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Toronto Centre (federal electoral district)

Toronto Centre (Toronto-Centre) is a federal electoral district in Toronto, Ontario, Canada, that has been represented in the House of Commons of Canada from 1872 to 1925, and since 1935, under the names Centre Toronto (1872–1903), Toronto Centre (1903–1925, and since 2004), Rosedale (1935–1997), and Toronto Centre—Rosedale (1997–2004).

Toronto Centre contains a large part of Downtown Toronto. The riding contains areas such as Regent Park (Canada's first social housing development), St. James Town (a largely immigrant area and the most densely populated neighbourhood in Canada), Cabbagetown, Church and Wellesley (a historic LGBTQ2 neighbourhood), Toronto Metropolitan University, the Toronto Eaton Centre and part of the city's financial district (the east side of Bay Street). At just under 6 km2, it is the smallest riding in Canada by area.

History
Centre Toronto riding was first created in 1872 from portions of West Toronto and East Toronto. In 1903, the name was changed to Toronto Centre. In 1924, the riding was broken into Toronto East Centre, Toronto West Centre and Toronto South.

A riding covering much the same area was created in 1933 named "Rosedale" after the wealthy neighbourhood of Rosedale. This riding was replaced with "Toronto Centre—Rosedale" in 1996, but the quickly growing population resulted in large areas being shaved off on all sides. In 2003, Toronto Centre—Rosedale was abolished, and a new riding somewhat to the east was created named "Toronto Centre".

Each of the four major national political parties (the Liberal Party, the Conservative Party, the Green Party, and the NDP), have active federal and provincial riding associations which act as the local party organizations in the riding. Since the early 1990s, however, most contests have been between the Liberals and NDP.

This riding lost territory to University—Rosedale and Spadina—Fort York, and gained a small fraction of territory from Trinity—Spadina during the 2012 electoral redistribution. This made Toronto Centre the smallest size riding in the country, beating Papineau in Montreal by 4 km2.

Historically, the riding was one of the few in central Toronto where the Progressive Conservatives usually did well. The PCs held the riding for 34 of the 58 years from 1935 to 1993. However, it has been in Liberal hands without interruption since 1993. The 2012 federal electoral redistribution shifted much of the wealthier northern part of the riding, which included Rosedale, to the new riding of University—Rosedale.

The riding was represented by former interim Liberal leader Bob Rae after the federal by-elections of March 17, 2008. Rae resigned from Parliament on July 31, 2013. Liberal Chrystia Freeland picked up the riding in the subsequent by-election, and held it until the 2015 Canadian federal election, when she chose to run for re-election in the new riding of University—Rosedale.

From 2015 to 2020, the riding was represented by Bill Morneau. On August 17, 2020, Morneau resigned as MP. Following a by-election on October 26, 2020, the riding has been represented by Marci Ien.

Demographics

 * According to the 2021 Canadian census

Ethnic groups: 40.7% White, 13.8% South Asian, 12.3% Chinese, 10.3% Black, 5.0% Filipino, 3.3% Latin American, 2.4% Arab, 2.2% Korean, 2.2% Southeast Asian, 2.0% West Asian, 1.9% Indigenous

Languages: 51.2% English, 6.2% Mandarin, 3.0% Spanish, 2.7% Cantonese, 2.4% French, 2.3% Tagalog, 1.7% Arabic, 1.7% Korean, 1.6% Bengali, 1.4% Russian, 1.4% Hindi, 1.3% Portuguese, 1.2% Tamil, 1.1% Persian

Religions: 34.5% Christian (17.2% Catholic, 2.9% Christian Orthodox, 2.7% Anglican, 1.2% United Church, 10.5% Other), 10.2% Muslim, 6.1% Hindu, 1.9% Buddhist, 1.7% Jewish, 44.0% None

Median income: $40,800 (2020)

Average income: $59,750 (2020)

Members of Parliament
These ridings have elected the following members of Parliament:

Toronto Centre, 2004–present
^ Change is from 2011 redistributed results.

General election
On September 21, 2008, Conservative candidate Chris Reid resigned because he said he couldn't commit to four years in government. However, blog entries were discovered that linked him to controversial musings on guns and the murder of Tim McLean aboard a Greyhound bus. Chris Reid was replaced by David Gentili as the Conservative candidate for Toronto Centre. Expenditures listed for Gentili include expenditures reported by Reid.

By-election
A by-election, held on March 17, 2008, to fill a vacancy created by the resignation of Bill Graham was won by Liberal Bob Rae, a former Ontario NDP Premier.

The nominated Conservative candidate in the by-election, Mark Warner, was dropped by the party's national council on October 31, 2007. Don Meredith was nominated as the Conservative candidate in December 2007.

Activist El-Farouk Khaki ran for the NDP and Chris Tindal was the Green Party of Canada candidate. Liz White was the Animal Alliance Environmental Voters Party of Canada candidate, and Doug Plumb represented the Canadian Action Party.

 * align="left" colspan=2|Liberal hold
 * align="right"|Swing
 * align="right"| +8.5
 * align="right"|

 * align="left" colspan=2|Liberal hold
 * align="right"|Swing
 * align="right"| -2.1
 * align="right"|

1933–1965
Note: NDP vote is compared to CCF vote in 1958 election.

Note: Progressive Conservative vote is compared to "National Government" vote in 1945 election.

''Note: Progressive Conservative vote is compared to "National Government" vote in 1940 election.

Note: "National Government" vote is compared to Conservative vote in 1935 election.

Toronto Centre, 1903–1924
Note: Conservative vote is compared to Unionist vote in 1917 election.

Note: Unionist vote is compared to Liberal-Conservative vote in 1911 election.

Note: vote compared to 1904 election.

Centre Toronto, 1872–1903
Note: vote compared to 1874 election.


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Superior colliculus

In neuroanatomy, the superior colliculus is a structure lying on the roof of the mammalian midbrain. In non-mammalian vertebrates, the homologous structure is known as the optic tectum or optic lobe. The adjective form tectal is commonly used for both structures.

In mammals, the superior colliculus forms a major component of the midbrain. It is a paired structure and together with the paired inferior colliculi forms the corpora quadrigemina. The superior colliculus is a layered structure, with a pattern that is similar to all mammals. The layers can be grouped into the superficial layers (stratum opticum and above) and the deeper remaining layers. Neurons in the superficial layers receive direct input from the retina and respond almost exclusively to visual stimuli. Many neurons in the deeper layers also respond to other modalities, and some respond to stimuli in multiple modalities. The deeper layers also contain a population of motor-related neurons, capable of activating eye movements as well as other responses. In other vertebrates the number of layers in the homologous optic tectum varies.

The general function of the tectal system is to direct behavioral responses toward specific points in body-centered space. Each layer contains a topographic map of the surrounding world in retinotopic coordinates, and activation of neurons at a particular point in the map evokes a response directed toward the corresponding point in space. In primates, the superior colliculus has been studied mainly with respect to its role in directing eye movements. Visual input from the retina, or "command" input from the cerebral cortex, create a "bump" of activity in the tectal map, which, if strong enough, induces a saccadic eye movement. Even in primates, however, the superior colliculus is also involved in generating spatially directed head turns, arm-reaching movements, and shifts in attention that do not involve any overt movements. In other species, the superior colliculus is involved in a wide range of responses, including whole-body turns in walking rats. In mammals, and especially primates, the massive expansion of the cerebral cortex reduces the superior colliculus to a much smaller fraction of the whole brain. It remains nonetheless important in terms of function as the primary integrating center for eye movements.

In non-mammalian species the optic tectum is involved in many responses including swimming in fish, flying in birds, tongue-strikes toward prey in frogs, and fang-strikes in snakes. In some species, including fish and birds, the optic tectum, also known as the optic lobe, is one of the largest components of the brain.

Note on terminology: This article follows terminology established in the literature, using the term "superior colliculus" when discussing mammals and "optic tectum" when discussing either specific non-mammalian species or vertebrates in general.

Anatomy
The superior colliculi are a structure of the dorsal midbrain and are part of the mesencephalic tectum. The two superior colliculi are situated inferior/caudal to the pineal gland and the splenium of corpus callosum. They are overlapped by the pulvinar of the thalamus, and a medial geniculate nucleus of the thalamus is situated lateral to either superior colliculus.  The two inferior colliculi are situated immediately inferior/caudal to the superior colliculi; the inferior and superior colliculi are known collectively as the corpora quadrigemina (Latin for quadruplet bodies). The superior colliculi are larger than the inferior colliculi, though the inferior colliculi are more prominent.

The brachium of superior colliculus (or superior brachium) is a branch that extends laterally from the superior colliculus, and, passing to the thalamus between the pulvinar and the medial geniculate nuclei, is partly continued into an eminence called the lateral geniculate nucleus, and partly into the optic tract.

The superior colliculus is associated with a nearby structure called the parabigeminal nucleus, often referred to as its satellite. In the optic tectum this nearby structure is known as the nucleus isthmi.

Structure
The superior colliculus is a synaptic layered structure. The microstructure of the superior colliculus and of the optic tectum, varies across species. As a general rule, there is always a clear distinction between superficial layers, which receive input primarily from the visual system and show primarily visual responses, and deeper layers, which receive many types of input and project to numerous motor-related brain areas. The distinction between these two zones is so clear and consistent that some anatomists have suggested that they should be considered separate brain structures.

In mammals, neuroanatomists conventionally identify seven layers The top three layers are called superficial:
 * Lamina I or SZ, the stratum zonale, is a thin layer consisting of small myelinated axons together with marginal and horizontal cells.
 * Lamina II or SGS, the stratum griseum superficiale ("superficial gray layer"), contains many neurons of various shapes and sizes.
 * Lamina III or SO, the stratum opticum ("optic layer"), consists mainly of axons coming from the optic tract.

Next come two intermediate layers:
 * Lamina IV or SGI, the stratum griseum intermedium ("intermediate gray layer"), is the thickest layer, and is filled with many neurons of many sizes. This layer is often as thick as all the other layers together. It is often subdivided into "upper" and "lower" parts.
 * Lamina V or SAI, the stratum album intermedium ("intermediate white layer"), consists mainly of fibers from various sources.

Finally come the two deep layers:
 * Lamina VI or SGP, the stratum griseum profundum ("deep gray layer"), consists of loosely packed neurons and myelinated fibers.
 * Lamina VII or SAP, the stratum album profundum ("deep white layer"), lying directly above the periaqueductal gray, consists entirely of fibers.

The superficial layers receive input mainly from the retina, vision-related areas of the cerebral cortex, and two tectal-related structures called the pretectum and parabigeminal nucleus. The retinal input encompasses the entire superficial zone, and is bilateral, although the contralateral portion is more extensive. The cortical input comes most heavily from the primary visual cortex (area 17, V1), the secondary visual cortex (areas 18 and 19), and the frontal eye fields. The parabigeminal nucleus plays a very important role in tectal function that is described below.

In contrast to the vision-dominated inputs to the superficial layers, the intermediate and deep layers receive inputs from a very diverse set of sensory and motor structures. Most areas of the cerebral cortex project to these layers, although the input from "association" areas tends to be heavier than the input from primary sensory or motor areas. However, the cortical areas involved, and the strength of their relative projections differs across species. Another important input comes from the substantia nigra, pars reticulata, a component of the basal ganglia. This projection uses the inhibitory neurotransmitter GABA, and is thought to exert a "gating" effect on the superior colliculus. The intermediate and deep layers also receive input from the spinal trigeminal nucleus, which conveys somatosensory information from the face, as well as the hypothalamus, zona incerta, thalamus, and inferior colliculus.

In addition to their distinctive inputs, the superficial and deep zones of the superior colliculus also have distinctive outputs. One of the most important outputs goes to the pulvinar and lateral intermediate areas of the thalamus, which in turn project to areas of the cerebral cortex that are involved in controlling eye movements. There are also projections from the superficial zone to the pretectal nuclei, lateral geniculate nucleus of the thalamus, and the parabigeminal nucleus. The projections from the deeper layers are more extensive. There are two large descending pathways, traveling to the brainstem and spinal cord, and numerous ascending projections to a variety of sensory and motor centers, including several that are involved in generating eye movements.

Both colliculi also have descending projections to the paramedian pontine reticular formation and spinal cord, and thus can be involved in responses to stimuli faster than cortical processing would allow.

Mosaic structure
On detailed examination, the collicular layers are actually not smooth sheets, but divided into a honeycomb arrangement of discrete columns. The clearest indication of columnar structure comes from the cholinergic inputs arising from the parabigeminal nucleus, whose terminals form evenly spaced clusters that extend from top to bottom of the tectum. Several other neurochemical markers including calretinin, parvalbumin, GAP-43, and NMDA receptors, and connections with numerous other brain structures in the brainstem and diencephalon, also show a corresponding inhomogeneity. The total number of columns has been estimated at around 100. The functional significance of this columnar architecture is not clear, but it is interesting that recent evidence has implicated the cholinergic inputs as part of a recurrent circuit producing winner-take-all dynamics within the tectum, as described in more detail below.

All species that have been examined — including mammals and non-mammals — show compartmentalization, but there are some systematic differences in the details of the arrangement. In species with a streak-type retina (mainly species with laterally placed eyes, such as rabbits and deer), the compartments cover the full extent of the SC. In species with a centrally placed fovea, however, the compartmentalization breaks down in the front (rostral) part of the SC. This portion of the SC contains many "fixation" neurons that fire continually while the eyes remain fixed in a constant position.

Function
The history of investigation of the optic tectum has been marked by several large shifts in opinion. Before about 1970, most studies involved non-mammals — fish, frogs, birds — that is, species in which the optic tectum is the dominant structure that receives input from the eyes. The general view then was that the optic tectum, in these species, is the main visual center in the non-mammalian brain, and, as a consequence, is involved in a wide variety of behaviors. From the 1970s to 1990s, however, neural recordings from mammals, mostly monkeys, focused primarily on the role of the superior colliculus in controlling eye movements. This line of investigation came to dominate the literature to such a degree that the majority opinion was that eye-movement control is the only important function in mammals, a view still reflected in many current textbooks.

In the late 1990s, however, experiments using animals whose heads were free to move showed clearly that the SC actually produces gaze shifts, usually composed of combined head and eye movements, rather than eye movements per se. This discovery reawakened interest in the full breadth of functions of the superior colliculus, and led to studies of multisensory integration in a variety of species and situations. Nevertheless, the role of the SC in controlling eye movements is understood in much greater depth than any other function.

Behavioral studies have shown that the SC is not needed for object recognition, but plays a critical role in the ability to direct behaviors toward specific objects, and can support this ability even in the absence of the cerebral cortex. Thus, cats with major damage to the visual cortex cannot recognize objects, but may still be able to follow and orient toward moving stimuli, although more slowly than usual. If one half of the SC is removed, however, the cats will circle constantly toward the side of the lesion, and orient compulsively toward objects located there, but fail to orient at all toward objects located in the opposite hemifield. These deficits diminish over time but never disappear.

Eye movements
In primates, eye movements can be divided into several types: fixation, in which the eyes are directed toward a motionless object, with eye movements only to compensate for movements of the head; smooth pursuit, in which the eyes move steadily to track a moving object; saccades, in which the eyes move very rapidly from one location to another; and vergence, in which the eyes move simultaneously in opposite directions to obtain or maintain single binocular vision. The superior colliculus is involved in all of these, but its role in saccades has been studied most intensively.

Each of the two colliculi — one on each side of the brain — contains a two-dimensional map representing half of the visual field. The fovea — the region of maximum sensitivity — is represented at the front edge of the map, and the periphery at the back edge. Eye movements are evoked by activity in the deep layers of the SC. During fixation, neurons near the front edge — the foveal zone — are tonically active. During smooth pursuit, neurons a small distance from the front edge are activated, leading to small eye movements. For saccades, neurons are activated in a region that represents the point to which the saccade will be directed. Just prior to a saccade, activity rapidly builds up at the target location and decreases in other parts of the SC. The coding is rather broad, so that for any given saccade the activity profile forms a "hill" that encompasses a substantial fraction of the collicular map: The location of the peak of this "hill" represents the saccade target.

The SC encodes the target of a gaze shift, but it does not seem to specify the precise movements needed to get there. The decomposition of a gaze shift into head and eye movements and the precise trajectory of the eye during a saccade depend on integration of collicular and non-collicular signals by downstream motor areas, in ways that are not yet well understood. Regardless of how the movement is evoked or performed, the SC encodes it in "retinotopic" coordinates: that is, the location of the SC 'hill" corresponds to a fixed location on the retina. This seems to contradict the observation that stimulation of a single point on the SC can result in different gaze shift directions, depending on initial eye orientation. However, it has been shown that this is because the retinal location of a stimulus is a non-linear function of target location, eye orientation, and the spherical geometry of the eye.

There has been some controversy about whether the SC merely commands eye movements, and leaves the execution to other structures, or whether it actively participates in the performance of a saccade. In 1991, Munoz et al., on the basis of data they collected, argued that, during a saccade, the "hill" of activity in the SC moves gradually, to reflect the changing offset of the eye from the target location while the saccade is progressing. At present, the predominant view is that, although the "hill" does shift slightly during a saccade, it does not shift in the steady and proportionate way that the "moving hill" hypothesis predicts. However, moving hills may play another role in the superior colliculus; more recent experiments have demonstrated a continuously moving hill of visual memory activity when the eyes move slowly while a separate saccade target is retained.

The output from the motor sector of the SC goes to a set of midbrain and brainstem nuclei, which transform the "place" code used by the SC into the "rate" code used by oculomotor neurons. Eye movements are generated by six muscles, arranged in three orthogonally-aligned pairs. Thus, at the level of the final common path, eye movements are encoded in essentially a Cartesian coordinate system.

Although the SC receives a strong input directly from the retina, in primates it is largely under the control of the cerebral cortex, which contains several areas that are involved in determining eye movements. The frontal eye fields, a portion of the motor cortex, are involved in triggering intentional saccades, and an adjoining area, the supplementary eye fields, are involved in organizing groups of saccades into sequences. The parietal eye fields, farther back in the brain, are involved mainly in reflexive saccades, made in response to changes in the view. Recent evidence suggests that the primary visual cortex (V1) guides reflexive eye movements, according to V1 Saliency Hypothesis,  using a bottom-up saliency map of the visual field generated in V1 from external visual inputs.

The SC only receives visual inputs in its superficial layers, whereas the deeper layers of the colliculus receive also auditory and somatosensory inputs and are connected to many sensorimotor areas of the brain. The colliculus as a whole is thought to help orient the head and eyes toward something seen and heard.

The superior colliculus also receives auditory information from the inferior colliculus. This auditory information is integrated with the visual information already present to produce the ventriloquism effect.

Distractibility
As well as being related to eye movements, the SC appears to have an important role to play in the circuitry underpinning distractibility. Heightened distractibility occurs in normal aging and is also a central feature in a number of medical conditions, including attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). Research has shown that lesions to the SC in a number of species can result in heightened distractibility and, in humans, removing the inhibitory control on the SC from the pre-frontal cortex, therefore increasing activity in the area, also increases distractibility. Research in an animal model of ADHD, the spontaneously hypertensive rat, also shows altered collicular-dependent behaviours and physiology. Furthermore, amphetamine (a mainstay treatment for ADHD) also suppresses activity in the colliculus in healthy animals.

Primates
It is usually accepted that the primate superior colliculus is unique among mammals, in that it does not contain a complete map of the visual field seen by the contralateral eye. Instead, like the visual cortex and lateral geniculate nucleus, each colliculus represents only the contralateral half of the visual field, up to the midline, and excludes a representation of the ipsilateral half. This functional characteristic is explained by the absence, in primates, of anatomical connections between the retinal ganglion cells in the temporal half of the retina and the contralateral superior colliculus. In other mammals, the retinal ganglion cells throughout the contralateral retina project to the contralateral colliculus. This distinction between primates and non-primates has been one of the key lines of evidence in support of the flying primates theory proposed by Australian neuroscientist Jack Pettigrew in 1986, after he discovered that flying foxes (megabats) resemble primates in terms of the pattern of anatomical connections between the retina and superior colliculus.

Cats
In the cat the superior colliculus projects through the reticular formation and interacts with motor neurons in the brainstem.

Bats
Bats are not, in fact, blind, but they depend much more on echolocation than vision for navigation and prey capture. They obtain information about the surrounding world by emitting sonar chirps and then listening for the echoes. Their brains are highly specialized for this process, and some of these specializations appear in the superior colliculus. In bats, the retinal projection occupies only a thin zone just beneath the surface, but there are extensive inputs from auditory areas, and outputs to motor areas capable of orienting the ears, head, or body. Echoes coming from different directions activate neurons at different locations in the collicular layers, and activation of collicular neurons influences the chirps that the bats emit. Thus, there is a strong case that the superior colliculus performs the same sorts of functions for the auditory-guided behaviors of bats that it performs for the visual-guided behaviors of other species.

Bats are usually classified into two main groups: Microchiroptera (the most numerous, and commonly found throughout the world), and Megachiroptera (fruit bats, found in Asia, Africa and Australasia). With one exception, Megabats do not echolocate, and rely on a developed sense of vision to navigate. The visual receptive fields of neurons in the superior colliculus in these animals form a precise map of the retina, similar to that found in cats and primates.

Rodents
The superior colliculus in rodents have been hypothesized to mediate sensory-guided approach and avoidance behaviors. Studies employing circuit analysis tools on mouse superior colliculus have revealed several important functions. In a series of studies, researchers have identified a set of Ying-Yang circuit modules in the superior colliculus to initiate prey capture and predator avoidance behaviors in mice. By using single-cell RNA-sequencing, researchers have analyzed the gene expression profiles of superior colliculus neurons and identified the unique genetic markers of these circuit modules.

Optic tectum

The optic tectum is the visual center in the non-mammalian brain which develops from the alar plate of the mesencephalon. In these other vertebrates the connections from the optic tectum are important for the recognition and reaction to various sized objects which is facilitated by excitatory optic nerve transmitters like L-glutamate.

Disrupting visual experience early on in zebrafish development results in a change in tectal activity. Changes in tectal activity resulted in an inability to successfully hunt and capture prey. Hypothalamus inhibitory signaling to the deep tectal neuropil is important in tectal processing in zebrafish larvae. The tectal neuropil contains structures including periventricular neuronal axons and dendrites. The neuropil also contains GABAergic superficial inhibitory neurons located in stratum opticum. Instead of a large cerebral cortex, zebrafish have a relatively large optic tectum that is hypothesized to carry out some of the visual processing that the cortex performs in mammals.

Recent lesion studies have suggested that the optic tectum has no influence over higher-order motion responses like the optomotor response or the optokinetic response, but may be more integral to lower-order cues in motion perception like in the identification of small objects.

The optic tectum is one of the fundamental components of the vertebrate brain, existing across a range of species. Some aspects of the structure are very consistent, including a structure composed of a number of layers, with a dense input from the optic tracts to the superficial layers and another strong input conveying somatosensory input to deeper layers. Other aspects are highly variable, such as the total number of layers (from 3 in the African lungfish to 15 in the goldfish ), and the number of different types of cells (from 2 in the lungfish to 27 in the house sparrow ).

The optic tectum is closely associated with an adjoining structure called the nucleus isthmi, which has drawn a lot of interest because it evidently makes a very important contribution to tectal function. (In the superior colliculus the like structure is termed the parabigeminal nucleus). The nucleus isthmii is divided into two parts, called isthmus pars magnocellularis (Imc; "the part with the large cells") and isthmus pars parvocellularis (Ipc); "the part with the small cells"). Connections between the three areas — optic tectum, Ipc, and Imc — are topographic. Neurons in the superficial layers of the optic tectum project to corresponding points in the Ipc and Imc. The projections to the Ipc are tightly focused, while the projections to the Imc are somewhat more diffuse. Ipc gives rise to tightly focused cholinergic projections both to Imc and the optic tectum. In the optic tectum, the cholinergic inputs from Ipc ramify to give rise to terminals that extend across an entire column, from top to bottom. Imc, in contrast, gives rise to GABAergic projections to Ipc and optic tectum that spread very broadly in the lateral dimensions, encompassing most of the retinotopic map. Thus, the tectum-Ipc-Imc circuit causes tectal activity to produce recurrent feedback that involves tightly focused excitation of a small column of neighboring tectal neurons, together with global inhibition of distant tectal neurons.

The optic tectum is involved in many responses including swimming in fish, flight in birds, tongue-strikes toward prey in frogs, and fang-strikes in snakes. In some species, including fish and birds, the optic tectum, also known as the optic lobe, is one of the largest components of the brain.

In hagfish, lamprey, and shark it is a relatively small structure, but in teleost fish it is greatly expanded, in some cases becoming the largest structure in the brain. In amphibians, reptiles, and especially birds it is also a very significant component.

In snakes that can detect infrared radiation, such as pythons and pit vipers, the initial neural input is through the trigeminal nerve instead of the optic tract. The rest of the processing is similar to that of the visual sense and, thus, involves the optic tectum.

Lamprey
The lamprey has been extensively studied because it has a relatively simple brain that is thought in many respects to reflect the brain structure of early vertebrate ancestors. Inspired by the pioneering work of Carl Rovainen that began in the 1960s (see ), since the 1970s Sten Grillner and his colleagues at the Karolinska Institute in Stockholm have used the lamprey as a model system to try to work out the principles of motor control in vertebrates, starting in the spinal cord and working upward into the brain. In common with other systems (see for a historical perspective of the idea), neural circuits within the spinal cord seem capable of generating some basic rhythmic motor patterns underlying swimming, and that these circuits are influenced by specific locomotor areas in the brainstem and midbrain, that are in turn influenced by higher brain structures including the basal ganglia and tectum. In a study of the lamprey tectum published in 2007, they found that electrical stimulation could elicit eye movements, lateral bending movements, or swimming activity, and that the type, amplitude, and direction of movement varied as a function of the location within the tectum that was stimulated. These findings were interpreted as consistent with the idea that the tectum generates goal-directed locomotion in the lamprey as shown in other species.

Birds
In birds the optic tectum is involved in flight and is one of the largest brain components. The study of avian visual processing has enabled a greater understanding of that in mammals including humans.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Superior colliculus


text:
Ollam

An  or ollamh (anglicised as ollave or ollav), plural ollomain, in early Irish literature, was a master in a particular trade or skill.

Bard
Generally, ollam referred to a professional poet or bard of literature and history, and a member of the highest of the seven ranks of filí, achieved after at least twelve years of study,

As part of a king's court, the ollam might combine the functions of poet, story-teller, and historian, including an accurate recitation of genealogies. The calling to the vocation was usually a family tradition.

As early as 574 members of the Ó hUiginn (O'Higgins) clan were recorded as hereditary poets in the courts of Irish Princes and Chiefs. As such they were accorded a status of nobility second in rank only to the King and were entitled to wear the same number of colours in their robes.

Other uses
The term was also used to refer to the highest member of any group; thus an ollam brithem would be the highest rank of judge, and an ollam rí the highest rank of king. Ollav was also applied to a druidic rank; meaning much the same as "professor", or person of great learning.

There was an official post in ancient Ireland called the "Rí Ollam" or "Ard Ollam" or Chief Ollam of Ireland. The holder of the post had a standing equal to the High King of Ireland.

Ollamh Fodhla was the title of the mythical 18th High King of Ireland who is said to have first formed the assembly known as the Feis Teamhrach, or Feast of Tara around 1300 BCE.

Literary fosterage
In Ancient Ireland, ollams taught children with or without compensation depending on the circumstance.

title: Ollam


text:
Naozumi Takahashi

Naozumi Takahashi (高橋 直純) is a Japanese singer and voice actor who released the two popular singles "Soshite Omae ni Deaeta Dake De" and "Muteki na Smile". Naozumi's single "Ashita No Kioku" was used as an opening theme for Black Blood Brothers.

Anime

 * Kamikaze Kaito Jeanne (1999) as Minazuki Yamato
 * Ojamajo Doremi (1999) as Takurou
 * Digimon Adventure 02 (2000) as Wormmon, Minomon Mantaro Inoue, Operator
 * Ashita no Nadja (2003) as Fernando
 * Futari wa Pretty Cure (2004) as Ryota Misumi
 * Konjiki no Gash Bell!! (2005) as Momon
 * C (2011) as Ichiro Horii
 * Scared Rider Xechs (2016) as Duesenberg
 * Marginal#4: Kiss kara Tsukuru Big Bang (2017) as Rui Aiba
 * Nanbaka (2017) as Ruka Gojou

 * Unknown date
 * The Prince of Tennis (????) as Bunta Marui
 * Harukanaru Toki no Naka de 1, 2, & 3 as Inori, Isato, & Hinoe respectively

OVA

 * Growlanser (2005) as Crevaniel

Video games

 * Harukanaru Toki no Naka de 1 as Inori
 * Harukanaru Toki no Naka de 2 as Isato
 * Harukanaru Toki no Naka de 3 as Hinoe
 * Harukanaru Toki no Naka de 4 as Toya
 * WebKare as Aiba Shun
 * Super Robot Wars GC as Akimi Akatsuki
 * Super Robot Wars XO as Akimi Akatsuki
 * 12Riven as Omega Inose
 * Gekka Ryouran Romance as Kano Atsumori
 * MARGINAL#4 IDOL OF SUPERNOVA as Aiba Rui
 * ALICE=ALICE [Cheshire cat]
 * 8 bit lovers [Slime]
 * Crimson Clan as Hu Shixiao

Voice actor on drama CDs

 * Michael on Angel Sanctuary
 * Coud in Elemental Gelade
 * Nitta Kazuto in Dr. Hayami - Super Stylish Doctors Story (SSDS): Ai no Kaitai Shinshou, with Show Hayami, Hiyama Nobuyuki, Morikawa Toshiyuki, Seki Toshihiko, and other voice actors.
 * ''Shinsengumi M/K Wasurenagusa (as Saitou Hajime)
 * Seventh Heaven (as Itsuki)
 * ALICE=ALICE (as the Cheshire Cat)
 * Bad Medicine -Infectious Teachers-' (as Kazuha Kakeru)
 * Oz to Himitsu no Ai (The fourth key: Shian )
 * MARGINAL#4 (as Aiba Rui)
 * Soubou Sangokushi (as Kakou Ton Xiahou Dun)
 * Midnight Jiang Shis (as Rinrin)
 * Exit Tunes Presents ACTORS franchise (as Shido Minori)

Albums and Singles with Koei Music

 * ~ Kiss You ~ EP : "Kiss You" / Alive / Stay / Kiss You Additional Private Session 2000 (Released 3/21/2002)
 * Rainy Day / Skylight no Sora (Released 10/23/2002)
 * A to Z (Released 12/11/2002)
 * Kimi ni Aete Yokatta (Released 7/23/2003)

Albums with Realize Records

 * INDICATE (Released 5/26/2004)
 * scene ~Nokoshitai Fuukei~ (Released 8/5/2005)
 * ism (Released 6/2/2006)
 * one (Released 11/28/2007)
 * ColorS [Standard and Special Editions] (Released 7/7/2009)
 * infinity (Released 8/18/2010)
 * MA-X (Released 9/28/2010)
 * PLUS+ (Released 12/19/2012)
 * Voice Rendezvous (Released 6/11/2014)
 * Juicys (Released 2/22/2017)
 * amorous (Released 7/18/2018)

Singles with Realize Records

 * Keep on Dancin' (Released 4/21/2004)
 * Itooshikute (Released 8/18/2004)
 * hEAVEN (Promotion for h.Naoto - Released 11/26/2005)
 * OK! (Released 3/24/2006)
 * Gold Goal (Released 7/7/2006)
 * Muteki na Smike (Released 8/9/2006)
 * Ashita no Kioku (Released 10/25/2006)
 * Te no Hira / Kimi to... (Released 6/20/2007)
 * PE∀CE (Released 7/18/2007)
 * Kaze ni Natte / Moshimo... (Released 2/6/2008)
 * Palette [Standard and Limited Editions] (Released 9/24/2008)
 * Time Capsule / Aruite Kaerou [Standard and Limited Editions] (Released 2/25/2009)
 * Rashinban [Standard and Limited Editions] (Released 2/10/2010)
 * Yumekibo Ressha [Standard and Limited Editions] (Released 12/8/2010)
 * one on one [Standard and Limited Editions] (Released 8/25/2011)
 * Taisetsu na Kimi (Released 2/1/2012)
 * Karakuru / Subuta ni Pineapple ~Shakai Ninben (Released 2/8/2013)
 * Fuurai Boukyou / Boueikyou (Released 9/17/2014)
 * PON PON KING / BLUE [Standard and Limited Editions] (Released 1/13/2016)
 * TRICK / AGAIN [Standard and Limited Editions] (Released 1/13/2016)
 * MOB / MayQ [Standard and Limited Editions] (Released 1/13/2016)
 * AXIS / GOBU/GOBU [Standard and Limited Editions] (Released 1/13/2016)

Compilation albums

 * Decade Gold -Naozumi Takahashi 10th Anniversary BEST- (Released 10/10/2012)
 * Decade Silver -Naozumi Takahashi 10th Anniversary BEST- (Released 10/10/2012)

title: Naozumi Takahashi


text:
Organ Pipe Cactus National Monument

Organ Pipe Cactus National Monument is a U.S. national monument and UNESCO biosphere reserve located in extreme southern Arizona that shares a border with the Mexican state of Sonora. The park is the only place in the United States where the senita and organ pipe cactus grow wild. Along with this species, many other types of cacti and other desert flora native to the Yuma Desert section of the Sonoran Desert region grow in the park. Organ Pipe Cactus National Monument is 517 sqmi in size. In 1976 the monument was declared a Biosphere Reserve by UNESCO, and in 1977 95% of Organ Pipe Cactus was declared a wilderness area.

Land for the Monument was donated by the Arizona state legislature to the federal government during Prohibition knowing that the north–south road would be improved and make contraband alcohol easier to import from Mexico. In 1937 the land was officially opened as a national monument.

At the north entrance of the park is the unincorporated community of Why, Arizona; the town of Lukeville, Arizona at the park's southern border is a border crossing point to Sonoyta, Sonora, Mexico.

Organ Pipe Cactus National Monument is bordered to the northwest by Cabeza Prieta National Wildlife Refuge and to the east by the Tohono O'odham Indian Reservation.

Mexico-United States barrier
The visitor center has been named in honor of Ranger Kris Eggle. On August 9, 2002, he was shot and killed by a drug smuggler during a United States Border Patrol operation. With a continuing, steady flow of immigrants and drug runners from Mexico, the majority of the park was closed in 2003. After being considered the most dangerous national park, the park reopened the backcountry after surveillance towers, vehicle barriers, and pedestrian fences were installed along the border.

The first 30 foot panels of a new Arizona, US-Mexico border wall were installed in August 2019 on a 2 mile stretch of Organ Pipe Cactus National Monument. It is the first of three projects that will add bollard walls along Southern Arizona's wildlife refuges. The National Park Service issued a report on September 18, 2019, stating that the barrier wall threatens archaeological artifacts representing 16,000 years of human history. The U.S. Customs and Border Protection agency said that five archaeological sites fall within the area that it wishes to construct.

In February 2020, controlled demolition and other construction work was performed within the Roosevelt Reservation. This strip of land along the border is federally controlled. However, many sites within this region are considered sacred by the Tohono O'odham Nation. Important sites include Monument Hill, which is a ceremonial and historic battle site and burial ground; and Quitobaquito Springs, which is a local water source and the site of an annual salt pilgrimage. For this reason, construction was opposed by many locals, including Representative Raúl Grijalva and Tohono O’odham Nation Chairman Ned Norris, Jr., who testified before Congress on the matter. Customs and Border Protection officials maintained that no human remains or artifacts were discovered in the areas where explosives were used, and that Monument Hill was previously disturbed in 2010 when the existing border fence was installed.

Climate
Organ Pipe Cactus National Monument has a hot desert climate (Köppen: BWh) with very hot summers and mild winters.

title: Organ Pipe Cactus National Monument


text:
Thy Serpent

Thy Serpent is a Finnish black metal band from Espoo. It started out as a solo project by Sami Tenetz in 1992. A full lineup was acquired in 1995.

History
After two demos, he signed a record deal with Spinefarm Records. Azhemin, Agathon and Luopio joined between 1995 and 1996 when they released their debut, Forests of Witchery. "Only Dust Moves" was featured on the Nightwish single "The Carpenter". After their debut album's success, their international debut, Christcrusher, followed.

Contrary to their statements that they would never play live, they did eight gigs in Finland in the summer of 1999. In 2000, Thy Serpent changed its line-up, adding a second guitarist and a new drummer. During that year, they went to the studio to record Death, which remains the last record by the band. They are now signed to Candlelight Records.

Band members

 * Azhemin - Vocals / Bass / Synth
 * Sami Tenetz - Guitar
 * Teemu Laitinen - Drums
 * Tomi Ullgren - Lead Guitar

Former members

 * Pekka - Drums (1995)
 * Börje - Guitar (1995)
 * Teemu Raimoranta - Guitar (1995-1996; died 2003)
 * Alexi Laiho - Guitar (1997; died 2020)
 * Agathon - Drums/ Vocals (1996-1999; died 2022)
 * Luopio - Bass/ Vocals (1996-1998)

Discography

 * Frozen Memory Demo (1994)
 * Into Everlasting Fire Demo (1995)
 * Forests of Witchery (1996)
 * Lords of Twilight (MCD) (1997)
 * Christcrusher (1998)
 * Death (2000)
 * Wolfnacht / Goatmoon / Thy Serpent (split, 2022)

title: Thy Serpent


text:
Inferior colliculus

The inferior colliculus (IC) (Latin for lower hill) is the principal midbrain nucleus of the auditory pathway and receives input from several peripheral brainstem nuclei in the auditory pathway, as well as inputs from the auditory cortex. The inferior colliculus has three subdivisions: the central nucleus, a dorsal cortex by which it is surrounded, and an external cortex which is located laterally. Its bimodal neurons are implicated in auditory-somatosensory interaction, receiving projections from somatosensory nuclei. This multisensory integration may underlie a filtering of self-effected sounds from vocalization, chewing, or respiration activities.

The inferior colliculi are part of the tectum of the midbrain, and together with the superior colliculi form the corpora quadrigemina. An inferior colliculus lies caudal/inferior to the ipsilateral superior colliculus, rostral/superior to the superior cerebellar peduncle and the trochlear nerve, and at the base of the projection of the medial geniculate nucleus and the lateral geniculate nucleus.

Subdivisions
The inferior colliculus has three subdivisions – the central nucleus, the dorsal cortex by which it is surrounded, and an external cortex which is located laterally.

Relationship to auditory system
The inferior colliculi of the midbrain are located just below the visual processing centers known as the superior colliculi. The inferior colliculus is the first place where vertically orienting data from the fusiform cells in the dorsal cochlear nucleus can finally synapse with horizontally orienting data. Sound location data thus becomes fully integrated by the inferior colliculus.

IC are large auditory nuclei on the right and left sides of the midbrain. Of the three subdivisions the central nucleus of IC (CNIC) is the principal way station for ascending auditory information in the IC.

Input and output connections of IC
The input connections to the inferior colliculus are composed of many brainstem nuclei. All nuclei except the contralateral ventral nucleus of the lateral lemniscus send projections to the central nucleus (CNIC) bilaterally. It has been shown that great majority of auditory fibers ascending in the lateral lemniscus terminate in the CNIC. In addition, the IC receives inputs from the auditory cortex, the medial division of the medial geniculate body, the posterior limitans, suprapeduncular nucleus and subparafascicular intralaminar nuclei of the thalamus, the substantia nigra pars compacta lateralis, the dorsolateral periaqueductal gray, the nucleus of the brachium of the inferior colliculus (or inferior brachium) and deep layers of the superior colliculus. The inferior brachium carries auditory afferent fibers from the inferior colliculus of the mesencephalon to the medial geniculate nucleus.

The inferior colliculus receives input from both the ipsilateral and contralateral cochlear nucleus and respectively the corresponding ears. There is some lateralization, the dorsal projections (containing vertical data) only project to the contralateral inferior colliculus. This inferior colliculus contralateral to the ear it is receiving the most information from, then projects to its ipsilateral medial geniculate nucleus.

The inferior colliculus also receives descending inputs from the auditory cortex and auditory thalamus (or medial geniculate nucleus).

The medial geniculate body (MGB) is the output connection from inferior colliculus and the last subcortical way station. The MGB is composed of ventral, dorsal, and medial divisions, which are relatively similar in humans and other mammals. The ventral division receives auditory signals from the central nucleus of the IC.

Function of IC
The majority of the ascending fibers from the lateral lemniscus project to IC, which means major ascending auditory pathways converge here. IC appears as an integrative station and switchboard as well. It is involved in the integration and routing of multi-modal sensory perception, mainly the startle response and vestibulo-ocular reflex. It is also responsive to specific amplitude modulation frequencies and this might be responsible for detection of pitch. In addition, spatial localization by binaural hearing is a related function of IC as well.

The inferior colliculus has a relatively high metabolism in the brain. The Conrad Simon Memorial Research Initiative measured the blood flow of the IC and put a number at 1.80 cc/g/min in the cat brain. For reference, the runner up in the included measurements was the somatosensory cortex at 1.53. This indicates that the inferior colliculus is metabolically more active than many other parts of the brain. The hippocampus, normally considered to use up a disproportionate amount of energy, was not measured or compared.

Skottun et al. measured the interaural time difference sensitivity of single neurons in the inferior colliculus, and used these to predict behavioural performance. The predicted just noticeable difference was comparable to that achieved by humans in behavioral tests. This suggested that by the level of the inferior colliculus, integration of information over multiple neurons is unnecessary (see population code).

Axiomatically determined functional models of spectro-temporal receptive fields in inferior colliculus have been determined by Lindeberg and Friberg in terms of derivatives of Gaussian functions over the log-spectral domain and either Gaussian kernels over time in the case of non-causal time or first-order integrators (truncated exponential kernels) coupled in cascade in the case of truly time-causal operations, optionally in combination with local glissando transformations to account for variations in frequencies over time. The shapes of the receptive field functions in these models can be determined by necessity from structural properties of the environment combined with requirements about the internal structure of the auditory system to enable theoretically well-founded processing of sound signals at different temporal and log-spectral scales. Thereby, the receptive fields in inferior colliculus can be seen as well adapted to handling natural sound transformations.

title: Inferior colliculus


text:
Chika Sakamoto

Chika Sakamoto (坂本 千夏) is a Japanese voice actress who is affiliated with Arts Vision.

Television animation

 * 1980s
 * Captain Tsubasa (1983) – Sanae Nakazawa
 * Cat's Eye (1983) – Ai Kisugi
 * Nine (1983) – Yukimi Yasuda
 * Super Dimension Century Orguss (1983) – Lieea
 * Urusei Yatsura (1984) – Ginger
 * Mobile Suit Zeta Gundam (1985) – Shinta
 * Princess Sara (1985) – Peter
 * Ginga: Nagareboshi Gin (1986) – Daisuke
 * High School! Kimengumi (1986) – Hisako Otonari
 * Maison Ikkoku (1986) – Kentarō Ichinose
 * Mobile Suit Gundam ZZ (1986) – Shinta
 * Pastel Yumi, the Magic Idol (1986) – Kenta Misawa
 * City Hunter (1987) – Horikoshi (16th and 39th episode)
 * Norakuro-kun (1987) - Norakuro
 * Kimagure Orange Road (1987) – Kazuya Kasuga
 * Anpanman (1988) – Tendonman, Chibizou-kun
 * Jungle Emperor (1989) – Meyer
 * Miracle Giants Dome-kun (1989) – Dome Shinjo
 * 1990s
 * Tensai Bakabon (1990) – Hajime
 * Moomin (1990) – Teety-Woo
 * Anime Himitsu no Hanazono (1991) – Martha Phoebe Sowerby
 * Muka Muka Paradise (1993) – Muka Muka
 * Fushigi Yûgi (1995) – Nuriko, Houki
 * Juuni Senshi Bakuretsu Eto Ranger (1995) – Bakumaru
 * Baby and Me (1996) – Minoru Enoki
 * Hell Teacher Nūbē (1996) – Yukibe
 * Pretty Soldier Sailor Moon Sailor Stars (1996) – Yaten Kou/Sailor Star Healer
 * Chūka Ichiban! (1997) – Shirō
 * Anime Ganbare Goemon (1997) – Sasuke
 * Pokémon (1997) – Obaba
 * Cyborg Kuro-chan (1999) – Kuro, Shin Bousou Kuro
 * Digimon Adventure (1999) – Agumon, Natsuko Takaishi
 * 2000s
 * Digimon Adventure 02 (2000) – Agumon, Natsuko Takaishi
 * Crush Gear Turbo (2001) – Jin Kyōsuke
 * Fighting Foodons (2001) – Zen Makunouchi
 * Pecola (2001) – Tsunekichi
 * Shaman King (2001) – Aren
 * Origami Warriors (2003) – Arata Okimura
 * Ashita no Nadja (2003) – Jean
 * Machine Robo Rescue (2003) – Ricky
 * Mirmo! (2003) – Chikku
 * Digital Monster X-Evolution (2005) – WarGreymon X
 * Demashita! Powerpuff Girls Z (2006) – Puyo
 * Saru Get You -On Air- (2006) – Specter, Kūta, reporter
 * Detective Conan (2007) – Takumi Hashiratani (episode 462)
 * Darker than Black (2007) – Misuzu Ōyama
 * 2010s
 * Digimon Xros Wars (2010) – Shoutmon, Agumon
 * HeartCatch PreCure! (2010) – Kaoruko Hanasaki/Cure Flower
 * One Piece (2011) – Stelly
 * JoJo's Bizarre Adventure: Diamond Is Unbreakable (2016) — Ken Oyanagi
 * Digimon Universe: Appli Monsters (2017) – Agumon
 * Digimon Adventure (2020) - Agumon

ONA

 * Lupin the 3rd vs. Cat's Eye (2023) – Ai Kisugi

OVA

 * Leda: The Fantastic Adventure of Yohko (1985) – Yoni
 * Here is Greenwood (1991) – Shun Kisaragi
 * Slow Step (1991) – Chika Tanaka
 * Fushigi Yûgi OVA 1 (1996–97) – Nuriko
 * Fushigi Yûgi OVA 2 (1997–98) – Nuriko, Houki
 * Fushigi Yûgi Eikoden (2001–02) – Nuriko, Houki

Theatrical animation

 * Nausicaä of the Valley of the Wind (1984) – Boy
 * Night on the Galactic Railroad (1985) – Campanella
 * My Neighbor Totoro (1988) – Mei Kusakabe
 * Sailor Moon Supers: The Movie (1995) – Peruru
 * Pretty Cure All Stars New Stage 2: Friends of the Heart (2013) – Kage
 * Doraemon: New Nobita's Great Demon—Peko and the Exploration Party of Five (2014) – Chippo
 * Digimon Adventure tri. (2015–2018) – Agumon, Greymon, MetalGreymon, WarGreymon, Koromon
 * One Piece Film: Gold (2016)
 * City Hunter the Movie: Shinjuku Private Eyes (2019) – Ai Kisugi
 * Digimon Adventure: Last Evolution Kizuna (2020) – Agumon
 * City Hunter the Movie: Angel Dust (2023) – Ai Kisugi

Video games

 * Arc the Lad (1995) (Poco)
 * Digimon Adventure (video game) (2013) (Agumon, Greymon, MetalGreymon, WarGreymon)
 * Grandia (1997) (Milda)
 * Ape Escape series (1999) (Specter)
 * Rockman 8 (1996) (Clownman, Aquaman)
 * Shenmue (1999) (Keika)
 * Super Robot Wars series (????–????) (Kappei Jin, Lieea)
 * Kingdom Hearts: Birth by Sleep (2010) (Huey, Dewey, and Louie)
 * Digimon Survive (2022) (Agumon)

Tokusatsu

 * Morimori Bokkun (1986) (Bokkun)
 * Chikyu Sentai Fiveman (1990) (Sairagin (ep. 7, 19))
 * Kyōryū Sentai Zyuranger Dino Video (1993) (Dino-kun)
 * Ultraman Zearth (1996) (Digital Kanegon)
 * Engine Sentai Go-Onger (2008) (Wameikle (Chibi) (ep. 41))

Live-action

 * Bad Santa – Thurman Merman (Brett Kelly)
 * Baggage Claim – Gail Best (Jill Scott)
 * The Crow – Sarah (Rochelle Davis)
 * Fuller House – D.J. Tanner (Candace Cameron Bure)
 * The Goonies (1988 TBS edition) – Lawrence "Chunk" Cohen (Jeff Cohen)
 * The Man Who Knew Too Little – Lori (Joanne Whalley)
 * Near Dark (1990 TV Tokyo edition) – Homer (Joshua John Miller)

Animation

 * Happy Feet Two – Atticus
 * ¡Mucha Lucha! – The Flea

title: Chika Sakamoto


text:
The Smoke Ring (novel)

The Smoke Ring is a 1987 science fiction novel by Larry Niven. Like much of Niven's work, the story is heavily influenced by the setting: a gas torus, a ring of air around a neutron star. It is a sequel to The Integral Trees.

Setting
The story is set at the fictional neutron star Levoy's Star (abbreviated "Voy"). The gas giant Goldblatt's World (abbreviated "Gold") orbits the star just outside its Roche limit. While Gold's gravity is enough to keep it from being pulled apart by Voy's tidal forces, it is insufficient to hold its atmosphere, which has been pulled loose into an independent orbit around Voy. This orbiting air forms a ring known as a gas torus. The gas torus is huge—one million kilometers thick—but most of it is too thin to be habitable. The central part of the Gas Torus, where the air is thicker, is known as the Smoke Ring. The Smoke Ring supports a wide variety of life. Robert L. Forward helped Niven calculate the parameters of the ring.

There is no "ground" in the Smoke Ring; it is a world consisting entirely of sky. Thus, most animals can fly, even the fish. Furthermore, since the Smoke Ring is in orbit, it is in free fall. There is no "up" or "down", only "in" or "out" from Voy. Humans moving in the Smoke Ring use a poetic adage to aid their understanding of orbital mechanics - "East takes you Out, Out takes you West, West takes you In, In takes you East. Port and Starboard bring you back". (In the novel, the characters also say: "North and South bring you back").

Most animals have trilateral symmetry, allowing them to see in all directions. Most plants in the Smoke Ring are quite fragile, as they don't have to support their own weight. A notable exception to this rule are the Integral Trees. These are trees that are up to 100 kilometers long. Tidal locking causes them to be oriented radially, with one end pointing in toward Voy and one end pointing out. The ends of the tree experience a tidal force of up to 1/5 g. Each end consists of a leafy "tuft", which is where photosynthesis occurs.

Each tuft of a tree is 50 kilometers from the tree's center of mass. Thus, a tuft is either orbiting too slowly (the in tuft) or too quickly (the out tuft). Since the atmosphere at either end is moving at its local orbital speed, the ends of trees are subject to a constant hurricane-force wind. This wind bends the ends into the shape of an integral symbol: ∫.

The Smoke Ring was colonized 500 years prior to the beginning of the story by a crew of 20 astronauts. Their descendants have adapted to the free-fall environment by growing taller and developing prehensile toes.

According to N-Space, the wings and the method of self-propelled flying featured in the novel were suggested by Isaac Asimov.

Plot summary
This book takes place about fifteen years after the end of the original story, when survivors of the Dalton-Quinn tree, a few Carther States jungle dwellers, and two London Tree Citizens have settled on a new tree. This 'Citizen's Tree' has become a stable community which some believe may be too small to survive in the long run.

Kendy, the recorded personality of a citizen of "The State" who exists in the computer of the original space-ship that colonized the Smoke Ring, has become impatient. He decides to re-establish contact with Citizen's Tree. Kendy manipulates a group into making contact with "The Admiralty", a neighboring civilization at Gold's L4 Lagrange Point (which they refer to as "the Clump"). The group explores this more advanced civilization with a mixture of wonder and trepidation.

Although much of the story is a sort of "travelogue" exploring the Smoke Ring and the technology used in the unique environment, The Smoke Ring does spend more time on story and character development than The Integral Trees. One of the drivers for the story follows the latest operator of "the silver suit", the Citizen's Tree's working spacesuit. Few are capable of operating the suit due to its size; due to the lack of gravity, most humans in the Smoke Ring grow too tall to fit into it. The job goes to the occasionally born "dwarves" who tend to develop into humans of Earth-normal height and build. A major sub-plot develops around the latest silver suit operator's attempts to infiltrate The Admiralty to gain information, and The Admiralty's near obsession with capturing the Citizen's Tree's spacesuit.

This focuses on the story of Kendy and the original mission. The chain of events that led to the colonization of the Smoke Ring through a "mutiny" on the ship is explored. After retrieving the crew's own records of the events, Kendy realizes that the crew had not mutinied at all, and that he had forced them off the ship, believing this to be in keeping with his orders from Earth. This was apparently blocked from his memory, and he suffers a form of breakdown when he learns (or re-learns) the truth.

Literary significance and reception
The Magill Book Reviews said in 1990 that "the societies and science in the book are very well-researched. It is, however, a "hard" science fiction novel, and it has the weakness endemic to that genre – the individual characters are never satisfyingly drawn, so that the reader is somewhat distanced from them."

The Library Journal said in 1987 that "the alien topography of this sequel to The Integral Trees serves as a fascinating contrast to the persistence of humanity's adventuring spirit".

J. Michael Caparula reviewed The Smoke Ring in Space Gamer/Fantasy Gamer No. 81. Caparula commented that "The setting is, naturally, spectacular, but a lot of the freshness has worn off. Ringworld merited a sequel, The Integral Trees did not."

title: The Smoke Ring (novel)


text:
Bill 99

Bill 99 (R.S.Q., c. E-20.2) is a Quebec law concerning the consequences of any future referendum on independence; it was enacted in 2000 in response to the enactment of the federal Clarity Act by the Parliament of Canada. The full official title of the law is "An Act respecting the exercise of the fundamental rights and prerogatives of the Québec people and the Québec State" (Loi sur l'Exercice des droits fondamentaux et des prérogatives du peuple québécois et de l'État du Québec). It has no formal short title and so is commonly referred to as "Bill 99", the designation under which it was introduced in the Quebec legislature by the Parti Québécois.

History
The bill was introduced by Joseph Facal to the National Assembly of Quebec in an emergency session on 15 December 1999, two days after the introduction of the Clarity Act in the House of Commons of Canada. It was adopted on 7 December 2000, by a vote of 69 to 41. The bill was opposed by Liberal leader Jean Charest, who preferred the National Assembly pass a motion rather than a law.

Whereas the federal act states that, in the case of a referendum about the secession of a Canadian province, the House of Commons has the power to determine afterwards whether the question was clear enough and whether the obtained majority was large enough for the result to be accepted, the provincial act stipulates that Quebecers may determine unilaterally how to exercise their right to choose their political regime, including sovereignty, and that the winning option in a referendum is whichever obtains 50% of the votes plus one. Both acts are mandates given to their respective governments.

While opposed to Bill 99, the opposition Liberal Party tabled a motion agreeing with many of its central provisions, including the right of Quebec to decide any referendum question and the 50%-plus-one rule.

The motivation for Bill 99 was to ensure that, even in the absence a referendum, Quebec's political fate would result only from decisions made by Quebecers and not by other Canadians. The constitutional validity of both the Clarity Act and Bill 99 has been questioned, however, with respect to the Constitution Act 1867 allocation of legislative powers between the federal and provincial government.

Legal challenge
In August 2007, three justices of the Quebec Court of Appeal unanimously held that Keith Henderson, former Leader of the English-language rights group, the Equality Party, has standing to challenge the legality of the statute, which Quebec Superior Court has dubbed "Bill 99" in the absence of a short title for this particular statute. In 2018, the Quebec Superior Court ruled that Bill 99 was constitutional, as its wording did not actually authorize a unilateral declaration of independence.

title: Bill 99


text:
Certified registered nurse anesthetist

A Certified Registered Nurse Anesthetist (CRNA) is a type of advanced practice nurse who administers anesthesia in the United States. CRNAs account for approximately half of the anesthesia providers in the United States and are the main providers (80%) of anesthesia in rural America. Historically, nurse anesthetists have been providing anesthesia care to patients for over 150 years since the American Civil War and the CRNA credential came into existence in 1956. CRNA schools issue a doctorate of nursing anesthesia degree to nurses who have completed a program in anesthesia, which is 3 years in length.

Scope of practice and practitioner oversight requirements vary between healthcare facility and state, with 25 states and Guam granting complete autonomy as of 2024. In states that have opted out of supervision, the Joint Commission and CMS recognize CRNAs as licensed independent practitioners. In states requiring supervision, CRNAs have liability separate from supervising practitioners and are able to administer anesthesia independently of physicians, such as Physician Anesthesiologists.

American Civil War and the 19th Century
Among the first American nurses to provide anesthetics was Catherine S. Lawrence during the American Civil War. It was during the Second Battle of Bull Run in 1863 that she administered chloroform to wounded soldiers who needed emergency operations in the battlefield. Nevertheless, it still took several years for nurses to step forward and formally answer the call to provide anesthesia. Reasons for this delay included lack of training, the non-emergency nature of civilian surgical practice after the war was over, and the paucity of role models and sponsors. However, the wartime concept of nurses providing anesthesia care gradually took root as surgeons trained and encouraged nurses to take on this important role.

Catholic nuns played an important role in the training of nurses and also in anesthesia. The earliest recorded nurse to specialize in anesthesia was Sister Mary Bernard Sheridan, a Catholic nun who practiced in 1877 at St. Vincent's Hospital in Erie, Pennsylvania. Her influence spread throughout the Midwest, and many other Catholic nuns who were also nurses began training to administer anesthesia. Nuns of the Third Order of the Hospital Sisters of St Francis from Münster established a community in Springfield, Illinois, and on June 22, 1879, they founded St John's Hospital. At St John's, the administration of chloroform and ether was taught to the nurses by surgeons, and many of the Franciscan Sisters were assigned as anesthetists throughout the Midwest. Nurse anesthesia became “undoubtedly a prevailing practice in many Catholic hospitals”. In 1883, Minnesota was devastated by a tornado. Mother Alfred Moes and the Sisters of Saint Francis proposed building a hospital to aid the sick and injured in Southern Minnesota. However, they stipulated that William Worrall Mayo (1819-1911) and his sons work at the hospital. The Mayos agreed, and in 1889, St Mary's Hospital opened with 27 beds. Although Catholic nuns seemed to be the most influential force in teaching nurses to administer anesthesia in the late 1800s, it was William W. Mayo who should be credited for promoting the popularity of nurse anesthesia practice. Mayo and his sons William J. Mayo and Charles H. Mayo were well known for their surgical skills. Surgeons traveled from across the country to their clinic in Minnesota to observe operations and learn their surgical techniques. However, the visiting surgeons also took note of the nurses administering anesthesia at the head of the operating table.

One of the most well-known nurse anesthesia pioneers was Alice Magaw, who came to St Mary's Hospital in Rochester, Minnesota, in 1893. She was trained by the Graham sisters, Edith and Dinah, and began working as a nurse anesthetist for Charles H. Mayo, who bestowed on her the title of “Mother of Anesthesia” due to her natural aptitude and mastery of safe administration of open-drop ether. In addition to being skilled at anesthesia administration, Magaw documented and evaluated all her anesthesia procedures, culminating with a landmark article in nurse-anesthesia history. An even larger work (A Review of Over Fourteen  Thousand  Surgical  Anesthesias) was published in 1906, reporting huge number of open-drop ether anesthetics, incredibly without a single fatality. Magaw's work highlighted the benefits of the trained anesthetist, allowing great advances in the practice of medicine. As the reputation and success of the Mayo Clinic spread, so did the renown of the Mayo Clinic nurse anesthetists.

The sustainability and historical longevity of the practice of nurse anesthesia can be attributed to excellent working relationships between nurse anesthetists and surgeons in these early years of the practice. Impressed by the provision of superior anesthesia by nurses at St Mary's, and following the example of the Mayo Clinic, prominent Cleveland surgeon George Washington Crile recruited Agatha Cobourg Hodgins as his personal anesthetist in 1908.

20th Century and initial challenges
Several notable nurse anesthetist from the early 20th century are revered by their modern counterparts. Agnes McGee taught at the Oregon Health Science Center. Alice Hunt was appointed instructor in anesthesia with university rank at the Yale University School of Medicine beginning in 1922 and continuing for 26 years. She authored the 1949 book Anesthesia, Principles and Practice, likely the first nurse anesthesia textbook.

The first challenge to the nurse's right to administer anesthesia came in 1911 from Francis Hoeffer McMechan, a native Cincinnati physician, who felt that the field of anesthesia should belong solely to physicians. McMechen challenged the practice of nurse anesthesia with the Ohio Medical Board, which along with Ohio State Attorney General ruled in 1916 that only a registered physician could administer anesthesia. Surgeons at the Lakeside Hospital in Cleveland, such as Crile, initially obeyed the ruling; however, in 1917, Crile and his supporters successfully lobbied the Ohio legislature to create an exemption within the Medical Practice Act for nurses who were educated appropriately to administer anesthesia under the supervision of a physician.

Perhaps the most noteworthy challenge occurred in 1934, when nurse anesthetist Dagmar Nelson was charged by an anesthesiologist, William VaneChalmer-Francis, with practicing medicine and violating California Medical Practice by administering anesthesia without a license. The case went all the way to the California Supreme court, but Nelson was given a favorable ruling at each level of the case. The Dagmar Nelson case was won via precedents set by early nurse anesthetists. The California Supreme Court reasoned that Nelson's practice of anesthesia was in “accordance with the uniform practice in operating rooms” not only in Los Angeles but also throughout the country including the Mayo Clinic, where Nelson had trained and “where...one hundred thousand surgical operations had been performed” with anesthetic administered by nurses.

Despite the rapid growth of the nurse anesthetist profession following the Great War, World War II again precipitated a shortage of anesthetists. A recruitment campaign was begun, but this was quickly followed by concern about the emergence of “ill advised and unjustified schools”. Helen Lamb in turn stressed the importance of maintaining educational standards even in times of shortages. By the end of WWII, the military had trained more than 2000 nurses to provide anesthesia using a program patterned by the NANA. The quality of nurse anesthesia education was again upgraded following WWII, and although university affiliation was advised, most programs were still hospital based. In 1933, the NANA established an Education Committee to develop educational standards, and by 1952, formal accreditation standards were in place.

Legal cases
Under US law, Frank v. South, Chalmers-Francis v. Nelson and other court decisions established that anesthesia was the practice of nursing as well as medicine. As such, the practice of anesthesia in the US may be delivered by either a nurse anesthetist or an anesthesiologist. The decisions have not been challenged since the Dagmar Nelson case. In addition to legal decisions, individual hospital and surgical facility policies also regulate the granting of anesthesia clinical privileges and are often based on contractual agreements with provider groups.

History
The first school of nurse anesthesia was formed in 1909 at St. Vincent Hospital, Portland, Oregon. Established by Agnes McGee, the course was seven months long, and included courses on anatomy and physiology, pharmacology, and administration of the few common anesthetic agents available at the time. Within the next decade, approximately 19 schools opened. All consisted of post-graduate anesthesia training for nurses and were about six months in length. These included programs at Mayo Clinic, Johns Hopkins Hospital, Barnes Hospital, New York Post-Graduate Hospital, Charity Hospital in New Orleans, Grace Hospital in Detroit, among others. During those early days of administering anesthetics, knowledge and available anesthetic options were extremely limited and programs provided what little education they could for all levels of health providers. For example, in 1915, chief nurse anesthetist Agatha Hodgins established the Lakeside Hospital School of Anesthesia in Cleveland, Ohio. This program was open to nurses, physicians, and dentists. The training was only six months and the tuition was $50. In its first year, it graduated six physicians, eleven nurses, and two dentists.

Among the oldest schools in the U.S., Ravenswood Hospital in Chicago, opened in 1925 by Mae Cameron, which in 2001 became the NorthShore University HealthSystem School of Nurse Anesthesia, was the first school to be accredited by the Council on Accreditation of Nurse Anesthesia Educational Programs in 1952.

In 1981, the Nursing Council on Accreditation developed guidelines for master's degrees. In 1982, it was the official position of the AANA board of directors that registered nurses applying for a school of anesthesia shall be, at minimum, baccalaureate prepared and then complete a master's level anesthesia program. As early as 1978, the Kaiser Permanente California State University program had evolved to a master's level program. All programs were required to transition to a master's degree beginning in 1990 and complete the process by 1998. Currently, the American Association of Colleges of Nursing has endorsed a position statement that will move the current entry level of training and education of nurse anesthetists in the United States to the Doctor of Nursing Practice (DNP) or Doctor of Nurse Anesthesia Practice (DNAP). This move will affect all advance practice nurses, with a mandatory implementation by the year 2015. In August 2007, the AANA announced its support of this advanced clinical degree as an entry level for practice of all nurse anesthetists, with a target compliance date of 2025. In accordance with traditional grandfathering rules, all those in current practice would not be affected and neither would the training provided to those now receiving the DNP or DNAP designation. Currently, more than 50% of the 120 nurse anesthesia programs have already transitioned to the DNP or DNAP entry level format.

Requirements
The didactic curricula of nurse-anesthesia programs is governed by the COA standards. Accredited programs provide supervised experiences for students with patients of all ages who require medical, surgical, obstetrical, dental, and pediatric interventions. Programs require study in methods of scientific inquiry and statistics, as well as active participation in a student-generated and faculty-sponsored research project.

Before becoming a nurse anesthetist, one must complete a few years of a bachelor's-level registered nursing. A minimum of one year of full-time work experience as a registered nurse in a critical care setting is required before applying to CRNA school. The average experience of RNs entering nurse anesthesia educational programs is 2.9 years. Nurse anesthetists are required to attend accredited educations programs covering all areas of anesthesia. This education provides training about the anesthetics needed for patients in any type of procedure or surgery. After completing an accredited program, CRNAs must pass a national certification exam to acquire this designation. It is important to have the best education for this field for the significance of anesthesia. By 2025 the Council on Accreditation, the organization which accredits nurse anesthetist programs, will require all graduating CRNAs to be doctorate prepared.

Armed forces
Nurse anesthetists serve in the United States armed forces. In some military treatment facilities, nurse anesthetists function as the only licensed independent anesthesia practitioners, including U.S. Navy ships at sea. They also provide anesthesia for the Veterans Administration and Public Health Service medical facilities.

During World War I, America's nurse anesthetists cared for troops in France. From 1914 to 1915, three years prior to America entering the war, Dr. George Crile and nurse anesthetists Agatha Hodgins and Mabel Littleton served in the Lakeside Unit at the American Ambulance at Neuilly-sur-Seine in France. In addition, they helped train the French and British nurses and physicians in anesthesia care. In 1917, the American participation in the war resulted in the U.S. military training nurse anesthetists for service. The Army and Navy sent nurses anesthesia trainees to various hospitals, including the Mayo Clinic at Rochester and the Lakeside Hospital in Cleveland before overseas service.

Among notable nurse anesthetists are Sophie Gran Winton. She served with the Red Cross at an army hospital in Château-Thierry, France, and earned the French Croix de Guerre in addition to other service awards. In addition, Anne Penland was the first nurse anesthetist to serve on the British Front and was decorated by the British government.

American nurse anesthetists also served in World War II and Korea. Second Lieutenant Mildred Irene Clark provided anesthesia for casualties from the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor. During the Vietnam War, nurse anesthetists served as both CRNAs and flight nurses, and also developed new field equipment. Nurse anesthetists have been casualties of war. Lieutenants Kenneth R. Shoemaker Jr. and Jerome E. Olmsted, were killed in an air evac mission en route to Qui Nhon, Vietnam.

At least one nurse anesthetist was a prisoner of war. Army Nurse anesthetist Annie Mealer endured a three-year imprisonment by the Japanese in the Philippines, and was released in 1945. During the Iraq War, nurse anesthetists provide care at forward positioned medical treatment facilities. In addition, they play a role in the continuing education and training of Department of Defense nurses and technicians in the care of wartime trauma patients.

Certification
Board certification and recertification process is governed by the National Board on Certification and Recertification of Nurse Anesthetists (NBCRNA). The NBCRNA exists as an autonomous not-for-profit incorporated organization. CRNAs also have continuing education requirements and recertification check-ins every two years thereafter, plus any additional requirements of the state in which they practice. The new recertification pathway focuses on: maintenance of certification, lifelong learning, and continued competence. The Continued Professional Certification (CPC) Program consists of 8-year periods, and each period comprises two four-year cycles.

Scope of practice
The degree of independence or supervision by a licensed provider (physician, dentist, or podiatrist) varies with state law. Some states use the term collaboration to define a relationship where the supervising physician and the CRNA work together to provide the anesthetic. Other states require the consent or order of a physician or other qualified licensed provider to administer the anesthetic.

The licensed CRNA is legally authorized to deliver care under the particular Nurse Practice Act of each state. Scope of CRNA practice is commonly further defined by the practice location's clinical privilege and credentialing process, anesthesia department policies, or practitioner agreements. Clinical privileges are based on the scope and complexity of the expected clinical practice, CRNA qualifications, and CRNA experience. This allows the CRNA to provide core services and activities under defined conditions with or without supervision.

In 2001, the Centers for Medicare and Medicaid Services (CMS) published a rule in the Federal Register that allows a state to be exempt from Medicare's physician supervision requirement for nurse anesthetists after appropriate approval by the state governor. To date, 22 states and Guam have opted out of the federal requirement, instituting their own individual requirements instead.

Salary
According to the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, a CRNA salary is around $225,555. Salaries within the US vary by state. Connecticut is the highest-paying state for CRNAs at an average salary of $276,540. It is followed by New Jersey ($263,850), Illinois ($250,280), and West Virginia ($247,650). Overall employment for nurse anesthetists and other medical professions is projected to grow 45 percent from 2020 to 2030.

Duties
CRNAs typically work in healthcare settings such as emergency rooms, intensive care units, and operating rooms. Their environment is with medical and surgical teams with procedures that can occur anytime. Some partnerships they work with are dentists, surgeons, podiatrists and other healthcare providers in serving patients who need of receiving anesthesia. Nurse anesthetists are an essential part of everyday medical facilities. The need of CRNAs is anticipated to grow.

Skills and procedures
Nurse anesthetists practice independently (depending on the state law) or they practice in collaboration with anesthesiologists, surgeons, and doctors to supply anesthetics to patients. CRNAs are responsible to communicate with the surgeon or team of the patient's health history and designing a plan for anesthesia. The procedures that nurse anesthetists offer include:
 * Evaluation of the patient prior to anesthesia
 * Physical assessment and teaching before the anesthesia
 * Administering patients' anesthesia
 * Administering regional anesthesia/analgesia such as spinals and epidurals
 * Placing ultrasound guided blocks for surgery
 * Managing patients is the post-operative period
 * Cope the recovery from the anesthesia

Roles and responsibilities
CRNAs have important roles when it comes to patient care. They need to meet all the patients' standards and help ensure the patient is in good condition before receiving an anesthesia plan. Some of the roles and responsibilities a CRNA need to require for this position include: In relation to the recent COVID-19 pandemic, there has been an increase in the number of individuals who need respiratory assistance due to Coronavirus symptoms. CRNA's are trained medical professionals who understand the airway and are also trained in mechanical ventilation. Based upon a patient's needs, a CRNA, or any healthcare professional, must select a specific type of ventilator in order to combat COVID-19 symptoms. If an improper ventilator is chosen, this could result in injury or death for a patient.
 * Bedside manner
 * Record-keeping skills
 * Communication skills
 * Teamwork with other nurses and physicians
 * Inhaled anesthesia administration
 * Ultrasound guided nerve blocks
 * Point of care ultrasound
 * Administration of blood and medication
 * Epidural placement
 * Placement of arterial and central lines

Terminology
The AANA recognizes Certified Registered Nurse Anesthetist, CRNA, nurse anesthetist, and nurse anesthesiologist as equivalent titles. The use of nurse anesthetist is substantially more common than the use of nurse anesthesiologist; terms anesthesia nurse and anesthetist nurse are unheard of.

Use of the term nurse anesthesiologist has been criticized by those who argue that the term anesthesiologist should be limited to medical doctors. For example, groups representing anesthesiologists and other medical doctors, such as the American Medical Association (AMA) and American Society of Anesthesiologists (ASA), oppose the use of this phrase to describe CRNAs and call it misleading.

In 2021, after a year-long rebranding effort, the American Association of Nurse Anesthetists changed its name to the American Association of Nurse Anesthesiology. The name change was condemned by physician groups, including the AMA, ASA, American Board of Anesthesiology, American Board of Medical Specialties, and American Osteopathic Association. Physicians' organizations said that the name change was "title misappropriation" that was deceptive, misleading to patients, and cause confusion in care settings.

title: Certified registered nurse anesthetist


text:
Julio Franco

Julio César Franco Robles (born August 23, 1958) is a Dominican former professional baseball player and coach, who is a hitting coach for the farm team of the Lotte Giants of the KBO League. He spent most of his playing career in Major League Baseball (MLB), entering the major leagues in 1982 and last appearing in 2007, at which time he was the oldest active big league player. During that stretch, Franco also spent two seasons playing in Nippon Professional Baseball (NPB) and one season playing in the KBO.

While Franco was an All-Star and posted above-average hitting statistics throughout his career, he is best known for being the oldest regular position player in MLB history. Franco was the all-time hits leader among Dominican-born players until surpassed in 2011 by Vladimir Guerrero. He made his MLB debut as a shortstop for the Philadelphia Phillies. During his long career, Franco saw significant time as a shortstop, second baseman, first baseman, and designated hitter. At the time of his final game, he was the last MLB player born in the 1950s.

Early life
Franco was born in Hato Mayor in the Dominican Republic. As a child, he lived in Consuelo, San Pedro de Macorís, a poor municipality 50 miles east of Santo Domingo. He attended Divine Providence School in Consuelo.

Minor league career
Signed by the Philadelphia Phillies organization on April 23, 1978, as an amateur free agent, Franco reported to the Rookie-level Butte Copper Kings. In each of five minor league seasons, he hit for a batting average of at least .300. Franco was promoted through the Philadelphia minor league system each year, reaching the Class AAA Oklahoma City 89ers in 1982 and batting .300 and hitting 21 home runs in 120 games.

Early MLB career
Franco debuted in the major leagues in 1982, playing 16 games with the Phillies. He was one of five Phillies along with Manny Trillo, George Vukovich, Jerry Willard and Jay Baller who were traded to the Cleveland Indians for Von Hayes at the Winter Meetings on December 9, 1982.

In June 1986, Franco received a two-game suspension from the Indians after he arrived at the ballpark but then left before the game started. Indians manager Pat Corrales said that Franco left due to a personal problem, but he said that Franco had left without permission and that he had already been given a warning after missing a game in 1985.

Franco hit over .300 in every season from 1986 to 1989. He also averaged over 20 stolen bases per season from 1983 through 1991. When he switched from shortstop to second base in 1988, he won four straight Silver Slugger Awards. Franco batted with a long whip-like swing with the heaviest bat allowed. Because of his batting style, Franco twice led the American League in grounding into double plays and was in the top-ten in that category seven times in the 1980s. He is seventh on the all-time list in ground-ball double plays and has just over 300.

In December 1988, during baseball's Winter Meetings, Franco was traded from Cleveland to the Texas Rangers, who were in need of an everyday second baseman. The Rangers gave up first baseman Pete O'Brien, and two prospects, Oddibe McDowell and Jerry Browne. The Rangers had acquired first baseman Rafael Palmeiro the day before, and The New York Times said that the Rangers' lineup might allow Franco to bat fifth, a batting order slot that could increase his number of runs batted in (RBI).

With Texas, Franco was named to all three of his All-Star teams: in 1989, 1990 and 1991, and he won the Major League Baseball All-Star Game MVP Award in 1990. In the 1990 All-Star game, Franco came to bat in the 7th inning against Rob Dibble of the Cincinnati Reds. Franco drove a 101 mph fastball to the right-center field fence for a double, scoring the only runs of the game.

In 1991, Franco had his only 200-hit season and won the American League batting title. His .341 average was nine points higher than that of future Baseball Hall of Fame member Wade Boggs. A 1992 knee injury limited him to 33 games that season and fundamentally ended Franco's time as a middle infielder, playing only 35 more games at 2B the remainder of his career. Franco later said that the injury helped him to realize the importance of taking care of his physical condition. He spent 1993 as a designated hitter before opting to become a free agent and signing with the Chicago White Sox.

Strike and baseball abroad
In 1994, as a member of the Chicago White Sox, Franco had already hit 20 home runs for the only time in his career and was on pace to reach 100 runs batted in for the only time in his career when the remainder of the season was canceled by the 1994–95 Major League Baseball strike. Franco went on to win his fifth Silver Slugger Award and first as a Designated hitter. On December 28, 1994, Franco signed to play in Japan with the Chiba Lotte Marines in the Pacific League. Chiba Lotte had the best season in its history in 1995, and Franco won the Japanese equivalent of the Gold Glove Award as a first baseman.

After the 1995 season in Japan, Franco signed with the Cleveland Indians, where he was a fan favorite. In 1996, he batted .322 with 76 RBIs even in an injury-shortened season, and played in his first postseason. Early in the 1997 season, Franco hit a hard line drive back to the pitcher's mound which struck Detroit Tigers pitcher Willie Blair; the pitcher missed four weeks of the season with a broken jaw. In August 1997, the Indians released Franco. He quickly signed with the Milwaukee Brewers.

In 1998, Franco was back in Japan playing for Chiba Lotte. The following year, he returned to North America, in the Mexican League with a .423 average in 93 games (and also a strikeout in his only MLB at bat with the Tampa Bay Devil Rays). In 2000, Franco was back in Asia but, this time, in South Korea to play for the Samsung Lions. He returned again to the Mexican League in 2001.

Return to the majors
In September 2001, Franco was a 43-year-old who had just one major league at bat in the previous three seasons. Despite his lengthy absence, the Atlanta Braves, after seeing his success in the Mexican League, purchased his contract from the Angelopolis (Mexico City) Tigers. Franco played well defensively as a first baseman and was a good hitter against left-handed pitchers. The Braves re-signed him after that season and each of the next three.

Franco was talking in the weight room in August 2003 with Jason Marquis, when he leaned on a stand and an 80-pound weight rolled over his finger, breaking it. "When the weight started to roll," Franco said, "I said, 'Uh-oh.'"

In 2004, Franco passed Cap Anson as the oldest regularly playing position player in MLB history. (A few regularly playing pitchers, including knuckleballers Phil Niekro and Hoyt Wilhelm, were older than Franco, and Leroy “Satchel” Paige was reportedly 57, and a few non-pitchers, like Minnie Miñoso and Jim O'Rourke, appeared as publicity stunts at old ages but did not play regularly.)

On December 8, 2005, at age 47, Franco signed a two-year contract with the Mets.

Franco had been the oldest player in the major leagues from 2004 to 2007, and was the last active player who was born in the 1950s. On April 20, 2006, pinch-hitting with one out in the eighth inning against the San Diego Padres, Franco hit a go-ahead two-run home run, becoming the oldest player in Major League history to hit a home run. Franco hit a three-run homer on September 30, 2006, in Washington to extend his own record. It was one of three hits in the game for Franco, who fell a triple short of hitting for the cycle. Franco yet again bested himself on May 4, 2007, when he homered into the swimming pool at Chase Field against Arizona Diamondbacks lefty Randy Johnson — a game in which he also stole a base.

Franco was also the oldest player ever to hit a grand slam, a pinch-hit home run, two home runs in one game, and to steal two bases in a game. On April 26, 2006, Franco became the second-oldest man in MLB history to steal a base, behind only Arlie Latham, who accomplished the feat in a token appearance at age 49 with the New York Giants in 1909. On July 29, 2006, against the Atlanta Braves, Franco became the oldest player ever to pinch run, when he came in for Carlos Delgado after Delgado was hit by pitch. On September 19, 2006, a day after the Mets clinched the division title, Franco started at third base in a game against the Florida Marlins. This was Franco's first start at the position since his rookie year, marking 24 years between starts at the position.

Franco struggled with the Mets in 2007, achieving just a .200 batting average (in only 50 at-bats in half a season). Franco grew unhappy with insufficient playing time before being designated for assignment on July 12. He subsequently re-signed with the Atlanta Braves on July 18 and was placed on the team's active roster. In his first game since re-signing with the Braves, he went 1-for-3 with two RBIs and received two standing ovations in a Braves 10–1 rout of the Cardinals. On August 1, just 13 days after the Braves signed him, the Braves designated Franco for assignment after the team acquired Mark Teixeira from the Texas Rangers. He accepted a minor league assignment on August 8 and was called back up as promised on September 1.

Franco declared free agency on October 29, 2007. Franco began the 2008 season — his 31st in professional baseball — as a first baseman for the Tigres de Quintana Roo (Cancún) in the Mexican League.

After the Mexican League
On May 2, 2008, Franco officially announced his retirement from baseball to his Mexican League team, the Quintana Roo Tigers. An official announcement was released the next day. Franco said that retiring was the hardest decision he had ever made, but he pointed to his decreasing production as a player and said that he felt like it was time to retire.

Franco was hired in March 2009 as the manager of the rookie-level Gulf Coast League Mets. In Franco's only season managing the team, they posted a record of 22 wins and 34 losses. In 2010–2011, Franco managed a winter league team, the Caribes de Anzoátegui, in the Venezuelan Professional Baseball League. He led the team to its first league championship in 20 years. He returned to the team the following season, but he was fired after the team started with a 28–28 win–loss record. Soon thereafter, Franco was hired as the manager of the Pericos de Puebla for the 2012 Mexican League season. In two seasons with Puebla, he led the team to 110 wins and 104 losses.

Franco appeared on the Baseball Hall of Fame ballot in 2013. Paul White of USA Today wrote that while Franco was a consistent player over a long career, he was rarely dominant. White wrote that Franco's statistics were inferior to other Baseball Hall of Fame second basemen. Franco received six Hall of Fame votes (1.1% of the total ballots), an insufficient total to appear on the next year's ballot.

Return to baseball
On May 16, 2014, the Fort Worth Cats of United League Baseball announced that Franco had been signed for the 2014 season. He went 6-for-27 in seven games.

On February 8, 2015, Ishikawa Million Stars of the professional Japanese Independent baseball league Baseball Challenge League announced that Franco had been signed as a player-manager for the 2015 season. Franco said that he did not think he would appear often as a player, but 14 games into the season, Franco had played in ten games owing to an injury to a key player.

Second coaching stint
Franco was part of the coaching staff for the Lotte Giants of the KBO League from 2016–2020.

On February 5, 2022, Franco returned to the Mexican League as he was named hitting coach of the Acereros de Monclova.

Career statistics
In 2,527 games over 23 major league seasons, Franco posted a .298 batting average (2,586-for-8,677) with 1,285 runs, 407 doubles, 54 triples, 173 home runs, 1,194 RBI, 281 stolen bases, 917 bases on balls, .365 on-base percentage and .417 slugging percentage. He finished his career with a .978 fielding percentage playing primarily at shortstop, second and first base. In 31 postseason games, he batted .224 (22-for-98) with nine runs, two home runs, six RBI and six walks.

Awards and highlights

 * Three-time All-Star (1989–1991)
 * MVP All-Star Game (1990)
 * Led American League in batting average (.341, 1991)
 * Led AL in singles (156, 1991)
 * Second in the AL Rookie of the Year selection (1983, behind Ron Kittle)
 * Led AL in at-bats (658, 1984)
 * Top 10 MVP selection (8th, AL, 1994)
 * Carolina League MVP (1980)
 * Twice hit over .400 in the Mexican League (.423, 1999; .437, 2000)
 * Oldest player to hit a Grand Slam (47, 2005, breaking his own record set in 2004 at 45)
 * Oldest regularly playing non-pitcher player in MLB history (48)
 * Second-oldest player to appear in MLB postseason play (48, during the 2006 postseason)
 * Oldest player in Major League history to hit a home run (48)
 * Second-oldest player to steal a base (48, during the 2007 season)
 * Led all Dominican players in MLB history in seasons, games, at-bats, hits, and bases on balls
 * 4,000 Professional Hit Club: Has compiled over 4,200 hits in his 26-year professional career, making him one of only eight known players with at least 4,000 professional hits (the others being Pete Rose, Ty Cobb, Hank Aaron, Jigger Statz, Stan Musial, Derek Jeter, and Ichiro Suzuki).
 * Major League Baseball: 2586 (through end of 2007 season)
 * Minor Leagues: 618
 * Mexican League: 316
 * Japan's Nippon Professional Baseball: 286
 * Dominican Winter League: 267
 * South Korea's KBO League: 156
 * United Baseball League: 6
 * TOTAL: 4,235
 * As of 2006, Julio Franco was the only active player to face a pitcher who pitched against Hall of Famer Ted Williams, who retired in 1960. The pitcher is Jim Kaat, who played in the majors from 1959 to 1983. Williams had batted against Kaat the final day of the 1959 season, Kaat's rookie year. Kaat walked Franco in the latter's rookie season in 1982.
 * Franco is the only MLB player known to have hit a home run with his grandson in attendance.
 * Franco was the sixth batter that Roger Clemens ever faced, and when the two faced each other on June 15, 2007, they became the oldest batter-pitcher pair in the major leagues since October 1, 1933.

Personal life
Franco is a practicing Christian. In a 2005 interview with the Baptist Press, he said, "I’ve been a Christian for 15 years," and added, "I want to play until I’m 50 years old. I know that my body is the temple of the Holy Spirit and I want to keep my body healthy. I believe the key to that is discipline and obedience.”

title: Julio Franco