text:
Garhwal division

Garhwal (IPA: /ɡəɽʋːɔɭ/) is one of the two administrative divisions of the Indian state of Uttarakhand. Lying in the Himalayas, it is bounded on the north by Tibet, on the east by Kumaon, on the south by Uttar Pradesh state, and on the northwest by Himachal Pradesh state. It includes the districts of Chamoli, Dehradun, Haridwar, Pauri Garhwal, Rudraprayag, Tehri Garhwal, and Uttarkashi. The people of Garhwal are known as Garhwali and speak the Garhwali language. The administrative center for Garhwal division is the town of Pauri. The Divisional Commissioner is the administrative head of the Division, and is a senior Indian Administrative Service officer. As the administrative head of the division, the Commissioner is overall incharge of the 7 districts in the Garhwal region of Uttarakhand, and is aided in his duties by an additional commissioner and the district magistrates. Sushil Kumar is the divisional commissioner of the Garhwal Division since December 2021.

History
The Garhwal Himalayas appear to have been a favourite locale for the voluminous mythology of the Puranic period. The traditional name of Garhwal was kedarkhand means "the land of God". Excavations have revealed that it formed part of the Mauryan Empire.

The earliest reference regarding Garhwal and its pride spots are cited in the Skanda Purana and the Mahabharata in the Van Parva. Skanda Purana defines the boundaries and extend of this holy land. It also finds mention in the 7th-century travelogue of Huen Tsang. However, it is with Adi Shankaracharya that the name of Garhwal will always be linked, for the great 8th-century spiritual reformer visited the remote, snow-laden heights of Garhwal, established a Joshimath and restored some of the most sacred shrines, including Badrinath and Kedarnath.

The history of Garhwal as a unified whole began in the 15th century, when king Ajai Pal merged the 52 separate principalities, each with its own garh or fortress. For 300 years, Garhwal remained one kingdom, with its capital at Srinagar (on the left bank of Alaknanda river). Then Pauri and Dehradun were perforce ceded to the Crown as payment for British help, rendered to the Garhwalis during the Gurkha invasion, in the early 19th century.

The earliest ruling dynasty of Garhwal known is of the Katyuris. The Katyuri Raja of Uttarakhand (Kumaon and Garhwal) was styled 'Sri Basdeo Giriraj Chakara Churamani'. The earliest traditions record that the possessions of Joshimath Katyuris in Garhwal extended from Satluj as far as Gandaki and from the snows to plains, including the whole of Rohilkhand. Tradition gives the origin of their Raj at Joshimath in the north near Badrinath and subsequent migration to Katyur Valley in Almora district, where a city called Kartikeyapura was founded.

Katyuris ruled Uttarakhand up to the 11th century and in certain pockets even after their decline. In Garhwal their disruption brought into existence 52 independent chiefs. One of the important principalities in that period was that of Parmars, who held their sway over Chandpur Garhi or Fortress. Katyuris ruled Uttarakhand up to the 11th century and in certain pockets even after their decline. Kanak Pal was progenitor of this dynasty. Raja Ajay Pal, a scion of the Parmars in the 14th century is credited with having brought these chiefs under his rule. After his conquest Ajay Pal's domain was recognised as Garhwal owing to exuberance of forts. It is possible that after annexing all principalities, Raja Ajay Pal must have become famous as Garhwala, the owner of forts. With the passage of time his kingdom came to be known as Garhwal.

Garhwal Kingdom

Garhwal Kingdom was founded by Parmars. Nearly 700 years ago, one of these chiefs, Ajai Pal, reduced all the minor principalities under him and founded the Garhwal Kingdom. He and his ancestors ruled over Garhwal and the adjacent state of Tehri-Garhwal, in an uninterrupted line till 1803, when the Gurkhas invaded Kumaon and Garhwal, driving the Garhwal chief into the plains. For 12 years the Gurkhas ruled the country with an iron rod, until a series of encroachments by them on British territory led to the Gurkha War in 1814. At the termination of the campaign, Garhwal and Kumaon were converted into British districts, while the Tehri principality was restored to a son of the former chief.

The British district of Garhwal was in the Kumaon Division of the United Provinces, and had an area of 5629 sqmi. After annexation, Garhwal rapidly advanced in material prosperity. IN 1901 the population was 429,900. Two battalions of the Indian army (the 39th Garhwal Rifles) were recruited in the district, which contained the military cantonment of Lansdowne. Grain and coarse cloth were exported, and salt, borax, livestock and wool were imported. Trade with Tibet was considerable. The administrative headquarters was at the village of Pauri, but Srinagar was the largest city. It was an important mart, as was Kotdwara, the terminus of a branch of the Oudh and Rohilkhand railway from Najibabad.

During the turn of the 19th century, the Gurkhas attacked Garhwal and drove the rulers of Garhwal down to the plains (Rishikesh, Haridwar, DehraDun). Pradyumna Shah died fighting at the battle of Khurbura. Thereafter the rulers of Garhwal took the help of the British forces in India and regained their kingdom. The rulers of Garhwal gave away 60% of their kingdom for the support the British gave them in driving back the Gurhkas.

During the Second World War, the Raja Narendra Shah contributed his troops and aircraft to the British war effort. In recognition for his services, the British gave him the title of "Maharaja", made him a Knight Commander of the Order of the Star of India (KCSI) and knighted him. Thus his full title was Sir Maharaja Narendra Shah KCSI.

Geography

The region consists almost entirely of rugged mountain ranges running in all directions and separated by narrow valleys, which in some cases become deep gorges or ravines. The only level portion of the district was a narrow strip of waterless forest between the southern slopes of the hills and the fertile plains of Rohilkhand. The highest mountains are in the eastern Chamoli district, the principal peaks being Nanda Devi 7816 m, Kamet 7756 m, Chaukhamba 7138 m, Trisul 7120 m, Dunagiri 7066 m, and Kedarnath 6940 m.

The Alaknanda River, one of the main sources of the Ganges, receives with its affluents the whole drainage of the district. At Devprayag the Alaknanda joins the Bhagirathi, and thenceforward the united streams bear the name of the Ganges. Cultivation is principally confined to the immediate vicinity of the rivers, which are employed for irrigation.

In June 2013 a multi-day cloudburst centered in the mountainous valleys of the area resulted in widespread damage and over 5,000 deaths. It was India's worst natural disaster insofar as death toll since the 2004 tsunami.

People
The majority of the inhabitants are Garhwalis. The culture of the present Garhwal is an amalgamation of influences from the indigenous population coupled with traditions superimposed by immigrants who settled in the region. A majority of the people are involved in the agriculture, tourism and the defence industry.

Languages
Native to million people, Hindi has official status and is widely used in administration and education. Garhwali, spoken by about million people as of the 2011 census, is the majority language in all but the two southern districts of Haridwar and Dehradun, where the language with the largest proportion of speakers according to the census was Hindi. Other languages with large numbers of speakers are Urdu (, mostly in Haridwar and Dehradun), Jaunsari ( people mostly in the Jaunsar–Bawar region of Dehradun), Nepali ( speakers, with the largest concentration in Dehradun), and Punjabi (, mostly in Dehradun). The set of indigenous languages also includes Mahasu Pahari (found in the north-western district of Uttarkashi in the north-west), and the Sino-Tibetan languages Jad (also in Uttarkashi) and Rongpo (of Chamoli district).

title: Garhwal division


text:
Artificial reef

An artificial reef (AR) is a human-created freshwater or marine benthic structure. Typically built in areas with a generally featureless bottom to promote marine life, it may be intended to control erosion, protect coastal areas, block ship passage, block the use of trawling nets, support reef restoration, improve aquaculture, or enhance scuba diving and surfing. Early artificial reefs were built by the Persians and the Romans.

An opportunity artificial reef is built from objects that were intended for other purposes, such as sinking oil rigs (through the Rigs-to-Reefs program), scuttling ships, or by deploying rubble or construction debris. Shipwrecks may become artificial reefs when preserved on the seafloor. A conventional artificial reef uses materials such as concrete, which can be molded into specialized forms (e.g. reef balls). Green artificial reefs incorporate renewable and organic materials such as vegetable fibres and seashells to improve sustainability and reduce energy consumption, pollution, and greenhouse gas emissions. In some cases, artificial reefs have been developed as artworks.

Artificial reefs generally provide hard surfaces where algae and invertebrates such as barnacles, corals, and oysters attach and spaces where different sizes of fishes can hide. The accumulation of attached marine life in turn provides intricate structures and food for assemblages of fish. The ecological impact of an artificial reef depends on multiple factors including where it is situated, how it is constructed, and the ages and types of species involved. While the artificial reefs allow for coral growth, it changes the ecosystem as the relative growth for different species is not always the same. Studies have found that macroalgal, cyanobacterial groups, and coral that are fast growing, grow in artificial reefs at different rates than they would grow in natural reefs.

Considerable research is being done into construction methods and the effects of artificial reefs. Many of the materials used early on are now considered undesirable. A 2001 literature review suggested that about half of the reefs studied met their objectives. Long-term planning and ongoing management were identified as essential factors in success. A more recent analysis of reefs world wide between 1990 and 2020 concludes that artificial reefs can be useful tools for restoring marine ecosystems if they are strategically designed to suit their specific location and its resource needs.

History
The construction of artificial reefs began in ancient times. According to historian Diodorus Siculus, the Romans blocked the harbor of Lilybaeum during the First Punic War against the Carthaginians around 250 BC. They built an artificial reef "with stones and construction material" and put poles in the channels using "large timbers and anchors". Persians blocked the mouth of the Tigris River to thwart Arabian pirates by building an artificial reef.

Artificial reefs to increase fish yields or for algaculture began no later than 17th-century Japan, when rubble and rocks were used to grow kelp. The earliest recorded artificial reef in the United States is from the 1830s, when logs from huts were used off the coast of South Carolina to improve fishing. In the Philippines a traditional native fishing technique known as fish nests (natively known by various names like gango, amatong, or balirong), is basically an artificial reef. It uses rocks and waterlogged wood to build mounds inside excavated trenches on shallow tidal waters that attract fish and crustaceans. The mounds are then harvested every few weeks during low tide by surrounding them with nets and dismantling them piece by piece. They are rebuilt after every harvest. Fish nests are often used to capture grouper fingerlings to be used as seeds for aquaculture. Fish nests were in common use since before 1939.

Beginning before the 1840s, US fishermen used interlaced logs to build artificial reefs. More recently, refuse such as old refrigerators, shopping carts, ditched cars and out-of-service vending machines replaced the logs in ad hoc reefs. Officially sanctioned projects have incorporated decommissioned ships, subway cars, battle tanks, armored personnel carriers, oil drilling rigs and beehive-like reef balls.

Purposes
Artificial reef structures (ARs) have a variety of intended uses, ranging from the protection, enhancement and restoration of marine ecosystems to the support of human activities like fishing, recreational diving and surfing. Artificial reefs can be used as active restoration tools to mitigate environmental damage and habitat loss, restore degraded ecosystems such as kelp forests and coral reefs, and promote biodiversity. In fisheries management, artificial reefs may be intended to increase production of species of recreational and commercial interest, enhance fishing yield, and support recreational, artisanal or commercial fisheries. They may be designed to protect benthic habitats from illegal trawling and restore fish stocks. They may be placed to protect against coastal erosion. They may also be developed to support eco-tourism, promote recreational activities like scuba diving and surfing, and mitigate tourism pressure on corals.

The design and construction of an artificial reef may be very different depending on its proposed location and intended goals. A reef that is designed for one purpose may be unsuitable for others. Early attempts to create artificial reefs frequently failed, or at best, met with mixed results. More recent reviews of work from 1990-2020 suggest that a correctly implemented artificial reef, designed to fit its target ecosystem, can be useful as a tool for the restoration of marine ecosystems. Reviewers call for better before/after and control comparisons of artificial and natural reefs, increased monitoring of reefs over their lifespan, and attention to the spatial orientation, complexity, and shape of reef substrate, among others.

Artificial reef communities
On artificial reef structures intended for ecosystem enhancement, reef communities tend to develop in more or less predictable stages. First, where an ocean current encounters a vertical structure, it can create a plankton-rich upwelling that provides a reliable feeding spot for small fish such as sardines and minnows, which draw in pelagic predators such as tuna and sharks. Next come creatures seeking protection from the ocean's lethal openness—hole and crevice dwellers such as grouper, snapper, squirrelfish, eels and triggerfish. Opportunistic predators such as jack and barracuda also appear. Over months and years the reef structure becomes encrusted with algae, tunicates, hard and soft corals and sponges.

An electrified reef is an artificial reef where a small low voltage electric charge is applied to a sub-sea metallic structures that causes limestone to precipitate onto a metal frame onto which coral planulae can then attach and grow; the process also speeds up post-attachment growth.

3D printing technology has been employed both to create molds to optimize the environment for target species, and to directly create cast ceramic and concrete artificial reefs. Work has also been done to develop environmentally friendly materials. For example, Archireef has designed 3D-printed terracotta Reef Tiles, which are nontoxic, biodegradable, and have a pH-level that is compatible with coral. The tiles are small enough to be handled and installed by a diver. An installation in Hong Kong reported a 95 percent coral survival rate after three years, more than four times the survival rate of more traditional restoration methods.

Restoration and mitigation actions on artificial reefs can include activities such as coral transplantation, larval resettlement, and gardening. For example, the Coral Restoration Foundation in the Florida Keys raises keystone species such as elkhorn (Acropora palmata) and staghorn (Acropora cervicornis) in coral tree nurseries and replants the corals onto degrading coral reefs. Application of such technologies to artificial reefs could help to restore marine ecosystems. A 2023 review article states: "The implementation of artificial reefs to restore marine ecosystems can be well done, investing resources in studies specifically aimed at determining the appropriate characteristics of ARs for each location."

Carbon sequestration
There is interest in the possibility that artificial reefs can be used to support carbon sequestration and counter climate change. Coastal vegetation ecosystems (mangrove, salt marsh, and seagrass), algal beds, and phytoplankton have been identified as potential carbon sinks. It is hoped that increasing biomass at artificial reefs can provide another form of blue carbon storage.

RGV Reef, a 1,650-acre artificial reef created in 2017 in the Gulf of Mexico off the coast of Texas, is being studied to assess its potential for carbon capture. Another study area is located off Juehua Island in the Bohai Sea. Biological, physical, social and technological factors must all be considered in calculating carbon capture flow in aquatic systems. Near Juehua Island, M-shaped artificial reefs improved hydrodynamic conditions for creating a carbon sink, but local marine species had limited availability. Development of active marine management strategies and the introduction of appropriate biological species were suggested as ways to increase carbon capture potential.

In the Caribbean, researchers have found that the placement of breeze blocks as artificial reefs near tropical seagrass meadows can create a positive feedback loop. The reef structures attracted fish by providing shelter, and the fish in turn fertilized the seagrass and increased its productivity, providing both food and shelter. The combination of seagrass and reef structures provided added protection from fish nets as well as increasing biomass in the seagrass meadow. Estimates suggest that Caribbean seagrass beds can provide substantial pools for global carbon.

Erosion prevention

Some artificial reefs are used to prevent coastal erosion. Geometric and hydrodynamic properties of reefs are particularly important in determining their ability to mitigate coastal erosion. Artificial reefs to prevent erosion can be designed to act in multiple ways. Some are designed to force waves to deposit their energy offshore rather than directly on the coastline. Other reefs are designed to hold sediment on beaches by trapping the sediment. Reefs are generally custom-designed for each unique zone. Some are designed to support customizable habitat for local target species as well.

Artificial surfing reefs
Some types of artificial reefs, such as surfing reefs, do not have ecosystem enhancement as a major goal. Hoppy's Reef was an early but unsuccessful attempt to create a surfing reef, off Hermosa Beach, California (1971). Artificial surfing reefs have been created at Cable Station Reef (Perth, Western Australia, 1999) Narrowneck Reef (Gold Coast, Queensland, 2000) Chevron Reef, also known as Pratte's Reef (El Segundo, California, 2000, removed 2008). and Boscombe Surf Reef (Dorset, England, 2009, closed 2011).

The construction of artificial surfing reefs has involved a variety of structures including concrete, rock, and geotextile bags filled with sand. Life expectancy of such materials varies widely. Geotextile structures have been found to degrade more quickly than anticipated under ocean conditions. Some analysts argue that they are fundamentally flawed. While use of stone blocks has raised concerns about possible safety hazards for surfers, it has been suggested that using stone may be structurally preferable.

In addition to improving surfing conditions, objectives of building an artificial surfing reef or multi-purpose reef have included stabilizing beachfront, coastal protection and coastal research. Habitat enhancement is sometimes considered as well. However, different materials are preferred for the construction of artificial surfing reefs and the development of reefs for ecosystem enhancement.

A 2012 review of artificial reefs indicated that artificial surfing reefs performed poorly in terms of their intended purpose and successfulness, rarely achieving primary or secondary objectives of "Surfing Enhancement". For Pratte's reef, woven polypropylene bags were used in a first phase, and woven polyester bags in a second stage filling an area of approximately 1600 cubic meters. The area involved was too small to be successful. Even after doubling the original budget, the materials used degraded rapidly, and the resulting remediation cost more than the installation. Mount Reef at Mount Maunganui in New Zealand used more durable containers and a volume of around 6,000 cubic meters of sand. Although somewhat successful in creating waves, it too deteriorated and had to be removed. The Narrowneck Reef was much larger, at least 60,000 cubic meters, and was somewhat successful in its primary objective of shoreline stabilization, but less so in improving surfing.

Several projects in Australia have used stone to augment existing sites. Cable Station Reef added limestone rocks to an existing reef. At Burkitts Reef on the Woongarra Coast, large boulders were broken down to fill gaps in an existing boulder and gravel reef. At Palm Beach Reef on the Gold Coast of Australia, stone boulders were used to adapt the shape of an existing breakwater and protect added sand. Another artificial stone reef, located in Borth, Wales, was designed primarily for coastal protection.

A major issue is that changes occurring in the lee of submerged reef structures are complex, not well understood, and difficult to model and predict. As of 2012, existing prototypes have been characterized as "trial or experimental only", and predictive models have not achieved "accuracy or reliability", although it has been hoped that "ongoing construction and monitoring of submerged constructed reefs (SCRs) will result in a better understanding of the processes and refined methods for predicting shoreline response". Even in cases which were initially seen as successful, subsequent changes and deterioration of structures have led to poor outcomes.

Surfers' expectations of artificial reefs, particularly "an expectation by the general public of consistent, quality waves during a wide range of environmental conditions" have also led to disappointment. Surfing science is a relatively new field. The ability to achieve consistency of surfing waves in a range of conditions in natural environments generally requires wave pre-conditioning or large scale breaking features or both. The scale of early artificial surfing reefs was too small to achieve such consistency.

Recreational dive sites
Thousands of popular wreck diving sites throughout the world are shipwrecks sunk as artificial reefs. Some of these wrecks were sunk deliberately to attract divers. The USS Spiegel Grove and USS Oriskany (CV-34) in Florida, USS Indra (ARL-37) and USS Aeolus (ARC-3) in North Carolina, and Bianca C. in Grenada draw thousands of divers annually. In other areas, dive sites have been developed in collaboration with artists as artworks. For example, the Museo Subacuático de Arte in the Cancún National Marine Park contains hundreds of life-size statues, offering divers an alternative to sensitive coral reefs in the region. Each statue is made from a plaster mold of a living person, using a PH neutral "marine cement", by Jason deCaires Taylor.

In Lisbon, 13 artworks by Alexandre Farto (Vhils) will be placed in an artificial reef off the coast of Albufeira as of June 2024. The works are made from parts of decommissioned power stations.

A study in Barbados showed a marked variation in diver satisfaction with artificial reef diving experiences. Novice divers tended to be more satisfied than more experienced divers, who had a strong preference for natural reefs and large shipwrecks.

Environmental concerns
Environmental concerns about artificial reefs include possible physical damage to existing natural sites in the installation area; their potential to disrupt existing patterns of marine life by introducing non-native species and by attracting fish, eggs and larvae from surrounding natural habitats; their potential to concentrate fish in areas where it becomes easier to catch them, leading to overfishing and long-term damage to fisheries; and the potential for the materials used in artificial reefs to degrade and cause damage to the natural habitat. This can include toxicity from contaminants such as paint, oil, and plastics, as well as parts of the reef breaking away and becoming ocean waste or washing onto natural reefs and beaches.

Changing populations
Many marine organisms exhibit a high degree of movement or dispersal. The fish attracted to artificial reef zones vary from reef to reef depending on the reef's age, size and structure. Preferred habitats vary both between and within species, depending on an organism's developmental stage and behavior. Environments that are well-suited to larval to juvenile stages may differ from those favored by adults. For example, 1-2 year old Red Snapper (Lutjanus campechanus), show a much higher attraction to living in vertical artificial reef structures than older Red Snapper. By ages 6–8, adults return to muddy and sand bottom habitats, which provide a home for the species' pelagic larval phase. Being aware of how organisms relate to the marine habitat is critical to mapping marine resources and understanding how artificial reefs affect marine processes. The siting of artificial reefs should consider the presence of existing natural habitats and the needs of species at multiple developmental stages, including the need for reproductive and early stage habitat.

The opportunistic use of shipwrecks and oil derricks as artificial reefs creates a new trophic structure for the local ecosystem. The trophic structure of artificial and natural reefs has been shown to differ strongly. Artificial reefs do not develop the same functions and diversity as natural reefs over time, unless their structure is similar to natural reefs. For example, the Sint Eustatius reef, nearly 200 years old, has developed a diverse and healthy ecosystem, but it has different and less abundant coral species than a nearby natural reef.

As a result, artificial reefs can unbalance the natural ecosystem and affect nearby habitats, in some cases attracting non-native and invasive species that disrupt local ecosystems. In 2008, at Palmyra Atoll south of Hawaii, iron leaching from a shipwreck led to increases in algae and a sea anemone called a corallimorph, smothering existing coral to create a "black reef".

Artificial reefs can show quick increases in local fish population, coral reef and algae growth. However, the attraction–production dilemma is the question of whether local increases in fish stocks result from broader-area distributional changes in populations (the attraction hypothesis) or increases in local production (the production hypothesis). Some researchers, such as James Bohnsack, a biologist with the National Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS), have argued that the amount of biomass found on artificial reefs is attracted away from nearby areas rather than developing there. According to this view, artificial reefs do not increase fish populations. Instead they operate as a type of fish aggregating device (FAD) bringing in fish, eggs and larvae from other reefs. However, there is some evidence to suggest that artificial reefs can be a source of production as well as attraction. A 2022 review concluded that "the attraction-production question around ARs ... can only be assessed on a case-by-case basis for each AR, and validated after their installation." Concentrating fish on a reef makes for easier fishing. The increased concentration of fish on artificial reefs can make it easier to harvest fish stocks, with the potential for overfishing and long-term damage to fisheries. This has implications for artisanal and industrial fishing management.

Debris
There are concerns that the placement of opportunity artificial reefs will be abused and become a pretext for disguised ocean dumping. Regulatory measures have been put forward by the U.S. and internationally in an effort to counter abuses, but may provide little protection.

Some artificial reefs have been found to be less stable than originally hoped, breaking into component parts that become ocean refuse, washing onto natural reefs and beaches and damaging them. In the early 1970s waste tires were used to create a number of artificial reefs. Tropical storms later demolished the tire containment system, washing tires onto beaches, destroying nearby coral reefs and inhibiting new coral growth. On the Osborne Reef off the coast of Fort Lauderdale, Florida, storms broke the nylon straps holding the original tire bundles together. As of November 2019, 250,000 of an estimated 700,000 tires have been removed. France has begun removing its tire reefs. The Ocean Conservancy now includes tire removal during the International Coastal Cleanup in September of each year. Since 2021, 4Ocean has added collecting tires from the bottom to their cleanup operations as well.

Some attempts to construct artificial surfing reefs have also been problematic. A number of early surfing installations used geotextile bags filled with sand which degraded more quickly than anticipated. Cases such as Pratte's Reef in California and Mount Reef at Mount Maunganui in New Zealand have required extensive remediation work to remove materials. In some cases, remediation has cost more than the original installation. It has been argued that this approach to reef construction is fundamentally flawed.

Toxicity
Artificial reefs, particularly opportunistic ones involving materials that were not originally intended for marine use, can degrade and cause damage to the natural habitat. If inappropriate materials are used in an artificial reef, they can interfere with the growth of algae which provide a food source for coral, causing the coral to die.

PVCs, plastics, oil, paint, asbestos, iron and other rusting metal, can release toxic contaminants such as Poly-chlorinated biphenols (PCBs) and heavy metals ( Pb, Cu, Ni, Cd, Zn, Ag, and Hg ). Toxic materials can potentially enter the food chain and affect it at all levels, including fish and humans. However, consumption of seafood from artificial reefs and wrecks is considered unlikely to pose a long-term health risk for humans at average levels of consumption, with the exception of urchins and other grazing shellfish which should be avoided.

International recommendations state that artificial reefs should use inert materials. Under the 2009 "Specific Guidelines for Assessment of Inert, Inorganic Geological Material" developed by the London Convention and Protocol/UNEP, inert materials cannot cause contamination through leaching, physical and chemical deterioration, or biological activity.

Attempts continue to be made to create stable waste-based materials that will not pose a hazard, for use in artificial reefs. For example, oil and coal fly ash have been stabilized with cement and lime to create experimental artificial reef blocks. However, as with the use of tires, there continue to be environmental concerns about the potential for leaching.

In the United States, best practices for preparing vessels for use in artificial reefs include assuming that divers may access all locations, removing potential hazards to divers, removing all polluting or toxic materials, including PCBs (in compliance with applicable water quality standards for class III ocean waters), and clearing debris and floatables. However, if materials over the pollutant threshold are too difficult to remove, permission to bypass their removal can be given by the EPA, as happened in the case of the ex-USS Oriskany. In spite of spending $20 million to decontaminate the vessel, the ship still contained an estimated 700 pounds of PCBs when it was sunk in 2006. Subsequent testing by the Florida Fish and Wildlife Conservation Commission over a four-year period found elevated levels of PBCs in fish living in the ship's "reef".

Off the coast of California, an artificial reef has been constructed to lure fish away from a toxic site. Over 35 years, the Montrose Chemical Corporation of California, a maker of DDT, improperly disposed of toxic chemical waste through the sewer system and by dumping barrels of waste into the ocean. As part of remediation efforts by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), 70,000 tons of quarry rock were placed on the ocean bottom nearer the beach in 2020, creating a new habitat to attract fish and kelp to a safer area.

Florida
Florida is the site of many artificial reefs, many created from deliberately sunken ships, including Coast Guard cutters Duane and Bibb and the U.S. Navy landing ship Spiegel Grove.

Osborne Reef
In the early 1970s, more than 2,000,000 used vehicle tires were dumped off the coast of Fort Lauderdale, Florida to form an artificial reef. However, the tires were not properly secured to the reef structures, and ocean currents broke them loose, sending them crashing into the developing reef and its natural neighbors. As of 2009, fewer than 100,000 of the tires had been removed after more than 10 years of efforts.

Neptune Reef
Neptune Memorial Reef was originally conceived as an art project called The Atlantis Reef Project and was envisioned and created by Gary Levine and Kim Brandell. Burial at sea became a way of financing the project. As of 2011, about 200 "placements" had occurred. Cremated remains are mixed with concrete and either encased in columns or molded into sea-star, brain-coral, 15 ft castings of lions or other shapes before entering the water.

Ex-USS Massachusetts
In 1921 the US battleship USS Massachusetts (BB-2) was scuttled in shallow water off the coast of Pensacola, Florida and then used as a target for experimental artillery. In 1956 the ship was declared the property of the state of Florida by the Florida Supreme Court. Since 1993 the wreck has been a Florida Underwater Archaeological Preserve and is included in the National Register of Historic Places. She serves as an artificial reef and recreational dive site.

Ex-USS Oriskany
The world's largest artificial reef was created by sinking of the 44,000 ton aircraft carrier USS Oriskany (CV-34) off the coast of Pensacola, Florida, in 2006.

Ex-USNS Hoyt S. Vandenberg
The second-largest artificial reef is USNS Hoyt S. Vandenberg, a former World War II era troop transport that served as a spacecraft-tracking ship after the war. The Vandenberg was scuttled seven miles off Key West on May 27, 2009, in 140 ft of clear water. Supporters expected the ship to draw recreational divers away from natural reefs, allowing those reefs to recover from damage from overuse.

Ex-USS Spiegel Grove
The ex-USS USS Spiegel Grove (LSD-32) is located on Dixie Shoal, 6 mi off the Florida Keys in the Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary. Her location is 25.06667°N, -80.30028°W.

Ex-USS Yancey
USS Yancey (AKA-93) was sunk as an artificial reef off Morehead City, North Carolina in 1990, as AR-302. She is lying on her starboard side at a depth of 160 ft

Ex-USCGC Spar
USCGC Spar was scuttled in June 2004 by Captain Tim Mullane in 108 ft of water, 30 mi off Morehead City, North Carolina, where she serves as an artificial reef.

Ex-USS Indra
USS Indra (ARL-37) was sunk as an artificial reef, 4 August 1992 in 60 ft of water. Its coordinates are 34.56528°N, -76.975°W.

Ex-USS Aeolus
USS Aeolus (ARC-3) was sunk to form an artificial reef in August 1988 as AR-305. The ex-Aeolus, is located 18.3 nautical miles from Beaufort Inlet Sea Buoy in 104 ft of water.

Redbird Reef
In the late 2000s, the New York City Transit Authority decided to retire an outdated fleet of subway cars to make room for new R142 and R142A trains. The obsolete subway cars, (nicknamed "Redbirds"), had run on the A Division (former Interborough Rapid Transit Company routes) of the New York City Subway system for 40 years. Each car was stripped, decontaminated, loaded on a barge, and sunk in the Atlantic Ocean off the coast of Delaware, Virginia, South Carolina, Georgia, and Florida. Some cars had number plates removed because of rust, which were then auctioned off on eBay. A total of 1,200 subway cars were sunk for this project.

In September 2007, the NYCTA approved a further contract with Weeks Marine worth $6 million, to send 1,600 of its retired subway cars to be used as artificial reefs. The old models were sheathed in stainless steel, except for the fiberglass reinforced plastic front ends, which were removed before sinking. The retired fleet included old work trains and cars that were badly damaged beyond repair.

British Columbia
In 2006, a Boeing 737-200 that was deemed no longer airworthy by Air Canada was sunk by the Artificial Reef Society of British Columbia.

Cancun Underwater Museum
Since November 2009, artist Jason deCaires Taylor has created more than 400 life size sculptures off the coast of Cancun, Mexico at the Cancun Underwater Museum. The coral reefs in this region suffered heavy degradation due to repetitive hurricane abuse. This project was funded by The National Marine Park and the Cancun Nautical Association. It was designed to emulate coral reefs using a neutral ph clay. Taylor constructed unique settings depicting daily activities ranging from a man watching TV to a 1970s replica of a Volkswagen Beetle. This artificial reef relieved pressure from the nearby Manchones Reef.

Australia
Since the late 1990s, the Australian government has been providing decommissioned warships for use as artificial reefs for recreational scuba diving. So far, seven ships have been sunk:

 * HMAS Swan (DE 50) at Dunsborough in Western Australia during December 1997.
 * HMAS Perth (D 38) at Albany in Western Australia during November 2001.
 * HMAS Hobart (D 39) in Yankalilla Bay in South Australia during November 2002.
 * HMAS Brisbane (D 41) off the Sunshine Coast in Queensland during July 2005.
 * HMAS Canberra (FFG 02) at a site west of the entrance to Port Phillip Bay in Victoria during October 2009.
 * HMAS Adelaide (FFG 01) off Terrigal on the New South Wales Central Coast during April 2011
 * HMAS Tobruk (L 50) off Hervey Bay on the Queensland Coast on 29 June 2018

Cooper Reef is a purpose-built artificial reef off the coast of Esperance, Western Australia. It is at a depth of 30m and consists of 128 dome-like concrete modules designed to attract fish and enhance fish stocks, thereby creating new fishing and recreation opportunities for tourists, anglers and local families.

Costa Rica
At Playa Hermosa, the Playa Hermosa Artificial Reef Project has created an artificial reef using discarded porcelain insulators.

Curacao
On Curaçao, Secore International has created 12 artificial reefs using the cost-effective technique with small tetrapod-shaped concrete structures, seeded with coral larvae.

Saba and Statia
The AROSSTA project is located in the Caribbean Dutch islands of St. Eustatius and Saba. Based on comparisons of the effectiveness of reef balls, layered cakes, and rock for artificial reefs, researchers have developed MOREEF (Modular Restoration Reef) to provide a more complex internal structure and increase shelter availability.

Gibraltar
The Gibraltar Reef was first proposed by Eric Shaw in 1973. Initial experiments with tires proved unsuccessful as the tires were swept away by currents or buried underneath sand. In 1974, boats from local marinas and the Gibraltar Port Authority were donated. The first two were barges that were sunk in Camp Bay. In 2006, a 65-ton wooden boat, True Joy (also referred to as Noah's Ark) was sunk there as well.

Shaw helped to found the Helping Hand Trust in 1994. The Trust works with researchers from around the world to expand the reef and to conserve, protect and monitor the natural world. The artificial reef, which contains more than 30 scuttled and wrecked vessels, was the first to be constructed in Europe. It continues to be one of the largest.

Expansion of the Artificial Reef halted after the cargo vessel 'New Flame' collided with the 'Torm Gertrud' and sank in an area known as 'Los Picos'. Los Picos was one of two natural reefs within Gibraltar's EU registered area of special interest, with a high level of biodiversity. After two years of salvage work, it was determined that attempting to remove the remaining keel and bottom would harm the natural reef. Authorities decided to leave the rest where it was.

In 2013, more than 70 concrete blocks were sunk by the government of Gibraltar (independent of Eric Shaw's trust), each one square meter in size with protruding metal bars. This led to heated debate between the United Kingdom and Spain, with Gibraltar accusing Spain of over forty incursions into their waters per month and Spain accusing Gibraltar of including metal bars in the reef to stop Spanish fishermen trawling the seabed for fish. The dropping led to a diplomatic conflict between the two countries because Gibraltar is a British Overseas Territory. By 2015, Shaw reported that there was "all kinds of life in the new reef from microbiological species to conger and moray eels".

Temple Reef
Experimentation with artificial reef structures at the Temple reef dive site off the coast of Pondicherry, India began as early as 2013. The diving centre Temple Adventures built a Temple-shaped structure in 2015 at a depth of 18 m, using recycled materials such as concrete, rocks, trees, palms, and iron bars.

The Temple Reef Foundation was founded in 2017 to support marine conservation and the further development of artificial surfing reefs in the area. In 2019 Bennington's Reef was added to the Temple reef dive site using a patented design for cement-dolomite blocks. The initial block was 3D printed, and further blocks were built using molded frames. In 2020, the project began testing a new block prototype that uses eggshell waste, sand, pebbles, and cement, stabilized with iron rebar.

Dubai
Pearl of Dubai is an art-inspired Lost City off the coast of Dubai. The site encompasses five acres and is located at the World Islands. At a depth of 10 to 20 m, the site is designed as an ancient lost city, complete with temples and statues using regional design cues from 800 BC. In 2023, designs for the world's largest ocean restoration and ecotourism project was unveiled in Dubai. The project named Dubai Reefs, aims to use 3D printing technology to create the world's largest artificial reef.

Aqaba, Jordan
Jordan made an under-water military vehicles museum, which is intended to form an artificial reef over time.

Philippines
Underwater Chocolate Hills is an artificial reef project undertaken by Spindrift Reefs Dive Center off the coast of Panglao Island in the Philippines. It consists of broken coral harvested by local divers, who attach it to wire structures. The structures are built in the same shape as the Chocolate Hills, which can be found in the Bohol Region. The intent is to create a new dive site and new marine habitat.

Lebanon
In 2018, the Lebanese Army donated 10 stripped tanks to an NGO and sunk them 3 km away from the coast of Sidon, South Lebanon.

Malta
Following a gas explosion that occurred on 3 February 1995, the Libyan-owned motor tanker Um El Faroud was scuttled off the coast of Malta as an artificial reef.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Artificial reef


text:
New Tehri

New Tehri is a city and a municipal board in Tehri Garhwal District in the Indian state of Uttarakhand. It is the administrative headquarters of Tehri Garhwal District. This urban municipality area has 11 wards, from Vidhi Vihar to Vishwakarma Puram (Koti colony).

Seema Krishali is the chairperson of Nagar Palika Tehri, and is the first female chairperson of Tehri. She won as an independent. Tehri is represented by the Tehri assembly seat of Uttarakhand and the Tehri Lok Sabha seat of India, which are represented by Dhan Singh Negi (Bhartiya Janta Party) and Mala Rajya Laxmi Shah (Bhartiya Janta Party) respectively.

History

The old town of Tehri sat at the confluence of the Bhagirathi and Bhilangna rivers. It was formerly known as Ganeshprayag. It adjoined the district of Garhwal, and its topographical features were similar. It contained the sources of both the Ganges and the Yamuna, which are visited by thousands of Hindu pilgrims.

Construction of the Tehri Dam totally submerged the old town of Tehri, and the population was shifted to the town of New Tehri. The town is famous as the site of protests against the dam by Sundarlal Bahuguna and his followers during the Chipko movement. At present the old Tehri town does not exist any longer.

Demographics
India census, Tehri had a population of 24,014. Males constitute 65% of the population and females 35%. Tehri has an average literacy rate of 78%, higher than the national average of 74%: male literacy is 81%, and female literacy is 71%. In Tehri, 10% of the population is under 6 years of age.

Tourist places
The most visited places that are actively maintained are Devi Kunjapuri Temple, Chandrabadani Devi, Shri Adinath Digambar Jain Mandir, Mahasar Taal, Sehstra Taal, and Khatling Glacier. Some areas of Tehri are view-able but neglected by the Uttrakhand government, including Panwali Kantha, Belhbagi Bugyal, and Khait parvat. Panwali Kantha is one of the most popular treks in Uttarakhand which is listed by Outlook Traveller in their write-up. These places have the potential to attract tourists for trekking and mountaineering. The new district headquarters at New Tehri can be looked at as a future tourist spot where views of Tehri Lake can be seen. Dobra Chanti Bridge is one of the major tourist attraction due to the lightening work. It is India's longest motorable single lane suspension bridge with 440 meter long way from Dobra to Chanti. Located in the proximity of Tehri Garhwal, Narendranagar is a tourist attraction where visitors can see the River Ganga and Doon valley.

By Road
The major highway that links New Tehri is National Highway 34. It is very well connected to major Uttarakhand cities Dehradun, Rishikesh. It is 99 km from Dehradun and 75 km from Rishikesh.

By Train
Nearest railway station is Rishikesh Railway Station which is 71 km from New Tehri. Rishikesh is well connected to major cities of India.

By Air
Nearest airport is Dehradun Airport in Dehradun, which is 76 km from New Tehri.

In Literature
Letitia Elizabeth Landon's poetical illustration on Davis Cox's picture 'The Grass-Rope Bridge at Teree, in the Province of Gurwall', refers back to the time when the hill country of this province was resorted to for recuperation by Europeans suffering from the heat of the plains.

Universities

 * Hemwati Nandan Bahuguna Garhwal University
 * Sri Dev Suman Uttarakhand University

Colleges

 * College of Forestry & Hill Agriculture, Uttarakhand University of Horticulture and Forestry P.O. Ranichaur
 * Govt. PG college, New Tehri
 * Govovernment Polytechnic, New Tehri
 * Sanskrit Maha Vidhlaya
 * THDC Institute of Hydropower Engineering and Technology
 * Govt. Nursing College, Sursinghdhar, Vill. Kanda, New Tehri

Intermediate Colleges

 * Govt. Girls Inter College, Baurai
 * Govt, Pratap Inter College, Baurari
 * Govt, Pratap Inter College, Moldhar
 * Narendra Mahila Vidhayalay (Rajmata), B Puram
 * Tehri Bandh pariyojya Inter college (THDC inter college), B Puram
 * Sarswati Vidhya Mandir, Inter College

Schools affiliated to ICSE

 * All Saint Convent School New Tehri

Schools affiliated to CBSE

 * Bhagirathi Vidhya Sarovar
 * New Tehri International School, Painula
 * Saint Anthony School
 * Sarswati Shishu Mandir
 * Nav Gaon Public School
 * Kendriya Vidalaya New Tehri Town
 * Govt. Girls High School

title: New Tehri


text:
Cory Gibbs

Cory Gibbs (born January 14, 1980) is an American former soccer player. A defender, played professionally for clubs in Germany, the Netherlands and England. He also played 19 international matches for the U.S. national soccer team, including at the 2003 CONCACAF Gold Cup.

College and amateur
Gibbs was born in Fort Lauderdale, Florida. He played college soccer at Brown University, joining the team in 1997. During his career, Brown won three Ivy League Championships and participated in the NCAA Tournament all four years. In 2000, Gibbs led Brown to an Ivy League championship and the Elite Eight of the NCAA Tournament. He was named Ivy League Player of the Year, and a First-Team All-American. In 2000, he spent the collegiate off season with the Palm Beach Pumas of the Premier Development League. He was also one of three Brown soccer players, including Matthew Cross (Kansas City Wizards) and Scott Powers (Columbus Crew), to be drafted in the 2001 MLS SuperDraft.

Germany
After graduating from Brown in 2001, Gibbs decided not to play in MLS and joined FC St. Pauli of the Bundesliga. He played 25 games for St. Pauli that season, becoming the youngest American to score a goal in the Bundesliga with a goal against FC Cologne. He was also a part of the side that beat the world champions Bayern Munich, a result that earned St. Pauli the nickname of weltpokalsiegerbesieger, translated as World Club Championship Winner Beaters. St. Pauli was relegated to the 2. Bundesliga after the 2001–02 season, and Gibbs played an equally important role with the team in his second season as in his first. St. Pauli, however, was relegated again after the 2002–03 season, this time to the Regionalliga Nord, the German third division. Gibbs remained with the team, being moved from central defense to defensive midfielder.

Gibbs decided to leave St. Pauli during 2003 due to the low level of play and lack of exposure needed to secure a spot on the United States national team. A move to Jahn Regensburg of the 2. Bundesliga fell through.

MLS
Gibbs returned to the United States and play in Major League Soccer, where he would be easily visible and available for international matches. Although the Columbus Crew initially tried to acquire Gibbs, he eventually ended up with FC Dallas, then known as the Dallas Burn. Gibbs was a starter in every game for which he was available during his stint with Dallas. He made a total of 21 appearances.

Europe
On January 20, 2005, the Dutch club Feyenoord agreed on a transfer with MLS, and Gibbs signed a four-and-a-half-year contract with the club. In his first season, he made 15 appearances and scored one goal.

After injuring his knee in a U.S. national team friendly against England on May 28, 2005, Gibbs rehabbed, under the direction of Dr. Daniel Kalbac in Miami, Florida, and came back from his injury on January 19, 2006. On January 24, 2006, Feyenoord loaned Gibbs to ADO Den Haag for the remainder of the season.

Gibbs signed a pre-contract agreement with English Premier League club Charlton Athletic in May 2006 just before Alan Curbishley's departure. After a short stay at Charlton it was announced that he would leave June 30, 2008, at the end of his contract. He never played a match for Charlton due to injuries.

Return to MLS
Gibbs moved to MLS. It was expected that he would be selected by the Galaxy, who had first option to pick up his contract in the allocation listings, but he was selected by Colorado after the Galaxy passed on Gibbs in order to be able to pick Eddie Lewis. Gibbs was transferred to New England Revolution on January 21, 2010, in a trade that involved four players, MLS SuperDraft picks and allocation money.

Gibbs was selected by the Chicago Fire with the seventh pick of the MLS Re-Entry Draft on December 15, 2010. He agreed terms with the club the same day. At the end of the 2011 season, he was named the club's Defender of the Year.

After starting in the first three games of the 2012 season, Gibbs suffered an injury, tearing his meniscus on April 4, 2012. After missing the rest of the 2012 season, he announced his retirement from the game on November 26, 2012.

International
Gibbs's return to the U.S. helped his national team career, as he received frequent callups for 2006 FIFA World Cup qualifiers. Gibbs solidified his position as one of U.S.'s top central defenders. Since making his first full international appearance June 8, 2003, in a friendly against New Zealand, Gibbs received 19 caps.

Gibbs was initially a part of the United States' 2006 FIFA World Cup team, but he reinjured his right knee in a friendly with Morocco on May 23, 2006, and was replaced by Gregg Berhalter. Gibbs played only 45 minutes all season for Charlton's reserves following surgery to repair cartilage in his knee. Gibbs returned to international soccer when he was selected by Bob Bradley for the United States' March 26 match against Poland.

Personal
Gibbs was married to former Misteeq band member Zena McNally from July 2008 until their divorce in 2014.

He is engaged to Paramount CBS Sports Talent Manager Jenna Medvigy. They will be married during July 2024 and are expecting their first child.

Gibbs also runs a soccer camp named 'Cory Gibbs StarSoccer',  which takes place every summer in the United States.

title: Cory Gibbs


text:
Johnathan Dwayne

Johnatan Dwayne (born July 31, 1963) is a musician, composer, and artist who introduced the musical concept of art rock into Puerto Rico.

Early years
Dwayne was born in San Juan, Puerto Rico the capital city of the island. In the 1980s he belonged to the musical group Words Four Two, singing lead and composing. The dominating musical styles in Puerto Rico at this time were Salsa and Merengue, but the group's release of "Somethin' in the Air" was a hit, and made Art Rock a competing style; this song was followed by "Society Killed by Who".

In 1991, after the group broke up, Dwayne composed for others, creating the Spanish version of "Pocket" for Ednita Nazario, and "Metamorfosis". His first gold record as composer was for "Un Corazon Hecho Pedazos" (meaning "A Heart Broken to Pieces"). He won the Tu Musica Award and also an award from Billboard and ASCAP. Nazario's recording of his "Pasiones" ("Passions") went platinum. Commissions followed from additional Puerto Rican singers, including Lunna and Jailene Cintrón. Dwayne won the Silver Ermita award, in Colombia, as a vocal soloist. Two of Dwayne's works as a painter, Personajes and Ser es des Nudos, have been exhibited in various expositions.

Acting career
In 2000, he made his debut as actor in the soap opera Hombres de Honor (Men of Honor). He has participated in over 20 soap operas so far. In 2004, he made his American stage debut in Washington, D.C., as Don Luis in Pedro Calderón de la Barca's La Dama Duende ("The Elf Lady"). One of the outfits worn by Dwayne during his days as a member of the group Word Four Two is currently on display at the Hard Rock Cafe in Old San Juan.

title: Johnathan Dwayne


text:
UVO

UVO (all caps) is an acronym. It can mean...

 * A telematics system from Kia Motors, Kia UVO.
 * Ukrainian Military Organization (Українська Військова Організація, UVO), a Ukrainian resistance and sabotage movement active in Poland between the world wars.
 * Used vegetable oil, used cooking oil recycled for use as a biofuel without conversion to biodiesel.
 * Unidentified vegetable object (UVO) - pices of vegetables mainly located in sauces. We cannot distinguish what kind of vegetable it was originally.

title: UVO


text:
Bob Anderson (racing driver)

Robert Hugh Fearon Anderson (19 May 1931 – 14 August 1967) was a British Grand Prix motorcycle road racer and racing driver. He competed in Grand Prix motorcycle racing from 1958 to 1960 and in Formula One from 1963 to the 1967 seasons. He was also a two-time winner of the North West 200 race in Northern Ireland. Anderson was one of the last independent privateer drivers in Formula One before escalating costs made it impossible to compete without sponsorship.

Motorcycle racing
Anderson was born in Hendon in the north of London and later lived in Haynes, Bedfordshire. He trained as an agricultural engineer, though left after a year and got a job as a mechanic in a local machinery dealer. He began his motorcycle racing career in 1953 competing on a 500cc Triumph Special at Cadwell Park. By 1955 he was racing a Matchless G45 at circuits such as Crystal Palace and Castle Combe and placed 8th at the 1955 Senior Manx Grand Prix. Switching to a Norton in 1956, he finished second to Jimmy Buchan at the Senior Manx Grand Prix and won the 500cc North West 200.

Anderson established himself as one of the top national competitors in 1957 with victories at Cadwell Park, Crystal Palace, Snetterton, Brands Hatch and won the 350cc North West 200. He finished second to world champion John Surtees at the 1958 Senior TT race at the Isle of Man, then considered the most prestigious motorcycle race on the world championship circuit. Anderson began to compete in the Grand Prix world championships in 1958, scoring another second place result behind Geoff Duke at the 350cc Swedish Grand Prix.

Switch to auto racing
At the end of 1960, Anderson sustained a back injury while racing in South Africa, which led him to switch to auto racing at the relatively late age of 29. In 1961 he drove a Lola in a Formula Junior race at Snetterton. He continued to race cars and eventually competed as a Team Lotus driver in the Formula Junior championship, winning a race at Autodrome de Montlhéry and finishing second at Monaco.

He entered Formula One in 1963 with his own Lola Mk4 car, under the guise of DW Racing Enterprises, a small team compared to other private outfits such as Scuderia Filipinetti or Rob Walker Racing Team. DW was actually only composed of Anderson and a small team of mechanics. Despite this hindrance he took the flexible little Lola to victory in the non-Championship Rome Grand Prix in that first year. In later years he ran private Brabham cars under the same banner, with his best result a third place in the 1964 Austrian Grand Prix. He was awarded the Von Trips Memorial Trophy as the most successful private entrant of 1964.

In 1967 he suffered an accident while testing at Silverstone, in which he slid off the track in wet conditions and hit a marshal's post. Anderson suffered serious chest and neck injuries and died later in Northampton General Hospital.

Motorcycle Grand Prix results
(key) (Races in bold indicate pole position; races in italics indicate fastest lap)

Complete Formula One World Championship results
(key)

Non-Championship Formula One results
(key) (Races in bold indicate pole position) (Races in italics indicate fastest lap)

title: Bob Anderson (racing driver)


text:
Chamorro people

The Chamorro people ( also CHamoru ) are the Indigenous people of the Mariana Islands, politically divided between the United States territory of Guam and the encompassing Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands in Micronesia, a commonwealth of the US. Today, significant Chamorro populations also exist in several U.S. states, including Hawaii, California, Washington, Texas, Tennessee, Oregon, and Nevada, all of which together are designated as Pacific Islander Americans according to the U.S. Census. According to the 2000 Census, about 64,590 people of Chamorro ancestry live in Guam and another 19,000 live in the Northern Marianas.

Etymology
Precolonial society in the Marianas was based on a caste system, Chamori being the name of the ruling, highest caste.

After Spain annexed and colonized the Marianas, the caste system eventually became extinct under Spanish rule, and all of the indigenous residents of the archipelago eventually came to be referred to by the Spanish exonym Chamorro. The name CHamoru is an endonym derived from the indigenous orthography of the Spanish exonym. The digraph ch is treated as a single letter, hence both characters are capitalized at the beginning of a sentence or proper noun, much like ij in Dutch.

Some people theorize that Spanish definitions of the word Chamorro played a role in its being used to refer to the island's indigenous inhabitants. Not only is "Chamorro" a Spanish surname; in Spanish it also means "leg of pork", "beardless [wheat]", "bald", "close-cropped", or "shorn/shaven/[hair or wool] cut close to the surface". Around 1670, a Catholic missionary reported that men were sporting a style in which their heads were shaven, save for a "finger-length" amount of hair at the crown. This hairstyle has often been portrayed in modern-day depictions of early Chamorros, but the first European descriptions of the physical appearance of the Chamorro people in the 1520s and '30s report that both sexes had long black hair, which they wore down to their waists or even further. Another description, given about 50 years later, reported that the natives at that time were tying up their hair into one or two topknots.

Chamorro institutions on Guam advocate for the spelling CHamoru, as reflected in the 2017 Guam Public Law 33-236. In 2018, the Commission on the CHamoru Language and the Teaching of the History and Culture of the Indigenous People of Guam announced CHamoru as the preferred standardized spelling of the language and people, as opposed to the conventional spelling Chamorro.

Language
The Chamorro language is included in the Malayo-Polynesian subgroup of the Austronesian family. Because Guam was colonized by Spain for over 300 years, Chamorro has acquired many loanwords from Spanish. An example is how the traditional Chamorro number system was replaced by Spanish numbers.

Chamorro is often spoken in many homes, but this is becoming less common. However, a resurgence of interest in reviving the language has occurred, and all public schools on both Guam and the Northern Marianas are now required by law to teach the Chamorro language as part of the elementary-, middle-, and high-school curriculum.

A commonly spoken phrase in Chamorro is håfa adai, a greeting which approximates "hello" in English.

Early Chamorros
The Chamorros are commonly believed to have arrived in the Marianas Islands from the Philippines c. 1,500 BC. They are most closely related to other Austronesian-speaking natives from the Philippines, eastern Indonesia (specifically in Maluku and Sulawesi), Taiwanese aborigines, and peoples of the Caroline Islands to the south (in particular the outer islands of the Federated States of Micronesia state of Yap). Recent advanced DNA testing conducted on the remains of ancient Chamorros showed that the lineage of both the Unai and the Latte periods originated during the Holocene Epoch in eastern Indonesia, most likely Sulawesi, with no direct prehistoric connection to the Philippines. They were expert seafarers and skilled craftspeople familiar with intricate weaving and detailed pottery-making. The latte stone, a megalithic rock pillar topped with a hemispherical capstone, was used by early Chamorros as foundation for buildings, and has since been appropriated as a national symbol.

Chamorro society was based on what sociologist Lawrence J. Cunningham termed the "matrilineal avuncuclan", one characteristic of which is that the brother(s) of the female parent plays a more primary paternal role than biological male parent of a child.

Agriculture
Spanish colonial records show that Chamorro farmers planted seeds according to the phases of the moon. For example, farmers on Guam often plant tuber crops such as sweet potato and yams at full moon during low tide.

Cosmogony and religion
According to early Chamorro legend, the world was created by a twin brother and sister, Puntan and Fu'uña. As he lay dying, Puntan instructed his sister Fu'uña to make his body into the ingredients of the universe. She used his eyes to create the Sun and Moon, his eyebrows to make rainbows, and most of the rest of his parts into various features of the Earth. Once her work was complete, she descended on an island called "Guåhan", and transformed herself into a giant rock. This rock split, and from it emerged all human beings. Some believe that this rock was once located at the site of a church in Agat, while others believe it is the phallic-shaped Laso de Fua located in Fouha Bay in Umatac.

Ancient Chamorros engaged in ancestor veneration, but did not practice a formal "religion" in the sense of worshiping deities. At least one account by Christoph Carl Fernberger in 1623 holds that human sacrifice was practiced to placate a "great fish". This claim may be related to a Chamorro legend about why the island of Guam is narrow in the middle. According to the legend, a gigantic fish was gradually eating away at the island from both sides. Although the ancient Chamorros supposedly had magical abilities, the huge creature eluded them. When the men were unsuccessful in hunting it down, the women used their hair to weave a net, which grew larger as they sang. The singing enchanted the fish, and lured it into the giant net.

Enraged that Father Diego Luis de San Vitores had baptized his child, a Chamorro man and his friend killed the priest and Filipino catechist Pedro Calungsod in April 1672, dumping their bodies in the ocean.

Castes and classes
Chamorro society was divided into two main castes, and continued to be so for well over a century after the Spanish first arrived. According to historical records provided by Europeans, such as Father Charles Le Gobien, apparent racial differences existed between the subservient Manachang caste, and the higher Chamor[r]i, the Manachang being described as shorter, darker-skinned, and physically less hardy than the Chamori. The Chamori caste was further subdivided into the upper-middle class Achoti/Acha'ot and the highest, the ruling Matua/Matao class. Achoti could gain status as Matua, and Matua could be reduced to Achoti, but Manachang were born and died as such and had no recourse to improve their station. Members of the Manachang and the Chamori were not permitted to intermingle. All three classes performed physical labor, but had specifically different duties. Le Gobien theorized that Chamorro society comprised the geographical convergence of peoples of different ethnic origins. This idea may be supportable by the evidence of linguistic characteristics of the Chamorro language and social customs.

Clothing and beauty practices
Prior to Spanish contact, Chamorro boys and men wore no clothing and went about fully nude at all times. Chamorro girls went nude until around the age of eight to ten, at which point they began to wear a small genital covering made either of bark, one or more leaves, a piece of a turtle shell or in some cases matting. Both sexes at times wore hats of woven leaves to protect themselves from the sun.

Father Pierre Coomans wrote of the practice among Chamorro women of teeth blackening/dental lacquering (also a widespread custom in ancient Maritime Southeast Asia, Japan, Southeastern China, and parts of Indochina), which they considered beautiful as a distinction apart from animals. Fernberger wrote in his account of the Chamorros that "penis pins" were employed as a chastity measure for young males, a type of genital piercing similar to those employed by inhabitants of precolonial maritime Southeast Asia.

Folklore
The Chamorro creation story revolves around two celestial siblings named Puntan and Fu'una. In time, this creation story underwent a series of modifications due to the complications in passing the story along from generation to generation. In this Chamorro creation story, Puntan and Fu'una create the world with their body parts and souls. Puntan's various body parts were turned into the land, his chest into the sky, his eyebrows into rainbows, and his eyes into the sun and moon. Fu’una having the ability to give life, brought the sun, soil, and waters to life, and with a final transformation, she turned into stone and gave birth to the Chamorro people. Evidence supporting this creation story can be seen through the names of the villages on Guam as they are named after body parts. Barrigada translates to flank, Tiyan translates to stomach, Hagatna translates to blood and Mongmong translates to a heartbeat.

Traditional beliefs among the Chamorros include tales of taotaomo'na and birak, as well as the Spanish-introduced concepts of duendes and hauntings in places such as in Yona, other old buildings, schools, hotel elevators, and the Ma’ina bridge. Taotaomo'na are spirits of ancient Chamorros. Birak is a broader term that may refer not only to the undead, but also to demons or general elemental types. Taotaomona essentially translates to "people of early times," referring to the ancestors of the Chamorro peoples. The Taotaomona is a supernatural ancestral spirit that Chamorros and some neighboring islanders from Rota and Saipan believe in. The Taotaomona possess a strength that far exceeds man and has the ability to cause sickness and death to those who offend them. The appearance of a Taotaomona can vary as they can be a female or male and can take an attractive form or a monstrous form.

Spanish rule
On March 6, 1521, Ferdinand Magellan and his men, after having crossed the Pacific Ocean, had encountered the first "Indios" since leaving South America. Later Spanish visitors named the inhabitants "Chamurres", derived from a local term for the upper caste; this was then converted to "Chamorros", an old Spanish term for "bald", perhaps in reference to the local habit to shave.

Over the centuries, the Mariana Islands have been occupied by several foreign countries (Spain, Germany, Japan, United States), and present-day Chamorro society is almost entirely multiethnic, with the inhabitants of Luta/Rota being the least so. The Chamorros are primarily of Austronesian ancestry, but began to significantly interact with Spanish and Filipinos during the Spanish colonial era (1521–1898 AD). Primarily since the late 19th century onward, many Chamorros have intermarried with other Pacific Islanders, mainland Americans, Filipinos, Chinese, and Japanese.

During the Spanish colonial era, the Chamorro population was greatly reduced by the introduction of European diseases and changes in society during the Spanish-Chamorro Wars. The Spaniards killed many Chamorro men and relocated most others to Guam, where they lived in several parishes to prevent rebellion. An estimated 100,000 Chamorros may have populated the Marianas when Europeans first settled in 1667. By 1800, they numbered under 1,000. Within the parishes, the Spaniards eventually focused their efforts on converting the natives to Catholicism. Father Frances X. Hezel stated that Chamorros caught or reported engaging in pagan "sorcery" were publicly punished. Through this, they were given Spanish surnames through  Catálogo Alfabético de Apellidos or Alphabetic Catalog of Surnames. Spanish soldiers settled in Guam and all Chamorro have Spanish ancestry.

During the Spanish–American War, the United States captured Guam on June 21, 1898. Under the Treaty of Paris, signed on December 10, 1898, Spain ceded Guam to the United States effective April 11, 1899. Guam is among the 17 nonself-governing territories listed by the United Nations.

World War II
Before World War II, five American jurisdictions were in the Pacific Ocean: Guam and Wake Island in Micronesia, American Samoa and Hawaii in Polynesia, and the Philippines in Southeast Asia. On December 8, 1941, hours after the attack on Pearl Harbor, Japanese forces from the Marianas launched an invasion of Guam. Chamorros from the Northern Marianas, who had been under Japanese rule for more than 20 years, were brought to Guam to assist the Japanese administration. This, combined with the harsh treatment of Chamorros during the two-and-a-half-year occupation, created a rift that would become the main reason Chamorros rejected the referendum on reunification approved by the Northern Marianas in the 1960s. During the occupation, Chamorros were subjected to forced labor, incarceration, torture, and execution. American forces recaptured the island on July 21, 1944; Liberation Day commemorates the victory.

After World War II, the Guam Organic Act of 1950 established Guam as an unincorporated organized territory of the United States, provided for the structure of the island's civilian government, and granted the people U.S. citizenship. The governor of Guam was federally appointed until 1968 when the Guam Elective Governor Act provided for the office's popular election. Since Guam is not a U.S. state, U.S. citizens residing in Guam are not allowed to vote for president and their congressional representative is a nonvoting member. They do, however, get to vote for party delegates in presidential primaries.

The increasing numbers of Chamorros, especially Chamorro youth, relocating to the U.S. mainland, has complicated both the definition and preservation of Chamorro identity. On Guam, a Chamorro rights movement has developed since the United States gained control of the island. Leaders of the movement seek to return ancestral lands to the Chamorro people, and attain self-determination.

Modern Chamorro culture
Chamorro culture has over the years acquired noticeable influences from Spanish, Mexican, American, Japanese, and Filipino cultures, as well as the presence of fellow Oceanic (mostly Micronesian) groups. Influence from the German era in the Northern Marianas is most visible in the form of certain given names and family surnames.

The prehistoric concept of inafa'maolek ("doing good for each other", often translated as interdependence) is a core value of traditional Chamorro culture. Respect for one's family, community, and the elderly (man åmko') are major components, although this varies from person to person and family to family. The culture is now strongly influenced by American customs and values, largely because the Marianas archipelago (partitioned into Guam and the CNMI) is currently possessed by the United States of America, as organized but unincorporated territories; in addition, most people of Chamorro descent now live outside of the Marianas in the United States. The American military has a major cultural influence among the Chamorro; enlistment rates are higher in the Marianas than in any other place in the US. On Guam, the enlistment rate is around 14 people per 10,000; by contrast, the US state of Montana, which has the highest per capita enlistment, has a rate near half that, with about eight people per 10,000. (See the Guam page for more details about this topic.)

Cockfighting and cockfight-related gambling were introduced by the Spanish and have long been a significant pastime in Chamoru culture, especially among men. It is still popular among the members of older generations and with Filipino immigrants, who raise roosters for cockfighting purposes; however, mixed martial arts fighting competitions have grown in popularity as spectator sports, particularly among the members of more recent generations. Large-scale events are held throughout the year on Guam and Saipan, which feature local competitors and guest participants from abroad.

Chamorro life has long centered on one's matriarchal clan. The concept of a "clan" stemming from a common female ancestor is still observed. Large extended families remain central to life in the Marianas.

Diabetes and heart disease have become increasingly common among the indigenous population, as well as among nonindigenous Oceanic people living in the Marianas, particularly the Carolinian Refaluwasch.

Traditional healers called suruhånu (or suruhåna for women) are still greatly respected for their knowledge of herbal treatments and spirits.

Religion
Most Chamorros are Roman Catholic and few in the Marianas still maintain some customs and beliefs from the time before the first European conquests; some residents of the Marianas will still ask permission from ancestral spirits before entering parts of jungles.

Among the 56 states and territories of the United States, the Mariana Islands have the highest rate of religious self-identification, with a combined percentage of only 1.75% of the population (Guam at 2.5% and the CNMI at just 1%) not claiming membership in or affiliation with a particular religion.

Cuisine
Chamorro cuisine is influenced by various cultures. Examples of popular foods of foreign origin include various types of sweet or savory empanada, originally introduced by Spain, and pancit, a noodle dish from the Philippines. The Spanish settlement in the 17th century also introduced cattle, leading to dishes like tinala' katne.

Archeological evidence from islands in the Marianas reveals that rice was cultivated there since prehistory. Red rice made with achoti is a distinct staple food that strongly identifies Chamorro cuisine among the many dishes of fellow Pacific Island cultures. It is commonly served for special events, such as parties (gupot or "fiestas"), nobenas, and occasions such as a high-school or college graduations. The condiment fina'denne' accompanies most meals. Fruits such as lemmai, mangga, niyok, and bilimbines are consumed in various local recipes. In the Marianas, Korean, Chinese, Japanese, and American cuisine are also commonly available. Local cookies are known as guyuria.

Locally distinct foods include kelaguen, a dish in which meat is denatured in whole or in part by citric acid rather than heat; tinaktak, a meat dish made with coconut milk; and kå'du fanihi (flying fox/fruit bat soup). Fruit bats and local birds have become scarce in modern times primarily due to the World War II-era introduction of the brown tree snake, which decimated the populations of local birds and threatens the fanihi (fruit bat) population, as well. Illegal hunting of fruit bats also threatens existing populations.

Spam and other canned meats were introduced to the islands after World War II, leading to a dietary shift.

Diaspora in the United States
According to the 2010 census, 148,220 Chamorros are living in the United States, mostly from Guam, but also from the Northern Marianas and Saipan.

The early Chamorros who migrated to the US were Guamanians who moved in the first decade of the 20th century. In the following decades, small groups of Guamanians emigrated to Hawaii and the Western United States, where they worked as farmers. The population of Guam got the American citizenship in 1929. So, after the end of World War II, many more Guamanians emigrated to the US. Most of them were in the military or married with military people.

In 1950, the population of Guam gained the full American citizenship, which favoured Guamanian migration to the US. So, the first major Guamanian migration emerged and more of 160 Guamanians emigrated to the US in the '50s. Many of them moved to California. In 1952, Guamanian immigrants founded their first organization in US, the Guam Territorial Society (later renamed as the Guam Society of America), in Washington, D.C., where many worked for the Department of Defense and developing military operations.

In the 1960s, hundreds of Guamanians migrated to the United States, when the largest numbers emigrated to this country. Most of them were fleeing the Korean War and Typhoon Karen.

In the '70s, another wave of Guamanians arrived in the US. In 1986, the US acquired the Northern Marianas Islands, which favoured migration from islands to the US.

As of 2020, Pierce County, Washington, has the largest Chamorro population with 4,931 persons or 0.62% of the total population.

Notable Chamorros

 * Pia Mia Perez (born 1996), singer/songwriter
 * Angel Santos (born 1959), Chamorro Rights Advocate & former Guam Senator
 * Theresa H. Arriola, a cultural anthropologist from the Northern Mariana Islands
 * Zach Banner (born 1993), American NFL football offensive tackle for the Pittsburgh Steelers
 * Manny Crisostomo (born 1958), CHamorro Pulitzer Prize winner
 * Joe Duarte (born 1983), mixed martial artist
 * Peter Gumataotao, first Chamorro two-star flag officer in the United States military
 * Siobhon McManus, teacher & activist
 * Walt Nauta, aide to former US president Donald Trump
 * Susan Pangelinan, Chamorro-American member of the United States Air Force
 * Frank Camacho, martial artist
 * Maria Anderson Roberto (born 1880), chaperone for the Navy's Native Nurses program
 * Gregorio Sablan (born 1955), Delegate to the U.S. House from the Northern Mariana Islands's at-large congressional district since 2009.
 * Jon Tuck, martial artist

title: Chamorro people


text:
Conny Andersson (racing driver)

Conny Andersson (born 28 December 1939) is a Swedish former racing driver who participated in Formula One during and  for the Surtees and BRM teams. Earlier, he was a motocross rider who competed in Formula Three racing as a privateer for almost ten years. He won the 1974 Swedish Formula Three Championship and the 1975 European Formula Three Championship at Monaco. The next season, he won four more races.

Complete Formula One results
(key)

title: Conny Andersson (racing driver)


text:
Markstay-Warren

Markstay-Warren is a town in the Canadian province of Ontario, located in the Sudbury District. Highway 17, from the city limits of Greater Sudbury to the Sudbury District's border with Nipissing District, lies entirely within Markstay-Warren. The town had a population of 2,656 in the Canada 2016 Census.

The town was created on January 1, 1999 by amalgamating the political townships of Ratter and Dunnet and Hagar, the geographic township of Awrey, and parts of the geographic townships of Hawley, Henry, Loughrin and Street. Along with the municipalities of St. Charles and French River, it is part of the region known as Sudbury East.

In the Canada 2016 Census, Markstay-Warren was added for the first time to Greater Sudbury's census metropolitan area.

Communities
The town includes the communities of Appleby Corner, Callum, Dunnet Corner, Hagar, Markstay, Rivière-Veuve, Stinson and Warren. Markstay is the location of the town's municipal offices.

Stinson, Callum, Hagar and Warren are all located directly on Highway 17, a branch of the Trans-Canada Highway. Appleby Corner is located south of Hagar on Highway 535. The other communities are all located along local roads that branch off from one of these two highways. In 2010, planning commenced on a future extension of Highway 17's freeway alignment in Sudbury, which will eventually see the freeway's eastern terminus located near Main Street into Markstay.

History
Much of the area owes its existence to the Canadian Pacific Railway. Most settlers were French-Canadian Roman Catholics who came by rail from the province of Quebec.

Shortly after the completion of the transcontinental line of the CPR in 1885, a station and community was established at Rivière-Veuve, taking its name from the Veuve River that flows through this area. In 1890, the Warren family of Toronto established a sawmill, slightly east of Rivière-Veuve, operating under the name Imperial Lumber Company. A standard gauge logging railroad was also constructed to bring logs to the mill.

In the first part of the 20th century, lumber and agriculture were the main economic activities in the area. By the 1960s, Warren's population and economy grew steadily and because of its proximity (60 km) to Sudbury, many area residents were employed in the mines of the Sudbury area. By the 1970s, important local employers included Ontario Hydro and the Ontario Provincial Police.

The economic recession of the early 1990s hit the Warren area significantly hard as corporate restructuring and downsizing at Ontario Hydro and the OPP resulted in the closure of the Ontario Hydro office and reductions in staff at the OPP. As a consequence, Warren's population suffered and many residents moved to larger centres such as Sudbury or North Bay.

Demographics
In the 2021 Census of Population conducted by Statistics Canada, Markstay-Warren had a population of $2,708$ living in $1,109$ of its $1,199$ total private dwellings, a change of NaN% from its 2016 population of $2,656$. With a land area of 505.92 km2, it had a population density of in 2021.

title: Markstay-Warren


text:
Interamerican University of Puerto Rico

The Inter American University of Puerto Rico (Spanish: Universidad Interamericana de Puerto Rico; often abbreviated to UIPR or Inter) is a private Christian university with its main campus in San Germán, Puerto Rico. It also has campuses in Aguadilla, Arecibo, Barranquitas, Bayamón, Fajardo, Guayama, Ponce, and San Juan. The university also has three professional schools: School of Optometry, School of Law, and the School of Aeronautics. The Inter offers academic programs in 11 teaching units. It was founded in San Germán in 1912. The San Germán campus is also the home to the Inter American School, a private co-educational college-preparatory school.

History
The Inter American University was founded as Polytechnic Institute of Puerto Rico in 1912 by Rev. John Will Harris and his brother Clarence Harris. It was founded as an elementary and high school in the Lomas de Santa Marta sector of the town of San Germán in land now occupied by the university's San Germán Campus. In 1927, the first high school class graduation took place. In 1944, the institute was accredited by the Middle States Association of Colleges and Secondary Schools, thus becoming the first liberal arts college to receive such accreditation in Puerto Rico, as well as the first outside the continental United States. This accreditation has been maintained over the years.

Governance
The governing body of the Inter American University of Puerto Rico is its self-perpetuating Board of Trustees. The faculty and administration of the Faculty of Law and School of Optometry determine their own programs and rules subject to approval by the president and trustees.

Religious life
Although Inter American University maintains a historic relationship with the Presbyterian Church (USA), it does not adhere to any one particular theology or ecclesiastical body.

Accreditations
The eleven academic units of Inter American University of Puerto Rico are authorized by the Council on Education of Puerto Rico and accredited by the Middle States Commission on Higher Education to offer university studies of the undergraduate, graduate and professional levels, as the case may be. Likewise, the university is committed to the professional accreditation of its academic programs. For this reason, some academic units have programs accredited by organizations, such as:
 * Accreditation Board for Engineering and Technology (ABET) Bayamón Campus
 * Accreditation Council on Optometric Education (ACOE) School of Optometry
 * American Bar Association (ABA) School of Law
 * Council on Accreditation of Nurse Anesthesia Educational Program (CANAEP) Arecibo Campus
 * Council on Social Work Education (CSWE) Arecibo and Fajardo campuses (B.A.) Metropolitan Campus (B.A., M.S.W.)
 * International Association for Continuing Education and Training (IACET) Aguadilla, Arecibo, Barranquitas, Bayamón, Fajardo, Guayama, Metropolitano, Ponce and San Germán campuses, School of Law and School of Optometry
 * International Assembly for Collegiate Business Education (IACBE) San Germán Campus (B.B.A., M.B.A, PhD)
 * Joint Review Committee on Education in Radiologic Technology (JRCERT) San Germán Campus (A.A.S., B.S.)
 * National Accrediting Agency for Clinical Laboratory Sciences (NAACLS) Metropolitano and San Germán campuses (BS, Professional Certificate)
 * National League for Nursing Accrediting Commission (NLNAC) Aguadilla and Arecibo campuses (B.S.N.) Recinto Metropolitano (A.A.S., B.S.N.)
 * Network of International Business Schools (NIBS) Metropolitan Campus (Division of Economic and Administrative Sciences)
 * Teacher Education Accreditation Council (TEAC) Barranquitas, Fajardo, Metropolitan, Ponce and San Germán campuses (Teacher Education Program)

Campuses

 * Aguadilla
 * Arecibo
 * Barranquitas
 * Bayamón
 * Fajardo
 * Guayama
 * Metropolitano
 * Ponce
 * San Germán

Academics
Inter American University offers pre-university, undergraduate, graduate and professional academic programs for obtaining certificates and Associate, Bachelors, Masters and Doctoral degrees in subject matters normally offered by institutions of higher education of a nature, educational mission and goals similar to those of this university. The School of Law of Inter American University grants the Juris Doctor degree and the School of Optometry, the Doctor of Optometry degree. Graduate courses may be taught in Spanish.

Notable alumni

 * Luis Germán Cajiga - artist, painter
 * Yiye Ávila – Pentecostal evangelist, writer and former bodybuilder
 * Jaime Fonalledas – businessman and President of Empresas Fonalledas, which owns Plaza Las Américas
 * Alejandro García Padilla – Former Governor of Puerto Rico
 * Noemí Ruiz – artist
 * Antonio Sanchez - Puerto Rican television and radio personality
 * Tony Santiago - military historian
 * Luguelín Santos – Dominican sprinter
 * Joan Smalls – Supermodel
 * Raymond Dalmau - basketball player
 * Rubén Colón Tarrats – orchestra director
 * Wanda Vazquez Garced - Governor of Puerto Rico

title: Interamerican University of Puerto Rico


text:
St. Charles, Ontario

St. Charles is a town in the Canadian province of Ontario, located in the Sudbury District.

It was created on January 1, 1999 by amalgamating the political townships of Casimir, Jennings and Appleby as well as a strip of unorganized territory on the West Arm of Lake Nipissing. Along with the municipalities of Markstay-Warren and French River, it is part of the region known as Sudbury East.

The town had a population of 1,269 in the Canada 2016 Census. Franco-Ontarians, or Ontarians who speak French as their mother tongue, make up the majority of the population.

In addition to the primary townsite at St. Charles, the municipality also includes the smaller communities of Casimir and West Arm.

Demographics
In the 2021 Census of Population conducted by Statistics Canada, St.-Charles had a population of $1,357$ living in $621$ of its $788$ total private dwellings, a change of NaN% from its 2016 population of $1,269$. With a land area of 314.46 km2, it had a population density of in 2021.

title: St. Charles, Ontario