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John Sigismund Zápolya

John Sigismund Zápolya or Szapolyai (Szapolyai János Zsigmond; 7 July 1540 – 14 March 1571) was King of Hungary as John II from 1540 to 1551 and from 1556 to 1570, and the first Prince of Transylvania, from 1570 to his death. He was the only son of John I, King of Hungary, and Isabella of Poland. JohnI ruled parts of the Kingdom of Hungary with the support of the Ottoman Sultan Suleiman; the remaining areas were ruled by Ferdinand I of Habsburg, who also ruled Austria and Bohemia. The two kings concluded a peace treaty in 1538 acknowledging Ferdinand's right to reunite Hungary after JohnI's death, though shortly after John Sigismund's birth, and on his deathbed, JohnI bequeathed his realm to his son. The late king's staunchest supporters elected the infant John Sigismund king, but he was not crowned with the Holy Crown of Hungary.

Suleiman invaded Hungary under the pretext of protecting John Sigismund from Ferdinand. Buda, the capital of Hungary, fell to the Ottomans without opposition in 1541, but Suleiman allowed the dowager queen, Isabella, to retain the territory east of the river Tisza on John Sigismund's behalf. Isabella and John Sigismund moved to Lippa (now Lipova in Romania). Before long, they took up residence in Gyulafehérvár in Transylvania (Alba Iulia in Romania). John Sigismund's realm was administered by his father's treasurer, George Martinuzzi, who sought to reunite Hungary under the rule of Ferdinand. Martinuzzi forced Isabella to renounce her son's realm in exchange for two Silesian duchies and 140,000 florins in 1551. John Sigismund and his mother settled in Poland, but she continued to negotiate for John Sigismund's restoration with Ferdinand's enemies.

Ferdinand was unable to protect eastern Hungary against the Ottomans. At Suleiman's urging, the Transylvanian Diet in 1556 persuaded John Sigismund and his mother to return to Transylvania, where she ruled her son's realm until her death in 1559. A wealthy lord, Melchior Balassa, rebelled against John Sigismund in late 1561, and Ferdinand gained control of most counties outside Transylvania. The Székely people, whose liberties had been restricted in the 1550s, also rose up against John Sigismund, but he crushed the rebellion. During the ensuing war against the Habsburgs, the Ottomans supported John Sigismund, and he paid homage to Suleiman in Zemun in 1566. The 1568 Treaty of Adrianople concluded the war, confirming John Sigismund in the eastern territories of the medieval Kingdom of Hungary (Transylvania and "Partium").

John Sigismund initiated a series of theological debates among the representatives of the concurring theological schools of the Reformation in the 1560s. He converted from Catholicism to Lutheranism in 1562 and from Lutheranism to Calvinism in 1564. Around five years later, accepting the Anti-Trinitarian views of his physician, Giorgio Biandrata and court preacher Ferenc Dávid, he became the only Unitarian monarch in history. In 1568, the Diet passed the Edict of Torda (now Turda in Romania), which emphasized that "faith is a gift of God" and prohibited the persecution of people for religious reasons. The edict expanded the limits of freedom of religion beyond the standards of late 16th-century Europe. John Sigismund abandoned the title "elected king of Hungary" in the Treaty of Speyer in 1570. Thereafter, he styled himself "Prince of Transylvania and Lord of Parts of the Kingdom of Hungary". He died childless. The Catholic Stephen Báthory succeeded him.

Family
John Sigismund's father, John Zápolya, was the wealthiest Hungarian lord in the early 16th century. After the Ottoman Sultan, Suleiman the Magnificent, inflicted a crushing defeat on the Hungarian army in the Battle of Mohács, the majority of the noblemen elected John Zápolya king in 1526. However, a group of influential lords proclaimed Ferdinand I, Archduke of Austria, king in the same year. Hungary fell into a civil war that lasted for decades.

John paid homage to Suleiman at Mohács in 1529 to secure Ottoman support against Ferdinand. However, neither John nor Ferdinand could win control of the whole country during the next years. To conclude the civil war, the two kings' envoys signed the Treaty of Várad on 24February 1538, which confirmed both kings' right to retain the lands that they held. John, who was childless, also acknowledged Ferdinand's right to take control of his realm (the central and eastern part of the Kingdom of Hungary) after his death. John also stipulated, if he fathered a son, his son would inherit his ancestral domains. Ferdinand, however, proved unable to protect John's realm against an Ottoman invasion. At age 52 John married Isabella Jagiellon, the 22-year-old daughter of Sigismund I the Old, King of Poland, on 2March 1539. The humanist scholars Paolo Giovio and Antun Vrančić emphasized that Isabella was one of the most educated women of their age.

John Sigismund was born in Buda on 7 July 1540. On learning of his birth, his father, who was on campaign in Transylvania, rode to his soldiers' camp to inform them of the good news. The following day John fell ill, and he died on 21 or 22 July. Before his death he persuaded those present at his death bed to take an oath that they would prevent the transfer of his realm to Ferdinand.

Accession

Soon after John Zápolya died, his treasurer, George Martinuzzi, hurried to Buda to secure John Sigismund's inheritance. On Martinuzzi's proposal, the Diet of Hungary elected John Sigismund king on 13September 1540, but he was not crowned with the Holy Crown of Hungary. The Diet proclaimed Queen Isabella and George Martinuzzi, along with two powerful lords, Péter Petrovics and Bálint Török, the guardians of the infant monarch.

In August, Ferdinand's envoys had demanded the transfer of the late John Zápolya's realm to Ferdinand in accordance with the Treaty of Várad. Peter Perényi, who had been the commander of Zápolya's troops in Upper Hungary, and Franjo Frankopan, Archbishop of Kalocsa, soon deserted to Ferdinand. The wealthy Stephen Majláth expelled most of John Sigismund's supporters from Transylvania in an attempt to seize the province for himself. Ferdinand's envoy, Hieronymus Łaski, informed Suleiman of the Treaty of Várad, asking the sultan to consent to the unification of Hungary under Ferdinand's rule. Instead, the sultan stated that he supported John Sigismund and had Łaski arrested.

Ferdinand's army seized Visegrád, Vác, Pest, Tata and Székesfehérvár in October, but could not capture Buda. His military commander, Wilhelm von Roggendorf, again laid siege to Buda on 4May 1541. Suleiman left Istanbul at the head of a large army in June to take advantage of the new civil war in Hungary. On his command, Petru Rareș, Prince of Moldavia, captured Stephen Majláth and forced the Transylvanian Diet to swear fealty to John Sigismund in late July. Roggendorf lifted the siege of Buda before Suleiman reached the town on 26August.

Suleiman said that he had come to protect John Sigismund's interests, but also announced that he wanted to see the infant king, because he had heard rumours about Isabella's having actually given birth to a daughter. Six Hungarian lords (including George Martinuzzi and Bálint Török) accompanied John Sigismund to the sultan's camp on 29August. During the meeting, janissaries entered Buda, saying that they wanted to see the town. This turned out to be a trick that enabled them to seize the capital of Hungary without opposition. Bálint Török was captured in the sultan's camp. Suleiman declared that John Sigismund could retain the territories to the east of the river Tisza in exchange for a yearly tribute of 10,000 florins.

First rule
Isabella and Martinuzzi left Buda on 5 September 1541, taking John Sigismund and the Holy Crown with them. She and her son settled in Lippa, which was the center of an old domain of the Zápolya family. The delegates of the counties of John Sigismund's realm met in Debrecen on 18October. They swore fealty to him and acknowledged the sultan's suzerainty. Martinuzzi signed a treaty with FerdinandI's representative, Caspar Serédy, in Gyalu (now Gilău in Romania) on 29December. According to the Treaty of Gyalu, Hungary was to be reunited under the rule of Ferdinand, but John Sigismund's right to the Zápolyas' domains in Upper Hungary was confirmed.

On 29 March 1542, the "Three Nations of Transylvania" urged Isabella to move from Lippa (which was located near the Ottoman Empire) to Transylvania. After John Statileo, Bishop of Transylvania, died in April, the Diet granted the domains of the bishopric to the royal family. Isabella and John Sigismund moved to Gyulafehérvár in June, taking up residence in the bishops' castle.

The Transylvanian Diet confirmed the Treaty of Gyalu in August. The representatives of the noblemen of the Partium (the counties between the Tisza and Transylvania) also consented to a war against the Ottoman Empire in November. However, the Habsburgs' army was unable to recapture Pest or defeat the Ottomans. Caspar Serédy came to Gyalu to take possession of John Sigismund's realm on Ferdinand's behalf, but Isabella refused him on 17December. Three days later, the Diet declared the Treaty of Gyalu null and void, over the objections of the delegates of the Transylvanian Saxons.

The relationship between Isabella and Martinuzzi was tense. Martinuzzi continued to control state administration and finance even after the Diet confirmed Isabella's superior position in February 1543. The first tribute from John Sigismund's realm was sent to the Ottoman Sultan in June. In the same month, Saxon clergymen from Kronstadt (now Brașov in Romania), who had adopted Lutheranism, participated in a debate with Catholic priests in the presence of the queen and Martinuzzi in Gyulafehérvár. The Saxons were allowed to leave, although Martinuzzi, who was bishop of Várad, wanted to bring them before court on charges of heresy. In April 1544, the Diet of Torda prescribed that travellers should respect the religious customs of the settlements they visited, showing that the ideas of the Reformation had spread to the whole province.

The first Transylvanian Diet at which delegates from the Partium were present met in August 1544. At the Diet, Martinuzzi was made chief justice. Five counties that had previously accepted Ferdinand's rule – Bereg, Szabolcs, Szatmár, Ung and Zemplén – swore allegiance to John Sigismund before the end of 1555.

The Ottomans laid claim to two fortresses, Becse and Becskerek (now Novi Bečej and Zrenjanin in Serbia), in early 1546. The sultan refused to include John Sigismund's realm in the peace treaty that he concluded with Ferdinand's brother, Emperor Charles V, in 1547. Both actions suggested that Suleiman intended to seize part of John Sigismund's kingdom, prompting Isabella and Martinuzzi to reopen negotiations with Ferdinand on the reunification of Hungary in 1548. Martinuzzi and Ferdinand's envoy, Nicolaus of Salm, signed a treaty in Nyírbátor on 8September 1549. According to their agreement, Isabella and John Sigismund were to abdicate in exchange for the Silesian duchies of Opole and Racibórz and 100,000 florins in compensation. Isabella refused to execute the treaty and remained in Gyulafehérvár. Martinuzzi laid siege to the town, forcing her to give up resistance in October 1550.

Isabella and her supporters Péter Petrovics and Ferenc Patócsy made a new attempt to prevent the execution of the Treaty of Nyírbátor in May 1551, but Martinuzzi defeated them. Under duress, Isabella abdicated in favor of Ferdinand on John Sigismund's behalf, in return for the two Silesian duchies and 140,000 florins on 19July. Two days later, she surrendered the Holy Crown to Ferdinand's representative, Giovanni Battista Castaldo. The Diet acknowledged their abdication and swore fealty to Ferdinand on 26July.

In exile

Isabella and John Sigismund left Transylvania on 6August 1551, accompanied by Péter Petrovics. They settled in Kassa (now Košice in Slovakia), and moved to Opole in March 1552. Realizing that the Silesian duchies were poor, they left for Poland before the end of April. During the following years they lived in Kraków, Warsaw, Sanok, and other Polish towns. John Sigismund often went hunting for bison and regularly visited his uncle, Sigismund II Augustus, King of Poland. However, his health was delicate because he suffered from epilepsy and chronic intestinal disorders. The contemporaneous historian Ferenc Forgách, who was Isabella's implacable enemy, accused her of bringing her son up "shamefully", allowing him to keep bad company and drink. John Sigismund's tutors were actually humanist scholars: the Hungarian Mihály Csáky and the Polish Wojciech Nowopołski. Nowopołski aroused John Sigismund's interest in theological debates.

Ferdinand's rule remained fragile in the eastern territories of the Kingdom of Hungary because he did not send enough mercenaries to defend them. Suspecting that Martinuzzi was conspiring with the Ottomans, Castaldo had Martinuzzi murdered in late 1551. The Ottomans occupied the lowlands of Banat in the summer of 1552.

In March 1553 Suleiman urged Isabella to return to Hungary. Péter Petrovics rose against Ferdinand, and an assembly of the Székely people declared their loyalty to John Sigismund. However, both uprisings were crushed before the end of September. Deciding in April 1554 that Hungary should be restored to John Sigismund, Suleiman allowed Péter Petrovics to take control of two fortresses in Banat. Henry II of France, engaged in war against the Habsburgs, also urged Isabella to return to Hungary, promising one of his daughters in marriage to John Sigismund.

Suleiman sent messages to the Transylvanian lords in 1555, demanding they obey John Sigismund without resistance. Before the end of the year, the representatives of the Three Nations petitioned Ferdinand either to send reinforcements or to absolve them from their oath of fealty. Petrovics stormed into Transylvania in early 1556. The Diet swore an oath of fealty to John Sigismund on 12March 1556, referring to him as "the son of King John". The envoys of the Diet departed for Poland on 1June to persuade Isabella and her son to return. Two weeks later, Ferdinand informed Suleiman that he was ready to withdraw his troops from John Sigismund's former realm.

Return

The representatives of the Three Nations received Isabella and John Sigismund with much pomp and ceremony in Kolozsvár (now Cluj-Napoca in Romania) on 22October 1556. The Diet confirmed her right to administer state affairs in the name of her son, who was still a minor. In the following months several counties outside Transylvania (including Abaúj, Bihar, and Gömör) also acknowledged John Sigismund's rule.

Isabella adopted a tolerant religious policy, enabling the spread of Calvinism, especially in Partium and Kolozsvár. In 1559 she started new negotiations with Ferdinand, proposing to renounce her son's title of king if Ferdinand would agree to marry one of his daughters to John Sigismund and to confirm John Sigismund's rule in the lands to the east of the Tisza. However, the dowager queen died at the age of 40 on 18September 1559.

Start of personal rule
John Sigismund's rule began with his mother's death. Rather than adopting a new title, he continued to style himself rex electus (king-elect). Mihály Csáky, Christopher and Stephen Báthory, and his mother's other advisors continued to participate in state administration. John Sigismund sent envoys to Ferdinand to propose marriage with one of Ferdinand's daughters, but also to announce his claim to the parts of Hungary under Ferdinand's rule. His demands were rejected, but peace was preserved.

John Sigismund showed a particular interest in religious matters and initiated several debates among the representatives of diverse theological schools. The first debate was held between Lutheran and Calvinist priests in Medgyes (now Mediaș in Romania) in January 1560. A year and a half later, John Sigismund sent letters to the University of Wittenberg and other theological centers in Germany to seek advice on the main points of the two Protestant schools of thought.

Melchior Balassa, one of the wealthiest lords in John Sigismund's realm, deserted to Ferdinand in December 1561. John Sigismund moved to seize Balassa's domains, but his army was routed at Hadad (now Hodod in Romania) on 4 March 1562. Stirred up by Balassa, the Székely commoners rose to restore their ancient liberties (including exemption from taxes), which had been restricted in the 1550s. John Sigismund's army routed them in May, and their leaders were impaled or mutilated. The Diet adopted new laws to restrict the privileges of the Székelys, including a ban on the employment of commoners as jurors. Two new royal castles named Székelytámad ("Székely-assault") and Székelybánja ("Székely-regret") were erected in the Székely Land. After Balassa's revolt, most counties outside Transylvania changed allegiance from John Sigismund to Ferdinand. To persuade Ferdinand to renounce the counties, John Sigismund even offered not to style himself king, but this was rejected in July 1562.

John Sigismund, originally Roman Catholic, converted to Lutheranism before the end of 1562. However, debates between Lutheran and Calvinist theologians continued. John Sigismund appointed his court physician, Giorgio Biandrata (who as an Anti-Trinitarian did not share either the Lutheran or the Calvinist view) to head a synod to reconcile the Lutheran and the Calvinist clergymen, but their differences proved insuperable in April 1564. The Diet acknowledged the existence of a separate Calvinist denomination in June. John Sigismund also adopted Calvinism and made Ferenc Dávid his court preacher.

Wars and debates
Ferdinand died on 25 July 1564, and his son Maximilian II succeeded him. The Transylvanian Diet declared war to reoccupy the counties that had been lost to the Habsburgs in 1562. John Sigismund's army seized Szatmár (now Satu Mare in Romania), Hadad and Nagybánya (now Baia Mare in Romania) before the end of 1562, but a counter-invasion by Lazarus von Schwendi reached the river Szamos in March 1565. The envoys of John Sigismund and Maximilian II concluded a treaty in Szatmár on 13 March 1565 in which John Sigismund renounced his title of king in return for the recognition of his hereditary rule in Transylvania John Sigismund was also to marry Maximilian II's sister, Joanna.

However, the Ottomans forced John Sigismund to declare the treaty null and void on 21 April. John Sigismund and Hasan, Pasha of Temesvár, joined forces and recaptured Erdőd (now Ardud in Romania), Nagybánya and Szatmár. He intended to see the sultan in Istanbul to give an explanation for the Treaty of Szatmár, but Suleiman informed him that he would personally come to Hungary.

Ferenc Dávid began to include Anti-Trinitarian ideas in his sermons, which infuriated the Calvinist bishop of Debrecen, Péter Melius Juhász. John Sigismund organized an open debate about the doctrine of Trinity, which was held in Gyulafehérvár in April 1566. After the debate John Sigismund granted funds to the Calvinist publishing house in Debrecen. He also sponsored the establishment of Protestant colleges in Kolozsvár, Marosvásárhely (present-day Târgu Mureș in Romania) and Nagyvárad. His letters to Petrus Ramus and other leading scholars of the Reformation show that he wanted to develop the royal college in Gyulafehérvár into an academy. An anthology of Italian poems, published in Venice in the 1560s, hailed John Sigismund as "patron of the Renaissance".

Sultan Suleiman came to Zemun on the Danube in preparation for his campaign against Habsburg territories in the summer of 1566. John Sigismund hurried to the sultan's camp, accompanied by 400 Transylvanian lords. After John Sigismund and his principal advisors prostrated themselves before the sultan in his tent, Suleiman confirmed John Sigismund's position as hereditary ruler. According to the eyewitness Mustafa Selaniki, the sultan addressed John Sigismund as his "beloved son".

John Sigismund invaded Upper Hungary on the sultan's order on 28 July. However, when Suleiman died during the Siege of Szigetvár on 6September, Sokollu Mehmed Pasha ordered John Sigismund to return to Transylvania. In a letter written about this time to Cosimo I, Duke of Florence, the mercenary Giovanandrea Gromo described John Sigismund as "extremely benevolent, gracious, subtle in thought, wise, level-headed, industrious [and] brave". Gromo mentioned that John Sigismund spoke Latin, Italian, German, Polish, Hungarian and Romanian well, and could also speak Greek and Turkish.

"[John Sigismund] is of medium height and slender, with blond, silky hair and extremely fine, white skin. ... [H]is blue eyes gaze mildly and with benevolence ... His arms and hands are long and finely articulated, but powerful ... [H]e heartily enjoys every kind of hunting, both for large game ... and for hare and fowl. ... He enjoys training horses. ... He is very strong in battle with the lance ... [I]n archery few are his equal ... He runs and jumps better than average; he loves wrestling, even if many are superior to him ... [H]e loves music very much ... He plays the lute surpassing all but very few. ... [H]e tends more to cheerfulness than to melancholy ... He is opposed to suffering and only with great difficulty does he bring himself to mete out punishment ... Among his recognized fine qualities is his abstinent mode of life ..."

- Giovanandrea Gromo's letter to Cosimo I de' Medici, Duke of Florence (1566 or 1567)

John Sigismund appointed a Calvinist bishop as the only religious leader of the Romanians in his realm in November 1566. The Diet also ordered that all Romanian priests who refused to convert to Calvinism were to be expelled, but this decision was not carried out. Influenced by Dávid and Biandrata, John Sigismund became receptive to Anti-Trinitarian ideas from early 1567. With John Sigismund's support, Dávid published five books to promote his views, reproving for idolatry those who accepted the dogma of the Trinity.

John Sigismund and Hasan Pasha stormed into Upper Hungary in March 1567. However, John Sigismund was taken seriously ill in summer. The Transylvanian lords pledged to respect his last will when electing his successor. The Ottoman Sultan Selim II granted the Transylvanian lords the right to freely elect their monarch, only preserving the right to approve their decision. Before long, John Sigismund recovered.

Freedom of religion
The Diet met again in Torda in early 1568 and authorized preachers to "teach the Gospel" according to their own understanding. The Diet also declared that nobody should "suffer at the hands of others for religious reasons", stating that "faith is a gift of God". The Edict of Torda expanded the limits of religious freedom far beyond the standard of 16th-century Europe. The decree did not put a complete end to discrimination, because official status was granted only to the Catholic, Lutheran, and Calvinist clergymen, but Unitarian, Orthodox, Armenian, Jewish, and Muslim believers could also freely practise their religions.

The Treaty of Adrianople, signed in February 1568, concluded the first war between the Ottoman Empire and the Habsburgs. According to the treaty, John Sigismund retained all territories that he had conquered from Maximilian II in the previous years. The envoy of the Ottoman Sultan Selim II in Paris suggested that John Sigismund should marry Margaret of Valois, but his proposal was ignored.

Many theological discussions on the Trinity were organized in 1568, the first of them taking place in his presence in Gyulafehérvár from 8 to 17 March. The growing influence of the Anti-Trinitarians on John Sigismund became obvious in 1569. After Péter Károlyi, a Calvinist cleric, complained about John Sigismund's bias, John Sigismund accused the Calvinist bishop, Melius, of having persecuted non-Calvinist priests, stating that Melius "should not play the pope". The largest debate between the Calvinist and Anti-Trinitarian, or Unitarian, theologians took place in Nagyvárad from 20 to 25 October 1569. Although neither side was declared winner, after the debate John Sigismund accepted Anti-Trinitarian ideas, which made him the only Unitarian monarch in history.

"John Sigismund's words to Péter Károlyi"

After John Sigismund's conversion, most of his courtiers also adhered to Unitarianism. According to historian Gábor Barta, political factors also contributed to John Sigismund's conversion, because he "found in [Anti-Trinitarianism] the means through which he could express both his adherence to the Christian world and the distance from it". István Keul says that the simplicity of the idea that "There is but one God!" also contributed to the spread of Unitarianism, especially among the Székely villagers and the townspeople of Kolozsvár. A religious enthusiast, György Karácsony, stirred up many peasants in Partium to wage holy war against the Ottomans in 1569. They marched against Debrecen, but the neighboring noblemen routed them near the town in early 1570.

Prince of Transylvania

Negotiations between John Sigismund and Maximilian II concluded with the Treaty of Speyer, signed on 16August 1570. John Sigismund acknowledged Maximilian II as the sole king of Hungary and abandoned his own royal title. Instead, he adopted the new title "Prince of Transylvania and Lord of Parts of the Kingdom of Hungary", also confirming that his realm was part of the Kingdom of Hungary and would revert to Maximilian II or Maximilian II's heir after John Sigismund's death.

John Sigismund, now gravely ill, ratified the treaty on 1December. The last Diet to meet during his reign confirmed the decrees of previous Diets enhancing religious freedom. He died in Gyulafehérvár on 14March 1571, a few days after Maximilian II had ratified the Treaty of Speyer. The Transylvanian lords kept his death secret for days. He was buried in St. Michael's Cathedral in Gyulafehérvár, in accordance with Unitarian rite.

John Sigismund had made his last testament and will in the presence of Chancellor Mihály Csáky and Treasurer Gáspár Bekes during his earlier illness in the summer of 1567. Despite his recovery, he did not alter the text in the following years. He willed most of his wealth to his uncle, Sigismund August of Poland, and his three aunts, Sophia, Anna and Catherine. He bequeathed his library to the Protestant school of Gyulafehérvár.

John Sigismund, who never married and left no heir, was the last member of the Zápolya family. In his will, he assured the Diet of its right to choose the new monarch. The representatives of the Three Nations elected the Roman Catholic Stephen Báthory, who adopted the title Voivode of Transylvania. Gáspár Bekes, supported by Maximilian II, contested the election, but Báthory emerged victorious in the resulting civil war and consolidated his rule.

title: John Sigismund Zápolya


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Talk:GoldenEye 007 (1997 video game)

Switch?
Is there a reason why the Switch release is not mention in the release column? nEsLiNk (talk) 14:20, 16 October 2022 (UTC)

 * I came here to say the same thing, and I initially concurred. However, I looked up Super Mario Bros. (as an exemplar), and it only mentioned the original releases, which honestly makes sense and probably lessens confusion. Nevertheless, this brings up an interesting thought: where is the cutoff point for a release and a re-issue on a new platform? Electricmaster (talk) 01:18, 30 January 2023 (UTC)
 * Because Switch is an emulated release via NSO. And according to WP:VG/PLATFORMS, we don't list those in the infobox. -- Cyberlink420 (talk) 05:17, 30 January 2023 (UTC)

Release on Xbox Game Pass and Nintendo Switch Online services
@Cyberlink420: First to answer your call for providing sources, I did not cite them in my previous edit because according to MOS:LEADCITE there is by default no necessity to cite sources already cited in the body content (you can notice there are 0 references in the present lead section) - sources in the #Rerelease section, in my case. Let's see what reliable sources say? I could go on, because all of them say one thing (that it released for the Xbox Game Pass through which it is available to Xbox One and Xbox Series X/S users) and do not say the other (that it released for Xbox One). It is factually inacurrate to state it released for (just) Xbox One, and I ask you to find reliable sources to back up your claim. And please link me that policy you're referring to. -Vipz (talk) 17:02, 25 January 2023 (UTC)
 * Ars Technica: As previously announced, the Switch version will be part of the awkwardly named Nintendo Switch Online + Expansion Pack membership, which costs $50 per year. [...] Xbox One and Series S/X owners, meanwhile, will be able to enjoy Goldeneye 007 as part of an Xbox Game Pass subscription [...]
 * The Verge: GoldenEye 007 is finally coming to Nintendo Switch and Xbox. Nintendo announced today that Rare is releasing GoldenEye 007 HD on Nintendo Switch and Xbox soon as a remaster of the legendary Nintendo 64 title that first launched in 1997. The remastered game on Xbox includes 4K resolution, smoother frame rates, and even split-screen local multiplayer. Rare says it will even arrive on Xbox Game Pass and Nintendo Switch Online [...]
 * Yes, the game will be playable on Game Pass on XB1 and Series X/S, as indicated by the sources. However, no article has stated that it will only be playable through Game Pass. There has never been a game released for Game Pass that is not available for separate purchase, and there is nothing to indicate this will be an exception in any of the sources provided. (This is not uncommon. Games are frequently announced as "coming to Game Pass", and have consistently without exception been available for separate purchase on the same day.) Furthermore, the sources only state that the game is playable on both systems; nothing states that Series X/S is getting a native port as opposed to just running the XB1 version through Series X/S's backwards compatibility (The same way games like Rare Replay are available on Game Pass on both systems, but was only released on Xbox One). I will gladly eat crow if Friday rolls around and either of these things prove untrue, but your claims do not have adequate evidence to back them at this time. Also, per Template:Infobox video game, "This field includes dedicated ports, but not games in emulation or services." -- Cyberlink420 (talk) 17:15, 25 January 2023 (UTC)
 * @Cyberlink420: backwards compatibility is not emulation, these consoles were made to natively run games made for a previous system. Therefore it is a native port for XS X/S as much as for XO. The game is being released as a separate purchase on both consoles at the same time. Do I need to repeat? It is WP:OR and WP:SYNTH to portray technical background of the port as the platform the game released on. What's your argument for omitting Xbox Series X/S from the lead section? -Vipz (talk) 17:33, 25 January 2023 (UTC)
 * I'm saying Switch shouldn't be in the infobox because it's an emulation for a service. Also, your understanding of backwards compatibility is flawed and incorrect. Just because a game runs on a newer system does not make it a native port. Zatch Bell! Mamodo Fury is not a Wii game just because it runs on a Wii. Yakuza 0 is not a PS5 game just because it runs on a PS5. And Goldeneye is not a Xbox Series X/S game just because it runs on Xbox Series X/S. You have continued to not provide sources that indicate the version on X/S is a native port, and mention of games running on a newer system via backwards compatibility does not belong in the lede or the infobox. Ask WP:VG if you don't believe me. -- Cyberlink420 (talk) 17:44, 25 January 2023 (UTC)
 * @Cyberlink420: I don't think my "understanding of backwards compatibility is flawed and incorrect", backwards compatibility is factually not emulation. However, WP:VG/PLATFORMS does support excluding platforms that run through backwards-compatibility from the infobox, I am aware of that now. This guideline (not policy) however does not support omitting such from the lead section, and I am primarily complaining about the revert of that part of my edit. You're portraying a port intended for both consoles (at the same time, unlike these two analogies) as a release for only one of these consoles, completely omitting Xbox Series X/S (in spite of NSO being mentioned). -Vipz (talk) 17:54, 25 January 2023 (UTC)
 * Yes, because that's generally not done with backwards-compatible releases. Just because you can play it on both systems doesn't change the objective fact that it was specifically built for Xbox One. Killer Queen Black was playable on both systems at launch, but the lede only refers to it as an XB1 game. Same thing with Dragon Quest XI. And Dragon Quest Builders 2. And John Wick Hex. And plenty of others. Being playable through backwards compatibility, especially when that's the standard for all Xbox One games running on Xbox Series X/S, is not a notable detail worth commenting on in the lede. -- Cyberlink420 (talk) 18:04, 25 January 2023 (UTC)
 * @Cyberlink420: What platform the game was built for (or natively runs on) – as opposed to the platforms it was intended for – is the non-notable detail here, if we're going by reliable sources. -Vipz (talk) 18:16, 25 January 2023 (UTC)
 * No, what's important is what system it is specifically built for. I can see you're not budging, so I'll be soliciting a third opinion to settle this dispute. -- Cyberlink420 (talk) 18:21, 25 January 2023 (UTC)
 * Having read through the discussion, this does seem like a fairly unique situation. It's difficult to state which system this is "specifically built for" given that it's playable on both systems on the same day. Technically I could believe that it's likely to have been written for the XBox One, and will run on the X/S through emulation of that system. In that case, by the letter of Wikipedia law, X/S shouldn't be listed. However, it's marginal because there's clearly no "original" system here. All sources list both systems as the "intended system". Furthermore, it's an odd situation because all these new versions are actually just running an emulation of the N64 original, but I suppose that's a moot point. Finally, there's no indication that this won't remain an Xbox Game Pass exclusive (for XBox platforms), but I don't know how Wikipedia would represent that if MS decided to do this more often. (The idea of it being released separately seems highly unlikely to me given the hoops that MS have gone to in order to make this event happen.) A bridge to cross later.

 * However, to conclude, I feel that (until it is proven conclusively that X/S is running an XBox One emulation) that ALL platforms should be listed. At the moment it is only speculation that this is an XBox One title running through emulation. And going by what the public is currently being told, this is just as much an XBox One title as it is X/S. So the onus is on a source being found proving otherwise, not the other way around. However, if it IS confirmed that it's running under XBox One emulation, it should follow the letter of Wikipedia law and Series X/S be removed. That's my opinion. (Personally it would make sense to me for it to be shortened to XBox One/Series X/S, but that probably breaks some other arcane Wikipedia rule that I'm unaware of.) Good luck! WikiMane11 (ThunderPeel) (talk) 23:44, 26 January 2023 (UTC)
 * Thanks for the insight! I think the smart play for right now is to leave the page as it is to not create extra work for ourselves, then update accordingly in a few hours when the game is released and we have all the information. Shouldn't be hard to find a reliable source that lays everything out; something like a Digital Foundry analysis from Eurogamer would be perfect. -- Cyberlink420 (talk) 00:59, 27 January 2023 (UTC)
 * Update: The game is out now, and viewing the file information indicates "ConsoleType" as "XboxOne" and "XboxGen9", indicating it is a Smart Delivery game that determines which version to load based on the player's system, as opposed to purely BC games like Rare Replay that are only listed as "XboxOne". While a citable source should still be obtained, I feel comfortable listing it as both systems now, assuming we don't exclude both because it is technically an emulated release. -- Cyberlink420 (talk) 01:20, 27 January 2023 (UTC)
 * Glad it was resolved to everyone's satsifaction. WikiMane11 (ThunderPeel) (talk) 13:03, 6 February 2023 (UTC)

Speed running the Golden Age
There should be a small notation of speed running for this game - It literally began here with Goldeneye and bleed into early twitch movement many years later where people "stream" progress of respective games online - Goldeneye was a catalyst for this aspect of gaming which being James Bond was all about efficiency in completing an objective usually in a "target time" thus blooming the golden age of speed running - Even the gaming magazines in their day would put up target times for their respective readers to try and "surpass" to be listed in their magazine - For instance Nintendo Power magazine had Goldeneye programmers "best time" on the Facility stage in OOA setting at 1:25 which unlocked invincibility deeming one of the top "cheats" unlocked in Goldeneye - S.N 72.45.35.55 (talk) 03:04, 6 September 2023 (UTC)

"GoldenEye 007 (1997 video game" listed at Redirects for discussion
The redirect [//en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=GoldenEye_007_(1997_video_game&redirect=no GoldenEye 007 (1997 video game] has been listed at redirects for discussion to determine whether its use and function meets the redirect guidelines. Readers of this page are welcome to comment on this redirect at  until a consensus is reached. Utopes (talk / cont) 20:52, 21 February 2024 (UTC)

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Talk:GoldenEye 007 (1997 video game)


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1903 in Norwegian football

The 1903 season was the second season of competitive football in Norway. This page lists results from Norwegian football in 1903.

title: 1903 in Norwegian football


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Triangle of Life

The Triangle of Life is an unsubstantiated theory about how to survive a major earthquake, typically promoted via viral emails. The theory advocates methods of protection very different from the mainstream advice of "drop, cover, and hold on" method widely supported by reputable agencies. In particular, the method's developer and key proponent, Doug Copp, recommends that at the onset of a major earthquake, building occupants should seek shelter near solid items that will provide a protective space, a void or space that could prevent injury or permit survival in the event of a major structural failure, a "pancake collapse", and specifically advises against sheltering under tables.

Officials of many agencies, including the American Red Cross and the United States Geological Survey, have criticized the "Triangle of Life" theory, saying that it is a "misguided idea" and inappropriate for countries with modern building construction standards where total building collapse is unlikely.

Theory
According to Copp's theory, when buildings collapse, the weight of the ceilings falling upon the objects or furniture inside tends to crush them, but the height of the object that remains acts as a kind of roof beam over the space or void next to it, which will tend to end up with a sloping roof over it. Copp terms this space for survival the "triangle of life". The larger and stronger the object, the less it will compact; the less it compacts, the larger the void next to it will be. Such triangles are the most common shape to be found in a collapsed building.

Criticisms
According to the United States Geological Survey (USGS), the Triangle of Life is a misguided idea about the best location a person should try to occupy during an earthquake. Critics have argued that it is actually very difficult to know where these triangles will be formed, as objects (including large, heavy objects) often move around during earthquakes. It is also argued that this movement means that lying beside heavy objects is very dangerous. Statistical studies of earthquake deaths show most injuries and deaths occur due to falling objects, not structures.

Also, given that there are no warnings for earthquakes, a person is more likely to be injured trying to move during an earthquake rather than immediately seeking a safe space by furniture, or near an interior wall, not doorways, as they are often not structural. Different architectural standards in different countries mean that the best strategy for earthquake survival could also be different, however for the United States, "Drop, Cover, and Hold On" is recommended.

An Iranian peer-reviewed article analyzed and compared both methods in detail, considering their application, the extent of people who are under the coverage, simplicity in transferring concepts, and the probability of reducing casualties and damage in developing countries such as Iran. It argued that "Drop, Cover and Hold on" was useful advice for people who experience smaller earthquakes without total building collapse, which is the vast majority of earthquake survivors. It found that the "Triangle of life" theoretically could be a better strategy during larger earthquakes in buildings with a skeleton (wood or concrete) during a building pancake-type collapse, but acknowledged the possible problems of large objects shifting and crushing the person from horizontal movement, inability to predict which side of an object would create a survivable space, and that the triangle of life method is also difficult to teach and communicate. It concluded that the "Triangle of Life" could harm individuals who attempted to follow the advice in buildings that did not collapse. Neither strategy was useful for the majority of the population in rural Iran because of the mud-brick architecture which has no structure. Based on the simplicity of teaching and the fact that 12,000 times more people are affected by smaller earthquakes and injured, they concluded that "Drop, Cover and Hold On" is still regarded as a better option for people during an earthquake.

Testing
In 1996, Copp claims to have made a film to prove this methodology and to have recreated a model school and home, filling them with 20 mannequins. The buildings were collapsed by earthmoving equipment that knocked the supporting pillars out. Half the mannequins were in "Duck and Cover" positions and the others in Copp's "Triangle of Life" positions. When Copp and his crew re-entered the building after the blast, they calculated that there would have been no survivors among the mannequins in "Duck and Cover" positions, but 100% survival for those hiding in the triangles beside solid objects. Copp is categorical about the importance of this technique, saying "Everyone who simply ducks and covers when buildings collapse is crushed to death – every time without exception."

However, a critic of Copp has stated that this was a rescue exercise rather than an experiment. Additionally, the exercise did not simulate the lateral movement of earthquakes, instead causing a pancake collapse, which is more common in areas of extremely poor construction and rare in developed countries. The critic concluded that Copp's results are therefore misleading.

title: Triangle of Life


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Enlisted Aviation Warfare Specialist insignia

The Enlisted Aviation Warfare Specialist (EAWS) insignia is a military badge of the United States Navy which was created in March 1980. The insignia recognizes those members of the Navy's enlisted force who have acquired the specific professional skills, knowledge, and military experience that result in qualification for service in the aviation activities of the Navy. This includes most personnel who are trained flight deck personnel onboard aircraft carriers, or maintenance personnel at an Aircraft Intermediate Maintenance Detachment or Department (AIMD) or aircraft squadron.

Prerequisite for EAWS
The basic prerequisite for the EAWS insignia is that a service member be assigned in a sea-duty status to a deployable naval aviation unit or aviation-capable ship. Most service members earning this insignia hold an enlisted rating designated in aviation (though a non-aviation rating is still eligible), or a support rating; in the 21st century Navy the ratings that are eligible include: • AB: Aviation Boatswain's Mate

• AC:  Air Traffic Controller

• AD:  Aviation Machinist's Mate

• AE:  Aviation Electrician's Mate

• AG:  Aerographer's Mate

• AM:  Aviation Structural Mechanic

• AME: Aviation Structural Mechanic Safety Equipmentman

• AO:  Aviation Ordnanceman

• AS:  Aviation Support Equipment Technician

• AT:  Aviation Electronics Technician

• AWF: Naval Aircrewman (Mechanical)

• AWO: Naval Aircrewman (Operator)

• AWR: Naval Aircrewman (Tactical)

• AWS: Naval Aircrewman (Helicopter)

• AWV: Naval Aircrewman (Avionics)

• AZ:  Aviation Maintenance Administrationman

• BM:  Boatswain’s Mate

• CS:  Culinary Specialist

• CT:  Cryptologic Technician

• EM:  Electrician's Mate

• EMN: Electrician's Mate (Nuclear)

• ET:  Electronics Technician

• ETN: Electronics Technician (Nuclear)

• FC:  Fire Controlman

• GM:  Gunner's Mate

• HM:  Hospital Corpsman

• IC:  Interior Communications Electrician

• LS:  Logistics Specialist

• IS:  Intelligence Specialist

• IT:  Information Systems Technician

• MA:  Master-At-Arms

• MC:  Mass Communication Specialist

• MM:  Machinist's Mate

• MMN: Machinist's Mate (Nuclear)

• MN:  Mineman

• NC:  Navy Counselor

• OS:  Operations Specialist

• PR:  Aircrew Survival Equipmentman

• PS:  Personnel Specialist

• RS:  Retail Services Specialist

• YN:  Yeoman The non-designated striker rates of Airman, Airman Apprentice, and Airman Recruit are also eligible to receive the EAWS insignia. However, due to the time involved in the qualification procedure, most service members obtain at least a Petty Officer Third Class rating before earning the EAWS insignia. Sailors outside the aviation community are eligible to attain EAWS designation; however they must first complete the warfare specialist qualification for their community.

Qualification process
The qualification process to obtain the insignia begins with the Enlisted Aviation Personal Qualification Standards, also known as PQS. There are two PQS for the Enlisted Aviation Warfare Specialist insignia. The first is the Common Core which consists of concepts, policies, and tasks that are common throughout Naval aviation and provide a foundation for the Sailor's knowledge. The second is a platform-specific PQS which consists of several training tasks and other practical experience on-the-job exercises relevant to the particular aviation community the sailor is currently serving in, for example an F/A-18 squadron or an aircraft carrier (CVN). The entire Enlisted Aviation PQS normally takes approximately one year to complete from the point of entering the enlisted aviation community though it can be completed much earlier with much dedication and effort.

Those completing the Enlisted Aviation PQS must then pass a written examination and a review board conducted by senior enlisted aviation personnel, normally the rank of Chief Petty Officer or above. Upon passing both the examination and the oral board, the EAWS insignia may be presented. The Sailor is then authorized to add the Enlisted Aviation Warfare Specialist designator (AW) after his or her rate.

Upon transfer to the Sailor's next aviation command, he or she is required to complete an abbreviated re-qualification process to familiarize the Sailor with the differences between various aviation platforms. This process must be completed within 12 months of reporting aboard or the Sailor loses the right to wear the EAWS insignia.

The EAWS insignia is not required for continued advancement in the Navy, however for those in aviation rates the insignia must be obtained by three years as a Petty Officer Second Class. Those failing to obtain the insignia may be ineligible for advancement to Petty Officer First Class, reenlistment in their current rate or may be restricted to shore assignments.

The EAWS insignia is considered one of three primary warfare badges available to the Navy's enlisted force. The other two aforementioned badges are the Enlisted Submarine Warfare Badge and the Enlisted Surface Warfare Specialist Badge. The gold Aircrew Badge or Naval Aircrew Wings (NAC) are a similar badge available to select enlisted personnel of the U.S. Navy aviation community. NAC is authorized for personnel who have undergone extensive training in flight operations of naval aircraft. Such training includes weapons management, electronic warfare, and water survival. Contrary to most other services, naval aircrewmen do not receive their wings after aircrew school. Rather, they receive their wings only after completing their platform respective Personnel Qualification Standards (PQS) (roughly 1 year past the completion of training).

The Aircrew Badge is a separate badge from the EAWS Badge, and qualified service members are eligible to wear both badges simultaneously. Additionally the Fleet Marine Force (FMF) Insignia is reserved for Hospital Corpsmen, Religious Program Specialists, Logistics Specialists and Operations Specialists assigned to Fleet Marine Corps units. Sailors receiving this designator are authorized to wear it above any other designator while assigned to FMF units.

OPNAVINST 1414.9B is the Navy instruction that governs the Enlisted Warfare Qualification Programs.


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Iditarod Trail

The Iditarod Trail, also known historically as the Seward-to-Nome Trail, is a thousand-plus mile (1,600 km) historic and contemporary trail system in the US state of Alaska. The trail began as a composite of trails established by Alaskan native peoples. Its route crossed several mountain ranges and valleys and passed through numerous historical settlements en route from Seward to Nome. The discovery of gold around Nome brought thousands of people over this route beginning in 1908. Roadhouses for people and dog barns sprang up every 20 or so miles. By 1918 World War I and the lack of 'gold fever' resulted in far less travel. The trail might have been forgotten except for the 1925 diphtheria outbreak in Nome. In one of the final great feats of dog sleds, twenty drivers and teams carried the life-saving serum 674 mi in 127 hours. Today, the Iditarod Trail Sled Dog Race serves to commemorate the part the trail and its dog sleds played in the development of Alaska, and the route and a series of connecting trails have been designated Iditarod National Historic Trail.

Historic Iditarod Trail
The Iditarod Trail was a trail that connected a point 50 mi north of Seward, Alaska, where a forerunner of the Alaska Railroad ended, through Iditarod, Alaska and then to Nome. The trail was about 1150 mi long. The Iditarod Trail's antecedents were the native trails of the Dena'ina and Deg Hit'an Athabaskan Indians and the Inupiaq and Yup'ik Eskimos.

From its beginning, the trail wound along Turnagain Arm, over Crow Pass, down the Eagle River Valley and northward to the trading post of Knik, Alaska, the largest town on the Upper Cook Inlet until the railroad town of Anchorage was founded in 1915. The trail then passed west through the valleys of the Susitna River and Yentna River and over the Alaska Range and Rainy Pass. West of the Alaska Range, the trail crossed the Kuskokwim River Valley to the hills west of McGrath and entered the Innoko River mining district and the town of Ophir. After Ophir, the trail went southwest through the Kuskokwim Mountains to Iditarod.

The trail went north from Iditarod through the now abandoned towns of Dikeman and Dishkaket and then northwest to the village of Kaltag. The trail then followed the 90 mi long Kaltag Portage, an ancient native trading trail, to Unalakleet, on the Norton Sound. From Unalakleet, the trail coursed north and west around the shore of the Seward Peninsula, passing the villages of Shaktoolik, Koyuk, and Golovin. It then proceeded to its end on Front Street in Nome.

The trail was used during the winter by dog mushers with large freight sleds carrying up to 1100 lb of freight.

History
When American explorers and prospectors arrived in the north, they quickly learned from Native Alaskans that sled dog teams were the only way to reliably move goods and people across the frozen landscape. Not by chance, the "Seward to Nome Trail" as the Iditarod was originally called, was first mapped and marked in 1908 by a four-person Alaska Road Commission crew supported by dog teams.

"... having two basket sleds and 18 sets dog harness made ... at Seward we spent five days 'trying out dogs' and repacking the outfit ready for the trip ..."

- W.L.Goodwin (1908)

Nine months after the route was surveyed, two prospectors made a 'Christmas Day Strike' in the Iditarod Mining District, and the last great gold rush was on. Between 1910 and 1912, 10,000 gold seekers came to Alaska's "Inland Empire". In the following years they worked $30 million of gold from the ground.

"... in the month of March I left for the north. That was many years ago when there were only two modes of travel, mush dogs or just mush."

- Reminiscences of the Iditarod Trail

Roadhouses and dog barns
With the rush, entrepreneurs quickly erected roadhouses and dog barns along the trail at a convenient day's journey apart—about 20 miles—to shelter and feed trail users. Freight shippers, mail haulers and well-to-do passengers relied on dogsleds. Less wealthy foot-travelers used snowshoes, skis, and the occasional bicycle.

"Meals were two dollars each, and blankets spread over wild hay on a pole bunk cost another two dollars. High prices for those days, but a cabin in the shadows of Denali is a long way from civilization."

- Harold Penkenpaugh, Nuggets and Beans

By 1918 the stampede reversed itself. New winter mail contracts bypassed the fading town of Iditarod in favor of more direct routes to Nome, and World War I drew young miners and workers away from the gold fields.

The Cape Nome Roadhouse is the last remaining historical roadhouse on the Iditarod Trail and is listed on the National Register of Historic Places.

Nome serum run
In the winter of 1925, a deadly outbreak of diphtheria struck fear in the hearts of Nome residents. Winter ice had closed the port city from the outside world without enough serum to inoculate its residents. Serum from Anchorage was rushed by train to Nenana and picked up by a sled dog relay. Twenty of Alaska's best mushers and their teams carried the serum 674 mi from Nenana to Nome in just over 127 hours.

This was to be one of the final great feats by sled dogs. Within a decade, air transport replaced the sled dog team as the preferred way to ship mail. With downturns in gold mining, most of the roadhouses closed, boom towns emptied, and the Iditarod Trail fell into disuse.

A partnership effort re-opens the Iditarod Trail
"Trail work is never done."

- Joe Redington Sr., "father of the Iditarod"

Forest and tundra reclaimed the Iditarod Trail for almost a half a century until Alaskans, led by Joe Redington Sr., reopened the routes. To draw attention to the role dogs played in Alaska's history, Redington and his friends created an epic sled dog race from Anchorage to Nome. The Iditarod Trail Sled Dog Race ultimately revived dog mushing in Alaska and around the world. After years of effort by Redington and the Alaska Congressional delegation, the Iditarod was designated as a National Historic Trail in 1978.

Management of the Historic Trail
Most of the historic Iditarod Trail is located on public lands managed by the State of Alaska or federal agencies, although some segments pass over private lands. No one entity manages the entire historic trail—management is guided by a cooperative plan adopted by state and federal agencies in the mid-1980s. The federal Bureau of Land Management coordinates cooperative management of the trail and is the primary point of contact for matters involving the entire trail.

Every year local groups, community clubs and individuals contribute time and money to maintain and improve the Iditarod Trail. The statewide non-profit Iditarod National Historic Trail Inc. helps protect and improve the trail and keep the "lore of the trail" alive.

Iditarod race route
The Iditarod Trail Sled Dog Race, named after the now-abandoned town of Iditarod, commemorates the last great gold rush in America to the Iditarod gold fields and the critical role that dogs played in the settlement and development of Alaska. It is a common myth that the race commemorates the dogsled relay known as the 1925 "Serum Run" from Nenana to Nome. The Iditarod Trail Sled Dog Race was first established by Joe Redington Sr. in the early 1973 to encourage the designation of the Iditarod Trail as a National Historic Trail, bring the dying tradition of dog sledding back to the villages of Alaska, and promote the sport of competitive dogsled racing.

Today the race follows much of the primary route of the Iditarod National Historic Trail, with a segment alternating north or south, depending on the year. (These segments are also part of the Iditarod National Historic Trail). Every odd year (i.e., 2011), the race travels the south route from Ophir to Kaltag through the ghost town of Iditarod. On even years, the race travels north from Ophir through Ruby and Galena to Kaltag. The 1925 Serum Run followed 500 mi of trail (now designated as the Iditarod National Historic Trail system) between Ruby and Nome. The Iditarod Trail Invitational human powered race for bikers, runners and skiers also follows the Iditarod Trail from Knik to McGrath with a 350-mile race and to Nome in the 1000 mile race.

title: Iditarod Trail


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User:Azmol

Hello everyone, My name is Azmol Hussain. I am currently studying political science at Queen Mary, University of London.

title: User:Azmol