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Henry W. Grady

Henry Woodfin Grady (May 24, 1850 – December 23, 1889) was an American journalist and orator who helped reintegrate the states of the Confederacy into the Union after the American Civil War. Grady encouraged the industrialization of the South, with his coined term,"The New South". He was praised by contemporaries and by authors Shavin and Galphin as a civic promoter, political strategist and captivating speaker, and by Atlanta journalist Frederick Allen as a visionary. However, in modern times, Grady's arguments for the need for white supremacy in the post–Civil War South have resulted in his legacy being seen as mixed and overtly racist. Grady's name has been removed from several schools including Atlanta's former Grady High School. Grady was the father-in-law of Federal Reserve Chairman Eugene Robert Black and grandfather of banker and World Bank President Eugene R. Black Sr.

Early life
As a teenager, Henry Grady experienced fierce Civil War fighting in his home state of Georgia. His father William Sammons Grady was a Confederate States Army officer who died of wounds received at the Battle of the Crater. After his father's death, he was raised by his mother Anne in Athens, Georgia. He was educated in the classical tradition of a southern gentleman of the time at the University of Georgia (Bachelor of Arts in 1868). In 1867, he became a member of the Phi Kappa Literary Society, and later attended the University of Virginia to study law, but became especially interested in the Greek and Anglo-Saxon languages, history, and literature, which led to a career in journalism.

Grady was a lifelong devoted member of the Chi Phi Fraternity. He was a charter member of the Eta Chapter of Chi Phi at the University of Georgia. In 1882 he was elected as the first Grand Alpha (National President) from the south after the union of the Northern and Southern Orders of Chi Phi in 1871.

Journalist and editor
Upon graduation, he held a series of brief journalistic jobs with the Rome Courier, the Atlanta Herald, and the New York Herald. After working in New York City, Grady returned to the South as a reporter-editor for the Atlanta Constitution.

In 1880, with $20,000 borrowed from Cyrus West Field, Grady bought a one-fourth interest in the paper and began a nine-year career as one of Georgia's most celebrated journalist-publishers. On the business end, he quickly built the newspaper into the state's most influential, with a national circulation of 120,000.

In the tumultuous decades following Reconstruction, when hatreds lingered and many whites worked to re-establish white supremacy, Grady popularized an antithesis between the "old South" which "rested everything on slavery and agriculture, unconscious that these could neither give nor maintain healthy growth," and a "new south" – "thrilling with the consciousness of growing power and prosperity:"

"The new South presents a perfect democracy...; a social system compact and closely knitted, less splendid on the surface, but stronger at the core; a hundred farms for every plantation, fifty homes for every palace; and a diversified industry that meets the complex needs of this complex age"

as he said in an 1886 speech in New York. His audience included J. P. Morgan and H. M. Flagler at Delmonico's Restaurant, at a meeting of the New England Society of New York.

From 1882 to 1886, along with Nathaniel E. Harris, Grady promoted the founding in Atlanta of the Georgia Institute of Technology (Georgia Tech), a state vocational education school intended to train workers for new industries.

Orator and spokesman for the "New South"
Grady was also praised for his great passion for political oratory (he supported Prohibition and a Georgia veterans' home for disabled or elderly Confederate soldiers), commitment to the new peace, and well-known sense of humor. To a large crowd in Boston, Grady said "I am a talker by inheritance: my father was an Irishman and my mother was a woman."

That sense of humor got Grady through more than one difficult situation. Once at a banquet of northern elites, he was waxing eloquent about the brilliant prospects for northern investments in a New South determined to rise from the ashes of defeat. Grady spotted General William T. Sherman in the audience, the celebrated Yankee soldier who was credited with defeating and burning much of Georgia, and particularly Atlanta, on his infamous march to the sea. Without missing a beat, Grady acknowledged the general by noting that the people of Georgia thought Sherman an able military man, "but a mite careless about fire."

In another speech, Grady wanted to gently chastise his Southern audience for what he believed to be Georgia's economic shortcomings. Rather than pounding them with statistics, he entertained them with stories that made the points. He said:

"I attended a funeral once in Pickens county in my State. This funeral was peculiarly sad. It was a poor 'one gallus' fellow, whose breeches struck him under the armpits and hit him at the other end about the knee—he didn't believe in decollete clothes. They buried him in the midst of a marble quarry: they cut through solid marble to make his grave, yet a little tombstone they put above him was from Vermont. They buried him in the heart of a pine forest, and yet the pine coffin was imported from Cincinnati. They buried him within touch of an iron mine, and yet the nails in his coffin and the iron in the shovel that dug his grave were imported from Pittsburg. They buried him by the side of the best sheep-grazing country on the earth, and yet the wool in the coffin bands and the coffin bands themselves were brought from the North. The South didn't furnish a thing on earth for that funeral but the corpse and the hole in the ground. There they put him away and the clods rattled down on his coffin, and they buried him in a New York coat and a Boston pair of shoes and a pair of breeches from Chicago and a shirt from Cincinnati, leaving him nothing to carry into the next world with him to remind him of the country in which he lived, and for which he fought for four years, but the chill of blood in his veins and the marrow in his bones." The Georgia Historical Quarterly brought that story full circle, noting Grady's response to the eventual growth of quarries in Pickens County. He boasted that the grave he had so often referenced in his speeches lay less than 100 yards from one of the quarries. Grady believed, according to the Quarterly, that he had lived long enough to see his vision of an industrially independent New South come true. Grady's prestige reached such a height that he became the only non-member ever to adjourn the Georgia Legislature. It occurred on the election of Grover Cleveland to the presidency. News of the close contest arrived at 11 a.m. during the Legislature's session. In his exuberance, Grady rushed to the Capitol with the announcement. He brushed past the doorkeeper and into the chamber shouting in senatorial tones, "Mr. Speaker, a message from the American people." Sensing the purpose of the intrusion, the Speaker offered Grady a place by his side. However, Grady strode up the aisle to the Speaker's desk, grabbed the Speaker's gavel, and cried out, "In the name of the American people, I declare this House adjourned in honor of the election of the first Democratic President in twenty-five years."

White supremacy
Grady's conception of the New South was based on the social supremacy of whites over blacks, according to his own words: Grady stated in 1888, "the supremacy of the white race of the South must be maintained forever, and the domination of the negro race resisted at all points and at all hazards, because the white race is the superior race... [This declaration] shall run forever with the blood that feeds Anglo-Saxon hearts". This was not the first time that Grady had advocated for the supremacy of whites over blacks. In his 1887 speech to the State Fair of Texas in Dallas, Grady stated: "Standing in the presence of this multitude, sobered with the responsibility of the message I deliver to the young men of the South, I declare that the truth above all others to be worn unsullied and sacred in your hearts, to be surrendered to no force, sold for no price, compromised in no necessity, but cherished and defended as the covenant of your prosperity, and the pledge of peace to your children, is that the white race must dominate forever in the South, because it is the white race, and superior to that race by which its supremacy is threatened."

Some argue other Henry Grady quotes paint a different picture. In December 1886, he opened his famous New South speech by repeating the words of Georgia Senator Benjamin H. Hill: "There was a South of slavery and secession -- that South is dead. There is a South of Union and freedom -- that South, thank God, is living, breathing, growing every hour."

Under Grady's editorial guidance, the Constitution wrote about lynching with levity, condoning and even encouraging it. One headline read, "The Triple Trapeze: Three Negroes Hung to a Limb of a Tree." Another rhymed, "Two Minutes to Pray Before a Rope Dislocated Their Vertebrae." University of Massachusetts Amherst

Journalism Professor Kathy Roberts Forde, sees it this way: "Grady may have united Southern and Northern whites, but he did not unite the country. Rather, he excluded black Americans from the union of North and South and the national democratic project that union represented."

Death
On December 12, 1889, Grady delivered a speech in Boston at Faneuil Hall titled "The Race Problem in the South". Grady was already ill, and the weather was terrible. His health worsened to the point that he barely made it back to Georgia. By the time he made it to the depot at Atlanta, he was too exhausted to appreciate the reception prepared for him and had to be shielded from the crowd and escorted home by his physician.

By December 23, he was diagnosed with pneumonia and died that day at his home in Atlanta. He was buried on Christmas Day 1889, first in a friend's crypt at Oakland Cemetery because of family finances. His body was re-interred at Westview Cemetery when it opened soon afterward.

Legacy and honors
Grady County in Georgia and Oklahoma were named in his honor, as was Grady, Alabama. Places in Atlanta named for him include Grady Memorial Hospital, the now-demolished Henry Grady Hotel, and the Henry W. Grady College of Journalism and Mass Communication at the University of Georgia. Henry W. Grady High School was renamed in December 2020 to Midtown High School, due to Grady's white supremacist philosophy.

The city erected a statue in his honor in 1891. During the 1906 Atlanta race riot, mob members laid the bodies of three of their African-American victims at the base of the statue. the statue still stands on Marietta Street in the heart of downtown Atlanta. Other places include Henry Woodfin Grady Elementary School in Tampa, Florida. Henry W. Grady Middle School in Houston, Texas, was renamed in 2016.

In 1931 Grady was the first person inducted into the Georgia Newspaper Hall of Fame, memorialized via a bust by artist Steffen Thomas. During World War II the Liberty ship SS Henry W. Grady was built in Brunswick, Georgia and named in his honor.

Grady's family grave site in Atlanta was desecrated in June 2020.

title: Henry W. Grady


text:
Donnington Castle

Donnington Castle is a ruined medieval castle, situated in the small village of Donnington, just north of the town of Newbury in the English county of Berkshire. It was founded by Sir Richard Abberbury the Elder in 1386 and was bought by Thomas Chaucer before the castle was taken under royal control during the Tudor period. During the First English Civil War the castle was held by the royalist Sir John Boys and withstood an 18-month siege; after the garrison eventually surrendered, Parliament voted to demolish Donnington Castle in 1646. Only the gatehouse survives. The site is a scheduled monument under the care of English Heritage.

History
The manor of Donnington had been owned by the Adderbury family since 1292, Donnington Castle was built by its original owner, Sir Richard Abberbury the Elder, under a licence granted by Richard II in 1386. The surviving castle gatehouse dates from this time. In 1398, the castle was sold to Thomas Chaucer, son of the poet Geoffrey Chaucer, as a residence for his daughter Alice, who later became Duchess of Suffolk. The Duke of Suffolk William De La Pole made Donnington his occasional residence, and considerably enlarged the buildings.

This family later fell out with the Tudor monarchs, and the castle became a royal property. In 1514 it was given to Charles Brandon, 1st Duke of Suffolk. Though Brandon appears to have stayed at the Donnington Castle in 1516, by the time the castle and manor returned to the Crown in 1535 the structure was in a state of decay. King Henry VIII, Edward VI, and Queen Elizabeth I visited Donnington Castle, in 1539, 1552, and 1568 respectively.

In 1590 Elizabeth I granted keepership to Elizabeth Cooke (Lady Russell), the first woman to hold such a title in England. In 1600, Elizabeth I gave the castle and surrounding manor to Charles Howard, 1st Earl of Nottingham. Howard took possession in September 1603 and Russell disputed his rights. By the time the English Civil War broke out in 1643, the castle was owned by the Parliamentarian John Packer family but after the First Battle of Newbury it was taken for the King, Charles I, and held by Sir John Boys. They quickly enhanced the castle's defences by adding earthworks in a star shape to provide gun emplacements. Parliamentarians laid siege to the castle in October 1644 and the garrison held out for 18 months. With permission from the king, Boys surrendered the castle in April 1646 and was allowed to leave with all his men.

In 1646 Parliament voted to demolish the castle; only the gatehouse was left standing though the 17th-century earthworks can still be seen. The castle is now in the care of English Heritage and is a scheduled ancient monument number 1007926. The castle stayed in the Packer family until the mid 18th century, when Robert Packer married Mary Winchcombe, and the property passed into the Winchcombe family tree. From 1833 to 1881 the manor and castle was owned by Winchcombe Henry Howard Hartley,

Layout
Donnington Castle was originally built in a roughly rectangular form, though the west facade projected outwards irregularly. It was enclosed by a curtain wall, with a round tower at each of the four corners. Roughly halfway along the two walls running from west to east were two square towers. The courtyard enclosed by the curtain walls would probably have contained a hall, kitchens, and accommodation for guests. Measured from the inner sides of the curtain walls, the courtyard measured 67 ft north to south and 108 ft east to west.

During the Civil War star-shaped defences were built around the castle to facilitate gun emplacements. Only the gatehouse, crested by battlements, survived the castle's destruction in 1646; standing three storeys high, it measures 17.5 by internally. Modern walls standing 0.5 m high outline the original layout of the demolished castle. The star-shaped earthworks added during the Civil War are still visible, surviving to a height of 1.7 m.

Castle Occupants
Donnington Castle's close association with the English monarchy dates back to its construction under a license granted by Richard II to the Adderbury family. Although the castle changed hands several times, it eventually became the property of the royal family, and consequently, many notable figures closely linked to the English monarchy visited Donnington.

Among the most prominent residents of Donnington were Sir Richard Abberbury the Elder, the original owner of the castle and Chamberlain to Anne of Bohemia; Alice Chaucer, Duchess of Suffolk; William de la Pole, 1st Duke of Suffolk; Charles Brandon, 1st Duke of Suffolk and 1st Viscount Lisle; King Henry VIII; King Edward VI; Queen Elizabeth I; Elizabeth Cooke, Lady Russell; Charles Howard, 1st Earl of Nottingham; John Packer, Parliamentarian, and secretary to George Villiers, Duke of Buckingham; Sir John Boys, the Royalist Governor of Donnington Castle; and Robert Packer, a politician and Member of Parliament.

In Popular Culture
Donnington Castle appears in an episode of The Saint called 'Little Girl Lost', first broadcast on 2 December 1966.

The castle appeared in the Children's Film Foundation feature A Hitch in Time (1978), starring Patrick Troughton.

The twin-towered gatehouse is depicted on the cover of the compilation album The Best of Tenpole Tudor : Swords of a Thousand Men (2001).

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Donnington Castle


text:
2000 CONCACAF Gold Cup

The 2000 CONCACAF Gold Cup was the fifth edition of the Gold Cup, the soccer championship of North America, Central America and the Caribbean (CONCACAF), and the 15th overall CONCACAF tournament. It was held in Los Angeles, Miami, and San Diego in the United States. The format of the tournament changed from 1998; it was expanded to twelve teams, split into four groups of three. The top two teams in each group would advance to the quarter-finals. Peru and Colombia were invited from CONMEBOL, and the Republic of Korea was invited from AFC.

With all three games in Group D ending in ties and Canada tied with the Republic of Korea on every tiebreaker, a coin toss was used. Canada won and advanced to the quarter-finals. They went on to win their first and to date only Gold Cup title. In the quarter-finals, Canada upset defending champions Mexico in golden goal extra time 2–1. They defeated Trinidad and Tobago in the semi-finals 1–0 after Craig Forrest saved a first-half penalty. Already assured as CONCACAF champions, Canada topped invitees Colombia 2–0 in the final.

The tournament marks the only time a CONCACAF Gold Cup has been won by a country other than the United States or Mexico, and the only time in the tournament's history that neither the United States nor Mexico made to the semifinal.

Squads
The 12 national teams involved in the tournament were required to register a squad of 18 players; only players in these squads were eligible to take part in the tournament.

Qualification play-off
A qualification competition was held in the United States in October 1999. The following four teams competed in the playoff:

 * 🇨🇦 Canada, as the lowest ranking member of North American Football Union
 * 🇭🇹 Haiti, as third place team in the 1998 Caribbean Cup
 * 🇨🇺 Cuba, as runner-up in the 1999 Caribbean Cup
 * 🇸🇻 El Salvador, as fourth place team in the 1999 UNCAF Nations Cup.

Quarter-finals
Match abandoned after 89' due to pitch invasion.

Goalscorers
4 goals
 * 🇨🇦 Carlo Corazzin

3 goals
 * Carlos Pavón

2 goals

 * Paulo Wanchope
 * 🇵🇪 Roberto Palacios
 * Arnold Dwarika
 * 🇺🇸 Cobi Jones

1 goal

 * 🇨🇦 Jason De Vos
 * 🇨🇦 Richard Hastings
 * 🇨🇦 Mark Watson
 * 🇨🇴 Faustino Asprilla
 * 🇨🇴 Gerardo Bedoya
 * 🇨🇴 Víctor Bonilla
 * 🇨🇴 Gonzalo Martínez
 * Hernán Medford
 * Jafet Soto
 * Harold Wallace
 * Erick Miranda
 * Juan Carlos Plata
 * Guillermo Ramírez
 * Sébastien Vorbe
 * Samuel Caballero
 * Reynaldo Clavasquín
 * Milton Núñez
 * José Luis Pineda
 * 🇲🇽 Luis Hernández
 * 🇲🇽 Rafael Márquez
 * 🇲🇽 Emilio Mora
 * 🇲🇽 Francisco Palencia
 * 🇲🇽 Ramón Ramírez
 * 🇵🇪 José del Solar
 * 🇵🇪 Roberto Holsen
 * 🇵🇪 Waldir Sáenz
 * 🇵🇪 Jorge Soto
 * 🇵🇪 Ysrael Zúñiga
 * 🇰🇷 Lee Dong-gook
 * 🇰🇷 Lee Min-sung
 * Russell Latapy
 * David Nakhid
 * Mickey Trotman
 * Dwight Yorke
 * 🇺🇸 Chris Armas
 * 🇺🇸 Jovan Kirovski
 * 🇺🇸 Brian McBride
 * 🇺🇸 Eric Wynalda

Own goals

 * 🇵🇪 Marcial Salazar for Colombia
 * Shurland David for Mexico

Team of the Tournament
Source:

title: 2000 CONCACAF Gold Cup


text:
Talk:Anousheh Ansari

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An edit on 2021 May 19 added "religion: Sunni, Moslem". With no source. From an IP address. This certainly isn't impossible, but I understand that most Iranians are not Sunni. Can anyone verify this? DHR (talk) 14:23, 22 May 2021 (UTC)

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title: Talk:Anousheh Ansari


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User talk:Cunningham

A capital comment
Are you related to e. e. cummings? Dbiv 17:56, 29 Oct 2004 (UTC)

Rainbow Bridge
Hi Cunningham - the way to leave a message to someone else is to view their user page and then click the "Discussion" tab, and leave a message. Or you can just type "User talk:Lir", or whoever, in the "search" box, and click "go". Then edit the page. Next time the person logs on, a message at the top will say "You have new messages" with a link.

On Rainbow Bridge, I remembered buying the LP at a swap meet 20 years ago. Somewhere it sits, molding. I was briefly excited to see that it was collectible, but then my rigorous check on its collectibility was to do an ebay search, where it appears to cost five bucks for a better version than mine. Tempshill 01:30, 10 Nov 2004 (UTC)

Moneypenny
Not to say I doubt you or anything, but can I ask how you know this? K1Bond007 20:39, August 27, 2005 (UTC)
 * Nevermind, I see it's on their website now. Thanks for the update :) Would still like to know how you knew this though. K1Bond007 04:49, August 28, 2005 (UTC)

Faversham edit
Agreed re your point about Faversham! I tried a more appropriate reference to chavs in the Faversham page this morning.... and also widened the background material about Faversham history and features. Hope someone will now expand and improve it. I became so carried away that I forgot to sign in then (86.137.168.64=--Farsee50 21:04, 1 March 2006 (UTC)!)

My shortcuts
citation needed =

Cleanup

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Template_messages

Higham ref
Thanks for digging out that ref in Higham, Kent. Do you know if it's still relevant to this page? I moved quite a lot of material from this article to Thames and Medway Canal, and I suspect the Stephen Raynor ref should now be in the canal page only. Cheers, JackyR | Talk 19:20, 9 August 2006 (UTC)

Somerville and Ross
While I have often heard that my cousion of Ross was lesbian, I have yet to see or hear any good evidence backing this up. I am not objecting to her sexuality, if this indeed was the case; just don't see any evidence for it. Unless you have something at least persusaive, I would remove the wording. Fergananim 17:05, 10 August 2006 (UTC)

Hello Cunningham
Sorry to be long getting back to you, but you left your comment at the bottom of my user page instead of my talk page. Anyway, as I said, I still have to come across such a direct comment by either of them. Again, I must stress that I am not objecting to their sexuality, if this was indeed the case (more power to them), just that I have never come across anything (yet) to back this up. And I have read a good deal of their corrospondence, and Voilet's journals. If its alright with you, I will remove the reference till someonce can provide a citation. Voilet herself does make clear in her letters that she fancied both her cousion Archer Martin of Toronto and W.B.Yeats. Cheers! Fergananim 18:44, 24 September 2006 (UTC)

Harold Shipman
I notice in your recent edit to Harold Shipman you removed wikilinking from dates. Please do not do this as it is necessary to allow user date display preferences to work. See Manual of Style (dates and numbers). -- Arwel (talk) 20:05, 26 January 2007 (UTC)

Collaboration 18th - 25th March 2007
 Hi fellow WikiProject Kent Member, you may have already seen this on our Kent Article Improvement talk page. We are planning a small drive on the Kent related articles this week, 18th to 25th March, to grade and categorise them. - Olive Oil -ŢάĽɮ - 14:11, 18 March 2007 (UTC)
 * All we are asking is, as you read/edit a Kent related page, for you digest the information, then add the template   to the top of the articles talk page. Instructions are available on the Project page or template page.
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 * After saving the template, add comments in the section created by the template.

Results
 Hello again, following our collaboration to tag Kent-related articles, we have ear marked 931 articles as being Kent related, however, as of the 26th March, 137 articles are still to be assessed.

- Olive Oil -ŢάĽɮ - 01:45, 27 March 2007 (UTC)
 * Could you please look at any, some or even one of the 137 unassessed articles and change the  template, on the talk page, to a "class=Stub/Start or B category".
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Rothley- and currencies
The £ is used in a number of countries. For instance Ireland and England. The pound does not have the same value. Luckily Wikipedia has recorded that the GB£ is different. That way a computer could translate this into any currency.... assuming someone doesnt correct it. Can you fix. Victuallers 10:48, 29 September 2007 (UTC)

Edit summary
Hi there! Thanks for your edits to Wikipedia! However, don't forget that using the edit summary box (below) will help everyone, as you describe the changes you've made, so we don't have to sift through the history to see what you've done. With regards,  Lra drama 14:10, 13 July 2007 (UTC)

Clarence Mitchell
Can you put your comments on Articles for deletion/Clarence Mitchell before he is deleted ! Thanks GrahamHardy 10:51, 29 September 2007 (UTC)

P.S. I think the edit box below belongs to the section above but an attempt to move it ended in disaster ! —Preceding unsigned comment added by GrahamHardy (talk • contribs) 10:54, 29 September 2007 (UTC)

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GA reassessment of Derek and the Dominos
I have conducted a reassessment of the above article as part of the GA Sweeps process. I have found some concerns with the referencing which you can see at Talk:Derek and the Dominos/GA1. I have placed the article on hold whilst these are fixed. Thanks. Jezhotwells (talk) 19:39, 5 September 2009 (UTC)

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Unreferenced BLPs
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 * 1) Martin Brunt -

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Rochester: Kent or Medway
There is a discussion in which you may be interested on Wikipedia_talk:WikiProject_UK_geography concerning the move of Wikipedia articles from Rochester, Kent to Rochester, Medway. Martin of Sheffield (talk) 12:33, 11 June 2012 (UTC)

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Edgar de Wahl

Edgar von Wahl (Interlingue: Edgar de Wahl, born Edgar Alexis Robert von Wahl, 23 August 1867 – 9 March 1948) was a Baltic German mathematics and physics teacher who lived in Tallinn, Estonia. He also used the pseudonym Julian Prorók, and is best known as the creator of Interlingue, an international auxiliary language that was known as Occidental throughout his life.

He was born to the Baltic German noble von Wahl family in the then Russian Empire and spent most of his childhood in Tallinn (Reval) and the capital Saint Petersburg. He studied at the University of Saint Petersburg and at the Saint Petersburg Academy of Arts. During and after his studies he served in the navy. After completing the military service in 1894 he lived permanently in Tallinn and worked as a teacher. During World War II, when most Baltic Germans left Estonia in 1939–1941, he decided to stay. He was arrested in 1943 by the Nazi German occupation authorities and placed in a psychiatric clinic because of alleged dementia. He stayed there until his death in 1948.

Wahl was engaged with interlinguistics from an early age. He was first introduced to Volapük by his father's colleague Waldemar Rosenberger and even started to compose a lexicon of marine terminology for the language, before turning to Esperanto in 1888. After the failure of Reformed Esperanto in 1894, of which Wahl had been a proponent, he started work to find an ideal form of an international language. In 1922, he published a "key" to a new language, Occidental, and the first edition of the periodical Kosmoglott (later Cosmoglotta). Wahl developed the language over several decades on the advice of its speakers, but became isolated from the movement (then centred in Switzerland) from 1939 after the start of World War II.

Ancestry

Edgar von Wahl was a member of the Päinurme line of the Wahl noble family. Edgar von Wahl's great-grandfather was Carl Gustav von Wahl, who acquired the Pajusi, Tapiku and Kavastu manors and was also the owner of Kaave Manor for a short time. Carl Gustav von Wahl had a total of 14 children from two marriages, from whom various Wahl lines descended. Of them, Edgar von Wahl's grandfather Alexei von Wahl, a civil servant who bought Päinurme manor in 1837, laid the foundation for the Päinurme line. In addition, he was a tenant at Taevere Manor, where Edgar's father Oskar von Wahl was born.

Childhood and youth
Edgar Alexis Robert von Wahl was born on 23 August 1867 to Oskar von Wahl and Lydia Amalie Marie (married 1866 in Tallinn), in what is now Pervomaisk, Mykolaiv Oblast, in Ukraine (then in the Kherson Governorate, Russian Empire). The Wahl family had moved to Ukraine after his father, a railway engineer, started work on the Odesa–Balta–Kremenchuk–Kharkov railway in 1866. By 1869, the Wahl family had moved to Kremenchuk, where Wahl's brother Arthur Johann Oskar was born in 1870. After that, the family moved to Tallinn, where Wahl's two sisters were born – Lydia Jenny Cornelia in 1871 and Harriet Marie Jenny in 1873. The family later moved to Saint Petersburg where the third sister Jenny Theophile was born in 1877.

Wahl grew up in Saint Petersburg. He began studying at the Gymnasium in Saint Petersburg, graduating in 1886. He then studied at the Faculty of Physics and Mathematics at the University of Saint Petersburg and architecture and painting at the Saint Petersburg Academy of Arts. While at university, Wahl joined the Baltic German Nevania corporation operating in St. Petersburg, where he served as treasurer in the autumn term of 1891. He graduated in 1891 and in 1893 received a diploma as a teacher of drawing at the Elementary School of the Academy of Arts. He worked briefly as a substitute teacher in Saint Petersburg in the autumn of 1891, before entering the navy.

During his boyhood, Wahl learnt several languages; he became fluent in German, Russian, Estonian and French. In upper secondary school he studied Latin and ancient Greek, and Spanish at university. In addition to these, throughout his life he was able to make himself understood in nine other languages. He had an interest in creating languages from a young age:

"Even in my youth, I had the idea of constructing a language. Full of stories from Cooper, Gustave Aimard etc, I played American Indians with my friends, and conceived the idea of a special quasi-Indian jargon for our games. It was made of Indian words taken from stories, and completed with other necessary words taken from diverse other languages. It had a grammar composed of mixed Ancient Greek and Estonian. This language was never used because my friends refused to learn it."

Military service

In 1892, Wahl volunteered to serve in the Russian Navy. During his service, he travelled extensively, visiting the Caribbean islands and the United States among other places. In early 1894, he received the rank of Michman (Russian: мичман) and retired shortly thereafter. In the summer of 1904, Wahl was again called to active service. He served in the Baltic Fleet until October 1905, although he did not participate in the battles of the Russo-Japanese War.

According to the memoirs of Estonian artist Olev Mikiver, who knew Wahl as a youth, Wahl had been very proud of his Tsarist-era officer's uniform and he sometimes wore it even decades later:

"E. von Wahl, incidentally, had been an officer in the tsar's navy at a young age and, according to his words, put down a sailor's rebellion at Sveaborg, Helsinki's military port or sea fortress, now called Suomenlinna, in 1905 or 1906. He must have considered this time sacred, because decades later, for example, at my sister's wedding, he appeared in a tsarist uniform."

It is, however, unlikely that Wahl participated in the suppression of the Sveaborg rebellion, having already been released from service by then. He may have been called to active service during World War I.

During his service in the navy, Wahl was awarded the 2nd and 3rd rank of the Order of Saint Stanislav and the 3rd rank of the Order of Saint Anne. After acquiring Estonian citizenship at the end of 1920 Wahl was from 1921 also registered as a reserve officer of the Republic of Estonia.

Tallinn 1894–1917

In 1894, Wahl moved to Tallinn, where he spent most of the rest of his life. That autumn, he started working as a teacher of mathematics and physics at St. Peter's High School of Science (now the Tallinn Secondary School of Science). Later he taught drawing at Elise von der Howen school run by Baronness Elisabeth von der Howen, the Hanseatic School, Tallinn, and the Tallinn Cathedral School. His teaching was interrupted only by his military service.

Wahl's teaching style was described in the memoirs of the later Estonian Minister of Education Aleksander Veiderma, who himself studied at St Peter's High School of Science from 1906 to 1909:

Matemaatikat ja füüsikat õpetas veel Edgar von Wahl, endine mereväeohvitser, kellel oli alati varuks tabav märkus mõne sündmuse või isiku kohta. Ta oli kaunis räpakas füüsikakatsete korraldamisel: sageli murdusid riistad või purunesid klaasid. Tema suhtumine õpilastesse oli lihtne, mida kinnitab ka hüüdnimi Sass.

Mathematics and physics were also taught by Edgar von Wahl, a former naval officer who always had some catchy remarks about an event or person. He was very messy in conducting physics experiments: utensils or glass often broke. His attitude towards students was simple, which is also confirmed by the nickname Sass.

 * — Memoirs of Aleksander Veiderma

At the turn of the century, Wahl began to publish articles on linguistics in specialized publications, as well as writing in various Tallinn newspapers and magazines. Since 1898, Wahl had been a member of the Estonian Literature Society (German: Ehstländische Literärische Gesellschaft), a German-language association that regularly organised presentations by and for its members. Under the pseudonym Julian Prorók, he published a booklet Ketzereien: Keimzellen einer Philosophie (Heresies: Gametes of a Philosophy) in 1906 about his vision of global developments.

Wahl also entered politics before the outbreak of World War I. In 1913, he was elected to the Tallinn city council, and became a member of the council committee for the protection of monuments of ancient buildings. Despite his teaching position, Wahl did not address education issues on the city council. He was an active attendee at council meetings, but spoke little.

After the start of World War I, the Germans living in the Russian Empire were subjected to repression, from which Wahl did not completely escape; the Tallinn Noble Club, of which Wahl had been a member, was closed. In autumn 1914, he found himself at the centre of a propaganda campaign to change German place names. As a city councillor, he participated in discussions on the renaming of the city of Tallinn, following Mayor Jaan Poska's proposal replace its name with the Old Russian-language Kolyvan (in the discussion of the matter, the incorrect name Kalyvan was used). Wahl discovered that the oldest names of the city were Ledenets or Lindanisa. He was interested in how much it would cost to change the name, which was said to have been met with "general laughter" at the council. The votes required to change the name were eventually reached by the council, but the change itself did not take place.

Wahl was elected to the city council held just before the February Revolution in 1917. On the new council, he became a member of the city's fire department, public education, and pawnshop affairs committees, and continued as a member of the committee for the protection of monuments of ancient buildings. However, in August 1917, a new council was elected, and Wahl's political activities ceased.

Life in independent Estonia
In February 1918, at the time of the Estonian Declaration of Independence, Wahl expressed a desire to join the voluntary militia Omakaitse. As a student who wrote weapon permits for volunteers: "Among those who wanted to bear weapons, I only remember one: my physics teacher, von Wahl. I think I remember it because of the mood that might have arisen in the soul of a young student when his teacher asks him for a weapon."

In 1919, the Secondary School of Science was divided by language: the Tallinn High School of Science taught in Estonian and the Tallinn German High School of Science taught in German. Wahl continued as a professor at the latter, where he taught classes in mathematics, physics, geography, cosmography, and drawing. He had a house on Eha Street, not far from the school, where students often went for follow-up work. He had designed this house in a marine style and it was therefore nicknamed the "cabin" by his students. Among his students, Wahl was a popular teacher who was particularly dedicated to teaching geography since he had travelled extensively. The students were impressed by the fact that Wahl was a member of the English Club, which operated at the school.

Wahl sometimes clashed with his colleagues, openly expressing his distaste for modern art, for instance comparing it to communism when invited to an art exhibition by the school's art teacher. He retired in the mid-1920s, but continued to teach part-time until 1933. He then took up his hobbies, especially constructed languages, which had become a passion since the days of Saint Petersburg. Additionally, he was editor of the magazine Estländische Wochenschau from 1929 to 1930.

During World War II
Unlike his relatives, Wahl did not leave to be Umsiedlung in 1939, deciding to stay in Estonia. He represented the idealistic pan-European idea and did not like the National Socialist government of Germany, calling it a "termite state". Wahl may also have chosen to stay to avoid abandoning his large archive. The danger of ending up in a retirement home in Germany might also have played a role: this had happened to several of his acquaintances. Wahl again avoided the Nachumsiedlung to Germany that took place in the winter and early spring of 1941. He was certainly aware of the opportunity to leave, for when asked about his plans by one of his former students, he replied, leaving no doubt that his decision was stay in Estonia:

"This Hitler, this madman, forbids my language in all the countries he conquers. This guy is crazy!"

In the first year of Soviet rule in Estonia (1940-1941) Wahl managed to escape any repressions, although some of his relatives were arrested. After the beginning of the German occupation of Estonia, he was suspected of anti-state activities. Wahl was arrested on 12 August 1943, because of letters sent to Posen, to his wife's sister-in-law, that were caught by the censors in Königsberg in July of that year. In these letters, he had predicted the outbreak of an uprising in Poland and advised the family who lived there to go to Germany:

"after the dissolution of Bolshevism, around 1944, when the German-Allied forces approach from the north to dangerous Asia Minor to suppress the Arab uprising, but not before, it is highly likely that by withdrawing troops from the lands conquered by Germany, the Poles will try to start an uprising (they already have secret weapons camps), and then the long-running hate may turn into a especially ruthless massacre in old Polish villages and mansions which threatens the Balts. Therefore I want to warn you and everyone else in the same situation and ask you to leave Wartegau if possible, or at least any means of escape when the Arab uprising breaks out. Deploy the Reich in time. I ask that this letter, which I have written to you now, in July 1943, be preserved as a document and, if possible, given to others to look at."

- Letter from Edgar von Wahl to Lieselotte Riesenkampff in Tallinn on July 18, 1943

In the same letter, Wahl noted that he had previously predicted the attack on Pearl Harbor and the subsequent outbreak of war between the United States and Japan. During the interrogation Wahl did not deny what he had written, and repeated several of the accusations he had made, "firmly believing" in the veracity of his predictions. He was held for some time in the Tallinn "labour and education camp", but the testimony given during his interrogation was considered strange by the Sicherheitsdienst, and so Wahl was sent to be examined at the Seewald mental hospital. There he was diagnosed with dementia caused by ageing and left in the Seewald hospital, which also saved him from a possible death penalty. Wahl was defended by several close relatives and friends who claimed that he was not responsible for his actions.

During the bombing raid in March 1944, Wahl's house, including his archive collection, was destroyed, which came as a great shock to him. Three years later, in a letter to the Finnish Occidentalist Armas Ramstedt, he recalled that what had happened was a real disaster, during which many irreplaceable and unique materials were lost.

Last years and death

In August 1945, Deportation of Germans from Estonia after World War II of the Germans still living in Estonia by the Soviet NKVD took place. The list of people to be deported included Wahl's name. At the time of the deportation, however, he was among a dozen people who were not deported or whose whereabouts could not be determined. Although the reasons for Wahl's escape are not known, in some cases the head of the task force that carried out the deportation made the decision not to take the seriously ill or disabled, so the decision may have been influenced by the opinion of the hospital staff. Therefore, it was his presence in a mental hospital that saved Wahl for a second time.

During and after the world war, his foreign colleagues had very little information about Wahl's condition and whereabouts; only in the spring of 1946 was Armas Ramstedt able to restore contact with him. It is unclear why the hospital staff at Seewald enabled such correspondence; perhaps that they may have recognized his dedication to linguistics when being supportive to his communication with the outside world.

Wahl died on 9 March 1948. He was buried on 14 March 1948 at the Siselinna Cemetery in Tallinn. In 1996, his remains were moved to the Pajusi manor cemetery, the family cemetery of the von Wahl family.

Background
Wahl's efforts to create a new and ideal language for international communication began with a general interest in artificial languages in the Russian Empire in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. He first became interested in the recently-created Volapük in 1887 being introduced to the language by his father's colleague, Waldemar Rosenberger, in Saint Petersburg. He became an active advocate of Volapük, receiving the title "Teacher of Volapük" and started to compile a maritime lexicon in Volapük (although this project was never completed). In early 1888, he was introduced to Esperanto and switched to it.

Estonian linguist Paul Ariste has written that Wahl quickly became an advocate of Esperanto's creator, ophthalmologist L. L. Zamenhof, and his work after becoming acquainted with Unua Libro, the first Esperanto textbook (published in 1887). He soon influenced the early grammar of Esperanto and its vocabulary. Wahl was also one of the founders of Espero, Russia's first Esperanto society founded in Saint Petersburg in 1891, and became a correspondent for the magazine La Esperantisto. He translated Russian fiction into Esperanto and compiled an Esperanto-Spanish dictionary.

However, Wahl did not align himself definitively to Esperanto, beginning the search for a new artificial language:

"He had a restless character, always something new. Because of this trait, when he was younger, he had been increasingly inclined to advocate new designs for artificial languages [...]"

According to Estonian Esperantist Jaan Ojalo, Wahl moved away from Esperanto after proposals to reform the language (of which Wahl was heavily in favour, having proposed some himself) were rejected by most Esperantists in 1894. In Ojalo's view, he also considered Esperanto to be an "a priori" language (original, unlike more naturalistic languages, such as Euroclones). He concluded that the ideal international language should be more naturalistic and understandable even to those who had not learnt it. Wahl also considered Esperanto too democratic, which threatened Western culture.

Creation and introduction

Wahl took the first steps to create a new language in the last years of the 19th century. In 1896 and 1897 he published two articles in the Hanover-based magazine Linguist, in which he presented his ideas. Around the same time, Waldemar Rosenberger, who was at the time president of the Volapük Academy, introduced academy members to a new language of his own creation, Idiom Neutral. From 1906 onwards, Rosenberger also published the magazine Progress, wherein Wahl made his own proposals for reforms to the language, which Rosenberger adopted a year later in 1907. Despite the reform, the Idiom Neutral did not gain popularity. Concurrently, he developed a new international auxiliary language, based on the Romance languages, called Auli, an acronym for Auxiliari Lingue International in that language (English: International auxiliary language), which would later become the intermediate stage of Occidental. Wahl introduced Auli in 1909 in the journal Academia pro Interlingua – Discussiones. In 1911, he formulated the word formation rule (known as De Wahl's rule) that would form the basis of Occidental.

Occidental's symbol, depicting an encircled tilde, was introduced before 1934 and was selected from several variants for its simplicity and symbolism.

In 1916, Russian artificial language enthusiasts founded the Kosmoglot Association in Saint Petersburg. Edgar von Wahl was not one of its founders, but later joined, as did the Estonian linguist Jakob Linzbach. Wahl became a spokesman for the "naturalistic school" of the association; thus paving the way for the creation of Occidental. With the revolutionary events of 1917 and the departure of its members from Saint Petersburg, the association's activities faded away, ending entirely in 1921, but picking up again in Tallinn in the same year. The association's activities were revived by Wahl together with Linzbach, and the association's name was changed to Kosmoglott. Ties were maintained with the former members of the association, which operated in several European countries. Wahl was also the editor of the Kosmoglott magazine published by the association from 1922 to 1926. In its first issue, Wahl introduced the artificial language he created, Occidental. From 1923 to 1928, he also promoted the language in the serial Occidental, unic natural, vermen neutral e max facil e comprensibil lingue por International relations. Wahl published a book in 1925 titled Radicarium directiv del lingue International (Occidental) in 8 languages.

Spread
The first issue of the magazine Kosmoglott contained a letter sent to the League of Nations on 5 September 1921, recommending the introduction of a perfect language which would be easily acquired, not necessarily the most common planned language, for the communication between peoples. In order to find a suitable language, it was recommended that a competition be held and that the candidates be evaluated by a committee of experts convened by the League of Nations. The proposal was not taken up for consideration in the League of Nations.

Despite this failure, the Occidental language attracted interlinguists; in particular enthusiasts of Ido (the Esperantists remained faithful to their language). According to Ariste, internal disputes amongst the Idists and a personal appeal by Wahl led many to promote the language. In tandem with the growth of the language's popularity, the activity of Kosmoglott association diminished, and the December 1928 an event in commemoration of Waldemar Rosenberger, who had died 10 years earlier, took place being the last bigger event of the society.

However, during the 1920s, new Occidental societies emerged. In 1927, the International Cosmoglotta Association was founded, which a year later was renamed Occidental-Union. Starting in 1927, Kosmoglott began to be published in Vienna (instead of Tallinn) under the new name Cosmoglotta. In the last issue published in Tallinn, Wahl published, among other things, Koidula's poem under the title "Max car donation" (Dearest Gift). The success of the new language brought international renown to Wahl. He spoke publicly in various European countries and communicated closely with linguists. In 1939, he was likely the only Estonian to be invited to the 5th Linguistic Conference in Brussels. During these times he was in active discussions with the Danish linguist and author of another planned language Novial Otto Jespersen which culminated in their meeting and the publication of its results as a separate book. However, unlike Jespersen, Wahl was an amateur linguist. His linguistic activities never reached broader theoretical linguistic problems, but were limited to constructing his own artificial language and tackling related issues.

Although Occidental showed significant success in the late 1920s and in 1930s, it never achieved the popularity of Esperanto. Unlike Esperanto, which became a popular language among labour movements, Occidental speakers in the interwar period were predominantly Western European intellectuals. Later, near and after Wahl's death, discussions started among Occidentalists about whether to change the name of the language. Ric Berger, a leading Occidentalist from Switzerland, cited reports from the Eastern Bloc that the name Occidental was a hindrance to promoting the language. Berger had also become fond of the language Interlingua that was nearing publication, and he began envisioning a possible fusion between the two languages. These two factors convinced Berger to begin advocating the new name Interlingue in February 1948. The change in name took effect in October of the following year, and the Occidental-Union became the Interlingue-Union, as it is today. The association has its own academy and the magazine Cosmoglotta continues to be published by the association.

Family
Edgar von Wahl married Maria von Hübbenet (the daughter of Grand Duchess Maria Pavlovna's personal physician), in Saint Petersburg in 1894. They had five children: Johann or Hans, Guido, Ellen, Anatol, and Lydia Maria. The marriage was dissolved in 1913, after which Johann, Guido and Lydia stayed with Edgar while Anatol stayed with his mother, who moved to Finland, and some time later Lydia Maria also went there. Wahl's two eldest sons moved to Germany at the start of World War I, where they served in the army. Guido spent a short vacation in Tallinn during the German occupation of Estonia during World War I, but at the end of 1918 he disappeared. According to one source he died in a battle with the Bolshevik Red Army near Tukums, Latvia in 1919.

In 1914, Edgar von Wahl married Agnes Riesenkampff. Like her husband, Agnes was a teacher, teaching gymnastics in Tallinn. In 1917, their daughter Veronika was born. The fate of Agnes was unclear for a long time. In 1946 it was suggested that she disappeared during the forced migrations of June 1941, but now it is known that she was arrested and shot by the NKVD in 1941.

Sailing
In addition to linguistics, Wahl was a hobby sailor. In 1895, he became a member of the Estonian Imperial Maritime Yacht Club, and in the following years was an active member, joining its technical committee and being the secretary of the club. He produced a yearbook dedicated to the club's 25th anniversary in 1913. In 1922, Wahl became an honorary member of the club. He owned several yachts over the years, one of which, a ketch called Auli, he is said to have designed himself.

title: Edgar de Wahl


text:
Talk:Del Amitri

Untitled
Wow! I was surprised to find such a complete history of Del Amitri in here already. They are my favorite band and I was ready to publish some basic info just so they would be listed. I never expected to find the complete history (and correct info of that matter) of the band listed already. Good job to the author. I like how you added the UDS listing at the end *wink*

--acme401 15:57, Sep 29, 2004 (UTC)

On the name
I was unaware of the theory that the band's name is Greek. The story I heard was that "Del Amitri" is old Scottish or Gaelic for "Among Friends". Anyone else heard this? Robert 07:14, 17 January 2006 (UTC)

 * Never heard that one! The official website used to have a list of incorrect theories, but that's not around any more. Angmering 10:40, 7 January 2006 (UTC)

 * Andy Alston is my lecturer at Uni. I could ask him what the name means. Sefiros 18:19, 17 February 2006 (UTC)

 * I'm pretty sure it doesn't actually mean anything, but by all means ask. :-) (You may have to retreat to a safe distance, mind...) While you're at it, could you ask him if he knows when Justin's solo album is coming out? Angmering 21:33, 17 February 2006 (UTC)
 * the name is short for Derek Amitri 82.9.56.21 (talk) 15:50, 10 March 2024 (UTC)

According to Justin's myspace page he has just agreed a deal with a US record company to release the album, no date confirmed yet though.

 * I note that my copy of the Guinness British Hit Singles & Albums book (18th Edition 2005) repeats the "name is Greek for 'from the womb'" comment, I don't know if it appears in other editions. From what I can see 'del' is Spanish & Italian for 'of' & 'amitri' doesn't mean anything in any language, as far as I know. Gwladys24 (talk) 16:15, 29 May 2011 (UTC)

The name was completely invented, collaboratively by Currie, Bentley and Scobbie, at JCS. The aim was a name that was meaningless but sounded vaguely meaningful. It was as I recall partly inspired by the example of Aztec Camera, but used non-English words with the implication that it is some European language's phrase for "the X". A three-word version of the name, including the final made up adjective Rialzo, was also considered, but rejected before the first public performance, at Bearsden Burgh Hall. 81.86.104.165 (talk) 09:39, 1 February 2013 (UTC)
 * But how do we know that this explanation is itself not completely invented? Thanks. Martinevans123 (talk) 10:29, 1 February 2013 (UTC)
 * You don't, and I can't prove it, just state it with confidence, having been there. What you can be sure of is that these are not words in any real language, but vaguely sound like they might be. You can also see the way the name extrapolated from Aztec Camera, which comprised real words (albeit ones borrowed from other languages originally) to make a meaninglesss phrase. You can also note Justin's facetious habit of creating incompatible and false stories to liven up interviews with the mainstream media. Wikipedia may be mainstream, but entries are contributed voluntarily, and don't need to be livened up for fun. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 194.83.93.22 (talk) 18:22, 15 January 2020 (UTC)
 * Thanks, you may be right, but as you know "having been there" is not WP:RS. "Del" is certainly a word, for example is Spanish. It's quite possible that "Amitri" exists in some language. Currie's "facetious habit of creating incompatible and false stories" does ring a few bells though. Martinevans123 (talk) 16:58, 10 March 2024 (UTC)

shortest song?
I seem to remember hearing that 'roll to me' was the shortest song ever to chart (or reach the top 10, maybe?); is this a fact, and should it be mentioned? --147.134.45.215 13:09, 21 June 2007 (UTC)

It is not the shortest song to chart. Adam Faith's "What do you want?" (1959) is 1:59, and it reached #1 on the British charts.--Nufftin 14:39, 21 June 2007 (UTC)

 * At 2:12 it's not that short - even Everyday (Buddy Holly song), at 2:05, is shorter. Martinevans123 (talk) 19:15, 29 May 2011 (UTC)

US Chart Position
I have clear memories of hearing "Not Where It's At" on the radio in the US (SF bay area), so it seems to me that it must have charted in the US. Was that just a quirk of my local radio station? I tried searching the Billboard website and got no results for that particular song (maybe that's my answer...) —Preceding unsigned comment added by 24.130.144.93 (talk) 05:39, 14 March 2010 (UTC)

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Alternative Rock?
With reference to the sentance found in 'Reunion tours (2014, 2018)' section...

"On 18 August 2013, during an interview with Terry Wogan on his BBC Radio 2 programme, Currie hinted at a Del Amitri reunion".

...from a British perspective Del Amitri were always a bit more Radio 2 than 6 Music (even though Del Amitri have been played on the '6 Music Live Hour', but people who regularly listen to these stations in 2020 will get the idea), so I guess this is more an American categorisation especially if according to the 'Alternative rock' article "Alternative" refers to the genre's distinction from mainstream or commercial rock or pop music".

In the UK (at least in England) Del Amitri have never been seen as that trendy, more (original version of) Q Magazine than the NME or Select...so maybe the categorisation needs to be changed to that of 'Alternative rock/pop rock' as per the article for Texas (band) or Deacon Blue (with a few other genres listed for the latter as well). Even better would be an article about all those Scottish bands that came up in the late 1980s/early 90s as they have so many similarities that I would say they are a genre in their own right...though I do not know what this category would be called, though I guess it would have to be linked to British folk rock/Folk rock/Heartland rock/Celtic rock at some point. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 81.154.172.230 (talk) 14:26, 14 November 2020 (UTC)
 * P.S. the 'power pop' genre might be a better place to place them, though as 'power pop' seems to be more an Amercian craze of the 70s it not something I know too much about. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 81.154.172.230 (talk) 14:37, 14 November 2020 (UTC)

title: Talk:Del Amitri


text:
Wiwaxia

Wiwaxia is a genus of soft-bodied animals that were covered in carbonaceous scales and spines that protected it from predators. Wiwaxia fossils—mainly isolated scales, but sometimes complete, articulated fossils—are known from early Cambrian and middle Cambrian fossil deposits across the globe. The living animal would have measured up to 5 cm when fully grown, although a range of juvenile specimens are known, the smallest being 2 mm long.

Wiwaxia affinity has been a matter of debate: Researchers were long split between two possibilities. On the one hand, its rows of scales looked superficially similar to certain scale worms (annelids); conversely, its mouthparts and general morphology suggested a relationship to the shell-less molluscs. More recently, evidence for a molluscan affinity has been accumulating, based on new details of Wiwaxia mouthparts, scales, and growth history. The name derives from Wiwaxy Peak in British Columbia.

The proposed clade Halwaxiida contains Wiwaxia as well as several similar Cambrian animals.

Description
This article concentrates on the species Wiwaxia corrugata, which is known from hundreds of complete specimens in the Burgess Shale; other species are known only from fragmentary material or limited sample sizes.

Body
Wiwaxia was bilaterally symmetrical; viewed from the top the body was elliptical with no distinct head or tail, and from the front or rear it was almost rectangular. It reached 5 cm in length. Estimating their height is difficult because specimens were compressed after death; a typical specimen may have been 1 cm high excluding the spines on their backs. The ratio of width to length does not appear to change as the animals grew.

Wiwaxia flat underside was soft and unarmored; most of the surface was occupied by a single slug-like foot. Little is known of the internal anatomy, although the gut apparently ran straight and all the way from the front to the rear. At the front end of the gut, about 5 mm from the animal's front in an average specimen about 2.5 cm long, there was a feeding apparatus that consisted of two (or in rare large specimens three) rows of backward-pointing conical teeth. The feeding apparatus was tough enough to be frequently preserved, but unmineralized and fairly flexible.

Sclerites
The animal was covered in eight rows of small ribbed armor plates called sclerites; these lay flat against the body, overlapped so that the rear of one covered the front of the one behind, and formed five main regions—the top; the upper part of the sides; the lower part of the sides; the front; and the bottom. Most of the sclerites were shaped like oval leaves, but the ventro-lateral ones, nearest the sea-floor, were crescent-shaped, rather like flattened bananas, and formed a single row. Larger specimens (>~15 mm) bear two rows of ribbed spines running from front to rear, one along each side of the top surface, and projecting out and slightly upward, with a slight upward curve near the tips. Although the spines in the middle of each row are usually the longest, up to 5 cm long, a few specimens have rather short middle spines that represent part-grown replacements.

Each sclerite was rooted separately in the body; the roots of body sclerites are 40% of the external length or a little less, while the roots of the spines are a little over 25% of the external length; all were rooted in pockets in the skin, rather like the follicles of mammalian hair. The roots of the body sclerites were significantly narrower than the sclerites, but the spines had roots about as wide as their bases; both types of root were made of fairly soft tissue. They bore protrusive, presumably structural, ribs on their upper and (seemingly) lower surfaces. The sclerites and spines were not mineralized, but made of a tough organic (carbon-based) biopolymer. Butterfield (1990) examined some sclerites under both optical and scanning electron microscopes and concluded that they were not hollow, and that the bases split and spread to form the blades, a pattern that is also seen in monocot leaves. The sclerites bear an internal fabric of longitudinal chambers, which suggest that they were secreted from their bases in the manner of Lophotrochozoan sclerites.

As known from Marrella and Canadia, its sclerites may have been iridescent due to evidence of diffraction grating, although questioned in later study.

Ontogeny
Wiwaxia scleritome comprises eight rows of sclerites, arranged in bundles. Sclerites are periodically shed and replaced during growth, with the number of sclerites in a given bundle increasing as the animal ages to produce a thicker scleritome. Once specimens reach a certain size, spines are added to the scleritome; this size is ~15 mm in W. corrugata but substantially smaller in W. taijengensis. One juvenile specimen was originally interpreted as molting, but in fact represents a single, folded, individual.

Ecology
The long dorsal spines may have been a defense against predators. Wiwaxia apparently moved by contractions of a slug-like foot on its underside. In one specimen a small brachiopod, Diraphora bellicostata, appears to be attached to one of the ventro-lateral sclerites. This suggests that adult Wiwaxia did not burrow or even plough much into the sea-floor as they moved. Two other specimens of Diraphora bellicostata have been found attached to dorsal sclerites. Wiwaxia appears to have been solitary rather than gregarious. The feeding apparatus may have acted as a rasp to scrape bacteria off the top of the microbial mat that covered the sea-floor, or as a rake to gather food particles from the sea-floor.

Classification
During the Cambrian, most of the main groupings of animals recognised today were beginning to diverge. Consequently, many lineages (that would later become extinct) appear intermediate to two or more modern groups, or lack features common to all modern members of a group, and hence fall into the "stem group" of a modern taxon. Debate is ongoing as to whether Wiwaxia can be placed within a modern crown group and, if it cannot, in which group's stem it falls. When Walcott first described Wiwaxia, he regarded it as a polychaete annelid worm, and its sclerites as similar to the elytra ("scales") of annelids. More recently the debate has been intense, and proposed classifications include: a member of an extinct phylum distantly related to the molluscs; a crown-group polychaete; a stem-group annelid; a problematic bilaterian; a stem- or possibly primitive crown-group mollusc.

In 1985, Simon Conway Morris agreed that there were similarities to polychaetes, but considered that Wiwaxia sclerites were different in construction from annelids' elytra. He was more impressed by the similarities between Wiwaxia feeding apparatus and a molluscan radula, and assigned the animal to a new taxon Molluscata, which he proposed should also contain the molluscs and hyolithids. When he later described the first fairly complete specimens of Halkieria, he suggested that these were closely related to Wiwaxia.

Nick Butterfield, then a postgraduate paleontologist at Harvard inspired by Stephen Jay Gould's lectures, agreed that the sclerites were not like elytra, which are relatively fleshy and soft. However, since the sclerites were solid, he concluded that Wiwaxia could not be a member of the "Coeloscleritophora", a taxon that had been proposed in order to unite organisms with hollow sclerites, and could not be closely related to the halkieriids, which have hollow sclerites. Instead he thought that they were very similar in several ways to the chitinous bristles (setae) that project from the bodies of modern annelids and in some genera form leaf-like scales that cover the back like roof tiles—in composition, in detailed structure, in how they were attached to the body via "follicles" and in overall appearance. Some modern annelids also develop on each side rows of longer bristles, which both Walcott and Butterfield considered similar to Wiwaxia dorsal spines. including the halkieriids.

Butterfield also contended that Wiwaxia feeding apparatus, instead of being mounted in the middle of its "head", was just as likely to be mounted in two parts on the sides of the "head", an arrangement that is common in polychaetes. He went so far as to classify Wiwaxia as a member of a modern order, Phyllodocida, and pointed out that Wiwaxia lack of obvious segmentation is no barrier to this, as some modern polychaetes also show no segmentation except during development. He later noted that Wiwaxia lack some polychaete features which he would expect to be easily preserved in fossils, and therefore a stem-group annelid, in other words an evolutionary "aunt" of modern annelids.

Conway Morris and Peel (1995) largely accepted Butterfield's arguments and treated Wiwaxia as an ancestor or "aunt" of the polychaetes, and said Butterfield had informed them that the microscopic structure of Wiwaxias sclerites was identical to that of the bristles of two Burgess Shale polychaetes Burgessochaeta and Canadia. Conway Morris and Peel also wrote that one specimen of Wiwaxia showed traces of a small shell, possibly a vestige left over from an earlier stage in the animal's evolution, and noted that one group of modern polychaetes also has what may be a vestigial shell. However, they maintained that Wiwaxia feeding apparatus was much more like a molluscan radula. They also argued that Wiwaxia was fairly closely related to and in fact descended from the halkieriids, as the sclerites are divided into similar groups, although those of halkieriids were much smaller and more numerous; they also said that in 1994 Butterfield had found Wiwaxia sclerites that were clearly hollow. They presented a large cladogram according to which:

 * The earliest halkieriids were a "sister" group to the molluscs, in other words descendants of a fairly closely related common ancestor.
 * The halkieriids which Conway Morris had found in Greenland's Sirius Passet lagerstätte were a "sister" group to brachiopods, animals whose modern forms have bivalve shells, but differ from molluscs in having muscular stalks and a distinctive feeding apparatus, the lophophore.
 * Another halkieriid genus, Thambetolepis, was a "great aunt" of annelids and Wiwaxia was an "aunt" of annelids.

Marine biologist Amélie H. Scheltema et al. (2003) argued that Wiwaxia feeding apparatus is very similar to the radulas of some modern shell-less aplacophoran molluscs, and that the sclerites of the two groups are very similar. They concluded that Wiwaxia was a member of a clade that includes molluscs. Scheltema has also highlighted similarities between Wiwaxia and the larvae of certain solenogaster molluscs, which bear iterated calcareous sclerites arranged into three symmetrical lateral zones.

Danish zoologist Danny Eibye-Jacobsen argued in 2004 that Wiwaxia lacks any characters that would firmly place it as a polychaete or annelid. Eibye-Jacobsen regarded bristles as a feature shared by molluscs, annelids and brachiopods. Hence even if Wiwaxia sclerites closely resembled bristles, which he doubted, this would not prove that Wiwaxia closest relative was the annelids. He also pointed out that the very different numbers of sclerites in the various zones of Wiwaxia body do not correspond to any reasonable pattern of segmentation; while Eibye-Jacobsen did not think that this alone would prevent classification of Wiwaxia as a polychaete, he thought it was a serious objection given the lack of other clearly polychaete features. In his opinion there were no strong grounds for classifying Wiwaxia as a proto-annelid or a proto-mollusc, although he thought the objections against classification as a proto-annelid were the stronger.

Butterfield returned to the debate in 2006, repeating the arguments he presented in 1990 for regarding Wiwaxia as an early polychaete and adding that, while bristles are a feature of several groups, they appear as a covering over the back only in polychaetes.

A 2012 study redescribing the mouthparts found a number of similarities with the molluscan radula, and overthrew some of the better arguments for an annelid affinity, seemingly demonstrating that Wiwaxia was indeed a mollusc.

Occurrence
Wiwaxia was originally described by G. F. Matthew in 1899, from an isolated spine that had been found earlier in the Ogyopsis Shale, and classified as "Orthotheca corrugata". Further specimens were found by American paleontologist Charles Doolittle Walcott in 1911 as a result of one of his field trips to the nearby Burgess Shale (Miaolingian, ) in the Canadian Rocky Mountains; he classified it as a member of the polychaete group of annelid worms in its own genus Wiwaxia corrugata, citing similarities to the Aphroditidae and Polynoidae.

In 1966 and 1967, a team led by Harry B. Whittington revisited the Burgess Shale and found so many fossils that it took years to analyze them all. Four hundred and sixty-four complete specimens of Wiwaxia are known from the Greater Phyllopod bed, where they comprise 0.88% of the community. Eventually in 1985 Simon Conway Morris, then a member of Whittington's team, published a detailed description and concluded that Wiwaxia was not a polychaete. All the known specimens came from in and around the Burgess Shale until 1991, when fragmentary fossils were reported from Australia's Georgina Basin. In 2004 additional finds which may represent two different species were reported from the same area.

Articulated specimens are known from Cambrian Stage 3 of Xiaoshiba, China; fragmentary specimens have also been found in the Chengjiang, Cambrian Series 2 deposits in Guizhou, China, and in China's lowermost Miaolingian beds of the Kaili Formation,  in the Middle Cambrian beds of the Tyrovice Member, Buchava Formation of the Czech Republic, in the Lower Cambrian Mount Cap formation (Mackenzie Mountains, Canada), in the Emu Bay Shale of Kangaroo Island, South Australia, upper Botomian Stage of the Lower Cambrian, and in the Middle Botomian Sinsk Biota of Siberia, Russia. Isolated sclerites are also common in the small carbonaceous fossil record. Taken together, these finds show that Wiwaxia had a truly cosmopolitan distribution, occurring at all palaeolatitudes and on most palaeocontinents. The Chinese material was originally considered to represent a separate species; like W. corrugata, it possessed spines and regions of sclerites (although it is only known from disarticulated remains), but the sclerites bear a higher density of ribs, and there are two distinct thicknesses of rib (i.e. larger and smaller). At a microscopic level, the sclerites do not differ from Burgess Shale or Mount Cap sclerites, but the Chinese material seems to have developed spines from an early age, distinguishing it from the W. corrugata. The knob-bearing sclerites from all three localities seem to belong to a different species,  and a further species is represented in the Xiaoshiba deposits. What is surprising is the limited variety exhibited between species: all have a fundamentally equivalent scleritome, displaying a notable degree of morphological stasis for some 15 Ma.

Isolated spines are more common than sclerites in localities with a poor preservation potential, suggesting that the spines were more recalcitrant (or more commonly collected); however, in well-preserved sites such as the Phyllopod bed, spine and sclerite abundance is comparable, in disarticulated instances, to the proportions on complete fossils.

Younger spines of possible wiwaxiid origin have been observed from the Valongo Formation (Middle Ordovician: Dapingian-Darriwilian) of northern Portugal and have been reported, if not described, from the Fezouata Biota.

title: Wiwaxia