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Beethoven's musical style

Ludwig van Beethoven is one of the most influential figures in the history of classical music. Since his lifetime, when he was "universally accepted as the greatest living composer", Beethoven's music has remained among the most performed, discussed and reviewed in the Western world. Scholarly journals are devoted to analysis of his life and work. He has been the subject of numerous biographies and monographs, and his music was the driving force behind the development of Schenkerian analysis. He is widely considered among the most important composers, and along with Bach and Mozart, his music is the most frequently recorded.

Beethoven expanded the formal and emotional scope – not to mention length – of nearly every genre in which he wrote. While he is most famous for his heightening of the symphonic form, Beethoven also had a dramatic influence on the piano sonata, violin sonata, string quartet and piano concerto, among several others. Only in the realm of vocal composition – opera and the mass – was his effect on later generations muted.

Beethoven's stylistic innovations bridge the Classical and Romantic periods. The works of his early period brought the Classical form to its highest expressive level, expanding in formal, structural, and harmonic terms the musical idiom developed by predecessors such as Mozart and Haydn. The works of his middle period were more forward-looking, contributing to the musical language and thinking of the Romantic era, inspiring composers such as Franz Schubert, Felix Mendelssohn, Robert Schumann, Franz Liszt, Richard Wagner, and Johannes Brahms. His late period works were characterized by formal, harmonic, and structural experimentation at the highest level, often pointing toward contrapuntal tendencies and microscopic textures, as well as an increasingly introverted compositional outlook. Though rightly credited as a major harbinger of the Romantic era in music that followed, Beethoven never abandoned fundamental aesthetical paradigms and a generally objective artistic philosophy characterizing musical Classicism to the same extent that later composers such as Berlioz or even Schubert did.

Overview
Beethoven's musical output has traditionally been divided into three periods, a classification that dates to the first years after the composer's death in 1827 and was formalised with the publication of Wilhelm von Lenz's influential work Beethoven et ses trois styles (Beethoven and his Three Styles). Lenz proposed that Beethoven's creative output be marked by three periods of distinct stylistic personality and he identified specific compositions as milestones for each period. Lenz considers that the first period opens with the Piano Trios of op. 1, and culminates with the performances in 1800 of his first symphony and Septet. The second period spans the period from the publication of his Moonlight Sonata to the Piano Sonata in E minor, Op. 90 in 1814. The last period covers Beethoven's works after Op. 90 to his death in 1827.

Although later scholars have called into question such a simplistic categorisation, it is still widely used. Extensive subsequent analytical consideration of Lenz's thesis has resulted in a slight revision of his original dates and broad consensus regarding Beethoven's three periods is as follows:

 * a formative period that extends to 1802
 * a middle period from 1802 to 1814,
 * a late period from 1814 to 1827

Generally, each period demonstrates characteristic stylistic evolutions in Beethoven's musical language and preoccupations as well as important developments in the composer's personal life. For example, the middle period was ushered in by the 'Heiligenstadt Testament', a letter in which Beethoven, despairing about his hearing loss, considers and then rejects taking his life. On the other hand, the late period began with a period where Beethoven, suffering from the aftereffects of a myriad of personal and external crises, including the episode of the 'Immortal Beloved', struggled to compose for several years.

Early period
Many of Beethoven's early works were not assigned an opus number and were simply listed with the label WoO, which is the abbreviation for the German term "without opus number." Some, however, were published with opus numbers later on such as several compositions in the Eight Songs, op. 52. Although these were compiled between 1803 and 1805 and published in the latter year, were written during his early years in Vienna and Bonn.

The compositions that Beethoven wrote in his formative period can be generally characterized by the composer's efforts to master the predominant classical language of the period. His works from this period can be subdivided into two, based on the composer's residence. First, various juvenalia, written when the adolescent Beethoven was in residence in Bonn and heavily indebted to the works of contemporaries, especially Mozart and his teacher, Christian Gottlob Neefe. These early efforts can be seen in a set of three piano sonatas (WoO 47) and piano quartets (WoO 36) that Beethoven wrote before 1792. The Quartets, for instance, are each specifically modelled after three Violin Sonatas Mozart published in 1781 – K 296, 379 and 380 – and Beethoven would later draw upon this familiarity in the composition of several of his own Violin Sonatas.

Second, a number of more substantial and original works were written after Beethoven moved to Vienna and commenced studies with the famed Austrian composer and leading musical figure of the period, Joseph Haydn. As the 1790s progressed, his mastery of the Viennese style became increasingly clear, and his works became more and more experimental, especially in genres like the piano sonata. By the period 1798-1802, his piano sonatas had become increasingly more experimental, but his Op. 18 string quartets and first symphony are more conservative then the sonatas, probably a symptom of his relative inexperience in composing in these genres in comparison to the piano sonata.

Bonn period
With the exception of a visit to Vienna in 1787, Beethoven lived in Bonn until 1792, where he worked in the court chapel of the Elector of Cologne. His stints in the court chapel exposed him to a wide variety of musical style, not just from Vienna, but also from Venice and Rome. In addition to this, he played the viola in the orchestra of the Bonn Court Theatre from 1789, which exposed him to operas like Mozart's The Marriage of Figaro. Some forty compositions from this period are extant, including ten early works written by the young adolescent Beethoven when he was being promoted as a child prodigy performer and published as a result of the efforts of his teacher. It has been suggested that Beethoven largely abandoned composition between 1785 and 1790, possibly because his superiors in the palace chapel and court theatre did not compose music for the court, and thus not providing an example for the young Beethoven, and also because of negative critical reaction to his first published works. A 1784 review in Johann Nikolaus Forkel's influential Musikalischer Almanack compared Beethoven's efforts to those of rank beginners. Whatever the case, most of Beethoven's earliest surviving works were written after he turned twenty, between 1790 and 1792. Some of this music was later published by Beethoven, or incorporated into later works. As such, they provide an important foundation for judging the later evolution of his style.

Beethoven's early publications have been notable for scholars because of the view that it already indicated success as a child composer. One assessment stated that "if a child composer managed only a single published item, this might not indicate much, but if they had at least two publications, this is far more significant, for it suggests that the first one had had some success." Beethoven's childhood compositions had been published until 1784. An account cited how, by age thirteen, the child prodigy was already established, having composed three sonatas and four small works in addition to the earlier work called Dressler Variations. This is significant because, at this point, he no longer needed to be taught by a tutor, who would have influenced his musical style.

In general, Beethoven's earliest compositions show his struggles to master the prevailing classical style, both in structural and idiomatic terms. Several works, including two he later published, show the incipient signs of his later individual style: twelve Lieder, several of which he published in 1805 as Opus 52, his Wind Octet, later published as Opus 103, and several sets of Variations, including one (WoO 40) for violin and piano on Mozart's aria "Se vuol ballare" (later reworked in Vienna). Although these works largely conform to the formal conventions of the classical style, including strict observance of form and, in the variations, the decorative filigree associated with the genre, they also show early signs of Beethoven's later tendency to the more substantive treatment of thematic material.

Beethoven also produced numerous fragments of larger-scale works, including a symphonic movement (also written in C minor), a violin concerto, an oboe concerto, an early draft of his B-flat Piano concerto (both now vanished), and a concertante for piano, flute and bassoon. Scholars generally regard these early efforts as bland and uninspired and have concluded that his first efforts at writing in the classical sonata style (with the exception of his Wind Octet) were poorly conceived. Gustav Nottebohm, for example, wrote of Beethoven's Dressler Variations (WoO 63), "they show not a trace of contrapuntal independent part-writing. They are figural variations of the simplest kind". Téodor de Wyzewa considered his early "Kurfürsten Sonatas" written in 1783 (WoO 47) as merely "correct imitations of Haydn.".

The most ambitious work that Beethoven composed during his Bonn years was a funeral cantata to commemorate the death of Emperor Joseph II, commissioned by the literary society of Bonn. Though it was not performed, it was evidently impressive enough that Beethoven was commissioned to write a second cantata 'On the Accession of Leopold II to the Imperial Dignity', which was again not performed. These works already show skill in choral writing, as well as in writing arias, the latter also exhibited by three concert arias he composed around this time.

Considered as a whole, Beethoven's compositional efforts in Bonn demonstrate the importance of his move to Vienna in terms of the development of his musical style and the sophistication of his grasp of classical form and idiom, for his efforts in the sonata style are less accomplished than his efforts in other genres like variations, Lieder, and large vocal-orchestral pieces.

Early Vienna Period
For the first years after moving to Vienna, Beethoven composed considerably less than he did either before or after. Not only was he studying with Haydn and Albrechtsberger, but he was also revising several of his Bonn works to cater to Viennese styles and tastes. However, by 1795-96, Beethoven had started developing a style which not only displayed an increasing mastery of the Viennese style but also contained a dramatic flair which became a quintessential feature of his music. It was the piano that often served as a captapult for Beethoven's innovations. in works such as his Op. 1 piano trios and Op. 2 piano sonatas. These works expand the three-movement sonata form found in the sonatas of Mozart and Haydn to four-movements, which is more often associated with orchestral symphonies rather than chamber works or piano sonatas. In particular, the 1st movement of his first piano sonata displays an intensity in musical construction that foreshadows the motivic development he would later exploit in his 3rd and 5th symphonies, while the Piano Trio in C minor (from the Op. 1 set) had such an intensity of expression that Haydn thought that they would not be understood by the public. In addition, these works also display virtuosity which would become another of Beethoven's characteristics, particularly in his piano sonatas and chamber works. Beethoven also incorporated textures typical of chamber music and orchestral and vocal music into his piano works, often employing elaborate figuration and a use of trills, features of his piano music which would be apparent even in his late period.

Beethoven also developed a penchant for the key of C minor which would last for the rest of his life. Most of his full-scale works in minor keys from this period are in the key, including the 'Pathétique' sonata (the 1st movement of which was novel in its integration of the slow introduction into the overall sonata form), and the key became associated with extreme drama in Beethoven's works. Beethoven also seemed to have an interest in all current musical genres, including three piano concertos (the 2nd, in B-flat major, being a revised version of a piano concerto from his Bonn years), some violin and cello sonatas, and the Op.18 string quartets. The latter illustrates Beethoven's increasing interest in 'motivic saturation' (in the first movement of the 1st quartet in F major and juxtaposition of strikingly different moods (in the Finale of the 6th quartet in B-flat major, subtitled 'La malinconia'), the latter of which is a precursor to similar explorations in his late period.

Beethoven became increasingly more experimental in his use of form in his piano sonatas of 1800-02. Op. 26 in A-flat major contains a 'marcia funebre' which foreshadows that of the 'Eroica' symphony; Op. 27, no. 2 in C-sharp minor 'Quasi una fantasia' (the famous 'Moonlight' sonata) has the dramatic sonata form movement come last instead of first, and Op. 31, No. 3 in E-flat major contains both a scherzo and a minuet, sacrificing a slow movement. This formal experimentation furthered his incorporation of differing moods into the sonata style that had already been seen in the finale of Op. 18, No.6; the most striking of which is contained in the first movement of Op. 27, no.2. From this point all of Beethoven's pieces display a "striking individuality", perhaps because of the integration of these Romantic moods within a Classical approach towards form. Emblematic of this approach was Beethoven's extension of the tonal range of the Classical sonata into mediant and submediant keys, instead of the dominant key as Mozart and Haydn had done, as seen in the first movement of Op. 31, no. 1 (in this case both B major and B minor, in comparison to the tonic of G major). These mediant and submediant keys acted as a substitute for the dominant key, creating a long-range dissonance against the tonic and creating tension that would be resolved with a move toward the tonic at the central climax of the movement. This expansion of the modulatory possibilities of sonata form would continue into the middle period, though the experiments in form would be sidelined in favour of the 'symphonic ideal', instead returning in his late period.

Despite his experiments in the piano sonatas and chamber works, his larger-scale works were more conservative. The First Symphony has been described as "wilt[ing] when... examine[d]... for clues to future symphony greatness." though it has also been praised for its "extraordinary cohesion" The Second Symphony is more accomplished and bigger in scope; though still conservative in comparison to the piano sonatas composed at the same time; despite this, it has been described as "the longest and most powerful symphony ever written... at the time of its composition." Its use of a unifying motive (a rise from F# to G) foreshadows the emergence of the 'germ motive' in the symphonic works of the middle period, while the increased scope of the symphony suggests Beethoven had finally grasped how he could use the orchestra in a way where he could start to incorporate the formal and expressive advances seen in his piano sonatas and chamber works of the time.

Middle period
Beethoven's middle period is characterised by the increased scope of his compositions, a byproduct of further focus on large public works which often display elements of extra-musical sources. This increased scope "create[s] the impression of a psychological journey or growth process [where] something seems to arrive or triumph or transcend." A pivotal work of the period is the 3rd Symphony, nicknamed Eroica. He achieves this increased scope through his creation of large, extended structures characterised by the extensive development of musical material, themes, and motifs, as well as the development of long-range tonal dissonances that are resloved on the scale of entire movements (or even whole symphonies). The 1st movement of the Eroica is an example of this; the introduction of a chromatic C# at the beginning of the movement creates massive tonal instability that not only marks the first movements but the other movements as well. These structures often amount to a "projection of the underlying principles of the sonata style on the scale of the total four-movement work", instead of only the first movement in sonata form. So extensive were these structures as first employed in the Eroica that Beethoven did not write another work of such scale for many years afterwards, and in any case, many of these increasingly large scale works, such as the Eroica and the Rasumovsky string quartets met with an initially mixed reception.

In the development section of the Eroica's first movement's sonata form, the 1st theme is transformed into a variant which is often analysed as an entirely different theme. This use of a 'germ motive' also appears in works like the Waldstein sonata and 5th symphony, and is emblematic of his approach to musical architecture during his middle period. The 5th symphony is particularly renowned for the opening theme of its first movement, which takes the 'motivic saturation' previously seen in the 1st String Quartet's opening movement to extreme lengths, appearing in virtually every bar of the movement. The theme is even incorporated into the other movements, albeit modified, often by exploiting the rhythmic ambiguity of the motif. This feature can be seen even in overtly extra-musical works such as the Pastoral symphony, where the birdsongs at the end of the second movement are motivically linked to earlier passages of the movement.

In fact, another feature of Beethoven's middle-period is in the incorporation of these extra-musical ideas, whether it be the programmatic material of the Pastoral Symphony, or the heroic implications of the 'Eroica ' title of the 3rd Symphony. The former is noted for its incorporation of the ostensibly opposing 'pastoral' and 'symphonic' styles: the former being "gentle and static", the latter "energetic and dynamic". Its five movements also sets it apart from the normal four movement symphonic work; each movement features and musically evokes a title suggestive of a feature of the countryside. Extra-musical ideas of heroism are implict in the Waldstein and Appassionata sonatas, as well as the Rasumovsky quartets, which explain the emphasis on lengthier, more developmental forms in these solo/chamber works. The sonatas use the key symbolism that characterises Beethoven's opera Fidelio, the original version of which was composed in 1805, around the same time of these sonatas. The Rasumovsky quartets also show for the first time Beethoven's interest in folk song, particularly in the third quartet of the set, where the Andante movement is written in Beethoven's conception of a Russian idiom. The Pastoral symphony also incorporates many features of folk style suggestive of the countryside, such as drones, and an Alpine horn call.

Much of Beethoven's music of this period further incoroporates remote modulations to chromatic mediant keys (e.g. in the Waldstein sonata), rather than focusing on tonic-dominant relationships prevalent in the works of Mozart, Haydn, and Beethoven himself up to this point. This not only provides more opportunity for him to develop his motives but also gives his works an added urgency (especially in his sonata form movements). The 4th symphony begins with a slow introduction in the tonic minor, with suggestions of B minor and other keys, only reaching a firm B-flat major in bar 43. Chromatic mediant modulations also find long-range use in the 7th symphony; the keys of C major and F major that are introduced in the slow introduction of the first movement finding regular use in the symphony as a contrast to the tonic key of A major. Other remote key relations are found in the large-scale exploitation of Neopolitian sixths in the Appassionata sonata and in the String Quartet, op. 95, the latter of which foreshadows the style of the late quartets.

In his orchestral music, Beethoven achieves a "sheer variety and extreme range of color, texture, and sound" that, for the most part, are achieved without enlarging the orchestral forces used by Haydn and Mozart. However, in works such as the 3rd, 5th, and 6th symphonies, Beethoven does use larger orchestras. Beethoven moves the centre of the sound downwards in the orchestra, to the violas and the lower register of the violins and cellos, giving his music a heavier and darker feel than that of his two immediate predecessors. This may have been influenced by French post-revolutionary music, such as operas by Cherubini, as can be seen in the 'March Funebre' in the Eroica symphony. He expanded the range of the orchestra adding instruments such as the piccolo and contrabassoon in his 5th symphony, and the separation of the cello and double bass in the 3rd and 5th symphonies, which helped express the "heroic ideals" found in much of the music in this period. Midway through the 4th movement of the Pastoral symphony, the introduction of the piccolo and trombones, not previously heard in the work, help to depict the chaos of the raging storm. This particular use of the trombones may have been inspired by a similar 'storm' passage in Haydn's The Seasons, and the use of the contrabassoon and piccolo in the 5th and 6th symphonies also have precedent in that oratorio as well as Haydn's The Creation. Beethoven also started expanding the roles of certain instruments. In the Eroica symphony, he increases the number of horns to three, providing a rich timbre that is strikingly used in the trio of the 3rd movement. Beethoven also started to expand the role of the timpani in this period, giving the instrument solos in the first and second movements of the 4th symphony, and famously at the beginning of the Violin Concerto. In the finale of the 8th symphony, he tuned the timpani in octaves instead of the typical 4th or 5th, in order to further the coherence of the work as a whole.

Late period
After 1814, Beethoven's output dropped considerably due to turmoil in his personal life, creative exhaustion after 10 years of near-constant musical activity, and the challenge of sustaining the Classical style while other composers like Rossini and Weber were moving towards the Romantic style. This resulted in a stylistic change in Beethoven's work, but his continued adherence to the Classical forms he loved meant that the influence of these late works only became apparent after the time of his own younger contemporaries. This stylistic change has been described by Charles Rosen as a "contraction or even a distillation of classical procedure rather than an expansion [of it]," and this manifests itself in a "more direct and intimate mode of communication." Theodor Adorno went further, stating:"'Everywhere in his formal language [during his late period] ... one finds formulas and phrases of convention scattered about. The works are full of decoratve trill sequences, cadences, and fioraturas. Often convention appears in a form that is bald, undisguised, [and] untransformed.'"Beethoven became more concerned with lyricism in this period. Although his melodic skills have been criticised, Beethoven previously utilised immensely lyrical melodies, and during his middle period, developed a hymn-like melodic style in his slow movements. This was intensified in his late period and was combined with a newfound "intimacy and delicacy" which was already apparent in works like the Piano Sonata in A major, Op. 101.

Beethoven also arranged 150 folksongs for the editor George Thomson during this time. Many melodies reminiscent of folksong appear in his late works, especially in his song-cycle An die ferne Geliebte, which was a great influence on the next generation of composers. These works largely departed from the Classical style. This incorporation of vocal forms also manifested in the setting of Friedrich Schiller's 'Ode to Joy' in the finale of the Ninth Symphony, this time being carrying symbolism of universal brotherhood. Another aspect of this is frequent use of recitative and arioso in instrumental works like the Piano Sonata in A-flat major, Op. 110, and the 'beklemmt' passage in the Cavatina of the String Quartet in B-flat major, Op. 130.

In addition, Beethoven also had an immense interest in variation form in this period. In his early Vienna period, variation movements in large works are infrequent; while they become more frequent in his middle period generally they are of the progressively more decorative variety. However, starting with the Piano Sonata in E major, Op. 109, Beethoven started redefining the form, resulting in variations which take on more individual and radical reinterpretations of the original themes. The variations did not merely vary the theme, they transformed it or played with its fundamentals, as seen in some variations in the Diabelli Variations. Paradoxically, this emphasis on the fundamentals on a theme resulted in both a progressive simplification of Beethoven's conception of the theme as the variations go on, even if the textures become increasingly complex. These suggest Beethoven's changing view of musical unity, from a dialogue between contrasting elements to a gradual evolution from within.

Beethoven also developed a great interest in contrapuntal forms in this period, including fugal sections or even full-scale fugues in most of his major works. The fugal sections are often embedded in the development sections of sonata form movements, as in the 1st movement of the Hammerklavier sonata, or become full movements unto themselves, as in the 4th movement of the Hammerklavier or the Grosse Fuge. These full-scale fugues are often a series of variations on the fugue theme itself. In effect, Beethoven integrates the fugue within the sonata style by emphasising its potential for thematic development, while also using it as a means to infuse drama into these works. Often these replace obvious uses of the dominant in this function, a process also reinforced by his increased use of 6/4 chords and experimentation with the church modes.

Beethoven also looked increasingly to the past in this period. Much of his older material was published or reworked into new works, as happened in the Bagatelles, Op. 119. He increased use of strict counterpoint and modes, often looking back to the academic exercises he did with Albrechtsberger, and he became interested in the music of Palestrina, Bach, and Handel. Even the 9th symphony represented a resumption of the 'symphonic ideal' that had lay dormant in his music for a decade by the time he wrote the work in the early 1820s, and the choral finale shows the influence of revolutionary French cantatas. Even the last work he completed, the Op. 135 String Quartet, has been said to be an exercise in "Classical nostalgia." Charles Rosen argued that, in his late period, Beethoven found new ways of exploiting old conventions in the classical style to produce thematic unity in works like the Piano Sonata in A-flat major, Op. 110. Beethoven also sought to integrate variations, fugue, and lyricism into the sonata style he had cultivated through his career. Perhaps the most important indication of his adherence to the Classical aesthetic is the musical unity he constantly strives for, even while moving away from the conventional sonata style (most of his late string quartets have more than 4 movements, sometimes as many as 7).

During his late period, Beethoven expanded his use of the 'germ motive' beyond all previous conception. For example, the entire Hammerklavier sonata is based on the idea of a descending 3rd, as well as the conflict between the tonic B-flat and B natural. The entire development section of the 1st movement, as well as the Scherzo theme of the 2nd movement, use persuasive descending 3rds, and the 3rd movement begins in F-sharp minor, a 3rd away from the tonic key of the whole sonata. To some extent, this is an extension of Beethoven's substitution of dominant for the mediant/submediant that was already present in his early and middle periods, but the degree to which the Hammerklavier sonata depends on the idea is new. Similarly, the 'Ode to Joy' theme of the finale of the 9th symphony is foreshadowed in the first three movements, and the long instrumental introduction of the finale is also paralleled in the first three movements.

Criticism
In his book The Joy of Music, Leonard Bernstein, who, in his television documentary Bernstein on Beethoven admitted that he considered Beethoven the greatest composer who ever lived, nevertheless criticized his orchestration as sometimes being "downright bad", with "unimportant" orchestral parts being given too much prominence. Bernstein attributed this to Beethoven's ever-increasing deafness, which presumably rendered him incapable of judging how much louder than another a given instrument might be playing at certain moments. He repeated some of this criticism in the 1982 miniseries Bernstein/Beethoven, a PBS miniseries containing performances of all nine symphonies, several overtures, one of the string quartets, and the Missa solemnis. But at the same time, Bernstein added that what makes Beethoven great is his perfect sense of form – his ability to realize what the next note always had to be.

title: Beethoven's musical style


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Wikipedia:Articles for deletion/Fleshing Out Skull and Bones

Fleshing Out Skull and Bones
Fleshing Out Skull and Bones was proposed for deletion. This page is an archive of the discussion about the proposed deletion. This page is no longer live. Further comments should be made on the article's talk page rather than here so that this page is preserved as an historic record. The result of the debate was a consensus to delete the article.

orphaned book page. ~asparagus~ 10.9.04

Probable delete - contains no useful information at the moment. But if someone could flesh the entry out into a stub then it could be a keep.--Tomheaton 16:39, 9 Oct 2004 (UTC)

This page is now preserved as an archive of the debate and, like other '/delete' pages is no longer 'live'. Subsequent comments on the issue, the deletion or on the decision-making process should be placed on the relevant 'live' pages. Please do not edit this page.
 * Although the book title gets 410 hits on google, it does deal with Yale's Skull and Bones Society, which is in the news lately, regarding G.W. Bush and Kerry. Unless some can expand it, Delete.
 * Delete. It's not a notable book, even if the book covers something notable. --Improv 22:04, 9 Oct 2004 (UTC)
 * Delete: This article is a blurb, a common advertising bit to hand us a first sentence. (Books are bought by publishers based on a first sentence, so if you ever pick up a novel that has a dynamite 2 sentences and then dissolves into tedium, you know who to thank.)  If the book succeeds in distinguishing itself against the other Skull and Bones exposes, it would be a good thing to cover.  It hasn't done so yet. Geogre 03:50, 10 Oct 2004 (UTC)
 * Delete. Adv. -R. S. Shaw 18:33, 2004 Oct 10 (UTC)
 * An article about a real book? Keep it! Mark Richards 17:20, 12 Oct 2004 (UTC)
 * Delete. Article does not establish notability. Gamaliel 18:33, 13 Oct 2004 (UTC)
 * Delete. There is already a reference to this book in the main Skull and Bones article. It doesn't need its own. jni 05:48, 15 Oct 2004 (UTC)
 * Delete. Postdlf 05:53, 15 Oct 2004 (UTC)


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Wikipedia:Articles for deletion/Electronic Circuits for the Evil Genius

Electronic Circuits for the Evil Genius
Electronic Circuits for the Evil Genius was proposed for deletion. This page is an archive of the discussion about the proposed deletion. This page is no longer live. Further comments should be made on the article's talk page rather than here so that this page is preserved as an historic record. The result of the debate was a consensus to delete the article.

orphaned book page. ~asparagus~ 10.9.04

Keep. Can't see any reason for deleting this page.--Tomheaton 16:31, 9 Oct 2004 (UTC) This page is now preserved as an archive of the debate and, like other '/delete' pages is no longer 'live'. Subsequent comments on the issue, the deletion or on the decision-making process should be placed on the relevant 'live' pages. Please do not edit this page.
 * Delete. Advertising, not notable. See: a) What Wikipedia is not, point 18 and b) Google test. The book does not exist yet. It will be released in November, 2004. Amazon says: "Availability: This item has not yet been released. You may order it now and we will ship it to you when it arrives." The article has no useful content other than promotion of the book. The timing of its placement, just prior to publication, suggests that the purpose of placing the article is promotional. No evidence is presented for notability, and since it has not been published we cannot easily check Amazon sales rank, read reviews, etc.  Googling on exact phrase "Electronic Circuits for the Evil Genius" yields only 49 hits, virtually all simply to listings of the book at bookselling sites, publisher's site, etc. One curious reference is at  where he thanks a contributor for a pretty public-domain photograph of a stream, with no obvious connection to electronics, which he says he will use in his book. [[User:Dpbsmith|Dpbsmith (talk)]] 19:59, 9 Oct 2004 (UTC)
 * Delete. Book is not even published yet, let alone notable. --Improv 22:05, 9 Oct 2004 (UTC)
 * Speedy delete. Unpublished book, not notable: advertising -- What Wikipedia is not, point 18 -- The Anome 22:08, 9 Oct 2004 (UTC)
 * Delete. Not notable, not out, seems to just be advertising. --Sparky the Seventh Chaos 22:22, Oct 9, 2004 (UTC)
 * Delete: Not published, not notable. When it becomes the new Anarchist Cookbook for the PATRIOT ACT world, we'll need an article.  Not now. Geogre 00:56, 10 Oct 2004 (UTC)
 * Delete. Why is a forthcoming book on wikipedia?? --Viriditas 04:09, 10 Oct 2004 (UTC)
 * Delete. Adv. -R. S. Shaw 18:33, 2004 Oct 10 (UTC)


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Strzyżów County

Strzyżów County (powiat strzyżowski) is a unit of territorial administration and local government (powiat) in Subcarpathian Voivodeship, south-eastern Poland. It came into being on January 1, 1999, as a result of the Polish local government reforms passed in 1998. Its administrative seat and only town is Strzyżów, which lies 24 km south-west of the regional capital Rzeszów.

The county covers an area of 503.36 km2. As of 2019 its total population is 61,505, out of which the population of Strzyżów is 8,884and the rural population is 52,621.

Places of interest
Places of historical interest include the palace and park complex in Wiśniowa, the 15th century church complex in Strzyżów, the 18th century manorial complex on Modrzewiowa Street in Strzyżów, synagogues in Czudec, Niebylec and Strzyżów, the palace complex in Żyznów, wooden churches in Lutcza and Gogołów and Greek Catholic Churches in Brzeżanka and Oparówka. There are also two complexes of fortifications from the time of World War II, one in Stępina and the other in Strzyżów.

As regards the natural geography of the region, the valley of the Wisłok and its tributaries are interspersed with the low, sparsely wooded hills of the Dynowsko-Strzyżowskie Plateau. The region also includes the Czarnorzecko-Strzyżowski Landscape Park and the Sędziszowsko-Strzyżowska and Hyżyńsko-Gwoźnicka protected areas.

Neighbouring counties
Strzyżów County is bordered by Ropczyce-Sędziszów County to the north, Rzeszów County to the north-east, Brzozów County to the south-east, Krosno County to the south, Jasło County to the south-west and Dębica County to the north-west.

Administrative division
The county is subdivided into five gminas (one urban-rural and four rural). These are listed in the following table, in descending order of population.

title: Strzyżów County


text:
Category:Circus performers

For bandleaders and musicians, see Category:Circus music.

title: Category:Circus performers


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John Hood (university administrator)

Sir John Antony Hood (born 2 January 1952) is a New Zealand businessman and administrator. He was Vice-Chancellor of the University of Oxford from 5 October 2004 until 30 September 2009. He was the first Vice-Chancellor to be elected from outside Oxford's academic body in 900 years, and the first to have addressed the scholars' congregation via a webcast. In March 2007 New Zealand Prime Minister Helen Clark awarded him the World Class New Zealand supreme award to honour his contribution to profiling New Zealand and New Zealanders internationally. On 15 November 2007 he announced that he would not seek an extension to his five-year term as Vice Chancellor, and that he would leave Oxford in September 2009.

Early life and education
Born on 2 January 1952 in Napier, New Zealand, Hood attended Westlake Boys High School in Auckland, where a house has been named after him (Hood House).

From 1970 to 1976, Hood attended the University of Auckland, where he graduated with a B.E. in 1972 and a PhD in Civil Engineering in 1976. His doctoral thesis was entitled A theoretical and experimental investigation of a curved, single cell box-girder bridge. He was then awarded a Rhodes Scholarship to Oxford, where he resided in Worcester College and studied for an M.Phil. in Management. He won a Blue playing squash for Oxford University and also played first-class cricket for Oxford University in 1977.

Career in New Zealand
He has held a number of directorships in prominent New Zealand companies and bodies, including Fonterra, Fletcher Challenge and the New Zealand Cricket review of 1995. His career at Fletcher Challenge is described in the book Battle of the Titans by Bruce Wallace. From 1999 to 2004, he was Vice-Chancellor of the University of Auckland.

Vice-chancellor of the University of Oxford
Hood's term as vice-chancellor of Oxford has been the subject of controversy. Hood had proposed to reform the 900-year-old tradition of complete self-governance by introducing a number of external members to council, and by separating academic and financial boards. The initial proposal called for a majority of external members of council, bringing Oxford into line with all other UK universities except the University of Cambridge. Following a two-hour debate, the proposal was amended by Congregation to allow the election of a college fellow, a further insider, to the council within five years, resulting in a majority of eight insiders (including the vice-chancellor) on the 15-member council. The amendment was supported by a majority of votes (657 to 502), with both supporters and opponents of the reforms claiming victory.

The amended proposal was brought to vote by Congregation on 28 November 2006, and was defeated by 730 to 456 votes. A postal vote was called on 5 December, with ballots being sent to all 3000 members of Congregation and votes being accepted until 18 December. On 19 December it was announced that the proposal had once again been defeated, this time by 1540 to 997 votes. Hood stated that he would not treat the defeat as a vote of no confidence, citing a need to "put aside division, continue dialogue with all shades of opinion and, in an atmosphere of trust, tolerance and goodwill, promote the academic aims and ideals of Oxford".

The proposed reform met with opposition not because it would invite outside opinion on the university's financial and academic decisions, but because of the impression that control would be wrested from Congregation, thus threatening the university's academic reputation. Furthermore, some opponents claimed that the reform would place too much power in the hands of the vice-chancellor. Other critics questioned the applicability of corporate models of governance in educational institutions. Lord Patten of Barnes stated in December 2006 that without reforms to Oxford's governance it would be more difficult to raise money he said was needed by the university, particularly with respect to needs-based funding to support students from poorer backgrounds. Similarly, Hood stated at the same time that the issue was not "whether there has to be change, but what kind of change."

Others criticised the appointment of the Registrar, Julie Maxton, who was noted to be a former colleague of Hood. Maxton was chosen for the position of Registrar by way of a selection committee including consultants, external members of council, and the vice-chancellor of Cambridge.

Comparisons were drawn with Lawrence Summers, the 27th President of Harvard University, who announced his resignation on 21 February 2006 following two motions of censure. Although individual academic staff were critical of Hood, no formal motions were brought forward calling for his resignation. However, an informal letter of confidence organised by his supporters in February 2006 attracted only about fifty signatories from Members of Congregation. Contested elections to the Council of the university by Congregation resulted in the election of three leading critics of Hood's proposals, namely Susan Cooper in 2005, Nicholas Bamforth in 2006, and Donald Fraser, who was elected unopposed, also in 2006.

In June 2007 it was revealed that the university press office had been monitoring and editing comments in Hood's Wikipedia article in an attempt to protect his reputation. In the same month, two further critics of Hood, Colin Thompson and Peter Robbins, were elected to the council.

Andrew Hamilton, who had previously served as the Provost of Yale University, was nominated on 3 June 2008 to succeed John Hood as Vice-Chancellor of Oxford University from 1 October 2009. His appointment was confirmed on 16 June 2008.

Later career
He is a non-executive director of BG Group Plc, and will be President and Chief Executive Officer of the Robertson Foundation from 2010.

In December 2011, John Hood became Chair of Rhodes Trustees.

In January 2012, the board of global private education provider Study Group appointed John Hood as chairman.

In the 2014 Queen's Birthday Honours, Hood was appointed a Knight Companion of the New Zealand Order of Merit (KNZM) for services to tertiary education.

Personal life
Hood has three children. His wife, Emma, Lady Hood, was a contemporary of Theresa May at St Hugh's College, Oxford.

title: John Hood (university administrator)


text:
Duberdicus

Duberdicus or Duberdico, was a god of fountains, lakes, and oceans in Lusitanian mythology, in the cultural area of Lusitania (in the territory of modern Portugal).

title: Duberdicus


text: Category:1592 deaths

title: Category:1592 deaths


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Baron Wilson (disambiguation)

Baron Wilson is a title created in 1946 for Sir Henry Maitland Wilson.

Baron Wilson or Lord Wilson may also refer to:
 * Paul Wilson, Baron Wilson of High Wray (1908–1980), British engineer and administrator
 * Harold Wilson, Baron Wilson of Rievaulx (1916–1995), UK Prime Minister 1964-1970 and 1974-1976
 * Henry Wilson, Baron Wilson of Langside (1916–1997), Scottish lawyer and politician
 * David Wilson, Baron Wilson of Tillyorn (born 1935), Scottish administrator, diplomat and Sinologist
 * Richard Wilson, Baron Wilson of Dinton (born 1942), British civil servant and politician
 * Nicholas Wilson, Lord Wilson of Culworth (born 1945), British judge, Justice of the Supreme Court of the United Kingdom

title: Baron Wilson (disambiguation)


text: Category:1431 births

title: Category:1431 births


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Nabia

Nabia (or Navia) was a goddess of the Pre-Roman peoples of the Iberian Peninsula, although she also had an extended cult during the Roman occupation of the peninsula.

Nabia was worshipped in many places on the Iberian Peninsula, sometimes in very different ways, leading some historians to suggest that "Nabia" was just a common word used by different peoples to refer to their deities (a theory questioned by others). Due to the uncertainty of her nature, she is sometimes interpreted as a water deity, other times she is associated with valleys, forests and hills, and she's further seen as the goddess of fertility, health and abundance.

title: Nabia


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Fraternitas Saturni

Fraternitas Saturni (lat.: "Brotherhood of Saturn") is a German magical order, founded in 1926 by Eugen Grosche a.k.a. Gregor A. Gregorius and four others. It is one of the oldest continuously running magical groups in Germany. The lodge is, as Gregorius states, "concerned with the study of esotericism, mysticism, and magic in the cosmic sense". The FS adopts a system of degrees, ending with the 33rd as highest degree to reach this goal. The lodge claims further no political or economical objectives. It propagates ideals of freedom, tolerance and fraternity.

Origins: Pansophia Lodge and the Weida Conference
The Fraternitas Saturni was founded in the wake of the so-called "Weida Conference" in 1925. It succeeded the "Collegium Pansophicum, Orient Berlin" (Pansophia Lodge), a Rosicrucian magical order founded by Heinrich Traenker, a notable German occultist of the time. The Weida Conference was meant to consolidate Aleister Crowley's claims to be the Outer Head of Ordo Templi Orientis and the expected World Teacher. The conference consisted of Crowley's entourage of Leah Hirsig, Dorothy Olsen, and Norman Mudd and the members of Heinrich Traenker's "Pansophia Lodge". Traenker had served as a X° National Grand Master of the German O.T.O. under Theodor Reuss up until Reuss's death. Also attending the conference were the notable film pioneer Albin Grau and Gregor A. Gregorius.

The conference was not a smooth event and Traenker withdrew his support of Crowley. The differences between Traenker and Crowley led to a schism in the Pansophical Lodge between the brothers who disagreed with Crowley and those who accepted Crowley's Law of Thelema, including Gregorius and Grau. Following these differences the Pansophical Lodge would be officially closed in 1926. Those brothers of the Pansophia Lodge who accepted the teachings of Crowley would join Grosche in founding the Fraternitas Saturni - but without Albin Grau.

Founding
At Easter 1928, the Fraternitas Saturni was officially founded in Berlin. The Lodge made a formal acceptance of The Book of the Law but they would not answer to Crowley. The FS still thought of him as an important teacher and included the Law of Thelema in most of its teachings, while divorcing itself from direct contact with him. This resulted in the FS developing a different take on the idea of Thelema, which is reflected in the rituals and magical techniques of the brotherhood. The emphasis of the FS lies more on astrological and Luciferian teachings, rather than on Qabalah and Tarot compared to other western magical orders founded in the early 20th century. Because of its unique approach to modern occultism, the FS is considered by many modern authors to be the most influential German magical order.

In 1936, the Fraternitas Saturni was prohibited by the Nazi regime. Gregorius as well as other leaders of the lodge emigrated in order to avoid imprisonment, but in the course of the war Grosche was arrested for a year by the Nazi government.

After World War II
The end of World War II saw the reactivation of Fraternitas Saturni. First from Riesa in Eastern Germany and later from Berlin, Gregorius tried to contact the Brothers and found lodges in several German cities. By 1957 lodges existed in Düsseldorf, Hamburg, Frankfurt and Stuttgart, with the Grand Lodge in Berlin. In 1960 the FS had, according to its membership list, about 100 members, but in 1962 internal problems led to the expulsion of several members. Following Grosche's death in 1964, the lodge experienced confusion concerning the position of Grandmaster. This resulted in a schism between the Frankfurt lodge and the main body of the Order. In 1969 the two separate groups of the Fraternitas Saturni were reunified, ending the former conflicts.

List of grandmasters

 * Gregor A. Gregorius (1928–1964) (Eugen Grosche)
 * Roxane (1964–1965)
 * Daniel (1966–1969)
 * Jananda (1969)
 * Andrzey (1969–1977)
 * Horus (1977–1978)
 * Drakon (1978–1982)
 * Hamupe (1983–1986)
 * Babacan (1986–1990)
 * Thot (1990–)

Development
Originally, there existed eight degrees within the Fraternitas Saturni, not including the Novice, who was not a regular member but a candidate to the Order, and the Grandmaster, which was not a degree in those days but a position held by a single master of the highest degree, guiding the affairs of the lodge. A new member of the Pronaos held the degree of Neophyt (Apprentice), the second degree was called Gradus Mercurii (Journeyman), followed by the Gradus Solis (Master). The first degree in the second order of R + C was called the Gradus Pentalphae, followed by the Gradus Sigilli Salomonis and the Magus Heptagrammatos. The third order called the S. S. G., was formed by the degrees of Templarius, Gnosticus and Magister Aquarius.

The system of degrees was changed in 1960. After the reformation of the degree system and its expansion to 33 degrees, the Gradus Mercurii became 8°, Gradus Solis became 12° and the Gradus Pentalphae became 18°. The other Grades were repositioned as well. The Templarius were renamed Princeps Arcani (24°) and a new degree of Magister Templarius (31°) were installed.

Contents
In the 1950s, the first two degrees of the Fraternitas Saturni were of theoretical character. The first degree to be attained by work was the Gradus Mercurii (8°). The conditions centered on basic understanding of esoteric principles and a written essay. The second degree to be attained by work was the Gradus Solis (12°), which required a deeper understanding of lodge ritual and two essays. This degree qualified the Initiate to lead a lodge of the FS. Today these degrees require theoretical understanding as well as practical work in the field of occultism.

Another important degree was the Frater (4°), which contained an oath of lifelong commitment. This was later changed and the vow was made part of the attainment of the Gradus Solis. After 1960, the Gradus Solis marked the member as a part of the inner order, the so-called "Grand-Lodge Fraternitas Saturni".

Much speculation has been made around the content of the Gradus Pentalphae (18°), the degree of the pentagram or the five pointed star. As far as it is known, the work of the Gradus Pentalphae was centered on tantric mysticism and sex magic. As many faked documents have been published it is hard to verify the rumors about the contents of this degree.

The Initials of the degree of Gradus Ordinis Templi Orientis Saturni (33°) are similar to the name of the egregore of the lodge - GOTOS.

Fraternitas Saturni
The Fraternitas Saturni became a legal organisation, registered as "Fraternitas Saturni, e.v." in 1957. The Fraternitas Saturni is, beside incorporating new attempts on magic, still working on its traditional roots and enhancing the concept of "Saturn-Magic" as the center of its work. On its 75th anniversary (2003), the lodge incorporated another order of the so-called "Immanuel-succession", the "Grand-Lodge Gregor A. Gregorius". This unification effectively doubled the size of its membership. The Fraternitas Saturni claims to have working lodges in Germany, Austria and Switzerland. There was a branch in Canada (based in Toronto) in the late 1970s.

Literature

 * θAythos. Die Fraternitas Saturni - Eine saturn-magische Loge. (Hiram-Edition 7. Arbeitsgemeinschaft für Religions- und Weltanschauungsfragen 1979).
 * Flowers, Stephen. Fire & Ice - The History, Structure and Rituals of Germany's Most Influential Modern Magical Order: The Brotherhood of Saturn. (Llewellyn Publ. 1994) ISBN 0-87542-776-6.
 * Frater Oriphiel. Magische Einweihungspfade. (Bohmeier Verlag 2005) ISBN 3-89094-435-3.
 * Fraternitas Saturni. Blätter für angewandte okkulte Lebenskunst, Bd. 1-13. (Fraternitas Saturni 1950–63).
 * Fraternitas Saturni. Saturn Gnosis Vol. III, No. 1. (Fraternitas Saturni 2008).
 * Frater V.D. Die Fraternitas Saturni heute. (Verlag Ralph Tegtmeier Nachf. 1994).
 * Frater V.D. Schule der Hohen Magie, Bd. 2. (Ansata 2003).
 * Haack, Friedrich-Wilhelm. Die Fraternitas Saturni (FS) als Beispiel für einen arkan-mystogenen Geheimorden des 20. Jahrhunderts. (Hiram-Edition 1. Arbeitsgemeinschaft für Religions- und Weltanschauungsfragen 1977) ISBN 3-921513-11-1.
 * Hakl, Hans Thomas. "Fraternitas Saturni", in: Wouter J. Hanegraaff: Dictionary of Gnosis & Western Esotericism. Vol. I. Brill, Leiden 2005, pp. 379–382.
 * Hakl, Hans Thomas. "The Magical Order of the Fraternitas Saturni". In: Occultism in a global perspective. Edited by Henrik Bogdan and Gordan Djurdjevic, Durham 2013, p. 37-56, (ISBN 978-1844657162).
 * Hemberger, Adolf. Der mystisch-magische Orden Fraternitas Saturni, in 2 Bde. Privatdruck.
 * Popiol, Alexander, Schrader, Raimund. Gregor A. Gregorius - Mystiker des dunklen Lichts. (Esoterischer Verlag 2007) ISBN 3-932928-40-7.

title: Fraternitas Saturni


text: Category:1470s deaths

title: Category:1470s deaths


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WCSH

WCSH (channel 6) is a television station in Portland, Maine, United States, affiliated with NBC and owned by Tegna Inc. The station's studios are located on Congress Square in Downtown Portland, and its transmitter is located on Winn Mountain in Sebago. Together with WLBZ (channel 2) in Bangor, which simulcasts most of WCSH's local newscasts, it is known as News Center Maine.

WCSH is the oldest operating television station in Portland, signing on in December 1953. It was an outgrowth of WCSH radio, one of NBC's charter affiliates when it was constituted as a radio network in 1926, and broadcast from its namesake, the Congress Square Hotel in downtown Portland, for nearly 25 years. Founded by the Rines family and sold to Tegna predecessor Gannett Company in 1997, it has generally been the highest-rated station in TV news in the market since the mid-1980s.

Establishment
When the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) lifted its four-year freeze on television station applications in April 1952, four bids had already been received to start new stations in Portland, which was allocated two commercial very high frequency (VHF) channels and a third on the new ultra high frequency (UHF) band. One of these came from the Congress Square Hotel Company, owner of Portland radio station WCSH (970 AM), which had filed for channel 11 in 1948 but amended its application when only VHF channels 6 and 13 were assigned. In October 1952, the FCC ordered comparative hearings to decide who should be given construction permits for channels 6 and 13. Two groups sought each channel; Congress Square's application was rivaled by one from the Oliver Broadcasting Company, which owned station WPOR.

The third VHF channel in southern Maine was channel 8 at Poland Spring, and activity around this channel would proceed to unblock channel 6 in Portland. The FCC granted a permit in early July 1953 to Mount Washington Television, a group headed by former Maine governor Horace A. Hildreth containing principals from Oliver as shareholders. Oliver withdrew its channel 6 application on July 30, 1953, and the FCC immediately awarded the Congress Square Hotel Company a permit for channel 6, WCSH-TV. This was the second construction permit for a Portland TV station, with WPMT (channel 53) already being built.

Because WCSH had conditionally purchased television equipment 18 months prior, it was assured delivery of its order to put channel 6 on the air by the end of 1953. WCSH-TV announced its intention to be Portland's NBC affiliate, matching WCSH radio—which had carried NBC's very first program when the radio network began in November 1926 and previously had been part of the WEAF chain that preceded it. The transmitting facility would be erected in Falmouth, while WCSH's quarters in the Congress Square Hotel were extensively refitted to house the television station: a large radio studio was converted for television use, and a new studio was created out of a former storage room to house a kitchen for cooking shows.

The first test pattern was sent out on November 29, and on December 20, 1953, WCSH-TV began broadcasting. The station's broadcasting activity steadily increased in its early years, with such local shows as the home decorating program Your Home and You; Youth Cavalcade; the noontime women's program Living Down East; The Dave Astor Show, a teen dance program; and early and late evening newscasts. By January 1955, it was broadcasting 18 hours a day and had become a secondary affiliate of the DuMont Television Network in its final years of operation after WPMT closed the month before. The Rines family, who had founded WCSH radio and television, also owned the Maine Broadcasting System with radio stations WRDO in Augusta and WLBZ in Bangor. It expanded its TV holdings north in 1958 when it bought WTWO, an independent station in Bangor owned by Murray Carpenter, and made it into an NBC affiliate as WLBZ-TV.

After 50 years of radio and television operations in the Congress Square Hotel, WCSH opted to move its broadcasting businesses into more modern quarters. The studio portion of the hotel complex had become overcrowded despite multiple additions. In 1977, WCSH moved one city block to occupy a four-story building at 1 Congress Square, which received a two-story addition containing studio space; WCSH radio moved to separate facilities in Scarborough. The Maine Broadcasting System continued to own the radio station until 1981, when it was sold and changed call letters; WLBZ radio in Bangor was also sold, while the television properties were retained. Particularly beginning in the 1980s, WCSH made its mark as the dominant station in Portland-market ratings, even if it sometimes irked NBC. The station was heavily protective of its 6 p.m. newscast, resulting in far more frequent preemptions of network sports events. In 1994, WCSH did not air 38 percent of NBC's 502 hours of sports programming that year—the most of any of NBC's 213 affiliates and more than double the preemption rate of WSMV-TV in Nashville, Tennessee—which the network begrudgingly tolerated because the station delivered strong performance for the network's daytime and prime time entertainment shows. Events as diverse as the second games of NBA doubleheaders and golf tournaments were not aired to provide a consistent airing of the 6 p.m. NewsCenter and to air movies which drew more viewers.

Gannett/Tegna ownership
The Rines-Thompson family exited the local broadcasting industry after 72 years (44 of them owning WCSH) by selling WCSH and WLBZ to the Gannett Company in 1997. It had negotiated exclusively with Gannett for several months after approaching several potential acquirers. The family had decided to sell because of deregulation in broadcasting and costly new technological mandates, such as the forthcoming conversion to digital television. The family earned a handsome return on its original investment in WCSH radio in 1925. The transaction also marked the entry of large station groups into Maine. For most of the broadcasting era, Maine had been traditionally dominated by locally based owners, including families.

WCSH's digital signal on UHF channel 44 signed on in April 2002, bringing high definition network television to the area. WCSH's broadcasts became digital-only, effective June 12, 2009; the station elected to continue broadcasting on channel 44 (using virtual channel 6), which it did until being repacked to channel 31 in 2020. As part of the SAFER Act, WCSH kept its analog signal on the air until June 27 to inform viewers of the digital television transition through a loop of public service announcements from the National Association of Broadcasters.

On June 29, 2015, the Gannett Company split in two, with one side specializing in print media and the other side specializing in broadcast and digital media. WCSH and WLBZ were retained by the latter company, named Tegna. The two stations adopted the brand News Center Maine in 2018 upon the rollout of a combined website for Portland and Bangor news coverage.

News operation
Newscasts were part of WCSH's schedule from its first television broadcasts in 1953, and the station was airing early evening and late evening newscasts by 1955. While the station typically trailed WGAN-TV/WGME in the news ratings for most of its history, this changed in February 1986 when WCSH surpassed WGME at 11 p.m. and tied channel 13 in the vital 6 p.m. news slot. Later that year, the station would surpass WGME at 6 and proceed to do so for at least the next 16 years. This was aided by stability in its evening news team and NBC's strong national program lineup in the 1990s. On-air talent like anchors Pat Callaghan and Cindy Williams and meteorologist Joe Cupo were mainstays on channel 6 for years. Cupo left in 2016 after 37 years when Tegna offered voluntary retirement packages, while Williams retired in 2021 and Callaghan in 2022 after tenures of 32 and 43 years, respectively.

From the 1980s onward, WLBZ's local operations were progressively cut back, a trend that accelerated after Gannett took over. While WLBZ had already simulcast WCSH's morning and weekend newscasts since 1989, regional 5:30 and 11 p.m. newscasts were instituted in 2000 with split weather forecasts for each area, with WLBZ only airing separate 5 and 6 p.m. newscasts. WLBZ ceased producing separate local newscasts altogether on October 8, 2015; all newscasts on both stations now originate from Portland, though Bangor viewers continue to see separate weather forecasts. The presence of WLBZ in the News Center Maine operation has resulted in a newscast with a stronger statewide news focus than its competitors in the Portland market.

After The WB affiliate WPXT shut down its news department in fall 2002, WCSH and WLBZ entered into a news share agreement with that station, resulting in a nightly prime time newscast. The half-hour News Center at 10 moved to a digital subchannel of WCSH in 2008 when WPXT opted out of the arrangement, citing a lack of advertising support. In the early 2010s, WCSH tried its hand again at airing news for WPXT, with the addition of a 7 a.m. hour of WCSH's morning newscast branded as News Center Morning Report Xtra.

Non-news programming
From 2000 until the host's retirement in 2019, the News Center Maine stations aired human interest and outdoors program Bill Green's Maine; Green had gotten his start at WLBZ before moving to Portland and WCSH in 1981.

WCSH debuted 207, a weeknight lifestyle and entertainment magazine aired weeknights at 7 p.m., in 2003. It was named for the state's area code, 207.

Subchannels
The station's signal is multiplexed:

title: WCSH


text: Category:French royalty

title: Category:French royalty


text:
Sémillon

Sémillon is a golden-skinned grape used to make dry and sweet white wines, mostly in France and Australia. Its thin skin and susceptibility to botrytis make it dominate the sweet wine region Sauternes AOC and Barsac AOC.

History
The Sémillon grape is native to the Bordeaux region. It was known as Sémillon de Saint-Émilion in 1736, while Sémillon also resembles the local pronunciation of the town's name ([semi'ʎuŋ]). It first arrived in Australia in the early 19th century and by the 1820s the grape covered over 90% of South Africa's vineyards, where it was known as Wyndruif, meaning "wine grape". It was once considered to be the most planted grape in the world, although this is no longer the case. In the 1950s, Chile's vineyards were made up of over 75% Sémillon. Today, it accounts for just 1% of South African Cape vines.

Viticulture
Sémillon, which is relatively easy to cultivate, consistently produces six to eight tons of grapes per acre from its vigorous vines. It is fairly resistant to disease, except for rot. The grape ripens early, when, in warmer climates, it acquires a pinkish hue. Since the grape has a thin skin, there is also a risk of sunburn in hotter climates; it is best suited to areas with sunny days and cool nights.

Sémillon wines are rather heavy, with low acidity and an almost oily texture. It has a high yield and wines based on it can age a long time. Along with Sauvignon blanc and Muscadelle, Sémillon is one of only three approved white wine varieties in the Bordeaux region.

The grape is also key to the production of sweet wines such as Sauternes. For the grapes to be used for sweet wine production, they need to have been affected by Botrytis (also known as "noble rot"). This fungus dries out the grapes, thus concentrating the sugar and flavours in the grape berry.

Regional production
Sémillon is an important cultivar in two significant wine producing countries. In France, Sémillon is the preeminent white grape in the Bordeaux wine regions. The grape has also found a home in Australia; whereas today the country's major white varieties are Chardonnay and Sauvignon blanc, early in the country's viticultural development it was Sémillon, at that time mislabeled as Riesling, that was the most significant white variety.

France
In France, the Sémillon grape is grown mostly in Bordeaux where it is blended with Sauvignon blanc and Muscadelle. When dry, it is referred to as Bordeaux blanc and is permitted to be made in the appellations of Pessac-Léognan, Graves, Entre-Deux-Mers and other less-renowned regions. In this form, Sémillon is generally a minor constituent in the blend. However, when used to make the sweet white wines of Bordeaux (such as those from Sauternes, Barsac and Cérons) it is often the dominant variety. In such wines the vine is exposed to the "noble rot" of Botrytis cinerea which consumes the water content of the fruit, concentrating the sugar present in its pulp. When attacked by Botrytis cinerea, the grapes shrivel and the acid and sugar levels are intensified.

Due to the declining popularity of the grape variety, fewer clones are cultivated in nurseries causing producers to project a future shortage of quality wine. In 2008, 17 Bordeaux wine producers, including Château d'Yquem, Château Olivier, Château Suduiraut and Château La Tour Blanche, formed an association to grow their own clones.

Australia
Sémillon is widely grown in Australia, particularly in the Hunter Valley north of Sydney, where for a long time it was known as "Hunter River Riesling". Four styles of Sémillon-based wines are made there: The latter two styles were pioneered by Lindemans, Tulloch, McWilliam's Elizabeth, Drayton's and Tyrrell's, and are considered unique to Australia.
 * a commercial style, often blended with Chardonnay or Sauvignon blanc;
 * a sweet style, after that of Sauternes;
 * a complex, minerally, early picked style which has great longevity;
 * and an equally high quality dry style, which can be released soon after vintage as a vat- or bottle-aged example.

Most examples of these bottle-aged Hunter Semillons exhibit a buttercup-yellow colour, burnt toast or honey characteristics on the nose and excellent complex flavours on the palate, with a long finish and soft acid. Young Hunter Valley semillon is almost always a dry wine, usually exhibiting citrus flavours of lemon, lime or green apple. Cooler-year Hunter Semillons seem to be the most highly sought after, with some of the 1974 and 1977 vintages still drinking well. The newer, fruit-accentuated styles are championed by the likes of Iain Riggs at Brokenwood Wines and The Rothbury Estate.

Sémillon is also finding favour with Australian producers outside the Hunter Valley in the Barossa Valley and Margaret River regions. The Adelaide Hills is becoming a flourishing region for Semillon, with the cooler climate producing some wines of great complexity. Vineyards such as Amadio and Paracombe produce some premium blends of the classical style.

South Africa
Semillon is one of the Cape's true heritage white varietals, with origins as early as the 17th century (when it became known as Groendruif which translates as Green grape), the grape variety accounted for more than 90% of plantings in the first half of the 19th century. While South African Semillon has not quite taken off as a serious commercial category in single varietal form in the modern era, there are stunning wines being made from especially older vineyards (some of them centurions). More often, the variety plays a role in beefing up the volume of Sauvignon blancs.

The best South African Semillons have juicy fruit with often an ethereal-like citrus perfume, fine texture, herbal interest and manage to marry the intensity of flavour with finesse.

A red mutation of Semillon is today rarely found, although it was once quite common in South Africa. Semillon Rouge is also a synonym for Merlot.

Other regions
Outside of these regions, however, Sémillon is unpopular and often criticised for lack of complexity and intensity. As such, plantings have decreased over the last century. As referenced above, the grape can still be found in South Africa and Chile. The latter is reputed to have the largest plantings of this grape, although the number of acres planted with Sémillon fluctuates often. California growers plant Sémillon primarily to blend it with Sauvignon blanc. There are some wineries in the Washington State that have produced Sémillon as a varietal wine since the early 1980s; others actively produce Sémillon for Ice Wine and Late Harvest wines. At least one winery in Idaho grows and produces a varietal offering and at least four vineyards in Texas are growing Sémillon. The grape is also planted in Argentina, Canada (Niagara and British Columbia) and recently in New Zealand.

title: Sémillon


text:
Sturgis, Saskatchewan

Sturgis is a town of 620 people in east-central Saskatchewan, Canada. The Town of Sturgis is 95 km north of Yorkton on Highway 9. It is located in the Assiniboine River valley near the Lakes and Woods region of the province.

The community was named for Sturgis, South Dakota, where Fred Clyde Brooks, the first postmaster, had been raised.

The Sturgis railway station receives scheduled Via Rail service.

Demographics
In the 2021 Census of Population conducted by Statistics Canada, Sturgis had a population of $646$ living in $300$ of its $333$ total private dwellings, a change of NaN% from its 2016 population of $644$. With a land area of 3.15 km2, it had a population density of in 2021.

In 2011, the median age of the population in Sturgis increased in 2001 to 51.2 years of age versus 49.7 in 2006. The median age of the division was 46.1 in 2011 and 38.2 for the province.

Economy

 * Chamber of Commerce
 * Sturgis Economic Development Corp.
 * Sturgis Tourist Information Booth

Attractions

 * Station House Museum
 * Skating and Curling Rinks
 * Sturgis & District Community Hall
 * Sturgis Ski Hill
 * Sturgis & District Regional Park

Churches

 * Grace United Church
 * Kingdom Hall of Jehovah's Witnesses
 * St. Patrick's Roman Catholic Church
 * Evangelical Church
 * Ukrainian Greek Orthodox Church

Education
Sturgis is home to Sturgis Elementary School and Sturgis Composite High School a part of the Good Spirit School Division No. 204

 * Parkland Regional Library - Sturgis Branch
 * The Kinette Club of Sturgis Nursery School
 * Good Spirit School Division Band

title: Sturgis, Saskatchewan


text:
Typhoon Paka

Typhoon Paka, known in the Philippines as Typhoon Rubing, was an extremely powerful and long-lived storm that devastated Guam and the Marshall Islands in December 1997. One of the strongest Pacific typhoons ever recorded in the month of December, Paka was the last tropical cyclone of the 1997 Pacific hurricane and typhoon seasons and the last of a record eleven super typhoons that formed in 1997. Paka, which is the Hawaiian name for Pat, developed on 28 November from a trough well to the southwest of Hawaii. The storm tracked generally westward for much of its duration, and on 7 December it crossed into the western Pacific Ocean. Much of its track was characterized by fluctuations in intensity, and on 10 December the cyclone attained typhoon status as it crossed the Marshall Islands. On 16 December, Paka struck Guam and Rota with winds of 230 km/h, and it strengthened further to reach peak winds on 18 December over open waters as the final super typhoon of the year. Subsequently, it underwent a steady weakening trend, and on 23 December Paka dissipated.

Typhoon Paka first impacted the Marshall Islands, where it dropped heavy rainfall and left in damages. Later, it passed just north of Guam, where strong winds destroyed about 1,500 buildings and damaged 10,000 more; 5,000 people were left homeless, and the island experienced a complete power outage following the typhoon. Damage on the island totaled, which warranted the retirement of its name. Paka also caused minor damage in the Northern Mariana Islands, and overall, the typhoon did not cause any reported fatalities.

Meteorological history
As the weather synoptics of the northern Pacific Ocean transitioned into a late-fall to early winter-type pattern, convection from the monsoon trough extended to the east of the International Date Line. During late November, a westerly disturbance developed into twin troughs on opposite sides of the equator; the one in the Southern Hemisphere eventually developed into Tropical Cyclone Pam, while the one in the Northern Hemisphere formed into an area of convection about 2000 km southwest of Hawaii. The disturbance gradually organized as it drifted north-northeastward, and on 28 November it developed into Tropical Depression Five-C about 465 km west-northwest of Palmyra Atoll. Operationally, the Central Pacific Hurricane Center (CPHC) did not begin issuing warnings on the system until 2 December.

The tropical depression continued drifting north-northeastward, and failed to strengthen significantly. It turned to the west on 1 December, due to the presence of a strong anticyclone to its north with a ridge extending westward past the International Date Line. On 2 December, based on satellite estimates, the CPHC upgraded the depression to Tropical Storm Paka while located about 1000 km south-southeast of Johnston Atoll. Due to the presence of high clouds across the area, forecasters had difficulty at times in locating the low-level circulation. After becoming a tropical storm, Paka remained nearly stationary for about two days before resuming a slow motion to the west-southwest. It steadily intensified due to warm water temperatures, and on 3 December the storm attained winds of 105 km/h. The next day, however, it encountered dry air and began weakening; by 6 December, the winds had decreased to minimal tropical storm status for about 12 hours. Subsequently, Paka began to re-intensify, and on 7 December the storm crossed the International Date Line into the western North Pacific Ocean with winds of 80 km/h.

Upon entering the western North Pacific Ocean, tropical cyclone warning duties transferred from the CPHC to the Japan Meteorological Agency (JMA), and the JMA first assessed Paka as a 65 km/h storm. The Joint Typhoon Warning Center (JTWC) unofficially assumed warning duties for interests in the United States Department of Defense. Paka continued to intensify after crossing the date line, and from late on 7 December through early the following day it remained a strong tropical storm. However, upper-level wind shear increased, and it again weakened. At 1200 UTC on 9 December, the JTWC assessed Paka as an 85 km/h tropical storm and forecast it to continue weakening. By 10 December, the shear had begun to decrease as the storm moved through the Marshall Islands, and that night the JTWC upgraded Paka to typhoon status. Paka officially attained typhoon status when JMA classified it with winds of 120 km/h at 0000 UTC on 11 December.

After attaining typhoon status, Paka strengthened fairly quickly, and by 12 December it reached sustained winds of 150 km/h for a ten-minute (10 min) duration, or 215 km/h over a one-minute (1 min) duration. Subsequently, it briefly weakened as its forward motion increased. However, Paka again re-intensified, and at 1200 UTC on 14 December it attained the unofficial ranking of Category 5 super typhoon status while over the open Pacific Ocean with estimated 1-minute sustained winds of 260 km/h. At the same time, the JMA classified it with 10 min sustained winds of 175 km/h. After reaching its initial peak intensity, Paka underwent an eyewall replacement cycle and began weakening as it approached the southern Mariana Islands; the NEXRAD Doppler weather radar from Guam revealed the presence of a primary eyewall of 74 km in diameter, with a fragmented inner wall cloud of 19 km in diameter. Additionally, satellite imagery indicated an eyewall mesovortex within the eye of the typhoon. It slowed and began to re-intensify as it continued westward, and at 0530 UTC on 16 December the northern portion of the outer eyewall of Paka passed over the island of Rota; 20 minutes later, the southern portion of the inner wall cloud moved across northern Guam. As it tracked through the Rota Channel, the center of Paka passed about 8 km north of the northern tip of Guam, its closest approach to the island.

Typhoon Paka continued to steadily intensify after passing the Marianas Islands, and late on 17 December it reached its peak intensity of 185 km/h 10 min sustained ) while located 440 km west-northwest of Guam. Early on 18 December, the JTWC assessed it as attaining peak winds of 295 km/h 1 min winds ). On 19 December, it entered the area of responsibility of the Philippine Atmospheric, Geophysical and Astronomical Services Administration, or PAGASA, and was named Rubing. Shortly thereafter, Paka moved through an area of progressively increasing wind shear, which resulted in a steady weakening trend. By 21 December, winds decreased to tropical storm status. The next day, it degenerated into a tropical depression before it dissipated on 23 December.

Marshall Islands
Prior to the typhoon passing through the Marshall Islands, several hundred residents on the island of Ebeye fled to safer structures. The threat of Paka prevented Continental Micronesia from flying in or out of the area.

Paka entered the Marshall Islands between Mili and Majuro as a tropical storm on 10 December, and after strengthening into a typhoon, it left the archipelago on 14 December. The cyclone affected several islands in the nation, and the Majuro and Kwajalein atolls reported wind gusts in excess of 75 km/h. On Jaluit Atoll, the typhoon dropped 217 mm of precipitation in six hours, with a total of about 300 mm recorded in 30 hours. Strong waves inundated low-lying islands, which flooded crops with salt water. The combination of the wind and flooding caused severe damage to banana, papaya, and lime trees across the territory. Typhoon Paka damaged 70% of the houses on Ailinglaplap Atoll, and most of the coconut trees on the atoll were left toppled or damaged. Strong winds left large portions of Ebeye island without electricity or telephone. The typhoon caused no reported deaths or injuries in the region, and damage was estimated at.

Guam
The Guam National Weather Service issued a typhoon watch on 14 December, which was upgraded to a typhoon warning the next day. The Antonio B. Won Pat International Airport was closed during the passage of Paka, with only emergency flights permitted.

Passing a short distance north of the island, Typhoon Paka produced strong winds across northern Guam, though reliable wind reports are incomplete due to the long duration and intensity of the winds. The highest reading believed to be reliable was at Apra Harbor. There, a station recorded a wind gust of 277 km/h before the sensor failed as winds shifted to the southwest; since the winds from the southwest were stronger and of greater duration, officials believe gusts there reached 297 km/h. Additionally, Andersen Air Force Base recorded a peak wind gust of 381 km/h, which at the time was considered the highest wind speed on record, surpassing the 1934 world record of 372 km/h on Mount Washington in New Hampshire. However, a subsequent wind survey of the area discarded the reading at the base, as it was considered unreliable. As microbarographs are less exposed than wind sensors, pressure readings on the island are considered accurate; the lowest reading on the island was 948 hPa at Andersen Air Force Base. In two days, the typhoon dropped about 533 mm of precipitation on the northern portion of the island, or about 89% of the monthly rainfall total. Waves along northern Guam reached about 11 m in height.

The strong winds from Paka left around 1,500 buildings destroyed on the island, of which 1,160 were single-family homes. A further 10,000 buildings sustained damage to some degree, with 60% of the homes on the island reporting major damage. In all, about 5,000 people were left homeless due to the typhoon. Additionally, an estimated 30–40% of the public buildings received major damage. Buildings on the island made of reinforced concrete fared well, as opposed to light metal-frame structures, which more often than not were destroyed. Large tourist hotels near Hagåtña, on which Guam is dependent, received generally minor damage, such as broken windows and damaged power generators.

A complete island-wide power outage followed the typhoon; damage to the main electrical transmission and distribution system was estimated at. Following the passage of the typhoon, 25% of the homes on Guam were left without water. Telephone service remained working after the storm, due to most lines being underground. Strong waves washed away a few coastal roads in the northern portion of the island, leaving them temporarily closed. The waves surpassed the seawall at Apra Harbor, damaging the road and infrastructure of the seaport; many boats were washed ashore after breaking from their moorings. Strong winds damaged a radar system and lights along the runway of the Antonio B. Won Pat International Airport, though most airport facilities received light damage. Andersen Air Force Base also sustained heavy damage, with hundreds of downed trees and many facilities left damaged. Across Guam, damage was estimated at. About 100 people were injured, but the typhoon caused no deaths on the island.

Northern Mariana Islands
A typhoon watch was issued for Rota, Tinian, and Saipan on 14 December, which was upgraded to a typhoon warning the next day. Because Paka was intensifying while passing to the south of Rota, the first wind, or northeast through east winds, was less severe than the second wind from the southeast. Sustained winds on the island reached 145 km/h, with gusts reaching 185 km/h. Many trees in the mountainous portion of the island were left defoliated, which limited nesting and foraging sites for the endangered bridled white-eye bird. While passing to the south of the island, Paka dropped 250 – of rain. Damage on the island totaled $4.4 million (1997 USD, $6.4 million 2015 USD). The typhoon also produced above-normal precipitation on Saipan.

Aftermath
Following the passage of the typhoon in the Ailinglaplap Atoll in the Marshall Islands, residents experienced severe food shortages due to damaged crops and little rainfall. Experts estimated the entire redevelopment of its fauna would require more than a decade. As a result of the crop shortage, large-scale evacuations of the islands' residents were considered. Officials in the nation requested assistance from the Federal Emergency Management Agency of the United States, and on 20 March 1998, the area was declared a disaster area; the declaration allowed for the usage of emergency funds.

On 17 December 1997, President Bill Clinton declared Guam a federal disaster area, making it eligible for federal assistance. One week later, a disaster declaration was ordered for the Northern Mariana Islands. Ultimately, FEMA received 14,770 Individual Assistance Applications from residents on Guam. In turn, FEMA provided the residents with over $27 million in assistance (1997 USD, $39 million 2015 USD). The entire island of Guam was left without power after Paka. Water and sewage systems on Guam were directly affected minimally by the typhoon. With the usage of power generators, most areas of the island had water pumping capabilities within a few days after the typhoon. The Antonio B. Won Pat International Airport was partially reopened to daytime flights a day after the typhoon, and by a week after the passage of Paka the airport was fully re-opened.

Retirement
Due to the typhoon's impacts on Guam, the World Meteorological Organization later retired the name Paka from future use in the central North Pacific. The name Pama was chosen as its replacement.

title: Typhoon Paka


text:
Eremolaena

Eremolaena is a genus of flowering plant in the Sarcolaenaceae family, endemic to Madagascar. The genus has three species, all native to the country's humid east coast.

The family Sarcolaenaceae is endemic to Madagascar. The genus appears to be most closely related to the genera Pentachlaena and Perrierodendron.

Species
Eremolaena humblotiana, known by the vernacular names Amaninombilahy, Hamaninaombilahy and Fotona, is found in the humid Madagascar lowland forests and Madagascar subhumid forests ecoregions, up to 1200–1500 meters elevation, from the Brickaville to Vatomandry area, Betampona Reserve, Zahamena Reserve, and the area around Lac Alaotra.

Eremolaena rotundifolia, known by the vernacular names Amaninombilahy fotsy, Anjananjana, Fotona, Fotonala, Fotonalahy, Menahy lahy, Takodizahana lahy and Voantalanina, is native to littoral (seaside) forests on sand at Masoala National Park and in the Fort Dauphin area, in the Madagascar lowland forests ecoregion.

title: Eremolaena


text:
Sturgis

Sturgis may refer to:

Canada

 * Sturgis, Saskatchewan, a town in the east central region

United States

 * Sturgis, Kentucky, a city in Union County
 * Sturgis, Michigan, a city in St. Joseph County
 * Sturgis Township, Michigan, a township in St. Joseph County
 * Sturgis, Mississippi, a town in Oktibbeha County
 * Sturgis, Oklahoma, an unincorporated place in Cimarron County
 * Sturgis, South Dakota, a city in Meade County

Other uses

 * Sturgis Charter Public School, a high school in Hyannis, Massachusetts
 * The Sturgis, MH-1A, the first floating nuclear power plant
 * Sturgis Motorcycle Rally, an annual event in Sturgis, South Dakota
 * Sturgis station, a railway station in Sturgis, Saskatchewan
 * Sturgis Rifles, an Illinois Civil War unit
 * Sturgis (surname)

title: Sturgis


text:
Category:DIN standards

A list of standards published by the Deutsches Institut für Normung.

title: Category:DIN standards


text: Category:DIN

title: Category:DIN