhi Seva Sangh was being held at Delang in Orissa. The holy temple of Jagannath was not very far from the place. So Kasturba, Durgabehn, the mother of B G Kher and a couple of other women decided to go to Jagannath Puri to worship Lord Jagannath. This temple was not open to Harijans which meant that the managers of the temple were in favour of untouchability. When Gandhi came to know that the women folk had gone to Jagannath Puri he could not contain his exasperation. He sternly rebuked Mahadevbhai, that he could have at least convinced Durgabehn, that the temple which believed in segregation was not a worthy place for Darshan. Mahadev could have defended himself but he chose not to. Next day, in the early hours of the morning, at prayer time, Mahadev went to Gandhi, wept remorsefully and in a not addressed to him, offered to resign. It increased the anguish of Gandhi who wrote back: What a gift in the morning? Even before the first mistake is rectified other mistakes follow one after the other! I would suffer thousands of mistakes rather than bear the separation. It is better to die at the hands of a devotee…so there is no reason for you to go…except cowardice there is nothing in your letter. If you leave me, do you think Pyarelal would live here? If Pyarelal goes would Sushila stay with me?...This is not the time to cry or to go on fast…etc. Mahadev knew that to live with Gandhi was never an easy task. One always felt being on the mouth of a volcano. Yet Mahadevbhai adjusted his bearing so well that he became indispensable to Gandhi.

In 1939, he played an important role during the agitations in Mysore and Rajkot. In 1940, he went to Bengal and Punjab to seek release of revolutionaries who were in prison and in 1941 to create peace and amity after the communal riots of Ahmedabad. On 9 August 1942, Mahadev was arrested and put in Aga Khan Palace along with Mahatma Gandhi, Sarojini Naidu and Mirabehn, to be followed by Kasturba and Dr Sushila Nayyar. On 15 August, Mahadev did not get up as he was wont to at four o'clock for the morning prayer. He got up after the prayer was over. He prepared juice for Gandhi and toasts and tea for the rest of the inmates. He looked cheerful. Sarojini Naidu saw him shaving with full involvement. She thought it unusual for Mahadev, not because the InspectorGeneral of Prisons was to visit them that day. After a little chit-chat Sushila Nayyar went to massage Gandhi. Sounds of laughter could be heard from the room of Sarojini Naidu. Suddenly someone shouted "Sushila, come soon!" Sushila thought that it might be the Inspector General eagerly waiting to meet everyone. Therefore she did. not respond to it. Then she heard her name called out again and at the same time Kasturba rushed to them, panting: "Something is wrong with Mahadev." Sushila rushed to Sarojini's room and found Mahadev lying unconscious. She checked his pulse for blood-pressure. But his heart had ceased to throb. Gandhi who came soon after stood dumbfounded. He stared at Mahadev without blinking. He could not believe it. Mahadev was no more! The government, in the beginning, was reluctant to give the dead body to friends and relatives for cremation. But Gandhi was firm. He said: "How can I give the dead body to strangers? Can a father ever think of giving the dead body of his son to unknown persons?" The government had to ultimately concede to Gandhi demand. They allowed Mahadev's cremation in the open ground of Aga Khan Palace. Breaking the news of his death to his family Gandhi.

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title: Talk:Mahadev Desai


text: Category:Guatemalan writers

title: Category:Guatemalan writers


text:
Talk:Great Fire of Rome

Wiki Education Foundation-supported course assignment
This article was the subject of a Wiki Education Foundation-supported course assignment, between 24 September 2020 and 11 December 2020. Further details are available on the course page. Student editor(s): GenevieveHis313. Peer reviewers: Anctrome3132020, Caligulaforprez2024.

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This article was the subject of a Wiki Education Foundation-supported course assignment, between 6 January 2019 and 19 April 2019. Further details are available on the course page. Student editor(s): Loganschock, Tschrank00. Peer reviewers: Loganschock, Tschrank00.

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Literature
Please, do not forget the novel The Roman by Mika Waltari. Much more precise than Sinkiewicz and without antineronic propaganda. --Cabanero (talk) 11:02, 28 September 2022 (UTC)

title: Talk:Great Fire of Rome


text:
Hess (crater)

Hess is a lunar impact crater that lies in the southern hemisphere on the far side of the Moon. The crater rim has been worn by subsequent impacts, leaving a low, eroded outer wall. The flat interior has been resurfaced by lava flows and is free of significant impacts. This floor has a slightly darker albedo than the surrounding terrain.

The crater Boyle is nearly attached to the northeastern rim of Hess, and Abbe lies to the south. To the west is the large walled plain Poincaré, and Hess is located at the eastern edge of the crater's deeply eroded outer rim. The satellite crater Hess Z is partly overlaid by the northern rim of Hess. The small crater Hess M joins the south-southwest rim of Hess to the northwest rim of Abbe.

Satellite craters
By convention these features are identified on lunar maps by placing the letter on the side of the crater midpoint that is closest to Hess.

title: Hess (crater)


text:
Equus

Equus may refer to:

 * Equus (genus), a genus of animals including horses, donkeys and zebras
 * Equus (play), a play by Peter Shaffer
 * Equus (film), a film adaptation of the Peter Shaffer play
 * Equus (comics), a comic book character; an opponent of Superman
 * Equus (magazine), American monthly lifestyle magazine for horse enthusiasts

Music

 * "Equus", a composition for concert band by Eric Whitacre
 * "Equus", a song by Blonde Redhead from Misery Is a Butterfly
 * "Equus", a song by the Cherry Poppin' Daddies off their 1994 album Rapid City Muscle Car

Transportation

 * Equus Automotive, an American muscle car producer
 * Hyundai Equus, Korean automobile model built by Hyundai Motor Company
 * Vauxhall Equus, 1978 concept car

title: Equus


text: User talk:206.130.179.100

title: User talk:206.130.179.100


text:
Aginskoye, Zabaykalsky Krai

Aginskoye (Аги́нское; Ага, Aga; Аг, Ag) is an urban locality (an urban-type settlement) and the administrative center of Agin-Buryat Okrug and of Aginsky District in Zabaykalsky Krai, Russia. It is located in the valley of the Aga River (the Amur basin). Population:   7,200 (1967).

History
It was founded in 1781 or, according to other sources, in 1811.

Administrative and municipal status
Within the framework of administrative divisions, Aginskoye serves as the administrative center of Aginsky District and is subordinated to it. As a municipal division, the urban-type settlement of Aginskoye together with one rural locality in Aginsky District is incorporated as Aginskoye Urban Okrug.

title: Aginskoye, Zabaykalsky Krai


text:
Benjamin Frankel

Benjamin Frankel (31 January 1906 – 12 February 1973) was a British composer. His best known pieces include a cycle of five string quartets, eight symphonies, and concertos for violin and viola. He was also notable for writing over 100 film scores and working as a big band arranger in the 1930s. During the last 15 years of his life, Frankel also developed his own style of 12-note composition which retained contact with tonality.

Biography
Frankel was born in London on 31 January 1906, the son of Polish Jewish parents. He began to learn the violin at an early age, showing remarkable talent; at age 14, his piano-playing gifts attracted the attention of the American pianist and teacher Victor Benham (1867-1936) who persuaded his parents to let him study music full-time.

He spent six months in Germany in 1922, then returned to London, where he won a scholarship from the Worshipful Company of Musicians and attempted his first serious compositions while earning his income as a jazz violinist, pianist and arranger. Known then as Ben Frankel, his jazz work can be heard on recordings by Fred Elizalde's band. He also played violin with Carroll Gibbons and the Savoy Hotel Orpheans.

By the early 1930s, Frankel was in demand as an arranger and musical director in London, working with several dance bands. He wrote several popular dance band arrangements for Henry Hall's BBC Dance Orchestra, including "Learn To Croon", "Don't Blame Me", "Weep No More My Baby", "April in Paris" and "In Town Tonight". He wrote many arrangements and scores for theatre and film music but gave up theatre work in 1944.

He did, however, retain an interest in film composing until his death, writing over 100 scores. These included The Seventh Veil (1945), The Man in the White Suit (1951), The Importance of Being Earnest (1952), The Night of the Iguana (1964), and Battle of the Bulge (1965), as well as the first British (partly) serial film score, to The Curse of the Werewolf (1961).

From 1941 until 1952 he was a member of the Communist Party of Great Britain, but resigned his membership in protest against the Slánský trial.

During and after the war Frankel started to become widely known as a composer of works in traditional classical form. One of the first to gain attention was the Sonata No 1 for solo violin of 1942, which was dedicated to the Austrian-born violinist and viola player Max Rostal. Rostal made the premiere recording in 1944.

He went on to perform Frankel's most famous work, the Violin Concerto "in memory of 'the six million ' " (a reference to the Jews murdered during the Holocaust), commissioned for the 1951 Festival of Britain, and was the soloist in the Viola Concerto for BBC radio broadcasts in 1970 and 1972. The core of Frankel's output are the eight symphonies (composed between 1958 and 1971) and the five string quartets (composed between 1945 and 1965). His friend Hans Keller was a champion of his concert music and did much to promote its performance at home and abroad.

In 1955 Frankel succeeded Edward Clark as Chairman of the International Society for Contemporary Music (ISCM). That year issues arose about certain expenses Clark had claimed while he was chairman. Clark alleged that Frankel had accused him of fraud. Frankel denied he had ever made such a claim, but nevertheless said that such a claim, had he made it, would have been true. This amounted to slander as far as Clark was concerned, and he sued Frankel in the High Court, calling the composers Christian Darnton and Bernard Stevens as witnesses. While Frankel's alleged slander itself was unproven, the jury exonerated Clark of any wrongdoing and he felt this meant his integrity was intact. Clark's wife Elisabeth Lutyens ever after referred to Frankel as "composer and ex-colleague".

Born and raised in Hammersmith, Frankel lived in London for many years, most notably at 17 Soho Square between 1953 and 1957, where he was the host of a circle of artists including the poet Cecil Day Lewis and film director Anthony Asquith. From 1952 there was also a house in Sussex, Rodmell Hiil, Rodmell, near Lewes. The writer Leonard Woolf lived next door. In 1958 he re-located to Locarno in Switzerland. He married three times: first in 1932 to Joyce Stanmore Rayner (divorced 1944), then to Phyllis Anna Leat (1944 until her death in 1967), and finally to Xenia Hamilton-Kennaway in 1972, not long before his death. There were two sons and one daughter by the first marriage.

Frankel died in London on 12 February 1973 while working on the three-act opera Marching Song and a ninth symphony, which had been commissioned by the BBC. When he died, Marching Song had been completed in short score; it was orchestrated by Buxton Orr, a composer who had studied with Frankel and whose advocacy has been at least partly responsible for the revival of interest in his works.

Posthumous reputation
In the twenty years following his death, Frankel's works were almost completely neglected. Thea King's landmark recording of the Clarinet Quintet with the Britten Quartet released in 1991 was the first commercial recording of his music since his death. A major turning point, however, came in the mid-1990s when German record company CPO (Classic Produktion Osnabrück, since bought by JPC) decided to partner with the Australian Broadcasting Corporation to record Frankel's complete oeuvre. This allowed for the first time an appraisal of his output. CPO recorded all the symphonies (conducted by Werner Andreas Albert) and all the string quartets (by the Nomos Quartet), and in 1998 issued the world premiere recordings of the Violin Concerto, Viola Concerto and Serenata Concertante. With recordings now available, BBC Radio 3 featured him as the Composer of the Week, first in 1996 and again in 2006.

Selected works
Symphonies
 * Symphony No. 1 – Op. 33, three movements (1958)
 * Symphony No. 2 – Op. 38, three movements (1962)
 * Symphony No. 3 – Op. 40, one movement (1964)
 * Symphony No. 4 – Op. 44, three movements (1966)
 * Symphony No. 5 – Op. 46, three movements (1967)
 * Symphony No. 6 – Op. 49, five movements (1969)
 * Symphony No. 7 – Op. 50, four movements (1970)
 * Symphony No. 8 – Op. 53, four movements (1971)

Concertos
 * Violin Concerto To the memory of the six million, Op. 24, four movements (1951)
 * Serenata Concertante for piano trio and orchestra, one movement (in parts), Op. 37 (1960)
 * Viola Concerto, Op. 45, three movements (1967)

Orchestral
 * Three Sketches for Strings (originally for quartet), Op. 2 (1920s?)
 * Solemn Speech and Discussion, Op. 11
 * Youth Music, four pieces for small orchestra, Op. 12
 * May Day (a panorama, prelude for orchestra), Op. 22 (dedicated to Hugo Rignold) (1948 – 27 December 1949)
 * Mephistopheles' Serenade and Dance, Op. 25 (1952)
 * Shakespeare Overture, Op. 29
 * Overture to a Ceremony, Op. 51

Chamber
 * Three Piano Studies, Op. 1 (1926)
 * String Trio no. 1, Op. 3
 * Sonata for Viola Solo, Op. 7 (early 1930s)
 * Trio for Clarinet, Cello and Piano, Op. 10, three movements (1940)
 * Violin Solo Sonata No. 1, Op. 13 (before 1943)
 * String Quartet No. 1, Op. 14, four movements (ca. 1944 – 1945)
 * String Quartet No. 2, Op. 15, five movements (1944)
 * String Quartet No. 3, Op. 18, five movements (ca. 1947)
 * Early Morning Music, trio for oboe, clarinet and bassoon, three movements (1948)
 * String Quartet No. 4, Op. 21, four movements (ca. 1949)
 * Quartet for Piano and Strings, Op. 26, three movements (issued ca. 1962 but written during the 1950s)
 * Quintet for Clarinet and Strings, Op. 28, three movements (1956)
 * Inventions in Major/Minor Modes, cello and piano, Op. 31
 * String Trio No. 2, Op. 34, three movements (c. 1960)
 * Cinque Pezzi Notturni for eleven instruments, Op. 35, five pieces (1959)
 * Violin Solo Sonata No. 2, Op. 39, three movements (1962)
 * Pezzi pianissimi for clarinet cello and piano, Op. 41, four pieces (1964)
 * String Quartet No. 5, Op. 43, five movements (1965)

Vocal
 * The Aftermath, Op. 17, song cycle with orchestra (1947), words Robert Nichols
 * Eight songs, Op. 32 (1959)

Film scores

 * Radio Parade of 1935 (1935)
 * No Monkey Business (1935)
 * Music Hath Charms (1935)
 * Love in Exile (1936)
 * Public Nuisance No. 1 (1936)
 * Flight from Folly (1945)
 * The Seventh Veil (1945)
 * The Years Between (1946)
 * Dear Murderer (1947)
 * Night Beat (1947)
 * Bond Street (1948)
 * Daybreak (1948)
 * London Belongs to Me (1948)
 * Trottie True (1948)
 * The Chiltern Hundreds (1949)
 * Give Us This Day (1949)
 * Double Confession (1950)
 * So Long at the Fair (1950)
 * Night and the City, UK version (1950)
 * The Clouded Yellow (1951)
 * The Man in the White Suit (1951)
 * Appointment with Venus (1951)
 * Mr. Denning Drives North (1951)
 * The Importance of Being Earnest (1952)
 * The Net (1953)
 * Always a Bride (1953)
 * Malaga (1954)
 * The Young Lovers (1954)
 * Up to His Neck (1954)
 * Aunt Clara (1954)
 * A Kid for Two Farthings (1955)
 * Storm Over the Nile (1955)
 * The End of the Affair (1955)
 * Footsteps in the Fog (1955)
 * The Prisoner (1955)
 * The Iron Petticoat (1956)
 * Brothers in Law (1957)
 * Happy Is the Bride (1958)
 * Orders to Kill (1958)
 * I Only Arsked! (1958)
 * Libel (1959)
 * Summer of the Seventeenth Doll (1959)
 * Surprise Package (1960)
 * The Curse of the Werewolf (1961)
 * Guns of Darkness (1962)
 * The Old Dark House (1963)
 * The Night of the Iguana (1964)
 * Battle of the Bulge (1965)

title: Benjamin Frankel


text:
User:GK/Diacriticals

modified from User:DopefishJustin

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title: User:GK/Diacriticals


text:
Equus (genus)

Equus is a genus of mammals in the family Equidae, which includes horses, asses, and zebras. Within the Equidae, Equus is the only recognized extant genus, comprising seven living species. Like Equidae more broadly, Equus has numerous extinct species known only from fossils. The genus originated in North America and dispersed into the Old World and South America during the Early and Middle Pleistocene. Equines are odd-toed ungulates with slender legs, long heads, relatively long necks, manes (erect in most subspecies), and long tails. All species are herbivorous, and mostly grazers, with simpler digestive systems than ruminants but able to subsist on lower-quality vegetation.

While the domestic horse and donkey (along with their feral descendants) exist worldwide, wild equine populations are limited to Africa and Asia. Wild equine social systems are in two forms; a harem system with tight-knit groups consisting of one adult male or stallion/jackass, several females or mares/jennets, and their young or foals; and a territorial system where males establish territories with resources that attract females, which associate very fluidly. In both systems, females take care of their offspring, but males may play a role as well. Equines communicate with each other both visually and vocally. Human activities have threatened wild equine populations.

Etymology
The word equus is Latin for "horse" and is cognate with the Greek ἵππος (hippos, "horse") and Mycenaean Greek i-qo, the earliest attested variant of the Greek word, written in Linear B syllabic script. Compare the alternative development of the Proto-Greek labiovelar in Ionic ἴκκος (ikkos).

Taxonomic and evolutionary history
The genus Equus was first described by Carl Linnaeus in 1758. It is the only recognized extant genus in the family Equidae. The first equids were small, dog-sized mammals (e.g. Eohippus) adapted for browsing on shrubs during the Eocene, around 54 million years ago (Mya). These animals had three toes on the hind feet and four on the front feet with small hooves in place of claws, but also had soft pads. Equids developed into larger, three-toed animals (e.g. Mesohippus) during the Oligocene and Miocene. From there, the side toes became progressively smaller through the Pleistocene until the emergence of the single-toed Equus.

The genus Equus, which includes all extant equines, is believed to have evolved from Dinohippus, via the intermediate form Plesippus. One of the oldest species is Equus simplicidens, described as zebra-like with a donkey-like head shape. The oldest material to date was found in Idaho, USA. The genus appears to have spread quickly into the Old World, with the similarly aged E. livenzovensis documented from western Europe and Russia. Molecular phylogenies indicate that the most recent common ancestor of all modern equines (members of the genus Equus) lived ~5.6 (3.9-7.8) Mya. Direct paleogenomic sequencing of a 700,000-year-old middle Pleistocene horse metapodial bone from Canada implies a more recent 4.07 Mya for the most recent common ancestor within the range of 4.0 to 4.5 Mya.

Mitochondrial evidence supports the division of Equus species into noncaballoid (which includes zebras and asses) and caballoids or "true horses" (which includes E. caballus and E. ferus przewalskii, alternatively E. przewalskii). Of the extant equine species, the lineage of the asses may have diverged first, possibly as soon as Equus reached the Old World. Zebras appear to be monophyletic and differentiated in Africa, where they are endemic. Members of the subgenus Sussemionus were abundant during the Early and Middle Pleistocene of North America and Afro-Eurasia, but only a single species, Equus ovodovi survived into the Late Pleistocene and Holocene in south Siberia and China, with the youngest remains from China dating to around 3500 BP (1500 BC), during the Shang dynasty. Genetic data from E. ovodovi has placed the Sussemionus lineage as closer to zebras and asses than to caballine horses.

Molecular dating indicates the caballoid lineage diverged from the noncaballoids 4 Mya. Genetic results suggest that all North American fossils of caballine equines, as well as South American fossils traditionally placed in the subgenus E. (Amerhippus), belong to E. ferus. Remains attributed to a variety of species and lumped together as New World stilt-legged horses (including E. francisci, E. tau, and E. quinni) probably all belong to a second species that was endemic to North America. This was confirmed in a genetic study done in 2017, which subsumed all the specimens into the species E. francisci which was placed outside all extant horse species in the new genus Haringtonhippus , although its placement as a separate genus was subsequently questioned. A separate genus of horse, Hippidion existed in South America. The possible causes of the extinction of horses in the Americas (about 12,000 years ago) have been a matter of debate. Hypotheses include climatic change and overexploitation by newly arrived humans. Horses only returned to the American mainland with the arrival of the conquistadores in 1519.

Prehistoric species
Many extinct prehistoric species of Equus have been described. The validity of some of these species is questionable and a matter of debate. For example, Equus niobrarensis is likely synonymous with Equus scotti, while Equus alaskae is most likely the same species as Equus lambei, which itself may be a North American form of the living Equus przewalskii.

DNA studies on American horse remains found frozen into permafrost have shown that several of the supposed American species, and the European Equus ferus, are actually one highly-variable widespread species. , as if the evolutionary process of speciation was persistently being frustrated by large herds of the horses moving long distances and mixing, carrying their genes about with them.

 * American species
 * Equus alaskae - Alaskan horse
 * Equus conversidens - Mexican horse
 * Equus fraternus
 * Equus francisi - now placed in a separate genus, Haringtonhippus
 * Equus giganteus - Giant horse
 * Equus lambei - Yukon horse
 * Equus neogeus - often placed in a separate genus, Amerhippus
 * Equus niobrarensis - Niobrara horse
 * Equus occidentalis - Western horse
 * Equus scotti - Scott's horse
 * Equus semiplicatus
 * Equus simplicidens - Hagerman horse

 * Eurasian species
 * Equus altidens
 * Equus dalianensis
 * Equus lenensis - Siberian horse
 * Equus latipes
 * Equus namadicus
 * Equus ovodovi - Ovodov's horse
 * Equus yunnanensis - Yunnan horse
 * Equus stenonis - Stenon zebra
 * Equus sivalensis - Indian horse

 * African species
 * Equus algericus
 * Equus capensis - Giant zebra
 * Equus mauritanicus - Saharan zebra

Domestic species

 * Equus caballus - Domestic horse
 * Equus asinus - Domestic donkey

Hybrids
Equine species can crossbreed with each other. The most common hybrid is the mule, a cross between a male donkey and a female horse. With rare exceptions, these hybrids are sterile and cannot reproduce. A related hybrid, a hinny, is a cross between a male horse and a female donkey. Other hybrids include the zorse, a cross between a zebra and a horse and a zonkey or zedonk, a hybrid of a zebra and a donkey. In areas where Grévy's zebras are sympatric with plains zebras, fertile hybrids do occur. Ancient DNA identifies the Bronze Age kunga as a cross between the Syrian wild ass and the donkey.

Physical characteristics
Equines have significant differences in size, though all are characterized by long heads and necks. Their slender legs support their weight on one digit (which evolved from the middle digits). Grévy's zebra is the largest wild species, standing up to and weighing up to 405 kg. Domesticated horses have a wider range of sizes. Heavy or draft horses are usually at least high and can be as tall as  and weigh from about 700 to 1000 kg. Some miniature horses are no taller than 30 in in adulthood. Sexual dimorphism is limited in equines. The penis of the male is vascular and lacks a bone (baculum). Equines are adapted for running and traveling over long distances. Their dentition is adapted for grazing; they have large incisors that clip grass blades and highly crowned, ridged molars well suited for grinding. Males have spade-shaped canines ("tushes"), which can be used as weapons in fighting. Equines have fairly good senses, particularly their eyesight. Their moderately long, erect ears are movable and can locate the source of a sound.

A dun-colored coat with primitive markings that include a dorsal stripe and often leg striping and transverse shoulder stripes reflect the wildtype coat and are observed in most wild extant equine species. Only the mountain zebra lacks a dorsal stripe. In domestic horses, dun color and primitive markings exist in some animals across many breeds. The purpose of the bold black-and-white striping of zebras has been a subject of debate among biologists for over a century, but 2014 evidence supports the theory that they are a form of protection from biting flies. These insects appear to be less attracted to striped coats, and compared to other wild equines, zebras live in areas with the highest fly activity. With the exception of the domestic horses, which have long manes that lay over the neck and long tail hair growing from the top of the tailhead or dock, most equines have erect manes and long tails ending in a tuft of hair. The coats of some equine species undergo shedding in certain parts of their range and are thick in the winter.

Ecology and daily activities
Extant wild equines have scattered ranges across Africa and Asia. The plains zebra lives in lush grasslands and savannas of Eastern and Southern Africa, while the mountain zebra inhabits mountainous areas of southwest Africa. The other equine species tend to occupy more arid environments with more scattered vegetation. Grévy's zebra is found in thorny scrubland of East Africa, while the African wild ass inhabits rocky deserts of North Africa. The two Asian wild ass species live in the dry deserts of the Near East and Central Asia and Przwelski's wild horse's habitat is the deserts of Mongolia. Only the range of the plains and Grévy's zebras overlap. In addition to wild populations, domesticated horses and donkeys are widespread due to humans. In certain parts of the world, populations of feral horses and feral donkeys exist, which are descended from domesticated animals that were released or escaped into the wild.

Equines are monogastric hindgut fermenters. They prefer to eat grasses and sedges, but they, particularly asses, may also consume bark, leaves, buds, fruits, and roots if their favored foods are scarce. Compared to ruminants, they have a simpler and less efficient digestive system. Nevertheless, they can subsist on lower-quality vegetation. After food is passed through the stomach, it enters the sac-like cecum, where cellulose is broken down by micro-organisms. Fermentation is quicker in equines than in ruminants—30–45 hours for a horse compared to 70–100 hours for cattle. Equines may spend 60–80% of their time feeding, depending on the availability and quality of vegetation. In the African savannas, the plains zebra is a pioneer grazer, mowing down the upper, less nutritious grass canopy and preparing the way for more specialized grazers such as blue wildebeests and Thomson's gazelles, which depend on shorter and more nutritious grasses below.

Wild equines may spend seven hours a day sleeping. During the day, they sleep standing up, while at night they lie down. They regularly rub against trees, rocks, and other objects and roll in around in dust for protection against flies and irritation. Except the mountain zebra, wild equines can roll over completely.

Social behavior
Equines are social animals with two basic social structures.

Horses, plains zebras, and mountain zebras live in stable, closed family groups or harems consisting of one adult male, several females, and their offspring. These groups have their own home ranges, which overlap and they tend to be nomadic. The stability of the group remains even when the family stallion dies or is displaced. Plains zebra groups gather into large herds and may create temporarily stable subgroups within a herd, allowing individuals to interact with those outside their group. Among harem-holding species, this behavior has only otherwise been observed in primates such as the gelada and the hamadryas baboon. Females of harem species benefit as males give them more time for feeding, protection for their young, and protection from predators and harassment by outside males. Among females in a harem, a linear dominance hierarchy exists based on the time at which they join the group. Harems travel in a consistent filing order with the high-ranking mares and their offspring leading the groups followed by the next-highest ranking mare and her offspring, and so on. The family stallion takes up the rear. Social grooming (which involves individuals rubbing their heads against each other and nipping with the incisors and lips) is important for easing aggression and maintaining social bonds and status. Young of both sexes leave their natal groups as they mature; females are usually abducted by outside males to be included as permanent members of their harems.

In Grévy's zebras and the wild ass species, adults have more fluid associations and adult males establish large territories and monopolize the females that enter them. These species live in habitats with sparser resources and standing water, and grazing areas may be separated. Groups of lactating females are able to remain in groups with nonlactating ones and usually gather at foraging areas. The most dominant males establish territories near watering holes, where more sexually receptive females gather. Subdominants have territories farther away, near foraging areas. Mares may wander through several territories, but remain in one when they have young. Staying in a territory offers a female protection from harassment by outside males, as well as access to a renewable resource. Some feral populations of horses exhibit features of both the harem and territorial social systems.

In both equine social systems, excess males gather in bachelor groups. These are typically young males that are not yet ready to establish a harem or territory. With the plains zebra, the males in a bachelor group have strong bonds and have a linear dominance hierarchy. Fights between males usually occur over estrous females and involve biting and kicking.

Communication
When meeting for the first time or after they have separated, individuals may greet each other by rubbing and sniffing their noses followed by rubbing their cheeks, moving their noses along their bodies and sniffing each other's genitals. They then may rub and press their shoulders against each other and rest their heads on one another. This greeting is usually performed among harem or territorial males or among bachelor males playing.

Equines produce a number of vocalizations and noises. Loud snorting is associated with alarm. Squealing is usually made when in pain, but bachelors also squeal while play fighting. The contact calls of equines vary from the whinnying and nickering of the horse and the barking of plains zebras to the braying of asses, Grévy's zebras, and donkeys. Equines also communicate with visual displays, and the flexibility of their lips allows them to make complex facial expressions. Visual displays also incorporate the positions of the head, ears, and tail. An equine may signal an intention to kick by laying back its ears and sometimes lashing the tail. Flattened ears, bared teeth, and abrupt movement of the heads may be used as threatening gestures, particularly among stallions.

Reproduction and parenting
Among harem-holding species, the adult females mate only with their harem stallion, while in other species, mating is more promiscuous and the males have larger testes for sperm competition. Estrus in female equines lasts 5–10 days; physical signs include frequent urination, flowing muscus, and swollen, everted labia. In addition, estrous females will stand with their hind legs spread and raise their tails when in the presence of a male. Males assess the female's reproductive state with the flehmen response and the female will solicit mating by backing in. Length of gestation varies by species; it is roughly 11–13 months, and most mares come into estrus again within a few days after foaling, depending on conditions. Usually, only a single foal is born, which is capable of running within an hour. Within a few weeks, foals attempt to graze, but may continue to nurse for 8–13 months. Species in arid habitats, like Grévy's zebra, have longer nursing intervals and do not drink water until they are three months old.

Among harem-holding species, foals are cared for mostly by their mothers, but if threatened by predators, the entire group works together to protect all the young. The group forms a protective front with the foals in the center and the stallion will rush at predators that come too close. In territory-holding species, mothers may gather into small groups and leave their young in "kindergartens" under the guard of a territorial male while searching for water. A Grévy's zebra stallion may look after a foal in his territory to ensure that the mother stays, though it may not be his.

Human relations
The earliest archaeological evidence for the domestication of the horse comes from sites in Ukraine and Kazakhstan, dating to around 4000–3500 BCE. By 3000 BCE, the horse was completely domesticated, and by 2000 BCE, a sharp increase occurred in the number of horse bones found in human settlements in northwestern Europe, indicating the spread of domesticated horses throughout the continent. The most recent, but most irrefutable, evidence of domestication comes from sites where horse remains were buried with chariots in graves of the Sintashta and Petrovka cultures c. 2100 BCE. Studies of variation in genetic material shows that a very few wild stallions, possibly all from a single haplotype, contributed to the domestic horse, mating with many mares in early domesticated herds.

Przewalski's horse has been conclusively shown not to be an ancestor of the domestic horse, though the two can hybridize and produce fertile offspring. The split between Przewalskii's horse and E. caballus is estimated to have occurred 120,000–240,000 years ago, long before domestication. Of the caballine equines of E. ferus, E. f. ferus, also known as the European wild horse or "tarpan", shares ancestry with the modern domestic horse. In addition, tarpans that lived into modern times may have been hybridized with domestic horses.

Archaeological, biogeographical, and linguistic evidence suggests that the donkey was first domesticated by nomadic pastoral people in North Africa over 5,000 years ago. The animals were used to help cope with the increased aridity of the Sahara and the Horn of Africa. Genetic evidence finds that the donkey was domesticated twice based on two distinct mitochondrial DNA haplogroups. It also points to a single ancestor, the Nubian wild ass. Attempts to domesticate zebras were largely unsuccessful, though Walter Rothschild trained some to draw a carriage in England.

Conservation issues
Humans have had a great impact on the populations of wild equines. Threats to wild equines include habitat destruction and conflicts with local people and livestock. Since the 20th century, wild equines have been decimated over many of their former ranges and their populations scattered. In recent centuries, two subspecies, the quagga and the tarpan, became extinct. The IUCN lists the African wild ass as critically endangered, Grévy's zebra, the mountain zebra, and Przewalski's horse as endangered, the onager as vulnerable, the plains zebra as near threatened, and the kiang as least concern. Przewalski's horse was considered to be extinct in the wild from the 1960s to 1996. However, following successful captive breeding, it has been reintroduced in Mongolia.

Feral horses vary in degree of protection and generate considerable controversy. For example, in Australia, they are considered a non-native invasive species, often viewed as pests, though are also considered to have some cultural and economic value. In the United States, feral horses and burros are generally considered an introduced species because they are descendants from domestic horses brought to the Americas from Europe. While they are viewed as pests by many livestock producers, conversely, a view also exists that E. caballus is a reintroduced once-native species returned to the Americas that should be granted endangered species protection. At present, certain free-roaming horses and burros have federal protection as "living symbols of the historic and pioneer spirit of the West" under the Wild and Free-Roaming Horses and Burros Act of 1971, and in Kleppe v. New Mexico, the United States Supreme Court ruled that the animals so designated were, as a matter of law, wildlife.

title: Equus (genus)


text: User talk:66.158.77.250

title: User talk:66.158.77.250