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Hellmouth

A Hellmouth, or the jaws of Hell, is the entrance to Hell envisaged as the gaping mouth of a huge monster, an image which first appeared in Anglo-Saxon art, and then spread all over Europe. It remained very common in depictions of the Last Judgment and Harrowing of Hell until the end of the Middle Ages, and is still sometimes used during the Renaissance and after. It enjoyed something of a revival in polemical popular prints after the Protestant Reformation, when figures from the opposite side would be shown disappearing into the mouth. A notable late appearance is in the two versions of a painting by El Greco of about 1578. Political cartoons still showed Napoleon leading his troops into one. Medieval theatre often had a hellmouth prop or mechanical device which was used to attempt to scare the audience by vividly dramatizing an entrance to Hell. These seem often to have featured a battlemented castle entrance, in painting usually associated with Heaven.

The Hellmouth was intended to remind a Christian audience of the danger of damnation. Those shown entering, or already inside, are typically shown naked, their clothing not having survived the General Resurrection of the Dead that is often part of the same image. Some, even if naked, wear headgear indicating their rank at the top of society, with the papal tiara, king's crown and bishop's mitre the most common. Far rarer are indications of people being non-Christian, such as the Jewish hat.

History
The oldest example of an animal Hellmouth known to Meyer Schapiro was an ivory carving of c. 800 in the Victoria and Albert Museum, and he says most examples before the 12th century are English. Many show the Harrowing of Hell, which appealed to Anglo-Saxon taste, as a successful military raid by Christ. Schapiro speculates that the image may have drawn from the pagan myth of the Crack of Doom, with the mouth that of the wolf-monster Fenrir, slain by Vidar, who is used as a symbol of Christ on the Gosforth Cross and other pieces of Anglo-Scandinavian art. In the assimilation of Christianised Viking populations in northern England, the Church was surprisingly ready to allow the association of pagan mythological images with Christian ones, in hogback grave markers for example.

Satan swallowing the damned
In the Anglo-Saxon Vercelli Homilies (4:46-8) Satan is likened to a dragon swallowing the damned:

... ne cumaþ þa næfre of þæra wyrma seaðe & of þæs dracan ceolan þe is Satan nemned.

[they] never come out of the pit of snakes and of the throat of the dragon which is called Satan.

Association with Leviathan
The whale-monster Leviathan (translated from Hebrew, Job 41:1, "wreathed animal") has been equated with this description, although this is hard to confirm in the earliest appearances. However, in The Whale, an Old English poem from the Exeter Book, the mouth of Hell is compared to a whale's mouth:

The whale has another trick: when he is hungry, he opens his mouth and a sweet smell comes out. The fish are tricked by the smell and they enter into his mouth. Suddenly the whale's jaws close.

Likewise, any man who lets himself be tricked by a sweet smell and led to sin will go into hell, opened by the devil—if he has followed the pleasures of the body and not those of the spirit. When the devil has brought them to hell, he clashes together the jaws, the gates of hell. No one can get out from them, just as no fish can escape from the mouth of the whale.

Association with Cerberus
Later in the Middle Ages, the classical Cerberus also became associated with the image, although it is hardly likely that the Anglo-Saxons had him in mind.

Hellmouth as the mouth of Satan
Satan himself is often shown sitting in Hell eating the damned, but according to G.D. Schmidt this is a separate image, and the Hellmouth should not be considered to be the mouth of Satan, although Hofmann is inclined to disagree with this. The Hellmouth never bites the damned, remaining wide open, ready for more.

Decline of the motif in the Late Middle Ages
In general the motif had fallen from favour in Italy and the Netherlands by the late 14th century, and is rarely seen in the many Last Judgements in Early Netherlandish painting, but in the late medieval works by Hieronymous Bosch and his followers, where the wide interior of Hell is shown, there is often a Hellmouth leading to some special compartment. It continued in use in Germany and France. The Hellmouth appears, swallowing a bishop, at bottom left in The Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse, a famous woodcut by Albrecht Dürer (c. 1497–98).

General references

 * Hofmann Petra (2008). Infernal Imagery in Anglo-Saxon Charters. PhD thesis. St Andrews, Fife, Scotland: University of St Andrews..

title: Hellmouth


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Talk:Genotype–phenotype distinction

Untitled
An earlier version of this article was posted on Nupedia.

Genotype-Phenotype Map
I think this subject deserves an independent page, not just a redirect here. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 71.202.236.97 (talk) 17:46, 6 August 2008 (UTC)

Does monozygocity imply identical genotype?
The article reads: “Even two organisms with identical genotypes normally differ in their phenotypes. One experiences this in everyday life with monozygous (i.e. identical) twins. Identical twins share the same genotype, since their genomes are identical; but they never have the same phenotype, although their phenotypes may be very similar.”

However, in Human_genetic_variation it says: “No two humans are genetically identical. Even monozygotic twins, who develop from one zygote, have infrequent genetic differences due to mutations occurring during development and gene copy number variation has been observed.”

That is, even monozygotic twins do not have the same genotype (are not genetically identical). Therefore, I think the paragraph containing the sentence above should be removed. (e.g. emre) 14:43, 27 April 2012 (UTC) — Preceding unsigned comment added by Emreg00 (talk • contribs)

Sickle-cell disease and one-to-one?
What exactly does "phenotype" mean in this context? "For example, if the phenotype is almost one-to-one with genotype (sickle-cell disease)" Nancygerette (talk) 01:58, 5 August 2023 (UTC)

Requested move

 * The following is a closed discussion of a requested move. Please do not modify it. Subsequent comments should be made in a new section on the talk page. Editors desiring to contest the closing decision should consider a move review. No further edits should be made to this section.

The result of the move request was: moved  Dr Strauss   talk   11:50, 1 October 2017 (UTC)

Genotype-phenotype distinction → Genotype–phenotype distinction – Please place your rationale for the proposed move here. Tony  (talk)  01:30, 24 September 2017 (UTC)

Per WP:MOSDASH and many external guides. What more authority could we wish for than Nature? Tony  (talk)  01:30, 24 September 2017 (UTC)

 * Support but should have been done as a technical noncontroversial since it's so obviously the right move. Dicklyon (talk) 01:40, 24 September 2017 (UTC)

 * The above discussion is preserved as an archive of a requested move. Please do not modify it. Subsequent comments should be made in a new section on this talk page or in a move review. No further edits should be made to this section.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Talk:Genotype–phenotype distinction


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Microraptor

Microraptor (Greek, μικρός, mīkros: "small"; Latin, raptor: "one who seizes") is a genus of small, four-winged dromaeosaurid dinosaurs. Numerous well-preserved fossil specimens have been recovered from Liaoning, China. They date from the early Cretaceous Jiufotang Formation (Aptian stage), 125 to 120 million years ago. Three species have been named (M. zhaoianus, M. gui, and M. hanqingi), though further study has suggested that all of them represent variation in a single species, which is properly called M. zhaoianus. Cryptovolans, initially described as another four-winged dinosaur, is usually considered to be a synonym of Microraptor.

Like Archaeopteryx, well-preserved fossils of Microraptor provide important evidence about the evolutionary relationship between birds and earlier dinosaurs. Microraptor had long pennaceous feathers that formed aerodynamic surfaces on the arms and tail but also on the legs. This led paleontologist Xu Xing in 2003 to describe the first specimen to preserve this feature as a "four-winged dinosaur" and to speculate that it may have glided using all four limbs for lift. Subsequent studies have suggested that Microraptor was capable of powered flight as well.

Microraptor was among the most abundant non-avialan dinosaurs in its ecosystem, and the genus is represented by more fossils than any other dromaeosaurid, with possibly over 300 fossil specimens represented across various museum collections. One specimen in particular shows evidence of active primary feather moulting, which is one of the few known fossil evidence of such behavior among pennaraptoran dinosaurs.

Naming controversy
The initial naming of Microraptor was controversial, because of the unusual circumstances of its first description. The first specimen to be described was part of a chimeric specimen—a patchwork of different feathered dinosaur species (Microraptor itself, Yanornis and an as-of-yet undescribed third species) assembled from multiple specimens in China and smuggled to the USA for sale. After the forgery was revealed by Xu Xing of Beijing's Institute of Vertebrate Paleontology and Paleoanthropology, Storrs L. Olson, curator of birds in the National Museum of Natural History of the Smithsonian Institution, published a description of the Microraptor's tail in an obscure journal, giving it the name Archaeoraptor liaoningensis in an attempt to remove the name from the paleornithological record by assigning it to the part least likely to be a bird. However, Xu had discovered the remains of the specimen from which the tail had been taken and published a description of it later that year, giving it the name Microraptor zhaoianus.

Since the two names designate the same individual as the type specimen, Microraptor zhaoianus would have been a junior objective synonym of Archaeoraptor liaoningensis and the latter, if valid, would have had priority under the International Code of Zoological Nomenclature. However, there is some doubt whether Olson in fact succeeded in meeting all the formal requirements for establishing a new taxon. Namely, Olson designated the specimen as a lectotype, before an actual type species was formally erected. A similar situation arose with Tyrannosaurus rex and Manospondylus gigas, in which the former became a nomen protectum and the latter a nomen oblitum due to revisions in the ICZN rules that took place on December 31, 1999. In addition, Xu's name for the type specimen (Microraptor) was subsequently used more frequently than the original name; as such, this and the chimeric nature of the specimen would render the name "Archaeoraptor" a nomen vanum (as it was improperly described) and the junior synonym Microraptor a nomen protectum (as it's been used in more published works than "Archaeoraptor" and was properly described).

Additional specimens
The first specimen referred to Microraptor represented a small individual and included faint feather remnants, but was otherwise not well preserved and lacked a skull. In 2002 Mark Norell et al. described another specimen, BPM 1 3-13, which they did not name or refer to an existing species. Later that year Stephen Czerkas et al. named the specimen Cryptovolans pauli, and referred two additional specimens (the first to show well-preserved feathers) to this species. The generic name was derived from Greek kryptos, "hidden", and Latin volans, "flying". The specific name, pauli, honors paleontologist Gregory S. Paul, who had long proposed that dromaeosaurids evolved from flying ancestors.

The type specimens of C. pauli were collected from the Jiufotang Formation, dating from the early Albian and now belong to the collection of the Paleontology Museum of Beipiao, in Liaoning, China. They are referred to by the inventory numbers LPM 0200, the holotype; LPM 0201, its counterslab (slab and counterslab together represent the earlier BPM 1 3-13); and the paratype LPM 0159, a smaller skeleton. Both individuals are preserved as articulated compression fossils; they are reasonably complete but partially damaged. Czerkas et al. (2002) diagnosed the genus on the basis of having primary feathers (which in the authors' opinion made it a bird), a co-ossified sternum, a tail consisting of 28 to 30 vertebrae and a third finger with a short phalanx III-3. Some of the feathers Czerkas described as primary were actually attached to the leg, rather than the arm. This, along with most of the other diagnostic characters, is also present in the genus Microraptor, which was first described earlier than Cryptovolans. However, BPM 1 3-13 has a longer tail, proportionately, than other Microraptor specimens that had been described by 2002, which have 24 to 26 tail vertebrae.

Subsequent studies (and more specimens of Microraptor) have shown that the features used to distinguish Cryptovolans are not unique, but are present to varying degrees across various specimens. In a review by Phil Senter and colleagues in 2004, the scientists suggested that all these features represented individual variation across various age groups of a single Microraptor species, making the name Cryptovolans pauli and Microraptor gui junior synonyms of Microraptor zhaoianus. Many other researchers, including Alan Feduccia and Tom Holtz, have since supported its synonymy. M. gui has been accepted as a distinct species with the specimen reported in 2013 being distinguishable from the type specimen of M. zhaoianus.

A new specimen of Microraptor, BMNHC PH881, showed several features previously unknown in the animal, including the probably glossy-black iridescent plumage coloration. The new specimen also featured a bifurcated tailfan, similar in shape to previously known Microraptor tailfans except sporting a pair of long, narrow feathers at the center of the fan. The new specimen also showed no sign of the nuchal crest, indicating that the crest inferred from the holotype specimen may be an artifact of taphonomic distortion.

Numerous further specimens likely belonging to Microraptor have been uncovered, all from the Shangheshou Bed of the Jiufotang Formation in Liaoning, China. In fact, Microraptor is the most abundant non-avialan dinosaur fossil type found in this formation. In 2010, it was reported that there were over 300 undescribed specimens attributable to Microraptor or its close relatives among the collections of several Chinese museums, though many had been altered or composited by private fossil collectors.

Study and debate
Norell et al. (2002) described BPM 1 3-13 as the first dinosaur known to have flight feathers on its legs as well as on its arms.

Czerkas (2002) mistakenly described the fossil as having no long feathers on its legs, but only on its hands and arms, as he illustrated on the cover of his book Feathered Dinosaurs and the Origin of Flight. In his discussion of Cryptovolans in this book, Czerkas strongly denounces Norell's conclusions; "The misinterpretation of the primary wing feathers as being from the hind legs stems directly to [sic] seeing what one believes and wants to see". Czerkas also denounced Norell for failing to conclude that dromaeosaurs are birds, accusing him of succumbing to "...the blinding influences of preconceived ideas." The crown group definition of Aves, as a subset of Avialae, the explicit definition of the term "bird" that Norell employs, would definitely exclude BPM 1 3-13. However, he does not consider the specimen to belong to Avialae either.

Czerkas's interpretation of the hindleg feathers noted by Norell proved to be incorrect the following year when additional specimens of Microraptor were published by Xu and colleagues, showing a distinctive "hindwing" completely separate from the forelimb wing. The first of these specimens was discovered in 2001, and between 2001 and 2003 four more specimens were bought from private collectors by Xu's museum, the Institute of Vertebrate Paleontology and Paleoanthropology. Xu also considered these specimens, most of which had hindwings and proportional differences from the original Microraptor specimen, to be a new species, which he named Microraptor gui. However, Senter also questioned this classification, noting that as with Cryptovolans, most of the differences appeared to correspond with size, and likely age differences. Two further specimens, classified as M. zhaoianus in 2002 (M. gui had not yet been named), have also been described by Hwang and colleagues.

Czerkas also believed that the animal may have been able to fly better than Archaeopteryx, the animal usually referred to as the earliest known bird. He cited the fused sternum and asymmetrical feathers, and argued that Microraptor has modern bird features that make it more derived than Archaeopteryx. Czerkas cited the fact that this possibly volant animal is also very clearly a dromaeosaurid to suggest that the Dromaeosauridae might actually be a basal bird group, and that later, larger, species such as Deinonychus were secondarily flightless (Czerkas, 2002). The current consensus is that there is not enough evidence to conclude whether dromaeosaurs descended from an ancestor with some aerodynamic abilities. The work of Xu et al. (2003) suggested that basal dromaeosaurs were probably small, arboreal, and could glide. The work of Turner et al. (2007) suggested that the ancestral dromaeosaur could not glide or fly, but that there was good evidence that it was small-bodied (around 65 cm long and 600–700 g in mass).

Description
Microraptor was among the smallest-known non-avian dinosaurs, with the holotype of M. gui measuring 77 cm in length, 88 - 94 cm in wingspan and weighing 0.5 - 1.4 kg. There are larger specimens which would have measured at least 80 cm in length, more than 99 cm in wingspan and weighed 1.25 - 1.88 kg. Aside from their extremely small size, Microraptor were among the first non-avialan dinosaurs discovered with the impressions of feathers and wings. Seven specimens of M. zhaoianus have been described in detail, from which most feather impressions are known. Unusual even among early birds and feathered dinosaurs, Microraptor is one of the few known bird precursors to sport long flight feathers on the legs as well as the wings. Their bodies had a thick covering of feathers, with a diamond-shaped fan on the end of the tail (possibly for added stability during flight). Xu et al. (2003) compared the longer plumes on Microraptor's head to those of the Philippine eagle. Bands of dark and light present on some specimens may indicate color patterns present in life, though at least some individuals almost certainly possessed an iridescent black coloration.

Distinguishing anatomical features
A diagnosis is a statement of the anatomical features of an organism (or group) that collectively distinguish it from all other organisms. Some, but not all, of the features in a diagnosis are also autapomorphies. An autapomorphy is a distinctive anatomical feature that is unique to a given organism. Several anatomical features found in Microraptor, such as a combination of unserrated and partially serrated teeth with constricted 'waists', and unusually long upper arm bones, are shared with both primitive avians and primitive troodontids. Microraptor is particularly similar to the basal troodontid Sinovenator; in their 2002 description of two M. zhaoianus specimens, Hwang et al. note that this is not particularly surprising, given that both Microraptor and Sinovenator are very primitive members of two closely related groups, and both are close to the deinonychosaurian split between dromaeosaurids and troodontids.

Coloration
In March 2012, Quanguo Li et al. determined the plumage coloration of Microraptor based on the new specimen BMNHC PH881, which also showed several other features previously unknown in Microraptor. By analyzing the fossilized melanosomes (pigment cells) in the fossil with scanning electron microscope techniques, the researchers compared their arrangements to those of modern birds. In Microraptor, these cells were shaped in a manner consistent with black, glossy coloration in modern birds. These rod-shaped, narrow melanosomes were arranged in stacked layers, much like those of a modern starling, and indicated iridescence in the plumage of Microraptor. Though the researchers state that the true function of the iridescence is yet unknown, it has been suggested that the tiny dromaeosaur was using its glossy coat as a form of communication or sexual display, much as in modern iridescent birds.

Classification
The cladogram below follows a 2012 analysis by paleontologists Phil Senter, James I. Kirkland, Donald D. DeBlieux, Scott Madsen and Natalie Toth.

Wings and flight
Microraptor had four wings, one on each of its forelimbs and hindlimbs, somewhat resembling one possible arrangement of the quartet of flight surfaces on a tandem wing aircraft of today. It had long pennaceous feathers on arms and hands 10 – with legs and feet 11 –. The long feathers on the legs of Microraptor were true flight feathers as seen in modern birds, with asymmetrical vanes on the arm, leg, and tail feathers. As in modern bird wings, Microraptor had both primary (anchored to the hand) and secondary (anchored to the arm) flight feathers. This standard wing pattern was mirrored on the hindlegs, with flight feathers anchored to the upper foot bones as well as the upper and lower leg. Though not apparent in most fossils under natural light, due to obstruction from decayed soft tissue, the feather bases extended close to or in contact with the bones, as in modern birds, providing strong anchor points.

It was originally thought that Microraptor was a glider, and probably lived mainly in trees, because the hindwings anchored to the feet of Microraptor would have hindered their ability to run on the ground. Some paleontologists have suggested that feathered dinosaurs used their wings to parachute from trees, possibly to attack or ambush prey on the ground, as a precursor to gliding or true flight. In their 2007 study, Chatterjee and Templin tested this hypothesis as well, and found that the combined wing surface of Microraptor was too narrow to successfully parachute to the ground without injury from any significant height. However, the authors did leave open the possibility that Microraptor could have parachuted short distances, as between closely spaced tree branches. Wind tunnel experiments have demonstrated that sustaining a high-lift coefficient at the expense of high drag was likely the most efficient strategy for Microraptor when gliding between low elevations. Microraptor did not require a sophisticated, 'modern' wing morphology to be an effective glider. However, the idea that Microraptor was an arboreal glider relies on it to have regularly climbed or even lived in trees, when study of its anatomy have shown that its limb proportions fall in line with modern ground birds rather than climbers, and its skeleton shows none of the expected adaptations in animals specialized for climbing trees.

Describing specimens originally referenced as a distinctive species (Cryptovolans pauli), paleontologist Stephen Czerkas argued Microraptor may have been a powered flier, and indeed possibly a better flyer than Archaeopteryx. He noted that the Microraptor's fused sternum, asymmetrical feathers, and features of the shoulder girdle indicated that it could fly under its own power, rather than merely gliding. Today, most scientists agree that Microraptor had the anatomical features expected of a flying animal, though it would have been a less advanced form of flight compared to birds. For example, some studies suggest the shoulder joint was too primitive to allow a full flapping flight stroke. In the ancestral anatomy of theropod dinosaurs, the shoulder socket faced downward and slightly backward, making it impossible for the animals to raise their arms vertically, a prerequisite for the flapping flight stroke in birds. Studies of maniraptoran anatomy have suggested that the shoulder socket did not shift into the bird-like position of a high, upward orientation close to the vertebral column until relatively advanced avialans like the enantiornithes appeared. However, other scientists have argued that the shoulder girdle in some paravian theropods, including Microraptor, is curved in such a way that the shoulder joint could only have been positioned high on the back, allowing for a nearly vertical upstroke of the wing. This possibly advanced shoulder anatomy, combined with the presence of a propatagium linking the wrist to the shoulder (which fills the space in front of the flexed wing and may support the wing against drag in modern birds) and an alula, much like a "thumb-like" form of leading edge slot, may indicate that Microraptor was capable of true, powered flight.

Other studies have demonstrated that the wings of Microraptor were large enough to generate the lift necessary for powered launching into flight even without a fully vertical flight stroke. A 2016 study of incipient flight ability in paravians demonstrated that Microraptor was capable of wing-assisted incline running, as well as wing-assisted leaping and even ground-based launching.

Stephen Czerkas, Gregory S. Paul, and others have argued that the fact Microraptor could fly and yet is also very clearly a dromaeosaurid suggests that the Dromaeosauridae, including later and larger species such as Deinonychus, were secondarily flightless. The work of Xu and colleagues also suggested that the ancestors of dromaeosaurids were probably small, arboreal, and capable of gliding, although later discoveries of more primitive dromaeosaurids with short forelimbs unsuitable for gliding have cast doubt on this view. Work done on the question of flight ability in other paravians, however, showed that most of them probably would not have been able to achieve enough lift for powered flight, given their limited flight strokes and relatively smaller wings. These studies concluded that Microraptor probably evolved flight and its associated features (fused sternum, alula, etc.) independently of the ancestors of birds. In 2024, Kiat and O'Connor analyzed that Mesozoic birds and Microraptor had remex morphologies that are consistent with modern volant birds, while anchiornithids and Caudipteryx were secondarily flightless.

Hindwing posture
Sankar Chatterjee suggested in 2005 that, in order for Microraptor to glide or fly, the forewings and hindwings must have been on different levels (as on a biplane) and not overlaid (as on a dragonfly), and that the latter posture would have been anatomically impossible. Using this biplane model, Chatterjee was able to calculate possible methods of gliding and determined that Microraptor most likely employed a phugoid style of gliding: launching itself from a perch, the animal would have swooped downward in a deep U-shaped curve and then lifted again to land on another tree. The feathers not directly employed in the biplane wing structure, like those on the tibia and the tail, could have been used to control drag and alter the flight path, trajectory, etc. The orientation of the hindwings would also have helped the animal control its gliding flight. Chatterjee also used computer algorithms that test animal flight capacity to test whether or not Microraptor was capable of true, powered flight, as opposed to or in addition to passive gliding. The resulting data showed that Microraptor did have the requirements to sustain level powered flight, so it is theoretically possible that the animal flew, as opposed to gliding.

Some paleontologists have doubted the biplane hypothesis, and have proposed other configurations. A 2010 study by Alexander et al. described the construction of a lightweight three-dimensional physical model used to perform glide tests. Using several hindleg configurations for the model, they found that the biplane model, while not unreasonable, was structurally deficient and needed a heavy-headed weight distribution for stable gliding, which they deemed unlikely. The study indicated that a laterally abducted hindwing structure represented the most biologically and aerodynamically consistent configuration for Microraptor. A further analysis by Brougham and Brusatte, however, concluded that Alexander's model reconstruction was not consistent with all of the available data on Microraptor and argued that the study was insufficient for determining a likely flight pattern for Microraptor. Brougham and Brusatte criticized the anatomy of the model used by Alexander and his team, noting that the hip anatomy was not consistent with other dromaeosaurs. In most dromaeosaurids, features of the hip bone prevent the legs from splaying horizontally; instead, they are locked in a vertical position below the body. Alexander's team used a specimen of Microraptor which was crushed flat to make their model, which Brougham and Brusatte argued did not reflect its actual anatomy. Later in 2010, Alexander's team responded to these criticisms, noting that the related dromaeosaur Hesperonychus, which is known from complete hip bones preserved in three dimensions, also shows hip sockets directed partially upward, possibly allowing the legs to splay more than in other dromaeosaurs. However, Hartman and colleagues suggested that Hesperonychus is not a dromaeosaur, but actually an avialan close to modern birds like Balaur bondoc based on phylogenetic analyses in 2019.

Ground movement
Due to the extent of the hindwings onto most of the animal's foot, many scientists have suggested that Microraptor would have been awkward during normal ground movement or running. The front wing feathers would also have hindered Microraptor when on the ground, due to the limited range of motion in the wrist and the extreme length of the wing feathers. A 2010 study by Corwin Sullivan and colleagues showed that, even with the wing folded as far as possible, the feathers would still have dragged along the ground if the arms were held in a neutral position, or extended forward as in a predatory strike. Only by keeping the wings elevated, or the upper arm extended fully backward, could Microraptor have avoided damaging the wing feathers. Therefore, it may have been anatomically impossible for Microraptor to have used its clawed forelimbs in capturing prey or manipulating objects.

Implications
The unique wing arrangement found in Microraptor raised the question of whether the evolution of flight in modern birds went through a four-winged stage, or whether four-winged gliders like Microraptor were an evolutionary side-branch that left no descendants. As early as 1915, naturalist William Beebe had argued that the evolution of bird flight may have gone through a four-winged (or tetrapteryx) stage. Chatterjee and Templin did not take a strong stance on this possibility, noting that both a conventional interpretation and a tetrapteryx stage are equally possible. However, based on the presence of unusually long leg feathers in various feathered dinosaurs, Archaeopteryx, and some modern birds such as raptors, as well as the discovery of further dinosaurs with long primary feathers on their feet (such as Pedopenna), the authors argued that the current body of evidence, both from morphology and phylogeny, suggests that bird flight did shift at some point from shared limb dominance to front-limb dominance and that all modern birds may have evolved from four-winged ancestors, or at least ancestors with unusually long leg feathers relative to the modern configuration.

Feeding
In 2010 researchers announced that further preparation of the type fossil of M. zhaoianus revealed preserved probable gut contents, and a full study on them was later published in 2022 by David Hone and colleagues. These consisted of the remains of a mammal, primarily a complete and articulated right foot (including all tarsals, metatarsals, and most of the phalanges) as well as the shafts of additional long bones and potentially other fragments. The foot skeleton is similar to those of Eomaia and Sinodelphys. It corresponds to an animal with an estimated snout to vent length of 80 mm and a mass of 13 –. The unguals of the foot are less curved than in Eomaia or Sinodelphys, indicating that the mammal could climb but less effectively than in the two latter genera and so was likely not arboreal but potentially scansorial.

It is ambiguous whether the mammal had been predated upon or scavenged by the Microraptor, although the lack of other definitive body parts consumed may suggest the low-muscle mass foot may have been eaten during a late stage of carcass consumption, possibly through scavenging. The find is a rare example of a theropod definitively consuming a Mesozoic mammal, the only other being a specimen of the compsognathid Sinosauropteryx.

In the December 6, 2011 issue of Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, Jingmai O'Connor and coauthors described a specimen of Microraptor gui containing bones of an arboreal enantiornithean bird in its abdomen, specifically a partial wing and feet. Their position implies the bird was swallowed whole and head-first, which the authors interpreted as implying that the Microraptor had caught and consumed the bird in the trees, rather than scavenging it.

In 2013 researchers announced that they had found fish scales in the abdominal cavity of another M. gui specimen. The authors contradicted the prior suggestion that M. gui hunted only in an arboreal environment, proposing that it was also an adept hunter of fish as well. They further argued that the specimen showed a probable adaptation to a fish-eating diet, pointing to the first three teeth of the mandible being inclined anterodorsally, a characteristic often associated with piscivory. They concluded that Microraptor was an opportunistic feeder, hunting the most common prey in both arboreal and aquatic habitats.

Both of these studies regarded each gut contents as instances of predation. However, Hone and colleagues (2022) questioned the reliability of these interpretations and wrote that both could just as equally be attributed to scavenging. Further, they argued against Microraptor being a specialist in either or both arboreal or aquatic hunting, citing the broad range of vertebrate gut contents (i.e. fish, mammals, lizards, birds) as evidence for a generalist hunting strategy, and that neither required that Microraptor being a specialist for hunting in either habitats.

In 2019, a new genus of scleroglossan lizard (Indrasaurus) was described from a specimen found in the stomach of a Microraptor. The Microraptor apparently swallowed its prey head first, a behavior typical of modern carnivorous birds and lizards. The Indrasaurus bones lacked marked pitting and scarring, indicating that the Microraptor died shortly after eating the lizard and before significant digestion had occurred.

Unlike its fellow paravian Anchiornis, Microraptor has never been found with gastric pellets, despite the existence of four Microraptor specimens that preserve stomach contents. This suggests that Microraptor passed indigestible fur, feathers, and bits of bone in its droppings instead of producing pellets.

Based on the size of the scleral ring of the eye, it has been suggested Microraptor hunted at night. The discovery of iridescent plumage in Microraptor has led many to question this assumption on the grounds that no modern birds that have iridescent plumage are known to be nocturnal, but this argument is itself questionable as there in fact are modern nocturnal birds with iridescent plumage, such as the kākāpō as well as various night-feeding waterfowl; furthermore, as a forest-dwelling, presumably solitary carnivore, Microraptor was significantly different ecologically compared to extant corvids and icterids with dark, iridescent plumage, which are social omnivores of more open habitats.

title: Microraptor


text: Talk:Culture of Belgium

title: Talk:Culture of Belgium


text:
Talk:Seminary, Mississippi

Sarah Cothran
Sarah Cothran is a YouTube and TikTok singer with over half a million subscribers on YouTube, with her most famous video gaining over 80 million views. She should be added to this, seeing as she is from Seminary, Mississippi. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 2600:1700:6800:71F0:659E:CE99:644C:F97F (talk) 06:18, 22 February 2022 (UTC)

title: Talk:Seminary, Mississippi


text:
Arnold (comic strip)

Arnold was a syndicated comic strip by Kevin McCormick that ran at its height in 56 newspapers, including the Los Angeles Times and the Detroit Free Press, from December 13, 1982, through April 17, 1988. The strip was characterized by an off-beat sense of humor and random interjections by the title character, Arnold.

Motifs
The main characters were Arnold Melville, a strange, volatile child; Tommy Jordon, his well-meaning but clueless friend; and Mr. Lester, Arnold and Tommy's schoolteacher. These three were usually the only characters actually seen in the strip, with off-stage voices coming from the other characters (such as parents, bullies, teachers, coaches and other authority figures).

Arnold often yelled "AIEEE!" at random moments, and both characters had run-ins with the school cafeteria ladies—specifically Arnold, who referred to mayonnaise as "WHITE DEATH!" at the top of his lungs. Arnold also ran a newspaper called The Vicious Rumor (which often made fun of Tommy and Mr. Lester), as well as turning the school's safety patrol in his own, private para-military unit.

Tommy had a particular aversion to "wet bread" and occasionally brought a thinly-veiled Christian attitude to his reactions to the other characters (cartoonist McCormick became a born-again Christian after ending the strip and is now a youth pastor ). He would also be abused by various school sports coaches, especially his football coach; Tommy would sometimes be seen wearing his helmet backwards, as the coach did not think much of Tommy's suggestions.

Toward the end of the run, a baby brother to Arnold, named Sid, was born. Sid frequently grabbed hold of others by holding on with his mouth.

Legacy
McCormick decided to end "Arnold" in 1988, in a suitably bizarre fashion. In the last regular strip, which ran on Saturday, April 16, 1988 (an unrelated Sunday strip was seen the next day), Tommy calls Arnold's parents and asks to speak to him. However, Tommy is told that a giant bird had grabbed Arnold and flew off with him. (When Tommy asks, "What I am supposed to do now?", his apparently unconcerned mother merely says, "Goodbye, Tommy," and hangs up on him.)

The following month, the cartoonist wrote to the fans of the strip in the Detroit Free Press: "I was extremely gratified and happy to receive all the letters from Free Press readers concerning the demise of Arnold. I even had second thoughts. But, alas, it was too late. The gigantic bird had already swallowed. Thank you for your loyalty to the strip."

Parodies
Arnold was featured in Mad #253 entry "The Trend Toward Rottenness in the Comic Strips", illustrated by Bob Clarke.

title: Arnold (comic strip)


text:
Super/System

Super/System, one of the first books about poker strategy, was written and published in 1979 by Doyle Brunson, a professional poker player and multiple winner at the World Series of Poker.

History and title
How I Made Over $1,000,000 Playing Poker was primarily written by Doyle Brunson who, at the time of publication in 1979, had won the main event of the World Series of Poker in 1976 and 1977. The book was one of the first comprehensive books on strategies for various poker games. Many notable poker players and tournament champions contributed sections to the book.

The title of the book was originally How I Made Over $1,000,000 Playing Poker. The title is also sometimes written as Super System, without a slash; Doyle Brunson's Super System; or Super/System: A Course in Power Poker.

Contents
The book begins with a biographical sketch of Doyle Brunson and then quickly discusses general poker strategy. The general strategy includes controlling emotion, watching competitors play, reasoning outplay, and other similar tips that benefit all forms of poker play.

The sections of the book dedicated to strategy were divided as follows:
 * Draw poker written by Mike Caro. Among other things, Caro writes in detail about tells, how to gain information about an opponent's hand based on how they act. He is regarded as an expert on poker psychology and behavior and would later go on to write his own seminal book on tells.
 * Seven-card stud written by Chip Reese
 * Lowball written by Joey Hawthorne and Doyle Brunson
 * Seven-card stud high-low split (with no qualifier for low) by David Sklansky
 * Limit Texas hold 'em by Bobby Baldwin
 * No-limit Texas hold 'em by Doyle Brunson

Finally, there is a comprehensive list of probability and statistics calculated by Mike Caro. In addition to raw numbers, many scenarios are investigated and common questions are answered.

Influence
Many of today's top poker players, young and old, swear by Super/System. Although many years have passed since the original publication, it still contains relevant strategies and statistics. Brunson himself believes that because the book has been so influential, it probably cost him more money than he was paid for writing it.

Many of the poker variants are played differently today, and there are many new variants that are not covered in Super/System, so the book has been superseded in some areas.

Super System 2
A sequel titled Super System 2 was published in October 2004 (ISBN 1-58042-136-9).

The second book is broken up into several sections, each covering a different variant of poker, and written by experts on those games. Contributors include: Daniel Negreanu; Lyle Berman, founder of the World Poker Tour; Bobby Baldwin; Johnny Chan; Mike Caro; Jennifer Harman; Todd Brunson; Steve Zolotow; and Crandell Addington.

title: Super/System


text:
Northern Virginia Community College

Northern Virginia Community College (NVCC; which is informally known as NOVA) is a public community college with six campuses and four centers in the Northern Virginia suburbs of Washington, D.C. Northern Virginia Community College is the third-largest multi-campus community college in the United States, and it is the largest educational institution in the Commonwealth of Virginia.

The college is part of the Virginia Community College System. Anne M. Kress has been its president since January 13, 2020. NOVA has campuses in Alexandria, Annandale, Loudoun County, Manassas, Springfield and Woodbridge.

History
The college was established on February 8, 1965, under the name Northern Virginia Technical College. In the fall of 1965, the college opened with 761 students in a single building in Bailey's Crossroads under president Robert L. McKee. To accommodate an ever-growing student body, the college purchased 78 acre in Annandale in 1966 to create the first of six permanent campus sites. NOVA has also offered distance learning courses since 1975.

Academics
The college includes nearly 75,000 students and more than 2,500 faculty and staff members. NOVA is also one of the most internationally diverse colleges in the United States, with a student body consisting of individuals from more than 180 countries. NOVA is accredited by the Southern Association of Colleges and Schools and offers more than 160 degrees at the associate's level and certificate programs. NOVA also offers distance learning programs through their Extended Learning Institute (ELI) and continuing education courses through Workforce Development.

NOVA offers dual-enrollment so high-school students can enroll in classes at the age of 16.

NOVA offers a variety of courses, and encourages students to enroll in four-year colleges after completing their NOVA education. Its feeder program guarantees admission to partnered intrastate schools which include George Mason University in Fairfax, the University of Virginia in Charlottesville, The College of William and Mary in Williamsburg, Virginia Tech in Blacksburg, Old Dominion University in Norfolk, and Longwood University in Farmville. Private Washington-area schools recruit at NOVA also, including American University, Georgetown, Marymount University in Arlington, Trinity Washington University, and George Washington University, and out-of state schools such as Slippery Rock University in Pennsylvania, West Virginia University, and even the University of Missouri at Kansas City.

Campuses
The college is served by a library system extending across all six campuses and the Arlington Center. NOVA Libraries contain more than 250,000 volumes and subscribe to more than 200 databases, many of these purchased through the Virtual Library of Virginia, meaning that NOVA has access to many of the same resources as the other colleges and universities in Virginia.

Alexandria
The Alexandria Campus is located in Alexandria and primarily serves the residents of the City of Alexandria, Arlington County, Falls Church, and eastern Fairfax County. The campus grew from one building constructed on a 22.5-acre site in 1971 to three buildings on 51.4 acres in 1980. Additions to the original Bisdorf Building and the Engineering/Automotive Technology Building was opened in 1980. In that year, the John Tyler School was also purchased from the City of Alexandria and incorporated as part of the campus. The Alexandria Campus also maintains classrooms in leased facilities at off-campus locations. The Rachel M. Schlesinger Concert Hall and Arts Center was completed in 2001. In Spring 2006, under the auspices of the Alexandria Campus, the Arlington Center opened for classes.

Annandale

The Annandale Campus is located in central Fairfax County and primarily serves the residents of the county. The campus began as one building constructed in 1967 on a 78-acre site. In 1969, three additional buildings were erected and the TV/Technical Building followed in 1970. The Nursing Building was completed in 1972. The Brault Building, which houses college staff, was completed in 1984, and recent renovations were complete in 2015. The Richard J. Ernst Community Cultural Center, which serves the college and the community, was completed in 1990. The MacDiarmid Building was completed in 1997. In Spring 2006, work was completed on a six-level, 825-space parking garage for faculty, staff, students, and visitors. The Student Services Building opened in Fall 2011, and was renamed the Mark Warner Student Services Building after Virginia Senator Mark Warner in 2016. The Annandale Campus also provides off-campus instruction at various locations.

Loudoun
The Loudoun Campus is located in Sterling and primarily serves the residents of northern Fairfax County and Loudoun County. Construction began on a 91.4-acre site in 1972 and was completed in 1974 with four permanent buildings, the temporary Interior Design Building, and greenhouse/laboratories. Under the auspices of the Loudoun Campus, the Reston Center opened for classes in spring 2006 and the Signal Hill Center opened for classes in Fall 2009. In Fall 2012, the Learning Commons building opened at the Loudoun Campus. The Higher Education Center opened in 2015, and was renamed the Robert G. Templin Higher Education Center in 2016. The Loudoun Campus also maintains classrooms in leased off-campus facilities.

Manassas
The Manassas Campus is located in western Prince William County on a 100-acre site next to the Manassas National Battlefield. The campus primarily serves the residents of western Prince William and Fairfax counties and the cities of Manassas and Manassas Park. In 1999, the Mary Louise Jackson Amphitheater was opened. In 2008, under the auspices of the Manassas Campus, the Innovation Park location opened for classes. In Spring 2012, the Harry J. Parrish Hall opened at the Manassas Campus.

Medical Education (MEC)
The Medical Education Campus (MEC) opened in the Fall of 2003 in Springfield. The MEC is a collaborative effort between NOVA, George Mason University, Virginia Commonwealth University, and regional public school systems. The MEC offers many different health-related programs and features state-of-the-art classrooms and laboratories, dental clinics, and a clinical practice site for nursing and allied health students. The MEC offers a special nursing program called Momentum 2+1 that specifically prepares graduates to transfer to the Bachelor of Science degree in nursing at George Mason University. The MEC is also a member of the NoVa HealthFORCE, an initiative of The Northern Virginia Health Care Workforce Alliance (NVHCW A), addressing issues in the Health Care profession.

Woodbridge
The Woodbridge Campus is located in eastern Prince William County and primarily serves the residents of the county. Classes were offered in temporary community facilities from 1972 through 1975. Campus construction began in 1974 on a 109-acre site. A four-story building was completed in 1975; Phase II of this building was completed in 1990. The campus has also added the heating, ventilation, and air conditioning buildings and several temporary facilities. In Fall 2013, the Woodbridge Campus opened the Arts and Science Building, and in 2015, unveiled the Regional Center for Workforce Education and Training. The Woodbridge Campus provides off-campus instruction at several locations, including area high schools and the Quantico and Fort Belvoir military bases.

Athletics
NOVA started intercollegiate athletics in 2011 as a member of the National Junior College Athletic Association (NJCAA). The college sponsors women's volleyball, men's soccer, women's cross country, men's basketball, women's basketball, men's lacrosse, and women's softball at the intercollegiate varsity level. In addition, NOVA has a club ice hockey team that is a member of the American Collegiate Hockey Association (ACHA). NOVA added a varsity esports team in the Fall 2018 as a member of the National Association of Collegiate Esports (NACE).

The college introduced Ace, the Nighthawk, in 2017 as the first mascot of the modern era of NOVA Athletics.

NJCAA Region 20 Championships

 * 2014 – Division III Women's Cross Country
 * 2014 – Division II Women's Volleyball
 * 2015 – Division I Women's Cross Country
 * 2016 – Division I Women's Cross Country
 * 2017 – Division I Women's Cross Country
 * 2018 – Division II Women's Volleyball

Notable alumni

 * Carol Banawa (born 1982), singer
 * Candice Rose Martinez, bank robber
 * Doug Mills (born 1960), photojournalist
 * Adam Parkhomenko, political strategist and organizer, former DNC National Field Director
 * Ashley Wagner (born 1991), figure skater

Notable faculty

 * Jill Biden, English professor, current first lady of the United States.

title: Northern Virginia Community College


text:
User talk:GNAAdar

Why R U attacking me?
What did I ever do to ypou???? GNAAdar 21:10, 28 Sep 2004 (UTC) http://www.gnaa.us
 * I am not attacking you, I am stating facts. I also speculated on the dubious nature of many of the delete votes, but that wasn't directed only to you. — David Remahl 21:12, 28 Sep 2004 (UTC)

Before pasting a disputed template on a page, you should try to resolve the issue on the talk page. As far as I can see, you have not made any edits to the talk page. Thus, there is no dispute at this point. I reverted the addition of the disputed templates. — David Remahl 21:16, 28 Sep 2004 (UTC)
 * Respond to my message on the talk page. Or can the disputed template be removed now? — David Remahl 21:41, 28 Sep 2004 (UTC)

This man is not a GNAA member.
Let it be known that GNAAdar is *not* a member of the GNAA. That is all. -23:41, 29 Sep 2004 (UTC)

title: User talk:GNAAdar


text:
Pierre Chambon

Pierre Chambon (born 7 February 1931 in Mulhouse, France) was the founder of the in Strasbourg, France. He was one of the leading molecular biologists who utilized gene cloning and sequencing technology to first decipher the structure of eukaryotic genes and their modes of regulation. His major contributions to science include the identification of RNA polymerase II (B), the identification of transcriptional control elements, the cloning and dissection of nuclear hormone receptors, revealing their structure and showing how they contribute to human physiology. His group was also one of the first to demonstrate, biochemically and electron-microscopically, that the nucleosome is the smallest unit of chromatin (Cell, Vol. 4, 281–300, 1975). He accomplished much of his work in the 1970s – 1990s.

Chambon was elected a Foreign Associate of the US National Academy of Sciences and to the French Académie des Sciences in 1985, a foreign member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences in 1987. He was awarded the Louisa Gross Horwitz Prize from Columbia University in 1999 and a second time in 2018. In 2003 he was awarded the March of Dimes Prize in Developmental Biology. He received the Albert Lasker Award for Basic Medical Research in 2004 for his work in the field. In 2010, Chambon was awarded the Gairdner Foundation International Award "for the elucidation of fundamental mechanisms of transcription in animal cells and to the discovery of the nuclear receptor superfamily". In 2018 he received the Louisa Gross Horwitz Prize for a second time.

title: Pierre Chambon


text:
The Secret World of Alex Mack

The Secret World of Alex Mack is an American television series that aired on Nickelodeon from October 8, 1994, to January 15, 1998. The series was co-created by Ken Lipman and Thomas W. Lynch and was produced by Lynch Entertainment, Hallmark Entertainment and Nickelodeon Productions. The Secret World of Alex Mack was accompanied by a tie-in series of 34 paperback books, as well as a variety of merchandise.

Plot
Alexandra "Alex" Mack is an ordinary teenage girl living with her parents, George and Barbara, and precocious older sister, Annie, in the industrial town of Paradise Valley, Arizona. The town is largely funded around Paradise Valley Chemical, a chemical factory that employs most of the adult residents, although the factory's staff and history are notoriously shady. While walking home after her first day of junior high school, Alex is nearly hit by a truck from Paradise Valley Chemical, and during the incident, she is accidentally drenched with GC-161, an experimental substance developed by the factory. She soon discovers that it has given her strange powers, including telekinesis, the ability to shoot electricity from her fingers, and the ability to dissolve into a mobile puddle of water. Alex finds this exciting and fun; however, her powers prove to be unpredictable (occasionally, her skin glows a bright yellow when she is nervous). She confides only in Annie and her best friend Ray, choosing to keep her powers a secret from everyone else, including her parents, for fear of what the chemical factory's CEO, Danielle Atron, will do to her if she finds out.

Series overview
The series evolves from Seasons 1–4 from innocent hijinks to darker connotations; Seasons 1–2 mostly deal with cheerful misadventures and comedic encounters with incompetent Paradise Valley Chemical staff Vince and Dave. Seasons 3–4 take on a more serious and dark development, in which it is revealed that Danielle Atron had been developing GC-161 as far back as the 1970s, and that she may have had fellow scientists and researchers systematically assassinated to cover up GC-161's mutagenic effects on people.

Subplots of the series included Barbara Mack going back to college as a mature student; Alex and her friends being targeted by a school bully; Alex's crush, Scott, turning out to be a fairweather friend; and Louis Driscoll befriending Alex and Ray after moving to Paradise Valley as a new student. Vince, meanwhile, is fired in Season 3, replaced by an asocial Vienna-born scientist named Lars Frederickson. Vince makes frequent reappearances as a guest character, obsessed with trying to get his job back. While Alex was initially bullied by an older student named Jessica in Season 1, Jessica's actress, Jessica Alba, left for other projects and the character was replaced with Kelly, a preppy but mean-spirited cheerleader, and later Jo (the aforementioned school bully who goes after Alex and Ray).

In Season 4, Alex develops a serious relationship with Hunter, a new boy in town. She initially believes he is infatuated with Danielle Atron after discovering what appears to be a love shrine to the woman in his bedroom, but Hunter is revealed to be investigating Danielle's potential involvement in the death of his scientist father by drowning. Alex shares her first kiss with Hunter.

Main

 * Alexandra "Alex" Mack (played by Larisa Oleynik) – Alex is an average teenage girl in Paradise Valley. While walking home from school, she is nearly hit by a truck carrying GC-161 and is doused with it, thus giving her extraordinary powers.  Among them are telekinesis, the ability to generate electricity from her hands and the ability to liquefy/travel from place to place in the form of a puddle of water. She briefly manifests superhuman strength as a result of her body having an unusual reaction to a new type of curry recipe her mother had just tried, but this was only valid in one episode as her mother never used the recipe again.
 * Raymond "Ray" Alvarado (played by Darris Love) – Alex's best friend and next door neighbor, and the only one besides Annie to know about Alex's powers.
 * Annie Mack (played by Meredith Bishop) – Alex's older sister, and a scientific genius in her own right. Next to Ray, she is the only one who originally knows about Alex's powers. She administers various scientific tests to ensure Alex's safety. She also hopes to one day present her research, in an effort to stop Danielle Atron.
 * George Mack (played by Michael Blakley) – Annie and Alex's father. He is a brilliant chemist who works for Danielle Atron at the Paradise Valley Chemical Plant.
 * Barbara Mack (played by Dorian Lopinto) – Annie and Alex's mother. She is a more down-to-earth woman who works in a public relations firm.

Recurring

 * Louis Driscoll (played by Benjamin Kimball Smith) – Alex and Ray's abrasive friend, who moves to Paradise Valley from Cincinnati in Season 2. At first Alex is jealous of Louis, but they finally become friends. Alex and her gang generally find Louis annoying, with a grandiose personality, but at times he can be a very caring and well-meaning person, such as when he attempts to rescue a young child trapped beneath a cement pipe, or when he helps Alex make a friendship video for Nathan Dean in their class. Louis's father is a businessman and entrepreneur.
 * David "Dave" Watt (played by John Nielsen) – The seemingly dim-witted truck driver who was driving the truck that accidentally dumped the GC-161 chemical on Alex. As the only witness to the accident, Dave is often forced to serve as a partner to Vince Carter (see below) in trying to capture Alex. After seeing Alex using her powers while she was in high school, Dave keeps it a secret from Danielle to protect her as he knew what kind of horrible experiments Danielle had planned for her. In Season 4, Dave reveals himself to be much more intelligent than Danielle believes, telling her that he just likes living a simple life, and serving as a whistleblower to George Mack about corruption at the plant. Alex hugs him after learning that he kept her secret to protect her, and George, in gratitude, later promises Dave a job at another chemical plant.
 * Scott Greene (played by Jason Strickland) – Alex's junior high school crush, an older sports jock who dates Kelly later on. Alex eventually discovers Scott's vapid nature when he steals her photos that she took while working for the school scrapbook.
 * Jessica (played by Jessica Alba) – Scott's first girlfriend and Alex's first school rival.
 * Kelly Phillips (played by Hilary Salvatore) – Scott's second girlfriend and Alex's second school rival. Kelly deviously discredits Alex at every given turn, much to Alex's dismay.
 * Robyn Russo (played by Natanya Ross) – One of Alex and Ray's neighborhood friends. Though she possesses a sardonic sense of humor and is fun to be around, she suffers from low self-esteem and can be very depressing, sometimes expressing grim opinions of death and nihilism. Robyn often wears black and dresses more goth as the series goes on. She has a hamster named Donald that dies, sending her into an intense grieving period. Robyn eventually discovers Alex's powers in the series finale, initially not believing Louis when he tells her.
 * Nicole Wilson (played by Alexis Fields) – Another of Alex and Ray's friends. An opposite personality to Robyn, has a take-charge attitude and rebellious demeanor. Nicole is often involved in social justice causes, mainly environmentalism and animal rights. In Season 3's episode "The Neighbor", Danielle Atron strangely sees her younger self in Nicole's idealism and goals of making the world a better place, but admits that becoming the CEO of Paradise Valley Chemical has since made her apathetic. Nicole does not appear in the final episode of the series to discover Alex's powers.
 * Danielle Atron (played by Louan Gideon) – The CEO of the Paradise Valley Chemical Plant who is the main antagonist of the series. She wants to market GC-161 as a radical new weight-loss drug, and is increasingly focused on finding the GC-161 child (who she never discovers is Alex until the last two episodes) and capture them, as both a test subject and a threat to the secrecy of her plans. In Season 2, Danielle's childhood is examined, revealing that she was a prodigy who was abused by her mother, causing neighbours to gossip when Danielle stopped appearing in school. She was removed from her home after she was discovered locked in the basement, then raised by her grandparents, whose land she later bought as a location to build Paradise Valley Chemical. In Season 4, it's revealed in a newspaper clipping in Hunter's bedroom that Danielle had rescued several people in a fire at a rival chemical plant, but that the accident caused toxicity and genetic defects affecting Danielle and the other fire victims, after which Danielle established Paradise Valley Chemical as the main factory in town. Danielle's grandmother was played by Michael Learned in Season 2's "The Secret", a Halloween-themed episode.
 * Carlton (played by Jason Marsden) – Carlton is Danielle's geeky, manipulative nephew and Annie Mack's scientific rival. Carlton attempts to sabotage Annie's project at a science fair in Season 1. Vince initially believes Carlton to be the GC-161 child, but this turns out to be false. Carlton then loses the science fair to Annie, and is last seen crying next to his failed project.
 * Vincent "Vince" Carter (played by John Marzilli) – The head security guard at the Paradise Valley Chemical Plant, Vince is a former Navy Seal and uses illegal tactics to protect Danielle's interests. Vince often remarks about the Federal Government, "I'm not one of their favourite guys", and is mentally unstable, although it is never made entirely clear what occurred in his past that drove him to work for Paradise Valley Chemical. He makes it his obsession to find the GC-161 child (even after he gets fired from the Plant). After being fired, he wears military garb and talks to himself. Despite often being cruel to Dave, he at times does treat Dave as possibly the only real friend he has. While trapped in an air duct in the Mack House at one point, he breaks down sobbing after Barbara says of him, "the man had no friends" (from her time working alongside him).
 * Oscar (animal actor; name unknown) – a chimpanzee that Dave buys Vince as a Christmas present; Oscar consumes an open jelly glass of GC-161 in Season 2, gaining similar powers to Alex's. In Season 3, he's revealed to have been adopted by Dave, living in Dave's trailer park.
 * Lars Frederickson (played by Kevin Quigley) – A skilled chemist hailing from the Paradise Valley Chemical Plant's foreign branch in Vienna. He becomes Danielle Atron's chief subordinate after Vince gets fired. Lars has a shy wife named Inez, who attends an awkward dinner at the Mack household. Annie and Lars together uncover a disturbing report from the 1970s revealing that GC-161 is older than either of them initially believed, and that all the scientists on the original research project, aside from Danielle Atron, are missing or deceased. This bothers Lars, who goes to Danielle to question her, but then he decides to help her cover up the report. Lars is named after one of the members of punk rock group Rancid.
 * Hunter Reeves (played by Will Estes) – Hunter comes to Paradise Valley with an agenda concerning the disappearance of his father in relation to GC-161. Alex finds a shrine to Danielle in his bedroom after sneaking in, but then discovers that he's actually been investigating the plant. Alex eventually kisses him and reveals her powers to him in Season 4.
 * Jo (played by Jennifer Manley) – Jo is a school bully who torments Alex, Ray and Robyn in several episodes throughout seasons 3–4.
 * Bruce Lester (played by Josh Keaton) – Annie's longtime boyfriend throughout Season 2. Bryce and Annie go mountain-climbing, and volunteer at an amateur magic show. Eventually they break up but remain friends, leaving Annie devastated, although she does get closer to her sister afterwards.
 * Nathan "Creeper" Dean (played by Hank Harris) – Nathan is a shy, neurodivergent boy in Alex's film class who embarrasses Alex with a bizarre video project shown to the other students and teacher.
 * Gloria (played by LaReine Chabut) – Gloria is Alex's boss, a donut shop owner at the local bakery "Wayne's Wigwam". In Season 4, Alex has a falling out with Gloria over the practice of using Styrofoam plates that damage the environment.
 * Mr. Alverado (played by J.D. Hall) – Ray's dad, who shares Ray's passion for music.
 * Gino Lawless (played by Frankie Como) – Gino was a security guard at Paradise Valley Chemical. He later becomes a reoccurring government agent investigating the plant. Gino's surname was chosen ironically, as he is one of the few Paradise Valley Chemical staff who has any scruples.
 * Elias Griffin (played by Francis X. McCarthy) – Griffin was a member of the Food and Drug Administration, who was secretly being bribed by Danielle Atron to hide the side-effects of GC-161 so that it would be approved faster. After failing a lie detector test given by Gino, Griffin is arrested. The character appears throughout Season 4.
 * Hannah Mercury (played by guest star Charlotte Ayanna) – the most popular girl in Alex's school, who Ray has a crush on.
 * Chester (played by Jim Wise) – a local policeman, one of Alex's acquaintances.
 * Jenny (played by Francesca Marie Smith) – Jenny is an insecure younger girl who idolizes Alex, to the point of being extremely annoying and manipulative. She bullies another girl by calling her "bubblebutt", after which Alex tries to get Jenny to behave better and appreciate the friends she has.
 * Gordon "Scooter" Kramer (played by Corey Joshua Taylor) – Scooter is George Mack's work colleague, and a supporting character throughout Seasons 3-4.
 * Coach Rooney (played by Glenn Morshower) – a loud sports coach with military-like behaviour; Coach Rooney appears in all seasons of the series.

Production
Thomas W. Lynch, who had created the programs Night Tracks and Kids Incorporated, said the idea for the series was based on an incident from his own childhood. Lynch's father, a nuclear physicist, worked with radioactive material in the family's garage and the chemical spilled out of its container. Lynch said, "Today, they would've shut the whole block down. It cracked me up—the idea that that stuff was right there. What if I ate it? What would happen to me?" For the fictional chemical GC-161 in the show, Lynch said he came up with the GC part of the name while doing DNA research, while the 161 came from the number eight.

Though the character of Alex Mack was initially conceived as a boy, Nickelodeon had the writers change the character to a girl.

The series was filmed in Valencia, Santa Clarita and the Santa Clarita Valley. The Mack home and Paradise Valley Chemical Plant interiors were filmed in a converted warehouse used as a soundstage. The junior high scenes were filmed at Charles Helmers and James Foster Elementary Schools. Castaic Middle School was used for senior high scenes. The house, used for exterior shots, is located in the Westford Place neighborhood of Valencia.

Near the end of the series' run, Lynch presented star Larisa Oleynik with a package deal that included a fifth season of the show and a feature film, but Oleynik turned the deal down. Said Oleynik, "I have absolutely no regrets about that. It was an incredible thing he was offering me and I knew that at the time, but I was a little burnt out."

Television airing
The show premiered on Nickelodeon (part of SNICK line-up) in 1994 and ended in 1998. Internationally, it also aired on YTV in Canada, Kabel 1 in Germany, SVT in Sweden, France 2 in France, Viasat 3 in Hungary, Rai 1 in Italy, Fox Kids in Latin America, Channel 4 in the UK, NHK in Japan and was in the children's weekday lineup for much of the mid-to-late 1990s on the ABC in Australia. Repeats of the show aired in 2003 on The N, but it was soon replaced there. The show aired occasionally on TeenNick's 1990s-oriented block, The '90s Are All That.

Cast reunion
The Secret World of Alex Mack 20 Year Reunion was recorded in 2018 and released as a TV movie on YouTube and Vimeo. Initially a live convention interview, the reunion featured numerous cast and crew members from the original TV series, revelations about their lives post-series, and discussions of a possible reboot or sequel. It was revealed that many of the cast members had gone on to various endeavors, with moderate success: Larisa Oleynik (Alex) had gone on to earn mainstream adult roles in shows such as 10 Things I Hate About You, while other cast members had largely left acting. Alexis Fields (Nicole) had gone on to a career in interior design, John Marzilli (Vince) had adopted a son who attended the cast reunion, and Darris Love (Ray) became involved in acting and music.

Home media
A single VHS volume containing two episodes titled "In the Nick of Time" was released by Sony Wonder in the United States in 1995.

The show's first season (consisting of 13 episodes on two discs) was released by Genius Entertainment on DVD format on October 2, 2007. The set is noteworthy for giving Jessica Alba top billing on the package, most likely in an effort to sell more copies, even though she actually only appears in a supporting role, and only in a few episodes. This was then released in Region 2 on April 2, 2012, and in Region 4 on June 6, 2012.

The first and second seasons are available through Amazon.com's Instant Video section and through iTunes.

Mill Creek Entertainment released the complete series on DVD for the very first time on August 1, 2017.

DVD boxed set controversy
The Secret World of Alex Mack, during a British release of the series on a DVD boxed set, received a rating of '15' from the British Board of Film Classification (BBFC), a rating considered restrictive, particularly since the series was initially aimed at preteens. It was eventually revealed by the BBFC that the '15' rating was applied to the boxed set because of a season 1 episode called "Shock Value" where Alex is seen climbing into a clothesdryer from the pilot. According to the BBFC, "The presentation of this behaviour is comic and no negative consequences are shown which would warn young viewers of the potential dangers of hiding in such appliances. While fatal incidents of children trapped in washing machines or fridges are rare, there remains sufficient cause for serious concern. The distributor indicated that they would be happy to accept a higher certificate rather than cutting the episode. The TV series is rather dated and would not have much appeal to a young audience when compared to current children's TV programmes. In addition, as the work was being targeted at an adult 'nostalgia' market, children would not be the natural audience."

Book series
A book series aimed at young readers was released along with the series. The first and last books of the series are novelizations of the first and last episodes, respectively. The rest of the series consists of completely original stories, tied into the main series through the mentioning of various plot points from the TV episodes. There were 34 books in total, all released as mass-market paperbacks from Simon & Schuster. Authors Diana G. Gallagher and Cathy East Dubowski were the predominant authors of the series, although other authors were recruited in-between to write certain titles.

The following titles were included in the series (in order, published between the years 1995 to 1998; note that the exclamation point at the end of each title was a stylized and intentional punctuation):

 * 1) Alex, You're Glowing! by Diana G. Gallagher
 * 2) Bet You Can't! by Diana G. Gallagher
 * 3) Bad News Babysitting! by Ken Lipman
 * 4) Witch Hunt! by Diana G. Gallagher
 * 5) Mistaken Identity! by Diana G. Gallagher
 * 6) Cleanup Catastrophe! by Cathy East Dubowski
 * 7) Take A Hike! by Cathy East Dubowski
 * 8) Go For the Gold! by Diana G. Gallagher
 * 9) Poison In Paradise! by Diana G. Gallagher
 * 10) Zappy Holidays! by Diana G. Gallagher
 * 11) Junkyard Jitters! by Patricia Barnes-Svarney
 * 12) Frozen Stiff! by Diana G. Gallagher
 * 13) I Spy! by John Peel
 * 14) High Flyer! by Patricia Barnes-Svarney
 * 15) Milady Alex! by Diana G. Gallagher
 * 16) Father-Daughter Disaster! by Clayton Emery
 * 17) Bonjour, Alex! by Cathy East Dubowski
 * 18) Hocus Pocus! by "Joseph Locke" (pseudonym of Ray Garton)
 * 19) Close Encounters! by David Cody Weiss
 * 20) Halloween Invaders! by John Vornholdt
 * 21) Truth Trap! by Cathy East Dubowski
 * 22) New Years' Revolution! by Diana G. Gallagher
 * 23) Lost in Vegas! by John Peel
 * 24) Computer Crunch! by Patricia Barnes-Svarney
 * 25) In Hot Pursuit! by Mel Odom
 * 26) Canine Caper! by Diana G. Gallagher
 * 27) Civil War in Paradise! by Bonnie D. Stone
 * 28) Pool Party Panic! by V.E. Mitchell
 * 29) Sink Or Swim! by Cathy East Dubowski
 * 30) Gold Rush Fever! by Diana G. Gallagher
 * 31) New York Nightmare! by Erica Pass
 * 32) Haunted House Hijinks! by John Vornholdt
 * 33) Lights, Camera, Action! by Ray Garton
 * 34) Paradise Lost, Paradise Regained! by Diana G. Gallagher

 * Zappy Holidays!, New Years' Revolution! and Paradise Lost, Paradise Regained! were marketed as "Super Editions", having more pages than the shorter remaining books in the series. Zappy Holidays!, in addition, came with an inserted page of pop-out cardstock holiday ornaments, themed on The Secret World of Alex Mack, which the book's buyers could detach and hang on their Christmas trees at home. All 34 books have been out of print since the 1990s, although second-hand copies continue to circulate.

title: The Secret World of Alex Mack


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User:Lupo/Welcome

Hello and welcome to Wikipedia!

Just a few quick tips:
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Anyway, have fun improving this encyclopedia!

title: User:Lupo/Welcome


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User talk:PenisCone

Stop it. Any more vandalism and you will be blocked from editing. Kosebamse 21:22, 28 Sep 2004 (UTC)

Inappropriate username
This account has been blocked indefinitely from editing Wikipedia because your username, PenisCone, does not meet our username policy. '''Your username is the only reason for this block. You are welcome to choose a new username (see below).''' A username should not be promotional, related to a "real-world" group or organization, misleading, offensive or disruptive. Also, usernames may not end in the word "bot" unless the account is an approved bot account. You are encouraged to choose a new account name that meets our policy guidelines and create the account yourself. Alternatively, if you have already made edits and you wish to keep your existing contributions under a new name, then you may request a change in username by:
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If you feel that you were blocked in error, you may appeal this block by adding below this notice the text, but you should read our guide to appealing blocks first. Vortex of Twilight23 (talk) 00:46, 8 January 2013 (UTC)

title: User talk:PenisCone


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Wonderful Radio London

Radio London, also known as Big L and Wonderful Radio London, was a top 40 (in London's case, the "Fab 40") offshore commercial station that operated from 23 December 1964 to 14 August 1967, from a ship anchored in the North Sea, 3+1⁄2 mi off Frinton-on-Sea, Essex, England.

The station, like other offshore radio operators, was dubbed a pirate radio station, and went off air following the introduction of the Marine, &c., Broadcasting (Offences) Act 1967 which made it illegal to supply or assist such stations except in an emergency. The station was notable for helping to launch the careers of various disc jockeys who went on to work at BBC Radio 1. Its offices were in the West End of London at 17 Curzon Street, just off Park Lane.

Origin of the station
Radio London was the brainchild of Don Pierson, who lived in Eastland, Texas, United States. In a 1984 interview, Pierson said he got the idea in 1964, while reading a report in The Dallas Morning News of the start of Radio Caroline and Radio Atlanta from ships that were at that time anchored off south-east England.

Pierson said he was struck by the fact that those two offshore stations were the first and only all-day commercial radio broadcasters serving the UK. An entrepreneur, he compared the number of stations then serving the population of his native northwest Texas with the two stations serving the entire UK. He told Eric Gilder that he thought his idea would make a lot of money while bringing enjoyment to many people. Pierson caught the next night flight from Love Field in Dallas to the UK, where he chartered a small plane and flew over the two radio ships. After taking photographs, he returned to Texas determined to create a station bigger and better than either.

Radio London broadcast from the MV Galaxy, a former Second World War United States Navy minesweeper, originally named USS Density. It was fitted out for radio broadcasting in Miami, then sailed across the Atlantic to the Azores, where the antenna was erected, before final positioning off the Essex coast. The operation was overseen by one of the other investors, Tom Danaher.

Owing to a disagreement with the other investors, Pierson left the Radio London consortium. His participation ended several weeks before the station went on air, although he kept a small shareholding.

Broadcasting staff
The disc jockeys included Chuck Blair, Tony Blackburn, Pete Brady, Tony Brandon, Dave Cash (who also teamed up to present a popular Kenny and Cash Show), Ian Damon, Chris Denning, Dave Dennis, Pete Drummond, John Edward, Kenny Everett (co-host of the Kenny and Cash Show, and ultimately fired for continual on-air criticism of the religious programme, The World Tomorrow), Graham Gill, Bill Hearne, Duncan Johnson, Paul Kaye (who became the main news reader), Lorne King, "Marshall" Mike Lennox, John Peel (see The Perfumed Garden), Earl Richmond, Mark Roman, John Sedd, Keith Skues, Ed Stewart, Norman St. John, Tommy Vance (who came to the station via Radio Caroline South and had been on KHJ Los Angeles), Richard Warner, Willy Walker, Alan West, Tony Windsor (who had begun his offshore career with Radio Atlanta) and John Yorke.

In August 1966, the Beatles began their last US concert tour. After the storm John Lennon's "more popular than Jesus" comment caused in the US, the group's reception was a cause for speculation – and the Beatles' management arranged for British journalists to accompany them. Radio London's Kenny Everett (a Liverpudlian), Caroline's Jerry Leighton, and Swinging Radio England's Ron O'Quinn were invited. Because the UK Post Office – at that time the country's monopoly telephone service provider – had cut ship-to-shore communication with pirate vessels, Everett had to call a number on land.

Paul Kaye would go ashore, take the call in Harwich and tape the conversation before heading back to the ship, where the recording was edited and music inserted to make a 30-minute programme, sponsored by Bassett's, whose Jelly Babies were allegedly the Beatles' favourite. The shows went out each evening at 7.30 for 40 days of the tour. In 1967, Radio London got an eight-day UK exclusive on the Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band, playing it first on 12 May 1967. The album was in the shops on 1 June 1967, but Everett had left the station on 21 March that year.

Advertising sales
A Cadillac car dealer in Abilene, Texas, who became one of the investors associated with Pierson, nominated Philip Birch, a J. Walter Thompson account director who had relocated from JWT's offices in the US to their offices in London. Birch became managing director, responsible for the entire management of Radio London and its sales company, Radlon (Sales). Birch was largely responsible for the station's success, tailoring the American-style format to a British audience.

The cost of the station was covered by local and national advertising and the half-hour religious commentary, The World Tomorrow, presented by Herbert W. Armstrong or his son, Garner Ted Armstrong. The Armstrongs' Worldwide Church of God sponsored the station with £50,000 a year. The World Tomorrow aired at 7pm, outside prime hours.

British authorities would not register a British sales company called "Radio London" because the name was "too similar" to an existing company, Commercial Radio (London), so it was registered as "Radlon (Sales) Ltd". It was owned by Philip Birch and was the name on the air for advertising sales. The investors were in Texas and used different names for interlocking companies outside the UK and USA to disguise their interests, primarily for tax reasons.

After closure of Big L, Birch became the founding managing director of Piccadilly Radio, which was awarded the UK licence for Manchester in 1973 and became one of Britain's most successful radio stations. He also founded Air Services, selling national advertising for stations throughout the UK. He continued as CEO of Piccadilly Radio and chairman of Air Services until his retirement in January 1984.

Station name
The station was to have been called Radio KLIF London, using recorded programmes from the Dallas AM radio station, KLIF 1190. When it was decided that the sound should be live and geared towards a British audience and culture, Pierson hired Ben Toney as Programme Director. Philip Birch was appointed CEO in charge of the radio station and advertising sales. Birch suggested calling the station Radio Galaxy, in anticipation of its star-making ability.

As a compromise the minesweeper was renamed MV Galaxy while the station itself became Radio London. However, the PAMS jingles brought a refinement of the name so that it was known as Wonderful Radio London and Big L; just as KLIF in Dallas called its hometown Big D.

Technical facilities
Virtually all DJ programmes originated live from a studio located in the hold at the rear of the ship. The original studio was installed by RCA while the ship was being fitted out in Miami, but the ship's metal bulkheads presented problems with acoustics and soundproofing. That was rectified by lining the walls with mattresses and blankets from the crew's bunk beds, although that meant no-one could sleep during the daytime. In early 1966, two new studios were constructed (also below the water-line), with proper acoustics and a more ergonomic layout - the main on-air/DJ studio had a modern sound/mixing board, and a smaller one for the hourly news bulletins, production (of commercials, etc.) and as backup.

Radio London's transmitter was housed in a large purpose-built steel shed on the rear deck, because it was too large to fit in the hold. The US-manufactured RCA Ampliphase transmitter was rated at 50,000 watts (50kW). An on-air slogan ran 'Your 50,000-watt Tower of Power', although initially it operated at 17kW. In contrast, Radio Caroline, its main rival, operated with a Continental Electronics 10kW transmitter. In 1966, Caroline South upgraded to a 50kW Continental transmitter and, for a time, Radio London pretended to retaliate by increasing its power to 75kW.

The station's antenna was a vertical-guyed tubular steel mast aft of the bridge. Radio London's publicity claimed the mast was 212 ft high, but later calculations from photographs indicated that it was approximately 170 ft,. The positioning of the antenna was at the ship's centre of gravity and that was critical, as no cement ballast was used in the ship's hull to counteract movement caused by such a tall and heavy mast on a floating vessel.

Although the wavelength was announced as "266 metres", the station experimented with frequencies between, and , and tended to suffer night-time heterodyne interference from stations in Zagreb and elsewhere. In October 1966, a number of test transmissions took place on, announced as "277 metres", using a 10kW standby transmitter, but it was decided not to change frequency on a permanent basis. When Radio 270 off Scarborough UK started transmissions in June 1966 on, it interfered with Big L Radio London for about 5 days, before Radio London finally made the big step from to its permanent and final  that had the typical 4 and 5 kHz heterodynes caused by  and. In early 1966, Radio London briefly hopped from to  due to its increased strong signal, causing interference to Radio Zagreb on. In October 1966, QSL cards reported Radio London having been received in faraway places such as Illinois, USA, Kimberley and Riversdale, South Africa due to favourable atmospheric propagation conditions and the split-frequency Radio London used.

After Radio Caroline South increased power and changed its frequency to in the spring of 1966, it caused some interference to Radio London on. That seems to have been caused by resonance between the two ships' antenna masts, and possibly by the Galaxy's steel hull.

Station closedown
At midnight on 14 August 1967, the Marine, &c., Broadcasting (Offences) Act 1967 came into effect in the United Kingdom. It created a criminal offence of supplying music, commentary, advertising, fuel, food, water or other assistance except for life-saving, to any ship, offshore structure such as a former WWII fort, or flying platform such as an aircraft used for broadcasting without a licence from the regulatory authority in the UK. Despite initial plans to the contrary, Radio London decided not to defy the law, and closed before the Act came into effect.

It was decided to close at 3pm on 14 August 1967, partly to guarantee a large audience, as well as to enable the ship's DJs and other staff to return to shore and board a train to London. A one-hour recorded show was broadcast from 2pm to allow staff to get ready to leave. The time also described an "L" shape of the hands on a clock face, but whether that was a real consideration is unknown.

Their Final Hour, as the programme was called, had recorded greetings of farewell and remembrance from recording stars; included were the voices of Mick Jagger, Cliff Richard, Ringo Starr and Dusty Springfield. The 2:30 news bulletin, read by Paul Kaye, was the final live segment on the station. Birch thanked DJs and staff and others involved throughout the station's life, as well as politicians and others who fought for the station – and its 12 million listeners in the United Kingdom and four million in the Netherlands, Belgium and France'. That was followed by the last record, "A Day in the Life" by the Beatles, then Paul Kaye's final announcement: "Big L time is three o'clock, and Radio London is now closing down". Radio London's theme tune, the "PAMS Sonowaltz", popularly called Big Lil, was played before the transmitter was switched off by engineer Russell Tollerfield, just after 3pm.

Just after Radio London closed down, Robbie Dale on Radio Caroline South (previously Radio Atlanta) broadcast a brief tribute to the station, thanked its staff and DJs, and held a minute's silence. Most offshore stations had already left the air. Radio Scotland and Radio 270 closed at midnight. Radio Caroline South said it and Radio Caroline North (the original Caroline) would continue. Owner Ronan O'Rahilly said they were defending the principle of free broadcasting, rather than being mere business assets. Caroline's offshore broadcasts continued on and off until 1990, after which the station pursued legal means of broadcasting.

Radio London staff arriving at London's Liverpool Street station from Harwich were greeted by large numbers of fans, some wearing black armbands and carrying placards with slogans such as "Freedom went with Radio London". They tried to storm the platform, leading to minor scuffles with police.

The MV Galaxy sailed initially to Hamburg, West Germany, where Erwin Meister and Edwin Bollier tried to buy it for what became Radio Nordsee International. When the deal fell through, Meister and Bollier looked for another ship. In 1979, the Galaxy, with its 170 ft mast still erect, was sunk in Kiel harbour as an artificial reef; but, in 1986, concerns about pollution from the ship's fuel tanks resulted in it being brought ashore and salvaged.

Further history
When his second radio ship closed and the vessel returned to Miami, Florida, in 1967, Don Pierson attempted to restart Wonderful Radio London from there. His plan was to interest investors in restarting Radio London off-shore from New York. When that failed, he began a venture involving yet another ship which would restart Wonderful Radio London off San Diego, California. That, too, sank.

In 1982, Pierson helped promote a syndicated Wonderful Radio London Show, first aired over KVMX, a station he owned in Eastland, Texas. He promoted the show at the National Association of Broadcasters convention in Las Vegas, Nevada. When Ben Toney, the original offshore Radio London programme director, became involved, the show was on KXOL in Fort Worth, Texas, and as a daily show aired over 250,000-watt XERF in Mexico. Plans were made to extend the early morning airtime of XERF into Wonderful Radio London as a full service station, and to send a new ship to the UK as Wonderful Radio London International' (WRLI), to replicate Radio London's success of the 1960s. However, those further plans failed to materialise beyond their syndication stage.

Pierson died in 1996.

Swinging Radio England and Britain Radio
As a result of Radio London, Pierson created Swinging Radio England and Britain Radio on another ship (the MV Olga Patricia; later renamed MV Laissez Faire) in 1965. They did not get to air until 1966 when their vessel anchored close to the MV Galaxy. The twin stations were not commercially successful due to their brash American radio style, technical problems, and mismanagement. Dutch station Radio Dolfijn replaced Radio England in November 1966. Radio 355 replaced Britain Radio and Dolfijn gave way to Radio Twee Twee Zeven (227) in early 1967.

In pop culture

 * Wonderful Radio London is referred to (and some of its jingles used) on The Who's album The Who Sell Out and their film Quadrophenia.
 * The station features in the 1966 film Dateline Diamonds, which includes a few external shots of the Galaxy and a fanciful studio re-creation of its interior.
 * Radio London was parodied in the film The Boat That Rocked.

Other sources

 * Mass Media Moments in the United Kingdom, the USSR and the US, by Gilder, Eric. - "Lucian Blaga" University of Sibiu Press, Romania. 2003 ISBN 973-651-596-6 - Contains reprinted work from The History of Pirate Radio in Britain and the End of BBC Monopoly in Radio Broadcasting in the United Kingdom by Eric Gilder, North Texas State University, 1982. The second chapter, "London My Hometown", tells the Pierson story from his perspective and from original and exclusive archives. The chapter began as a 2000 audio-visual symposium called "Infinite Londons" sponsored in Romania by the British Council. The symposium's expanded proceedings later appeared in this book.
 * The Wonderful Radio London Story, by Elliot, Chris. - Ray Anderson doing business as East Anglian Productions, Frinton-on-Sea, United Kingdom. 1997 ISBN 1-901854-00-0 - This was derived allegedly without permission from the archives Eric Gilder and Associates claim. (see note above.) The publisher was declared insolvent under UK law and it later turned out that the printer, designer and author had received no payment. The origins of this book's connection with Gilder lay in 1984's Wonderful Radio London International (WRLI) project, for which Elliot recorded the Wonderful Radio London Fab 40 in the UK – for KVMX and KXOL in Texas and XERF in Mexico to rebroadcast. When the WRLI venture came to an end, Elliot (born Christopher Gaydon, 1953) allegedly kept files on Pierson borrowed from Gilder – and later arranged for their publication under his name in two publications before the book appeared. This contains photographs and some hitherto unknown information, but it is not documented and it gives no credits.

title: Wonderful Radio London


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User talk:Ali Zain

I am struck with these Questions, can anyone help me pls..

1)Nickel has a face-centered cubic unit cell with the edge of this unit cell of length 352.4 pm. Whats the density of nickel in g.cm-3??

2) The radius of S2- ion as 184pm and the density of Zincblende as 4.60 g.cm-1, calulate a value for Avogadro's number. (Assume that sulphide ions touch along the cell diagonal).

Thanks for the help. Highly appreciate Zain

title: User talk:Ali Zain