text:
Talk:Gurmukhi

Untitled
This page should mention that Punjabi is also written in the shahmukhi script, related to the Urdu, Persian, and Arabic scripts; and also in devanagari. ; Hippietrail 01:13, 4 Oct 2004 (UTC)

This page is a bit lacking so I've taken it upon myself to update it. I'm using the information on my own web site at http://guca.sourceforge.net/resources/introductiontogurmukhi/ to add more information. Please feel free to contribute any other information too! Sukh 18:00, 31 Dec 2004 (UTC)

Page title
I believe Wikipedia policy is that page titles use the most usual English spelling. Both Collins and Encarta online dicionaries only list "Gurmukhi" as a possible spelling. I believe "Gurmukhī" with the macron is more a transliteration of the native name. — Hippietrail 14:07, 23 October 2005 (UTC)

 * I second that. Also, what else can Gurmukhi refer to, besides a script? I think it should just be at Gurmukhi. —Wiki Wikardo 19:19, 30 July 2008 (UTC)

IPA
Shouldn't there be the IPA symbols for the consonants, as well? I have no knowledge of Punjabi, but someone with some knowledge should probably fix that. 66.165.31.200 05:47, 13 February 2007 (UTC)

IPA for the consonants is available in Indic_transliteration_scheme, except you should note that it (apparently) can't be described in a simple table. you need some notes to explain some special cases, particularly the letters for aspirated consonants that are apparently used to mark tonal changes. unfortunately my knowledge of this is too limited to feel confident doing it, but most of the information should be in that big table in the article. --Doviende (talk) 03:39, 5 January 2008 (UTC)

Consonants and "Paer Bindi"
I just switched the pronunciations between "Fuffa" and "Fuffay paer'ch bindi" to give the unmarked consonant the straightforward "F" pronunciation and "Ph" for the modified letter. This is trivial, but I believe it is correct, being proficient in Gurmukhi/Punjabi myself and consulting with others. Does anyone have an opinion on this and, for example, "Shusha" and "Sussay paer'ch bindi," which is another pair with near-negligible difference (Many Punjabis make no distinction phonetically with such pairs; many will even ignore more distinct "paer bindi" sounds, like sticking with "Ja" even when it should technically be the "loansound" "Za.") Any thoughts?3swordz (talk) 22:12, 9 October 2009 (UTC)

 * Yes, you're correct. The pairin bindi letters should be labelled with their unmarked consonant, and pronounced as if they are marked.  A Pha with a dot makes a Fa (A Fa with a dot makes a Pha with two dots!).  And yes, many Punjabis pronounce them without the dot - but this is incorrect in "proper" Punjabi. 188.28.108.142 (talk) 13:19, 14 March 2011 (UTC)

The names in the table of consonants and the pairin bindi table are different for the same letter. Confusing to this English only speaker. DennisStork (talk) 05:33, 30 March 2013 (UTC)

Punjabi language as a misnomer for Gurmukhi language
This whole section seems out of place to me:

 * it's unsupported by references;
 * it has a lot of weasel wording, particularly the second paragraph;
 * a lot of the reasoning is faulty, or simply absent - especially the contention that the script is the most important distinguishing feature of a language, when several languages (eg Malay, Serbo-Croat) have abandoned one script for another or have multiple writing systems.

Even if it does remain, it needs to be made more neutral and to be presented as an expression of a particular point of view - and should come far lower down in the overall article, after the discussion of the characteristics of the script.DrDaveHPP (talk) 14:39, 13 December 2011 (UTC)

Transliteration
I noticed the article provides the Roman transliteration for vowels but not for consonants. Should this be added? --Joseph Yanchar (User page/Talk page) 04:11, 1 June 2015 (UTC)

Article Titled
Why is this article titled "Gurmukhī alphabet" when it is an abugida. The article title should be just "Gurmukhī" as there is no other use for the word Gurmukhī.Filpro (talk) 14:42, 5 September 2015 (UTC)

 * Abugidas are alphabets, as are abjads, and this is common WP usage, so that's not an argument. CONCISE is a legitimate argument, though a quick GBooks search suggests that "Gurmukhi" is normally used in combination with either "script" or "alphabet". (For our purposes, "script" would be used for the Gurmukhi writing system in general, and "alphabet" for the Panjabi Gurmukhi alphabet specifically.) — kwami (talk) 19:44, 5 September 2015 (UTC)

Other signs: why no subsection for the nukta ?
Nukta – is a combining character that alters the way a preceding consonant (or matra) is pronounced.

The section on other signs omits any subsection about the nukta sign. This should be added with suitable explanation.

Unicode normalization and the nukta

The nukta symbol ਼ (ੑU+0A3C) is equivalent to the sign part of each of these precomposed characters: ਲ਼(LLA), ਸ਼(SHA), ਖ਼(KHHA), ਗ਼(GHHA), ਜ਼(ZA), ਫ਼(FA). Unicode normalization separates out the nukta sign as a diacritic, leaving one of these letters respectively: ਲ(LA), ਸ(SA), ਖ(KHA), ਗ(GA), ਜ(JA), ਫ(PHA). All four normalization forms (NFC, NFD, NFKC, NFKD) do the same!

DFH (talk) 22:29, 14 January 2017 (UTC)

 * There are certain precomposed Indic letters that decompose but do not recompose under any normalization form. The list of these characters is given here. The decomposed forms are preferred over the precomposed forms as indicated here. DFH (talk) 17:29, 17 January 2017 (UTC)

Requested move 16 March 2017

 * The following is a closed discussion of a requested move. Please do not modify it. Subsequent comments should be made in a new section on the talk page. Editors desiring to contest the closing decision should consider a move review. No further edits should be made to this section.

The result of the move request was: moved  Kharkiv07  ( T ) 01:12, 25 March 2017 (UTC)

Gurmukhi alphabet → Gurmukhi script – It is more of a script than an alphabet, it is treated as a script in this page even in the introduction. 31.215.192.185 (talk) 12:00, 16 March 2017 (UTC)
 * Support- Gurmukhi script is used to write languages like Punjabi, Sindhi, Some Kashmiri dialects, and Hindi in some areas of Punjab. Gurmukhi alphabet is only used for Punjabi. eg Latin Alphabet is used for Latin while Latin Scipt is used for many languages. This article is about the script, not the alphabet used only for Punjabi. Therefore, this article must be moved. Thapa 75 (talk) 21:26, 17 March 2017 (UTC)

 * Support, commonly used name in sources. utcursch | talk 21:35, 17 March 2017 (UTC)
 * Support, almost every article about Gurmukhi on the Internet calls it a script. Even this article calls it a script, but the title does not match.King Prithviraj II (talk) 08:19, 18 March 2017 (UTC)

 * The above discussion is preserved as an archive of a requested move. Please do not modify it. Subsequent comments should be made in a new section on this talk page or in a move review. No further edits should be made to this section.

Possible misspelling and ISO 15924 code
It's interesting that the ISO 15924 code is, while it can be confused with commong word, and   suggests itself naturally. I'm wondering if the responsible standardization organization officer could have the similar problem like me – misread the script name as "Gurumkhi" (in my case it was "Gumurkhi"). (By the way, does this phenomenon, when you are not exactly dyslectic, but just have some words misread the first time, probably in childhood, and had never chance to fix them by hearing, have a technical term?) —Mykhal (talk) 21:26, 26 August 2017 (UTC)

External links modified
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Removing Gurmukhi content /deletion
@Drmccreedy

@Kashmiri and @TituDutta - You were earlier quick to delete the contents; Please find some time to answer here are some facts with my questions that anyone would agree with even little knowledge about Gurmukhi

1) Gurmukhi started with thirty five alphabets both primary and ideal secondary experts' sourceGuru Granth Sahib 2) More letters were added [in 1959-60; Punjabi University Patiala]

Q.1 As a common practice, go and verify, if not convinced, Sikhs around the world bow before Guru Granth Sahib why the word Sacred Characteristic of Gurmukhi is missing in this conversation and when I added why I was it removed? Q.2 Where is the mention of this addition on the page; instead a confusion is revealed about the increase number of letters? [Why this change is important and not shared with readers; this was a political move to marginalize the Gurmukhi script having socio-linguistic implication;] Q.3 Instead of deleting the content - why did you allowed the contents to stay, changing the status of page, like I have seen some pages have headers indicating - authentic source required; Your immediate deletion of my contents, justifying deletion with those reasons that could have saved your action, instead of looking for those options that would have allowed, maintaining the free and fearless scholarship sharing using Wiki; This is a reflection of mean motive; a teamwork to stop minority using even free platforms;

Suggested action - POST THIS ON TOP OF GURMUKHI PAGE UNTILL RESOLVED The neutrality of this article is disputed. Relevant discussion may be found on the talk page. Please do not remove this message until conditions to do so are met. (November 2017) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) 24.140.233.38 (talk) 13:19, 7 October 2018 (UTC) CharanUOIT (talk • contribs)

Thanks, @GermanJoe GermanJoe (talk)

Following is a peer-reviewed paper published in Canadian Journal of Native Education that I have used to make an argument; Please advise, if this meets your suggested "ideally secondary expert sources" criteria; else, please help link that can give me better understanding and definition of this term.

An overview of the problem:

The contents of the current page on Gurmukhi are not neutral; though meeting the criteria of multiple sources, these contents fail to connect with particularly Sikh readers since these go against the basic knowledge that enshrines through Guru Granth Sahib.These contents are not referenced from the primary Sikh expert source: Guru Granth Sahib; how this sources defines what is Gurmukhi has been ignored;\

I am suggesting to review a methodology that could be used as a measurement on how contents are shared on Wikipedia; my question is: whether primary expert source such as Guru Granth Sahib is considered for reference or not? Taking example from Shawn Wilson (2001), I have suggested a review so that current page on Gurmukhi could meet the expectations of not only the Sikh readers instead this is how the knowledge from the Guru Granth Sahib will benefit humanity.

Primary Sikh Source

Guru Granth Sahib Defines Gurmukhi-as a unique, unmixable, movement-methodology. ਇਹ ਚਾਲ ਨਿਰਾਲੀ ਗੁਰਮੁਖੀ (Page: 314, Pauri 25, Online link to search primary source http://www.khojgurbani.com/shabad/index/314 ) The meaning of Gurmukhi as a unique, unmixable, movement-methodology has been further clarified on the same page, Pauri 26 as ਵਿਚਿ ਸਚੇ ਕੂੜੁ ਨ ਗਡਈ....( no mixing in truth - how could mixed truth lead to filter insights?).

Please correct me, if wrong, from an academic perspective, this meaning of Gurmukhi comes close to what Shawn Wilson talks about “how …to live in both worlds…and what is the thinking behind what makes it possible.”(p.175) (https://www.researchgate.net/publication/234754037_What_Is_an_Indigenous_Research_Methodology ).

Gurmukhi is the language and script of this thinking. Further, he argues that we need to move beyond an “indigenous perspective in research” to “researching from an indigenous paradigm.”

If the word “indigenous” is replaced by “Sikh” that’s what is missing from this page. Sikh perspective is grounded in Guru Granth Sahib and validates scholarship within secondary sources. Further, Sikh scholarship talks about what Wilson says “how …to live in both worlds” so that research and scholarship could do “something better in the world”(p.175). @Kasmiri -I will answer other doubts, once the methodology of sourcing and validating Sikh contents from Guru Granth Sahib is mutually agreed. Guru Granth Sahib is for Sikhs what Shawn mentions "...from an indigenous paradigm." Thanks. CharanUOIT (talk) —Preceding undated comment added 11:52, 6 October 2018 (UTC)

@Kashmiri :O [3] I am a sikh (learner) first and a graduate student - these are two worlds that Shawn Wilson talks about - you will not understand; hence, your question/comment although correct, only scratches the surface- If you are open to learning, continuous learning and your learning has not stopped, you will need to read Shawn's complete article to follow and learn what I am talking about here;

Wilson, S. (2001). What is indigenous research methodology? Canadian Journal of Native Education, 25(2), 175-179. Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com.uproxy.library.dc-uoit.ca/docview/230307399?accountid=14694

Hello @CharanUOIT:, I really don't want to dismiss your concerns, but as mentioned above: the Teahouse is not a good place for such detailed content-related discussion. Threads here will get archived, and will not be seen by other uninvolved editors who might be watching only the article and might want to offer additional feedback. Please start a thread at Talk:Gurmukhi, briefly outline your concerns there and provide some reliable sources to support your arguments (ideally secondary expert sources) - everyone involved in a dispute is encouraged to start such a thread. At the end of the day, you need to convince other editors to form a consensus or to change existing consensus - otherwise the article is unlikely to get changed. If a talkpage discussion fails, please look into WP:dispute resolution for possible additional venues. I have no stance on the actual dispute either way. These are just general tips on how to proceed as constructive as possible. GermanJoe (talk) 12:15, 6 October 2018 (UTC)

Earlier conversation:

@Kashmiri and @TituDutta: Thanks for the invite; For Wiki -as a neutral platform not mismanaged, I want to submit my serious objections to the contents of the Gurmukhi; lets openly talk about the differences Talk:Gurmukhi and until then, in equal fairness, please keep this page out of circulation and suspended giving me an equal opportunity to submit my perspective. I think your understanding about supranatural origin of Gurmukhi has confirmed my apprehensions about your lack of knowledge that pre,colonial and post-colonial scholarship has not adequately addressed Sri Guru Granth Sahib as a Linguistic treatise, a treasure on the origin of human language for the welfare of humankind not just Sikhs. Thus no supernatural origin instead a logical sampling and transcriptions of languages and scripts since Gatha, Sehaskriti and more. Gurmukhi is what enshrines and illuminates Sri Guru Granth Sahib - Sikh religious belief is interwoven into the written living Word; Sikhs have fundamental right to religion; You or other may have time and opportunity to promote your religion or no religion, should that deprive others including Sikhs and termed as "not about your religious beliefs".CharanUOIT (talk) 15:50, 5 October 2018 (UTC)CharanUOIT — Preceding unsigned comment added by CharanUOIT (talk • contribs)

Hello @CharanUOIT: and welcome to the Teahouse. I am just "pinging" the mentioned editors for you: @Kashmiri: and @Titodutta:, to notify them of this post, although such a content-related discussion is usually better started directly on the article's talkpage Talk:Gurmukhi. If you want to notify other editors about one of your messages, you can either use such a template or link to the user with User:username here added in your message (see WP:PING for more info) - otherwise your messages are probably missed by the other editors. Hope this helps a bit. GermanJoe (talk) 21:22, 5 October 2018 (UTC) @CharanUOIT: Are you really in higher education? :O [3]

On a more serious note, certainly you are welcome to voice your concerns regarding the current version. However, if you just continue claiming that Guru Granth Sahib is "a linguistic treatise, a treasure on the origin of human language for the welfare of humankind", without backing it with any academic reference, then you will not get anywhere. Because I am quite sure other editors will not bother debating your faith. Still, your edits will be reverted, because your beliefs are not considered a reliable source for Wikipedia articles. — kashmīrī TALK 21:39, 5 October 2018 (UTC) As an outsider to the topic (American Jew), I want to state that the page Gurmukhi has existed for many years, and will not be taken out of circulation, or suspended, or reverted to a draft (or nominated for deletion). The proper place to discuss is at Talk:Gurmukhi, where I see that no one has started a discussion. Which is what CharanUOIT asked for. Kashmiri's comments, perhaps more acerbic than necessary, pointed out that Wikipedia content must rest only on cited sources. David notMD (talk) 23:44, 5 October 2018 (UTC)

Thanks GermanJoe Kashmiri David notMD

Guru Granth Sahib Defines Gurmukhi-as a unique, unmixable, movement. ਇਹ ਚਾਲ ਨਿਰਾਲੀ ਗੁਰਮੁਖੀ (Page: 314, Pauri 25, http://www.khojgurbani.com/shabad/index/314 ) The meaning of Gurmukhi as a unique, unmixable, movement-methodology has been further clarified on the same page, Pauri 26 as ਵਿਚਿ ਸਚੇ ਕੂੜੁ ਨ ਗਡਈ....( no mixing in truth - how could mixed truth lead to filter insights?).

Please correct me, if wrong, from an academic perspective, this meaning of Gurmukhi comes close to what Shawn Wilson talks about “how …to live in both worlds…and what is the thinking behind what makes it possible.”(p.175)( https://www.researchgate.net/publication/234754037_What_Is_an_Indigenous_Research_Methodology ). Gurmukhi is the language and script of this thinking. Further, he argues that we need to move beyond an “indigenous perspective in research” to “researching from an indigenous paradigm.”

If the word “indigenous” is replaced by “Sikh” that’s what is missing from this page. Sikh perspective is grounded in Guru Granth Sahib and validates scholarship within secondary sources. Further, Sikh scholarship talks about what Wilson says “how …to live in both worlds” so that research and scholarship could do “something better in the world”(p.175). @Kasmiri -I will answer other doubts, once the methodology of sourcing and validating Sikh contents from Guru Granth Sahib is mutually agreed. Guru Granth Sahib is for Sikhs what Shawn mentions "...from an indigenous paradigm." Thanks. CharanUOIT (talk) —Preceding undated comment added 11:52, 6 October 2018 (UTC)

Wilson, S. (2001). What is indigenous research methodology? Canadian Journal of Native Education, 25(2), 175-179. Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com.uproxy.library.dc-uoit.ca/docview/230307399?accountid=14694 — Preceding unsigned comment added by CharanUOIT (talk • contribs) 13:12, 6 October 2018 (UTC)

 * My edits fall under two categories:

DRMcCreedy (talk) 01:46, 8 October 2018 (UTC)
 * Phrases like "some may wrongly consider", "miscommunication and wrong credits", "sacred/profane", "Gurmukhi sacred script was diluted" express a point of view WP:POV.  Wikipedia is meant to be encyclopedic.  You'll find that edits using phrases like these are likely to be reverted, regardless of the subject of the article.
 * Not all sources carry the same weight per WP:UNDUE. One edit I reverted used a blogspot.com link to overrule the consensus that Gurmukhi is a Brahmic-derived script. This contradicts reliable sources such as "The World's Writing Systems", The Blackwell Encyclopedia of Writing Systems, and others.  Ad hominem attacks on their authors don't diminish their value.

Sant Bhasha - Inappropriate titling of Gurbani
@Drmccreedy

Sikhs as a minority, due to political reasons, are propagated to be a part of the Hindu religion; Miscommunications through secondary sources have been shared on the Gurmukhi page that accomplishes a task to undermine Sikhs independent identity and particularly their sacred script Gurmukhi.

Using the term "Sant Bhasha" as "coalesced under the generic title of Sant Bhasha.[5]" is one such dimension of the propaganda. Guru Granth sahib has Gurbani not "Sant Bhasha" that enshrines and illuminates in Gurmukhi sacred script; Larger Sikh perspective is no one calls the language of Guru's anything other than Gurbani; An unheard phrase at a Sikh place of worship or in social get together would be lets sing :Sant Bhasha, or let us read Sant Bhasha- a generic title equivalent to the compositions contained in Guru Granth Sahib. These people sponsored by the propaganda folks and referenced on this page who have confirmed and assigned the generic title have attempted to undermine sacred composition Gurbani- Gurmukhi-Sikh distinct identity.

further the "sacred words" of those not included medieval saints [like Meera Bai treated with reverence by Hindus and her writing Sant Bhasha - language of Saint] are not comparable to Gurbani. There are no compositions of Meera Bai included in Guru Granth Sahib.

In the primary source Guru Granth sahib, there are only two references in the compositions of Bhagat Kabir - Hindus reverence as Sant Kabir - using the term ਬਾਣੀ Bani - the sacred language; three reference to Bani from Bhagat Namdev - Hindu reverence as Sant Namdev; that when enshrines and illuminates the Guru Granth sahib become Gurbani and transcends from what is being titled as Sant Bhasha

Another dimension of that propaganda is Gurmukhi has been modified to add more sounds and letters recently by Punjabi University, Patiala. This dilution is highly objectionable so has socio-linguistic implication desired for political means.

Gurmukhi page does not meet the Neutrality Criteria that Wiki has implemented; since it does not consider the larger Sikh perspective of holding Gurmukhi as a sacred script and Gurbani as the language of Guru Granth Sahib not Sant Bhasha as neatly assigned with a generic title.

Ignoring listening to Sikh side of the story and — Preceding unsigned comment added by CharanUOIT (talk • contribs) 21:02, 7 October 2018 (UTC)

Article title
I see that in March 2017 (apparently the last time the name was discussed) there was a unanimous decision to move this article to Gurmukhi script, yet now it is called just Gurmukhi and I can't find this move in the edit history. Danielklein (talk) 04:59, 10 April 2019 (UTC)
 * The move to Gurmukhi happened September last year, and the editor responsible was . – Uanfala (talk) 05:06, 10 April 2019 (UTC)
 * Yes, I requested the move as there is no need for descriptors/disambiguators here (script, alphabet) since it is simply known as Gurmukhi. Gotitbro (talk) 05:15, 10 April 2019 (UTC)

yogesh — Preceding unsigned comment added by 122.173.246.47 (talk) 08:49, 8 July 2019 (UTC)

"Punjabi script" listed at Redirects for discussion
An editor has asked for a discussion to address the redirect Punjabi script. Please participate in the redirect discussion if you wish to do so. Tsla1337 (talk) 15:58, 27 April 2020 (UTC)

unnatural geminates

 * This does not include consonants which are not naturally geminated, i.e. ਣ, ੜ, ਵ, ਰ. (ṇ ṛ v r)

If this sentence means what I think it means, I suggest rewording: But certain consonants are never geminated. The word naturally could be taken to mean that other consonants are long by nature, i.e. by default. —Tamfang (talk) 14:43, 13 May 2023 (UTC)

consonant conjuncts

 * To form consonant clusters, Gurmukhi uniquely affixes subscript letters at the bottom of standard characters, rather than using the true conjunct symbols used by other scripts, which merge parts of each letter into a distinct character of its own.

Uniquely? Don't many Brahmic scripts do the same? In Devanagari a few conjuncts are opaque (particularly kṣ) but most are readily analyzed into their components. I have the impression that Tibetan script's conjuncts are even more transparent. —Tamfang (talk) 03:06, 6 August 2023 (UTC)

title: Talk:Gurmukhi


text:
The Guide for the Perplexed

The Guide for the Perplexed (دلالة الحائرين, דלאלת אלחאירין; מורה הנבוכים) is a work of Jewish theology by Maimonides. It seeks to reconcile Aristotelianism with Rabbinical Jewish theology by finding rational explanations for many events in the text.

It was written in Judeo-Arabic, a dialect of Classical Arabic using the Hebrew alphabet. It was sent originally, part after part, to his student, Rabbi Joseph ben Judah of Ceuta, the son of Rabbi Judah, and is the main source of Maimonides' philosophical views, as opposed to his opinions on Jewish law.

Since many of the philosophical concepts, such as his view of theodicy and the relationship between philosophy and religion, are relevant beyond Judaism, it has been the work most commonly associated with Maimonides in the non-Jewish world and it is known to have influenced several major non-Jewish philosophers. Following its publication, "almost every philosophic work for the remainder of the Middle Ages cited, commented on, or criticized Maimonides' views." Within Judaism, the Guide became widely popular, with many Jewish communities requesting copies of the manuscript, but also quite controversial, with some communities limiting its study or banning it altogether.

Contents
The Guide for the Perplexed was originally written sometime between 1185 and 1190 by Maimonides in Classical Arabic using the Hebrew alphabet. It was first translated in 1204 into Hebrew by a contemporary of Maimonides, Samuel ibn Tibbon. The work is divided into three parts. According to Maimonides, he wrote the Guide "to enlighten a religious man who has been trained to believe in the truth of our holy Law, who conscientiously fulfills his moral and religious duties, and at the same time has been successful in his philosophical studies."

"This work has also a second object in view: It seeks to explain certain obscure figures which occur in the Prophets, and are not distinctly characterized as being figures. Ignorant and superficial readers take them in a literal, not in a figurative sense. Even well-informed persons are bewildered if they understand these passages in their literal signification, but they are entirely relieved of their perplexity when we explain the figure, or merely suggest that the terms are figurative. For this reason I have called this book Guide for the Perplexed."

Also, he made a systematic exposition on Maaseh Bereishit and Merkabah mysticism, works of Jewish mysticism regarding the theology of creation from the Book of Genesis and the chariot passage from the Book of Ezekiel—these being the two main mystical texts in the Tanakh. This analysis occurs in the third part, and from this perspective, the issues raised in the first two parts are there to provide background and a progression in the mystical and philosophical knowledge required to ponder the climax.

The opening letter
The book begins with a letter from Maimonides to his dear student, Rabbi Joseph ben Judah of Ceuta. Maimonides praises his student's sharp comprehension and eagerness to acquire knowledge.

"Then when God decreed our separation and you betook yourself elsewhere, these meetings aroused in me a resolution that had slackened. Your absence moved me to compose this Treatise, which I have composed for you and for those like you, however few they are. I have set it down in dispersed chapters. All of them that are written down will reach you where you are, one after the other."

The first part

The part begins with Maimonides' thesis of the unity, omnipresence, and incorporeality of God, explaining biblical anthropomorphism of divine attributes as homonymous or figurative. The first chapter explains the Genesis 1 description of Adam the first as in the "image of God", as referring to the intellectual perception of humankind rather than physical form. In the Bible, one can find many expressions that refer to God in human terms, for instance the "hand of God". Maimonides strongly opposed what he believed to be a heresy present in unlearned Jews who then assume God to be corporeal (or even possessing positive characteristics).

To explain his belief that this is not the case, Maimonides devoted more than 20 chapters in the beginning (and middle) of the first part to analyzing Hebrew terms. Each chapter was about a term used to refer to God (such as "mighty") and, in each case, Maimonides presented a case that the word is a homonym, whereby its usage when referring to a physical entity is completely different from when referring to God. This was done by close textual analysis of the word in the Tanakh in order to present what Maimonides saw as the proof that according to the Tanakh, God is completely incorporeal: "[The Rambam] set up the incorporeality of God as a dogma, and placed any person who denied this doctrine upon a level with an idolater; he devoted much of the first part of the Moreh Nevukhim to the interpretation of the Biblical anthropomorphisms, endeavoring to define the meaning of each and to identify it with some transcendental metaphysical expression. Some of them are explained by him as perfect homonyms, denoting two or more absolutely distinct things; others, as imperfect homonyms, employed in some instances figuratively and in others homonymously.”"

This leads to Maimonides' notion that God cannot be described in any positive terms, but rather only in negative conceptions. The Jewish Encyclopedia notes his view that "As to His essence, the only way to describe it is negatively. For instance, He is not physical, nor bound by time, nor subject to change, etc. These assertions do not involve any incorrect notions or assume any deficiency, while if positive essential attributes are admitted it may be assumed that other things coexisted with Him from eternity."

Unrestrained anthropomorphism and perception of positive attributes is seen as a transgression as serious as idolatry, because both are fundamental errors in the metaphysics of God's role in the universe, and that is the most important aspect of the world.

The first part also contains an analysis of the reasons why philosophy and mysticism are taught late in the Jewish tradition, and only to a few. Maimonides cites many examples of what he sees as the incapability of the masses of understanding these concepts. Thus, approaching them with a mind that is not yet learned in Torah and other Jewish texts can lead to heresy and the transgressions considered the most serious by Maimonides.

The part ends (Chapters 73–76) with Maimonides' protracted exposition and criticism of a number of principles and methods identified with the schools of Jewish Kalam and Islamic Kalam, including the argument for creation ex nihilo and the unity and incorporeality of God. While he accepts the conclusions of the Kalam school (because of their consistency with Judaism), he disagrees with their methods and points out many perceived flaws in their arguments: "Maimonides exposes the weakness of these propositions, which he regards as founded not on a basis of positive facts, but on mere fiction ... Maimonides criticizes especially the tenth proposition of the Mutakallimīn, according to which everything that is conceivable by imagination is admissible: e.g., that the terrestrial globe should become the all-encompassing sphere, or that this sphere should become the terrestrial globe."

The second part
The second part begins with 26 propositions from Aristotle's metaphysics, of which Maimonides accepts 25 as having been conclusively demonstrated, rejecting only the proposition that holds the universe to be eternal. The exposition of the physical structure of the universe, as seen by Maimonides. The world-view asserted in the work is essentially Aristotelian, with a spherical Earth in the centre, surrounded by concentric Heavenly Spheres. While Aristotle's view with respect to the eternity of the universe is rejected, Maimonides extensively borrows his proofs of the existence of God and his concepts such as the Prime Mover: "But as Maimonides recognizes the authority of Aristotle in all matters concerning the sublunary world, he proceeds to show that the Biblical account of the creation of the nether world is in perfect accord with Aristotelian views. Explaining its language as allegorical and the terms employed as homonyms, he summarizes the first chapter of Genesis thus: God created the universe by producing on the first day the reshit (Intelligence) from which the spheres derived their existence and motion and thus became the source of the existence of the entire universe."

A novel point is that Maimonides connects natural forces and heavenly spheres with the concept of an angel: these are seen as the same thing. The Spheres are essentially pure Intelligences who receive power from the Prime Mover. This energy overflows from each one to the next and finally reaches earth and the physical domain. This concept of intelligent spheres of existence also appears in Gnostic Christianity as Aeons, having been conceived at least eight hundred years before Maimonides. Maimonides' immediate source was probably Avicenna, who may in turn have been influenced by the very similar scheme in Isma'ili Islam. This leads into a brief exposition of Creation as outlined in Genesis and theories about the possible end of the world.

The second major part of the part is the discussion of the concept of prophecy. Maimonides departs from the orthodox view in that he emphasizes the intellectual aspect of prophecy: According to this view, prophesy occurs when a vision is ascertained in the imagination, and then interpreted through the intellect of the prophet. In Maimonides view, many aspects of descriptions of prophesy are metaphor. All stories of God speaking with a prophet, with the exception of Moses, are metaphors for the interpretation of a vision. While a perfected "imaginative faculty" is required, and indicated through the behavior of the prophet, the intellect is also required. Maimonides insists that all prophesy, excepting that of Moses, occurs through natural law. Maimonides also states that the descriptions of nation-wide prophesy at Mount Sinai in Exodus are metaphors for the apprehension of logical proofs. For example, he gives the following interpretation:

"[I]n the speech of Isaiah, ... it very frequently occurs ... that when he speaks of the fall of a dynasty or the destruction of a great religious community, he uses such expressions as: the stars have fallen, the heavens were rolled up, the sun was blackened, the earth was devastated and quaked, and many similar figurative expressions (II.29)."

Maimonides outlines 11 levels of prophecy, with that of Moses being beyond the highest, and thus most unimpeded. Subsequent lower levels reduce the immediacy between God and prophet, allowing prophecies through increasingly external and indirect factors such as angels and dreams. Finally, the language and nature of the prophetic books of the Bible are described.

The third part
The beginning of the third part is described as the climax of the whole work. This is the exposition of the mystical passage of the Chariot found in Ezekiel. Traditionally, Jewish law viewed this passage as extremely sensitive, and in theory, did not allow it to be taught explicitly at all. The only way to learn it properly was if a student had enough knowledge and wisdom to be able to interpret their teacher's hints by themselves, in which case the teacher was allowed to teach them indirectly. In practice, however, the mass of detailed rabbinic writings on this subject often crosses the line from hint to detailed teachings.

After justifying this "crossing of the line" from hints to direct instruction, Maimonides explains the basic mystical concepts via the Biblical terms referring to Spheres, elements and Intelligences. In these chapters, however, there is still very little in terms of direct explanation.

This is followed by an analysis of the moral aspects of the universe. Maimonides deals with the problem of evil (for which people are considered to be responsible because of free will), trials and tests (especially those of Job and the story of the Binding of Isaac) as well as other aspects traditionally attached to God in theology, such as providence and omniscience: "Maimonides endeavors to show that evil has no positive existence, but is a privation of a certain capacity and does not proceed from God; when, therefore, evils are mentioned in Scripture as sent by God, the Scriptural expressions must be explained allegorically. Indeed, says Maimonides, all existing evils, with the exception of some which have their origin in the laws of production and destruction and which are rather an expression of God's mercy, since by them the species are perpetuated, are created by men themselves."

Maimonides then explains his views on the reasons for the 613 mitzvot, the 613 laws contained within the five books of Moses. Maimonides divides these laws into 14 sections—the same as in his Mishneh Torah. However, he departs from traditional Rabbinic explanations in favour of a more physical/pragmatic approach by explaining the purpose of the commandments (especially of sacrifices) as intending to help wean the Israelites away from idolatry.

Having culminated with the commandments, Maimonides concludes the work with the notion of the perfect and harmonious life, founded on the correct worship of God. The possession of a correct philosophy underlying Judaism (as outlined in the Guide) is seen as being an essential aspect in true wisdom.

Reception
While many Jewish communities revered Maimonides' work and viewed it as a triumph, others deemed many of its ideas heretical. The Guide was often banned and, in some occasions, even burned.

In particular, the adversaries of Maimonides' Mishneh Torah declared war against the "Guide". His views concerning angels, prophecy, and miracles—and especially his assertion that he would have had no difficulty in reconciling the biblical account of the creation with the doctrine of the eternity of the universe, had the Aristotelian proofs for it been conclusive —provoked the indignation of his coreligionists.

Likewise, some (most famously Rabbi Abraham ben David, known as the RaBad) objected to Maimonides' raising the notion of the incorporeality of God as a dogma, claiming that great and wise men of previous generations held a different view.

In modern-day Jewish circles, controversies regarding Aristotelian thought are significantly less heated, and, over time, many of Maimonides' ideas have become authoritative. As such, the book is seen as a legitimate and canonical, if somewhat abstruse, religious masterpiece.

The Guide had great influence in Christian thought, both Thomas Aquinas and Duns Scotus making extensive use of it: the negative theology contained in it also influenced mystics such as Meister Eckhart. It was massively used in—and disseminated through—Ramon Martí's Pugio Fidei. It was also read and commented on in Islamic circles, and remains in print in Arab countries.

Several decades after Maimonides' death, a Muslim philosopher by the name of Muhammad ibn Abi-Bakr Al-Tabrizi wrote a commentary in Arabic on the first 25 propositions (out of 26) of Book Two, leaving out the last one, which states that the universe is eternal. The extant manuscript of the commentary was written in 677AH (1278 CE), and states that it was copied from a copy in Maimonides' own hand writing. The commentary was printed in Cairo in 1949.

Analysis
By Maimonides' own design, most readers of the Guide have come to the conclusion that his beliefs were orthodox, i.e. in line with the thinking of most rabbis of his day. He wrote that his Guide was addressed to only a select and educated readership, and that he is proposing ideas that are deliberately concealed from the masses. He writes in the introduction:

"No intelligent man will require and expect that on introducing any subject I shall completely exhaust it; or that on commencing the exposition of a figure I shall fully explain all its parts."

and:

"My object in adopting this arrangement is that the truths should be at one time apparent and at another time concealed. Thus we shall not be in opposition to the Divine Will (from which it is wrong to deviate) which has withheld from the multitude the truths required for the knowledge of God, according to the words, 'The secret of the Lord is with them that fear Him (Psalm 25:14)'"

Marvin Fox comments on this: "It is one of the mysteries of our intellectual history that these explicit statements of Maimonides, together with his other extensive instructions on how to read his book, have been so widely ignored. No author could have been more open in informing his readers that they were confronting no ordinary book."

Marvin Fox writes further: "In his introduction to the Guide Maimonides speaks repeatedly of the 'secret' doctrine that must be set forth in a way appropriate to its secret character. Rabbinic law, to which Maimonides as a loyal Jew is committed, prohibits any direct, public teaching of the secrets of the Torah. One is permitted to teach these only in private to selected students of proven competence ... It would seem that there is no way to write such a book without violating rabbinic law ... Yet at times it is urgent to teach a body of sound doctrine to those who require it ... The problem is to find a method for writing such book in a way that does not violate Jewish law while conveying its message successfully to those who are properly qualified."

According to Fox, Maimonides carefully assembled the Guide "so as to protect people without a sound scientific and philosophical education from doctrines that they cannot understand and that would only harm them, while making the truths available to students with the proper personal and intellectual preparation."

Aviezer Ravitzky writes: "Those who upheld a radical interpretation of the secrets of the Guide, from Joseph Caspi and Moses Narboni in the 14th century to Leo Strauss and Shlomo Pines in the 20th, proposed and developed tools and methods for the decoding of the concealed intentions of the Guide. Can we already find the roots of this approach in the writings of Samuel ben Judah ibn Tibbon, a few years after the writing of the Guide? ... Ibn Tibbon's comments reveal his general approach toward the nature of the contradictions in the Guide: The interpreter need not be troubled by contradiction when one assertion is consistent with the 'philosophic view' whereas the other is completely satisfactory to 'men of religion'. Such contradictions are to be expected, and the worthy reader will know the reason for them and the direction they tend to ... The correct reading of the Guide's chapters should be carried out in two complementary directions: on the one hand, one should distinguish each chapter from the rest, and on the other one should combine different chapters and construct out of them a single topic. Again, on the one hand, one should get to the bottom of the specific subject matter of each chapter, its specific 'innovation', an innovation not necessarily limited to the explicit subject matter of the chapter. On the other hand, one should combine scattered chapters which allude to one single topic so as to reconstruct the full scope of the topic."

Translations
The original version of the Guide was written in Judaeo-Arabic. The first Hebrew translation (titled Moreh HaNevukhim) was written in 1204 by a contemporary of Maimonides, Samuel ben Judah ibn Tibbon in southern France. This Hebrew edition has been used for many centuries. A new, modern edition of this translation was published in 2019 by Feldheim Publishers. Another translation, which most scholars see as inferior, though more user-friendly, was that of Judah al-Harizi.

A first complete translation in Latin (Rabbi Mossei Aegyptii Dux seu Director dubitantium aut perplexorum) was printed in Paris by Agostino Giustiniani/Augustinus Justinianus in 1520.

A French translation accompanied the first critical edition, published by Salomon Munk in three volumes from 1856 (Le Guide des égarés: Traité de Théologie et de Philosophie par Moïse ben Maimoun dit Maïmonide. Publié Pour la première fois dans l'arabe original et accompagné d'une traduction française et notes des critiques littéraires et explicatives par S. Munk).

The first complete English translation was The Guide for the Perplexed, by Michael Friedländer, with Mr. Joseph Abrahams and Reverend H. Gollancz, dates from 1881. It was originally published in a three volume edition with footnotes. In 1904 it was republished in a less expensive one volume edition, without footnotes, with revisions. The second edition is still in use today, sold through Dover Publications. Despite the age of this publication it still has a good reputation, as Friedländer had solid command of Judeao-Arabic and remained particularly faithful to the literal text of Maimonides' work.

Another translation to English was made by Chaim Rabin in 1952, also published in an abridged edition.

The most popular English translation is the two-volume set The Guide of the Perplexed, translated by Shlomo Pines, with an extensive introductory essay by Leo Strauss, published in 1963.

A modern translation to Hebrew was written by Yosef Qafih and published by Mossad Harav Kook, Jerusalem, 1977. A new modern Hebrew translation has been written by Prof. Michael Schwartz, professor emeritus of Tel Aviv University's departments of Jewish philosophy and Arabic language and literature. Mishneh Torah Project published another Hebrew edition between 2018 and 2021, translated by Hillel Gershuni.

Mór Klein (1842–1915), the rabbi of Nagybecskerek translated it to Hungarian and published it in multiple volumes between 1878 and 1890.

The Arabic original was published from Arabic manuscripts in a critical edition by the Turkish Dr. Hussein Atai and published in Turkey, then in Cairo Egypt.

Translations exist also in Yiddish, French, Polish, Spanish, German, Italian, Russian, and Chinese.

Manuscripts
The earliest complete Judeo-Arabic copy of Maimonides' Guide for the Perplexed, copied in Yemen in 1380, was found in the India Office Library and added to the collection of the British Library in 1992. Another manuscript, copied in 1396 on vellum and written in Spanish cursive script, but discovered in Yemen by bibliophile, David Solomon Sassoon, was formerly housed at the Sassoon Library in Letchworth, England, but has since been acquired by the University of Toronto. The manuscript has an introduction written by Samuel ibn Tibbon, and is nearly complete, with the exception of a lacuna between two of its pages. Containing a total of 496 pages, written in two columns of 23 lines to a column, with 229 illuminations, the manuscript has been described by David Solomon Sassoon in his Descriptive Catalogue of the Hebrew and Samaritan Manuscripts in the Sassoon Library. In the Bodleian Library at Oxford University, England, there are at least fifteen incomplete copies and fragments of the original Arabic text, all described by Adolf Neubauer in his Catalogue of Hebrew Manuscripts. Two Leyden manuscripts (cod. 18 and 211) have also the original Arabic texts, as do various manuscripts of the Bibliothèque Nationale in Paris (No. 760, very old; 761 and 758, copied by Rabbi Saadia ibn Danan). A copy of the original Arabic text was also stored at the Berlin Royal Library (now Berlin State Library), under the category Ms. Or. Qu., 579 (105 in Catalogue of Moritz Steinschneider); it is defective in the beginning and at the end. Hebrew translations of the Arabic texts, made by Samuel ibn Tibbon and Yehuda Alharizi, albeit independently of each other, abound in university and state libraries.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: The Guide for the Perplexed


text:
1996 MLS supplemental draft

The 1996 Major League Soccer supplemental draft was held on March 4, 1996, in Fort Lauderdale, Florida.

History
As Major League Soccer prepared for its first season, the league began stocking teams with players. As the teams were being created at the same time, the league adopted a measured approach to building rosters. First, the league allocated four "big name" players to each team. Then on February 6 and 7, 1996, the league held its 1996 MLS Inaugural Player Draft. Over sixteen rounds, teams selected players from any source. Then on March 4, the league held a three-round 1996 MLS College Draft. The 1996 MLS Supplemental Draft was held later the same day.

title: 1996 MLS supplemental draft


text:
Music of Java

The Music of Java embraces a wide variety of styles, both traditional and contemporary, reflecting the diversity of the island and its lengthy history. Apart from traditional forms that maintain connections to musical styles many centuries old, there are also many unique styles and conventions which combine elements from many other regional influences, including those of neighbouring Asian cultures and European colonial forms.

Gamelan
The gamelan orchestra, based on metallic idiophones and drums, is perhaps the form which is most readily identified as being distinctly "Javanese" by outsiders. In various forms, it is ubiquitous to Southeast Asia. In Java, the full gamelan also adds a bowed string instrument (the rebab, a name illustrative of Islamic influence), plucked siter, vertical flute suling and voices. The rebab is one of the main melodic instruments of the ensemble, together with the metallophone gendér; these and the kendang drums are often played by the most experienced musicians. Voices usually consist of a male chorus gerong, together with a female soloist pesindhen; however, the voices are not usually featured in court gamelan (as opposed to wayang kulit, shadow puppet theatre) and are supposed to be heard discreetly in the middle of the orchestral sound. In these abstract pieces, the words are largely secondary to the music itself.

There are two tuning systems in Javanese gamelan music, slendro (pentatonic) and pelog (heptatonic in full, but focusing on a pentatonic group). Tuning is not standard, rather each gamelan set will have a distinctive tuning. There are also distinct melodic modes (pathet) associated with each tuning system. A complete gamelan consists of two of sets of instrument, one in each tuning system. Different gamelan sets have different sonorities, and are used for different pieces of music; many are very old, and used for only one specific piece. Musical forms are defined by the rhythmic cycles. These consist of major cycles punctuated by the large gong, subdivided by smaller divisions marked by the striking of smaller gongs such as kenong, kempul and kethuk. The melodic interplay takes place within this framework (technically called "colotomic structure").

title: Music of Java


text:
Agnosine

Agnosine (Brescian: Gnùsen) is a comune in the province of Brescia, Lombardy, Italy. Is a town of 1,825 inhabitants (2011).

title: Agnosine


text: File:The Red Tower by Giorgio de Chirico.jpg


text:
Talk:Fifth grade

Merge them all
Having a separate article for each grade doesn't really make a lot of sense, and a single article would do much better justice to them all. Some advantages of merging:
 * We could have one article for the US system, one for UK system etc, rather than each article attempting to cover generalities across very different systems.
 * The repetetive "students in this grade tend to be aged X" could be avoided.
 * A standard format for information could be easily managed.
 * Some actual references might be found and used ;)
 * "Grade 5" could become a list of pointers to all the differetn grade 5s that exist, like grade 5 in rock climbing, in music, in different years etc.

In short, "fifth grade" would make a great section in an article about the US elementary school system (pretty much what the article is currently about), but it makes a very poor article by itself. Stevage 06:05, 26 October 2006 (UTC)

 * This seems like a sensible proposal to me. The current system is not helpful for understanding anything but the US system. Much better to have a structured article for each nation covering their respective grade/year systems. Tafkam 16:01, 27 January 2007 (UTC)

I'm reviving this -- it's still an issue, 15 years on. It's fascinating as a fossil from the early years, when Wikipedia was still figuring how to wiki. If it was awkward back then, time has only made it more so. Miyo0i (talk) 05:52, 28 April 2022 (UTC)

title: Talk:Fifth grade


text: Talk:List of longest rivers

title: Talk:List of longest rivers


text:
Category talk:Ships of the United States Navy

Which is the preferred category? This one, or Category:US naval ships? I would be inclined to go with this one, since in the U.S. the abbreviation used is usually U.S. not US (at least officially). Or is there some distinction here that I am missing? [[User:Aranel|Aranel ("Sarah")]] 01:17, 4 Oct 2004 (UTC)
 * Oh, and there's also Category:U.S. Navy ships. [[User:Aranel|Aranel ("Sarah")]] 23:13, 11 Oct 2004 (UTC)
 * I'm inclined to go for Category:U.S. Navy ships, because some of the subcats, like Category:U.S. Navy escort aircraft carriers, get unduly lengthy if spelled out, but then if some are abbreviated, all should be. Stan 23:26, 17 Oct 2004 (UTC)
 * I prefer Category:U.S. Navy ships. NeoJustin 22:29 Oct 23, 2004 (UTC)
 * Incidentally, some discussion is proceeding at Wikipedia talk:WikiProject Ships. Stan 00:16, 24 Oct 2004 (UTC)
 * Of course, officially it is "United States Navy". And this is the category that is currently in use—why change it over such a minor consideration as a few extra letters in the category name?[[User:Aranel|Aranel ("Sarah")]] 23:59, 24 Oct 2004 (UTC)
 * Abbreviations are not preferable in category (or article) titles if it can be helped. As of the last I've seen in WP:CfD, it has been voted to retain United States Navy ships as the category name as opposed to U.S. Navy ships or Ships of the United States Navy. Joshbaumgartner 03:12, 17 November 2005 (UTC)


text:
Talk:Shahmukhi

Untitled
I thought shahmukhi's primary use was for Punjabi in Pakistan but I'm not expert. In any case I think this page should mention that that language also uses the gurmukhi and devanagari scripts. — Hippietrail 01:18, 4 Oct 2004 (UTC)

Yeah, you're right. Shahmukhi is used specifically to write Punjabi, not Urdu. The only difference between Shahmukhi and the Nastaleeq script (used to write Urdu) is that Shahmukhi has a few additional characters for consonants only found in Punjabi. --Katangoori 23:20, 10 Oct 2004 (UTC)

Hi, I just thought I'd mention I've always thought of Shahmukhi script and Urdu as identicle. I can't for the life of me think of a letter that one uses in Shahmukhi that one doesn't use in Urdu. But I could be wrong.

 * I'm no expert, but I think it uses a couple of extra characters. Whether Unicode has these characters is another thing altogether.   See: . Sukh | ਸੁਖ | Talk 12:50, 5 December 2005 (UTC)

Maybe there are multiple orthographies used for Punjabi in Shahmukhi. The orthography that I have always noticed used in Lahore in play billboards (for Punjabi plays) and in Punjabi books is exactly like Urdu with 36 characters. I've never noticed the extra characters like jje and the nne. But I don't doubt that it probably isn't standardized. I'll try to find out from the Punjab Textbook Board what the official provincial orthography for Punjabi is.

 * That's excellent! If you could find out more about the relation between Shahmukhi and Gurmukhi that'd be cool too.  Sukh | ਸੁਖ | Talk 12:34, 10 December 2005 (UTC)

Report from Lahore
Right I have been looking like mad for a Punjabi book that uses any letters beyond the 36 of Urdu and I have not found one. I have found the official texts used by Punbaj Textbook Board and they too do not use these extra letters. Furthermore I spoke to my Father's Sister's Husband who is a Punjabi literature buff (both in Shahmukhi and Gurumukhi) and he says he has never seen these extra letters in anything he has come across. If anyone knows where these extra letters might be used I'd be much obliged. —Preceding unsigned comment added by Ahassan05 (talk • contribs)

 * I've found the following two listed under Lahnda in the Unicode charts:

 * ڰ Arabic Letter Gaf with Ring [06B0]
 * ڋ Arabic Letter Dal with Dot below and Small Tah [068B]

 * And these under Siraiki:

 * 0759 – Arabic letter dal with two dots vertically below and small tah (Siraiki)
 * 0768 – Arabic letter noon with small tah (Siraiki)

 * Could any of these be the 'missing characters'? Sukh | ਸੁਖ | Talk 01:08, 2 January 2006 (UTC)

 * Just a side note, there is a unique Punjabi sound Rra (ੜ) which isn't present in Hindi (and therefore probaby not Urdu either) so maybe that is one of the letters? Also the other marks could be tonal identifiers? Whether or not they are used on printed material is another matter though.  All that may be available are Urdu typesetting tools, and that could be the reason why all the signs use the standard Urdu alphabet.  Sukh | ਸੁਖ | Talk 01:13, 2 January 2006 (UTC)

 * No, the rra is written with ڑ, and is present in Urdu.

اَيُّوْبْ وَزيْرْ 03:30, 29 January 2006 (UTC)

 * I’m inclined to take down these “phantom characters” that no one can find, but the Asian Language Resource Center at the University of Chicago says that Punjabi has some letters Urdu doesn’t… so though it doesn’t say which, I’m hesistant to just rip ’em down. APNA, too, says there are “minor modifications” to the Urdu alphabet. Though it doesn’t state what, exactly, those modifications are, I think we can assume it’s those extra three letters listed, until someone comes out with evidence to the contrary. Maybe it should be mentioned on the page that these Punjabi-specific letters are rarely used…? —Wiki Wikardo 19:19, 30 July 2008 (UTC)

This is th Seraiki alphabet
1. The tabulated Alphabet is that of Seraiki (Laihndii or Multani). That is what the very first footnote says. It is written by Christopher Shackle, a well known Linguist from London School of Oriental and African Studies.

2. Apparently, the name Seraiki is derived from a word for North (direction) in Sindhi. Just as Punjabis call Seraiki (language) as ‘Laihndii’ (Punjabi word for ‘from West’) – ‘Laihnde waale paaseoN’!

3. The subject is not my area of expertise, but I can contribute some confusion, though. Hanif seems to have some difficulty with Letters – numbered 15, 31 and 36, with which Hanif had some difficulty:

Letter No. 15: ‘ddaal’ should sound like our (Urdu) ‘daal-Shadd’ ڈّ)   ). it is equivalent to ‘repeated d’ and should have the sound of ‘dd’ as in ‘Gaddi’ (train) or ‘Guddi’ (doll or kite).

Letter No. 31: Is our Urdu ‘Gaaf’!

Letter No. 36: From the Gurmukhi equivalent which Shackle has given, this     letter ‘Tuun’ has the sound of ‘Hard’ N. That is where N is a dental sound (produced with the tip of the tongue pressing against the teeth), ‘Hard’ N is a Retroflex sound; that is, it is produced by the tip of the tongue pressing against the backend of the top-of-palate – “taaluu”! I can’t remember any equivalent Urdu sound!

Sincerely: Sukhbir Singh, Indianapolis, USA.

Image
The image is informative but messy. I'm sure that it can be put into a nice tidy table. I might do it myself (although I'd have trouble finding all the characters). Once it's done, the image should be deleted from Wikipedia. Æµ§œš¹ [aɪm ˈfɻɛ̃ⁿdˡi] 19:38, 20 July 2007 (UTC)
 * Agreed, a Unicode chart would be lovely. -- Beland (talk) 16:29, 2 December 2014 (UTC)

Shahmukhi numerals
Hi! a) I am puzzled what numerals (using what UTF-8 values) are used with the Shahmukhi script. There might be more then one (Arab, Latn etc.).. Please see also user talk:לערי ריינהארט about some work at https://test.wikipedia.org/wiki/Most-perfect_magic_square where transliterations for a dozen of ISO 15924 scripts as Latn including Roman numerals and binary, Deva, Guru, Arab, Armn, Beng, Grek, Gujr, Hans · Hant · Jpan, Hebr, Knda, Kore, Mlym, Taml, Telu, Tibt and maybe some more. b) What scrip from ISO 15924 is used for the Shahmukhi alphabet? Thanks in advance for your support! lɛʁi ʁɑjnhɑʁt (Leri Reinhart)

·לערי ריינהארט·T·m:[//meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/user_talk:%D7%9C%D7%A2%D7%A8%D7%99_%D7%A8%D7%99%D7%99%D7%A0%D7%94%D7%90%D7%A8%D7%98?action=history Th]·T·email me· 17:11, 12 August 2015 (UTC)

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Uninastaliq
@User:نعم البدل Template:Uninastaliq is simply a version of the Nastaliq template with better font fallbacks - it puts fonts which are included as system defaults first and prioritizes those with better character support. Unless you wanted me to explain something else? عُثمان (talk) 19:51, 4 November 2022 (UTC)

 * Hi, my objection was not simply due to your use of Template:Uninastaliq. You have added unreferenced IPA symbols, for the diacritics for instance /ɐ/ and /ɔ/ for zabar, and also /ɛ/ for zer, and then /ɲ/ for the noon ghunna (as well as the ltter). In the letters section, alif apparently representing /ɐ/, خ representing /kʰ/, which is not correct at all, same for zaal and the many perso-arab variants to be /d͡ʒ/, same for ghain to be /g/ and fe as /pʰ/. And then for vao, this : '/v/, /b/, /ʊ/'.
 * I really don't where you've referenced these from, because it just seems that you're trying to add the phonology/pronunciation of these letters from the Indian dialects - which is not necessary - this script isn't used in India and is completely different to Gurmukhi. You cannot mix up and  in Shahmukhi, like you can in Gurmukhi, nor are the letters used interchangeably with those sounds.
 * Also, I will revert your edit, please do not revert it, until we can reach a conclusion - thanks. نعم البدل (talk) 23:55, 4 November 2022 (UTC)
 * See Bhardwaj (2016)'s Panjabi: A Reference Grammar for more detailed explanations, I can work on citing this more thoroughly if it is not clear.
 * In Shahmukhi, zabar is used to represent ɔ in causative verb stems. You can see this in Salahuddin's Shahmukhi dictionary, the vocalised spelling of پاون is پاوَن. We could write this as پاؤن but this use of wau hamza is not a pronunciation spelling as you are likely well aware this is not pronounced with a dipthong in this form as in پاؤ.
 * Zer represents ɛ in the vocalised spellings of tonal Punjabi words. شہِر is pronounced with ɛ not ɪ. See also محِفل.
 * ə and ɐ are not word distinguishing phonemes in Punjabi (they rarely are in any language) but rather they are two different manifestations of the inherent vowel (مکتا). The former is the first vowel which occurs in پنجاںی and the latter is the vowel in چڑھ. This is conditioned by context and occurs automatically in pronunciation. Alef also represents word initial ɐ as it is the marker of all word initial vowels in Punjabi.
 * The sound of nun ghunna is also conditionally determined and not the same in every word. If it helps to think of it, homorganic nasals are not a feature of English orthography, but most English speakers find it impossible to pronounce the word "sink" without making the same sound as one of those represented by nun ghunna, because of the subsequent consonant.
 * There are several Sanskrit origin (not Persian) spelled with feh in Shahmukhi which have the ph sound, which is in free association with f in Punjabi. See for example بھاف / بھاپھ ("steam") which is still even pronounced as "bhap" باپ by many speakers. We know this is not a Farsi loan though because بھ is not a sound in Persian. In other common words پھ and ف are interchangeable, فیر / پھیر being the most notable example.
 * The correct Punjabi pronunciation of خ is homophonous with kh کھ. The fact that some خ words have become tonal is clear evidence for this (the fact that tone changes the sound of the consonant may be the cause of some confusion). Pronouncing it like Arabic/Persian /x/ is an affectation of learned Urdu speakers.
 * To be continued. The visual editor cut off the end of my comment, I have to retype it. عُثمان (talk) 06:27, 5 November 2022 (UTC)
 * @نعم البدل
 * To further elaborate, it is incorrect to say that Gurmukhi is completely different to Shahmukhi or that there is a such thing as different Indian pronunciations. Every dialect of Punjabi is spoken in Pakistan. The dialects I am familiar with are Doabi and Majhi because these are the dialects of the Faisalabad/Toba Tek Singh region where my family is from - they moved there from east Punjab generations ago in the 19th century (due to the history of the canal colonies) and these dialects are still the predominant dialects of the region. Further, Gurmukhi actually has letters in it which have been dropped from most speakers' pronunciation but are preserved in a minority of dialects which are almost exclusively spoken today in Pakistan. This is why Saraiki Shahmukhi has letters for these sounds. (Bear in mind also that Gurmukhi became widespread in the 19th century after Perso-Arabic script predominated for a long time and that much of Gurmukhi literature was transcribed directly from Shahmukhi and conserves spellings from it. فعل is ਫ਼ਿਅਲ in Gurmukhi, with ਅ representing the ع even though this is pronounced as ਫੇਲ / فیل by all Punjabi speakers who are not purposely trying to change the pronunciation because it is written differently. Hindi has this word, but they spell it how it is pronounced. Also, Gurmukhi consider that was developed and refined in West Punjab in what is now Pakistan, and that the numerals used in the Perso-Arabic system ۱۲۳۴ etc. are based on the Gurmukhi ones. ۲ rotated 90 degrees looks like 2 because they are both from ਦੋ, literally the word دو "two" spelled in Punjabi, where the "Western" and "Arabic" numbers both really originated.)
 * The script also is actively used in India, I have copies of Rehman Akhter's Shahmukhi books published in Malerkotla (predominantly Muslim part of Indian Punjab).
 * > You cannot mix up ز and ج in Shahmukhi, like you can in Gurmukhi, nor are the letters used interchangeably with those sounds.
 * Many Pakistani speakers do in fact interchangeably pronounce ج and ز as the same - they are closely related sounds. This is more common in elderly speakers than younger generations but if you listen for it you will hear it from some. Something that is less obvious is that ش and چھ sound the same to the ears of some Punjabi speakers for similar reasons, also particularly in the older generations. The word چھی چھی ("filth" but I'm familiar with it as "pee"/"urine") may be pronounced as شی شی and be understood by many even though these letters are not often swapped.
 * > same for zaal and the many perso-arab variants to be /d͡ʒ/
 * All of these may be pronounced the same as ز or ج and still be understood in typical Punjabi pronunciation. I have never heard them any other way.
 * > same for ghain to be /g/
 * If you call a Pakistani Punjabi man named Ghazi غازی with the actual Arabic sound غ they would literally not know who you are referring to, they would only recognise it with /g/. I have heard some people claim that they pronounce غ differently, along with ط it seems to be a popular letter for Pakistanis to have imagined a different sound for, but to be frank I think people who claim this are confusing the tendency for consonant sounds to be conditioned by the following vowel, and they have not actually heard how wrong words sounds when غ and ط are not pronounced with /g/ and dental /t/ respectively.
 * > then for vao, this : '/v/, /b/, /ʊ/'.
 * vau is /ʊ/ in Shahmukhi spelling of ذرا کُو ("a little bit") for example. You can also see these spellings in Salahuddin's dictionary. This is a prominent feature of Shahmukhi (mater lectionis) in order to preserve word final short vowels in the orthography. (These were not common in Persian or Arabic, but are an essential feature of Punjabi.)
 * /v/ and /b/ are in free association for many speakers, not just in one dialect. People from Faisalabad and thereabouts often say وڈا as "baDDa" (in fact this is how half my family pronounces this word), and Potohari Punjabi speakers from Pakistan often pronounce /b/ in this position as well. Many people even say وچ as "bich." If you have never heard anybody pronounce words like this, keep an ear out for it in Punjabi songs and you will notice it. عُثمان (talk) 07:05, 5 November 2022 (UTC)
 * عُثمان (talk) 07:26, 5 November 2022 (UTC)
 * Actually, I stand corrected about غ and خ and ز in an unexpected way after discussing with a Pothohari speaker these letters have a double use for some sounds which only exist in some Punjabi dialects. غ in most words like غازی that are loaned from Persian is just /g/. But in the word بغڑ (Shahmukhi) ਪੱਕੜ (Gurmukhi) this is a real different sound, an aspirated consonant related to کھ and گھ which is sometimes tonal. In Gurmukhi it is just represented with addhak before ਕ. This word can be found in both Salahuddin's Shahmukhi dictionary and the Gurmukhi Pothohari Shabd Kosh (1960). You can tell it is a native Punjabi word because ڑ is a very Punjabi sound which doesn't occur in loan words (unless they've been corrupted with one of the productive suffixes using ڑ, but that پغڑنا exists as a verb, a class of words generally quite closed to loan words, further supports this).
 * ز and خ only exist as independent sounds in word medial positions in some Western dialects related to Hindko. I need to do some reading further to investigate good example words for this. عُثمان (talk) 10:11, 5 November 2022 (UTC)
 * Hi, I'm acknowledging your long reply, please give me some time to read and understand it. Will get back to you soon. نعم البدل (talk) 21:40, 5 November 2022 (UTC)
 * That's alright, no rush.
 * I found out more information about خ by the way - in Hindko certain words which are spelled with کھ in "standard" Punjabi are pronounced as /x/. So I think for speakers who use both these sounds they can be considered interchangeable. (As it pertains to its presence in native words as opposed to loaned ones.) There are details about this in Elena Bashir's Punjabi grammar; I can send you a copy of this if you like. عُثمان (talk) 15:31, 6 November 2022 (UTC)
 * Oh and I added two specific (sourced) Punjabi examples to Near-open_central_vowel which may help illustrate where the manifestation of the inherent vowel is different. In the second example, it actually occurs because of stressed wau. This isn't very common, but it speaks to the semi-vowel nature of the "v/w" sound and how it is conditioned by context in Punjabi.
 * In some contexts ʌ is apparently present as a manifestation of the inherent vowel, but I haven't investigated this properly. Bashir's book makes the distinction between a phonetic and phonemic transcription, and only uses different representations of the inherent "a" in phonetic transcriptions. There are also some interesting remarks on the nature of word-final alef and choti he.
 * As an aside, the book's analysis of Punjabi verbs is completely wrong. The phonology analysis is quite insightful though. I haven't come across a book yet which correctly analyses all aspects of the language, so I think these need to be compared against each other and taken with a grain of salt. They say word-final short vowels only exist in "marginal particles" but words like کو are hardly marginal and a better framing would be that word-final short vowels are concentrated in the most frequently used words. عُثمان (talk) 15:46, 6 November 2022 (UTC)

Gurmukhi Equivalents removed from tables?
For some reason, Gurmukhi equivalents of letters don’t appear in the character tables anymore, making the tables much more confusing for people who are only familiar with the Gurmukhi script.

furthermore, the table for vowels has no ipa or Gurmukhi equivalents at all, making the table completely useless for anyone who doesn’t already know Shahmukhi.

I’m just completely baffled at why these changes were made since it just makes this article unnecessarily confusing for people who know Gurmukhi, and even unusable when it comes to the vowels table Sp1699 (talk) 10:01, 8 July 2023 (UTC)

 * I just checked and saw that it was who did the edits. They should be reversed as they make the article a way worse resource for Punjabis familiar with the Gurmukhi script, and just completely ruined the vowel chart entirely. Sp1699 (talk) 10:12, 8 July 2023 (UTC)
 * Punjabi isn't merely a language for Indian Punjabis or solely written in Gurmukhi. The Gurmukhi page doesn't explain the Shahmukhi equivalent of the Gurmukhi characters and it doesn't really need to be explained here either. The transliteration suffices.
 * I'm not sure what the issue with the vowels are but I don't think I changed anything there, apart from removing the Gurmukhi.
 * The differences between the two Punjabi scripts can be read here on Wiktionary نعم البدل (talk) 10:49, 8 July 2023 (UTC)
 * Thanks for the wiktionary link, but the vowel chart literally has no ipa or Gurmukhi transliteration so it’s useless unless you already know the script, so that needs to be rectified with at least ipa symbols added. And I was using the article to learn the Shahmukhi script so I felt that the article essentially became a worse resource due to those edits.
 * I think adding a separate portion of the article that compares the two scripts on both of the articles regarding the respective writing systems would be helpful, or adding that information to the main Punjabi language article. Sp1699 (talk) 10:58, 8 July 2023 (UTC)
 * Sorry, could you elaborate, please? The Wiktionary article has the IPA, and the Gurmukhi – for both the consonants and the vowels under the Shahmukhi section.
 * If you let me know, I'll expand the Wiktionary article :) نعم البدل (talk) 17:44, 8 July 2023 (UTC)
 * I meant the Wikipedia article for shahmukhi, my bad. On my screen, it has no IPA explanations for the vowels on the vowel chart Sp1699 (talk) 21:31, 8 July 2023 (UTC)

title: Talk:Shahmukhi


text:
Pointe-Noire

Pointe-Noire (Njinji, Ndjindji with the letter d following French spelling standards ) is the second largest city in the Republic of the Congo, following the capital of Brazzaville, and an autonomous department and a commune since the 2002 Constitution. Before this date it was the capital of the Kouilou region (now a separate department). It is situated on a headland between Pointe-Noire Bay and the Atlantic Ocean. Pointe-Noire is the main commercial centre of the country and has a population of 1,420,612 inhabitants in 2023.

The coat of arms
The coat of arms of the city of Pointe-Noire is:

"Gold at the point of sand accompanied by two silver oars, the handle gules, laid in chevron poured, the tip and oars moving from a sea of azure wavy three streams of silver"

Administration
Pointe-Noire is a commune divided into six urban boroughs (arrondissements):

 * Lumumba, the oldest area. It is the administrative and commercial centre.
 * Mvoumvou
 * Tié-Tié
 * Loandjili
 * Mongo-Mpoukou
 * Ngoyo

Pointe-Noire is also a department which include the area of the commune and, since 2011, the district of Tchiamba-Nzassi, formerly part of the Kouilou department.

History
The name Pointe-Noire ("Black Point") originated with Portuguese navigators who saw a block of black rocks on the headland in 1484. From then on, Pointe-Noire, called in Portuguese Ponta Negra, became a maritime point of reference, and then a small fishing village starting in 1883, after the French signed a treaty with local people, the Loangos.

In 1910, French Equatorial Africa (Afrique équatoriale française, AEF) was created, and French companies were allowed to exploit the Middle Congo (modern-day Congo Brazzaville). It soon became necessary to build a railroad that would connect Brazzaville, the terminus of the river navigation on the Congo River and the Ubangui River, with the Atlantic coast. As rapids make it impossible to navigate on the Congo River past Brazzaville, and the coastal railroad terminus site had to allow for the construction of a deep-sea port, authorities chose the site of Ponta Negra instead of Libreville as originally envisaged. In 1923, it was chosen to be the terminus of the Congo-Ocean Railway (CFCO).

In 1927, drinking water became available in the city, which had about 3,000 inhabitants. The airport was built in 1932. In 1934, Governor Raphael Antonetti inaugurated the Congo-Ocean Railway. The first hospital was built in 1936. That same year, Bank of West Africa (BAO) opened its first branch in the city. In 1942, the Pointe-Noire Harbour welcomed its first ship, and made the city the AEF's seaport.

In 1950, Pointe-Noire had 20,000 inhabitants, and became the capital of the Middle Congo, while Brazzaville was the capital city of the AEF. In 1957, the Middle-Congo became the Republic of Congo, although it was still not independent. Incidents which occurred during 1958 legislative elections led the leaders of the Democratic Union for the Defence of African Interests (Union démocratique pour la défense des interets africains, UDDIA) to transfer the capital to Brazzaville, since Pointe-Noire was under the influence of the political opposition.

Pointe-Noire continued growing, and was the most modern city in 1960, when Congo gained independence. Then, the oil discovery around 1980 re-attracted people and Elf-Aquitaine facilities. The population doubled by 1982, and reached 360,000 in 1994.

Civil wars in 1997 and 1999 caused an influx of refugees from the surrounding provinces (Lékoumou, Niari, Bouenza, Pool) towards Pointe-Noire, causing the population to climb to over 1 million inhabitants.

Recently the Government has proposed the development of a new bulk resource port to be constructed at Point Indienne, 30 km to the north of the Port of Pointe-Noire. A meeting was held on 18 December 2012 with a collective of 10 Congo government ministries and invited mining companies to discuss future development opportunities.

Economy
Pointe-Noire is the essential centre of the oil industry of the Republic of Congo, one of the main oil producers in Central Africa. Congolese oil has been largely exploited by the French company Elf Aquitaine since its discovery around 1980.

Pointe-Noire is also known for its fishing industry, which is often at odds with the oil development. Local waters are reportedly getting overfished.

Formerly, Pointe-Noire was home to a potash exploitation which led to the construction of a wharf, currently closed to the public.

Education
Lycée Français Charlemagne, a French international school for primary and secondary school children, is in Pointe-Noire. It also hosts a British international school for children aged 0 to 18 years, called Connie's Academy.

The city is home to the École Supérieure de Technologie du Littoral (technology) the École supérieure de commerce et de gestion (Business), Institut UCAC-ICAM (Engineering) and the Centre d’éducation, de formation et d’apprentissage en mécanique auto (Automotive Engineering). The Higher Institute of Technology of Central Africa has a campus in the city. There are also several other institutions of higher education in the city.

University establishments
As a result of the decentralisation policy put in place by the Congolese government, Pointe-Noire has seen the emergence of some young universities. The city is now home to several private institutes and universities, as well as internationally renowned establishments. Every day, their reputation grows, making Pointe-Noire a fast-growing centre of higher education. This is excellent news for students and for the city's development. We can mention universities such as:

 * The University of Loango, which offers programmes in law, management and commerce
 * The Ecole Africaine de Développement in Pointe-Noire offers programmes in science and technology
 * The Canadian School of Management offers programmes in management sciences and marketing
 * Ecole Superieure of Commerce and Industry of Congo of Congo offers Bachelor's degree courses in partnership with Ecole SupdeV Paris

Transport

Pointe-Noire is home to Agostinho-Neto International Airport which as of August 2023 had direct flights to Abidjan, Addis Ababa, Brazzaville, Cotonou, Douala, Istanbul, Libreville, Luanda and Paris and was the second busiest airport in the country.

Pointe-Noire is also the terminus of the Congo-Ocean Railway, the railway station being a notable building. the railway was operating the La Gazelle train service every other day to Brazzaville and intermediate destinations.

Thanks to its rapid growth, the city now includes Tié-Tié Railway Station and Ngondji Railway Station, the next railway stations after the Pointe Noire terminus.

On 22 June 2010 a train departing from Pointe-Noire derailed resulting in the deaths of many passengers. The railway was built by the French between 1921 and 1934 during the French colonial rule in Congo.

Pointe-Noire has a taxi-bus network that runs throughout the entire city.

Places of worship
Among the places of worship, they are predominantly Christian churches and temples: Roman Catholic Diocese of Pointe-Noire (Catholic Church), Evangelical Church of Congo (World Communion of Reformed Churches) and Assemblies of God.

Climate
Pointe-Noire has a tropical savanna climate under the Köppen climate classification. The city has a wet season that spans from October through April, while the remaining 5 months form the dry season. Pointe-Noire receives roughly 1000 mm of precipitation annually. Temperatures are somewhat cooler during the dry season with average temperatures roughly at 24 degrees Celsius. During the wet season, average temperatures hover around 28 degrees Celsius.

Sport
Football teams include Association Sportive des Cheminots and Jeunesse Sportive les Bougainvillées.

Twin towns – sister cities
Pointe-Noire is twinned with:
 * 🇨🇳 Dalian, China
 * 🇺🇸 New Orleans, United States
 * 🇨🇳 Suzhou, China

Notable people

 * Delvin N'Dinga, footballer
 * Junior Etou (born 1994), Congolese basketball player for Hapoel Be'er Sheva of the Israeli Basketball Premier League
 * Ghislaine Sathoud, feminist writer
 * Alain Mabanckou (born 1966), writer

title: Pointe-Noire


text:
Alfianello

Alfianello (Brescian: Fianèl) is a comune in the province of Brescia, in Lombardy, northern Italy.

title: Alfianello


text:
Interstate 894

Interstate 894 (I-894) is a 9.92 mi auxiliary Interstate Highway in Milwaukee County in the US state of Wisconsin. The route serves as a bypass of downtown Milwaukee, connecting with I-94 at the Zoo Interchange west of downtown and the Mitchell Interchange south of downtown. The route runs concurrently with three other highways for its duration, following US Highway 45 (US 45) from the Zoo Interchange to Hale Interchange as the Zoo Freeway, where it separates from US 45 to follow I-43 heading east to the Mitchell Interchange as the Airport Freeway. In local traffic reporting and casual conversation, it is known simply as "the bypass" or "894", with "41" also being more recently used, as I-894 is entirely concurrent with I-41/US 41. The east–west portion is also concurrent with I-43.

I-894 is part of what was proposed to be an extensive freeway network around the Milwaukee area. The Zoo Freeway portion was completed from Beloit Road northward in 1963, and the Airport Freeway and remaining segment of the Zoo Freeway were completed in 1966. I-43 was routed concurrently with I-894 in 1987.

Route description
I-894 begins at the Zoo Interchange in Milwaukee with I-41, I-94, US 41, and US 45. The highway heads south as part of the Zoo Freeway from this interchange running concurrently with I-41/US 41/US 45. Traffic reports generally refer to this section either as 894 northbound (southbound) or the northbound (southbound) Bypass. North of the Zoo Interchange, I-41/US 41/US 45 continues separately as the north part of the Zoo Freeway. I-894 enters West Allis before its first exit after the interchange; this first exit is a junction with State Trunk Highway 59 (WIS 59), known locally as Greenfield Avenue. After the first three exits, I-894 enters Greenfield. Farther south, I-894 has interchanges with National Avenue, Oklahoma Avenue, and Beloit Road. This section of the bypass is usually congested during rush hour because of traffic on I-894 and merging traffic from the Rock Freeway (I-43). This 4 mi stretch usually has travel times between 10 and 15 minutes during the rush hour (as opposed to five minutes during non-rush-hour times).

The Interstate turns eastward at the Hale Interchange. US 45 turns westbound at that point to follow I-43 (Rock Freeway) south, and I-43 north follows I-894 to the east. The highway becomes the Airport Freeway after the Hale Interchange. Generally, this section is referred to as I-894 eastbound (westbound), as I-43 was not added until the late 1980s. Westbound I-894 has exits to WIS 24 (Forest Home Avenue) after the junction, though the eastbound highway only exits to a nearby local street. I-894 has two more exits after this and meets WIS 36 (Loomis Road) before reentering Milwaukee. It meets WIS 241 (South 27th Street) at exit 9 before terminating at the Mitchell Interchange with I-94, I-43 and US 41; I-43 continues northbound concurrently with I-94.

I-894 passes generally through residential areas for its entire length with the exception of a few commercial districts right next to the freeway such as the Southridge Mall district, along with South 27th Street north to Oklahoma Avenue, which contains multiple car dealerships. With the approximate distance traveled through downtown via I-94 at 11.8 mi, I-894 provides a shorter distance for travelers heading to Chicago or Milwaukee Mitchell International Airport. The Zoo Freeway portion as of 2007 carries at most 170,000 vehicles per day—with the highest values closer to the Zoo Interchange. The Airport Freeway carries up to 134,000 vehicles per day.

History
The freeways that exist today are only a part of what the Milwaukee County Expressway Commission had hoped would be built by 1972. The Zoo Freeway between Beloit Road and North Avenue was completed in 1963. At that time, the portion between Beloit Road and the Zoo Interchange was signed as I-894. The remainder of the Zoo Freeway to the Hale Interchange was completed in 1966 when the Airport Freeway was constructed. US 45 was rerouted to the freeway, as was WIS 15 south of National Avenue. (The Rock Freeway had also been constructed west to 108th Street at the time. ) The Airport Freeway was proposed to be routed to the also-proposed Stadium Freeway South along Howard Avenue which is about 0.75 mi north of the current alignment and named the Howard Avenue Expressway. The Airport Freeway construction was completed in 1966 to fully open I-894. Both freeways were slated to become part of the Interstate Highway System in 1957, prior to their construction. I-43 was signed along the Airport Freeway concurrently with I-894 in 1988 after being officially designated in 1987, while I-41 was added to the route on April 7, 2015. A remnant of the proposed Stadium Freeway remains connected to I-894 near WIS 36 as an unbuilt interchange. Its three completed ramps are closed to all traffic, and previously had allowed busses access to a park and ride; the fourth ramp was demolished.

title: Interstate 894


text:
Battle of Molino del Rey

The Battle of Molino del Rey (8 September 1847) was one of the bloodiest engagements of the Mexican–American War as part of the Battle for Mexico City. It was fought in September 1847 between Mexican forces under General Antonio León against an American force under Major General Winfield Scott at El Molino del Rey on the fringes of Mexico City. The Americans made little progress in this battle, but the Mexican forces were unable to hold them back long enough to prevent the capture of Mexico City one week later. Ulysses S. Grant served as a captain during this battle.

Background
The Americans were camped south of Mexico City, Scott and Worth's division at Tacubaya, Gideon Johnson Pillow's division at Mixcoac, David E. Twiggs division at San Ángel, and John A. Quitman's division at San Agustín.

On 6 September 1847, Scott ended the armistice following the Battle of Churubusco as negotiations broke down, as it became clear that Antonio López de Santa Anna was preparing to resume fighting. On 7 September, a large number of Mexican horsemen were observed around a group of low, massive stone buildings known as El Molino del Rey or King's Mill. Spread across the distance of this point, they were about 1000 yd west of the Castle at Chapultepec, which itself was about 2 mi (3 km) from the gates of Mexico City. A large grove of trees separated the mill from the castle, while the castle's batteries covered the area.

General Winfield Scott received reports that the trees masked a foundry for casting cannon, and rumors told that Antonio López de Santa Anna, leader of both the Mexican government and military, in desperate need of ordnance, was sending out church and convent bells to have them melted down and converted to cannon. Scott ordered General Worth to attack and take the mill, break up the factory, and destroy any munitions found.

Molino del Rey was manned by Brigadier Antonio León's Oaxaca Brigade, while Brigadier General Francisco Pérez manned the Casa Mata, and Brigadier General Simeón Ramírez's brigade with seven guns manned the ditch connecting the two. General Juan Álvarez's 4,000 cavalry waited in reserve at the Hacienda Morales.

The National Guard Battalions of Liberty, Union, Querétaro, and Mina were commanded by General León (1,400 men and three 8-lb guns), and the brigade of troops (Grenaderos, San Blas Activos, Mixto de Santa Ana, and Morelia Battalions) were commanded by General Joaquín Rangel. The 2nd light battalion, that of the Fijo the Mejico, and the 1st and 12th regiments of the line, with six pieces of artillery, were commanded by General Simeón Ramírez. The 4th light battalion (600 men)and 11th regiment of the line (900 men), were commanded by General Francisco Pérez. In the grove of Chapultepec was the reserve 1st and 3d light battalions (700 men).

Battle
At 5:45 am, on 8 September, Worth sent an assault column of 500 men, assembled from the various units of his division and led by Major George Wright of the 8th Infantry, down a gently sloping plain against the western end of the buildings. Behind them, he placed Colonel Charles F. Smith's light battalion and George Cadwalader's brigade in the center, and to their right was Garland's brigade and a battery under Captain Simon H. Drum. On the left, attacking the Casa Mata, was Colonel James Duncan's battery and a brigade commanded by Colonel James S. McIntosh. Major Edwin Vose Sumner commanded three squadrons of dragoons on the left flank. Captain Benjamin Huger's heavy guns provided support.

Major Wright's force came under intense artillery and small-arms fire, which drove them back, killing or wounding 11 of 14 officers. Lt. Col. Miguel Maria Echeagaray's 3d Light Infantry launched a counterattack, prompting Worth to send in Capt. Ephraim Kirby Smith's light battalion. Similarly, McIntosh's men withdrew in the face of a counterattack, but Duncan's guns forced Pérez's men to withdraw from Casa Mata.

Worth sent the Voltigeur Regiment and the 11th Infantry into the assault, while Scott sent in the 9th Infantry. General León and Col. Lucas Balderas were killed. Brigadier General Matías Peña y Barragán led two counterattacks, but the Americans were able to force two gates and then fight room-to-room to take the mill after 2 hours, but found only a few gun molds. The Casa Mata caught fire and blew up near noon, causing more casualties, but by 1:00 pm, the Americans were back where they started. 685 Mexicans were taken prisoner and historian K. Jack Bauer estimates their killed and wounded at about 2,000.

Aftermath
Col. Hitchcock called the battle a Pyrrhic victory for the Americans. Scott still needed an assault path into the city, despite the destruction of Molino del Rey. Preparations began immediately thereafter for the Battle of Chapultepec.

title: Battle of Molino del Rey


text:
Anfo

Anfo (Brescian: Anf; Damphus) is a comune in the province of Brescia in northern Italy, roughly halfway between Milan and Venice. It is in the Lombardy region near Lake Idro and is bounded by other communes of Bagolino and Collio.

title: Anfo


text: File:The Doobie Brothers - Takin' It to the Streets.jpg


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Angolo Terme

Angolo Terme (Angól in Camunian dialect) is a comune in Val Camonica, province of Brescia, in Lombardy, Italy. It lies on the right bank of the river Dezzo, in the lower Valle di Scalve.

History
Angolo was a mining center known since the 4th century BC. After the 12th century AD its history was closely linked to that of the Federici family. In 1335 Luchino Visconti granted them a privilege to extract iron in the area. In 1403 Caterina Visconti gave the family the possessions of the Antonioli of Grevo in exchange for the support offered  her.

In 1408 Angolo went to Pandolfo III Malatesta, who ceded it to Comicino Federici, who temporarily sided for the Guelphs, until 1419, when he returned to the  Ghibelline allegiance and the Visconti.

In 1509 Angolo (called Anghol) appears in a map of the Valle Camonica designed by Leonardo da Vinci.

In 1846 the town of Angolo, placed administratively in the province of Bergamo, demanded to be included in the province of Brescia.

In 1923 several houses suffer damage from the failure of the Gleno Dam (Italy), with 46 deaths among the inhabitants.

Main sights

 * Parish Church of San Lorenzo, of ancient origin, rebuilt in 1694 and enlarged in 1757. The side portals are in "Simona stone". The fifteen panels of the entrance door depict  episodes of Christ's Life.
 * Church of Saint Elizabeth (or of the Visitation), situated along the road that leads into the Val di Scalve. It was built between the 15th and 16th century.
 * Hermitage of Saint Sylvester: built in the early 16th century.
 * Former Albrici - Federici palace, with a 16th-century portal in "Sarnico stone".

Culture
The scütüm are in camunian dialect nicknames, sometimes personal, elsewhere showing the characteristic features of a community. The one which characterize the people of Angolo Terme is Treàangoi.

title: Angolo Terme


text:
Artogne

Artogne (Artògne in camunian dialect) is an Italian comune in the province of Brescia, in Lombardy (Italy). Artogne lies on the left side of Oglio river, between the towns of Gianico, Pian Camuno and Rogno.

History

In 1233 Artogne became property of the Brusati family.

In 1331 Zanone called "Mastaio" and Ziliolo Federici, sons of Bojaco of Gorzone, bought all the property that Girardo Brusati owned in the land of Artogne.

Artogne is indicated on the 1508 map of Valle Camonica designed by Leonardo da Vinci, which is kept at the Royal Library of Windsor, in Great Britain.

In 1912 a severe flood hit the village.

In 1927 the town merged with that of Pian Camuno, creating the town of Pian d'Artogne. This was split again in 1957.

On July 26, 1944, Battista Pedersoli, Giacomo Marioli and Antonio Cotti Cottiniare were killed at the Cascina Campelli by nazi-fascists.

Main sights
The churches of Artogne are:
 * Church of Santa Maria a Elisabetta (15th century): the portal dates from 1532.
 * Church of Sant'Andrea, in 15th century style. The presbytery is separated from the nave by an iron grating.
 * Parish of Saints Cornelius and Cyprian, the portal in "stone of Sarnico" contains the inscription "pietas polùpuli erexit years 1751/cornelio et cypria martiribus".

There are several houses of the Federici family, including one with a stone portal of Sarnico and studded wooden door of the 15th century.

Traditions and folklore
The scütüm are in camunian dialect nicknames, sometimes personal, elsewhere showing the characteristic features of a community. The one which characterize the people of Artogne are Patàte, Mascherpine, maia mèlga, Màgole.

Sport
Sportspeople linked to Artogne include:
 * Nadia Fanchini
 * Elena Fanchini

Twin towns
Artogne is twinned with:

 * 🇧🇪 Courcelles, Belgium, since 1999

title: Artogne