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Malolactic fermentation

Malolactic conversion (also known as malolactic fermentation or MLF) is a process in winemaking in which tart-tasting malic acid, naturally present in grape must, is converted to softer-tasting lactic acid. Malolactic fermentation is most often performed as a secondary fermentation shortly after the end of the primary fermentation, but can sometimes run concurrently with it. The process is standard for most red wine production and common for some white grape varieties such as Chardonnay, where it can impart a "buttery" flavor from diacetyl, a byproduct of the reaction.

The fermentation reaction is undertaken by the family of lactic acid bacteria (LAB); Oenococcus oeni, and various species of Lactobacillus and Pediococcus. Chemically, malolactic fermentation is a decarboxylation, which means carbon dioxide is liberated in the process.

The primary function of all these bacteria is to convert L-malic acid, one of the two major grape acids found in wine, to another type of acid, L+ lactic acid. This can occur naturally. However, in commercial winemaking, malolactic conversion typically is initiated by an inoculation of desirable bacteria, usually O. oeni. This prevents undesirable bacterial strains from producing "off" flavors. Conversely, commercial winemakers actively prevent malolactic conversion when it is not desired, such as with fruity and floral white grape varieties such as Riesling and Gewürztraminer, to maintain a more tart or acidic profile in the finished wine.

Malolactic fermentation tends to create a rounder, fuller mouthfeel. Malic acid is typically associated with the taste of green apples, while lactic acid is richer and more buttery tasting. Grapes produced in cool regions tend to be high in acidity, much of which comes from the contribution of malic acid. Malolactic fermentation generally enhances the body and flavor persistence of wine, producing wines of greater palate softness. Many winemakers also feel that better integration of fruit and oak character can be achieved if malolactic fermentation occurs during the time the wine is in barrel.

A wine undergoing malolactic conversion will be cloudy because of the presence of bacteria, and may have the smell of buttered popcorn, the result of the production of diacetyl. The onset of malolactic fermentation in the bottle is usually considered a wine fault, as the wine will appear to the consumer to still be fermenting (as a result of CO2 being produced). However, for early Vinho Verde production, this slight effervesce was considered a distinguishing trait, though Portuguese wine producers had to market the wine in opaque bottles because of the increase in turbidity and sediment that the "in-bottle MLF" produced. Today, most Vinho Verde producers no longer follow this practice and instead complete malolactic fermentation prior to bottling with the slight sparkle being added by artificial carbonation.

History
Malolactic fermentation is possibly as old as the history of wine, but scientific understanding of the positive benefits of MLF and control of the process is a relatively recent development. For many centuries, winemakers noticed an "activity" that would happen in their wines stored in barrel during the warm spring months following harvest. Like primary alcoholic fermentation, this phenomenon would release carbon dioxide gas and seem to have a profound change on the wine that was not always welcomed. It was described as a "second fermentation" in 1837 by the German enologist Freiherr von Babo and the cause for increased turbidity in the wine. Von Babo encouraged winemakers to quickly respond at the first sight of this activity by racking the wine into a new barrel, adding sulfur dioxide, and then following up with another set of racking and sulfuring to stabilize the wine.

In 1866, Louis Pasteur, one of the pioneers of modern microbiology, isolated the first bacteria from wine and determined that all bacteria in wine were a cause for wine spoilage. While Pasteur did notice an acid reduction in wine with the lactic bacteria, he did not link that process to a consumption of malic acid by the bacteria, but rather assumed it was just tartrate precipitation. In 1891, the Swiss enologist Hermann Müller theorized that bacteria may be the cause of this reduction. With the aid of peers, Müller explained his theory of "biological deacidication" in 1913 to be caused by wine bacterium Bacterium gracile.

In the 1930s, the French enologist Jean Ribéreau-Gayon published papers stating the benefits of this bacterial transformation in wine. During the 1950s, advances in enzymatic analysis allowed enologists to better understand the chemical processes behind malolactic fermentation. Émile Peynaud furthered enology understanding of the process and soon cultured stock of beneficial lactic acid bacteria was available for winemakers to use.

Role in winemaking
The primary role of malolactic fermentation is to deacidify wine. It can also affect the sensory aspects of a wine, making the mouthfeel seem smoother and adding potential complexity in the flavor and aroma of the wine. For these other reasons, most red wines throughout the world (as well as many sparkling wines and nearly 20% of the world's white wines) today go through malolactic fermentation.

Malolactic fermentation deacidifies the wine by converting the "harsher" diprotic malic acid to the softer monoprotic lactic acid. The different structures of malic and lactic acids leads to a reduction of titratable acidity (TA) in the wine by 1 to 3 g/L and an increase in pH by 0.3 units. Malic acid is present in the grape throughout the growing season, reaching its peak at veraison and gradually decreasing throughout the ripening process. Grapes harvested from cooler climates usually have the highest malic content and have the most dramatic changes in TA and pH levels after malolactic fermentation.

Malolactic fermentation can aid in making a wine "microbiologically stable" in that the lactic acid bacteria consume many of the leftover nutrients that other spoilage microbes could use to develop wine faults. However, it can also make the wine slightly "unstable" due to the rise in pH, especially if the wine already was at the high end of wine pH. It is not unusual for wines to be "deacidified" by malolactic fermentation only to have the winemaker later add acidity (usually in the form of tartaric acid) to lower the pH to more stable levels.

Conversion of malic into lactic
Lactic acid bacteria convert malic acid into lactic acid as an indirect means of creating energy for the bacteria by chemiosmosis which uses the difference in pH gradient between inside the cell and outside in the wine to produce ATP. One model on how this is accomplished notes that the form of L-malate most present at the low pH of wine is its negatively charged monoanionic form. When the bacteria move this anion from the wine into higher pH level of its cellular plasma membrane, it causes a net-negative charge that creates electrical potential. The decarboxylation of malate into L-lactic acid releases not only carbon dioxide but also consumes a proton, which generates the pH gradient which can produce ATP.

Lactic acid bacteria convert L-malic acid found naturally in wine grapes. Most commercial malic acid additives are a mixture of the enantiomers D+ and L-malic acid.

Sensory influences
Many different studies have been conducted on the sensory changes that occur in wines that have gone through malolactic fermentation. The most common descriptor is that acidity in the wine feels "softer" due to the change of the "harsher" malic acid to the softer lactic acid. The perception of sourness comes from the titratable acidity in the wine, so the reduction in TA that follows MLF leads to a reduction in perceived sour or "tartness" in the wine.

The change in mouthfeel is related to the increase in pH, but may also be due to the production of polyols, particularly the sugar alcohols erythritol and glycerol. Another factor that may enhance the mouthfeel of wines that have gone through malolactic fermentation is the presence of ethyl lactate which can be as high as 110 mg/L after MLF.

The potential influence on the aroma of the wine is more complex and difficult to predict with different strains of Oenococcus oeni (the bacterium most commonly used in MLF) having the potential to create different aroma compounds. In Chardonnay, wines that have gone through MLF are often described as having "hazelnut" and "dried fruit" notes, as well as the aroma of freshly baked bread. In red wines, some strains metabolize the amino acid methionine into a derivative of propionic acid that tends to produce roasted aroma and chocolate notes. Red wines that go through malolactic fermentation in the barrel can have enhanced spice or smoke aromas.

However, some studies have also shown that malolactic fermentation may diminish primary fruit aromas such as Pinot noir, often losing raspberry and strawberry notes after MLF. Additionally, red wines may endure a loss of color after MLF due to pH changes that causes a shift in the equilibrium of the anthocyanins which contribute to the stability of color in wine.

Lactic acid bacteria
All lactic acid bacteria (LAB) involved in winemaking, whether as a positive contributor or as a source for potential faults, have the ability to produce lactic acid through the metabolism of a sugar source, as well as the metabolism of L-malic acid. Species differ in how they metabolise the available sugars in wine (both glucose and fructose, as well as the unfermentable pentoses that wine yeasts do not consume). Some bacteria species use the sugars through a homofermentative pathway, meaning only one main end product (usually lactate) is produced, while others use heterofermentative pathways that can create multiple end products such as carbon dioxide, ethanol, and acetate. While only the L-isomer of lactate is produced by LAB in the conversion of malic acid, both hetero- and homofermenters can produce D-, L- and DL-isomers of lactic from glucose which may contribute to slightly different sensory properties in the wine.

While O. oeni is often the LAB most desired by winemakers to complete malolactic fermentation, the process is most often carried out by a variety of LAB species that dominate the must at different points during fermentations. Several factors influence which species will be dominant, including fermentation temperature, nutritional resources, the presence of sulfur dioxide, interaction with yeast and other bacteria, pH, and alcohol levels (Lactobacillus species, for example, tend to prefer higher pH and can tolerate higher alcohol levels than O. oeni), as well as initial inoculation (such as "wild" ferments versus an inoculation of cultured O. oeni).

Oenococcus
The genus Oenococcus has one main member involved in winemaking, O. oeni, once known as Leuconostoc oeni. Despite having the name Oenococcus, under the microscope, the bacterium has a bacillus (shape) rod shape. The bacteria is a Gram-positive, facultative anaerobe that can utilize some oxygen for aerobic respiration but usually produces cellular energy through fermentation. O. oeni is a heterofermenter that creates multiple end products from the use of glucose with D-lactic acid and carbon dioxide being produced in roughly equal amounts to either ethanol or acetate. In reductive conditions (such as near the end of alcoholic fermentation), the third end product is usually ethanol while in slightly oxidative (such as early in alcohol fermentation or in an untopped barrel), the bacteria are more likely to produce acetate.

Some O. oeni strains can use fructose to create mannitol (which can lead to wine fault known as mannitol taint), while many other strains can break down the amino acid arginine (which can be present in the wine that is resting on the lees after fermentation from the autolysis of dead yeast cells) into ammonia.

In addition to the hexose glucose and fructose sugars, most strains of O. oeni can use the residual pentose sugars left behind from yeast fermentation including L-arabinose and ribose. Only around 45% of O. oeni strains can ferment sucrose (the form of sugar usually added for chaptalization that gets converted by yeast into glucose and fructose).

Winemakers tend to prefer O. oeni for several reasons. First, the species is compatible with the main wine yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae, though in cases where both MLF and alcoholic fermentation are started together, the yeast most often outcompetes the bacterium for nutritional resources which may cause a delay in the onset of malolactic fermentation. Second, most strains of O. oeni are tolerant to the low pH levels of wine and can usually deal with the standard alcohol levels that most wines reach by the end of fermentation. Additionally, while sulfur dioxide levels above 0.8 molecular SO2 (pH dependent but roughly 35-50 ppm) will inhibit the bacteria, O. oeni is relatively resistant compared to other LAB. Finally, O. oeni tends to produce the least amount of biogenic amines (and most lactic acid ) among the lactic acid bacteria encountered in winemaking.

Lactobacillus
Within the genus Lactobacillus are both heterofermentative and homofermentative species. All lactobacilli involved in winemaking are Gram-positive and microaerophilic, with most species lacking the enzyme catalase needed to protect themselves from oxidative stress.

Species of Lactobacillus that have been isolated from wine and grape must samples across the globe include L. brevis, L. buchneri, L. casei, L. curvatus, L. delbrueckii subsp. lactis, L. diolivorans, L. fermentum, L. fructivorans, L. hilgardii, L. jensenii, L. kunkeei, L. leichmannii, L. nagelii, L. paracasei, L. plantarum, and L. yamanashiensis.

Most Lactobacillus species are undesirable in winemaking with the potential of producing high levels of volatile acidity, off odors, wine haze, gassiness, and sediment that can be deposited in the bottle, especially if the wine had not been filtered. These bacteria also have the potential to create excessive amounts of lactic acid which can further influence the flavor and sensory perception of the wine. Some species, such as the so-called "ferocious Lactobacillus", have been implicated in causing sluggish or stuck fermentations, while other species, such as L. fructivorans, have been known to create a cottony mycelium-like growth on the surface of wines, nicknamed "Fresno mold" after the wine region where it was discovered.

Pediococcus
So far, four species from the genus Pediococcus have been isolated in wines and grape must, P. inopinatus, P. pentosaceus, P. parvulus, and P. damnosus, with the last two being the species most commonly found in wine. All Pediococcus species are Gram-positive with some species being micro-aerophilic while others utilizing mostly aerobic respiration. Under the microscope, Pediococcus often appear in pairs of pairs or tetrads which can make them identifiable. Pediococci are homofermenters, metabolizing glucose into a racemic mixture of both L- and D-lactate by glycolysis. However, in the absence of glucose, some species, such as P. pentosaceus, begin using glycerol, degrading it into pyruvate which later can be converted to diacetyl, acetate, 2,3-butanediol and other compounds that can impart unfavorable characteristics to the wine.

Most Pediococcus species are undesirable in winemaking due to the high levels of diacetyl that can be produced, as well as increased production of biogenic amines that has been implicated as one potential cause for red wine headaches. Many species of Pediococcus also have the potential to introduce off odors or other wine faults to the wine such as the bitter-tasting "acrolein taint" that comes from degradation of glycerol into acrolein which then reacts with phenolic compounds in the wine to produce a bitter-tasting compound.

One species, P. parvulus, has been found in wines that have not gone through MLF (meaning malic acid is still present in the wine), but has still had its bouquet altered in a way that enologist have described as "not spoiled" or flaw. Other studies have isolated P. parvulus from wines that have gone through malolactic fermentation without the development of off odors or wine faults.

Nutritional requirements
Lactic acid bacteria are fastidious organisms that cannot synthesize on their own all of their complex nutritional requirements. For LAB to grow and complete malolactic fermentation, the constitution of the wine medium must provide for their nutritional needs. Like wine yeast, LAB require a carbon source for energy metabolism (usually sugar and malic acid), nitrogen source (such as amino acids and purines) for protein synthesis, and various vitamins (such as niacin, riboflavin, and thiamine) and minerals to assist in the synthesis of enzymes and other cellular components.

The source for these nutrients is often found in the grape must itself, though MLF inoculations that run concurrent with alcoholic fermentation risk the yeast outcompeting the bacteria for these nutrients. Towards the end of fermentation, while most of the original grape must resources have been consumed, the lysis of dead yeast cells (the "lees") can be a source for some nutrients, particularly amino acids. Plus, even "dry" wines that have been fermented to dryness still have unfermentable pentose sugars (such as arabinose, ribose and xylose) left behind that can be used by both positive and spoilage bacteria. As with wine yeast, manufacturers of cultured LAB inoculum usually offer specially prepared nutritional additives that be used as a supplement. However, unlike wine yeast, lactic acid bacteria can not use the supplement diammonium phosphate as a nitrogen source.

Before the introduction of complex nutritional supplements and advances in freeze-dried cultures of LAB, winemakers would cultivate their inoculum of lactic acid bacteria from culture slants provided by laboratories. In the 1960s, these winemakers found it easier to create starter cultures in media that contained apple or tomato juice. This "tomato juice factor" was discovered to be a derivative of pantothenic acid, an important growth factor for the bacteria.

As with yeast, oxygen can be considered a nutrient for LAB, but only in very small amount and only for microaerophilic species such as O. oeni. However, no evidence exists currently to suggest that malolactic fermentation runs more smoothly in aerobic conditions than in complete anaerobic conditions, and in fact, excessive amounts of oxygen can retard growth of LAB by favoring conditions of competing microbes (such as Acetobacter).

Native LAB species in the vineyard and the winery
Oenococcus oeni, the LAB species most often desired by winemakers to carry out malolactic fermentation, can be found in the vineyard, but often at very low levels. While moldy, damaged fruit has the potential to carry a diverse flora of microbes, the LAB most often found on clean, healthy grapes after harvest are species from the Lactobacillus and Pediococcus genera. After crushing, microbiologists usually find populations under 103 colony forming units/mL containing a mix of  P. damnosus, L. casei, L. hilgardii, and  L. plantarum, as well as O. oeni. For musts that do not receive an early dose of sulfur dioxide to "knock back" these wild populations of LAB, this flora of bacteria compete with each other (and the wine yeasts) for nutrients early in fermentation.

In the winery, multiple contact points can be home to native population of LAB including oak barrels, pumps, hoses, and bottling lines. For wines where malolactic fermentation is undesirable (such as fruity white wines), the lack of proper sanitation of wine equipment can lead to the development of unwanted MLF and result in wine faults. In cases of oak barrels where full and complete sanitation is almost impossible, wineries often mark barrels that have contained wines going through MLF and keep them isolated from "clean" or brand new barrels that they can use for wines that are not destined to go through MLF.

Schizosaccharomyces yeast
Several species in the genus Schizosaccharomyces use L-malic acid, and enologists have been exploring the potential of using this wine yeast for deacidifying wines instead of the traditional route of malolactic fermentation with bacteria. However, early results with Schizosaccharomyces pombe have shown a tendency of the yeast to produce off odors and unpleasant sensory characteristics in the wine. In recent years, enologists have been experimenting with a mutant strain of Schizosaccharomyces malidevorans that has so far been shown to produce less potential wine flaws and off odors.

Influence of inoculation timing
Winemakers differ in when they choose to inoculate their must with LAB, with some winemakers pitching the bacteria at the same time as the yeast, allowing both alcoholic and malolactic fermentations to run concurrently, while some wait till the end of fermentation when the wine is racked off its lees and into barrel, and others doing it somewhere between. For practitioners of minimalist or "natural winemaking" who choose not to inoculate with cultured LAB, malolactic fermentation can happen at any time depending on several factors such as the microbiological flora of the winery and the competing influences of these other microbes. All options have potential benefits and disadvantages.

The benefits of inoculating for MLF during alcoholic fermentation include: The disadvantages for early inoculation include:
 * More potential nutrients from the grape must (though the bacteria will be competing with the yeast for these)
 * Lower sulfur dioxide and ethanol levels which can otherwise inhibit the LAB
 * Higher fermentation temperatures which are more conducive to LAB growth and an earlier completion of MLF: The optimal temperatures for malolactic fermentation are between 20 and 37 C, while the process is significantly inhibited at temperatures below 15 °C. Wine stored in the barrels in the cellar during the winter following fermentation will often have a very prolonged malolactic fermentation due to the cool cellar temperatures.
 * Early completion of malolactic fermentation means the winemaker can make a postfermentation SO2 earlier to protect the wine from oxidation and spoilage microbes (such as Acetobacter). Since sulfur dioxide can inhibit MLF, delaying LAB inoculation till after alcoholic fermentation may mean a delay in sulfur addition till early spring when cellar temperatures warm up enough to encourage the completion of MLF.
 * Less diacetyl production
 * Wine yeast and LAB competing for resources (including glucose) and potential antagonism between the microbes
 * Heterofermenters such as O. oeni metabolizing the glucose still present in the must and potentially creating undesirable byproducts such as acetic acid

Many of the advantages for postalcoholic fermentation answer the disadvantages of early inoculation (namely less antagonism and potential for undesirable byproducts). Also, the advantage is seen of the lees being a nutrient source through the autolysis of the dead yeast cells, though that nutrient source may not always be enough to ensure MLF runs successfully to completion. Conversely, many of the disadvantages of late inoculation are the absence of the advantages that come from early inoculation (higher temperatures, potentially quicker completion, etc.).

Preventing MLF
For some wine styles, such as light, fruity wines or for low-acid wines from warm climates, malolactic fermentation is not desired. Winemakers can take several steps to prevent MLF from taking place, including:

 * Limited maceration, early pressing, and early racking to limit contact time of the LAB with potential nutrient sources
 * Maintain sulfur dioxide levels to at least 25 ppm of "free" (unbound) SO2, depending on the pH of the wine, this may mean an addition of 50–100 mg/L of SO2
 * Maintain pH levels below 3.3
 * Keep the wine cool at temperatures between 10 and 14 °C (50. 0 to 57.2 °F)
 * Filter the wine at bottling with at least a 0.45-micron membrane filter to prevent any bacteria from making it into the bottle

In addition, winemakers can use chemical and biological inhibitors such as lysozyme, nisin, dimethyl dicarbonate (Velcorin), and fumaric acid, though some (like Verlcorin) are restricted in winemaking countries outside the United States. Fining agents, such as bentonite, and putting the wine through cold stabilization will also remove potential nutrients for LAB, thus inhibiting malolactic fermentation. Some experimentation with the use of bacteriophages (viruses that infect bacteria) has been conducted to limit malolactic fermentations, but disappointing results in the cheesemaking industry have led to skepticism about the practical use of bacteriophages in winemaking.

Measuring malic content
Winemakers can track the progression of malolactic fermentation by paper chromatography or with a spectrophotometer. The paper chromatography method involves using capillary tubes to add small samples of the wine to chromatograph paper. The paper is then rolled and placed in a jar filled with a butanol solution containing bromocresol green indicator dye for several hours. After the paper is pulled out and dried, the distance of yellow-colored "splotches" from the base line denotes the presence of various acids, with tartaric being closest to the baseline followed by citric, malic, and finally lactic acids near the top of the paper.

A significant limitation to paper chromatography is that it will not show exactly how much malic is still remaining in the wine, with the size of the "splotch" on the paper having no correlation to a quantitative figure. The sensitivity of the paper is also limited to a detection threshold of 100–200 mg/L while most measurements of "MLF stability" target a malic level of less than 0.03 g/L (30 mg/L).

The enzymatic method allows for a quantitative measurement of both malic and lactic acids, but requires the expense of reagent kits and a spectrophotometer that can measure absorbance values at 334, 340, or 365 nm.

Other products produced
The main products of malolactic fermentation are lactic acid, diacetyl, acetic acid, acetoin, and various esters. The amount and exact nature of these products depends on the species/strain of LAB conducting the malolactic fermentation and the condition influencing that wine (pH, available nutrients, oxygen levels, etc.).

Some strains of O. oeni can synthesize higher alcohols which can contribute to fruity notes in the aroma of the wine. Additionally, some strains of the bacterium have beta-glucosidase enzymes that can break down monoglucosides which are aroma compounds attached to a sugar molecule. When the sugar component is cleaved, the rest of the compound becomes volatilized, meaning it can potentially be detected in the aroma bouquet of the wine.

In the early 21st century, some strains of O. oeni were shown to use acetaldehyde by breaking it down into ethanol or acetic acid. While this may help for wines with excessive levels of acetaldehyde, for red wines, it can also destabilize the color of the wine by interfering with acetaldehyde's reaction with anthocyanins to create polymeric pigments that help create a wine's color.

Diacetyl

Diacetyl (or 2,3-butanedione) is the compound associated with the "buttery" aromas of Chardonnays, but it can affect any wine that has gone through malolactic fermentation. At an odor detection threshold of 0.2 mg/L in white wines and 2.8 mg/L in red wines, it can be perceived as slightly buttery or "nutty" while at concentrations greater than 5 to 7 mg/L (5-7 ppm) can overwhelm other aroma notes in the wine.

Diacetyl can be produced by the LAB through metabolism of sugar or of citric acid. While citric acid is naturally present in grapes, it is in a very small amount with most of it coming from deliberate addition by the winemaker to acidify the wine. In the presence of both malic and citric acids, the LAB use both, but use the malic much more quickly, with the rate of citric use/diacetyl formation influenced by the particular bacterial strain (with most strains of O. oeni producing less diacetyl than Lactobacillus and Pediococcis species), as well as the redox potential of the wine. In wine conditions that have a low redox potential (meaning it is more oxidative such as in a barrel that is not fully topped up), more citric acid will be consumed and diacetyl formed. In more reductive conditions, such as in alcoholic fermentations where yeast populations are at their peak and the wine is heavily saturated with carbon dioxide, the formation of diacetyl is much slower. The yeasts also help keep levels low by consuming diacetyl and reducing it to acetoin and butylene glycol.

Diacetyl production is favored in fermentations that run warm with temperatures between 18 and 25 °C. It also tends to be produced at higher levels in wines with lower pH levels (under 3.5), though at levels below 3.2, most strains of LAB desirable for MLF tend to be inhibited. "Wild" (as in uninoculated) malolactic ferments have the potential to produce more diacetyl than inoculated ferments due to the lower initial populations during the lag phase with inoculated ferments usually having an initial inoculum of 106 CFU/mL. Late MLF inoculations, after alcoholic fermentation, also tend to produce higher levels of diacetyl. Chardonnay producers desiring to make the high-diacetyl "buttery style" will often do late or "wild" inoculation in the barrel after primary fermentation, allowing the wine to spend several weeks or even months sur lie in reductive conditions that promote diacetyl production. Some sources point out that diacetyl is actually decreased by sur lie, due to surviving yeast metabolizing diacetyl, and therefore malolactic fermentation is best performed apart from lees.

With wines that have excessive levels of diacetyl, some winemakers use sulfur dioxide to bind with the compound and reduce the perception of diacetyl by 30 to 60%. This binding is a reversible process and after only a few weeks aging in the bottle or tank, the high levels of diacetyl return. However, sulfur dioxide added earlier in the malolactic fermentation process limits diacetyl production by inhibiting the bacteria and limiting their activity in its entirety, including the conversion of malic to lactic acid.

Wine faults
The most common fault associated with malolactic fermentation is its occurrence when it is not desired. This could be for a wine that is meant to be acidic and fruity (such as Riesling) or it could be a wine that was previously thought to have gone through MLF and bottled only to have malolactic fermentation commence in the bottle. The outcome of this "in-bottle" fermentation is often gassy, hazy wine that can be unpalatable to consumers. Improvement in sanitation and control of lactic acid bacteria in the winery can limit the occurrence of these faults.

For early Vinho Verde producers, the slight effervesce that came from in-bottle malolactic fermentation was considered a distinguishing trait that consumers enjoyed in the wine. However, wineries had to market the wine in opaque bottles to mask the turbidity and sediment that the "in-bottle MLF" produced. Today, most Vinho Verde producers no longer follow this practice and instead complete malolactic fermentation prior to bottle with the slight sparkle being added by artificial carbonation.

While not necessarily a fault, malolactic fermentation does have the potential of making a wine "protein unstable" due to the resulting change in pH which affects the solubility of proteins in wine. For this reason, protein fining and heat stability tests on wine usually take place after malolactic fermentation has run to completion.

Volatile acidity
While volatile acidity (VA) is usually measured in terms of acetic acid content, its sensory perception is a combination of acetic (vinegary aromas) and ethyl acetate (nail polish remover and model airplane glue aromas). High levels of VA can inhibit wine yeast and may lead to a sluggish or stuck fermentation. Several microbes can be a source for VA, including Acetobacter, Brettanomyces, and film yeast such as Candida, as well as LAB. However, while LAB usually only produce acetic acid, these other microbes often produce ethyl acetate, as well as acetic acid.

Most wine-producing countries have laws regulating the amount volatile acidity permitted for wine available for sale and consumption. In the United States, the legal limit is 0.9 g/L for foreign wine exported to the United States, 1.2 g/L for white table wine, 1.4 g/L for red wine, 1.5 g/L for white dessert wine, and 1.7 g/L for red dessert wine. European Union wine regulations limit VA to 1.08 g/L for white table wines and 1.20 g/L for red table wines.

Heterofermenting species of Oenococcus and Lactobacillus have the potential to produce high levels of acetic acid through the metabolism of glucose, though with most strains of O. oeni, the amount is usually only 0.1 to 0.2 g/L. Several species of Pediococcus can also produce acetic acid through other pathways. Wines starting out with a high pH levels (above 3.5) stand the greatest risk of excessive acetic acid production due to the more favorable conditions for Lactobacillus and Pediococcus species. L. Kunkeei, one of the so-called "ferocious Lactobacillus" species, has been known to produce 3 to 5 g/L of acetic acid in wines—levels which can easily lead to stuck fermentations.

"Ferocious" Lactobacillus
In the late 20th century, among American winemakers, seemingly healthy fermentation were reported becoming rapidly inundated with high levels of acetic acid that overcame wine yeasts and led to stuck fermentations. While a novel species of Acetobacter or wine spoilage yeast was initially thought to be the culprit, it was eventually discovered to be several species of Lactobacillus, L. kunkeei, L. nagelii, and L. hilgardii, collectively nicknamed "ferocious" Lactobacillus for their aggressive acetic acid production, how quickly they multiply, and their high tolerance to sulfur dioxides and other microbiological controls.

Ferments of high-pH wines (greater than 3.5) that spent time cold soaking prior to yeast inoculations and received little to no sulfur dioxide during crushing seem to be at the most risk for "ferocious" Lactobacillus. While infection seems to be vineyard-specific, currently, none of any of the implicated lactobacilli has been reported as being found on the surface of freshly harvested wine grapes.

Acrolein and mannitol taint
The degradation of glycerol by some strains of LAB can yield the compound acrolein. Glycerol is a sweet-tasting polyol present in all wines, but at higher levels in wines that have been infected with Botrytis cinerea. An "active-aldehyde", acrolein can interact with some phenolic compounds in wine to create highly bitter-tasting wines, described as amertume by Pasteur. While at least one strain of O. oeni has been shown to produce acrolein, it is more commonly found in wines that have been infected by strains of Lactobacillus and Pediococcus species such as L. brevis, L. buchneri, and P. parvulus. Acrolein taint has also shown to be more common in wines that have been fermented at high temperatures and/or made from grapes that have been harvested at high Brix levels.

Heterofermenting species from the genus Lactobacillus, as well as some wild strains of O. oeni, have the potential to metabolize fructose (one of the main sugars in wine) into the sugar alcohols mannitol and (less commonly) erythritol. These are sweet-tasting compounds can add sweetness to a wine where it is not desired (such as Cabernet Sauvignon). Mannitol taint, described as mannite by Pasteur, in wines is often accompanied by other wine faults, including the presence of excessive levels of acetic acid, diacetyl, lactic acid, and 2-butanol, which can contribute to a "vinegary-estery" aroma. The wine may also have a slimy sheen on the surface.

Fresno mold and ropiness
In the mid-20th century, a cottony mycelium-like growth began appearing in the bottles of some sweet fortified wines produced in California's Central Valley. Being fortified, these wines often had alcohol levels in excess of 20% which is usually a level that discourages growth of most spoilage organisms associated with winemaking. Nicknamed "Fresno mold" due to where it was first discovered, the culprit of this growth was determined to be L. fructivorans, a species which can be controlled by sanitation and maintaining adequate sulfur dioxide levels.

Some Lactobacillus and Pediococcus species (particularly P. damnosus and P. pentosaceus) have the potential to synthesize polysaccharides that add an oily viscosity to the wine. In the case of Lactobacillus, some of these saccharides may be glucans that can be synthesized from glucose present in the wine as low as 50–100 mg/L (0.005 to 0.01% residual sugar) and afflict seemingly "dry" wines. While "ropiness" can occur in the barrel or tank, it is often observed in the wines several months after they are bottled. Wines with pH levels above 3.5 and low sulfur dioxide levels are at most risk for developing this fault.

Called graisse (or "grease") by the French and les vins filant by Pasteur, this fault has been observed in apple wines and cider. It can also be potentially be caused by other spoilage microbes such as Streptococcus mucilaginous, Candida krusei, and Acetobacter rancens.

Mousiness and geranium taint
Wines infected with L. brevis, L. hilgardii, and L. fermentum have been known to occasionally develop an aroma reminiscent of rodent droppings. The aroma becomes more pronounced when the wine is rubbed between the fingers and, if consumed, can leave a long, unpleasant finish. The aroma can be very potent, detectable at a sensory threshold as low as 1.6 parts per billion (μg/l). The exact compound behind this is derivatives of the amino acid lysine created through an oxidation reaction with ethanol. While undesirable LAB species have been most commonly associated with this fault, wine infected by Brettanomyces yeast in the presence of ammonium phosphate and lysine have also been known to exhibit this fault.

Sorbate is often used as a yeast-inhibitor by home winemakers to stop alcoholic fermentation in the production of sweet wines. Most species of lactic acid bacteria can synthesize sorbate to produce 2-ethoxyhexa-3,5-diene which has the aroma of crushed geranium leaves.

Tourne
Compared to malic and citric acids, tartaric acid is usually considered microbiologically stable. However, some species of Lactobacillus (particularly L. brevis and L. plantarum) have the potential to degrade tartaric acid in wine, reducing a wine's total acidity by 3-50%. French winemakers had long observed this phenomenon and called it tourne (meaning "turn to brown") in reference to the color change that can occur in the wine at the same time likely due to other processes at work in addition to the tartaric loss. While Lactobacillus is the most common culprit of tourne, some species of the spoilage film yeast Candida can also metabolize tartaric acid.

Health-related faults
While the presence of ethyl carbamate is not a sensory wine fault, the compound is a suspected carcinogen which is subjected to regulation in many countries. The compound is produced from the degradation of the amino acid arginine which is present in both grape must and released in the wine through the autolysis of dead yeast cells. While the use of urea as a source of yeast assimilable nitrogen (no longer legal in most countries) was the most common cause of ethyl carbamate in wine, both O. oeni and L. buchneri have been known to produce carbamyl phosphate and citrulline which can be precursors to ethyl carbamate formation. L. hilgardii, one of the "ferocious Lactobacillus" species, has also been suspected of contributing to ethyl carbamate production. In the United States, the Alcohol and Tobacco Tax and Trade Bureau has established a voluntary target limit of ethyl carbamate in wine to less than 15 μg/L for table wines and less than 60 μg/L for dessert wines.

Biogenic amines have been implicated as a potential cause of red wine headaches. In wine, histamine, cadaverine, phenylethylamine, putrescine, and tyramine have all been detected. These amines are created by the degradation of amino acids found in grape must and left over from the breakdown of dead yeast cells after fermentation. Most LAB have the potential to create biogenic amines, even some strains of O. oeni, but high levels of biogenic amines are most often associated with species from the Lactobacillus and Pediococcus genera. In the European Union, the concentration of biogenic amines in wine is beginning to be monitored, while the United States currently does not have any regulations.

title: Malolactic fermentation


text:
Gay Nineties

The Gay Nineties is an American nostalgic term and a periodization of the history of the United States referring to the decade of the 1890s. It is known in the United Kingdom as the Naughty Nineties, and refers there to the decade of supposedly decadent art of Aubrey Beardsley, the witty plays and trial of Oscar Wilde, society scandals and the beginning of the suffragette movement.

Despite the term, part of the decade was marked by an economic crisis, which greatly worsened when the Panic of 1893 set off a widespread economic depression in the United States that lasted until 1897.

Etymology
The term Gay Nineties began to be used in the 1920s in the United States, and it is believed to have been created by the artist Richard V. Culter, who first released a series of drawings in Life magazine titled "the Gay Nineties" and later published a book of drawings with the same name.

History
Novels by authors like Edith Wharton and Booth Tarkington documented the high life of the "old money" families. By the 1920s, the decade was nostalgically seen as a period of pre-income tax wealth for a newly emergent "society set". The railroads, the agricultural depression of the Southern United States, and the dominance of the United States in South American markets and the Caribbean meant that industrialists of the Northern United States seemed to have been doing very well.

It was also the name of a nostalgic radio program in the 1930s, hosted by a prominent composer of popular songs of the 1890s, Joe Howard, as well as an 1890s-themed New York cafe, "Bill's Gay Nineties", during that same period. From the 1920s to the 1960s, filmmakers had a nostalgic interest in the 1890s as seen in the films The Naughty Nineties, She Done Him Wrong, Belle of the Nineties, The Strawberry Blonde, My Gal Sal, The Nifty Nineties (a Mickey Mouse cartoon), By the Light of the Silvery Moon, Hello, Dolly!, and Heaven Can Wait.

Roger Edens' song "The Gay Nineties" opens a production number spoofing period melodramas in Strike Up the Band, a 1940 MGM film starring Judy Garland and Mickey Rooney.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Gay Nineties


text:
Category:Ukrainian gymnasts

Gymnasts from Ukraine.

title: Category:Ukrainian gymnasts


text:
Edwin Torres

Edwin Torres may refer to:

 * Edwin Torres (judge) (born 1931), Puerto Rican New York Supreme Court judge and author of crime novels including Carlito's Way
 * Edwin Torres (poet) (born 1958), Puerto Rican "Nuyorican Movement" poet
 * Edwin Torres (cyclist) (born 1946), Puerto Rican Olympic cyclist

title: Edwin Torres


text:
Wikipedia:Miscellany for deletion/Wikipedia:Quicklist

Quicklist

 * Delete. Seems obsolete, incomplete and pointless. – Smyth 19:10, 6 Oct 2004 (UTC)
 * Delete unless anyone can explain to me what on earth I'd use it for. — Bill 19:17, 6 Oct 2004 (UTC)
 * Abstain. I suspect there may be a strange history behind this article. Anyone care to fill us in first? --Improv 22:23, 6 Oct 2004 (UTC)
 * Change my vote to Delete, as per Author's explanation. --Improv 02:58, 8 Oct 2004 (UTC)
 * I'd like to know as well, because this thing really confuses me. -- Cyrius|✎ 00:22, 7 Oct 2004 (UTC)
 * Comment: Likewise. Strange joke maybe? It says it's an alternative to allpages, but I can't see how it works. If there's no explanation and others want to delete it that's cool, so no vote for now. Andrewa 01:52, 7 Oct 2004 (UTC)
 * I have added a notice on the creator's talk page asking him to comment here. – Smyth 12:07, 7 Oct 2004 (UTC)
 * See if the creator would like to move it to a subpage of his own user page before deleting it. — siro  χ  o  05:18, Oct 7, 2004 (UTC)
 * Delete. As the creator of the article in question I'd have to agree with all the criticisms about it. I started it as reaction to some of the problems that existed in the all pages at the time but has since been fixed. When I first started using the Wikipedia I tried to read it the same way I have read traditional Encyclopedias, from start to finish. Of course with Wikipedia that's impossible. One problem I found with the all pages that hasn't been fixed is that most of the entries are for redirects. But that’s necessary of course due to the fact it makes it easier to find things. As the whole idea of the quicklist is flawed and no one including myself has any attachments to it I agree with its deletion. jph
 * Delete. Sounds good. Thank you! Andrewa 07:04, 8 Oct 2004 (UTC)


text: File:The Forgotten poster.JPG

title: File:The Forgotten poster.JPG


text: Category:Brazilian cuisine

title: Category:Brazilian cuisine


text:
The Forgotten (2004 film)

The Forgotten is a 2004 American science fiction psychological thriller film directed by Joseph Ruben and starring Julianne Moore, Dominic West, Gary Sinise, Alfre Woodard, Linus Roache, and Anthony Edwards. The film's plot revolves around a woman who lost her son in a plane crash 14 months earlier, only to wake up one morning and be told that she never had a son. All of her memories are intact, but with no physical evidence that contradicts the claims of her husband and her psychiatrist, and she sets out in search for solid evidence of her son's existence.

The Forgotten was produced by Revolution Studios for Columbia Pictures and was released in the United States and Canada on September 24, 2004.

Plot
Telly Paretta grieves the loss of her son Sam, who died 14 months prior in a plane crash. She holds regular vigils in his undisturbed bedroom, visits his grave, and meets with a therapist to deal with her grief, though her husband, Jim, wants to move on.

Returning from work one afternoon, Telly finds that her photo album of Sam no longer contains his photos. Furious, she confronts Jim for trying to forget, but her husband shocks her with a counter accusation: That she is, in actuality, delusional and that they have never had a son.

Hurt, Telly begins reaching out to acquaintances to confirm Sam's existence; however, her friend Eliot doesn't appear to believe in Sam's existence despite her closeness to him. Looking for concrete evidence, Dr. Munce, her therapist, meets with her and Jim. She is told that she was pregnant, but that she miscarried and "Sam" is her delusional fantasy about how her life would have been different if he had lived. He recommends that she be sent to a hospital, but she runs away.

Fleeing and still adamant that Sam is real, she locates Ash, whose daughter Lauren was Sam's friend and died in the same crash. She finds Lauren's drawings underneath wallpaper in Ash's apartment, and tries to convince him they were made by his daughter. However, he also dismisses her and claims he never had a daughter, and calls the police. Shaken by Telly's certainty, he looks at the drawings again, and suddenly remembers his daughter and losing her.

Chasing after Telly, he rescues her from the police and they go into hiding, pursued by NSA agents. On the run, they speculate about who would have the power, resources, and motive to want to make them forget about their children.

Telly and Ash capture and threaten a pursuing agent, who reluctantly reveals that he and other agents are merely helping "them" in order to protect humankind. Without warning, the roof of the house blows off and the agent, along with the roof, is sucked into the sky—presumably taken by "them"—and Telly and Ash flee.

Eventually, Telly visits Dr. Munce again and he reveals that the disappearances are the work of "them", and that the government monitors their trials, all too aware that they have no power to stop "them" from doing whatever they want.

Munce takes Telly to an airport and the dilapidated hangar of Quest Airlines, where he introduces her to an agent of "them". He tells the agent that it's over and to stop the experiment, because it will only cause more harm. But the agent replies that it's not over. He reveals to Telly that she has been a part of an experiment to test whether the bonds between mother and child can be diminished. In her case, her memories could not be fully erased.

Telly refuses to deny her son's existence. The agent mentions that if he fails to erase her memory then he will look like a failure. The agent then subdues her and convinces her to think of the first memory she had of Sam. Telly thinks of the day he was born in the hospital, which allows the agent to successfully erase Sam's memory from existence.

As the agent is walking away thinking he has succeeded, Telly's motherly bond kicks in deeper to the time she was pregnant with Sam, triggering her memory that she indeed had life in her at one time. All of her memories of Sam return. Before the agent can comprehend what's happening, part of the hangar roof is suddenly blown off, and he's yanked into the sky himself for his failure to erase her memory. This ends the experiment.

Telly finds herself living a normal life, with memories of everything that has happened. She reunites with Sam at a park. Also at the park is Ash, watching over his daughter. Like Sam, he has no memory of what has happened. Telly reintroduces herself, and the two sit and watch the kids play in the playground.

Production
Revolution Studios purchased the script in 2001 and lobbied for Nicole Kidman to play the lead role. Julianne Moore was cast in 2003, and the rest of the cast was announced shortly before filming began.

Filming
Principal photography mostly took place in New York City, beginning on October 25, 2003.

Release
The film was released theatrically on September 24, 2004.

Basic cable
When the film was aired on basic cable the accident was changed, with all mentions of "plane" and "airport" dubbed to "bus" and "terminal".

Box office
The film opened September 24, 2004 in the United States and Canada and grossed $21 million in 3,104 theaters its opening weekend, ranking #1 at the box office

The film cost $42 million to produce and it eventually grossed $67.1 million in the U.S. and Canada and $50.4 million in other territories, for a worldwide gross of $117.5 million.

Critical reception
Critics gave the film generally mixed-to-negative reviews. On the review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes, 31% of critics gave the film positive reviews, based on 172 reviews with an average rating of 5/10. The website's critical consensus states that "The premise grows too ridiculous to take seriously". On Metacritic, the film had an average score of 43 out of 100, based on 34 reviews, indicating "mixed or average reviews". Roger Ebert gave the film 2 stars out of 4 stating, "The Forgotten is not a good movie, but at least it supplies a credible victim."

title: The Forgotten (2004 film)


text: File:Mykotronx Fortezza card.navy.jpg

title: File:Mykotronx Fortezza card.navy.jpg


text:
Talk:Peterborough Chronicle

Top
I really resent this being classified as a dubious historical source. It's first class as a historical source, in fact. There is 0% chance that the material comes from later than the period it describes, so it is an absolutely invaluable first hand record of the Anarchy. From the point of view of historicity, it's perfect. Secondly, it is also an absolutely priceless historical document from the point of view of understanding early Middle English. For understanding the patterns of literacy, the persistence of Anglo-Saxon in the Norman era, and for figuring out how the language was changing in the midlands, the Peterborough Chronicle is without parallel. Finally, as a philosophical and intellectual history source, this is unimpeachable. There is no "doubt" about it whatsoever. This Chronicle shows, first, ecclesiastic affairs in minutia. Secondly, it shows the persistence of history itself when it had been brought to a halt elsewhere by the Northmen from France. Finally, it is a record that shows us the existence of ecclesiastical parties in the court and how the monks felt about bishops who were, in fact, entirely secular. It is, in short, very, very wrong to label this a source of "doubtful" historical value. Scholars have to be sane and realize that it's first hand, but that's not the same thing as saying they should be doubtful. That's why I'm going to revert the category that Neutrality put on this article. Geogre 19:12, 6 Oct 2004 (UTC) Issues resolved by removal of the category tag. Geogre 14:46, 8 August 2005 (UTC)

Sorry to come to this one late, but Peterborough Chronicle does have some doubtful passages. I'm thinking particularly of the final paragraph of 1137, which alleges that Jews tortured a Christian child as a blasphemy of the passion, and which subsequently developed into a whole collection of legends. This is analysed in 'La Question du meutre rituel chez les Juifs' (E. Vacandard, in Etudes de critique d'histoire religiues III, 1912, 313-77), and others. It's generally accepted that, even if an incident did occur, the chronicler fundamentally misunderstood it.Martin Turner 12:04, 10 December 2006 (UTC)
 * Well, I don't doubt that there are mistakes and absolute inventions, but there is a difference between saying, "The account this article is about is factually suspect" and saying, "This is a dubious historical source." From the point of view of a historian, it's a primary historical document, and history is the narrative we create about the past, not the facts of the past.  In other words, primary sources are never good or bad history, because they're primaries: the history comes from historians, not eye witnesses and gossips.  The monks were dubious in some other areas, too, like the Wild Hunt.  I don't believe that the devil was really out hunting, but the monks did, and neither do I believe that there were black masses being performed by Jews, but the monks did.  As the material of a history all the Chronicles are invaluable and not doubtful at all.  As histories...well, they're highly limited.  In an eleventh century or twelfth century mind, a dragon or wild hunt or black mass was a rational narrative to explain cause and effect, although we think it's ridiculous.  So, as historians, they were acting with limitations of time and perspective and knowledge, but I really hope no one would be tempted to read them as good historians of the things that their perspectives blind them to.  (Isn't it Winchester that has dragons showing up before the Norse raids?)  We take the parts of their accounts that satisfy our historical method and reject (I hope) the nutty stuff, the same way we would Samuel Pepys's diary.  Geogre 12:33, 10 December 2006 (UTC)

Characters
Initially, I had not inserted any ashes, thorns, or eths. Since one editor very properly inserted an ash in "scæ," I have decided to go back and be precise (as I should have been all along). Therefore, I have gone back to the Bennett and Smithers text, which, although not definitive, is reliable, and followed their text exactly. If I miss any, please let me know, as there shouldn't be any more. I.e. at this point, if a th appears instead of an eth, the th is supposed to be the monk's intent and not my laxity (I hope). Geogre 12:47, 4 October 2005 (UTC)

Why are we using Bennett and Smithers, not Cecily Clarke (1958 and 1970)? I understand there's a new diplomatic edition in preparation, but, for the rest, Clarke has been considered __the__ critical text for at least tweny years now. MartinTurner 20:50, 2 December 2006 (UTC)

 * Bennett and Smithers is what I had access to. If these citations, and there are few of them, have substantive reading differences in another edition, then, by all means, change the quotations.  If one were going to do an in depth article on the Chronicle rather than an introduction or overview, then one would need a scholarly edition with superior apparatus, but I shouldn't imagine there is sufficient difference for making an objection for the passage in question.  I welcome a better text, but I own B&S and the poor library near me had no edition at all.  Geogre 21:05, 2 December 2006 (UTC)

Fair comment. I'll go through Cecily Clarke some time this week to check if there are substantive differences.MartinTurner 19:25, 3 December 2006 (UTC) Now done. Mostly eths and thorns, but there were a couple of substantive changes which affect the sense. MartinTurner 18:32, 4 December 2006 (UTC)

Linking God and Christ
I disagree with unlinking these. Although it's arguable that everyone knows what the terms refer to, that argument would imply that the terms would never be linked, and therefore there would be no linking of similarly common terms, such as English Civil War or Wars of the Roses or American Civil War or Henry VIII of England. If the "link only what is necessary" project were truly underway, we'd be unhooking a number of obvious terms. I felt that the two should be linked because the references show a medieval understanding of God and Jesus. The monks believe that the harvest, for example, fails when "Christ slept." They accept the horrors of the civil war as a scourge of God's. This is not so different from Sermo Lupi ad Anglos, by Wulfstan, where he argued that the Viking raiders were a scourge to an impious generation. The links to God and Jesus were not really meant to tell a reader of this article what the terms mean, but rather to tell them a different way of reading those articles because of what they know from this one. Geogre 00:47, 6 October 2005 (UTC)
 * That's cool, though I still think they'd be better unlinked. I didn't say link only what's necessary, I said link only what's relevant to the context. That does not by any means imply that the terms would not be linked in other contexts. They're both most appropriately linked in Monotheism, for example. And I doubt that readers would deliberately click on the links for the purpose you outline, I for instance wouldn't  wilfully interrupt an interesting read to chase after new ways of reading other articles. I'd only click if I reckoned I'd be likely to find something that threw light on this article. And if I didn't find it, I'd be disappointed, because I have come to regard the bluelink as an implicit promise of something helpful.
 * You really think Wars of the Roses etc. are "similarly common" as Jesus?

Oh, blue links helpful? Well, that's a concept. No, I'm not sure I think of blue links as helpful, except when I want to chase down an alley or find out what is meant by an obscure term. Basically, my position on "link only when relevant" would be, "I will if everybody else does." After all, I began, way back when, thinking that the articles were ridiculously overlinked and thinking it offensive to expect a reader to not know what "God" means even in Monotheism. I regard Jesus and God as relevant here in a number of ways. First, the account I give kind of lets people forget that these are monks writing, that everything is in terms of God and Jesus, and the link's color sort of reminds folks of that. Second, I think it is important to know who Jesus is, as He's under discussion, in that line. No, though, of course Wars of the Roses isn't as well known as the others. I was being a bit irritable. (And that because I felt like I was being subjected to a reform. There have been many reforms lately, and I'm feeling older and crankier by the day.)  Geogre 01:37, 6 October 2005 (UTC)

Henry VIII vs. Reformation
I had "dispersal of the monasteries under Henry VIII." That, to me, is far more precise than "during the Protestant Reformation," because the Reformation had nothing to do with books getting destroyed anywhere else. Specifically, Henry seized the lands and possessions of the monasteries. As a result, monastic libraries fell into private hands or were destroyed. This created an enormous bout of Old English amnesia, and that has everything to do with discussing the sources of the Peterborough Chronicle's accounts of the early 12th century. The Protestants weren't against early Middle English, but Henry was against the Roman Church owning land, and so he nationalized and broke it up, and that destroyed our hopes of knowing enough about OE and eME literature. England had a better vernacular literature than any nation in Europe until Henry VIII, and it suddenly had a worse one after him. Some collectors like Laud would snatch up volumes indiscriminately (because they couldn't read the contents), and that was possible as late as Harley and Percy in the 18th century, but it was the act of closing monasteries that did it. Geogre 01:25, 6 October 2005 (UTC) :I didn't catch that it was a person who knew all that who made the change. Sorry for being pedantic to one who doesn't need it. My apologies. I think it would be cool if the Henry VIII article had a section on the effects of closing the monasteries, or if Old English literature or Middle English literature had a section on why specimens are hard to come by, or if there were an article on Loss of medieval English texts (but with a title that could actually be found by someone) so that there would be a concise way of referring to the whole complex of historical events that resulted in English "beginning" with Chaucer and the courtly poets. We need something that can separate the literary practicalities of anti-Catholicism from the general effects of the Reformation in England. Geogre 01:41, 6 October 2005 (UTC)

Well, this is what happens when I don't honor our glorious forebearers. The whole issue is mooted by the discovery of Dissolution of the Monasteries, which I found, incidentally, in Winchester Cathedral. :-) Geogre 01:52, 6 October 2005 (UTC)

 * Somebody must have changed it by the time I got there, then, because at that point it read only "The Peterborough copyists probably used multiple sources for their chronicle, but the destruction of many of the chronicles during the reign of Henry VIII makes it impossible to tell." No monasteries. I wouldn't have changed it if the monasteries had been in there, but I thought "during the reign of Henry VIII" demanded a little historical knowledge from the reader, which it would be better if the text supplied. Hence my "Reformation" change. -Bishonen | talk 07:31, 6 October 2005 (UTC)
 * PS. But the unlinking and the Reformation weren't meant as reforms; changing them in the article just seemed the simplest way of making suggestions. Changing back is easy. Bishonen | talk 10:06, 6 October 2005 (UTC).

At any rate, it should work now. In most cases, when someone makes a change, I think about it a lot before changing back. I'm just glad that there is an article on Wikipedia that describes the events that led to so many works being lost. It's a blue link that can actually be helpful. Geogre 10:31, 6 October 2005 (UTC)
 * I only made the addition because there wasn't anything there about the Reformation or the dispersal of the monasteries. Sorry if it caused trouble. Bishonen | talk 17:30, 9 October 2005 (UTC)

Dearth?
The word "dearth" appears twice in the article. Is the first one supposed to be "death"? Or if "dearth" is the intended meaning, maybe "famine" would be stronger as well as avoiding the appearance of a typo.

Stephen Turner 14:43, 6 October 2005 (UTC)

Thanks. You're right. I haven't checked to see if either is a typo, but, supposing both were intended, it's too unusual a word to use twice in such a short article. I'll make the change. Geogre 17:33, 6 October 2005 (UTC)
 * And, once it got on the main page, someone decided that "dearth" must have been a typo and changed it to "death."  O tempore O mores!  (Oh, and the links grew positively incontinent.)  So it goes.  Non-ownership of one's words and all that. Geogre 12:51, 11 November 2005 (UTC)

 * At least I asked rather than changing it. :-) I have long thought that featured articles should be protected for the one day they're on the front page. I assume there's some long series of arguments about this somewhere... Stephen Turner 13:09, 11 November 2005 (UTC)

 * Nah. It's no big deal, really.  I mean I figure that the real work on an FA is the day after it has been on the main page, because that's when you have to determine if any non-vandalism was actually helpful.  I understand the instinct of people who want to link everything in the world, and I don't mind.  I figure it's the thought that counts, but I will put "dearth" back in there.  After all, it's a cool word, but you were right that it's too cool to be there twice.  Geogre 13:56, 11 November 2005 (UTC)

Featured
Congratulations! Bishonen | talk 17:30, 9 October 2005 (UTC)

Chronicles' End
I was dissapointed that there wasn't more discussion of why the chronicle ended, or what happend to it between the time it ceased being updated and the time it ended up in the hands of William Laud. -- 18:48, 11 November 2005 (UTC)

 * Largely, we don't know. We know about Laud's acquisition, but not about why the chronicle ended.  We assume that the new abbot stopped it, but the fact is that there simply are no words beyond that spot to tell us.  The monastic authors wouldn't have said, being obedient monks, and other sources are few, in Latin, and unconcerned with some "trivial" matters.  As for the acquisition by Laud, that had to do with the dissolution of the monasteries.  Henry VIII closed the monasteries.  The program was not completed overnight, and it continued all the way to the time of Laud himself.  Each monastery's holdings were seized, supposedly by the crown, and that meant, often, that local lords and church officials got the documents.  Laud is a good part of this story, because he preserved what he got and gave it to Oxford.  Other people were not so good.  One Anglo-Saxon poem, for example (Waltherus), was discovered as a wadded up padding for a book binding.  Once people ceased being able to read Old English, they started lighting fires with manuscript pages, scraping off text and reusing the paper, and using the paper as wadding.  Geogre 19:30, 11 November 2005 (UTC)

The final entries look beyond the years 1137 and 1138, so they were clearly completed substantially after this time. This, of course, makes it all the more mysterious, because if the new abbot stopped them writing, why didn't he stop them when he became abbot, and, if not, why did they only date their entries so far, but continue beyond? I don't have an answer, btw.Martin Turner 00:00, 4 January 2007 (UTC)

 * No, nor I. It seems like it's the new abbot (because the last entries are not concurrent), but no one knows.  They wouldn't talk about why they weren't talking, after all, and they wouldn't complain in a Chronicle, if they were good monks.  The supporters of the Abbot-did-it camp argue that the last entries were done during brief abbotcies or in disobedience, surreptitiously or when there was a change in administration.  Other theories...well...no one knows.  However, they come to a grinding halt all around the isle at about the same spot well before Peterborough, so it would seem to be something at least marginally coordinated among the Norman headmen.  Certainly, they had a different view of history, but that's not enough to explain it by itself.  Geogre 03:28, 4 January 2007 (UTC)

Why not a lax monastery?
I do not understand this sentence in section Peterborough Chronicle: It does not seem likely that Peterborough was in any sense a lax or secular monastery, as the description of drunkenness causing the fire would not have made the abbey singular in the age. - drunken monks were not unusual then, therefore the monastery was likely to have been strict? I cannot follow the logic here. -Wikibob | Talk 10:16, 12 November 2005 (UTC)

 * I think it means "the drunkenness doesn't necessarily imply that the monastery was lax". But I agree it's not very well phrased. Stephen Turner 10:35, 12 November 2005 (UTC)

Essentially, the account of the fire in the Chronicle is a bit ambiguous. It was caused by drunkenness, but whether that was on the part of the brothers or the laity in the town is ambiguous. However, supposing that it was due to the brothers, fires themselves were common. In an age before fire departments and of wooden buildings, any fire could destroy a whole complex. Therefore, a single forgetful or drunken person could conceivably be the "Mrs. O'Leary's Cow" of Peterborough. There is no reason to say that the incident indicates a bacchanal or some golliardism. Their admission in the Chronicle that drinking caused the fire could be 1) taking the blame unnecessarily (as the monks would say that the reign of Stephen was "for our sins"), 2) just an attribution of cause and not self-flagellation, 3) just an accident. In other words, it wasn't a bad house, and the fire isn't any evidence of moral weakness.  The monks were liable to blame themselves for everything, and yet they don't blame themselves for the fire.  If they don't, then we shouldn't, either.  Geogre 13:27, 12 November 2005 (UTC)

Not clear to me
I had a difficulty with the following paragraph, though it may just be me:

"When William the Conqueror took England and Anglo-Norman became the official language, the Anglo-Saxon Chronicles generally ceased. The monks of Peterborough Abbey, however, continued to compile events in theirs. While the Peterborough Chronicle is not professional history, and one still needs Latin histories (e.g. William of Malmesbury's Gesta Regum Anglorum), it is one of the few first-hand accounts of the period from 1070 to 1154 in England written in English and from a non-courtly point of view."

Since there was a fire, one would suppose that Peterborough's entire version of the Chronicle was destroyed. Indeed, it says later in the article that other versions were copied to make up the missing years and that this version doesn't become unique until 1122. If it was copied from other versions, it cannot therefore be a first-hand account of the period from 1070 to 1122. Also, if there were versions available to copy for that period, the Anglo-Saxon Chronicles could not have generally ceased: perhaps most versions ceased but some obviously continued, though they may now be lost.

Even so, it's a fascinating article. qp10qp 14:45, 25 May 2007 (UTC)
 * Well, are we at a loggerheads with the exact dates? I got the range of dates from Bennett, but they do have troubles.  The fire occurs 1122.  From 1122 - 1154, this is the sole source for non-courtly, English history.  The question is 1066 - 1122?  I think that can be answered the following way, but here I'm trying to explain Bennett and not myself.  Winchester's goes to around 1080 or 1100, and Peterborough copied it.  From 1080 - 1122, Peterborough contains new (to us) material that the "first continuation" author put in from a putative "Kentish chronicle."  It has all sorts of things that we find here and there, but it puts it into its own order, and the first continuation author also puts in things from his memory (we guess), so it becomes, as Bennett says.
 * The rest of your 2nd paragraph is absolutely right. The Chronicles petered out (so to speak), and there is a supposed lost one that might have gone a little later than Parker.  The hard core "I can't believe they kept going" stuff is The Anarchy of Stephen and Matilda.
 * Your problem isn't just you, but I was more or less quoting, and Bennett cannot be asked. I could and perhaps should edit, though, to make it more precise than Bennett was.  It's just that his is one of those grandee names that inspires awe and fear in medievalists.  He could contradict himself all day long, and yet he would probably be right in the end.  Geogre 20:37, 25 May 2007 (UTC)

 * Bearing in mind what you have said, I have changed "of the period" to "from the period". This covers a multitude of possibilities, I think. qp10qp 01:44, 26 May 2007 (UTC)

MS links
I've linked a couple of the specific manuscript redlinks to the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle section of the ASC article. I haven't done this for the Kentish Chronicle redlink, as there isn't much mention of such a chronicle there, though perhaps there should be. Mike Christie (talk) 09:38, 25 June 2007 (UTC)
 * No indeed. In fact, I would have always preferred that there be no link, but I was trying not to WP:OWN and all that.  During FAC or during its time on the main page, one, someone came along and "helped" by bracketing Kentish Chronicle.  Since the dang thing is purely hypothetical, and not really an hypothesis with any strength to it, we can never have an article there.  What would we say, "A proposed but lost version of the Anglo-Saxon Chronicles that could help explain some of the localisms found in surviving Kentish MSS?"  That would be a definition, and the article that sent them there (this one), would have already explained it.  I didn't want to seem ungrateful for the editing attention or hurt anyone's feelings, so I've left it red all this time, but no longer.  Geogre 11:43, 25 June 2007 (UTC)

title: Talk:Peterborough Chronicle


text:
Tenzin Wangyal Rinpoche

Tenzin Wangyal Rinpoche (Tib. o thog bstan 'dzin dbang rgyal) is a teacher (lama) of the Bon Tibetan religious tradition. He is founder and director of the Ligmincha Institute and several centers named Chamma Ling, organizations dedicated to the study and practice of the teachings of the Bon tradition.

Life
Tenzin Wangyal's parents fled the Chinese invasion of Tibet and later, in 1961, he was born in Amritsar, India. At the age of eleven, he began dzogchen training from both Buddhist and Bon teachers. He began an eleven-year traditional course of instruction at Bonpo Monastic Center and in 1986 attained the degree of Geshe, the highest academic degree of traditional Tibetan culture. That same year, Tenzin Wangyal began employment at the Library of Tibetan Works and Archives in Dharamsala, India.

In 1988 he began to teach in Italy at the invitation of Chögyal Namkhai Norbu. In 1991, he was awarded a Rockefeller Fellowship at Rice University in Houston, Texas. A second Rockefeller Fellowship followed in 1993.

Tenzin Wangyal has chosen to stay in the United States and teach ancient Bon traditions to Western students.

Tenzin Wangyal has an interest in the interpretation, control and application of dreams and has written fairly extensively on lucid dreaming and dream yoga as well as Dzogchen in Bon tradition.

title: Tenzin Wangyal Rinpoche


text:
Talk:Butter tart

Notability
As further evidence of their notability, I just realized that butter tarts are mentioned in the song "Steal My Sunshine" by Len. I don't think this is worthy of mention in the article itself, so I thought I would make a note here instead. Adam Bishop 16:00, 15 Mar 2005 (UTC)

Butter tarts in Len song
What a butter tard actually is was running gag between me and a few other people in high school. One of us eventually looked up what a butter tart actually was, which solved the mystery.

Anyway, I think a lot of Americans who actually listened to the lyrics of the song had a similiar reaction... --Jpawloski 21:27, 27 January 2006 (UTC)

 * That's how I heard of it. I'm listening to it now actually. Len - "Steal My Sunshine" 67.189.48.254 17:50, 8 April 2007 (UTC)

Butter tarts made #4 on the Yahoo top searches September 2nd, 2007. Having heard the Len song (and being from California), I always wondered what they were. I added the song lyric. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 71.202.69.17 (talk) 04:19, 3 September 2007 (UTC)

I have transferred this sentence from the article:

they also became famous in The USA when mentioned in the song "steal my sunshine" by L.E.N in the late 1990's.

If someone cares to clean it up it might belong in the article as In Popular Culture. I know neither the song nor the group. Varlaam (talk) 04:15, 30 June 2011 (UTC)

POV
The last paragraph isn't very neutral. It seems to push a pov that butter tarts are best when they're made using the directions/ingredients specified in that paragraph. "Tarts should be chin-drippy when eaten warm, never eggy-solid." Says who?! Opinions regarding the best way to make butter tarts should be kept out of the article unless explicitely stated as (attributed) opinions and not facts. 207.6.31.119 07:16, 11 February 2006 (UTC)
 * I've simply removed the whole paragraph. There wasn't anything worth keeping, as far as I could tell. —Cleared as filed. 19:04, 11 February 2006 (UTC)

Decrease height?
I remember reading on some site that butter tarts decrease your height. Is this true, ir is this just me being dangerously naive? If it's true, would it be worth adding to the article? 68.151.17.131 (talk) 15:54, 10 April 2009 (UTC) If you can find a scientific source for this claim, we should definitely add it; however, since that's totally ridiculous, I doubt you'll find a source. - TheMightyQuill (talk) 21:32, 10 April 2009 (UTC)

pecans etc
Raisins are the main filling. Pecans and other additional fillings are not real traditions. I've been around for over 50 years. There were always raisins. You must have raisins in a butter tart. Some people threw a few walnuts on top in my memory and maybe if someone else recalls pecans--ok... but they are not the norm. They are not part of the taste. And the raisins were there anyway. And a lot of peple didn't like the additional taste of the nuts. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 68.71.8.34 (talk) 01:30, 16 April 2012 (UTC)

"Other additional ingredients"
"Other additional ingredients may include currants, coconut, dates, butterscotch, chocolate chips, peanut butter, maple syrup or chai.[4]"

This is off topic imo. It is certainly not important in the article lead.

One can throw all sorts of weird ingredients into the bowl but the resulting products are not what most butter tart lovers would call butter tarts. CBHA (talk) 04:39, 18 March 2015 (UTC)

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title: Talk:Butter tart


text:
City of Refuge

City of Refuge may refer to:

Places

 * Cities of Refuge, the six biblical places referred to by that title
 * City of Refuge (Atlanta), a homeless ministry in Atlanta, Georgia
 * Puuhonua o Honaunau, the Hawaiian location known as "City of Refuge"
 * City of Refuge Church in Gardena, California, US, led by Noel Jones

Music

 * "City of Refuge", a song from Nick Cave and the Bad Seeds' album Tender Prey
 * City of Refuge (Abigail Washburn album), 2011, or the title song
 * City of Refuge (John Fahey album), 1997
 * City of Refuge, 2008 album by John French, onetime drummer for Captain Beefheart's Magic Band

title: City of Refuge


text:
Marc Reisner

Marc Reisner (September 14, 1948 – July 21, 2000) was an American environmentalist and writer best known for his book Cadillac Desert, a history of water management in the American West.

Early life
He was born in Minneapolis, Minnesota, the son of a lawyer and a scriptwriter, and graduated from Earlham College in 1970.

Career
For a time he was on the staffs of Environmental Action and the Population Institute in Washington, D.C. Starting in 1972, he worked for seven years as a staff writer and director of communications for the Natural Resources Defense Council in New York.

Writings and television work
In 1979 he received an Alicia Patterson Journalism Fellowship, which enabled him to conduct research and write Cadillac Desert, which was first published in 1986. According to The Guardian, Cadillac Desert illuminated the importance of water conservation in the American West with "the remarkable ability to explain entertainingly the complex, and often numbing, deals and disputes in the 'water wars' that have plagued the west." The book was a finalist for both the National Book Critics' Circle Award and the Bay Area Book Reviewers' Award (BABRA) that same year. In 1999, a Modern Library panel of authors and critics ranked it 61st on a list of the 100 most notable English-language works of nonfiction of the 20th century. It was later made into a documentary film series that premiered nationwide on PBS nationwide in 1997 and won a Columbia University/Peabody Award.

He went on to write additional books and helped develop a 1997 PBS documentary on water management that emphasized human endeavor in the building of dams. He was featured as an interviewee in Stephen Ives's 1996 PBS documentary series The West, which was produced by Ken Burns.

In 1997 he published a discussion paper for the American Farmland Trust on water policy and farmland protection.

Dam removal
Shortly before he died, he had won a Pew Charitable Trusts Fellowship to support efforts to restore Pacific salmon habitat through dam removal.

Sustainability
Reisner was also involved in efforts to promote sustainable agronomy and green entrepreneurship. In 1990, in partnership with the Nature Conservancy, he co-founded the Ricelands Habitat Partnership, an innovative program designed to enhance waterfowl habitat on California farmlands and reduce pollution by flooding rice fields in winter instead of burning the rice straw, as was then the common practice. He also joined in efforts to help California rice farmers develop eco-friendly products from compressed rice straw, and a separate project to promote water conservation through water transfers and groundwater banking.

Teaching
For a time, Reisner was a distinguished visiting professor at the University of California at Davis, lecturing on the relationship between urbanization and environmental concerns.

Criticism
In his later years, Reisner was criticized by environmentalists for his connection to two private companies that went against the values he presented in his books: one stored water underground for profit, and the other promoted the use of rice fibers in Western rice paddies. Reisner later stated that he had changed his mind about the latter due to its ability to provide habitat for birds.

Death
Reisner died of colon cancer on July 21, 2000, at his home in San Anselmo, California, survived by his wife, biochemist Lawrie Mott, and their two daughters Ruthie and Margot. His final book, A Dangerous Place, was completed before his death but did not appear in print until 2003.

Books

 * Cadillac Desert: The American West and Its Disappearing Water (1986, revised 1993). ISBN 0-14-017824-4
 * Overtapped Oasis: Reform or Revolution for Western Water (with Sarah Bates) (1990). ISBN 0-933280-75-0
 * Game Wars: The Undercover Pursuit of Wildlife Poachers (1992). ISBN 0-436-41053-2
 * A Dangerous Place: California's Unsettling Fate (2003). ISBN 0-14-200383-2

title: Marc Reisner


text:
Sugar Hill

Sugar Hill may refer to:

Places
In the United States:
 * Sugar Hill, Georgia, a city
 * Sugar Hill, New Hampshire, a town
 * Sugar Hill, Manhattan, New York, a section of Harlem
 * Sugar Hill, Pennsylvania, an unincorporated community
 * Sugar Hill Historic District (Detroit), Michigan
 * Sugar Hill (club), a blues and jazz club in San Francisco
 * Sugar Hill (Jacksonville), Florida, a historic African-American neighborhood in Jacksonville, Florida

Film and television

 * Sugar Hill (1994 film), a drama starring Wesley Snipes as drug dealer Roemello Skuggs
 * Sugar Hill (1974 film), a blaxploitation horror movie, later edited for TV and retitled The Zombies of Sugar Hill
 * Sugar Hill (TV program), the 1999 pilot for the sitcom Battery Park

Companies

 * Sugar Hill Records (bluegrass label), a label whose artists include Nickel Creek and Chris Hillman
 * Sugar Hill Records (hip hop label), an early hip hop label, whose artists included The Sugarhill Gang
 * SugarHill Recording Studios, Houston, Texas

Music

 * "Sugar Hill", written and sung by Dolly Parton on her album Halos & Horns
 * "Sugar Hill", a 1995 single by AZ that also appeared on his album Doe or Die

title: Sugar Hill


text:
Atomic Energy Act

Atomic Energy Act is a stock short title used for legislation in the United Kingdom and the United States relating to nuclear power and, or alternatively, nuclear weapons production.

The Bill for an Act with this short title will have been known as an Atomic Energy Bill during its passage through the Parliament of the United Kingdom.

See also Atomic Energy Authority Act.

United Kingdom

 * The Atomic Energy Act 1946 (c. 80)
 * The Atomic Energy (Miscellaneous Provisions) Act 1981 (c. 48)
 * The Atomic Energy Act 1989 (c. 7)
 * Atomic Energy Authority Act 1959 (c. 5)
 * Atomic Energy Authority Act 1954 (c. 32)

United States
In the United States, there are two federal laws known by the name:
 * The United States Atomic Energy Act of 1946 – first legislation governing nuclear weapons and nuclear power in the United States
 * The United States Atomic Energy Act of 1954 – a substantial amendment to the 1946 statute.

title: Atomic Energy Act