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Forest Park (Portland, Oregon)

Forest Park is a public municipal park in the Tualatin Mountains west of downtown Portland, Oregon, United States. Stretching for more than 8 mi on hillsides overlooking the Willamette River, it is one of the country's largest urban forest reserves. The park, a major component of a regional system of parks and trails, covers more than 5100 acre of mostly second-growth forest with a few patches of old growth. More than 80 mi of recreational trails, including the Wildwood Trail segment of the city's 40-Mile Loop system, crisscross the park.

As early as the 1860s, civic leaders sought to create a natural preserve in the woods near Portland. Their efforts led to the creation of a municipal park commission that in 1903 hired the Olmsted Brothers landscape architectural firm to develop a plan for Portland's parks. Acquiring land through donations, transfers from Multnomah County, and delinquent tax foreclosures, the city eventually acted on a proposal by the City Club of Portland and combined parcels totaling about 4000 acre to create the reserve. Formally dedicated in 1948, it ranks 19th in size among parks within U.S. cities, according to the Trust for Public Land.

More than 112 bird species and 62 mammal species frequent the park and its wide variety of trees and shade-loving plants. About 40 in of rain falls on the forest each year. Many small tributaries of the Willamette River flow northeast through the woods to pipes or culverts under U.S. Route 30 at the edge of the park. One of them, Balch Creek, has a resident trout population, and another, Miller Creek, supports sea-run species, including salmon.

Threats to the park include overuse, urban traffic, encroaching development, invasive flora, and lack of maintenance money. Occasional serious crimes and more frequent minor crimes occur in the park.

Geology and geography
Solidified lava from Grande Ronde members of the Columbia River Basalt Group underlie Forest Park. About 16 million years ago during the Middle Miocene, the Columbia River ran through a lowland south of its modern channel. Eruptions from linear vents in eastern Oregon and Washington flowed down this channel through what later became the Willamette Valley. These flows, some of which reached the Pacific Ocean, recurred at intervals between 16.5 and 15.6 million years ago and covered almost 60000 sqmi. About eight separate Grande Ronde Basalt flows have been mapped in the Tualatin Mountains (West Hills), where they underlie the steepest slopes of Forest Park and form the columned rocks visible along Balch Creek Canyon and Northwest Cornell Road. The West Hills were later covered by wind-deposited silts that become unstable when saturated with water. Stream bank instability and siltation are common, and landslides deter urban development at higher elevations.

Roughly 8 mi long, the park is less than 1 mi wide near downtown Portland and about 2 mi wide at its northwestern end. It extends along the West Hills from West Burnside Street near downtown Portland to where the Willamette River divides to flow around Sauvie Island. Covering most of the east face of the ridge above the Willamette River, it is bounded by West Burnside Street on the south, Northwest Skyline Boulevard on the west, Northwest Newberry Road on the north, and Northwest St. Helens Road (U.S. Route 30) on the east. Elevations above sea level vary from 50 ft near U.S. Route 30 at the base of the ridge to about 1100 ft near the crest of the ridge along Northwest Skyline Boulevard.

In 2008 Forest Park ranked 19th in size among the largest city parks in the United States, according to The Trust for Public Land. The trust's list included state parks, national parks, county parks, regional parks, and national wildlife refuges, as well as municipally owned parks located within cities. Chugach State Park in Anchorage, Alaska, was in first place with 490125 acre.

Portland author Marcy Houle says that the park "captures the essence of what is natural and wild and beautiful about the Northwest... From this forest sanctuary, panoramic views of the city of Portland, the Willamette and Columbia rivers, and five major peaks of the Cascade Range ... can be seen through the tall fir trees. From its inception ..., Forest Park has been a refuge for both people and wildlife, and an integral part of the environment of Portland."

Vegetation

Forest Park lies in the Coast Range ecoregion designated by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). In its natural state, the forest consists mainly of three tree species: Douglas-fir, western hemlock, and western red cedar. It also includes smaller numbers of grand fir, black cottonwood, red alder, bigleaf maple, madrone, and western yew. Much of the forest that existed there before 1850 was gone by 1940. The stage of regrowth in the forest depends on when it was last logged or burned.

In the mid-1990s, about 1% of the total vegetation in the park consisted of grasses, bracken, thistle, and fireweed in sections of the forest cleared two to five years earlier. Another 2% had reached the shrub stage, between three and thirty years old, with small trees dominated by such plants as thimbleberry, salmonberry, and blackberry. Forest areas 10 to 30 years old that contained tall alder and maple trees and smaller conifers accounted for about 20% of the park.

Larger areas were occupied by forests in which conifers had grown taller than the alders and maples. About 50% of Forest Park consists of these areas, which are between 30 and 80 years old and in which Douglas-firs have begun to dominate. Another 25% of the park contains forests dominated by middle-aged conifers, 80 to 250 years old. In these areas, red alders, which live for about 100 years, have begun to die, and the Douglas-firs, which can live for 750 years, attain heights up to about 240 ft. Under the big trees are shade-tolerant trees such as western red cedar, western hemlock, and grand fir and smaller plants such as Oregon-grape, vine maple, and salal.

The last forest stage, old growth, is reached after 250 years and includes many snags, downed and dead trees, and fallen logs. Timber-cutting and fires reduced old growth in Forest Park to "almost nothing" by 1940, and most of the forest has not yet attained this stage. Patches exist near Macleay Park and further west near Germantown Road and Newton Road. The largest tree in Forest Park is a Douglas-fir near the Stone House, the remains of a former public restroom near Balch Creek. It is 242 ft high, and the trunk is 18.6 ft in circumference.

Among the prominent wildflowers are Hooker's fairy bells, vanilla leaf, evergreen violet, and trillium. Invasive species include English ivy, European holly, clematis, morning glory, and Himalayan blackberry. Citizen groups such as the No Ivy League. and The Forest Park Conservancy engage in projects to remove ivy, maintain trails, and plant native species.

Wildlife

Wildlife in Forest Park is strongly affected by contiguous tracts of nearby habitat that make the park accessible to birds and animals from the Tualatin River valley, the Oregon Coast Range, the Willamette River, Sauvie Island, the Columbia River, and the Vancouver, Washington, lowlands. Sixty-two mammal species, including the northern flying squirrel, black-tailed deer, creeping vole, bobcat, coyote, Mazama pocket gopher, little brown bat, Roosevelt elk, and Pacific jumping mouse frequent Forest Park. Blue grouse, great horned owl, hairy woodpecker, Bewick's wren, orange-crowned warbler, osprey, northern pygmy-owl, and hermit thrush are among the more than 112 species of birds that have been observed in the park. In Balch Creek Canyon adjacent to Forest Park, the Audubon Society of Portland maintains a wildlife sanctuary with more than 4 mi of trails, a wildlife care center, and avian exhibits. Amphibian species frequenting the Audubon Society pond include rough-skinned newts, Pacific tree frogs, and salamanders.

Pressure from habitat loss, pollution, hunting, and urban development has reduced or eliminated the presence of wolves, bears, and wild cats and has led to increased numbers of weasels, raccoons, and other small predators. Invasive plant species such as English ivy have made the habitat simpler and less supportive of native insects and the salamanders and other amphibians that feed on them. Roads in the area severely hamper the movement of large animals. Multnomah County has designated Northwest Cornell Road and Northwest Germantown Road as "rural collector" streets, carrying traffic of less than 3,000 vehicles per day but more than streets designated as "local roads". Dogs allowed to run (illegally) off-leash in the park pose threats to birds, fish, and other wildlife.

Creeks
About 40 in of rain falls on Forest Park each year. Many small creeks, only a few of which are named, flow northeast through the park from the ridge at the top of the West Hills to the base of the hills near U.S. Route 30. The five named streams from east to west are Balch Creek, Rocking Chair Creek, Saltzman Creek, Doane Creek, and Miller Creek. Rocking Chair Creek is a tributary of Saltzman Creek. After leaving the park, the streams pass through culverts and other conduits before reaching the Willamette River. These conduits block fish migration to and from the Willamette River except on Miller Creek, where the conduits are short and have been modified to assist the fish.

Near the east end of the park, the free-flowing reaches of Balch Creek support a population of resident cutthroat trout. Near the west end, furthest from the city center, Miller Creek retains much of its historic nature and supports a greater diversity of aquatic organisms than other Forest Park streams. Biological field surveys of Miller Creek in 1990 noted sea-run cutthroat trout, coho salmon, and short-head cottid, as well as abundant macroinvertebrate species including stoneflies, mayflies, caddisflies, water striders, and crayfish.

History
Before settlers arrived, the land that became known as Forest Park was covered by a Douglas-fir forest. By 1851, its acreage had been divided into donation land claims filed by settlers with plans to clear the forest and build upon the property. After logging, the steep slopes and unstable silt loosened by heavy rains caused landslides that defeated construction plans, and claims were defaulted or donated to the city.

Civic leaders beginning with the Reverend Thomas Lamb Eliot, a minister who moved to Portland in 1867, sought to create a natural preserve in the woods that eventually became Forest Park. By 1899, Eliot's efforts led to the formation of the Municipal Park Commission of Portland, which in 1903 hired the highly regarded landscape architecture firm, the Olmsted Brothers of Brookline, Massachusetts, to study the city's park system and recommend a plan. John Charles Olmsted, the stepson of Frederick Law Olmsted, spent May 1903 in Portland. The Olmsted Report, received in December, emphasized creation of a system of parks and linking parkways that would take advantage of natural scenery. It proposed a formal square for Union Station, squares along the downtown waterfront, and parks in places later known as Forest Park, Sellwood Park, Mount Tabor Park, Rocky Butte, and Ross Island, as well as Terwilliger Parkway, the 40-Mile Loop, and other connecting parkways. Proposed parks for Swan Island, in the Willamette River, and other places in Portland did not develop. Others like Forest Park came into being only many years later.

The city acquired land for Forest Park bit by bit over several decades. In 1897, Donald Macleay, a Portland merchant and real-estate developer, deeded a 108 acre tract of land along Balch Creek to the city to provide an outdoor space for patients from nearby hospitals. In the 1890s, Frederick Van Voorhies Holman, a Portland lawyer and a president of the Oregon Historical Society, proposed a gift of 52 acre of nearby land that was added to the city's holdings in 1939 when his siblings, George F. and Mary Holman, completed the donation. Clark and Wilson Timber Company donated 17 acre in 1927 to create a Western Oregon timber park near Northwest Germantown Road. Nine years later, the estate of Aaron Meier, one of the founders of the Meier & Frank chain of department stores, donated land for Linnton Park near Portland's Linnton neighborhood along Highway 30. These smaller parks became part of the larger park when it was finally created. Some of them, such as Macleay Park, are still referred to by their original names even though they are part of Forest Park.

Other parcels were acquired through government action. In 1928, the City Council's Delinquent Tax Committee transferred land to the Parks Bureau for a wildflower garden along Balch Creek. Multnomah County in that year gave the bureau perpetual use of about 145 acre of land north of Washington Park. Encouraged by the City Club of Portland, which conducted a park feasibility study in 1945, civic leaders supported the Forest Park project. In 1948, Multnomah County transferred to the city another 2000 acre acquired through delinquent tax foreclosures. On September 23, 1948, the city formally dedicated 4200 acre of land as Forest Park, which as of 2009 covered more than 5100 acre. It is one of the largest urban forest reserves in the U.S., though its exact ranking has been questioned. The city's Parks and Recreation Department claims it is the "largest forested natural area within city limits in the United States". However, an article in the Portland Tribune said Forest Park ranked no higher than third among U.S. urban forests in 2006.

In 1991, Metro, the regional governmental agency for the Oregon portion of the Portland metropolitan area, began budgeting for what became its Natural Areas Program aimed at protecting these areas in Multnomah, Washington, and Clackamas counties. By 1995, the program had targeted 320 acre next to or within Forest Park for acquisition. A 2006 bond measure allowed for the purchase of more land to expand the park, to protect its creeks' headwaters and those of nearby streams in Washington County, and to link Forest Park to other public lands to the northwest. In addition to purchases to directly expand the park, since 1990 the Forest Park Conservancy has acquired 14 conservation easements covering 1160 acre to create a buffer of undeveloped land surrounding the park.

Crime and other human impacts
Multiple crimes have occurred in Forest Park, including two murders. In 2001, Todd Alan Reed, a man who preyed on heroin addicts and prostitutes, pleaded guilty to the 1999 murders of three women whose bodies were found in Forest Park near Northwest Saltzman Road, though forensic analysis showed the murders took place elsewhere and the bodies were brought to Forest Park. In 2003, jurors convicted another man of the 1996 murder of his ex-girlfriend on a Forest Park trail. Less serious crimes have included assault (rarely), car break-ins and petty theft (frequently at trail heads), rare arsons, rare indecent exposure, and marijuana cultivation. Multnomah County Sheriff's deputies in 2007 seized 114 mature marijuana plants found growing in the park on a hillside near Portland's Linnton neighborhood. Deputies had seized another small grow operation in the park in 2005. More common has been illegal camping by homeless transients and others. An illegal bicycling trail, about 1 mi long, was discovered in a remote part of the park in February 2010. In 2014, hikers found a booby trap meant to fire a shotgun shell across a path leading to the park. Portland police removed the device.

In 2004, authorities found a 53-year-old man and his 12-year-old daughter living in the park in a tarp-covered structure stocked with encyclopedias for homeschooling. They told police they had been living in the park for four years. My Abandonment, a novel by Peter Rock, tells a story built around the incident. The novel was adapted into a film, Leave No Trace (2018). Forest scenes were shot in Eagle Fern Park, near Estacada in Clackamas County.

In 1951, a drought-related blaze started by a campfire burned 1600 acre near the western end of the park. In 2005, a reporter for The Oregonian newspaper interviewed biologists, conservationists, Parks and Recreation officials, and others about the health of Forest Park and its future prospects. Collectively they identified threats to the park: urban development that restricts the movement of wild animals and birds; overuse; invasive plants; loose dogs; fire risk; increasing rates of tree death; lack of rule enforcement, and lack of money. In 2010, the city hired a full-time ranger assigned to Forest Park. In 2021 and 2022, the city took additional steps to handle wildfire risk in the park, with Portland Fire & Rescue requesting additional budget to plan for mitigation, and the city designating the park plus surrounding areas a high-risk hazard zone where homeless encampments are banned during wildfire season.

Recreational access

Forest Park is a major component of a regional network of parks, trails, and natural areas managed by Metro. At the southeastern end of the park, Wildwood Trail, the centerpiece of the Forest Park trail system, passes through Macleay Park. This part of the larger park, which includes the Forest Park field headquarters, is heavily used by pedestrians entering Balch Creek Canyon from nearby city streets. Further southeast, Wildwood Trail, while still in Forest Park, passes Pittock Mansion and its panoramic views of Portland and five volcanic peaks: Mounts Rainier, Adams, St. Helens, Hood, and Jefferson. Beyond the mansion, the trail connects to adjoining Washington Park and attractions such as the Oregon Zoo via the Barbara Walker Crossing, a pedestrian bridge over Burnside Street. From here and from more remote Forest Park trailheads near the St. Johns Bridge, other components of the 40-Mile Loop system of trails encircle the city. They follow the Willamette and Columbia rivers, the Columbia Slough and the Springwater Corridor along Johnson Creek and extend to the eastern suburbs of Fairview, Gresham and Boring. This trail network links more than 30 separate parks that offer diverse recreational opportunities, such as horse-back riding, in-line skating, canoeing, and viewing of wetland wildlife, in addition to hiking and biking. It connects to other trail systems such as Discovery Trail in Clark County, Washington, and the Terwilliger Trail running through Tryon Creek State Natural Area to Lake Oswego.

As of 2015, this network of parks and trails is still expanding. Metro, the regional government, plans to link the 40-Mile Loop to trails along the Willamette River to Wilsonville, south of Lake Oswego. The regional government has also proposed connecting Wildwood Trail to the partly completed Westside Trail running north–south through Washington County to the Tualatin River. Another planned trail would extend the Springwater Corridor along a proposed Cazadero Trail to Barton on the Clackamas River. Longer-term goals include trail links to the Sandy River Gorge Trail east of Gresham and the Pacific Crest Trail, which runs from Mexico to Canada and follows the Cascade Range through Oregon.

Wildwood Trail
More than 80 mi of trails and firelanes cut through the park. The longest trail in the park is the Wildwood Trail, of which about 27 mi is in Forest Park and about 3 mi in Washington Park. It is also the longest section of the 40-Mile Loop, a trail network of roughly 150 mi reaching many parts of the Portland metropolitan area. The trail runs southeast to northwest from trail marker 0 in Washington Park to Northwest Newberry Road, just beyond trail marker 30 on the ridge above the southeastern end of Sauvie Island. The straight-line distance from beginning to end is about 9 mi, but because the trail includes many switchbacks and hairpin turns, it is 30.2 mi long. In 2019, the City of Portland constructed Barbara Walker Crossing to allow Wildwood Trail users to safely pass over West Burnside Street.

Wildwood Trail begins in Washington Park near the Oregon Zoo, a light rail stop, the Oregon Vietnam Veterans Memorial, the World Forestry Center and the Hoyt Arboretum. Blue diamonds placed about 6 ft above the ground appear on trees along the trail every 0.25 mi. The diamonds and the mileage markers above them are visible to hikers traveling in either direction on the path. In its first 5 mi, the trail passes near the Portland Japanese Garden, Pittock Mansion, the Audubon Society of Portland wildlife sanctuary, and the Stone House in Balch Creek Canyon. From this point west, Wildwood Trail runs through forest generally uninterrupted by buildings but crisscrossed by shorter trails, small streams, roads, and firelanes.

Other paths, streets, easements
Many shorter Forest Park trails, roads, and firelanes intersect the Wildwood Trail. Most of the trails are open only to hikers and runners, but several roads and firelanes are open to bicycles or horses or both. Leif Erikson Drive, a road closed to motorized traffic, runs at lower elevation than and roughly parallel to the Wildwood Trail for about 11 mi from the end of Northwest Thurman Street to Northwest Germantown Road. Originally called Hillside Drive, it was renamed in 1933 at the request of the Sons of Norway, a fraternal organization. Easements for an oil line, a gas line, and electric transmission lines for the Bonneville Power Administration (BPA) cross the park. Paved roads surround the park, which is crossed or entered by other roads including Northwest Pittock Drive, Northwest Cornell Road, Northwest 53rd Drive, Northwest Saltzman Road, Northwest Springville Road, Northwest Germantown Road, Northwest Newton Road, and BPA Road.

title: Forest Park (Portland, Oregon)


text: Category:Education in Indonesia

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Category:Education in Indonesia


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KXUA

KXUA (88.3 FM) is a student-run college radio station broadcasting an eclectic radio format. Licensed to Fayetteville, Arkansas, it serves the university campus and surrounding community. The university also owns the more powerful 91.3 KUAF, which broadcasts news, information and classical music as an NPR member station.

History
From 1973 to 1986, the University of Arkansas had a student radio station known as KUAF, broadcasting at 91.3FM. However, in 1986, KUAF became a network affiliate of National Public Radio, gaining a wide following but at a loss of student input. Three years later, a group of students decided to form a new student radio station, named KRFA, which would be based on the college radio format. Their callsign was a reference to Radio Free Europe, the acronym meaning Radio Free Arkansas. The "broadcasting" was done via cable and carrier current, rather than FM or AM, which was available to on-campus facilities only. In the spring of 1994 KRFA disbanded.

In the fall of 1994, KRZR was formed as student organization at the University of Arkansas with the goal of creating an FM station to serve the university and surrounding communities. A consulting engineer was hired to do a frequency check and complete the technical portion for a 500 watt station at 90.1FM.

In the Spring of 1996, a communications lawyer was hired to complete the non-technical portion of the government application for 90.1 FM and it was filed with the Federal Communications Commission (FCC). The American Family Association (AFA), a Christian radio organization, also filed for 90.1 FM. Subsequently, KRZR filed for 88.3FM; so did the AFA. After several months, the AFA and the University of Arkansas came to a settlement and the student radio station was given 88.3 FM, while 90.1 FM became a religious outlet. At some point during this process, the callsign KRZR was claimed by a station simulcasting KALZ, a talk radio station. On April 28, 1999, the station ran a search for unused callsigns beginning with the letter K, and of those open callsigns, they chose KXUA.

In the spring of 1999, the University of Arkansas Media Board accepted the student radio station as a campus organization, among the ranks of the Arkansas Traveler (the student newspaper), the Razorback Yearbook, the AuxArc Review (a literary magazine), and UATV. KXUA signed on with its first broadcast on April 1, 2000. In the spirit of April Fools' Day, the first listeners were led to believe that the station wasn't allowed to play music, a stunt upheld by the DJs playing nothing but political speeches. Soon enough the prank was dismissed, and listeners got their first taste of real programming.

For the ten year anniversary, the station promoted a switch in formatting to education programming, and broadcast lectures, quantum physics texts, and audio versions of esoteric Wikipedia articles. Listeners called in and complained all day long filling up the answer machine, and then calling other offices on campus. The joke was revealed at the end of the day during a special retrospective show in the evening, during which many former DJs called in and talked about their experiences with the station.

While the station was originally located at the Student Union Building, in 2020, it moved to Kimpel Hall, in the newly renovated Candace Dixon-Horne Radio Broadcast Center, which includes an office for the DJs and staff, a live studio, and a production studio.

For the twenty-first anniversary, in 2021, the station began a new tradition of producing a zine every year, for the anniversary of the founding of the station. These can be viewed on the station's website. They also produce and distribute physical copies of a zine at the time of its publishing.

Format
KXUA's format is non commercial. The station usually does not play any music that has appeared on the top 40 of the Billboard Hot 100 chart in the last 40 years. Eclectic music, mainly the newest arrivals, plays in the rotation schedule, which is what plays when no DJ-hosted shows are on air. DJs host freeform shows throughout the week, excluding most dates that the university is closed. These shows include music shows, where DJs create a track list and discuss it, as well as podcasts. The rules for what makes a show a music or podcast-form show are generally loose enough to allow the creation of shows that border on both, such as shows that discuss a smaller volume of music much more in-depth than a traditional music show. KXUA also sponsors local events, and schedules in-studio performances from local and traveling musicians. Most genre shows are recorded and made available through the KXUA website and individual DJs websites and on iTunes for free.

All DJs are directly affiliated with the university, either as students or employees, and are volunteers. The executive staff controls the station and is made up entirely of students that and are elected each year. They are the only paid members of the station. The executive staff includes a Station Manager, two music directors, a Social Media Director, a Programming Director, and a Podcasting Director.

KXUA is unique for the Northwest Arkansas region, though somewhat similar to many college stations across the nation. KXUA prides itself in not only providing an opportunity for students to learn broadcasting experience, but as a major source for music education on the campus and community.

title: KXUA


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Wikipedia:Articles for deletion/Catholic Broadcasting Northwest

Catholic Broadcasting Northwest
Seems pure ad -- and not even for the subject of the article. --jpgordon {gab} 03:25, 8 Oct 2004 (UTC)

 * I am befuddled as to why this is not a speedy. Mike H 03:25, Oct 8, 2004 (UTC)
 * I didn't mark it for speedy 'cause perhaps the wrong people at the wrong time were in wiki irc when I asked if "speedy" was correct for pure advertisements like this. I still a bit vague, I guess, on the difference between an ad that needs to be discussed and an ad that can just be zapped. --jpgordon {gab} 14:48, 8 Oct 2004 (UTC)

 * That makes two of us. I'm tagging it as such.  It's spam, pure and simple and shouldn't linger here for five days. - Lucky 6.9 03:57, 8 Oct 2004 (UTC)
 * Gone. User:RickK got it before I did. Andrewa 06:39, 8 Oct 2004 (UTC)


text: Category:Astoria, Oregon

title: Category:Astoria, Oregon


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Battle of Baltimore

The Battle of Baltimore (September 12–15, 1814) took place between British and American forces in the War of 1812. American forces repulsed sea and land invasions off the busy port city of Baltimore, Maryland, and killed the commander of the invading British forces.

The British and Americans first met at the Battle of North Point. Though the Americans retreated, the battle was a successful delaying action that inflicted heavy casualties on the British, halted their advance, and allowed the defenders at Baltimore to prepare for an attack.

The resistance of Baltimore's Fort McHenry during bombardment by the Royal Navy inspired Francis Scott Key to compose the poem "Defence of Fort M'Henry", which later became the lyrics for "The Star-Spangled Banner," the national anthem of the United States.

Future U.S. president James Buchanan served as a private in the defense of Baltimore.

Background
Until April 1814, Britain was at war against Napoleonic France, which limited British war aims in America. Meanwhile, the British primarily used a defensive strategy and repelled American invasions of the Provinces of Upper and Lower Canada. The Americans gained naval control over Lake Erie in 1813 and seized parts of western Ontario. In the Mississippi Territory, in an area in modern central Alabama General Andrew Jackson destroyed the military strength of the Creek nation at the Battle of Horseshoe Bend in 1814.

Although Great Britain was unwilling to draw military forces from the war with France, it still enjoyed a naval superiority on the ocean, and vessels of North America and West Indies Squadron, based at Bermuda, blockaded American ports on the Atlantic throughout the war, strangling the American economy. Initially, the north-eastern ports were spared this blockade as public sentiments in New York and New England were against the war. The Royal Navy and Royal Marines also occupied American coastal islands and landed military forces for raids along the coast, especially around the Chesapeake Bay, encouraging enslaved blacks to defect to the Crown and recruiting them into the Corps of Colonial Marines.

Following the defeat of Napoleon in the spring of 1814, the British adopted a more aggressive strategy, intended to compel the United States to negotiate a peace that restored the pre-war status quo. Thousands of seasoned British soldiers were deployed to British North America. Most went to the Canadas to re-enforce the defenders. The British Army, Canadian militias, and their First Nations allies drove the American invaders back into the United States. Without naval control of the Great Lakes they were unable to receive supplies, resulting in the British failure to capture Plattsburgh in the Second Battle of Lake Champlain and their withdrawal from US territory.

A brigade under the command of Major General Robert Ross was sent in early July with several naval vessels to join the forces already operating from Bermuda. The combined forces were to be used for diversionary raids along the Atlantic coast, intended to force the Americans to withdraw forces from Canada. Some historians claim that they were under orders not to carry out any extended operations and were restricted to targets on the coast.

However, the British had launched three major operations targeting the three largest ports of America at Baltimore, New York City, via Lake Champlain and the Hudson River, and in New Orleans from August 1814 to February 1815. Each of these three expeditions had over 10,000 British Army troops, many of them the best soldiers and officers from the Peninsular War, so they were not just minor diversionary raids. Britain had already captured most of modern-day Maine and re-established the Crown colony of New Ireland in September 1814.

An ambitious raid was planned as the result of a letter sent to Bermuda on 2 June by Sir George Prévost, Governor General of The Canadas, who called for retaliation in response to the "wanton destruction of private property along the north shores of Lake Erie" by American forces under Colonel John Campbell in May, the most notable being the Raid on Port Dover. Prévost argued that,

"... in consequence of the late disgraceful conduct of the American troops in the wanton destruction of private property on the north shores of Lake Erie, in order that if the war with the United States continues you may, should you judge it advisable, assist in inflicting that measure of retaliation which shall deter the enemy from a repetition of similar outrages."

The letter was considered by Ross and Vice-Admiral Sir Alexander Cochrane, who had replaced Sir John Borlase Warren earlier that year as the Commander-in-Chief of the North America and West Indies Station of the Royal Navy, headquartered at Admiralty House in Bermuda, in planning how to use their forces. Cochrane's junior, Rear Admiral George Cockburn, had been commanding ships of the squadron in the operations on the Chesapeake Bay since the previous year.

On 25 June he wrote to Cochrane stressing that the defenses there were weak, and he felt that several major cities were vulnerable to attack. Cochrane suggested attacking Baltimore, Washington and Philadelphia. On 17 July, Cockburn recommended Washington as the target, because of the comparative ease of attacking the national capital and "the greater political effect likely to result".

On 18 July, Cochrane ordered Cockburn that to "deter the enemy from a repetition of similar outrages..." You are hereby required and directed to "destroy and lay waste such towns and districts as you may find assailable". Cochrane instructed, "You will spare merely the lives of the unarmed inhabitants of the United States".

In August, the vessels in Bermuda sailed from the Royal Naval Dockyard and St. George's to join those already operating along the American Atlantic coast. After defeating a US Navy gunboat flotilla, a military force totaling 4,370, composed of British Army, Royal Marines, and Royal Navy detachments for shore service, under Ross was landed in Virginia. After beating off an American force of 1,200 on the 23rd, on the 24th they attacked the prepared defenses of the main American force of roughly 6,400 US Army soldiers, militiamen, US Marines, and US Navy sailors in the Battle of Bladensburg.

Despite the considerable disadvantage in numbers, standard military logic dictates that a three-to-one advantage is needed in carrying out an attack on prepared defenses, and sustaining heavy casualties, the British force routed the American defenders and cleared the path into the capital. President James Madison and the entire government fled the city, and went North, to the town of Brookeville, Maryland.

On 24 August 1814, British troops led by Rear Admiral George Cockburn and Major General Robert Ross entered Washington and captured the city with a force of 4,500 "battle-hardened" men, during the burning of Washington. British troops, commanded by Ross, set fire to a number of public buildings, including the White House and the United States Capitol. Extensive damage to the interiors and the contents of both were reported. The British forces returned to their ships.

The British sent a fleet up the Potomac to cut off Washington's water access and threaten the prosperous ports of Alexandria, just downstream of Washington, and Georgetown, just upstream. The mere appearance of the fleet cowed American defenders into fleeing from Fort Warburton without firing a shot, and undefended Alexandria surrendered. The British spent several days looting hundreds of tons of merchandise from city merchants.

They then turned their attention north to Baltimore, where they hoped to strike a powerful blow against the demoralized Americans. Baltimore was a busy port and was thought by the British to harbor many of the privateers who were raiding British shipping. The British planned a combined operation, with Ross launching a land attack at North Point, and Vice-Admiral Sir Alexander Cochrane laying siege to Fort McHenry, which was the point defensive installation in Baltimore Harbor.

Baltimore's defenses had been planned in advance and overseen by the state militia commander, Major General Samuel Smith.

10th Military District

 * Brigadier General William Winder, U.S. Army

British

 * North America and West Indies Station: Vice Admiral Alexander Cochrane
 * Rear-Admiral Poultney Malcolm
 * Rear-Admiral Edward Codrington - Captain of the Fleet

North Point
The British landed a force of 5,000 troops who marched toward Baltimore and first met heavy resistance at the Battle of North Point, which was fought on September 12 about 5 miles (8 km) from the city. The city's defense was under the overall command of Major General Samuel Smith, an officer of the Maryland Militia. He dispatched roughly 3,000 men under the command of General John Stricker to meet the British in a forward engagement. General Stricker was to stall the British invasion force to delay the British advance long enough for Major General Smith to complete the defenses in Baltimore.

The land invasion force for the British was led by Ross, who was killed in the second shift of the American defense by an American sharpshooter. It has been suggested that either Daniel Wells or Henry McComas of Captain Aisquith's rifle company, of the 5th Maryland Militia regiment was responsible, and both killed shortly afterwards.

After Ross's death, the British army came under the command of Colonel Arthur Brooke. The Americans had already begun to form an organized retreat back to the main defenses of Baltimore, where they awaited a British assault.

Hampstead Hill
Rodgers Bastion, also known as Sheppard's Bastion, located on Hampstead Hill, now part of Patterson Park, was the centerpiece of a 3-mile-wide earthworks from the outer harbor in Canton, north to Belair Road, dug to defend the eastern approach to Baltimore against the British. The redoubt was assembled and commanded by U.S. Navy Commodore John Rodgers, with General Smith in command of the overall line. At dawn on September 13, the day after the Battle of North Point, some 4,300 British troops advanced north on North Point Road, then west along the Philadelphia Road (now Maryland Route 7) toward Baltimore. U.S. troops were forced to retreat to the main defensive line around the city. The British commander, Col. Arthur Brooke, established his new headquarters at the Sterret House on Surrey Farm, now called Armistead Gardens, about two miles east-northeast of Hampstead Hill.

When the British began probing actions on Baltimore's inner defenses, the American line was defended by 100 cannons and more than 10,000 regular troops, including two shadowing infantry regiments commanded by general officers Stricker and Winder as well as a few thousand local militia and irregulars. The defenses were far stronger than the British anticipated. The American defenders at Fort McHenry successfully stopped British naval forces but a few ships were still able to provide artillery support.

Once the British had taken the outer defenses, the inner defenses became the priority. The British infantry had not anticipated how well defended they would be, so the first attack was a failure. However, Brooke's forces managed to outflank and to overrun American positions to the right. After a discussion with lower ranking officers, Brooke decided that the British should bombard the fort instead of risk a frontal assault and, at 3:00 a.m. on September 14, ordered the British troops to return to the ships.

Fort McHenry

At Fort McHenry, some 1,000 soldiers under the command of Major George Armistead awaited the British naval bombardment. Their defense was augmented by the sinking of a line of American merchant ships at the adjacent entrance to Baltimore Harbor in order to further thwart the passage of British ships.

The attack began on September 13, as the British fleet of some nineteen ships began pounding the fort with Congreve rockets (from rocket vessel HMS Erebus) and mortar shells (from bomb vessels Terror, Volcano, Meteor, Devastation, and Aetna). After an initial exchange of fire, the British fleet withdrew to just beyond the range of Fort McHenry's cannons and continued to bombard the American redoubts for the next 25 hours. Although 1,500 to 1,800 cannonballs were launched at the fort, damage was light because of recent fortification that had been completed prior to the battle.

After nightfall, Cochrane ordered a landing to be made by small boats to the shore just west of the fort, away from the harbor opening on which the fort's defense was concentrated. He hoped that the landing party might slip past Fort McHenry and draw Smith's army away from the main British land assault on the city's eastern border. That gave the British a good diversion for half an hour and allowed them to fire again and again.

On the morning of September 14, the 30 × oversized American flag, which had been made a year earlier by local flagmaker Mary Pickersgill and her 13-year-old daughter, was raised over Fort McHenry, replacing the tattered storm flag which had flown during battle. It was responded to by a small encampment of British riflemen on the right flank, who fired a round each at the sky and taunted the Americans just before they too returned to the shore line.

Originally, historians said that the oversized Star Spangled Banner Flag was raised to taunt the British, but that is not the case. The oversized flag was used every morning for reveille, as was the case on the morning of September 14.

Brooke had been instructed not to attack the American positions around Baltimore unless he was certain that there were fewer than 2,000 men in the fort. Because of his orders, Brooke had to withdraw from his positions and returned to the fleet, which would set sail for New Orleans.

Aftermath
Colonel Brooke's troops withdrew, and Admiral Cochrane's fleet sailed off to regroup before his next (and final) assault on the United States, at the Battle of New Orleans. Armistead was soon promoted to lieutenant colonel. Much weakened by the arduous preparations for the battle, he died at 38, only three years after the battle.

Three active battalions of the Regular Army (1-4 Inf, 2-4 Inf and 3-4 Inf) perpetuate the lineages of the old 36th and 38th Infantry Regiments, both of which were at Fort McHenry during the bombardment. The lineage of the 5th Maryland Infantry Regiment, which played a major role in the Battle of North Point, is perpetuated by the Maryland Army National Guard's 175th Infantry Regiment.

The battle is commemorated in the Fort McHenry National Monument and Historic Shrine.

Star Spangled Banner
An American lawyer and amateur poet, Francis Scott Key, was on a mercy mission for the release of Dr. William Beanes, a prisoner of the British. Key showed the British letters from wounded British officers praising the care that they received from Dr. Beanes. The British agreed to release Beanes, but Key and Beanes were forced to stay with the British until the attack on Baltimore was over.

Key watched the proceedings from a truce ship in the Patapsco River. On the morning of the 14th, Key saw the American flag waving above Fort McHenry. Inspired, he began jotting down verses on the back of a letter he was carrying. Key's poem, originally named "Defence of Fort M'Henry", was printed on pamphlets by the Baltimore American.

Key's poem was later set to the tune of a British song called "To Anacreon in Heaven", the official song of the Anacreontic Society, an 18th-century gentlemen's club of amateur musicians in London. The song eventually became known as "The Star-Spangled Banner". The US Congress made it the national anthem of the United States in 1931.

Sources and further reading

 * Crawford, Michael J. (ed.) (2002). The Naval War of 1812: A Documentary History, Vol. 3. Washington: United States Department of Defense. ISBN 978-0160512247
 * George, Christopher T., Terror on the Chesapeake: The War of 1812 on the Bay, Shippensburg, Pa.: White Mane, 2001, ISBN 1-57249-276-7
 * Hildebrand, David K. "Bicentenary Essay: Two National Anthems? Some Reflections on the Two Hundredth Anniversary of 'The Star-Spangled Banner' and its Forgotten Partner, 'The Battle of Baltimore'." American Music 32.3 (2014): 253–271. online
 * Leepson, Marc. What So Proudly We Hailed: Francis Scott Key, A Life, New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2014. ISBN 978-1137278289
 * Leepson, Marc. "Flag: An American Biography", New York: Thomas Dunne Books, 2005. ISBN 978-0312323080
 * Marine, William M. (1913). The British invasion of Maryland, 1812–1815. Baltimore: Society of the War of 1812 in Maryland
 * Pitch, Anthony S. The Burning of Washington, Annapolis: Naval Institute Press, 2000. ISBN 1-55750-425-3
 * Sheads, Scott S. The Rockets' Red Glare: The Maritime Defense of Baltimore in 1814 (Tidewater Publishers, 1986).
 * Marine, William M. (1913). The British invasion of Maryland, 1812–1815. Baltimore: Society of the War of 1812 in Maryland
 * Pitch, Anthony S. The Burning of Washington, Annapolis: Naval Institute Press, 2000. ISBN 1-55750-425-3
 * Sheads, Scott S. The Rockets' Red Glare: The Maritime Defense of Baltimore in 1814 (Tidewater Publishers, 1986).
 * Pitch, Anthony S. The Burning of Washington, Annapolis: Naval Institute Press, 2000. ISBN 1-55750-425-3
 * Sheads, Scott S. The Rockets' Red Glare: The Maritime Defense of Baltimore in 1814 (Tidewater Publishers, 1986).
 * Sheads, Scott S. The Rockets' Red Glare: The Maritime Defense of Baltimore in 1814 (Tidewater Publishers, 1986).
 * Sheads, Scott S. The Rockets' Red Glare: The Maritime Defense of Baltimore in 1814 (Tidewater Publishers, 1986).

 * Whitehorne, Joseph A., The Battle for Baltimore 1814, Baltimore: Nautical & Aviation Publishing, 1997, ISBN 1-877853-23-2

title: Battle of Baltimore


text:
List of 1984 Canadian incumbents

Crown

 * Head of State - Queen Elizabeth II

Federal government

 * Governor General - Edward Schreyer then Jeanne Sauvé

Liberal cabinet - to September 16

 * Prime Minister - Pierre Trudeau then John Turner
 * Deputy Prime Minister - Allan MacEachen then Jean Chrétien
 * Minister of Finance - Marc Lalonde
 * Secretary of State for External Affairs - Allan MacEachen then Jean Chrétien
 * Secretary of State for Canada - Serge Joyal
 * Minister of National Defence - Jean-Jacques Blais
 * Minister of National Health and Welfare - Monique Bégin
 * Minister of Regional Industrial Expansion - Ed Lumley
 * Minister of the Environment - Charles Caccia
 * Minister of Justice - Mark MacGuigan then Donald Johnston
 * Minister of Transport - Lloyd Axworthy
 * Minister of Communications - Francis Fox then Ed Lumley
 * Minister of Fisheries and Oceans - Pierre de Bané then Herb Breau
 * Minister of Agriculture - Eugene Whelan then Ralph Ferguson
 * Minister of Public Works - Roméo LeBlanc then Charles Lapointe
 * Minister of Employment and Immigration - John Roberts
 * Minister of Indian Affairs and Northern Development - John Munro then Doug Frith
 * Minister of Energy, Mines and Resources - Charles Caccia then Gerald Regan
 * Minister of State (Forestry) - Gerald Merrithew

Progressive Conservative cabinet - from September 17

 * Prime Minister - Brian Mulroney
 * Deputy Prime Minister - Erik Nielsen
 * Minister of Finance - Michael Wilson
 * Secretary of State for External Affairs - Joe Clark
 * Secretary of State for Canada - Walter McLean
 * Minister of National Defence - Robert Coates
 * Minister of National Health and Welfare - Jake Epp
 * Minister of Regional Industrial Expansion - Sinclair Stevens
 * Minister of the Environment - Suzanne Blais-Grenier
 * Minister of Justice - John Crosbie
 * Minister of Transport - Don Mazankowski
 * Minister of Communications - Marcel Masse
 * Minister of Fisheries and Oceans - John Fraser
 * Minister of Agriculture - John Wise
 * Minister of Public Works - Roch La Salle
 * Minister of Employment and Immigration - Flora MacDonald
 * Minister of Indian Affairs and Northern Development - David Crombie
 * Minister of Energy, Mines and Resources - Pat Carney

Parliament
See: 32nd Canadian parliament then 33rd Canadian parliament

Party leaders

 * Liberal Party of Canada - Pierre Trudeau then John Turner
 * New Democratic Party- Ed Broadbent
 * Progressive Conservative Party of Canada - Brian Mulroney

Supreme Court Justices

 * Chief Justice: Bora Laskin then Brian Dickson
 * William McIntyre
 * Bertha Wilson
 * Antonio Lamer
 * Gerald Eric Le Dain (sworn in May 5)
 * Roland Almon Ritchie (until October 30)
 * John Sopinka
 * Jean Beetz
 * Julien Chouinard
 * Gerald Eric Le Dain

Other

 * Speaker of the House of Commons - Jeanne Sauvé then Cyril Lloyd Francis then John William Bosley
 * Governor of the Bank of Canada - Gerald Bouey
 * Chief of the Defence Staff - General G.C.E. Thériault

Premiers

 * Premier of Alberta - Peter Lougheed
 * Premier of British Columbia - Bill Bennett
 * Premier of Manitoba - Howard Pawley
 * Premier of New Brunswick - Richard Hatfield
 * Premier of Newfoundland - Brian Peckford
 * Premier of Nova Scotia - John Buchanan
 * Premier of Ontario - Bill Davis
 * Premier of Prince Edward Island - James Lee
 * Premier of Quebec - René Lévesque
 * Premier of Saskatchewan - Grant Devine

Lieutenant-governors

 * Lieutenant-Governor of Alberta - Frank C. Lynch-Staunton
 * Lieutenant-Governor of British Columbia - Robert Gordon Rogers
 * Lieutenant-Governor of Manitoba - Pearl McGonigal
 * Lieutenant-Governor of New Brunswick - George F.G. Stanley
 * Lieutenant-Governor of Newfoundland and Labrador - William Anthony Paddon
 * Lieutenant-Governor of Nova Scotia - John Elvin Shaffner then Alan Abraham
 * Lieutenant-Governor of Ontario - Jean-Pierre Côté then John Black Aird
 * Lieutenant-Governor of Prince Edward Island - Joseph Aubin Doiron
 * Lieutenant-Governor of Quebec - Gilles Lamontagne
 * Lieutenant-Governor of Saskatchewan - Sylvia Fedoruk

Mayors

 * Toronto - Art Eggleton
 * Montreal - Jean Drapeau
 * Vancouver - Michael Harcourt
 * Ottawa - Marion Dewar

Religious leaders

 * Roman Catholic Bishop of Quebec - Cardinal Archbishop Louis-Albert Vachon
 * Roman Catholic Bishop of Montreal - Cardinal Archbishop Paul Grégoire
 * Roman Catholic Bishops of London - Bishop John Michael Sherlock
 * Moderator of the United Church of Canada - W. Clarke MacDonald then Robert F. Smith

title: List of 1984 Canadian incumbents


text:
Vsevolod Abramovich

Vsevolod Mikhaylovich Abramovich (Всеволод Михайлович Абрамович; August 11, 1890 – April 24, 1913) was a pioneering aviator.

Biography
Abramovich was born on August 11, 1890, in Odessa, son of poet Mikhail Abramovich and grandson of the Yiddish writer Mendele Mocher Sforim. He studied at the Charlottenburg technical college. In 1911 he earned a pilot's licence. He began working for the Wright brothers' German subsidiary, Flugmaschinen Wright in Johannisthal, and became their chief test pilot.

In 1912, Abramovich built his own aircraft, the Abramovich Flyer, based on what he had learned at the Wright factory. He flew it to Saint Petersburg, Russia to participate in a military aircraft competition.

The same year, he set a world altitude record of 2,100 meters (6,888 feet) and an endurance record for carrying four passengers for 46 minutes and 57 seconds. He was killed in an aviation accident while instructing a student pilot, Evgeniya Shakhovskaya, at Johannisthal on April 24, 1913.

title: Vsevolod Abramovich


text:
Talk:Richard Hugo

Untitled
Lit editor: Isn't it a problem that you're defining POV so broadly that you're axing a fair description of the man's work? How is it helpful not to give some sense of the person's work? How can this be done in a way different from what I did???MaggieT 16:35, 22 March 2006 (UTC)

What I find fault in is "helped cement his reputation as one of America's finest poets. "  Here at Wiki we eschew pov statements like that. Strive for presenting the facts, provide links, etc. Allow the reader to make his own judgements. Liteditor 17:26, 22 March 2006 (UTC)

OK, I get that. What about the comments on his imagery, themes and prosody?

Fiddlesticks
Mea culpa! In my comments to my edit adding "Sea Lanes Out", I said it was published Missoula, MT: Kutenai Press. Nope. It was done by Dooryard Press of Story, Wyoming.. Glacierman (talk)

title: Talk:Richard Hugo


text:
Tangiteroria

Tangiteroria is a small rural community in the North Island of New Zealand. It is located halfway between Whangārei and Dargaville on State Highway 14 on the banks of the Northern Wairoa river.

It consists of a primary school, pub (currently closed), Catholic Church (currently closed), petrol station (currently closed), marae, and a sports complex/community centre (open for meals fortnightly). The sports complex and community centre were destroyed by a fire in the early hours of January 16, 2020, but rebuilt and opened in September 2023.

Kirikopuni and Pukehuia both had railway stations on the Dargaville Branch for the movement of stock throughout Northland and a passenger service.

History and culture
A Wesleyan mission station was set up by James Wallis in 1836, and then run by James Buller. The station lasted until 1853. Kauri logs were sent down the river to be milled in the mid-1860s. A flax mill operated in the late 19th century.

A steamer service up the Wairoa River was established to Tangiteroria by the Tangihua in 1878, and Watson's Landing and store flourished there in 1881. The S.S. Blanche ran a service between Dargaville and Tangiteroria in 1891-2, and the S.S. Ethel was doing the run twice a week in 1896. It was replaced by the S.S. Naumai from 1903-1920. The service finished in 1929. Road access was established in the 1890s.

Marae
The local Tangiterōria Marae and Tirarau meeting house are a traditional meeting place for the Ngāpuhi hapū of Te Parawhau and Te Uriroroi, and the Ngāti Whātua hapū of Te Kuihi and Te Parawhau.

Demographics
Tangiteroria is in an SA1 statistical area which covers 95.08 km2. The SA1 area is part of the larger Maungaru statistical area.

The SA1 statistical area had a population of 204 at the 2018 New Zealand census, an increase of 36 people (21.4%) since the 2013 census, and an increase of 3 people (1.5%) since the 2006 census. There were 81 households, comprising 102 males and 99 females, giving a sex ratio of 1.03 males per female. The median age was 39.8 years (compared with 37.4 years nationally), with 48 people (23.5%) aged under 15 years, 30 (14.7%) aged 15 to 29, 99 (48.5%) aged 30 to 64, and 21 (10.3%) aged 65 or older.

Ethnicities were 88.2% European/Pākehā, 27.9% Māori, 2.9% Pacific peoples, 1.5% Asian, and 1.5% other ethnicities. People may identify with more than one ethnicity.

Although some people chose not to answer the census's question about religious affiliation, 60.3% had no religion and 23.5% were Christian.

Of those at least 15 years old, 18 (11.5%) people had a bachelor's or higher degree, and 30 (19.2%) people had no formal qualifications. The median income was $34,200, compared with $31,800 nationally. 21 people (13.5%) earned over $70,000 compared to 17.2% nationally. The employment status of those at least 15 was that 84 (53.8%) people were employed full-time, 24 (15.4%) were part-time, and 6 (3.8%) were unemployed.

Maungaru statistical area
Maungaru statistical area, which also includes Tangowahine, covers 691.81 km2 and had an estimated population of as of  with a population density of  people per km2.

Maungaru had a population of 1,800 at the 2018 New Zealand census, an increase of 114 people (6.8%) since the 2013 census, and an increase of 87 people (5.1%) since the 2006 census. There were 672 households, comprising 906 males and 897 females, giving a sex ratio of 1.01 males per female. The median age was 44.0 years (compared with 37.4 years nationally), with 375 people (20.8%) aged under 15 years, 276 (15.3%) aged 15 to 29, 852 (47.3%) aged 30 to 64, and 300 (16.7%) aged 65 or older.

Ethnicities were 91.8% European/Pākehā, 21.3% Māori, 2.8% Pacific peoples, 1.7% Asian, and 1.0% other ethnicities. People may identify with more than one ethnicity.

The percentage of people born overseas was 8.7, compared with 27.1% nationally.

Although some people chose not to answer the census's question about religious affiliation, 54.3% had no religion, 34.2% were Christian, 0.2% were Hindu, 0.2% were Muslim, 0.2% were Buddhist and 1.5% had other religions.

Of those at least 15 years old, 144 (10.1%) people had a bachelor's or higher degree, and 366 (25.7%) people had no formal qualifications. The median income was $29,900, compared with $31,800 nationally. 171 people (12.0%) earned over $70,000 compared to 17.2% nationally. The employment status of those at least 15 was that 744 (52.2%) people were employed full-time, 246 (17.3%) were part-time, and 45 (3.2%) were unemployed.

Education
Tangiteroria School is a coeducational full primary (years 1-8) school with a roll of students as of  The school was established in 1886.

title: Tangiteroria


text:
Ford CHT engine

The Ford CHT engine is an inline four-cylinder internal combustion engine family produced by the Ford Motor Company in Brazil during the 1980s and 1990s. It was derived from the Renault Cléon-Fonte engine. It is unrelated to the similarly-named Ford CVH engine.

Ford Cléon-Fonte
Ford do Brasil acquired manufacturing rights for the Cléon-Fonte engine when they took over Willys' Brazilian operation in the late 1960s. The engine was part of the Renault-based "Projeto M" (Project M) joint venture between Willys do Brasil and Renault. The Cléon-Fonte has a wet linered cast iron block with five main bearings, an aluminum cylinder head, and a single, high-mounted cam-in-block that drives two overhead valves per cylinder via short pushrods and rocker arms, all features retained in the CHT.

Projeto M came to market as the Ford Corcel in 1968. The Cléon-Fonte in early cars displaced 1.3 L. Ford later raised this to 1.4 L by increasing the bore diameter, creating the "1300-B" when fitted with a single barrel carburetor, or the "1300-C" and later "XP" when fitted with a two barrel carburetor. Ford enlarged the Cléon-Fonte's dimensions again in 1979, resulting in a displacement of 1.6 L.

Redesign
In mid-1981, Ford do Brasil began "Projeto Zeta", to adapt the new MkIII series front-wheel-drive (FWD) Ford Escort to the Brazilian market. When the car debuted in August 1983, one of the biggest changes was the substitution of a Brazilian-developed engine for the CVH engine used in other markets. Ford do Brasil had argued for the change, saying that a revised Cléon-Forte would be more economical and easier for the Brazilian engineers to convert to run on ethanol.

The design effort for the new engine was led by Luc de Ferran. While considered a Brazilian design, it is reported that Ford of Europe had some input to the work, and that Renault was consulted. Ford began with their largest Cléon-Fonte block, whose 77 x bore and stroke gave a displacement of 1555 cc. They also created a smaller 1341 cc version with a 71.5 mm bore.

The goal of the redesign was to improve combustion efficiency by swirling the intake charge entering the combustion chambers. Ford had their engineers design a new cylinder head for the Cléon-Fonte block, and renamed the resulting engine the CHT, which stands for Compound High Turbulence. Changes were also made to the intake and exhaust manifolds, valve timing and compression ratio.

The CHT became known as a smooth running engine with good performance at low engine speeds, but as an OHV design it suffered in comparison to the contemporary SOHC Volkswagen EA827 engine, while also producing less power. The engine earned a reputation for simplicity and toughness, and for producing good torque at low speeds, making it suitable for most common driving conditions.

Production use
The CHT was introduced in 1983 in the Brazilian MkIII Escort, the first of the Escort series released in Brazil. The highest output ethanol engines were reserved for the Escort XR3. Ford also used the CHT in other new car lines, or substituted it for the Cléon-Fonte in existing lines, including the Corcel II sedan and related Belina II wagon, Del Rey two- and four-door sedans and Del Rey Belina wagon, first generation Verona two-door sedan, and Pampa coupé utility.

In March 1992, spurred by changes to vehicle taxation laws, a smaller version was released, with a 70.3x64.2 mm bore and stroke and displacement of 997 cc. It was used in the Escort Hobby.

After 1996, the CHT was first replaced by the Kent Endura-E engine, then by the 1.0 L and 1.6 L Zetec RoCam from 2000 onward.

Versions
Initially available in 1.35 L or 1.6 L displacements, the CHT was also offered in both gasoline and ethanol fuel versions. Two different levels of engine tune were developed; the regular CHT engine, and the CHT E-MÁX ("Economia Maximizada" — maximised economy) that was optimized for fuel efficiency. A CHT E-MÁX engine received an award for most economical engine of its time in Brazil, returning 17.1 km/L on gasoline.

Early in the project, up to seven versions of the engine were under development. Variants included regular and high-compression gasoline engines in 1.35 L and 1.6 L sizes, ethanol fueled engines in 1.35 L and 1.6 L sizes, and a high-performance ethanol engine:

 * 1341 cc CHT E-MÁX, gasoline, 9.0:1 Compression ratio (CR), 41.7 kW at 5000 rpm, 96.8 Nm
 * 1341 cc CHT E-MÁX, gasoline, 9.5:1 CR, 42.4 kW at 5000 rpm, 99.3 Nm
 * 1341 cc CHT E-MÁX, ethanol, 12.0:1 CR, 46.2 kW at 5000 rpm, 103.3 Nm
 * 1555 cc CHT, gasoline, 9.0:1 CR, 47.9 kW at 4800 rpm, 105.9 Nm
 * 1555 cc CHT, gasoline, 9.5:1 CR, 48.4 kW at 5400 rpm, 105.8 Nm
 * 1555 cc CHT, ethanol, 12.0:1 CR, 53.7 kW at 5200 rpm, 116.2 Nm
 * 1555 cc CHT, ethanol, 12.0:1 CR, —, —

In 1983, five versions were offered in the Ford Escort:
 * 1341 cc CHT E-MÁX, gasoline, 9.0:1 CR, 41.7 kW at 5000 rpm, 96.8 Nm at 2800 rpm
 * 1341 cc CHT E-MÁX, ethanol, 12.0:1 CR, 46.2 kW at 5000 rpm, 103.3 Nm at 2800 rpm
 * 1555 cc CHT, gasoline, 9.0:1 CR, 47.9 kW at 4800 rpm, 105.9 Nm at 2400 rpm
 * 1555 cc CHT, ethanol, 12.0:1 CR, 53.7 kW at 5200 rpm, 116.2 Nm at 3600 rpm
 * 1555 cc CHT, ethanol, 12.0:1 CR, 61.0 kW at 5600 rpm, 124.0 Nm at 4000 rpm

The engine was revised in 1987 with the release of the MkIV Ford Escort. New versions included a 1.6 L CHT E-MÁX. The 1988 Ford Escort offered one gasoline and two ethanol fueled options:
 * 1555 cc CHT E-MÁX, gasoline, 9.0:1 CR, 54.9 kW at 5200 rpm, 123.6 Nm at 2400 rpm
 * 1555 cc CHT E-MÁX, ethanol, 12.0:1 CR, 55.9 kW at 5000 rpm, 129.6 Nm at 2400 rpm
 * 1555 cc CHT E-MÁX, ethanol, 12.0:1 CR, 62.9 kW at 5600 rpm, 126.3 Nm at 4000 rpm

Ford only used the 1.0 L CHT in the Escort Hobby:
 * 997 cc gasoline 37 kW at 5800 rpm, 72 Nm at 3600 rpm

Volkswagen
From 1987 to 1996, Ford and Volkswagen in Brazil operated as a joint venture under the name AutoLatina. During this time, the CHT was renamed the AE engine, for Alta Economia (High Economy). Volkswagen began selling rebadged Ford models, some of which carried forward the 1.6 L CHT, now called the AE-1600, and some of which did not. The Volkswagen Apollo coupé, a rebadged first generation Ford Verona, never offered the AE-1600. The Escort-based Volkswagen Logus two-door coupé was sold with an AE-1600 option, while the related first generation four-door Volkswagen Pointer was not.

The only line native to Volkswagen that adopted the AE engine was the Volkswagen Gol. VW offered the AE-1600 in the first generation Gol hatchbacks, Voyage sedan, Parati station wagon, and Saveiro coupé utility. VW offered the 1.0 L AE-1000 in the hatchbacks when the laws changed to favor sub-1 L vehicles. The second generation Gol added single-point fuel injection, and was the last car to use the engine, dropping it after 1996. The AE-1000 was replaced by the EA111, and the AE-1600 by the EA827.

title: Ford CHT engine


text:
List of Russian philosophers

Russian philosophy includes a variety of philosophical movements. Authors who developed them are listed below sorted by movement.

While most authors listed below are primarily philosophers, also included here are some Russian fiction writers, such as Tolstoy and Dostoyevsky, who are also known as philosophers.

Russian philosophy as a separate entity started its development in the 19th century, defined initially by the opposition of Westernizers, advocating Russia's following the Western political and economical models, and Slavophiles, insisting on developing Russia as a unique civilization. The latter group included Nikolai Danilevsky and Konstantin Leontiev, the early founders of eurasianism. The discussion of Russia's place in the world has since become the most characteristic feature of Russian philosophy.

In its further development, Russian philosophy was also marked by deep connection to literature and interest in creativity, society, politics and nationalism; cosmos and religion were other notable subjects.

Notable philosophers of the late 19th and early 20th centuries include  Vladimir Solovyev, Vasily Rozanov,  Lev Shestov, Leo Tolstoy, Sergei Bulgakov, Pavel Florensky, Nikolai Berdyaev, Pitirim Sorokin, and Vladimir Vernadsky.

From the early 1920s to late 1980s, Russian philosophy was dominated by Marxism.

A handful of dissident philosophers survived through the Soviet period, among them Aleksei Losev. Stalin's death in 1953 gave way for new schools of thought to spring up, among them Moscow Logic Circle, and Tartu-Moscow Semiotic School.

Russian Enlightenment

 * Vasily Tatishchev (1686–1750)
 * Gregory Skovoroda (1722–1794)
 * Mikhail Shcherbatov (1733–1790)
 * Andrey Bolotov (1738–1833)
 * Alexander Radishchev (1749–1802)

Slavophiles and pochvennichestvo

 * Ivan Kireyevsky (1806–1856)
 * Aleksey Khomyakov (1804–1860)
 * Vladimir Odoyevsky (1803–1869)
 * Konstantin Aksakov (1817–1860)
 * Yuri Samarin (1819–1876)
 * Fyodor Tyutchev (1803–1873)
 * Nikolay Danilevsky (1822–1885)
 * Nikolay Strakhov (1828–1896)
 * Fyodor Dostoevsky (1821–1881) Religious philosopher artist (see Nikolai Berdyaev)
 * Konstantin Pobedonostsev (1827–1907)
 * Konstantin Leontiev (1831–1891)
 * Ivan Ilyin (1883–1954)

Russian symbolists

 * Dmitry Merezhkovsky (1866–1941)
 * Zinaida Gippius (1869–1945)
 * Valery Bryusov (1873–1924)
 * Konstantin Balmont (1867–1942)
 * Max Voloshin (1877–1932)
 * Vsevolod Meyerhold (1874–1940)
 * Alexander Blok (1880–1921)
 * Andrei Bely (1880–1934)
 * Vyacheslav Ivanov (1866–1949)
 * Innokenty Annensky (1855–1909)
 * Fyodor Sologub (1863–1927)
 * Georgy Chulkov (1879–1939)

Westernizers

 * Pyotr Chaadayev (1794–1856)
 * Nikolai Stankevich (1813–1840)
 * Vissarion Belinsky (1811–1848)
 * Alexander Herzen (1812–1870) Father of Russian Socialism

Russian Schellingians

 * Pyotr Chaadayev (1794–1856)
 * Dmitry Venevitinov (1805–1827)
 * Vissarion Belinsky (1811–1848)
 * Vladimir Solovyov (1853–1900)

Russian positivists

 * Peter Lavrovich Lavrov (1823–1900)
 * Grigory Vyrubov (1843–1913)
 * Nikolay Mikhaylovsky (1842–1910)
 * Konstantin Kavelin (1818–1885)
 * Vladimir Lesevich (1837–1905)
 * Nikolai Korkunov (1853–1904)

Russian Machists

 * Vladimir Bazarov (1874–1939)
 * Jakov Berman
 * Alexander Bogdanov (1873–1928)
 * Sergei Suvorov
 * Pavel Yushkevich (1873–1945)

Russian cosmists

 * Nikolay Fyodorov (1829–1903) N O Lossky lists Fyodorov as primarily a Christian philosopher.
 * Nicholas Roerich (1874–1947)
 * Vladimir Vernadsky (1863–1945)
 * Konstantin Tsiolkovsky (1857–1935)
 * Alexander Chizhevsky (1897–1964)
 * Evald Ilyenkov (1924–1979)
 * Victor Skumin (1948–)

Occultists

 * Nikolay Novikov (1744–1818)
 * Helena Blavatsky (1831–1891)
 * G. I. Gurdjieff (1872–1949)
 * P. D. Ouspensky (1878–1947)

Epistemologists, logicians and metaphysicians

 * Boris Chicherin (1828–1904)
 * S. N. Trubetskoy (1862–1905)

Narodniks

 * Alexander Herzen (1812–1870) Father of Russian Socialism
 * Nikolai Tchaikovsky (1851–1926)
 * Pyotr Lavrov (1823–1900)
 * Nikolay Mikhaylovsky (1842–1904)
 * Lev Tikhomirov (1852–1923) (later prominent conservative thinker)
 * Razumnik Ivanov-Razumnik (1878–1946)

Anarchists

 * Mikhail Bakunin (1814–1876), also listed among the materialist and nihilist theorists
 * Leo Tolstoy (1828–1910), whom some consider the greatest of Russian novelists
 * Peter Kropotkin (1842–1921), known as the 'Anarchist Prince' or 'Father of Anarchism'

Materialists and nihilists

 * N. G. Chernyshevsky (1828–1889)
 * Dimitri Pisarev (1840–1868)
 * Ivan Sechenov (1829–1905)

Socialists and Marxists

 * George Plekhanov (1856–1918) The first major Russian Marxist thinker
 * Vladimir Lenin (1870–1924) The founder of Leninism
 * Alexandra Kollontai (1872–1952)
 * Alexander Herzen (1812–1870)
 * Leon Trotsky (1879–1940) The founder of Trotskyism
 * Nikolai Bukharin (1888–1938)
 * Sofya Yanovskaya (1896–1966)
 * Aleksandr Zinovyev (1922–2006)
 * Evald Ilyenkov (1924–1979)
 * Aleksandr Voronsky (1884–1937)

Christian philosophers
Pre-Solovyov
 * Pamfil Yurkevich (1826–1874)
 * Vladimir Solovyov (1853–1900) noted to have created the first complete encompassing system of Russian philosophy
 * Anna Schmidt (1851-1905)
 * Vasily Rozanov (1856–1919)
 * Fyodor Dostoyevsky (1821–1881) also listed as an existentialist
 * Sergei Bulgakov (1871–1944)
 * Nikolai Berdyaev (1874–1948) also listed as an existentialist
 * Semyon Frank (1877–1955)
 * Count Leo Tolstoy (1828–1910) also listed as the greatest of novelists and an anarchist

Orthodox Christian theologians

 * Aleksey Khomyakov (1804–1860)
 * Pavel Florensky (1882–1937)
 * Vladimir Lossky (1903–1958)
 * Georges Florovsky (1893–1979)
 * Michael Pomazansky (1888–1988)
 * Alexander Schmemann (1921–1983)
 * John Meyendorff (1926–1992)

Intuitivist-personalists

 * Aleksei Kozlov (1831–1901)
 * Leo Lopatin (1855–1920)
 * Nikolai Lossky (1870–1965)
 * Semyon Frank (1877–1950)
 * Aleksei Losev (1893–1988)

Existentialists

 * Fyodor Dostoyevsky (1821–1881)
 * Lev Shestov (1866–1938)
 * Nikolai Berdyaev (1874–1948)

Aestheticians

 * Alexei Losev (1893–1988)
 * Mikhail Bakhtin (1895–1975)
 * Mikhail Epstein (Epshtein) (1950–)

Historians of thought

 * Isaiah Berlin (1909–1997)
 * Razumnik Ivanov-Razumnik (1878–1946)

Globalists

 * Alexander Chumakov (1950–)

title: List of Russian philosophers


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City of Glenorchy

Glenorchy City Council (or City of Glenorchy) is a local government body in Tasmania, and one of the five municipalities that constitutes the Greater Hobart Area. The Glenorchy local government area has a population of 50,411, covering the suburbs north of central Hobart on the western shore of the Derwent River, including its namesake suburb, Glenorchy.

Mayors
Past mayors of the City of Glenorchy include:
 * Terry Martin Sr. (1964–1965)
 * Ken Lowrie (1965–1975)
 * David Shields (1983–1990)
 * Terry Martin (1990–2005)
 * Adriana Taylor (2005–2011)
 * Stuart Slade (2011–2014)
 * Kristie Johnston (2014–2021)
 * Bec Thomas (2021-2024)

Elected members
The current elected members of the Glenorchy City Council include:

History

Tasmanian Aboriginals were the first inhabitants of the area where Glenorchy lies today. The first European to arrive in Glenorchy was a Frenchman, who was a member of Bruni d'Entrecasteaux's crew, in 1793. An English expedition arrived two months later, under the command of John Hayes. Hayes sailed up the river which he referred to as the Derwent. He named Prince of Wales Bay and called the area around New Town and Moonah King George's Plains. Hayes named the Glenorchy area as New Cumberland.

This French presence was the main influence in Lieutenant Governor Bowen's decision to settle where Hobart now exists.

The period between 1840 and 1860 was when steady growth was seen in Glenorchy, culminating in the area becoming a municipality in 1864. Glenorchy is believed to have been so named by governor Lachlan Macquarie after his wife's home in Scotland. The name means 'glen of tumbling waters'.

City status was given to Glenorchy on 24 October 1964, exactly one hundred years after it was first proclaimed a municipality.

Geography
The city spans the area along the Derwent River, from just north of the Queens Domain in the south, to the Bridgewater Bridge and Causeway in the north, and extends west as far as the foothills of Mount Wellington.

Demographics
The greater Hobart area has a population of around 222,000 as at the 2016 Census, with the city of Glenorchy local government area having a population of over 46,000. This makes Glenorchy the third most populated city in the greater area of Hobart.

Glenorchy is classified as urban, fringe and medium (UFM) under the Australian Classification of Local Governments.

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Road infrastructure
A greater proportion of all roads found within the boundaries of Glenorchy are owned by the city itself with the two exceptions being Goodwood Road and the Brooker Highway which are owned and maintained by the Tasmanian Government.

Events
The city hosts several annual events, including a regatta at Montrose Bay while at the showgrounds there is the annual Royal Hobart Show and the Hobart Cup at Tattersalls Park.

Entertainment
Glenorchy has a huge amount of entertainment to offer, considering its size. Located on the main road there is the only ice rink in the greater area of Hobart, as well as a Village Cinemas complex at Glenorchy Central and a Zone Bowling center at Moonah and located in Derwent Park is Parsons Sports Centre which houses Hobart's only indoor Tennis court.

The Derwent Entertainment Centre provides the city with the opportunity to host many local and international artists. Artists who have played here include Dire Straits, INXS, Elton John, John Farnham, Kylie Minogue and Bob Dylan. The DEC is also used for expos, trade shows and sporting events.

The Moorilla Estate often holds musical performances during the period of summer. Artists who have played at this venue include Grinspoon, Paul Kelly and The Pretenders.

The Museum of Old and New Art (MONA) opened on the Moorilla estate in 2011, and quickly became a popular tourist attraction.

Sport
KGV Oval is just one of the places where sport is played seriously within the city.

Education
Senior secondary colleges and high schools in the Glenorchy area include St Virgil's College located in Austin's Ferry; Montrose Bay High School located in Rosetta; Cosgrove High School, Dominic College and Guilford Young College located close to the city centre; and Claremont College slightly to the north at Claremont.

Shopping and retail
The City of Glenorchy has the second largest shopping district in southern Tasmania (the largest being in Hobart).The city has three major commercial areas: Moonah, Glenorchy CBD and Claremont. Claremont has one main shopping centre (Claremont Village) and a few retail outlets. Moonah has a shopping strip with a variety of small shops and cafes, as well as a Harris Scarfe department store and shopping centre Woolworths supermarket. The Glenorchy CBD has three major indoor shopping centres, Northgate Shopping Centre, Glenorchy Central (Centro), and Glenorchy Plaza.

title: City of Glenorchy


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Talk:Jonathan Edwards (disambiguation)

I'm inclined to believe that most people will be looking for the theologian, so perhaps he should be moved here and we should create a Jonathan Edwards (disambiguation) or somesuch. ugen64 03:41, Oct 8, 2004 (UTC)
 * I agree with this--without doubt Jonathan Edwards the theologian is the most important and well-known of these people.
 * Sorry--forgot to sign the last comment. Remes 17:48, 7 Apr 2005 (UTC)

I wasn't, I was looking for the athlete, I've never heard of the theologian. I think it should be moved back.(Elephant53 13:05, 10 August 2007 (UTC))
 * Well, I've heard of the theologian, but I agree that the athlete is currently the more famous holder of the name. Either he should be on the primary page, or the primary page should be the disa,buguation page with the theologian being one of the pages it points to. MarkSG 14:32, 30 September 2007 (UTC)
 * athlete is unknown and not significant. the theologian made a big influence on american religion that has formed many churches. athlete was known for a season probalby will be forgotton soon. theologian has been around 300yrs and not forgotton. I propose redirecting this to the theologian.
 * The athlete is a multiple gold medal winner and former world record holder. That hardly makes him unknown, by any meaningful measurement. Remember, Wikipedia has a global audience, not just Americans. MarkSG 20:59, 11 November 2007 (UTC)

I note that there is currently discussion at Talk:Jonathan Edwards (theologian) about moving that page to the Jonathan Edwards page. GRBerry 04:04, 8 November 2007 (UTC)

Move discussion in progress
There is a move discussion in progress on Talk:Jonathan Edwards (theologian) which affects this page. Please participate on that page and not in this talk page section. Thank you. —RMCD bot 03:00, 22 August 2016 (UTC)

title: Talk:Jonathan Edwards (disambiguation)


text: User talk:152.163.100.137

title: User talk:152.163.100.137


text: User talk:67.2.203.215

title: User talk:67.2.203.215