text:
Paul Scherrer Institute

The Paul Scherrer Institute (PSI) is a multi-disciplinary research institute for natural and engineering sciences in Switzerland. It is located in the Canton of Aargau in the municipalities Villigen and Würenlingen on either side of the River Aare, and covers an area over 35 hectares in size. Like ETH Zurich and EPFL, PSI belongs to the Swiss Federal Institutes of Technology Domain of the Swiss Confederation. The PSI employs around 3000 people. It conducts basic and applied research in the fields of matter and materials, human health, and energy and the environment. About 37% of PSI's research activities focus on material sciences, 24% on life sciences, 19% on general energy, 11% on nuclear energy and safety, and 9% on particle physics.

PSI develops, builds and operates large and complex research facilities and makes them available to the national and international scientific communities. In 2017, for example, more than 2,500 researchers from 60 different countries came to PSI to take advantage of the concentration of large-scale research facilities in the same location, which is unique worldwide. About 1,900 experiments are conducted each year at the approximately 40 measuring stations in these facilities.

In recent years, the institute has been one of the largest recipients of money from the Swiss lottery fund.

History
The institute, named after the Swiss physicist Paul Scherrer, was created in 1988 when EIR (Eidgenössisches Institut für Reaktorforschung, Swiss Federal Institute for Reactor Research, founded in 1960) was merged with SIN (Schweizerisches Institut für Nuklearphysik, Swiss Institute for Nuclear Research, founded in 1968). The two institutes on opposite sides of the River Aare served as national centres for research: one focusing on nuclear energy and the other on nuclear and particle physics. Over the years, research at the centres expanded into other areas, and nuclear and reactor physics accounts for just 11 percent of the research work at PSI today. Since Switzerland decided in 2011 to phase out nuclear energy, this research has primarily been concerned with questions of safety, such as how to store radioactive waste safely in a deep geological repository.

Since 1984, PSI has operated (initially as SIN) the centre for Proton Therapy for treating patients with eye melanomas and other tumours located deep inside the body. More than 9,000 patients have been treated there until now (status 2020).

The institute is also active in space research. For example, in 1990 PSI engineers built the detector of the EUVITA telescope for the Russian satellite Spectrum X-G, and later also supplied NASA and ESA with detectors to analyse radiation in space. In 1992, physicists used accelerator mass spectrometry and radiocarbon methods to determine the age of Ötzi, the mummy found in a glacier in the Ötztal Alps a year earlier, from small samples of just a few milligrams of bone, tissue and grass. They were analysed at the TANDEM accelerator on the Hönggerberg near Zurich, which at the time was jointly operated by ETH Zurich and PSI.

In 2009, the Indian-born British structural biologist Venkatraman Ramakrishnan was awarded the Nobel Prize in Chemistry for, among other things, his research at the Synchrotron Light Source Switzerland (SLS). The SLS is one of PSI's four large-scale research facilities. His investigations there enabled Ramakrishnan to clarify what ribosomes look like and how they function at the level of individual molecules. Using the information encoded in the genes, ribosomes produce proteins that control many chemical processes in living organisms.

In 2010, an international team of researchers at PSI used negative muons to perform a new measurement of the proton and found that its radius is significantly smaller than previously thought: 0.84184 femtometers instead of 0.8768. According to press reports, this result was not only surprising, it could also call previous models in physics into question. The measurements were only possible with PSI's 590 MeV proton accelerator HIPA because its secondarily generated muon beam is the only one worldwide that is intense enough to conduct the experiment.

In 2011, researchers from PSI and elsewhere succeeded in deciphering the basic structure of the protein molecule rhodopsin with the help of the SLS. This optical pigment acts as a kind of light sensor and plays a decisive role in the process of sight.

A so-called ‘barrel pixel detector’ built at PSI was a central element in the CMS detector at the Geneva nuclear research centre CERN, and was thus involved in detecting the Higgs boson. This discovery, announced on 4 July 2012, was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics one year later.

In January 2016, 20 kilograms of plutonium were taken from PSI to the USA. According to a newspaper report, the federal government had a secret plutonium storage facility in which the material had been kept since the 1960s to construct an atomic bomb as planned at the time. The Federal Council denied this, maintaining the plutonium-239 content of the material was below 92 percent, which meant it was not weapons-grade material. The idea was rather to use the material obtained from reprocessed fuel rods of the Diorit research reactor, which was operated from 1960 to 1977, to develop a new generation of fuel element types for nuclear power plants. This, however, never happened. By the time it was decided, in 2011, to phase out nuclear power, it had become clear that there was no further use for the material in Switzerland. The Federal Council decided at the Nuclear Security Summit in 2014 to close the Swiss plutonium storage facility. A bilateral agreement between the two countries meant the plutonium could then be transferred to the US for further storage.

In July 2017, the three-dimensional alignment of magnetization inside a three-dimensional magnetic object was investigated and visualized with the help of the SLS without affecting the material. The technology is expected to be useful in developing better magnets, for example for motors or data storage.

Joël François Mesot, the long-standing Director of PSI (2008 to 2018), was elected President of ETH Zurich at the end of 2018. His post was temporarily taken over by the physicist and PSI Chief of Staff Thierry Strässle from January 2019. Since 1 April 2020, the physicist Christian Rüegg has been Director of PSI. He was previously head of the PSI research division Neutrons and Muons.

Numerous PSI spin-off companies have been founded over the years to make the research findings available to the wider society. The largest spin-off, with 120 employees, is the DECTRIS AG, founded in 2006 in nearby Baden, which specializes in the development and marketing of X-ray detectors. SwissNeutronics AG in Klingnau, which sells optical components for neutron research facilities, was founded as early as 1999. Several recent PSI offshoots, such as the manufacturer of metal-organic frameworks novoMOF or the drug developer leadXpro, have settled close to PSI in the Park Innovaare, which was founded in 2015 with the support of several companies and Canton Aargau.

Research and specialist areas
PSI develops, builds and operates several accelerator facilities, e. g. a 590 MeV high-current cyclotron, which in normal operation supplies a beam current of about 2.2 mA. PSI also operates four large-scale research facilities: a synchrotron light source (SLS), which is particularly brilliant and stable, a spallation neutron source (SINQ), a muon source (SμS) and an X-ray free-electron laser (SwissFEL). This makes PSI currently (2020) the only institute in the world to provide the four most important probes for researching the structure and dynamics of condensed matter (neutrons, muons and synchrotron radiation) on a campus for the international user community. In addition, HIPA's target facilities also produce pions that feed the muon source and the Ultracold Neutron source UCN produces very slow, ultracold neutrons. All these particle types are used for research in particle physics. Research at PSI is conducted with the help of these facilities. Its focus areas include:

Matter and Material
All the materials humans work with are made up of atoms. The interaction of atoms and their arrangement determine the properties of a material. Most of the researchers in the field of matter and materials at PSI want to find out more about how the internal structure of different materials relates to their observable properties. Fundamental research in this area contributes to the development of new materials with a wide range of applications, for example in electrical engineering, medicine, telecommunications, mobility, new energy storage systems, quantum computers and spintronics. The phenomena investigated include superconductivity, ferro- and antiferromagnetism, spin fluids and topological insulators.

Neutrons are intensively used for materials research at PSI because they enable unique and non-destructive access to the interior of materials on a scale ranging from the size of atoms to objects a centimetre long. They therefore serve as ideal probes for investigating fundamental and applied research topics, such as quantum spin systems and their potential for application in future computer technologies, the functionalities of complex lipid membranes and their use for the transport and targeted release of drug substances, as well as the structure of novel materials for energy storage as key components in intelligent energy networks.

In particle physics, PSI researchers are investigating the structure and properties of the innermost layers of matter and what holds them together. Muons, pions and ultra-cold neutrons are used to test the Standard Model of elementary particles, to determine fundamental natural constants and to test theories that go beyond the Standard Model. Particle physics at PSI holds many records, including the most precise determination of the coupling constants of the weak interaction and the most accurate measurement of the charge radius of the proton. Some experiments aim to find effects that are not foreseen in the Standard Model, but which could correct inconsistencies in the theory or solve unexplained phenomena from astrophysics and cosmology. Their results so far agree with the Standard Model. Examples include the upper limit measured in the MEG experiment of the hypothetical decay of positive muons into positrons and photons as well as that of the permanent electric dipole moment for neutrons.

Muons are not only useful in particle physics, but also in solid-state physics and materials science. The muon spin spectroscopy method (μSR) is used to investigate the fundamental properties of magnetic and superconducting materials as well as of semiconductors, insulators and semiconductor structures, including technologically relevant applications such as for solar cells.

Energy and the Environment
PSI researchers are addressing all aspects of energy use with the aim to make energy supplies more sustainable. Focus areas include: new technologies for renewable energies, low-loss energy storage, energy efficiency, low-pollution combustion, fuel cells, experimental and model-based assessment of energy and material cycles, environmental impacts of energy production and consumption, and nuclear energy research, in particular reactor safety and waste management.

PSI operates the ESI (Energy System Integration) experimental platform to answer specific questions on seasonal energy storage and sector coupling. The platform can be used in research and industry to test promising approaches to integrating renewable energies into the energy system – for example, storing excess electricity from solar or wind power in the form of hydrogen or methane.

At PSI a method for extracting significantly more methane gas from biowaste was developed and successfully tested with the help of the ESI platform together with the Zurich power company Energie 360°. The team was awarded the Watt d'Or 2018 of the Swiss Federal Office of Energy.

A platform for catalyst research is also maintained at PSI. Catalysis is a central component in various energy conversion processes, for example in fuel cells, water electrolysis and the methanation of carbon dioxide.

To test the pollutant emissions of various energy production processes and the behaviour of the corresponding substances in the atmosphere, PSI also operates a smog chamber.

Another area of research at PSI is on the effects of energy production on the atmosphere locally, including in the Alps, in the polar regions of the Earth and in China. The Nuclear Energy and Safety Division is dedicated to maintaining a good level of nuclear expertise and thus to training scientists and engineers in nuclear energy. For example, PSI maintains one of the few laboratories in Europe for investigating fuel rods in commercial reactors. The division works closely with ETH Zurich, EPFL and the University of Bern, using, for example, their high-performance computers or the CROCUS research reactor at EPFL.

Human health
PSI is one of the leading institutions worldwide in the research and application of proton therapy for the treatment of cancer. Since 1984, the Center for Proton Therapy has been successfully treating cancer patients with a special form of radiation therapy. To date, more than 7500 patients with ocular tumours have been irradiated (status 2020). The success rate for eye therapy using the OPTIS facility is over 98 percent.

In 1996, an irradiation unit (Gantry 1) was equipped for the first time to use the so-called spot-scanning proton technique developed at PSI. With this technique, tumours deep inside the body are scanned three-dimensionally with a proton beam about 5 to 7 mm in width. By superimposing many individual proton spots – about 10,000 spots per litre volume – the tumour is evenly exposed to the necessary radiation dose, which is monitored individually for each spot. This allows an extremely precise, homogeneous irradiation that is optimally adapted to the usually irregular shape of the tumour. The technique enables as much as possible of the surrounding healthy tissue to be spared. The first gantry was in operation for patients from 1996 to the end of 2018. In 2013, the second Gantry 2, developed at PSI, went into operation, and in mid-2018 another treatment station, Gantry 3, was opened.

In the field of radiopharmacy, PSI's infrastructure covers the entire spectrum. In particular, PSI researchers are tackling very small tumours distributed throughout the body. These cannot be treated with the usual radiotherapy techniques. New medically applicable radionuclides have, however, been produced with the help of the proton accelerators and the neutron source SINQ at PSI. When combined for therapy with special biomolecules – so-called antibodies, therapeutic molecules can be formed to selectively and specifically detect tumour cells. These are then labelled with a radioactive isotope. Its radiation can be localized with imaging techniques such as SPECT or PET, which enables the diagnosis of tumours and their metastases. Moreover, it can be dosed so that it also destroys the tumour cells. Several such radioactive substances have been developed at PSI. They are currently being tested in clinical trials, in close cooperation with universities, clinics and the pharmaceutical industry. PSI also supplies local hospitals with radiopharmaceuticals if required.

Since the opening of the Synchrotron Light Source Switzerland (SLS), structural biology has been a further focus of research in the field of human health. Here, the structure and function of biomolecules are being investigated – preferably at atomic resolution. The PSI researchers are primarily concerned with proteins. Every living cell needs a myriad of these molecules in order, for example, to be able to metabolise, receive and transmit signals or to divide. The aim is to understand these life processes better and thus to be able to treat or prevent diseases more effectively.

For example, PSI is investigating the structure of filamentous structures, the so-called microtubules, which, among other things, pull apart chromosomes during cell division. They consist of long protein chains. When chemotherapy is used to treat cancer, it disturbs the assembly or breakdown of these chains so that the cancer cells can no longer divide. Researchers are closely observing the structure of these proteins and how they change to find out exactly where cancer drugs have to attack the microtubules. With the help of PSI's SwissFEL free-electron X-ray laser, which was inaugurated in 2016, researchers have been able to analyse dynamic processes in biomolecules with extremely high time resolution – less than a trillionth of a second (picosecond). For example, they have detected how certain proteins in the photoreceptors of the retina of our eyes are activated by light.

Proton accelerator facility
While PSI's proton accelerator, which went into service in 1974, was primarily used in the early days for elementary particle physics, today the focus is on applications for solid-state physics, radiopharmaceuticals and cancer therapy. Since it started operating, it has been constantly developed further, and its performance today is as much as 2.4 mA, which is 24 times higher than the initial 100 μA. This is why the facility is now considered a high-performance proton accelerator, or HIPA (High Intensity Proton Accelerator) for short. Basically, it consists of three accelerators in series: the Cockcroft-Walton, the injector-2 cyclotron, and the ring-cyclotron. They accelerate the protons to around 80 percent of the speed of light.

Proton source and Cockcroft-Walton
In a proton source based on cyclotron resonance, microwaves are used to strip electrons from hydrogen atoms. What remains are the hydrogen atomic nuclei, each consisting of only one proton. These protons leave the source with a potential of 60 kilovolts and are then subjected to a further voltage of 810 kilovolts in an accelerator tube. Both voltages are supplied by a Cockcroft-Walton accelerator. With a total of 870 kilovolts, the protons are accelerated to a speed of 46 million km/h or 4 percent of the speed of light. The protons are then fed into the Injector-2.

Injektor-1
With Injector-1, operating currents of 170 μA and peak currents of 200 μA could be reached. It was also used for low energy experiments, for OPTIS eye therapy and for the LiSoR experiment in the MEGAPIE project. Since December 1, 2010, this ring accelerator has been out of operation.

Injektor-2
The Injector-2, which was commissioned in 1984 and developed by what was then SIN, replaced the Injector-1 as the injection machine for the 590 MeV ring cyclotron. Initially, it was possible to operate Injector-1 and Injector-2 alternately, but now only Injector-2 is used to feed the proton beam into the ring. The new cyclotron has enabled an increase in the beam current from 1 to 2 mA, which was the absolute record value for the 1980s. Today, the injector-2 delivers a beam current of ≈ 2.2 mA in routine operation and 2.4 mA in high current operation at 72 MeV, which is about 38 percent of the speed of light.

Originally, two resonators were operated at 150 MHz in flat-top mode to enable a clear separation of the proton orbits, but these are now also used for acceleration. Part of the extracted 72 MeV proton beam can be split off for isotope production, while the main part is fed into the Ring Cyclotron for further acceleration.

Ring
Like the Injector-2, the Ring Cyclotron, which has a circumference of about 48 m, went into operation in 1974. It was specially developed at SIN and is at the heart of the PSI proton accelerator facilities. The protons are accelerated to 80 percent of the speed of light on the approximately 4 km long track, which the protons cover inside the ring in 186 laps. This corresponds to a kinetic energy of 590 MeV. Only three such rings exist worldwide, namely: TRIUMF in Vancouver, Canada; LAMPF in Los Alamos, USA; and the one at PSI. TRIUMF has only reached beam currents of 500 μA and LAMPF 1 mA.

In addition to the four original Cavities, a smaller fifth cavity was added in 1979. It is operated at 150 megahertz as a flat-top cavity, and has enabled a significant increase in the number of extracted particles. Since 2008 all the old aluminium cavities of the Ring Cyclotron have been replaced with new copper cavities. These allow higher voltage amplitudes and thus a greater acceleration of the protons per revolution. The number of revolutions of the protons in the cyclotron could thus be reduced from approx. 200 to 186, and the distance travelled by the protons in the cyclotron decreased from 6 km to 4 km. With a beam current of 2.2 mA, this proton facility at PSI is currently the most powerful continuous particle accelerator in the world. The 1.3 MW strong proton beam is directed towards the muon source (SμS) and the spallation neutron source (SINQ).

Swiss Muon Source (SμS)
In the middle of the large experimental hall, the proton beam of the Ring Cyclotron collides with two targets – rings of carbon. During the collisions of the protons with the atomic carbon nuclei, pions are first formed and then decay into muons after about 26 billionths of a second. Magnets then direct these muons to instruments used in materials science and particle physics. Thanks to the Ring Cyclotron's enormously high proton current, the muon source is able to generate the world's most intense muon beams. These enable researchers to conduct experiments in particle physics and materials science that cannot be carried out anywhere else.

The Swiss Muon Source (SμS) has seven beamlines that scientists can use to investigate various aspects of modern physics. Some materials scientists use them for muon spin spectroscopy experiments. PSI is the only place in the world where a muon beam of sufficient intensity is available at a very low energy of only a few kiloelectron volts – thanks to the Muon Source's high muon intensity and a special process. The resulting muons are slow enough to be used to analyse thin layers of material and surfaces. Six measuring stations (FLAME (from 2021), DOLLY, GPD, GPS, HAL-9500, and LEM) with instruments for a wide range of applications are available for such investigations.

Particle physicists are using some of the beamlines to perform high-precision measurements to test the limits of the Standard Model.

Swiss Spallation Neutron Source (SINQ)
The neutron source SINQ, which has been in operation since 1996, was the first, and is still the strongest, of its kind. It delivers a continuous neutron flux of 1014 n cm−2s−1. In SINQ the protons from the large particle accelerator strike a lead target and knock the neutrons out of the lead nuclei, making them available for experiments. In addition to thermal neutrons, a moderator made of liquid deuterium also enables the production of slow neutrons, which have a lower energy spectrum.

The MEGAPIE Target (Megawatt Pilot-Experiment) came into operation in summer 2006. By replacing the solid target with a target made of a lead-bismuth eutectic, the neutron yield could be increased by about another 80%.

Since it would be very costly to dispose of the MEGAPIE target, PSI decided in 2009 not to produce another such target and instead to develop the solid target further as it had already proven its worth. Based on the findings from the MEGAPIE project, it was possible to obtain almost as large an increase in neutron yield for operation with a solid target.

SINQ was one of the first facilities to use specially developed optical guide systems to transport slow neutrons. Metal-coated glass conduits guide neutrons over longer distances (a few tens of metres) by means of total reflection, analogous to the light guidance in glass fibres, with a low loss of intensity. The efficiency of these neutron guides has steadily increased with advances in manufacturing technology. This is why PSI decided to carry out a comprehensive upgrade in 2019. When SINQ goes back into operation in summer 2020, it will be able to provide, on average, five times more neutrons for experiments, and in a special case, even 30 times more.

SINQ's 15 instruments are not only used for PSI research projects but are also available for national and international users.

Ultracold Neutron Source (UCN)
Since 2011, PSI has also been operating a second spallation neutron source for the generation of ultracold neutrons (UCN). Unlike SINQ, it is pulsed and uses HIPA's full beam, but normally only for 8 seconds every 5 minutes. The design is similar to that of SINQ. In order to cool down the neutrons, however, it uses frozen deuterium at a temperature of 5 Kelvin (corresponding to −268 degrees Celsius) as a cold moderator. The UCN generated can be stored in the facility and observed for a few minutes in experiments.

COMET cyclotron
This superconducting 250 MeV cyclotron has been in operation for proton therapy since 2007 and provides the beam for treating tumours in cancer patients. It was the first superconducting cyclotron worldwide to be used for proton therapy. Previously, part of the proton beam from the Ring Cyclotron was split off for this purpose, but since 2007 the medical facility has been producing its own proton beam independently, which supplies several irradiation stations for therapy. Other components of the facility, the peripheral equipment and the control systems have also been improved in the meantime, so that today the facility is available over 98 percent of the time with more than 7000 operating hours per year.

Swiss Light Source (SLS)
The Swiss Light Source (SLS), an electron synchrotron, has been in operation since 1 August 2001. It works like a kind of combined X-ray machine and microscope to screen a wide variety of substances. In the circular structure, the electrons move on a circular path 288 m in circumference, emitting synchrotron radiation in a tangential direction. A total of 350 magnets hold the electron beam on its course and focus it. Acceleration cavities ensure that the beam's speed remains constant.

Since 2008, the SLS has been the accelerator with the thinnest electron beam in the world. PSI researchers and technicians have been working on this for eight years and have repeatedly adjusted each of the many magnets. The SLS offers a very broad spectrum of synchrotron radiation from infrared light to hard X-rays. This enables researchers to take microscopic pictures inside objects, materials and tissue to, for example, improve materials or develop drugs.

In 2017, a new instrument at the SLS made it possible to look inside a computer chip for the first time without destroying it. Structures such as 45 nanometre narrow power lines and 34 nanometre high transistors became visible. This technology enables chip manufacturers to, for example, check whether their products comply with the specifications more easily.

Currently, under the working title "SLS 2.0", plans are being made to upgrade the SLS and thus create a fourth-generation synchrotron light source.

SwissFEL
The SwissFEL free-electron laser was officially opened on 5 December 2016 by the Federal Councillor Johann Schneider-Ammann. In 2018, the first beamline ARAMIS came into operation. The second beamline ATHOS is scheduled to follow in autumn 2020. Worldwide, only four comparable facilities are in operation.

Training Centre
The PSI Education Centre has over 30 years of experience in training and providing further education in technical and interdisciplinary fields. It trains over 3,000 participants annually.

The centre offers a wide range of basic and advanced training courses for both professionals and others working with ionising radiation or radioactive materials. The courses, in which participants acquire the relevant expertise, are recognised by the Federal Office of Public Health (FOPH) and the Swiss Federal Nuclear Safety Inspectorate (ENSI).

It also runs basic and advanced training courses for PSI's staff and interested individuals from the ETH Domain. Since 2015, courses on human resources development (such as conflict management, leadership workshops, communication and transferable skills) have also been held. The quality of the PSI Education Centre is certified (ISO 29990:2001).

Cooperation with industry
PSI holds about 100 active patent families in, for example, medicine, with investigation techniques for proton therapy against cancer or for the detection of prions, the cause of mad cow disease. Other patent families are in the field of photoscience, with special lithography processes for structuring surfaces, in the environmental sciences for recycling rare earths, for catalysts or for the gasification of biomass, in the materials sciences and in other fields. PSI maintains its own technology transfer office for patents.

Patents have, for example, been granted for detectors used in high-performance X-ray cameras developed for the Swiss Synchrotron Light Source SLS, which can be used to investigate materials at the atomic level. These provided the basis for founding the company DECTRIS, the largest spin-off to date to emerge from PSI. In 2017, the Lausanne-based company Debiopharm licensed the active substance 177Lu-PSIG-2, which was developed at the Centre for Radiopharmaceutical Sciences at PSI. This substance is effective in treating a type of thyroid cancer. It is to be further developed under the name DEBIO 1124 with the aim to have it approved and get it ready for market launch. Another PSI spin-off, GratXray, works with a method based on phase contrasts in lattice interferometry. The method was originally developed to characterize synchrotron radiation and is expected to become the gold standard in screening for breast cancer. The new technology has already been used in a prototype that PSI developed in collaboration with Philips.

title: Paul Scherrer Institute


text:
Corte Palasio

Corte Palasio (Lodigiano: Curt Palasi) is a town and comune in the province of Lodi, in Lombardy (northern Italy).

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Corte Palasio


text:
User talk:Cinnamon~enwiki

ClockworkTroll 20:02, 9 Oct 2004 (UTC)

Hi
Hello, Cinnamon! Thanks for your contributions to Korean geography. I'm especially happy about the maps you added. They're excellent! I can't make maps very well, so I really appreciate that. :-)

I did want to mention that there is a difference betweeen a "city" and a "province" in South Korea. See Administrative divisions of South Korea for more information... Because of that, I think that categories like Category:North Chungcheong should not be included in Category: Cities in South Korea. Perhaps we should make a category "Provinces of South Korea" or maybe a general category "South Korean geography" which could cover all geographical divisions of the country. Let me know what you think. -- Visviva 02:07, 11 Dec 2004 (UTC)

 * thanks for your mention :-) i think that province's or city's categories shoud not be included in Category:South Korea directly. non-korean speakers won't be able to understand what category it is. because these categories named by only korean language(ex.Geonggi,Chungcheong...).
 * following is best solution that i consider.

 * make Category:Administrative divisions of South Korea
 * this category include province's or city's categories (ex.Category:Seoul Category:Gyeonggi)
 * delete Category:Cities_in_South_Korea (since a strong resemblance to Category:Administrative divisions of South Korea, this category will be unnecessary.)
 * what do you think about my suggestion? please tell me your argument.

 * (this is my first time to talk in en.wikipedia. please forgive me,if there is an unsuitable point by english expression.)Cinnamon 03:11, 11 Dec 2004 (UTC)

 * Sorry for the late reply. Thank you for your thoughts.  :-) I think that your suggestion is a good one.  I created Category:Administrative divisions of South Korea as you suggested.  I'm not sure if we should delete Category:Cities in South Korea or not...  Maybe some users will want a big list of cities that isn't sorted by province.  On the other hand, most cities now have a "See also" link to List of cities in South Korea... so maybe we can delete the category.  But someone should check List of cities in South Korea to make sure it's complete.  Thanks again for your good work!  -- Visviva 11:59, 15 Dec 2004 (UTC)

Wikiproject
Since you're interested in South Korea, and you've already made those great maps, maybe you would like to be part of WikiProject South Korean counties and cities. We could use your help! If you're interested, you can add your name to the "participants" section. Also, if you think there are some things on the WikiProject page that should be changed, please feel free to change them. And thanks again! Cheers, Visviva 11:59, 15 Dec 2004 (UTC)

Your account will be renamed
Hello,

The developer team at Wikimedia is making some changes to how accounts work, as part of our on-going efforts to provide new and better tools for our users like cross-wiki notifications. These changes will mean you have the same account name everywhere. This will let us give you new features that will help you edit and discuss better, and allow more flexible user permissions for tools. One of the side-effects of this is that user accounts will now have to be unique across all 900 Wikimedia wikis. See the announcement for more information.

Unfortunately, your account clashes with another account also called Cinnamon. To make sure that both of you can use all Wikimedia projects in future, we have reserved the name Cinnamon~enwiki that only you will have. If you like it, you don't have to do anything. If you do not like it, you can pick out a different name. If you think you might own all of the accounts with this name and this message is in error, please visit Special:MergeAccount to check and attach all of your accounts to prevent them from being renamed.

Your account will still work as before, and you will be credited for all your edits made so far, but you will have to use the new account name when you log in.

Sorry for the inconvenience.

Yours, Keegan Peterzell Community Liaison, Wikimedia Foundation 23:01, 19 March 2015 (UTC)

Renamed
 This account has been renamed as part of single-user login finalisation. If you own this account you can |log in using your previous username and password for more information. If you do not like this account's new name, you can choose your own using this form after logging in: . -- Keegan (WMF) (talk) 11:37, 22 April 2015 (UTC)

title: User talk:Cinnamon~enwiki


text:
Talk:Super Mario Sunshine/to do

 * Get the article to FA status.

title: Talk:Super Mario Sunshine/to do


text:
Talk:Super Mario Sunshine

"Wind Sprites" listed at Redirects for discussion
An editor has identified a potential problem with the redirect Wind Sprites and has thus listed it for discussion. This discussion will occur at Redirects for discussion/Log/2022 October 10 until a consensus is reached, and readers of this page are welcome to contribute to the discussion. Pizzaplayer219TalkContribs 14:30, 10 October 2022 (UTC)

"Shine Get!" listed at Redirects for discussion
An editor has identified a potential problem with the redirect Shine Get! and has thus listed it for discussion. This discussion will occur at Redirects for discussion/Log/2022 October 10 until a consensus is reached, and readers of this page are welcome to contribute to the discussion. Pizzaplayer219TalkContribs 14:33, 10 October 2022 (UTC)

"Il Piantissimo" listed at Redirects for discussion
An editor has identified a potential problem with the redirect Il Piantissimo and has thus listed it for discussion. This discussion will occur at Redirects for discussion/Log/2022 October 10 until a consensus is reached, and readers of this page are welcome to contribute to the discussion. Pizzaplayer219TalkContribs 14:39, 10 October 2022 (UTC)

title: Talk:Super Mario Sunshine


text:
Beast Machines: Transformers

Beast Machines: Transformers is an animated television series produced by Mainframe Entertainment as part of the Transformers franchise. Hasbro has full distribution rights to the show as of 2011. It was a direct sequel to Beast Wars, taking place within the continuity of the original Transformers series. The show ran for two seasons, airing on YTV and Fox Kids from September 18, 1999 to November 18, 2000. Of the Transformers animated series produced in North America, Beast Machines was the only one to have been completely conceptualized and outlined in advance, lending it a more serialized and linear storyline than the others. The Beast Machines' intro theme was "Phat Planet" by Leftfield.

Synopsis
Following their victory in the Beast Wars, the surviving Maximals – Optimus Primal, Cheetor, Blackarachnia and Rattrap – finally return to Cybertron only to discover that their people have vanished, and the world is now ruled by the mindless Vehicons. To make matters worse, the quartet are trapped in their beast forms without any of the upgrades they gained during the Beast Wars – and they are swiftly losing their memories of anything but each other. Forced to retreat deep underground, the Maximals discover the Oracle, a powerful supercomputer that reformats their bodies into new, even more, powerful techno-organic forms.

The Maximals soon learn that their old enemy Megatron – who managed to break free and return to Cybertron before them – is the malevolent intelligence behind the Vehicons. Megatron has declared war on both beast modes and free will itself, imprisoning the sparks of Cyberton's entire population. With the odds stacked against them, the Maximals set out to free the sparks of their people, discover what really happened to their allies Silverbolt and Rhinox, and bring organic life to Cyberton once more.

Cast

 * Garry Chalk as Optimus Primal
 * Scott McNeil as Rattrap, Silverbolt and Waspinator
 * Ian James Corlett as Cheetor
 * Venus Terzo as Blackarachnia
 * David Kaye as Megatron, Savage/Noble
 * Christopher Gaze as Diagnostic Drone
 * Brian Drummond as Jetstorm
 * Paul Dobson as Tankor, Obsidian, Diagnostic Drone #2
 * Jim Byrnes as Thrust
 * Alessandro Juliani as Nightscream
 * Richard Newman as Rhinox/Tankor
 * Kathleen Barr as Botanica
 * Patricia Drake as Strika

Production
The series initially had the working title "Beast Hunters," as revealed in commentary on the Beast Machines DVD. Notable changes to character names occurred, with "Skybolt" altered to "Jetstorm" to avoid revealing Silverbolt's connection to the Vehicon faction. The show's early episodes were produced under the title "Skybolt" but were later edited to reflect the modified name. Originally, there was a plan for Thrust to possess Silverbolt's spark, but this concept was altered, leading to the decision for him to carry Waspinator's spark instead.

Within specific episodes, instances of certain gestures were observed, such as Thrust making a gesture resembling a middle finger in "Home Soil" and "Savage Noble." Furthermore, cameo appearances of characters like Inferno and Quickstrike, along with pre-human figures Hammer, Jack, and Una, were included in flashback scenes.

Home releases
Beast Machines: Transformers (Episodes # 1–5) Canada / United States
 * Format: Color, DVD-Video, NTSC
 * Language: English
 * Region: Region 1 (U.S. and Canada only)
 * Aspect Ratio: 1.33:1
 * Audio: 2.0 Dolby Surround
 * Number of discs: 1
 * Rating: PG in Canada
 * Studio: Anchor Bay Entertainment Canada
 * DVD Release Date: August 10, 2004
 * Run Time: 107 minutes

Beast Machines: Transformers – The Complete Series Canada / United States
 * Format: Box set, Color, DVD-Video, NTSC
 * Language: English
 * Region: Region 1 (U.S. and Canada only)
 * Aspect Ratio: 1.33:1
 * Audio: 5.1 Dolby Surround & 2.0 Stereo
 * Number of discs: 4
 * Rating: Not Rated
 * Studio: Kid Rhino Entertainment
 * DVD Release Date: February 28, 2006
 * Run Time: 700 minutes

Beast Machines – Transformers: Series 1
 * Format: Dubbed, Full Screen, PAL
 * Language English
 * Region: Region 2
 * Aspect Ratio: 1.33:1
 * Audio: 5.1 Dolby Surround & 2.0 Stereo
 * Number of discs: 2
 * Classification: PG (Parental Guidance)
 * Studio: Sony Pictures Home Entertainment
 * DVD Release Date: 16 July 2007
 * Run Time: 264 minutes

Beast Machines – Transformers: Series 2 UK
 * Format: Dubbed, Full Screen, PAL
 * Language English
 * Region: Region 2
 * Aspect Ratio: 1.33:1
 * Audio: 5.1 Dolby Surround & 2.0 Stereo
 * Number of discs: 2
 * Classification: PG (Parental Guidance)
 * Studio: Sony Pictures Home Entertainment
 * DVD Release Date: 19 November 2007
 * Run Time: N/A

Beast Machines – Transformers: Season 1 – Volumes 1 & 2 Classification: PG (Parental Guidance)
 * DVD Release Date: 20 June 2007
 * Audio: Dolby Digital 2.0 Stereo
 * Aspect Ratio: 1.33:1
 * Region: Region 4

Beast Machines – Transformers: Season 2 – Volumes 1 & 2
 * DVD Release Date: 23 October 2007
 * Audio: Dolby Digital 2.0 Stereo
 * Aspect Ratio: 1.33:1
 * Region: Region 4
 * Classification: PG (Parental Guidance)

US / Canada Beast Machines: Transformers – The Complete Series
 * Format: Box set, Color, DVD-Video, NTSC
 * Language: English
 * Region: Region 1 (U.S. and Canada only)
 * Aspect Ratio: 1.33:1
 * Audio: 5.1 Dolby Surround & 2.0 Stereo
 * Number of discs: 4
 * Rating: Not Rated
 * Studio: Shout! Factory
 * DVD Release Date: September 2, 2014
 * Run Time: 690 minutes

Other information
Written into a special edition comic book was a character by the name of Primal Prime. Appearing only in this book, he is a side character to the Beast Machines story and was later written into the toy lines of both Beast Machines and Transformers: Universe. In the Universe story line, he eventually gains a new body, which combined with Apelinq to create Sentinel Maximus.

The head writers used to post and answer questions on a message board known as Bottalk.

Toys
The Hasbro toys for Beast Machines gained notoriety for bearing little resemblance to the show's characters, both in shape and color. Additionally, they were disproportionately scaled. The discrepancy arose because the show creators and toy creators developed the characters independently in the first year, leading to the release of slightly more show-accrue.

Many of the characters created as toys never made it on the television series, although some did appear in the comic books. Oddly, the transforming plant Botanica from the television series was not made into a toy for any of the related toy lines.

Another characteristic of this toy line was its packaging. Unlike other Transformers lines, wherein each toy had a photo or illustration of themselves on the front of the packaging, almost all Beast Machines packages had an illustration of Cheetor on the front – regardless of character or faction. The one exception was Nightscream.

The toys released in the Beast Wars Returns (a release of Beast Machines in Japan) toy line by Takara were recolored to more closely resemble the show colors. Molds from the drones in the Vehicon Army, which bore more resemblance to the Vehicon Generals, were recolored and used as the Vehicon Generals instead in the Beast Wars Returns toy line.

A line of simple McDonald's Beast Machines toys was sold which did look more like the show characters, and this line was recolored for release in other countries by other fast-food restaurants.

Non-show groups
A number of toy sub-groups didn't make it into the animated series, but had small stories on their toy boxes.
 * Beast Riders
 * Two deluxe sized vehicles that resembled the heads of animals and could be ridden by larger figures. Both were redecorated once each, but their boxes remained unchanged.

 * Deployers
 * Three sparkless Maximal drones transform into weapons for larger toys, with their boxes remaining unchanged despite being redecoed in new colors. The dark blue recolor of Rav represents the character Chro in the 3H Comic series, where the original-colored Deployers also appeared.

 * Dinobots
 * A set of Maximals, all recolors of older toys from the Beast Wars and Beast Wars Neo lines, was commanded by Magmatron and T-Wrecks. Members included Airraptor and others, and like the Deployers, they appeared in the 3H Beast Machines comics.

Non-show characters
A number of characters appeared in the Beast Machines toy line who didn't make appearances in the television series. These included:

 * Blastcharge – A Vehicon who turns into a six-wheeled missile truck. The character does appear in the Wreckers comics.
 * Buzzsaw – A Maximal who transforms into a wasp. The character does appear in the Transformers: Universe comics.
 * Battle Unicorn – A Maximal who turns into a unicorn.
 * Che – A Beast Rider whose form is a cheetah head. The character was to appear in the un-produced Wreckers #4.
 * Chro (Name given to purple Rav repaint) – Appears in Wreckers comics.
 * Dillo – A Maximal Deployer who turns from an armadillo into a weapon. The character does appear in Wreckers comics.
 * Geckobot – A Maximal who transforms into a flying lizard.
 * Hammerstrike – A Maximal who transforms into a hammerhead shark.
 * Longhorn – A Maximal who turns into a bull. The character was to appear in the un-produced Wreckers #4.
 * Mechatron – A Beast Rider whose form is a dragon'a head.
 * Mirage – A high speed Vehicon race car. The character appears in Apelinq's War Journals, his drones appear in Wreckers comics.
 * Mol – A Maximal Deployer who turns from a mole into a weapon. The character did appear in Wreckers comics.
 * Nightviper – A Maximal who transforms into a cobra.
 * Primal Prime – A repaint of Beast Wars Optimal Optimus. The character does appear in the Wreckers comics.
 * Quickstrike – A Maximal who transforms into a wolf. The character does appear in the Transformers: Universe comics.
 * Rav – A Maximal Deployer who turns from a bird into a weapon. The character does appear in the Wreckers comics.
 * Scavenger – A Vehicon Demolitions expert. The character does appear in the Wreckers comics.
 * Skydive – A Maximal who turns a pterodactyl. The character was to appear in the un-produced Wreckers #4.
 * Snarl – A Maximal who turns into a lion. The character does appear in the un-produced Wreckers #3, and the Transformers: Universe comics
 * Spy Streak – A Vehicon stealth jet. The character does appear in the Wreckers comics.

Transtech
After Beast Machines ended, Hasbro planned a follow-up series called Transtech, which would have been a combination of Beast Wars, Beast Machines, and G1. The series was supposed to bring back some of the characters who died in Beast Wars along with some characters from the original 1980s cartoon, all in new, organic-looking bodies, with vehicle alternate modes instead of the animals used in Beast Machines. Many concept sketches and even a few toy prototypes were made, but Hasbro scrapped the idea, bringing Car Robots to American markets as a placeholder until Transformers Armada.

Concept sketches or prototype toys have been seen for Blackarachnia, Cheetor, Depth Charge, Megatron, Nightscream, Optimus Prime, Scavenger, Shockwave, Soundwave, Starscream, and a new character called Immorticon.

Transformers: Universe
The storyline of Beast Machines is continued in the short-lived comic book Transformers: Universe by 3H Publishing, which has stories taking place during the second season of Beast Machines (in the Transformers: Wreckers comic) and after the Beast Machines story (in the Transformers: Universe comic).

title: Beast Machines: Transformers


text:
Corte Franca

Corte Franca (Brescian: Córte Frànco) is a town and comune in the province of Brescia, in Lombardy.

Twin cities/towns

 * 🏴 - Aberdour, Fife, Scotland (since 31 July 2004).

title: Corte Franca


text:
Sea-King

A sea-king (sækonungr) in the Norse sagas is generally a title given to a powerful Viking chieftain, even though the term sea-king may sometimes predate the Viking age.

The Orkneyinga saga contains the earliest reference to sea-kings. There the original line of 'kings' of Kvenland (present-day Finland) ends with the father of Gor Thorrasson 'Sea King'. The appellation of 'Sea King' to subsequent names, from Gor to his great-grandson, Sveidi, suggests that they lose or surrender their inheritance as Kven kings and rule the seas instead, eventually ending up as minor lords in Norway.

Sea-kings could also be independent or noble Norwegian and Danish chieftains, and also kings of Sweden (such as Yngvi and Jorund), or sons of kings, such as Refil. However, they could also be men "without roof" like Hjörvard the Ylfing; such men without roof could be so powerful that they could subdue a country and make themselves kings. Two examples are Sölve who killed the Swedish king Östen, and Haki who killed the Swedish king Hugleik. However, in both cases they ultimately lost due to lack of popular support.

List of sea-kings as given in the Nafnaþulur 1-5

 * Ale the Strong
 * Asmund
 * Atal
 * Ati
 * Atli
 * Audmund
 * Beimi
 * Beimuni
 * Beiti
 * Budli
 * Byrvil
 * Ekkil
 * Endill
 * Frodi
 * Eynef
 * Gaupi
 * Gæir
 * Gauti|Geat
 * Gautrek
 * Geitir
 * Gestil
 * Gjuki
 * Glammi
 * Gor
 * Gudmund
 * Gylfi
 * Hagbard
 * Haki
 * Half
 * Harek
 * Heiti
 * Hemlir
 * Hiorolf
 * Hjalmar
 * Hnefi
 * Hogni
 * Homar
 * Horvi
 * Hraudnir
 * Hraudung
 * Hun
 * Hunding
 * Hviting
 * Hæmir
 * Iorek
 * Kilmund
 * Leifi
 * Longhorn
 * Lyngvi
 * Mævi
 * Mævil
 * Meiti
 * Moir
 * Mysing
 * Nori
 * Næfil
 * Ræfil
 * Randver
 * Rakni
 * Reifnir
 * Rer
 * Rodi
 * Rokkvi
 * Skefil
 * Skekkil
 * Solsi
 * Solvi
 * Sorvi
 * Sveidi
 * Teiti
 * Thvinnil
 * Vandil
 * Vinnil
 * Virfil
 * Yngvi

title: Sea-King


text:
Meta Content Framework

Meta Content Framework (MCF) is a specification of a content format for structuring metadata about web sites and other data.

History
MCF was developed by Ramanathan V. Guha at Apple Computer's Advanced Technology Group between 1995 and 1997. Rooted in knowledge-representation systems such as CycL,  KRL, and KIF, it sought to describe objects, their attributes, and the relationships between them.

One application of MCF was HotSauce, also developed by Guha while at Apple. It generated a 3D visualization of a web site's table of contents, based on MCF descriptions. By late 1996, a few hundred sites were creating MCF files and Apple HotSauce allowed users to browse these MCF representations in 3D.

When the research project was discontinued, Guha left Apple for Netscape, where, in collaboration with Tim Bray, he adapted MCF to use XML and created the first version of the Resource Description Framework (RDF).

MCF format
An MCF file consists of one or more blocks, each corresponding to an entity. A block looks like this: The identifier is a unique identifier for that entity (more on the scope of the identifier below) and is used to refer to that entity. The following lines each specify a property and one or more values, separated by commas. Each value can be a reference to another entity (via its identifier), a string (enclosed by double quotes) or a number. For example: NOTE:

 * The identifier must not include a comma and must not be enclosed within double quotes.
 * A common parsing failure is due to odd number of unescaped double quotes in text. For instance,  needs to be.
 * Commas within double quotes are not considered as value separators.
 * Every entity has at least one property:.

title: Meta Content Framework


text:
Lamnidae

The Lamnidae are the family of mackerel sharks known as white sharks. They are large, fast-swimming predatory fish found in oceans worldwide, though prefer environments with colder water. The name of the family is formed from the Greek word lamna, which means "fish of prey", and was derived from the Greek legendary creature, the Lamia.

These sharks have pointed snouts, spindle-shaped bodies, and large gill openings. The first dorsal fin is large, high, stiff and angular or somewhat rounded. The second dorsal and anal fins are minute. The caudal peduncle has a couple of less distinct keels. The teeth are gigantic. The fifth gill opening is in front of the pectoral fin and spiracles are sometimes absent. They are powerful, heavily built sharks, sometimes weighing nearly twice as much as other sharks of comparable length from other families. Many sharks in the family are among the fastest-swimming fish, although the massive great white shark is slower due to its large size.

Genera and species
The family contains five living species in three genera and these selected extinct genera and species:
 * Genus †Carchariolamna Hora, 1939
 * †Carchariolamna heroni Hora, 1939
 * Genus Carcharodon Smith, 1838
 * Carcharodon carcharias (Linnaeus, 1758) (great white shark)
 * †Carcharodon hubbelli Ehret, Macfadden, Jones, Devries, Foster & Salas-Gismondi, 2012 (Hubbell's white shark)
 * Genus †Corax Agassiz 1843
 * Genus †Cosmopolitodus Glikman, 1964
 * †Cosmopolitodus hastalis Agassiz, 1843 (broad-toothed mako)
 * Genus †Carcharomodus
 * †Carcharomodus escheri Agassiz, 1843
 * Genus Isurus Rafinesque, 1810
 * Isurus oxyrinchus Rafinesque, 1810 (shortfin mako)
 * Isurus paucus Guitart-Manday, 1966 (longfin mako)
 * †Isurus desori Agassiz, 1843
 * †Isurus flandricus Leriche, 1910
 * †Isurus minutus Agassiz, 1843
 * †Isurus nakaminatoensis Saito, 1961
 * †Isurus planus Agassiz, 1856
 * †Isurus praecursor Leriche, 1905
 * †Isurus rameshi Mehrotra, Mishra & Srivastava, 1973
 * Genus †Isurolamna Cappetta, 1976
 * †Isurolamna affinis Casier, 1946
 * †Isurolamna bajarunasi Glikman & Zhelezko, 1985
 * †Isurolamna gracilis Le Hon, 1871
 * †Isurolamna inflata Leriche, 1905
 * Genus †Karaisurus Kozlov in Zhelezko & Kozlov, 1999
 * †Karaisurus demidkini Kozlov in Zhelezko & Kozlov, 1999
 * Genus †Lamiostoma Glikman, 1964
 * †Lamiostoma belyaevi Glikman, 1964
 * †Lamiostoma stolarovi Glikman & Zhelezko in Zhelezko & Kozlov, 1999
 * Genus Lamna Cuvier, 1816
 * Lamna ditropis Hubbs & Follett, 1947 (salmon shark)
 * Lamna nasus Bonnaterre, 1788 (porbeagle)
 * †Lamna attenuata Davis, 1888
 * †Lamna carinata Davis, 1888
 * †Lamna hectori Davis, 1888
 * †Lamna marginalis Davis, 1888
 * †Lamna quinquelateralis Cragin, 1894
 * †Lamna trigeri Coquand, 1860
 * †Lamna trigonata Agassiz, 1843
 * Genus †Lethenia Leriche, 1910
 * †Lethenia vandenbroecki Winkler, 1880
 * Genus †Macrorhizodus Glikman, 1964
 * †Macrorhizodus americanus Leriche, 1942
 * †Macrorhizodus nolfi Zhelezko, 1999

title: Lamnidae


text:
User talk:Pogo747

ClockworkTroll 20:08, 9 Oct 2004 (UTC)

Image copyright problem with Image:Okashi shop.jpg
Thanks for uploading Image:Okashi shop.jpg. However, the image may soon be deleted unless we can determine the copyright holder and copyright status. The Wikimedia Foundation is very careful about the images included in Wikipedia because of copyright law (see Wikipedia's Copyright policy).

The copyright holder is usually the creator, the creator's employer, or the last person who was transferred ownership rights. Copyright information on images is signified using copyright templates. The three basic license types on Wikipedia are open content, public domain, and fair use. Find the appropriate template in Image copyright tags and place it on the image page like this:.

Please signify the copyright information on any other images you have uploaded or will upload. Remember that images without this important information can be deleted by an administrator. If you have any questions, feel free to contact me. Thank you.

- - - - - -

Just pick the correct copyright template (see above link) and apply it to the image in place of the current 'no license' template. That should prevent someone from deleting it. --Adam Clark(User_Talk) (email) 05:22, 17 March 2006 (UTC)

Rap-fu
Hello, this is a message from an automated bot. A tag has been placed on Rap-fu, by another Wikipedia user, requesting that it be speedily deleted from Wikipedia. The tag claims that it should be speedily deleted because Rap-fu fits the criteria for speedy deletion for the following reason: nonsense To contest the tagging and request that administrators wait before possibly deleting Rap-fu, please affix the template  to the page, and put a note on its talk page. If the article has already been deleted, see the advice and instructions at WP:WMD. Please note, this bot is only informing you of the nomination for speedy deletion, it did not nominate Rap-fu itself. Feel free to leave a message on the bot operator's talk page if you have any questions about this or any problems with this bot. --Android Mouse Bot 2 15:47, 12 June 2007 (UTC)

File:Torrentcomp lite.gif listed for discussion
A file that you uploaded or altered, File:Torrentcomp lite.gif, has been listed at Files for discussion. Please see the to see why it has been listed (you may have to search for the title of the image to find its entry). Feel free to add your opinion on the matter below the nomination. Thank you. Sfan00 IMG (talk) 09:25, 12 August 2016 (UTC)

title: User talk:Pogo747


text:
Wireless Application Protocol Bitmap Format

Wireless Application Protocol Bitmap Format (shortened to Wireless Bitmap and with file extension .wbmp) is a monochrome graphics file format optimized for mobile computing devices.

WBMP images are monochrome (black & white) so that the image size is kept to a minimum. A black pixel is denoted by 0 and a white pixel is denoted by 1.


text:
Talk:Ogopogo/to do

Expand:

title: Talk:Ogopogo/to do


text:
Wikipedia:U.S. Northern wikipedians' notice board/USNCOTW

This is the page to deal with discussion and nominations for the U.S. Northern Collaboration of the Week. Please sign your votes after contributing; only member votes will be counted. You do not have to be from the North or a member of the USNWNB to either submit nominations or vote.

Nominations
The next USNCOTW will be picked on Sunday, July 10, by which candidate has a higher number of support votes. If a nomination is unsuccessful, it needs the double amount of support votes the next week to keep it alive. The majority support vote rule still stands for picking nominations. Successful and unsuccessful nominations are archived here. Please list the nominations below this line. Please place USNCOTwnow template on the successful candidates article page and USNCOTWs template on the candidates talk pages.

History of New Hampshire (July 9)
''Nominated: July 2, 2005 needs 3 votes by July 9, 2005. Support
 * 1) --Karmafist 2 July 2005 17:56 (UTC) While we're making state histories, I should stick up for my homestate...

History of Massachusetts (July 10)
''Nominated: July 4, 2005 needs 3 votes by July 11, 2005. Support Comments:
 * 1) Pharos 4 July 2005 15:53 (UTC)
 * 2) Falphin 4 July 2005 19:33 (UTC)
 * 3) Pentawing 23:50, 26 July 2005 (UTC)
 * 4) mysekurity 00:08, 31 July 2005 (UTC)
 * Massachusetts has had a pretty important history.--Pharos 4 July 2005 15:53 (UTC)
 * agreed
 * Yeah, with all those Minutemen, and other stuff, I'd say that's pretty important.... I'd be glad to help out, and I could take some pretty good pictures of historical sites. -mysekurity 00:08, 31 July 2005 (UTC)

Midtown (Manhattan)
''Nominated: July 6, 2005 needs 3 votes by July 13, 2005.

Support:
 * 1) Falphin 6 July 2005 14:16 (UTC)
 * 2) Verbalcontract 22:12, 13 July 2005 (UTC)

 * It was originally a COTW nomination and it gathered some support so I thought I would nominate it here. Falphin 6 July 2005 14:16 (UTC)

History of Vermont
Support:
 * 1) Neutralitytalk 05:23, July 20, 2005 (UTC)
 * 2) Litefantastic 16:40, 20 July 2005 (UTC)

 * I wrote the entire thing and I need outside review and expansion to push this to featured article-quality. Any help would be greatly appreciated! Neutralitytalk 05:23, July 20, 2005 (UTC)

Socrates Sculpture Park]
Support:
 * 1) Zxcvbnm 16:12, 29 July 2005 (UTC)

 * Could use some expansion--Zxcvbnm 16:12, 29 July 2005 (UTC)

Northern U.S. topics on other COTWs

 * National Football League on WP:IDRIVE
 * Space program of the United States on WP:IDRIVE


text:
Connie Morella

Constance Morella (née Albanese; born February 12, 1931) is an American politician and diplomat. She represented Maryland's 8th congressional district in the United States House of Representatives from 1987 to 2003. She served as Permanent Representative from the U.S. to the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) from 2003 to 2007. She is on American University's faculty as an Ambassador in Residence for the Women & Politics Institute. She was appointed to the American Battle Monuments Commission (ABMC) by President Barack Obama in 2010.

Early life
She was born Constance Albanese in Somerville, Massachusetts. After graduating from Somerville High School in 1948, she attended Boston University, where she earned an Associate of Arts in 1950 and a Bachelor of Arts in 1954. Although she was raised in a family of blue-collar Democrats, she became a Republican after meeting Anthony C. Morella, who had worked for liberal Republicans John Lindsay, Nelson Rockefeller, Charles Mathias, and others. After they wed, the couple moved to Bethesda, Maryland. After Connie Morella's sister died of cancer, Tony and Connie Morella adopted her six children to join their own three children.

Morella became a secondary school teacher in Montgomery County Public Schools in Maryland from 1957 to 1961. She graduated from American University with an M.A. in 1967 and was an instructor there from 1968 to 1970, when she became a professor at Montgomery College in Rockville, Maryland. She continued to teach until 1985, when she left teaching to fully focus on her political career.

Political career
In 1971 Morella was appointed as a founding member to the Montgomery County Commission for Women, an advisory women's advocacy body, and she was elected its president in 1973. She became active in the League of Women Voters. In 1974, she ran for the Maryland House of Delegates from the 16th District (Bethesda), but did not win. She ran again in 1978, winning the seat and receiving more votes than the three previous incumbents. She was reelected for an additional term, before running for United States Congress.

Congressional career
In 1986, Morella ran for the open Congressional seat in Maryland's 8th congressional district. The district was being vacated by Democrat Michael Barnes, who was running for the Democratic nomination for the U.S. Senate. Morella's opponent in the general election was State Senator Stewart Bainum, a multimillionaire business executive who consistently outpolled her throughout most of the campaign.

A major turning point came when Morella unexpectedly won endorsements from The Baltimore Sun and The Washington Post. She was the first woman to hold this seat. Although she was a Republican in an area that had become heavily Democratic, she proved highly popular among her constituents and won re-election seven times, serving until 2002. Morella opposes her party's positions on abortion, gun control, gay rights, and the environmental movement, voted for government funding of contraceptives and needle exchange programs for drug addicts, and favored the legalization of medical marijuana. She received some support from organized labor and opposed many tax cuts. Morella, however, voted against President Clinton's 1993 budget, as all other Congressional Republicans did. She voted against declaring English the official language of the United States and, in 1996, against a bill overwhelmingly approved by Congress and signed by President Bill Clinton to combat illegal immigration.

In 1996, Morella was one of only five Republicans to vote against the Cuban Liberty and Democratic Solidarity Act. In 1998, she was one of only three Republicans to vote against renaming the Washington National Airport the Ronald Reagan Washington National Airport. Morella was the only Republican in the entire Congress to have voted against approving the use of military force in Iraq in 1991 and again in 2002. She was active in human rights, women's health, and domestic violence issues in Congress, and served on the Science and Government Reform Committees.

Morella was U.S. representative to the 1994 U.N. International Conference on Population and Development in Cairo and co-chair of the Congressional delegation to the 1995 U.N. Fourth World Conference on Women in Beijing. Among the legislation she sponsored were the 1992 Battered Women's Testimony Act, which provided funds for indigent women to hire expert testimony in domestic abuse cases, and the Judicial Training Act, which funded programs to educate judges about domestic violence, especially in child custody cases.

Morella came under greater pressure after her party took control of the House in 1994 Congressional elections. Although she signed the Contract with America developed by Newt Gingrich, she had a mixed record supporting the subsequent Republican majority in Congress. She did not openly challenge the new House leadership until 1997 when she voted "present" for Speaker of the House instead of for the incumbent, Newt Gingrich. In 1998, she was one of four Republicans, along with Amo Houghton and Peter T. King of New York and Chris Shays of Connecticut, to oppose all four articles of impeachment against Clinton during the Lewinsky scandal.

As a Republican representing an affluent Democratic district in an increasingly Democratic state, Morella faced a succession of increasingly strong Democratic challengers. While she managed to fend them all off, even in the big Democratic years of 1992, 1996, and 1998, the low popularity of the Republican-controlled Congress gradually undermined her. She tried to portray herself as giving her district a place at the table, but over time, Morella's Democratic opponents claimed that a vote for Morella was a vote to keep Tom DeLay and other Republicans unpopular to district voters in power.

Electoral challenges
Maryland Senate President Thomas V. "Mike" Miller stated that he intended to draw Morella's district out from under her after her relatively narrow reelection in 2000. The Democrats controlled both the State Legislature and the Governor's Office in 2000, thus controlling the redistricting for the 2000 Census. Staffers from Senate President Miller, House Speaker Cas Taylor, and Governor Parris Glendening drew new maps to gerrymander out Morella and fellow moderate Republican Bob Ehrlich. One proposal went so far as to divide her district in two, effectively giving one to State Senator Chris Van Hollen and forcing Morella to run against popular Delegate and Kennedy political family member Mark Shriver.

The final redistricting plan was less ambitious but still made the already heavily Democratic 8th district even more Democratic. It restored a heavily Democratic spur of eastern Montgomery County removed in the 1990 redistricting and added nine precincts in Prince George's County from Al Wynn's heavily Democratic Maryland's 4th congressional district. Although it forced Van Hollen and Shriver to run against each other in an expensive primary, Van Hollen defeated Morella in 2002 with 52 percent of the vote to Morella's 47 percent (Morella would have narrowly won re-election in her previous district, according to election returns). Proving just how Democratic this new district is, the Republicans have only put up nominal challengers in the 8th since Morella's defeat; none of them have ever won more than 40 percent of the vote.

In 2013, Morella signed an amicus curiae brief submitted to the Supreme Court in support of same-sex marriage during the Hollingsworth v. Perry case.

Morella publicly endorsed former Vice President Joe Biden, a Democrat, in the 2020 US Presidential election, over Republican incumbent Donald Trump.

Ambassador to the OECD
President George W. Bush appointed her United States Permanent Representative to the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) on July 11, 2003.

She was unanimously confirmed by the United States Senate on July 31 and sworn in on October 8 of that year, becoming the first former member of Congress to serve as ambassador to the OECD. She is an honorary board member of the National Organization of Italian American Women who declared Morella a Feminina Excelente.

She officially served as Ambassador from August 1, 2003 to August 6, 2007. In November 2007, she was succeeded by Christopher Egan, son of Richard Egan.

2020 Presidential Election
On August 24, 2020, Morella was one of 24 former Republican lawmakers to endorse Democratic nominee Joe Biden on the opening day of the Democratic National Convention.

Awards and honors
Morella has received honorary doctorates from American University, 1988; Norwich University, 1989; Dickinson College, 1989; Mt. Vernon College, 1995; University of Maryland University College, 1996; University of Maryland, 1997; Uniformed Services University of the Health Sciences, 1997; Elizabethtown College, 1999; Washington College, 2000; and National Labor College, 2004.

Her numerous awards and recognitions include induction into the Maryland Women's Hall of Fame, the Ron Brown Standards Leadership Award, and public service awards from the American Medical Association, the American Bar Association, and the Hubert H. Humphrey Civil Rights Award from the Leadership Conference on Civil Rights "for selfless and devoted service in the cause of equality." The Republic of Italy awarded her the Medal of the Legion of Merit. She received the Foremother Award by The National Center for Health Research in 2008.

In 2013, she was awarded the Knight Commander's Cross of the Order of Merit of the Federal Republic of Germany for putting "energy and enthusiasm into growing the Congressional Study Group on Germany, which is the oldest and most active parliamentary exchange involving Congress and the legislative branch of another country" during her tenure as President of the United States Association of Former Members of Congress.

In 2016, she was conferred with Imperial Decorations by the Japanese government. For her contributions to deepen the U.S.-Japan alliance in the U.S. Congress, she was awarded with the Order of the Rising Sun, Gold and Silver Star.

On April 14, 2018, the Bethesda Library branch of the Montgomery County Public Libraries system was renamed the Connie Morella Library.

Electoral history
* Write-in and minor candidate notes: In 1996, write-ins received 379 votes. In 2000, Lih Young received 77 votes; write-ins received 275 votes; and Scott Walker received 19 votes.

title: Connie Morella


text:
Power suit

Power suit may refer to:

 * Powered exoskeleton, a wearable mobile machine
 * Power dressing, a fashion style for the business environment
 * "Power Suit" (Orange Is the New Black), a 2016 television episode
 * The armor worn by Captain Power and the Soldiers of the Future in the 1980s TV series of the same name
 * The armored suit worn by Samus Aran in the Metroid video game series

title: Power suit


text:
Direct injection

Direct injection may refer to:
 * A music recording technique more commonly referred to as direct input
 * Direct fuel injection, a method of fuel injection for an internal combustion engine
 * Direct injection diesel
 * Gasoline direct injection
 * Direct injection launch, a method of launching a spacecraft toward the moon or interplanetary space without the use of a temporary parking orbit

title: Direct injection


text:
Corzano

Corzano (Brescian: Corsà) is a town and comune in the province of Brescia, in Lombardy, Italy. As of 2011 its population was 1,397.

History
The name Corzano is derived from the Roman family name Curtius. In the 15th century the Avogadro family built a castle in the village Meano, which is part of the comune. It was part of the Republic of Venice until its dissolution at the end of the 18th century.

Geography
Corzano is located at 45°26' North, 10°0' West approximately 100 m above sea level. The bordering municipalities are Barbariga, Brandico, Comezzano-Cizzago, Dello, Longhena, Pompiano and Trenzano.

Corzano counts the hamlets (frazioni) of Bargnano, Meano and Montegiardino. The last one was an autonomous municipality until 1797.

Demographics
The 2001 census gives the population as 980 people, composed of 359 families.

title: Corzano


text:
Tetrahydrobiopterin

Tetrahydrobiopterin (BH4, THB), also known as sapropterin (INN), is a cofactor of the three aromatic amino acid hydroxylase enzymes, used in the degradation of amino acid phenylalanine and in the biosynthesis of the neurotransmitters serotonin (5-hydroxytryptamine, 5-HT), melatonin, dopamine, norepinephrine (noradrenaline), epinephrine (adrenaline), and is a cofactor for the production of nitric oxide (NO) by the nitric oxide synthases. Chemically, its structure is that of a (dihydropteridine reductase) reduced pteridine derivative (quinonoid dihydrobiopterin).

Medical use
Tetrahydrobiopterin is available as a tablet for oral administration in the form of sapropterin dihydrochloride (BH4*2HCL). It was approved for use in the United States as a tablet in December 2007 and as a powder in December 2013. It was approved for use in the European Union in December 2008, Canada in April 2010, and Japan in July 2008. It is sold under the brand names Kuvan and Biopten. The typical cost of treating a patient with Kuvan is US$100,000 per year. BioMarin holds the patent for Kuvan until at least 2024, but Par Pharmaceutical has a right to produce a generic version by 2020.

Sapropterin is indicated in tetrahydrobiopterin deficiency caused by GTP cyclohydrolase I (GTPCH) deficiency, or 6-pyruvoyltetrahydropterin synthase (PTPS) deficiency. Also, BH4*2HCL is FDA approved for use in phenylketonuria (PKU), along with dietary measures. However, most people with PKU have little or no benefit from BH4*2HCL.

Adverse effects
The most common adverse effects, observed in more than 10% of people, include headache and a running or obstructed nose. Diarrhea and vomiting are also relatively common, seen in at least 1% of people.

Interactions
No interaction studies have been conducted. Because of its mechanism, tetrahydrobiopterin might interact with dihydrofolate reductase inhibitors like methotrexate and trimethoprim, and NO-enhancing drugs like nitroglycerin, molsidomine, minoxidil, and PDE5 inhibitors. Combination of tetrahydrobiopterin with levodopa can lead to increased excitability.

Functions
Tetrahydrobiopterin has multiple roles in human biochemistry. The major one is to convert amino acids such as phenylalanine, tyrosine, and tryptophan to precursors of dopamine and serotonin, major monoamine neurotransmitters. It works as a cofactor, being required for an enzyme's activity as a catalyst, mainly hydroxylases.

Cofactor for tryptophan hydroxylases
Tetrahydrobiopterin is a cofactor for tryptophan hydroxylase (TPH) for the conversion of L-tryptophan (TRP) to 5-hydroxytryptophan (5-HTP).

Cofactor for phenylalanine hydroxylase
Phenylalanine hydroxylase (PAH) catalyses the conversion of L-phenylalanine (PHE) to L-tyrosine (TYR). Therefore, a deficiency in tetrahydrobiopterin can cause a toxic buildup of L-phenylalanine, which manifests as the severe neurological issues seen in phenylketonuria.

Cofactor for tyrosine hydroxylase
Tyrosine hydroxylase (TH) catalyses the conversion of L-tyrosine to L-DOPA (DOPA), which is the precursor for dopamine. Dopamine is a vital neurotransmitter, and is the precursor of norepinephrine and epinephrine. Thus, a deficiency of BH4 can lead to systemic deficiencies of dopamine, norepinephrine, and epinephrine. In fact, one of the primary conditions that can result from GTPCH-related BH4 deficiency is dopamine-responsive dystonia; currently, this condition is typically treated with carbidopa/levodopa, which directly restores dopamine levels within the brain.

Cofactor for nitric oxide synthase
Nitric oxide synthase (NOS) catalyses the conversion of a guanidino nitrogen of L-arginine (L-Arg) to nitric oxide (NO). Among other things, nitric oxide is involved in vasodilation, which improves systematic blood flow. The role of BH4 in this enzymatic process is so critical that some research points to a deficiency of BH4 – and thus, of nitric oxide – as being a core cause of the neurovascular dysfunction that is the hallmark of circulation-related diseases such as diabetes. As a co-factor for nitric oxide synthase, tetrahydrobiopterin supplementation has shown beneficial results for the treatment of endothelial dysfunction in animal experiments and clinical trials, although the tendency of BH4 to become oxidized to BH2 remains a problem.

Cofactor for ether lipid oxidase
Ether lipid oxidase (alkylglycerol monooxygenase, AGMO) catalyses the conversion of 1-alkyl-sn-glycerol to 1-hydroxyalkyl-sn-glycerol.

History
Tetrahydrobiopterin was discovered to play a role as an enzymatic cofactor. The first enzyme found to use tetrahydrobiopterin is phenylalanine hydroxylase (PAH).

Biosynthesis and recycling
Tetrahydrobiopterin is biosynthesized from guanosine triphosphate (GTP) by three chemical reactions mediated by the enzymes GTP cyclohydrolase I (GTPCH), 6-pyruvoyltetrahydropterin synthase (PTPS), and sepiapterin reductase (SR).

BH4 can be oxidized by one or two electron reactions, to generate BH4 or BH3 radical and BH2, respectively. Research shows that ascorbic acid (also known as ascorbate or vitamin C) can reduce BH3 radical into BH4, preventing the BH3 radical from reacting with other free radicals (superoxide and peroxynitrite specifically). Without this recycling process, uncoupling of the endothelial nitric oxide synthase (eNOS) enzyme and reduced bioavailability of the vasodilator nitric oxide occur, creating a form of endothelial dysfunction. Ascorbic acid is oxidized to dehydroascorbic acid during this process, although it can be recycled back to ascorbic acid.

Folic acid and its metabolites seem to be particularly important in the recycling of BH4 and NOS coupling.

Research
Other than PKU studies, tetrahydrobiopterin has participated in clinical trials studying other approaches to solving conditions resultant from a deficiency of tetrahydrobiopterin. These include autism, depression, ADHD, hypertension, endothelial dysfunction, and chronic kidney disease. Experimental studies suggest that tetrahydrobiopterin regulates deficient production of nitric oxide in cardiovascular disease states, and contributes to the response to inflammation and injury, for example in pain due to nerve injury. A 2015 BioMarin-funded study of PKU patients found that those who responded to tetrahydrobiopterin also showed a reduction of ADHD symptoms.

Depression
In psychiatry, tetrahydrobiopterin has been hypothesized to be involved in the pathophysiology of depression, although evidence is inconclusive to date.

Autism
In 1997, a small pilot study was published on the efficacy of tetrahydrobiopterin (BH4) on relieving the symptoms of autism, which concluded that it "might be useful for a subgroup of children with autism" and that double-blind trials are needed, as are trials which measure outcomes over a longer period of time. In 2010, Frye et al. published a paper which concluded that it was safe, and also noted that "several clinical trials have suggested that treatment with BH4 improves ASD symptomatology in some individuals."

Cardiovascular disease
Since nitric oxide production is important in regulation of blood pressure and blood flow, thereby playing a significant role in cardiovascular diseases, tetrahydrobiopterin is a potential therapeutic target. In the endothelial cell lining of blood vessels, endothelial nitric oxide synthase is dependent on tetrahydrobiopterin availability. Increasing tetrahydrobiopterin in endothelial cells by augmenting the levels of the biosynthetic enzyme GTPCH can maintain endothelial nitric oxide synthase function in experimental models of disease states such as diabetes, atherosclerosis, and hypoxic pulmonary hypertension. However, treatment of people with existing coronary artery disease with oral tetrahydrobiopterin is limited by oxidation of tetrahydrobiopterin to the inactive form, dihydrobiopterin, with little benefit on vascular function.

Neuroprotection in prenatal hypoxia
Depletion of tetrahydrobiopterin occurs in the hypoxic brain and leads to toxin production. Preclinical studies in mice reveal that treatment with oral tetrahydrobiopterin therapy mitigates the toxic effects of hypoxia on the developing brain, specifically improving white matter development in hypoxic animals.

Programmed cell death
GTPCH (GCH1) and tetrahydrobiopterin were found to have a secondary role protecting against cell death by ferroptosis in cellular models by limiting the formation of toxic lipid peroxides. Tetrahydrobiopterin acts as a potent, diffusable antioxidant that resists oxidative stress and enables cancer cell survival via promotion of angiogenesis.

title: Tetrahydrobiopterin


text:
Darfo Boario Terme

Darfo Boario Terme (Camunian: Dórf) is a comune in the province of Brescia, in Lombardy, northern Italy. The name combines Darfo, the capoluogo, with Boario Terme, the largest frazione. It is bounded by the communes of Angolo Terme, Artogne, Esine, Gianico, Piancogno, Rogno. The small lake Lago Moro is located in the commune.

Territory
Around the centre, i.e. Darfo, Boario Terme, Corna and Montecchio, the following areas develop in a radial pattern: Erbanno, Gorzone, Sciano, Angone, Fucine, Pellalepre, Bessimo Superiore and Capo di Largo. The four most important quarters of the town (Darfo, Boario Terme, Corna and Montecchio) are closely integrated to form a sort of quadrilateral, the centre of which is the "Isola" area, a name derived from the fact that it lies at a bend in the River Oglio.

Area
The urban area has a surface area of 36,200 square kilometers, and from an altimetrical point of view, the difference in height is considerable: from the lowest point of Bessimo Superiore (206 m) to the highest point of Dosso Sparviero (1895 m).

Mountainous reliefs
The most important reliefs of the municipal government are: Monte Erbanno (1664 metres) and Altissimo (1704 metres) to the north-west, Dosso Blussega (1810 metres) and Dosso Sparviero to the south-west (1895 metres). The area has rock formations in Montecchio and Corna, and gravel and sand along the bed of the River Oglio. The Monticoli (deriving from the late Latin monticŭlus, diminutive of mons : montis, meaning 'mountain' ) are considered to be fundamental to the town of Darfo Boario Terme, in fact they have repeatedly protected the Piana Boario from the flooding of the River Oglio and their maximum height is 394 metres.

Pietra Simona
The rock outcropping that forms the characteristic Monticoli is made up of red sandstone, also known as  'Pietra Simona', from the area of Simoni in Gorzone, where it has been quarried since ancient times. Simona stone is the basic and characteristic element of the nature and landscape of the Bassa Valcamonica (in particular of Darfo Boario Terme), and because of its natural availability, is the basis of rock art. Simona stone is a contact metamorphism sandstone; it has a uniform stratification plane and a fracture plane of 45 degrees. It has the negative solubility of cement, porosity, permeability and chemical resistance. It is a kind of elastic rock and has considerable resistance to processing. Its specific gravity is calculated at 33 quintals per cubic metre and, when smooth, it has a textured matte sheen. The characteristic that makes it immediately recognisable is its consistently purplish-red colour. The versatility of this sandstone withstood competition from marble in the Middle Ages. Marcello Ricardi wrote in Article 1 of the magazine 'L'Ogliolo', 'Owning the portal of the Simona stone house means that a family can be seen in Vicinie, either for personal wealth or political influence. In many villages in the Camonica Valley these structures are still intact, and the date of the inauguration is often engraved... '.

Hydrography
Beneath the historic centre of Erbanno there is a river floodplain, today houses and industry are everywhere, but until a few decades ago it was a cultivated area. Thousands of years ago this plain was the site of a lake basin, which extended from today's Lake Iseo to Cividate Camuno. This is due not only to the nature of the subsoil, but also to the presence of evident fishing tools, such as simple nets and cages, in the rock carvings of the area. The territory of the municipality of Darfo Boario Terme includes, in addition to the river Oglio, the streams Dezzo, Rovinazza, Budrio, Re, Ogliolo and the Italsider hydroelectric power stations. Since ancient times, rivers and streams have been seriously damaged by floods. We need only recall the extremely serious disaster caused by the collapse of the Gleno dam (1 December 1923) and the flood of 16 September 1960.

Origins of the name
According to Olivieri, the name is a compound word ' ad arvum ', meaning ' present '. According to Mario Gallotti, it derives from the Mediterranean word 'arbe ', which is the name of the Alpine river. Some scholars believe it originated from the German "Dorf" (village). Don Lino Ertani has suggested that Darfo derives from the ancient dialect word "Garf" (landslide, gravel and rock). The dialect pronunciation is actually "Darf" and would indicate the rising of the terrain of ancient Darfo and the descent of the cones of the Rovinazza and Re streams, which brought numerous boulders and debris downstream.

History
Antonio Bazzini, as he wrote in "Cronaca di Lovere", claimed that the history of Boario Terme as an excellent health resort began when the Casino di Boario was built, where "salutary magnesic and iron vitrinolate waters" were managed.

According to some scholars, however, knowledge of the waters of Boario dates back to the 15th century and led some doctors to study their therapeutic effects. It seems that the famous doctor and naturalist Paracelsus (1493-1541) also visited the area. In 1700, when the physician Francesco Roncalli Parolino wrote in his paper 'De acquis brixianis', in 1724 to be precise, a remarkable revival took place. Roncalli himself reiterated the effectiveness of the "aquae bogiarianae " in "Europae Medicina" (1747).

In the 19th century, Ottavio Ferrario (1840) conducted new research and the first chemical analyses. Alessandro Manzoni wrote to Giovanni Morelli (Giovanni Morelli), a doctor from Bergamo, on 16 December 1845: "I have reason to regret not having taken advantage of the kind and cordial exhibition you gave me to obtain Boario's water directly from the owner of the land" .

In 1857, dr. Biffi, the first medical scientist of the Austrian lieutenant in Lombardy described it as "the most active in Lombardy". However, according to Cantù, the revaluation of the waters of Boario came about thanks to doctor Zattini of Darfo in 1858. Since then, more and more people have been coming to Boario to treat themselves, but staying in nearby villages such as Darfo, Corna, Esine, etc. Only in 1906 the waters of Boario were revalued. Since then, the first spa building with features such as an Art Nouveau dome was built and, in 1906, the Hotel Terme was also built, followed by the construction of other hotels.

However, it was not until 1914, with the construction of a thermal spa, that the therapeutic value of the waters was scientifically and methodically developed. As a result of this development, Royal Decree No. 765 of 15 April 1926 elevated Boario to the status of Autonomous Board of Health.

Between 1951 and 1952, a new spring was discovered, now called Fausta, in honour of its discoverer Dr Fausto Cardio.

A few years later, with the extension of the park, the spa was completely transformed and a new pavilion and a huge auditorium were added.

This small spa also survived the terrible flood that hit Boario on the night of 17 September 1960.

In 1964, a new spa named after Alessandro Manzoni was opened. In 1965 the old spa establishment, dedicated to Adolfo Ferrata, was enlarged and modernised. New and modern hotels and guesthouses increased the accommodation capacity of Boario Terme.

The thermal spring is located in a vast park, in the middle of shady avenues, vast lawns and flowerbeds, dominated by the steep rocky walls of Monte Erbanno.

After three centuries of renowned therapeutic and curative value, the Boario spa still retains a quality of high excellence, as certified by CerAm, the European Mineral Water Research Centre in 2010.

The Dome
The Liberty dome, the emblem of Terme di Boario, is made of white marble, and the balcony is supported by pillars with Ionic capitals. Its history can be traced back to 1913: it was once the seat of the orchestra, while today it is considered a sign and symbol of the Terme di Boario and the municipality in which it is located, Darfo Boario Terme. The dome is the most prestigious symbol of the Padiglione dell'Antica Fonte, and was built a century ago by the architect Amerigo Marazzi, becoming a striking example of Art Nouveau architecture.

Park
Also important for well-being is the centuries-old park, comprising 130,000 square metres of land where mineral water is collected. It is the ideal place to take a relaxing walk and invigorate the spirit.

Springs
The precious quality of the thermal waters have their natural foundations in the Alps surrounding the Camonica Valley. In fact, by coming into contact with precious mineral elements, the waters are purified and enriched thanks to them. The waters are sulphate, bicarbonate, calcium and magnesium cold (13-15 °C). The four springs of the Terme di Boario are differentiated by the concentration of salts, a characteristic that allows them to have different therapeutic functions such as treatment, rehabilitation and prevention. They mainly play a beneficial role for all physical ailments caused by the stress of everyday life.

As mentioned above, there are four springs:

 * Acqua Antica Fonte, indicated mainly for those suffering from digestive disorders, cholecystopathy and irritable bowel or with problems of constipation and diverticulosis. This water contains a high percentage of sulphate, bicarbonate and calcium and, if drunk warm, increases its effectiveness;
 * Acqua Fausta, with its mineral elements inside, helps to cleanse the mucous membrane and promotes better intestinal motility. This water is suitable for those who suffer from intestinal disorders, in particular bile flow difficulties, chronic constipation, abdominal bloating and irritable bowel;
 * Acqua Igea, is able to act on the digestive system and biliary tract, promote the elimination of metabolic waste products and activate water exchange. It has beneficial effects on digestion and prevention of kidney stones, and has anti-inflammatory effects on the genito-urinary tract;
 * Acqua Boario, due to its low sodium content, has a strong purifying and detoxifying effect on the digestive system and urinary tract, aiding digestion and finding specific indications in the treatment of cystitis, kidney stones and water retention. Thanks to its balanced calcium and magnesium content, it is considered the best water to drink every day at any age.

title: Darfo Boario Terme


text:
Dello, Lombardy

Dello (Brescian: Dèl) is a comune in the province of Brescia, in Lombardy.

title: Dello, Lombardy


text:
Edolo

Edolo (Camunian: Édol) is a town and comune in the province of Brescia, Lombardy, northern Italy, located in the upper Camonica valley. Edolo is neighbour to the comuni of Corteno Golgi, Incudine, Lovero, Malonno, Monno, Ponte di Legno, Saviore dell'Adamello, Sernio, Sonico, Temù, Tovo di Sant'Agata, Vezza d'Oglio and Vione.

Edolo houses the northern terminus of the Brescia–Iseo–Edolo railway operated by Trenord. It is also the location of the Edolo Pumped Storage Plant.

Despite Edolo's close distance (32 km by road) to Tirano and the border with Switzerland, there is no train connection between the two towns. In the summer, a bus service connects Edolo (for trains towards Brescia) and Tirano (for the Rhaetian Railway towards the Bernina Pass).

title: Edolo