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Simple polygon

In geometry, a simple polygon is a polygon that does not intersect itself and has no holes. That is, it is a piecewise-linear Jordan curve consisting of finitely many line segments. These polygons include as special cases the convex polygons, star-shaped polygons, and monotone polygons.

The sum of external angles of a simple polygon is $$2\pi$$. Every simple polygon with $$n$$ sides can be triangulated by $$n-3$$ of its diagonals, and by the art gallery theorem its interior is visible from some $$\lfloor n/3\rfloor$$ of its vertices.

Simple polygons are commonly seen as the input to computational geometry problems, including point in polygon testing, area computation, the convex hull of a simple polygon, triangulation, and Euclidean shortest paths.

Other constructions in geometry related to simple polygons include Schwarz–Christoffel mapping, used to find conformal maps involving simple polygons, polygonalization of point sets, constructive solid geometry formulas for polygons, and visibility graphs of polygons.

Definitions
A simple polygon is a closed curve in the Euclidean plane consisting of straight line segments, meeting end-to-end to form a polygonal chain. Two line segments meet at every endpoint, and there are no other points of intersection between the line segments. No proper subset of the line segments has the same properties. The qualifier simple is sometimes omitted, with the word polygon assumed to mean a simple polygon.

The line segments that form a polygon are called its edges or sides. An endpoint of a segment is called a vertex (plural: vertices) or a corner. Edges and vertices are more formal, but may be ambiguous in contexts that also involve the edges and vertices of a graph; the more colloquial terms sides and corners can be used to avoid this ambiguity. The number of edges always equals the number of vertices. Some sources allow two line segments to form a straight angle (180°), while others disallow this, instead requiring collinear segments of a closed polygonal chain to be merged into a single longer side. Two vertices are neighbors if they are the two endpoints of one of the sides of the polygon.

Simple polygons are sometimes called Jordan polygons, because they are Jordan curves; the Jordan curve theorem can be used to prove that such a polygon divides the plane into two regions. Indeed, Camille Jordan's original proof of this theorem took the special case of simple polygons (stated without proof) as its starting point. The region inside the polygon (its interior) forms a bounded set topologically equivalent to an open disk by the Jordan–Schönflies theorem, with a finite but nonzero area. The polygon itself is topologically equivalent to a circle, and the region outside (the exterior) is an unbounded connected open set, with infinite area. Although the formal definition of a simple polygon is typically as a system of line segments, it is also possible (and common in informal usage) to define a simple polygon as a closed set in the plane, the union of these line segments with the interior of the polygon.

A diagonal of a simple polygon is any line segment that has two polygon vertices as its endpoints, and that otherwise is entirely interior to the polygon.

Properties
The internal angle of a simple polygon, at one of its vertices, is the angle spanned by the interior of the polygon at that vertex. A vertex is convex if its internal angle is less than $$\pi$$ (a straight angle, 180°) and concave if the internal angle is greater than $$\pi$$. If the internal angle is $$\theta$$, the external angle at the same vertex is defined to be its supplement $$\pi-\theta$$, the turning angle from one directed side to the next. The external angle is positive at a convex vertex or negative at a concave vertex. For every simple polygon, the sum of the external angles is $$2\pi$$ (one full turn, 360°). Thus the sum of the internal angles, for a simple polygon with $$n$$ sides is $$(n-2)\pi$$.

Every simple polygon can be partitioned into non-overlapping triangles by a subset of its diagonals. When the polygon has $$n$$ sides, this produces $$n-2$$ triangles, separated by $$n-3$$ diagonals. The resulting partition is called a polygon triangulation. The shape of a triangulated simple polygon can be uniquely determined by the internal angles of the polygon and by the cross-ratios of the quadrilaterals formed by pairs of triangles that share a diagonal.

According to the two ears theorem, every simple polygon that is not a triangle has at least two ears, vertices whose two neighbors are the endpoints of a diagonal. A related theorem states that every simple polygon that is not a convex polygon has a mouth, a vertex whose two neighbors are the endpoints of a line segment that is otherwise entirely exterior to the polygon. The polygons that have exactly two ears and one mouth are called anthropomorphic polygons.

According to the art gallery theorem, in a simple polygon with $$n$$ vertices, it is always possible to find a subset of at most $$\lfloor n/3\rfloor$$ of the vertices with the property that every point in the polygon is visible from one of the selected vertices. This means that, for each point $$p$$ in the polygon, there exists a line segment connecting $$p$$ to a selected vertex, passing only through interior points of the polygon. One way to prove this is to use graph coloring on a triangulation of the polygon: it is always possible to color the vertices with three colors, so that each side or diagonal in the triangulation has two endpoints of different colors. Each point of the polygon is visible to a vertex of each color, for instance one of the three vertices of the triangle containing that point in the chosen triangulation. One of the colors is used by at most $$\lfloor n/3\rfloor$$ of the vertices, proving the theorem.

Special cases
Every convex polygon is a simple polygon. Another important class of simple polygons are the star-shaped polygons, the polygons that have a point (interior or on their boundary) from which every point is visible.

A monotone polygon, with respect to a straight line $$L$$, is a polygon for which every line perpendicular to $$L$$ intersects the interior of the polygon in a connected set. Equivalently, it is a polygon whose boundary can be partitioned into two monotone polygonal chains, subsequences of edges whose vertices, when projected perpendicularly onto $$L$$, have the same order along $$L$$ as they do in the chain.

Computational problems

In computational geometry, several important computational tasks involve inputs in the form of a simple polygon.
 * Point in polygon testing involves determining, for a simple polygon $$P$$ and a query point $$q$$, whether $$q$$ lies interior to $$P$$. It can be solved in linear time; alternatively, it is possible to process a given polygon into a data structure, in linear time, so that subsequent point in polygon tests can be performed in logarithmic time.
 * Simple formulae are known for computing the area of the interior of a polygon. These include the shoelace formula for arbitrary polygons, and Pick's theorem for polygons with integer vertex coordinates.
 * The convex hull of a simple polygon can also be found in linear time, faster than algorithms for finding convex hulls of points that have not been connected into a polygon.
 * Constructing a triangulation of a simple polygon can also be performed in linear time, although the algorithm is complicated. A modification of the same algorithm can also be used to test whether a closed polygonal chain forms a simple polygon (that is, whether it avoids self-intersections) in linear time. This also leads to a linear time algorithm for solving the art gallery problem using at most $$\lfloor n/3\rfloor$$ points, although not necessarily using the optimal number of points for a given polygon. Although it is possible to transform any two triangulations of the same polygon into each other by flips that replace one diagonal at a time, determining whether one can do so using only a limited number of flips is NP-complete.
 * A geodesic path, the shortest path in the plane that connects two points interior to a polygon, without crossing to the exterior, may be found in linear time by an algorithm that uses triangulation as a subroutine. The same is true for the geodesic center, a point in the polygon that minimizes the maximum length of its geodesic paths to all other points.
 * The visibility polygon of an interior point of a simple polygon, the points that are directly visible from the given point by line segments interior to the polygon, can be constructed in linear time. The same is true for the subset that is visible from at least one point of a given line segment.

Other computational problems studied for simple polygons include constructions of the longest diagonal or the longest line segment interior to a polygon, of the convex skull (the largest convex polygon within the given simple polygon), and of various one-dimensional skeletons approximating its shape, including the medial axis and straight skeleton. Researchers have also studied producing other polygons from simple polygons using their offset curves, unions and intersections, and Minkowski sums, but these operations do not always produce a simple polygon as their result. They can be defined in a way that always produces a two-dimensional region, but this requires careful definitions of the intersection and difference operations in order to avoid creating one-dimensional features or isolated points.

Related constructions
According to the Riemann mapping theorem, any simply connected open subset of the plane can be conformally mapped onto a disk. Schwarz–Christoffel mapping provides a method to explicitly construct a map from a disk to any simple polygon using specified vertex angles and pre-images of the polygon vertices on the boundary of the disk. These pre-vertices are typically computed numerically.

Every finite set of points in the plane that does not lie on a single line can be connected to form the vertices of a simple polygon (allowing 180° angles); for instance, one such polygon is the solution to the traveling salesperson problem. Connecting points to form a polygon in this way is called polygonalization.

Every simple polygon can be represented by a formula in constructive solid geometry that constructs the polygon (as a closed set including the interior) from unions and intersections of half-planes, with each side of the polygon appearing once as a half-plane in the formula. Converting an $$n$$-sided polygon into this representation can be performed in time $$O(n\log n)$$.

The visibility graph of a simple polygon connects its vertices by edges representing the sides and diagonals of the polygon. It always contains a Hamiltonian cycle, formed by the polygon sides. The computational complexity of reconstructing a polygon that has a given graph as its visibility graph, with a specified Hamiltonian cycle as its cycle of sides, remains an open problem.

title: Simple polygon


text:
User:Eric B. and Rakim/The Tupac Shakur and Notorious B.I.G killings

 * Death Row Records
 * Notorious B.I.G.
 * P. Diddy
 * Suge Knight
 * Tupac Shakur

 * 1) http://www.streetgangs.com/topics/tupac/
 * 2) http://www.streetgangs.com/topics/tupac/022897question.html
 * 3) http://www.streetgangs.com/topics/tupac/012097lackof.html
 * 4) http://www.streetgangs.com/topics/tupac/111596suspects.html
 * 5) http://www.streetgangs.com/topics/tupac/090796timeln.html
 * 6) http://www.streetgangs.com/topics/tupac/031097similar.html
 * 7) http://www.streetgangs.com/topics/tupac/1297interview.html
 * 8) http://home.flash.net/~manniac/big.htm
 * 9) http://www.crimelibrary.com/notorious_murders/celebrity/shakur_BIG/index.html?sect=26

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/


text:
Wikipedia talk:Requests for comment/Gzornenplatz

As anyone can see, I explained my positions on the ongoing Sep11 and Enclave disputes. On List of island nations any disputes have settled down. So what is this supposed to be evidence of? On Nagaland the edit summaries prove only that Simonides was rude and refusing to explain himself. On Sep11 my opponent (VeryVerily) didn't say one word on the talk page! So it wasn't me who made no effort to resolve these issues. I will accordingly remove this frivolous RfC after the 48 hours are over. Gzornenplatz 22:09, Oct 5, 2004 (UTC) [comment moved by ugen64 from endorsement area]

 * The 3 revert rule has no "he started it" clause. If he started it, ask him about his questionable edits; don't just jump in and start reverting. NEVER, in any case, should you have reverted six or seven times (as I provided evidence of you doing). Those revert wars are a *history* of your past actions, a recent history that is still continuing (I have added three pieces of evidence since the RFC started), and has caused at least three pages to be protected. ugen64 22:27, Oct 5, 2004 (UTC)

 * The rule says: "at least two people need to show that they tried to resolve a dispute with this user and have failed. This must involve the same dispute." So the question is where have you and another person tried and failed to resolve a dispute you had with me? You weren't even involved in the edit wars in question, so you can't bring any such evidence. Gzornenplatz 22:32, Oct 5, 2004 (UTC)

 * This applies to none of the above, so unless two of the above people actually provide evidence of trying to resolve the same dispute, the page should be deleted. Gzornenplatz 20:58, Oct 5, 2004 (UTC) [comment moved by ugen64 from endorsement area]

I was pretty certain I'd find an RfC on Gzornenplatz, because he was so exceptionally difficult on the Nagaland page (my first encounter with him) that I could perceive it had little to do with disagreement and more to do with his obstinate desire to be in the right - and what do you know...

Yes, I read the comments about me here, and I fully admit to losing patience on occasion with people who make nonsense edits or who do not accept invitations to discussion (particularly since I am not at home and make edits from net cafes and the like) - I'm sorry if I was a little too unpleasant. That said, my long-term contributions will show I usually stay away from political articles, or, having started with some, I go to great lengths to defend any edits I make. I always prefer debate/argument to reverts, and I am not new to that procedure - read my Talk page for a sampling. I also try to stay within the bounds of Wikipedia policy, and try to look at the broader picture (I requested the page protection; I posted about the map at the VP; I told G-platz and Davidcannon to inform themselves and, if they still had objections, to state them on the Talk page) - my issue with the Nagaland article didn't have to do with Nagaland itself, or G-platz, but the incorrect India map which was on display for two days to the general public since it was a bolded article in In The News; I later noticed the incorrect map was used by default, and brought up the topic in the Village Pump - it's understandable why most people outside South Asia think the incorrect map is the right one: it's the most widely disseminated map but only reflects certain foreign policies rather than any objective state of affairs.

But none of this justifies G-platz's repeated reverts or refusal to discuss his objections (till the THIRD revert that prompted the SECOND protection of Nagaland today, AFTER a discussion had begun with Peter O and Davidcannon; the initial antagonism between the latter and myself was quickly defused simply because we bothered to state our opinions.) As I said, his rudeness and pre-emptive reverts had nothing to do with any views, at least none he bothered to explain, and his brusque, repetitive "you first" rebuttals were very immature, irritating and un-Wikipedia-like. I can't comment on his other contributions but I hope he doesn't kill his and everybody else's time in this fashion. -- Simonides 21:14, 6 Oct 2004 (UTC)

 * Plain bizarre. The history of edit summaries and his comment on Talk:Nagaland show that Simonides is not interested in civilized discourse. Moreover he is simply pushing an Indian government POV, to the extent that he vandalized the page by removing a map simply because it doesn't show Indian territorial claims on Kashmir, which is on the opposite side of India than the state of Nagaland which the article is about and which is indisputably correctly depicted in the map. His claim that the map is "incorrect" does not get truer with repetition. The map merely reflects the de facto borders, which is the standard practice that is used for low-detail maps of the region everywhere in the world except India and Pakistan themselves who of course push their claims. In India it's actually illegal to publish the "wrong" map (which once even prevented Britannica sales in India), but that is hardly a concern to us. Gzornenplatz 21:35, Oct 6, 2004 (UTC)

 * As I wrote, this user has little or no concern for any actual views stated but prefers to carry on an argument for the sake of doing so. The image that was removed temporarily (explained right away on Talk page) was acceptable in terms of political correctness, and was what I requested (as anyone who follows the time stamps and arguments will notice) - it was simply distorted and needed minor correction, which I explained at length - kind of like publishing a US map in which Florida is shown perpendicularly rather than at a slighter angle away from the continent. Further, as I'm going to mention above, G-platz has himself engaged in vandalism as of now, since he deleted a comment of mine from the Requests for Page Protection page; this is clearly in violation of Wikipedia policy. -- Simonides 22:17, 6 Oct 2004 (UTC)

 * You could have reverted the "distorted" map to its previous state. Instead you entirely removed it, which you obviously did for the reasons I stated. And I removed your request for page protection only after the page was already protected. Gzornenplatz 22:24, Oct 6, 2004 (UTC)

 * The distorted map, as mentioned, was preferable to the "previous state" (if you had any genuine concern for NPOV you would realise why, and you would not have been reverting the notice of inaccuracy in the caption - but you merely enjoy making reverts no matter what the context); your conjectures about my motivations are as pointless as your arguments and reverts; your removal of the protection request is as rude as everyone here confirms your other actions are. Thank you for consolidating the RfC. -- Simonides 12:13, 7 Oct 2004 (UTC)

Response
The fact that not everyone is saint does not mean that everyone should ignore all the rules. The fact that VeryVerily or anyone has engaged in revert wars is not an excuse for Gzornenplatz to act accordingly. It is not an excuse for ignoring the ongoing discussions, talk pages, established compromises or for offensive personal attacks. [[User:Halibutt|Halibutt]] 02:27, Oct 15, 2004 (UTC)


text: User talk:65.102.207.143

title: User talk:65.102.207.143


text: User talk:68.42.9.165

title: User talk:68.42.9.165


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Henry Browne Blackwell

Henry Browne Blackwell (May 4, 1825 – September 7, 1909), was an American advocate for social and economic reform. He was involved in the nascent Republican Party and the American Woman Suffrage Association. He published Woman's Journal, starting in 1870 in Boston, Massachusetts, with Lucy Stone.

Early life
Henry Blackwell was born May 4, 1825, in Bristol, Gloucestershire, England, the seventh of nine children of Samuel Blackwell and Hannah Lane Blackwell. Blackwell's father, a sugar refiner whose livelihood conflicted with his abolitionist principles, experimented with making beet sugar as an alternative to slave-grown cane sugar. In 1832, the family – including eight children and their father's sister Mary – emigrated to the United States. The family settled first in New York, where Blackwell's father established a sugar refinery and the ninth child was born, and then just outside New York in Jersey City. Blackwell's father took an interest in the nascent abolition movement. William Lloyd Garrison and other leaders of the movement were visitors in the family's home. Blackwell's eldest sister, Anna, participated in the emerging agitation for women's rights, attending the 1837 Anti-Slavery Convention of American Women and drafting its letter to John Quincy Adams thanking him for his support of women's right to petition.

After fire destroyed the refinery and the Panic of 1837 destroyed remaining resources, the family moved to Cincinnati in 1838, where Blackwell's father intended to establish another refinery. However, within months of their arrival, he died, leaving the family destitute. Blackwell's mother, aunt, and three elder sisters opened a school in their home, while thirteen-year-old Henry and his brother Sam took clerking jobs. In 1840 Blackwell was sent to the short-lived Kemper College in St. Louis with the intent that he should become a lawyer. But financial difficulties forced him to return home and resume clerking. Around 1845, he became a partner in a flour mill business, in which he managed operations of three mills. Within a year he had made enough profit to purchase a small brick house in Cincinnati's Walnut Hills section, which remained the Blackwell family home until they moved east in 1856.

Seeking a business in which he might achieve financial independence, Blackwell next tried sugar refining. When that failed, a visiting English cousin persuaded him to accept a loan with which he and brother Sam purchased half interest in a Cincinnati wholesale hardware business. In 1850, at the age of twenty-four, Blackwell became the traveling partner of Coombs, Ryland, and Blackwells, making semi-annual two-month-long horseback journeys through Ohio, Indiana, and Illinois, selling hardware to country merchants and collecting payments due the firm.

All the Blackwell siblings had been imbued with a philosophy of personal improvement and working for the betterment of mankind, as well as a deep interest in literature, languages, music, and art. Possessing a special passion for literature, Henry Blackwell wrote poetry in his spare time and always carried several books with him to make every spare moment "useful" and "self-improving." He was a founding member of the Literary Club of Cincinnati, whose members discussed literature and debated issues of the day. He and fellow club member Ainsworth R. Spofford made business trips together, during which they relieved the tedium of slow travel by reading aloud to each other the works of Bacon, Shakespeare, Aristotle, and Plato. Through this club, whose early members included not only Spofford, who would become chief librarian of the Library of Congress, but also Rutherford B. Hayes and Salmon P. Chase, Blackwell formed lasting friendships with men who played prominent roles in the history of Ohio and the nation.

Blackwell siblings
Henry Blackwell's eldest sister, Anna Blackwell (1816–1900), became a poet, translator, and journalist. She was a member of the Brook Farm community in 1845 but settled in France thereafter, where she translated the works of the French socialist Fourier and the novels of George Sand. She was also a contributing correspondent for several newspapers in the United States, India, Australia, South Africa, and Canada.

Marian Blackwell (1818–1897) taught school in her younger years but became a semi-invalid and lived with and looked after other family members.

The best-known of Blackwell's siblings was Elizabeth Blackwell (1821–1910), the first woman to earn a medical degree in the United States. In 1853 she founded the New York Dispensary for Poor Women and Children, and in 1857, with sister Emily and Maria Zakrzewska, established the New York Infirmary for Indigent Women and Children.

Samuel Charles Blackwell (1823–1901), only a year and a half older than Henry, was bookkeeper and businessman, best known as the husband of Antoinette (Brown) Blackwell, the first woman ordained as a minister in the United States and prominent speaker and suffragist.

Henry had four younger siblings. Emily Blackwell (1826–1910), who was the third woman to earn a medical degree in the United States. In addition to co-founding the New York Infirmary, she helped organize the Women's Central Association of Relief, which selected and trained nurses for service in the Civil War.

Sarah Ellen Blackwell (1828–1901) was an artist and author best known for writing the first full-length biography of Anna Ella Carroll.

(John) Howard Blackwell (1831–1866) returned to England and worked in iron manufacturing with a cousin, then joined the East India Company. His death at the age of 36 was a blow to the entire family.

George Washington Blackwell (1832–1912), the only Blackwell sibling born in the United States, became a land agent under Henry's tutelage in the 1850s, studied law in New York City, and took over Henry Blackwell's real estate business in the late 1860s.

Courtship and marriage
Blackwell was smitten by Lucy Stone when he heard her speak at an antislavery meeting in New York in May 1853, moving her audience to tears with what became known as her "fugitive mother" speech. He followed her to Massachusetts and obtained a formal letter of introduction from William Lloyd Garrison. Although Stone gladly accepted him as a friend, she rejected him as a suitor because she believed marriage would require her to surrender control over herself and prevent her from pursuing her chosen work. But Blackwell, not having been rejected personally, determined to convince Stone that marriage to him would require sacrifice of neither individuality nor career. He maintained that a marriage based on equality would enable each of them to accomplish more than they could alone. He, too, wanted to work for the good of humanity, but believed he must wait until he had attained the freedom to command his own time and action—"pecuniary independence," which he expected to achieve in three years.

Through correspondence over the summer, Blackwell and Stone discussed the nature and faults of the marriage institution and the benefits of a true, ideal marriage. Then, eager to demonstrate how he could help Stone accomplish more, Blackwell offered to arrange a lecture tour for her in the west (then the mid-western states of Indiana, Illinois, and western Ohio and Kentucky). She accepted, and he wrote to business acquaintances to engage halls and place newspaper notice while personally printing and mailing broadsides for posting. From mid-October 1853 through the first week of January 1854, Stone lectured on women's rights in more than ten cities in five states, including Cincinnati, Louisville, Indianapolis, St. Louis, and Chicago. Newspaper reports described her enthusiastic reception by the largest audiences ever assembled in some of the cities, as well as the deep influence she was having on those who heard her. During an intimate rendezvous before she returned east, Stone expressed not only her deep gratitude to Blackwell for making her success possible, but also a genuine affection. Nevertheless, she remained resolute about never placing herself in the legal position occupied by a married woman.

As the long-distance courtship continued, Blackwell shifted his arguments to how couples could shape their own marriages, regardless of society's laws. After nine additional months of correspondence and brief meetings, Blackwell met Stone in Pittsburgh for a clandestine three-day rendezvous, after which Stone agreed to marry him.

Through continued correspondence the couple set the terms of a private agreement aimed at protecting Stone's financial independence and personal liberty. Blackwell proposed that their marriage be like a business partnership in monetary matters, with husband and wife being "joint proprietors of everything except the results of previous labors." Neither would have claim to lands belonging to the other, nor any obligation for the other's costs of holding them. While married and living together they would share earnings, but if they should separate, they would relinquish claim to the other's subsequent earnings. Each would have the right to will their property to whomever they pleased unless they had children. Blackwell advised Stone to secure all her money in the hands of a trustee for her benefit. Stone agreed to everything except the issue of marital support. She refused to be supported by Blackwell and insisted on paying half of their mutual expenses. Despite Blackwell's strenuous objection, Stone remained adamant.

In addition to financial independence, Blackwell and Stone agreed that each would enjoy personal independence and autonomy: "Neither partner shall attempt to fix the residence, employment, or habits of the other, nor shall either partner feel bound to live together any longer than is agreeable to both." And Blackwell agreed that Stone would choose "when, where and how often" she would "become a mother." This was Blackwell's way of agreeing that Stone would control their sexual relations as advocated by Henry C. Wright, a copy of whose book Marriage and Parentage; Or, The Reproductive Element in Man, as a Means to His Elevation and Happiness, Stone had earlier given to Blackwell and asked him to accept its principles as what she considered the relationship between husband and wife should be.

Protest against marriage laws
Blackwell also proposed that as part of their marriage ceremony, he would "renounce all the privileges which the law confers upon me which are not strictly mutual" and "pledge myself to never avail myself of them under any circumstances." The wedding took place at Stone's home in West Brookfield, Massachusetts, on May 1, 1855, with Stone's close friend and coworker Thomas Wentworth Higginson officiating. During the ceremony, Blackwell read the protest that both had signed:

 * While acknowledging our mutual affection by publicly assuming the relationship of husband and wife, yet in justice to ourselves and a great principle, we deem it our duty to declare that this act on our part implies no sanction of or promise of voluntary obedience to such of the present laws of marriage as refuse to recognize the wife as an independent, rational being, while they confer upon the husband an injurious and unnatural superiority, investing him with legal powers which no honorable man should possess. We protest especially against the laws which give the husband:
 * 1. The custody of the wife's person.
 * 2. The exclusive control and guardianship of their children.
 * 3. The sole ownership of her personal and use of her real estate, unless previously settled upon her or placed in the hands of trustees, as in the case of minors, idiots, and lunatics.
 * 4. The absolute right to the product of her industry.
 * 5. Also against laws which give to the widower so much larger and more permanent interest in the property of the deceased wife than they give to the widow in that of the deceased husband.
 * 6. Finally, against the whole system by which the legal existence of the wife is suspended during marriage, so that, in most States, she neither has a legal part in the choice of her residence, nor can she make a will, nor sue or be sued in her own name, nor inherit property.
 * We believe that personal independence and equal human rights can never be forfeited except for crime; that marriage should be an equal and permanent partnership and so recognized by law; that until it is so recognized, married partners should provide against the radical injustice of present laws by every means in their power.
 * We believe that where domestic difficulties arise, no appeal should be made to legal tribunals under existing laws, but that all difficulties should be submitted to the equitable adjustment of arbitrators mutually chosen.
 * Thus, reverencing law, we enter our protest against rules and customs which are unworthy of the name since they violate justice, the essence of law.

News of the Stone-Blackwell marriage sped across the country after Higginson sent an announcement and copy of their protest to the Worcester Spy. While it drew amused ridicule from some commentators who viewed it as a protest against marriage itself, it inspired other couples to make similar protests part of their wedding ceremonies.

On Sunday, September 14, 1857, Blackwell was at home for the birth of the couple's daughter, Alice, delivered by Blackwell's sister Emily. Two years later, while the family was living temporarily in Chicago, Stone miscarried and they lost a baby boy.

Business and investments
In January 1856, Blackwell and his brother Sam sold their interests in the hardware company, and the entire family moved east. In October, Blackwell took a position with C. M. Saxton and Company, publisher of agricultural books. During his first year with the company, as he traveled through the west selling books to farmers’ libraries, he developed a new venture for the company – selling a collection of books suitable as a basic library for district schools. After consulting with the Illinois superintendent of schools, he compiled a list of appropriate books, arranged for special terms from publishers, and obtained a contract from the state of Illinois authorizing the firm to sell to school districts. However, when the Panic of 1857 threatened the firm's survival, Blackwell withdrew until the company could reorganize. During the interlude, he worked as a bookkeeper for the Vanderbilt steamship line. When he returned to the book company at the end of August 1857, Augustus Moore had taken sole ownership and the firm was renamed the A.O. Moore Company. Moore put Blackwell in charge of the "school libraries" enterprise, and in the spring of 1858 Blackwell established an office in Chicago from which he obtained endorsements, arranged publicity, corresponded with school officials in each of the state's one hundred counties, and hired agents to canvass the state. So successful was the venture that Blackwell contacted school officials in other states about introducing the books there and Moore doubled his salary to $3,000. The following year, Stone and their daughter accompanied him to Chicago, where the family lived for nine months while Blackwell managed the school libraries venture. When they returned in the fall of 1859, Moore's failing health forced him to sell the company, and Blackwell left as well.

During the 1850s land boom, the entire Blackwell family were avid land speculators, purchasing land first in Illinois and later in Wisconsin, Iowa, and Minnesota. In December 1853, a group of Cincinnati businessmen hired Blackwell to be their agent in purchasing 640-acre sections of land in Wisconsin, which the government was selling on easy terms. As compensation, Blackwell received ten percent of the land he registered. By the time he married in the spring of 1855, Blackwell owned more than forty-eight hundred acres of Wisconsin land in addition to land he had purchased elsewhere.

When Lucy Stone married into the Blackwell family, she became an eager investor too but kept her purchases and accounts separate from her husband's. In 1857 they took equal ownership in a house in Orange, New Jersey, for which they traded western lands. They later sold the house to make a down payment on a farm in Montclair, New Jersey, and traded more western land to purchase a neighboring tract. After their return from Illinois in September 1859, Blackwell opened a real estate business, through which, in addition to selling and trading for clients, he traded western land for eastern properties. In this way both he and Stone became owners of a string of rental properties. While they were "land rich," they were "cash poor," so to raise funds for tax and interest payments, Blackwell briefly sold kitchen stoves manufactured by fellow abolitionist Cornelius Bramhill and then, from 1862 to 1864, was bookkeeper for the sugar refining business of one of his father's former employees.

In the summer of 1864, Blackwell sold a large property whose proceeds allowed him to pay off all his debt, including the mortgage on a house he and brother George had purchased for their mother, as well as purchase property on Martha's Vineyard and invest a large sum in government bonds. Additional land trades over the next few years and the rental income they produced gave Blackwell, as his daughter termed it, a "competence" that enabled him "to devote himself fully to the progressive causes which he always had at heart." Around 1872, Stone told Francis J. Garrison in confidence that she and Blackwell could live on their income and thus "cheerfully give" their time and effort to the Woman's Journal. Blackwell continued to dabble in business that interested him. In 1871 he was part of a presidential committee sent to Santo Domingo to explore commercial ramifications of a possible annexation, and even after annexation failed he continued to promote a model commercial base in the country. Blackwell continued to be keenly interested in developing a successful alternative to cane sugar as a means of combating slavery in the West Indies. After obtaining a patent for a new refining method, he established the Maine Sugar Beet Company in 1878. Although early in its operation he telegraphed Stone: "Beet sugar manufacture a success. Slavery in Cuba is doomed," he and his partners found it impossible to obtain the quantity of sugar beets to keep the enterprise going, and shut the operation down in 1882.

Work for Woman Suffrage
In the early years of Blackwell's marriage to Lucy Stone, he assisted her work whenever his business schedule permitted. In 1855, he lectured with her in and around Cincinnati during the summer, helped her manage the National Woman's Rights Convention held in Cincinnati that fall, and arranged winter lecture engagements for her in Wisconsin, Indiana, and Ohio. In 1856, he lectured with her in the region around their summer residence in Viroqua, Wisconsin. In the winter of 1857, when the tax bill came for their newly purchased house in Orange, New Jersey, Stone refused to pay on the basis of "no taxation without representation." After submitting to a public auction of household items to pay the tax and attendant court costs, Blackwell and Stone lectured together in Orange on "Taxation without Representation." It was in these February 1858 speeches that Blackwell first argued that woman suffrage was politically expedient no matter a party's principles or goals: Enfranchising women, he said, would allow Republicans to more than double their influence toward abolishing slavery, the American Party to double the number of native-born voters, and Democrats to give votes to labor.

Reconstruction issues
In 1866, the National Woman's Rights Convention, meeting for the first time since before the Civil War, voted itself into the American Equal Rights Association (AERA) to work for universal suffrage – the vote for both blacks and women. Blackwell served as secretary of this organization during its three-year existence. In the winter of 1866–67, Blackwell and Stone lectured together on universal suffrage and formed local Equal Rights Leagues in New York and New Jersey. They also traveled to Washington, D.C., to lobby Charles Sumner against inclusion of the word "male" in the proposed Fourteenth Amendment, which would penalize states for denying black suffrage but not woman suffrage. Unsuccessful in persuading Northern politicians to use this opportunity to extend the franchise to women, Blackwell published an open letter to Southern legislators titled "What the South Can Do," again arguing that woman suffrage was politically expedient no matter a party's (or in this case, a region's) goals or fears. Using estimated figures of a white male and female electorate and a black male and female electorate, he argued that the vote of white Southern women would counterbalance the combined vote of black men and women.

In the spring of 1867, the AWSA received an appeal for help from Kansas, where voters would face two suffrage referendums in the fall: one for removing the word "male" from voter qualifications, along with one for removing the word "white." Blackwell and Stone left for Kansas in March and opened the campaign. They canvassed the state for two months, returned east full of optimism, and raised funds to send more speakers and tracts.

After their return, Blackwell and Stone also addressed a committee of the Connecticut Legislature in support of removing the word "male" from the state constitution's voter qualifications. Blackwell served a second speaking stint in Kansas in the fall, during which defeat became apparent. Upon his return east, he and Stone turned their full attention to creating a demand for woman suffrage apart from the AERA's call for universal suffrage. After holding a series of woman's rights meetings across New Jersey, they called a state convention to form a state woman suffrage society. The object of the New Jersey Woman Suffrage Association that formed in November 1867 with Lucy Stone as president was to use all available means to secure woman suffrage.

At the AERA convention in May 1868, Stone presented two forms of petition to Congress, one for woman suffrage in the District of Columbia and territories, which could be established by an Act of Congress, and the second for a separate woman suffrage amendment to the federal Constitution. As the petitions circulated in both the east and the west during the following months, Blackwell and Stone continued organizing a woman suffrage movement separate from the AERA and its auxiliaries. In November 1868 they helped found a New England Woman Suffrage Association and in December they helped organize state societies in Rhode Island and New Hampshire. Believing their best chance for winning an amendment to a state constitution lay in Massachusetts, Blackwell spearheaded a movement to form Liberty Leagues across the state – local organizations of male suffragists who pledged to vote only for pro-woman suffrage candidates to the legislature.

After passage of the Fourteenth Amendment, Congressional Republicans began drafting a Fifteenth Amendment to explicitly prohibit states from denying the vote to black men. Again Blackwell and Stone traveled to Washington to lobby for the inclusion of woman suffrage, and again their efforts failed. Meanwhile, Elizabeth Cady Stanton and Susan B. Anthony mounted a campaign opposing any suffrage amendment that did not enfranchise women – seen by many as overt opposition to the Fifteenth Amendment. Disagreement over that amendment divided the May 1869 convention of the AERA. The convention rejected resolutions opposing the Fifteenth Amendment, and when Stanton and Anthony then proposed that the AERA reorganize as a woman suffrage society, the convention accepted Stone's motion that it wait until after ratification of the Fifteenth Amendment so as not to give the appearance of opposition.

Nevertheless, two days later Stanton and Anthony formed the National Woman Suffrage Association, which immediately came out as opposed to the Fifteenth Amendment. With no notice having been given that such a society was to be formed, their critics thus excluded, and no representation from state and local woman suffrage associations then in existence, many long-time suffragists did not view the organization as legitimately "national." The New England Woman Suffrage Association appointed a committee, headed by Stone, to call a convention to form a "truly national" woman suffrage organization with delegates from each state. The American Woman Suffrage Association was formed by a national convention meeting in Cleveland, Ohio, on October 24 and 25, 1869. Blackwell drafted its constitution and was elected recording secretary.

The Woman's Journal
The New England Woman Suffrage Association also established the Woman's Journal, a weekly woman suffrage newspaper that became the organ of the American, New England, and Massachusetts woman suffrage associations. Henry Blackwell donated the first $1,000 of the $10,000 raised to start the paper, was one of three trustees under whom the joint stock company was incorporated, and was always the paper's largest shareholder.[44] In 1872, both he and Stone became editors and thereafter edited the Woman's Journal together, joined by their daughter, Alice Stone Blackwell, in 1881. After Stone's death in 1893, Blackwell continued editing until his death in 1909. He never took a salary for his work on the Woman's Journal, which became the longest-running suffrage paper in the nation (1870–1917).

Campaigner and Strategist
Blackwell was an officer of the American Woman Suffrage Association (AWSA) for many years, including being its president in 1880. He was also an officer of the New England and Massachusetts Woman Suffrage Associations, all of which shared offices with the Woman's Journal in Boston. Through involvement in Republican politics, he obtained a strong endorsement of woman suffrage from the Massachusetts Republican Party in 1872. As one of the American wing's most effective orators, Blackwell spoke on organizing tours, before state and local suffrage meetings and conventions, at hearings before state legislatures and constitutional conventions, and at hearings before Congressional committees. He and Stone worked together on several state campaigns, including Colorado in 1877 and Nebraska in 1882. After frail health kept Stone from traveling, Blackwell continued on without her, campaigning in Rhode Island in 1887 and South Dakota in 1890. One scholar characterized their work saying, "In the annals of the suffrage movement, Lucy Stone and Henry Blackwell were as much a team as Elizabeth Cady Stanton and Susan B. Anthony." Stone thanked Blackwell for the "abundant and unselfish work [he did] for women," saying, "Few men would have done it, leaving business, friends, pleasure for it."

Blackwell originated the AWSA's strategy of seeking partial suffrage by legislative action. Noting that state legislatures could establish women's right to both municipal suffrage (the right to vote in city elections) and presidential suffrage (the right to vote for presidential electors) through statute, he argued that such measures might be more readily gained than constitutional amendments, which after passage by a legislature had to then be ratified by the populace. He also noted that no constitutional amendment was required for Congress to establish full woman suffrage in either the District of Columbia or the territories. Believing that achieving such measures would undercut arguments against women's voting and become a permanent wedge for full suffrage, he urged that "every point gained is a great step forward."

The AWSA campaigned widely for municipal and presidential suffrage, especially during the 1880s and 1890s. After the merger of the American and National wings in 1890, Blackwell was made chair of the united association's Committee on Presidential Suffrage. Before the woman suffrage amendment to the federal Constitution passed in 1920, eleven states had established presidential suffrage, and four of those had granted municipal suffrage at the same time.

Another strategy Blackwell devised was aimed at constitutional conventions. In 1889 when the territories of North Dakota, Montana, and Washington began drafting state constitutions for entry into the Union, the AWSA mobilized to press for inclusion of woman suffrage. But Blackwell realized the chances for success were slim and devised a backup plan – persuading pro-suffrage delegates, if and when it became apparent a suffrage provision would fail, to push for a clause that would enable a future state legislature to extend suffrage to women by statute. Blackwell obtained endorsements for the strategy from leading politicians and judges in other states, traveled to the constitutional conventions, lobbied their leaders, got his resolution introduced, and was given a hearing at each one. Though the effort failed, North Dakota and Montana came very close to adopting it.

Death
Blackwell died of inflammation of the bowels in 1909.

Legacy
Alice Stone Blackwell, the daughter of Blackwell and Lucy Stone, helped her parents in editing the Woman's Journal; she became another leader for women's rights as well as for the Temperance movement and Prohibition.

Writings

 * "Equal Suffrage vs. Prostitution"
 * "The Lesson of Colorado" (1877)
 * "Objections to Woman Suffrage Answered"

title: Henry Browne Blackwell


text: User talk:68.84.238.250

title: User talk:68.84.238.250


text:
Brenda Villa

Brenda Villa (born April 18, 1980) is an American accomplished water polo player. She is the most decorated athlete in the world of women’s water polo. Villa was named Female Water Polo Player of the Decade for 2000-2009 by the FINA Aquatics World Magazine. She is one of four female players who competed in water polo at four Olympics; and one of two female athletes who won four Olympic medals in water polo. She is a leading goalscorer in Olympic water polo history, with 31 goals. In 2018, she was inducted into the International Swimming Hall of Fame and the USA Water Polo Hall of Fame.

Career
Villa started swimming with a club team, Commerce Aquatics, at the age of six, and followed her brother into water polo at eight years old. She made the girls Junior Olympic Team while in high school. At Bell Gardens High School, Villa played with the boys' water polo team because her school did not have a girls' team, and went on to become a 4-time 1st team All-League, 4-time 1st team All-C.I.F. and 4-time All-American.

Villa came to Stanford in 1998 as the program’s most heralded recruit. Redshirted in 1999 and 2000 to train for the Olympics, she scored 69 goals her freshman year (2001) and was named the NCAA Women’s Water Polo Player of the Year. In the three seasons Villa played for Stanford University, she scored 172 goals. In 2002, she led her Stanford team with 60 goals to win the NCAA Women's Water Polo Championship; they had finished second the previous season, the first year the competition was held. Villa was awarded the 2002 Peter J. Cutino Award as the top female college water polo player in the United States.

Villa retired in 2012 and took up coaching waterpolo and swimming at a private all-girl high school.

Olympics and international
Villa has been on Team USA since 1998. Although the shortest player on the US national women's water polo team at 5'4", Villa has been a prolific scorer at the international level. She scored 10 goals for Team USA at the 2003 Pan American Games, which qualified the team for the 2004 Summer Olympics. As a 20-year-old, she led the US team with nine goals at the Sydney Olympics, where the Americans took the silver medal. She had a team-high 13 goals to lead the US to gold at the 2003 FINA Water Polo World Championship. In June 2004, Villa scored the first goal in overtime, her third of the game, and another in a penalty shootout, to propel the US team past Hungary and win the gold medal at the Women's Water Polo World League Super Finals. She was the US women's team top scorer with 7 goals in 5 games at the 2004 Athens Olympics, earning a bronze medal. Villa was team captain of the 2005 US national team coached by two-time Olympian Heather Moody, winning a silver medal at the FINA World Championship in Montreal.

In 2005, Villa became assistant coach of the women's water polo team at Cerritos College in Norwalk, California. The Falcons ended the season with a 21-11 record, a new school record for most wins in a season. She spent five years with the Falcons and helped them to a combined 145-26 record from 2005–09, which included the team winning their only CCCAA State Championship in school history (2008). She is now playing professionally for the Italian power team Geymonat Orizzonte in Catania, Sicily, which won the LEN Women's Champions' Cup in 2005 and 2006.

In March 2007 Villa led the USA women's national water polo team in Melbourne, Australia, at the 2007 FINA World Water Polo Championships. Villa scored a total of 11 goals throughout the whole tournament helping team USA achieve first place naming them the 2007 FINA World Champions.

At the 2008 Beijing Summer Olympics, she and the American team lost 8-9 in the championship game to the Netherlands and took home the silver medal.

In June 2009, Villa was named to the USA water polo women's senior national team for the 2009 FINA World Championships. In 2010, she became the head coach at Castilleja High School for girls' water polo in Palo Alto, California.

At the 2012 London Summer Olympics, she and the American team won 8-5 in the championship game to Spain and took home the gold medal, the Americans' first in 4 Olympics water polo competitions.

Personal

 * Villa's parents immigrated to the United States from Mexico and she speaks fluent Spanish.
 * A three-time All-American at Stanford, Villa graduated in 2003 with a degree in political science.
 * Along with some of her teammates from the 2000 Olympic Team, Villa has a small tattoo of the Olympic rings, located on top of her right foot.

International competitions

 * 1995 FINA Junior World Championships, Sainte-Foy, Canada, 3rd place
 * 1997 FINA Junior World Championships, Prague, Czech Republic, 3rd place
 * 1998 FINA World Championships, Perth, Australia, 8th place
 * 1998 Holiday Cup, Los Alamitos, CA, 2nd place
 * 1999 Holiday Cup, Los Alamitos, CA, 3rd place
 * 2000 Summer Olympics, Sydney, Australia, 2nd place
 * 2001 Holiday Cup, Los Alamitos, CA, 1st place
 * 2001 FINA World Championships, Fukuoka, Japan, 4th place
 * 2002 Holiday Cup, Palo Alto, CA, 1st place
 * 2002 FINA World Cup, Perth, Australia, 2nd place
 * 2003 FINA World Championships, Barcelona, Spain, 1st place
 * 2003 Pan American Games, Santo Domingo, Dominican Republic, 1st place
 * 2003 Holiday Cup, Los Alamitos, CA, 1st place
 * 2004 FINA World League, Long Beach, USA, 1st place
 * 2004 Holiday Cup, La Jolla, CA, 1st place
 * 2004 Summer Olympics, Athens, Greece, 3rd place
 * 2005 FINA World League, Kirishi, Russia, 5th place
 * 2005 FINA World Championships, Montreal, Canada, 2nd place
 * 2006 FINA World League, Cosenza, Italy, 1st place
 * 2006 FINA World Cup, Tianjin, China, 4th place
 * 2006 Holiday Cup, Los Alamitos, CA, 1st place
 * 2007 FINA World Championships, Melbourne, Australia, 1st place
 * 2007 FINA World League, Montreal, Canada, 1st place
 * 2007 Holiday Cup, Long Beach, CA, 3rd place
 * 2007 Pan American Games, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, 1st place
 * 2008 FINA World League, Santa Cruz de Tenerife, Spain, 2nd place
 * 2008 Summer Olympics, Beijing, China, 2nd place
 * 2009 FINA World League, Kirishi, Russia, 1st place
 * 2009 FINA World Championships, Rome, Italy, 1st place
 * 2009 Holiday Cup, Newport Beach, CA, 2nd place
 * 2010 FINA World League, La Jolla, USA, 1st place
 * 2010 FINA World Cup, Christchurch, New Zealand, 1st
 * 2011 FINA World League, Tianjin, China, 1st place
 * 2011 FINA World Championships, Shanghai, China, 6th place
 * 2011 Pan American Games, Guadalajara, Mexico, 1st place
 * 2012 FINA World League, Changsu, China, 1st place
 * 2012 Summer Olympics, London, United Kingdom, 1st place

title: Brenda Villa


text:
Counsellor of State

Counsellors of State are senior members of the British royal family to whom the monarch can delegate royal functions through letters patent under the Great Seal, to prevent delay or difficulty in the dispatch of public business in the case of their illness (except total incapacity) or of their intended or actual absence from the United Kingdom.

Counsellors of state may carry out "such of the royal functions as may be specified in the Letters Patent". In practice, this means most of the monarch's official duties, such as attending Privy Council meetings, signing routine documents and receiving the credentials of new ambassadors to the Court of St James's. However, by law, counsellors of state cannot grant ranks, titles or peerages. They also, by the terms of the letters patent, cannot deal with a number of core constitutional functions, such as Commonwealth matters, the dissolution of Parliament (except on the monarch's express instruction) and the appointment of prime ministers. A rare example occurred on 7 February 1974 of the Proclamation of the Dissolution of Parliament being promulgated by Queen Elizabeth The Queen Mother and Princess Margaret as counsellors of state, on the express instructions of Queen Elizabeth II.

Royal functions are to be exercised jointly by the counsellors of state or by such number of them as is specified in the letters patent under the Great Seal and subject to any other conditions within. However, there is a legal presumption that counsellors of state should act jointly and, as such, at least two are needed to act, with the absence of one possibly risking a legal challenge.

Counsellors of state are always the monarch's spouse and the next four people in the line of succession who meet the following specifications: they must be British subjects of full age (21 years, or 18 years for the heir apparent or presumptive) who are domiciled in the United Kingdom and not disqualified from becoming monarch. During a regency, the next four eligible people in the line of succession after the regent (and the regent's spouse) may be counsellors. A monarch may also request that Parliament add specific people to their counsellors of state. This was done by Queen Elizabeth II leading to section 3 of the Regency Act 1953 and by King Charles III leading to the Counsellors of State Act 2022.

History
The first counsellors of state were appointed by George V under the royal prerogative in 1911 when he traveled to India for the Delhi Durbar, and they continued to be appointed under the prerogative for the rest of his reign. At first, senior politicians such as the Prime Minister and the Lord Chancellor could serve as counsellors of state, but later counsellors of state were drawn exclusively from the ranks of the Royal Family. The Regency Act 1937 (1 Edw. 8 & 1 Geo. 6. c. 16) ultimately placed the appointment of counsellors of state on a statutory footing and codified the practice of only entrusting the role to senior members of the Royal Family.

Since the passage of the Regency Act 1937, the only persons to have been counsellors of state while not a queen consort, prince, or princess were George Lascelles, 7th Earl of Harewood; Alastair Windsor, 2nd Duke of Connaught and Strathearn (although Windsor had been a prince between 1914 and 1917 and never served in practice during his short tenure); and Maud Carnegie, Countess of Southesk (who was entitled to the style of princess but did not use it). Prior to that, the Lord Chancellor, the Lord President of the Council, the prime minister, and the Archbishop of Canterbury had been appointed to the position by George V.

Queen Elizabeth The Queen Mother lost her eligibility to be a counsellor of state in 1952 upon the death of her husband, King George VI. Section 3 of the Regency Act 1953, however, restored her position. The provision was specific to her, rather than applying to dowager consorts generally, and became spent upon her death in 2002.

In September 2022, The Daily Telegraph reported that King Charles III wanted the law to be amended to allow only working members of the royal family to serve as counsellors of state. This would take away the eligibility of family members that do not carry out official functions, while creating a possibility for spouses to senior ranking members and those with a lower position in the line of succession to be called upon and fulfil the role.

Questions were raised in the House of Lords in October 2022 by Lord Stansgate about the "suitability" of having the Duke of York and Duke of Sussex as counsellors of state when the former had "left public life" and the latter had "left the country". It was subsequently reported that, instead of removing them from the list of counsellors of state, it was being proposed that the pool of counsellors be expanded in order to create a more flexible list of available royals to stand in for the King if needed. On 14 November 2022, the King sent a message to both Houses of Parliament, formally asking for a change in the law that would allow Princess Anne and Prince Edward to be added to the list of counsellors of state. The next day, a bill to that end was introduced in Parliament and it received royal assent on 6 December, coming into force on 7 December as the Counsellors of State Act 2022.

List of current counsellors of state
As of 7 December 2022, those eligible to be appointed counsellors of state to King Charles III are:

Of these seven, Prince Andrew, Prince Harry, and Princess Beatrice do not perform royal duties. If Prince Harry ceases to be domiciled in the United Kingdom, he shall become ineligible to be a counsellor of state.

Prince Andrew remains eligible to serve in this role, though he has withdrawn from most royal activities; this provoked by a backlash due to the allegations of sexual abuse made against him.

Should any of the above, other than the Queen, the Duke of Edinburgh or the Princess Royal, become ineligible or unable to serve, the next person eligible would be Princess Eugenie. Prince George is to automatically become a counsellor of state on his 21st birthday on 22 July 2034 (or his 18th birthday should he be the heir apparent at that time), and would replace Princess Beatrice.

List of former counsellors of state
The following is a list of all the people who have been eligible to be a counsellor of state, listed in chronological order. A † indicates Counsellors who died whilst eligible:

{| class="wikitable" style="clear:right; text-align:center"

 * colspan=5 |
 * colspan=5 |

George VI (11 December 1936 – 6 February 1952)
! Counsellor ! Period ! Relation to Monarch ! Change

 * Queen Elizabeth Bowes Lyon in Coronation Robes by Sir Gerald Kelly (cropped).jpg Queen Elizabeth
 * 19 March 1937 – 6 February 1952
 * Spouse
 * rowspan=5|Passage of the Regency Act 1937
 * rowspan=5|Passage of the Regency Act 1937

 * Prince Henry, Duke of Gloucester.jpg Prince Henry, Duke of Gloucester
 * 19 March 1937 – 10 June 1974†
 * Brother
 * Brother

 * Prince George, Duke of Kent.jpg Prince George, Duke of Kent
 * 19 March 1937 – 25 August 1942†
 * Brother
 * Brother

 * Princess Mary, Countess of Harewood.jpg Mary, Princess Royal
 * 19 March 1937 – 25 December 1957
 * Sister
 * Sister

 * Alexandra Fife.jpg Princess Arthur of Connaught, Duchess of Fife
 * 19 March 1937 – 21 April 1944
 * Cousin
 * Cousin

 * Alastair_Arthur,_Earl_of_MacDuff.png Alastair Windsor, Duke of Connaught and Strathearn Never served
 * 25 August 1942 – 26 April 1943†
 * First cousin once removed
 * Replaced Prince George, Duke of Kent upon his death
 * Replaced Prince George, Duke of Kent upon his death

 * Princess Maud of Fife as an adult.jpg Maud Carnegie, Countess of Southesk
 * 26 April 1943 – 7 February 1944
 * Cousin
 * Replaced Alastair Windsor, Duke of Connaught and Strathearn upon his death
 * Replaced Alastair Windsor, Duke of Connaught and Strathearn upon his death

 * George Lascelles, Viscount Lascelles (Earl of Harewood from 1947)
 * 7 February 1944 – 21 August 1951
 * Nephew
 * Replaced Maud Carnegie, Countess of Southesk upon reaching the age of 21
 * Replaced Maud Carnegie, Countess of Southesk upon reaching the age of 21

 * Elizabeth II of UK 1943.jpg Princess Elizabeth (Duchess of Edinburgh from 1947)
 * 21 April 1944 – 6 February 1952
 * Daughter (Heir-presumptive)
 * Replaced Princess Arthur of Connaught, Duchess of Fife upon reaching the age of 18
 * Replaced Princess Arthur of Connaught, Duchess of Fife upon reaching the age of 18

 * [[File:Prinses Margaret, Lord Snowdon en Prins Bernhard in de Hoovercraft, Prinses Mar, Bestanddeelnr 917-7816 (cropped).jpg|100px]] Princess Margaret
 * 21 August 1951 – 10 March 1985
 * Daughter
 * Replaced George Lascelles, Earl of Harewood upon reaching the age of 21
 * Replaced George Lascelles, Earl of Harewood upon reaching the age of 21

 * colspan=5 |
 * colspan=5 |

Elizabeth II (6 February 1952 – 8 September 2022)
! Counsellor ! Period ! Relation to Monarch ! Change

 * HRH Prince Philip 3 Allan Warren.jpg Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh
 * 6 February 1952 – 9 April 2021†
 * Spouse
 * Accession to the throne of Elizabeth II
 * Accession to the throne of Elizabeth II

 * Princess Margaret.jpg Princess Margaret (Countess of Snowdon from 1961)
 * 21 August 1951 – 10 March 1985
 * Sister
 * rowspan=3 |Already eligible
 * rowspan=3 |Already eligible

 * Prince Henry, Duke of Gloucester.jpg Prince Henry, Duke of Gloucester
 * 19 March 1937 – 10 June 1974†
 * Uncle
 * Uncle

 * Princess Mary, Countess of Harewood.jpg Mary, Princess Royal
 * 19 March 1937 – 25 December 1957
 * Aunt
 * Aunt

 * George Lascelles, Earl of Harewood
 * 6 February 1952 – 9 October 1956
 * Cousin
 * Accession to the throne of Elizabeth II
 * Accession to the throne of Elizabeth II

 * Queen Elizabeth Bowes Lyon in Coronation Robes by Sir Gerald Kelly (cropped).jpg Queen Elizabeth The Queen Mother
 * 19 November 1953 – 30 March 2002†
 * Mother
 * Passage of the Regency Act 1953
 * Passage of the Regency Act 1953

 * HRH The Duke of Kent 5 Allan Warrenjpg.jpg Prince Edward, Duke of Kent
 * 9 October 1956 – 26 August 1965
 * Cousin
 * Replaced George Lascelles, Earl of Harewood upon reaching the age of 21
 * Replaced George Lascelles, Earl of Harewood upon reaching the age of 21

 * PrincessAlexandraofKent.jpg Princess Alexandra of Kent
 * 25 December 1957 – 18 December 1962
 * Cousin
 * Replaced Mary, Princess Royal upon reaching the age of 21
 * Replaced Mary, Princess Royal upon reaching the age of 21

 * Prince William of Gloucester visiting Tywyn 2 (1549704) (cropped).jpg Prince William of Gloucester
 * 18 December 1962 – 15 August 1971
 * Cousin
 * Replaced Princess Alexandra of Kent upon reaching the age of 21
 * Replaced Princess Alexandra of Kent upon reaching the age of 21

 * HRH The Duke of Gloucester Allan Warren.jpg Prince Richard of Gloucester
 * 26 August 1965 – 14 November 1966
 * Cousin
 * Replaced Prince Edward, Duke of Kent upon reaching the age of 21
 * Replaced Prince Edward, Duke of Kent upon reaching the age of 21

 * World_Leaders'_Summit_Opening_Ceremony_(51648056699)_(cropped).jpg Charles, Prince of Wales
 * 14 November 1966 – 8 September 2022
 * Son and Heir-apparent
 * Replaced Prince Richard of Gloucester upon reaching the age of 18
 * Replaced Prince Richard of Gloucester upon reaching the age of 18

 * Princess Anne October 2015.jpg Princess Anne (Princess Royal from 1987)
 * 15 August 1971 – 21 June 2003
 * Daughter
 * Replaced Prince William of Gloucester upon reaching the age of 21
 * Replaced Prince William of Gloucester upon reaching the age of 21

 * HRH The Duke of Gloucester Allan Warren.jpg Prince Richard, Duke of Gloucester
 * 10 June 1974 – 19 February 1981
 * Cousin
 * Replaced Prince Henry, Duke of Gloucester upon his death
 * Replaced Prince Henry, Duke of Gloucester upon his death

 * The Duke of York in Belfast (cropped).jpg Prince Andrew (Duke of York from 1986)
 * 19 February 1981 – 8 September 2022
 * Son
 * Replaced Prince Richard, Duke of Gloucester upon reaching the age of 21
 * Replaced Prince Richard, Duke of Gloucester upon reaching the age of 21

 * Prince Edward February 2015.jpg Prince Edward (Earl of Wessex from 1999)
 * 10 March 1985 – 15 September 2005
 * Son
 * Replaced Princess Margaret, Countess of Snowdon upon reaching the age of 21
 * Replaced Princess Margaret, Countess of Snowdon upon reaching the age of 21

 * Prince William, Duke of Cambridge.jpg Prince William (Duke of Cambridge from 2011)
 * 21 June 2003 – 8 September 2022
 * Grandson
 * Replaced Anne, Princess Royal upon reaching the age of 21
 * Replaced Anne, Princess Royal upon reaching the age of 21

 * Prince Harry, Duke of Sussex 2020 cropped 02.jpg Prince Harry (Duke of Sussex from 2018)
 * 15 September 2005 – 8 September 2022
 * Grandson
 * Replaced Prince Edward, Earl of Wessex upon reaching the age of 21
 * Replaced Prince Edward, Earl of Wessex upon reaching the age of 21

 * }

title: Counsellor of State


text: User talk:216.65.161.225

title: User talk:216.65.161.225


text: Category:Soviet internal politics

title: Category:Soviet internal politics


text:
Category:Expressionism

Expressionism is a tendency in art to distort reality for emotional effect, however the term is applied mainly to 20th century works.

title: Category:Expressionism


text:
Lawrence Springborg

Lawrence James Springborg (born 17 February 1968) is an Australian politician. He led the National Party in the Queensland Parliament from 2003 to 2006 and again in 2008, before becoming the first leader of the merged Liberal National Party from 2008 to 2009. He led the LNP again from 2015 to 2016 before announcing his retirement. He currently serves as Mayor of Goondiwindi Regional Council, having been elected in March 2020.

As Leader of the Queensland branch of the National Party, he led the National–Liberal coalition to defeats at both the 2004 and 2006 Queensland elections. He resigned as leader after his second election defeat, and was replaced by his former deputy, Jeff Seeney. However, after only 16 months as leader and facing poor opinion polling against Seeney, Springborg replaced him.

Following this defeat Springborg played a leading role in the creation of the Liberal National Party (LNP), becoming the party's first leader but resigning after he led it to defeat at the 2009 Queensland election. John-Paul Langbroek was elected as his successor, with Springborg elected as Deputy Leader. Following a move by the LNP organisation to install Brisbane Lord Mayor Campbell Newman as leader of the state Party from outside of Parliament, both Langbroek and Springborg lost their positions to Newman and Jeff Seeney respectively. The Newman-led LNP overwhelmingly won the 2012 election and Springborg became Minister for Health in the Newman Cabinet. After the 2015 election, Newman lost his electorate of Ashgrove and Springborg was once again elected leader of the LNP, with Langbroek serving as his deputy as the LNP returned to opposition after one term in office. On 6 May 2016, Springborg lost the leadership of the LNP to Tim Nicholls.

Early life
Born in 1968, Lawrence Springborg resided in the town Yelarbon for much of his younger life. He left school at the age of 14 and went on to work a farm on Queensland's Darling Downs for seven years before he was elected to Parliament in 1989 at the age of 21.

Parliamentary career
In the 1989 Queensland state election, Springborg became the youngest person elected to the Parliament of Queensland, winning the safe Nationals seat of Carnarvon, on the Darling Downs. In the same year, the 32-year reign of the Nationals at a State level drew to a close. Springborg represented a new generation of Nationals not associated with the era of long-serving former Premier Sir Joh Bjelke-Petersen, and the allegations of corruption and maladministration arising from the Fitzgerald Inquiry. Subsequent redistributions forced Springborg to relocate to his later seat of Southern Downs.

The Nationals remained in opposition until 1996, when the Goss Labor government lost office following the 1995 state election and a consequential adverse finding in the Queensland Court of Disputed Returns and subsequent by-election loss of the seat of Mundingburra by Labor led the resignation of the then Premier Wayne Goss. The reformed National–Liberal coalition took power under Rob Borbidge but only with the support of independent MLA Liz Cunningham. In 1998, shortly before the Borbidge government lost office, Springborg was sworn in as Minister for Natural Resources, again setting a record as Queensland's youngest ever minister. In February 1999 he was as elected Deputy National Leader.

The 2001 state elections saw a massive win for the Labor Party, with Premier Peter Beattie going from a one-seat to twenty-two seat majority, and the Nationals reduced to 12 seats out of the 89-seat Parliament. After the election loss, the Coalition with the Liberals was ended and Springborg was reelected Deputy Opposition Leader.

Borbidge subsequently resigned as Leader of the Nationals and his place was taken by Mike Horan, father of international Rugby Union player Tim Horan. After widespread speculation and criticism, the Nationals elected Springborg as leader in 2003.

2004 election
The campaign for the 2004 state election relied heavily on Springborg's personal profile. He literally ran for much of the campaign, appearing jogging through state forests on electoral advertising emphasising his physical fitness. The Nationals marketed Springborg merchandise extensively, including life-size cardboard cutouts. In a move unthinkable for Nationals of an earlier era, he appeared in a Courier-Mail photograph clad only in a towel and ironing his own shirt.

2006 election
As water management became an increasingly important issue during the drought, Springborg criticised Labor's handling of the water issue. Amid speculation that the 2006 state election election would be called early, the Liberal Party deposed Quinn and elected Bruce Flegg as leader in his place, who has in the past had a poor relationship with Springborg. Springborg pressed Beattie to serve a full term and not call an election before one was due. On 15 August 2006, Beattie called an election for 9 September of that year. Springborg again conceded defeat at 8pm on 9 September 2006.

In the wake of his second election defeat, he announced his resignation as leader of the National Party on 14 September 2006. His former deputy, Jeff Seeney ascended to the leadership position uncontested on 18 September 2006, alongside Maroochydore representative Fiona Simpson as Deputy Leader.

Political comeback and Conservative merger
After Deputy Fiona Simpson withdrew her support for current leader Jeff Seeney, he announced a partyroom challenge to take place on 21 January 2008, with former leader Springborg the front runner. Springborg won the challenge and like his rolling of Mike Horan in 2003, Springborg's rolling of Seeney meant that Springborg once again ousted a leader prior to this leader being given a chance to lead his party into an election.

After resuming the leadership he began renewed talks of a merger to form a single 'non-Labor force' in Queensland. On 26 July 2008 this became reality when both parties voted to form the Liberal National Party of Queensland.

The failure of the two conservative parties to sign a new Coalition agreement convinced Springborg of the need to merge the Liberals and Nationals at a state level. Presenting a proposal modelled on the Conservative Party of Canada, Springborg went about campaigning through 2004 for the support of both state party organisations in creating a new unified party.

Prior to the 2006 state election Springborg's proposal ran into early hurdles when John Howard, John Anderson, and other federal Coalition identities dismissed the idea of a state-level merger. Bob Quinn and the state Liberals reacted cautiously, ultimately rebuffing Springborg's efforts. However, Springborg did attract strong support for the idea from the National Party at a state organisational level, with the central executive supporting his proposal in February 2005. Springborg toned down some of his advocacy, however, and was content to announce a renewal of the Coalition agreement with the Liberals on 26 September 2005, aiming to maximise Labor's trouble regarding the scandal instigated by Dr Jayant Patel and the Bundaberg public hospital.

On 29 May 2006, plans for merger received a new life when the state division of the Liberal party announced its in-principle support for the idea. State director Graeme Greene stated that the merged party "would effectively operate under the federal Liberal Party's model".

However, senior figures within both the National and Liberal parties federally, particularly federal Nationals leader Mark Vaile, quickly spoke out against the proposed merger. By the end of the week, Springborg had to rescind his proposal.

On 26 July 2008, his vision of a united non-Labor force in Queensland finally became reality when both parties voted to form the Liberal National Party of Queensland. He has been described as the "father of the party" by successor John-Paul Langbroek.

2009 election
Springborg led the LNP into the 2009 Queensland election; despite opinion polls predicting a close contest the ALP led by Anna Bligh retained government. A 20-seat swing to the LNP would have been required to deliver majority government. Springborg led the LNP to an eight percent swing and took 10 seats from Labor, the largest swing to the conservatives in over 14 years. However, the LNP came up 11 seats short of making Springborg premier, largely due to winning only six seats in Brisbane. Following his third electoral defeat, Springborg announced his retirement as party leader and instead was elected deputy leader under John-Paul Langbroek.

Springborg along with the entire Liberal National Party supported changes to Queensland's abortion laws. Springborg resigned as deputy leader on 22 March 2011, after Brisbane Lord Mayor Campbell Newman announced he was launching a challenge for the LNP leadership.

2015 election
The LNP won the biggest majority government in Queensland history at the 2012 election, only to lose it after one term at the 2015 election. Newman lost his own seat, and Springborg was elected LNP leader for the second time. He briefly harboured hope of becoming premier in a minority government, but this was brought undone when independent Peter Wellington threw his support to Labor. Springborg thus became leader of the opposition for the third time.

Loss of leadership
Springborg lost the leadership to Tim Nicholls on 6 May 2016 in a leadership spill, by 22 votes to 19. On 3 December 2016, he announced his retirement from politics at the next Queensland state election.

Months before losing the leadership, there was speculation that Springborg would make a switch to federal politics and therefore resigning the leadership, by seeking preselection for the safe National seat of Maranoa following incumbent and Deputy Speaker Bruce Scott's announcement that he would be retiring at the next election due in 2016 but Springborg ruled this out.

Local politics
In November 2019, he announced he would be standing as a candidate for Mayor of Goondiwindi Regional Council in the March 2020 election. He was elected unopposed.

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Kelly Makin

Kelly Makin is a Canadian television and film director. He directed episodes of The Kids in the Hall comedy television series and also directed several episodes of Queer as Folk including the series finale. More recently, Makin has directed episodes of Flashpoint, Less Than Kind, Death Comes to Town, and Vikings. He also directed four episodes of House Party, two episodes of Being Erica and Nurses. In 2020 and 2021, he had directed four episodes of Burden of Truth.

His film work includes Tiger Claws, National Lampoon's Senior Trip, Kids in the Hall: Brain Candy, and Mickey Blue Eyes.

Makin was bestowed a rare honor in 2009 by winning Gemini Awards for direction in two different categories: comedy series and dramatic series.

Awards

 * 2009, Winner, Gemini Award Best Direction in a Comedy Program or Series Less Than Kind, "The Daters"
 * 2009, Winner, Gemini Award Best Direction in a Dramatic Series Flashpoint, "Planets Aligned"
 * Academy of Canadian Cinema and Television

title: Kelly Makin


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Hypermagnesemia

Hypermagnesemia is an electrolyte disorder in which there is a high level of magnesium in the blood. Symptoms include weakness, confusion, decreased breathing rate, and decreased reflexes. Complications may include low blood pressure and cardiac arrest.

It is typically caused by kidney failure or is treatment-induced such as from antacids that contain magnesium. Less common causes include tumor lysis syndrome, seizures, and prolonged ischemia. Diagnosis is based on a blood level of magnesium greater than 1.1 mmol/L (2.6 mg/dL). It is severe if levels are greater than 2.9 mmol/L (7 mg/dL). Specific electrocardiogram (ECG) changes may be present.

Treatment involves stopping the magnesium a person is getting. Treatment when levels are very high include calcium chloride, intravenous normal saline with furosemide, and hemodialysis. Hypermagnesemia is uncommon. Rates among hospitalized patients in renal failure may be as high as 10%.

Signs and symptoms
Symptoms include weakness, confusion, decreased breathing rate, and decreased reflexes. As well as nausea, low blood pressure, low blood calcium, abnormal heart rhythms and asystole, dizziness, and sleepiness.

Abnormal heart rhythms and asystole are possible complications of hypermagnesemia related to the heart. Magnesium acts as a physiologic calcium blocker, which results in abnormalities of the electrical conduction system of the heart.

Consequences related to serum concentration: At magnesium levels about 4.5 mEq/L the stretch reflex is lost and with over 6.5 mEq/L respiratory failure may be observed. On ECG hypermagnesemia is mainly manifested by prolongation of PR and QRS intervals, T wave changes and AV block.
 * 4.0 mEq/L – Decreased reflexes
 * >5.0 mEq/L – Prolonged atrioventricular conduction
 * >10.0 mEq/L – Third-degree atrioventricular block (AV block)
 * >13.0 mEq/L – Cardiac arrest

The therapeutic range for the prevention of the pre-eclamptic uterine contractions is: 4.0–7.0 mEq/L. As per Lu and Nightingale, serum magnesium concentrations associated with maternal toxicity (also neonate depression, hypotonia and low Apgar scores) are:
 * 7.0–10.0 mEq/L – Loss of patellar reflex
 * 10.0-13.0 mEq/L – Respiratory depression
 * 15.0-25.0 mEq/L – Altered atrioventricular conduction and (further) complete heart block
 * >25.0 mEq/L – Cardiac arrest

Complications
Severe hypermagnesemia (levels greater than 12 mg/dL) can lead to cardiovascular complications (hypotension and arrhythmias) and neurological disorder (confusion and lethargy). Higher values of serum magnesium (exceeding 15 mg/dL) can induce cardiac arrest and coma.

Causes
Magnesium status depends on three organs: uptake in the intestine, storage in the bone, and excretion in the kidneys. Hypermagnesemia is therefore often due to problems in these organs, mostly the intestine or kidney.

Predisposing conditions

 * Hemolysis, magnesium concentration in red blood cells is approximately three times greater than in serum, therefore hemolysis can increase plasma magnesium. Hypermagnesemia is expected only in massive hemolysis.
 * Chronic kidney disease, excretion of magnesium becomes impaired when creatinine clearance falls below 30 ml/min. However, hypermagnesemia is not a prominent feature of chronic kidney disease unless magnesium intake is increased.
 * Magnesium toxicity from emergency pre-eclampsia treatment during labor and delivery.
 * Other conditions that can predispose to mild hypermagnesemia are diabetic ketoacidosis, adrenal insufficiency, hypothyroidism, hyperparathyroidism, and lithium intoxication.

Metabolism
For a detailed description of magnesium homeostasis and metabolism see hypomagnesemia.

Diagnosis
Hypermagnesemia is diagnosed by measuring the concentration of magnesium in the blood. Concentrations of magnesium greater than 1.1 mmol/L are considered diagnostic.

Treatment
People with normal kidney function (glomerular filtration rate (GFR) over 60 ml/min) and mild asymptomatic hypermagnesemia require no treatment except for the removal of all sources of exogenous magnesium. One must consider that the half-time of elimination of magnesium is approximately 28 hours.

In more severe cases, close monitoring of the ECG, blood pressure, and neuromuscular function and early treatment are necessary:

Intravenous calcium gluconate or calcium chloride since the actions of magnesium in neuromuscular and cardiac function become antagonized by calcium.

Severe clinical conditions require increasing renal magnesium excretion through:

Intravenous loop diuretics (e.g., furosemide), or hemodialysis, when kidney function is impaired, or the patient is symptomatic from severe hypermagnesemia. This approach usually removes magnesium efficiently (up to 50% reduction after a 3- to 4-hour treatment). Dialysis can, however, increase the excretion of calcium by developing hypocalcemia, thus possibly worsening the symptoms and signs of hypermagnesemia.

The use of diuretics must be associated with infusions of saline solutions to avoid further electrolyte disturbances (e.g., hypokalemia) and metabolic alkalosis. The clinician must perform serial measurements of calcium and magnesium. In association with electrolytic correction, it is often necessary to support cardiorespiratory activity. As a consequence, the treatment of this electrolyte disorder can frequently require intensive care unit (ICU) admission.

Particular clinical conditions require a specific approach. For instance, during the management of eclampsia, the magnesium infusion is stopped if urine output drops to less than 80 mL (in 4 hours), deep tendon reflexes are absent, or the respiratory rate is below 12 breaths/minute. A 10% calcium gluconate or chloride solution can serve as an antidote.

Prognosis
The prognosis of hypermagnesemia depends on magnesium values and on the clinical condition that induced hypermagnesemia. Values that are not excessively high (mild hypermagnesemia) and in the absence of triggering and aggravating conditions (e.g., chronic kidney disease) are benign conditions. On the contrary, high values (severe hypermagnesemia) expose the patient to high risks and high mortality.

Epidemiology
Hypermagnesemia is an uncommon electrolyte disorder. It occurs in approximately 10 to 15% of hospitalized patients with renal failure. Furthermore, epidemiological data suggest that there is a significant prevalence of high levels of serum magnesium in selected healthy populations. For instance the overall prevalence of hypermagnesemia was 3.0%, especially in males in Iran. High magnesium concentrations were typical in people with cardiovascular disease, and 2.3 mg/dL or higher values were associated with worse hospital mortality.

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Talk:Franz Josef Strauss

Name change
This has been discussed before, but since then Wikipedia seems to have become more in favor of keeping native spellings of names. So if Hafþór Júlíus Björnsson can be spelled natively even though hes almost unanimously referred to as "Hafthor" (or just Thor) I think Strauß can also be referred to as such. jonas (talk) 21:52, 17 August 2021 (UTC)
 * I agree. This should be changed. Alektor89 (talk) 14:08, 21 September 2021 (UTC)

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Hyperchloremia

Hyperchloremia is an electrolyte disturbance in which there is an elevated level of chloride ions in the blood. The normal serum range for chloride is 96 to 106 mEq/L, therefore chloride levels at or above 110 mEq/L usually indicate kidney dysfunction as it is a regulator of chloride concentration. As of now there are no specific symptoms of hyperchloremia; however, it can be influenced by multiple abnormalities that cause a loss of electrolyte-free fluid, loss of hypotonic fluid, or increased administration of sodium chloride. These abnormalities are caused by diarrhea, vomiting, increased sodium chloride intake, renal dysfunction, diuretic use, and diabetes. Hyperchloremia should not be mistaken for hyperchloremic metabolic acidosis as hyperchloremic metabolic acidosis is characterized by two major changes: a decrease in blood pH and bicarbonate levels, as well as an increase in blood chloride levels. Instead those with hyperchloremic metabolic acidosis are usually predisposed to hyperchloremia.

Hyperchloremia prevalence in hospital settings has been researched in the medical field since one of the major sources of treatment at hospitals is administering saline solution. Previously, animal models with elevated chloride have displayed more inflammation markers, changes in blood pressure, increased renal vasoconstriction, and less renal blood flow as well at glomerulus filtration, all of which are prompting researchers to investigate if these changes or others may exist in patients. Some studies have reported a possible relationship between increased chloride levels and death or acute kidney injury in severely ill patients that may frequent the hospital or have prolonged visits. There are other studies that have found no relationship.

Symptoms
Hyperchloremia does not have many noticeable symptoms and can only be confirmed with testing, yet, the causes of hyperchloremia do have symptoms.

Symptoms of the above stated abnormalities may include:
 * Dehydration - due to diarrhea, vomiting, sweating
 * Hypertension - due to increased sodium chloride intake
 * Cardiovascular dysfunction - due to increased sodium chloride intake
 * Edema - due to influx in sodium in the body
 * Weakness - due to loss of fluids
 * Thirst - due to loss of fluids
 * Kussmaul breathing - due to high ion concentrations, loss of fluids, or kidney failure
 * High blood sugar - due to diabetes
 * Hyperchloremic metabolic acidosis - due to severe diarrhea and/or kidney failure
 * Respiratory alkalosis - due to renal dysfunction

Causes
There are many scenarios which may results in hyperchloremia. The first instance is when there is a loss of electrolyte-free fluid. This simply means that the body is losing increased amounts of fluids that do not contain electrolytes, like chloride, resulting in high concentration of these ions in the body. This loss of fluids can be due to sweating (due to exercise or fever), skin burns, lack of adequate water intake, hyper-metabolic state, and diabetes insipidus. Losing fluids can lead to feelings of dehydration and dry mucous membrane.

The second scenario that may lead to hyperchloremia is known as loss of hypotonic fluid which can be a direct result of loss of electrolyte fluid. Normally, water in the body is moving from an area of low ion concentration to an area of high ion concentration. In this case, the water is being excreted in the urine, therefore, less water is available to dilute these areas of high ion concentration. This can be due to diuretic use, diarrhea, vomiting, burns, kidney disease, kidney failure, and renal tubular acidosis. This may also lead to feeling of dehydration.

The third scenario that may lead to hyperchloremia is an increase in sodium chloride intake. This can be due to dietary intake or intravenous fluid administration in hospital settings. This can lead to the body experiencing hypertension, edema, and cardiovascular dysfunction.

Mechanism
The nephrons in the kidney are responsible for regulating the level of chloride in the blood. The general mechanism is that as filtrate fluid passes through the nephrons varying concentrations of ions will be secreted into the interstitial fluid or absorbed into the lumen. All along the nephrons are blood capillaries waiting to reabsorb ions from the interstitial fluid to circulate in the body. The amount of chloride to be released in the urine is due to the receptors lining the nephrons and the glomerulus filtration.

Normally, chloride reabsorption begins in the proximal tubule and nearly 60% of chloride is filtered here. In a person with hyperchloremia, the absorption of chloride into the interstitial fluid and subsequently into the blood capillaries is increased. This means the concentration of chloride in the filtrate is decreased, therefore, a decreased amount of chloride is being excreted as waste in the urine. In the proximal tubule chloride reabsorption occurs in two parts. In the 1st phase, organic solutes (such as phosphates, amino acids, glucose and anions), sodium ions, and hydronium ions are reabsorbed from the filtrate fluid into the interstitial fluid. This is an important step because this creates the concentration gradient in which chloride concentration in the lumen will increase in comparison to the chloride concentration in the interstitial fluid. In phase 2, chloride will diffuse along the concentration gradient, which means chloride ions will travel from areas of high concentration to areas of low concentration.

One suggested mechanism leading to hyperchloremia, there is a decrease in chloride transporter proteins along the nephron. These proteins may include sodium-potassium-2 chloride co-transporter, chloride anion exchangers, and chloride channels. Another suggested mechanism is a depletion in concentration gradient as a result of the reduced activity in these transporters. Such concentration gradient depletion would allow for the passive diffusion of chloride in and out the tubule.

Diagnosis
Elevated levels of chloride in the blood can be tested simply by requesting a serum chloride test. A doctor would request this test if there are signs their patient is experiencing an imbalance in acid-base levels for a prolonged period of time. For the test to occur a healthcare provider must draw a sample of blood from the patient. The sample will then be sent to a laboratory and results will be provided to the patient's physician. As mentioned earlier a normal serum chloride range is from 96 to 106 mEq/L, and hyperchloremic patients will have levels above this range.

Treatment
As with most types of electrolyte imbalance, the treatment of high blood chloride levels is based on correcting the underlying cause.

 * If the patient is dehydrated, therapy consists of establishing and maintaining adequate hydration such as drinking 2-3 quarts of water daily. Also, to alleviate symptoms of dehydration like diarrhea or vomiting, it is suggested to take medication.
 * If the condition is caused or exacerbated by medications or treatments, these may be altered or discontinued, if deemed prudent.
 * If there is underlying kidney disease (which is likely if there are other electrolyte disturbances), then the patient will be referred to a nephrologist for further care.
 * If there is an underlying dysfunction of the endocrine or hormone system, the patient will likely be referred to an endocrinologist for further assessment.
 * If the electrolyte imbalance is due to influx of sodium chloride in the body, then it has been suggested to make dietary changes or reduce the rate of administering intravenous fluids.

Recent research
In patients with sepsis or septic shock they are more susceptible to experience acute kidney injury (AKI) and the factors that may contribute to AKI are still being investigated. In a study conducted by Suetrong et al., (2016) using patients admitted to St. Paul Hospital in Vancouver with sepsis or septic shock had their body concentration of chloride checked over the course of 48 hours to determine if there is a relation between hyperchloremia and AKI. This is an important relationship to study because many times a form of therapy to treat sepsis and septic shock is to administer saline solution, which is a solution containing sodium chloride. Saline has a much higher concentration of chloride than blood. In this study they defined hyperchloremia as concentration of chloride greater than 110 mmol/L. This research demonstrated that hyperchloremia will influence a patient developing AKI. In fact, even patients that had a conservative increase in serum chloride saw some association with developing AKI. This research study suggest that there still needs to be more investigation in the risk of using saline as a form of therapy and the risk of experiencing AKI.

In a separate study investigating the relation of critically ill patients and hyperchloremia, researchers found that there seems to be an independent association between ill patients with hyperchloremia and mortality. This study was conducted with septic patients admitted to ICUs for 72 hours. Chloride levels were assessed at baseline and 72 hours, and confounding variables were accounted for. This study is important because this continues to suggest there is increased risk associated with elevated chloride levels in vulnerable populations. Their article also states there needs to be avoidance of using solutions with chloride in specific patient subgroups

Several trials have been done comparing balanced fluid (chloride restricted) solution with saline (chloride liberal) with the hypothesis that it may reduce the risk of AKI and mortality. Initial randomized trials in septic shock comparing Plasma-Lyte and 0.9% saline (SPLIT and SALT trials) did not show any risk reduction in AKI. However, the later trials with larger sample size in critically and non critically ill adults (SMART and SALT-ED trials) showed reduction in major adverse kidney events. Extrapolating from the findings of septic shock, a recent trial comparing plasmalyte with 0.9% saline in DKA also did not show any significant difference in AKI. Hence, the causal link between hyperchloremia and AKI is yet to be conclusively established.

As studies continue, it is important to include a large patient sample size, a diverse patient population, and a diverse range of hospitals involved in these studies.

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Hypochloremia

Hypochloremia (or Hypochloraemia) is an electrolyte disturbance in which there is an abnormally low level of the chloride ion in the blood. The normal serum range for chloride is 97 to 107 mEq/L.

It rarely occurs in the absence of other abnormalities. It is sometimes associated with hypoventilation. It can be associated with chronic respiratory acidosis. If it occurs together with metabolic alkalosis (decreased blood acidity) it is often due to vomiting. It is usually the result of hyponatremia or elevated bicarbonate concentration. It occurs in cystic fibrosis.

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User talk:Ajjjj

Hello, see Welcome newcomers and the Manual of Style if you wish to make serious contributions here. Repeated vandalism or junk edits will result in being blocked from editing. -- Infrogmation 02:47, 12 Oct 2004 (UTC)

title: User talk:Ajjjj