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Carlos Martínez

Carlos Martínez may refer to:

Arts and entertainment

 * Carlos Martínez (actor) (born 1955), Spanish actor
 * Carlos Martínez Aguirre (born 1974), Spanish poet
 * Carlos Martínez Baena (1889–1971), Spanish-Mexican actor
 * Carlos Martínez Rivas (1924–1998), Nicaraguan poet

Politicians

 * Carlos Martínez Alonso (born 1950), Spanish politician
 * Carlos Martínez de Irujo, 1st Marquess of Casa Irujo (1763–1864), Spanish prime minister (1823–1824) and diplomat
 * Carlos Martínez de Irujo, 2nd Marquess of Casa Irujo (1802–1855), Spanish politician and prime minister (1847)
 * Carlos Martínez Martínez (born 1964), Mexican politician
 * Carlos Méndez Martínez (born 1943), Puerto Rican politician
 * Carlos Walker Martínez (1842–1905), Chilean lawyer, politician and poet
 * José Carlos Martínez (politician) (1962–2011), Argentine politician

Baseball players

 * Carlos Martínez (infielder) (1965–2006), Venezuelan baseball player
 * Carlos Martínez (pitcher, born 1982), Dominican baseball player for the Florida Marlins
 * Carlos Martínez (pitcher, born 1991), Dominican baseball player for the St. Louis Cardinals

Footballers

 * Carlos Martínez (footballer, born 1980), Spanish football left winger
 * Carlos Martínez (footballer, born April 1986), Spanish football rightback
 * Carlos Martínez (footballer, born June 1986), Spanish football striker
 * Carlos Martínez (footballer, born February 1989), Spanish football winger
 * Carlos Martínez (footballer, born August 1989), Spanish football midfielder
 * Carlos Martinez (soccer, born 1992), American soccer midfielder
 * Carlos Martínez (footballer, 1995-2003), Mexican football attacking midfielder
 * Carlos Martínez (footballer, born 1997), Spanish football forward
 * Carlos Martínez (footballer, born 1999), Costa Rican football defender
 * Carlos Martínez (Uruguayan footballer) (1940–2015), Uruguayan footballer
 * Carlos Martínez Arribas (born 1988), known as Carletes, Spanish football forward
 * Carlos Julio Martínez (born 1994), Dominican international football rightback
 * Juan Carlos Martínez Camarena (born 1991), Mexican football forward

Other sports

 * Carlos Martínez (American football) (born 1980), American gridiron football kicker
 * Carlos Martínez (sprinter) (born 1945), Cuban Olympic sprinter
 * Carlos Martínez (boxer) (born 1978), Mexican boxer
 * Carlos Alberto Martínez (born 1957), Argentine Olympic skier

Other fields

 * Carlos Martínez Gorriarán (born 1959), Spanish scholar
 * Carlos Martínez Shaw (born 1945), Spanish historian

Places

 * Capitán FAP Carlos Martínez de Pinillos International Airport, in Trujillo, Peru
 * Polideportivo Carlos Martínez Balmori, indoor arena in Mineral de la Reforma, Mexico

title: Carlos Martínez


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Talk:Frank Morley

Start class
This is no longer a stub, according to this:

A stub is a very short article, generally of one paragraph or less. Most stubs fail to cover all but the most trivial subjects completely. However, this does not mean the stub is not a legitimate article - it just needs to be expanded. Find or fix a stub

Hence, it should no longer be listed as one. user: Gene Ward Smith

Exceptional role
According to the Mathematical Geneology Project, Frank Morely wrote no dissertation and his advisor is unknown. He had no advanced degree beyond the B.A. of Cambridge. Yet he produced 50 Ph.D. students, who in turn have 372 known descendants. This story evidently reflects something of the demand for his services at the time, and of his capacity to fill that expectation. No one ever called him on his credentials.Rgdboer (talk) 21:54, 25 June 2008 (UTC)

His 1933 book Inversive Geometry says he has Sc.D. from Cambridge. Two sources, two stories. Which is right ? Rgdboer (talk) 22:45, 10 July 2008 (UTC)

According to the R.C. Archibald reference posted today, Morley took leave from Haverford College 1897-8, and returned to Cambridge for a D.Sc. The Semicentennial History carries the weight of authority of an official American Mathematical Society publication.Rgdboer (talk) 21:00, 28 July 2008 (UTC)

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Talk:Frank Morley


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User:Nick d lobo

Nick D. Lobo www.nickdlobo.com

title: User:Nick d lobo


text:
Logistic

Logistic may refer to:

Mathematics

 * Logistic function, a sigmoid function used in many fields
 * Logistic map, a recurrence relation that sometimes exhibits chaos
 * Logistic regression, a statistical model using the logistic function
 * Logit, the inverse of the logistic function
 * Logistic distribution, the derivative of the logistic function, a continuous probability distribution, used in probability theory and statistics
 * Mathematical logic, subfield of mathematics exploring the applications of formal logic to mathematics

Other uses

 * Logistics, the management of resources and their distributions
 * Logistic engineering, the scientific study of logistics
 * Military logistics, the study of logistics at the service of military units and operations

title: Logistic


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Sauroposeidon

Sauroposeidon (meaning "lizard earthquake god", after the Greek god Poseidon ) is a genus of sauropod dinosaur known from several incomplete specimens including a bone bed and fossilized trackways that have been found in the U.S. states of Oklahoma, Wyoming, and Texas.

The fossils were found in rocks dating from near the end of the Early Cretaceous (Aptian–early Albian), from about 113 to 110 million years ago, a time when sauropod diversity in North America had greatly diminished. It was the last known North American sauropod prior to an absence of the group on the continent of roughly 40 million years that ended with the appearance of Alamosaurus during the Maastrichtian.

While the holotype remains were initially discovered in 1994, due to their unexpected age and unusual size they were initially misclassified as pieces of petrified wood. A more detailed analysis in 1999 revealed their true nature which resulted in a minor media frenzy, and formal publication of the find the following year.

Paleoecological analysis indicates that Sauroposeidon lived on the shores of the Gulf of Mexico, in a river delta. Extrapolations based on the more completely known Brachiosaurus indicate that the head of Sauroposeidon could reach 16.5 – in height with its neck extended, which would make it one of the tallest known dinosaurs. With an estimated length of 27 - 34 m and a mass of 40 - 60 MT, it also ranks among the longest and heaviest. However, this animal may not be as closely related to Brachiosaurus as previously thought, so these estimates may be inaccurate.

While initially described as a brachiosaurid closely related to Brachiosaurus and Giraffatitan, the discovery of additional remains in the Cloverly Formation of Wyoming suggested that it was in fact more closely related to the titanosaurs, in the group Somphospondyli. Analysis of these remains and comparison with others from Texas supported this conclusion, and demonstrated that the more completely known sauropods from the Twin Mountains Formation (including a partial skull and fossil trackways) previously named Paluxysaurus jonesi also belonged to Sauroposeidon. It is the state dinosaur of Texas.

Discovery
The first fossils classified as Sauroposeidon were four neck vertebrae discovered in rural Oklahoma, not far from the Texas border, in a claystone outcrop that dates the fossils to about 110 million years ago (mya). This falls within the Early Cretaceous Period, specifically between the Aptian and Albian epochs. These vertebrae were discovered in May 1994 at the Antlers Formation in Atoka County, Oklahoma by dog trainer Bobby Cross and secured by Dr. Richard Cifelli and a team from the Oklahoma Museum of Natural History in May 1994 and August 1994. Initially the fossils were believed to be simply too large to be the remains of an animal, and due to the state of preservation, believed to be tree trunks. In fact, they are the longest such bones known in dinosaurs. Thus, the vertebrae were stored until 1999, when Dr. Cifelli gave them to a graduate student, Matt Wedel, to analyze as part of a project. Upon their realization of the find's significance, they issued a press release in October 1999, followed by official publication of their findings in the Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology in March 2000. The new species was named S. proteles, and the holotype is OMNH 53062. It garnered immediate media attention leading to some sources calling it inaccurately the largest dinosaur ever.

The generic name comes from sauros (Greek σαύρος for "lizard"), and Poseidon (Ποσειδών), the sea god in Greek mythology, who is also associated with earthquakes, that facet styled as Ennosigaios or Enosikhthōn, "Earthshaker". This is a reference to the notion that a sauropod's weight was so great that the ground shook as it walked.The specific descriptor proteles also comes from the Ancient Greek πρωτέλης and means "perfect before the end", which refers to Sauroposeidon's status as the last and most specialized giant sauropod known in North America, during the Early Cretaceous. In 2012, numerous other sauropod remains that had been known for decades under various different names were also classified in the genus Sauroposeidon. Sauropod bones and trackways had long been known from the Paluxy River area of Texas, usually referred to the genus Pleurocoelus, including partial skeletons (particularly from the Glen Rose Formation, above the Twin Mountains Formation). In the mid 1980s, students from the University of Texas at Austin discovered a bonebed on a ranch in Hood County, but early work stopped in 1987. The quarry was reopened in 1993 and was subsequently worked by parties from Southern Methodist University, the Fort Worth Museum of Science and History, and Tarleton State University. All sauropod remains from this bonebed appear to come from the same genus of sauropod. Petrified logs are also known from the site. The site was fluvial when its rocks were being deposited, with channel sands and muds, and concretions of calcite-cemented sandstone containing fossils. Following excavation and preparation of the majority of the fossils from the site, its sauropod species was given the name Paluxysaurus jonesi. The name Paluxysaurus was based on the specimen FWMSH 93B-10-18, a partial skull including an associated left maxilla, nasal, and teeth. Other bones from the quarry included a partial neck of seven vertebrae, thirteen vertebrae from the back and 30 from the tail, and examples of all limb and girdle bones except some hand and foot bones. It was distinguished from all other sauropods by vertebral details, and has various morphological differences in other bones compared to other sauropods of the Early Cretaceous of North America. The genus was limited to the bonebed remains; for example, the partial skeleton from Wise County known as Pleurocoelus sp. (SMU 61732) is not referred to Paluxysaurus; instead that specimen is the holotype of Astrophocaudia slaughteri D'Emic 2012, another somphospondylan sauropod. There are differences in the remains of P. sp. and Paluxysaurus, but they cannot be distinguished with confidence. In 2012, re-analysis of these specimens in light of additional Sauroposeidon remains led paleontologists D'Emic and Foreman to conclude that Paluxysaurus was the same animal as Sauroposeidon, and thus a junior synonym of S. proteles.

Description
"It's truly astonishing. It's arguably the largest creature ever to walk the earth."

- Richard Cifelli, discoverer of Sauroposeidon

The press release in 1999 immediately garnered international media attention, which led to many (inaccurate) news reports of "the largest dinosaur ever!". While Sauroposeidon likely represents the tallest known dinosaur taxon, it does not hold records for either the longest or most massive. Maraapunisaurus or Argentinosaurus make better candidates for the title "World's Largest Dinosaur", though incomplete fossil evidence (and in the case of Maraapunisaurus, lost) makes exact rankings impossible.

The original Sauroposeidon find was composed of four articulated, mid-cervical vertebrae (numbers 5 to 8), with the cervical ribs in place. The vertebrae are extremely elongated, with the largest one having an overall length of 1.4 m, making it the longest sauropod neck vertebra on record. Examination of the bones revealed that they are honeycombed with tiny air cells, and are very thin, like the bones of a chicken or an ostrich, making the neck lighter and easier to lift. The cervical ribs were remarkably long as well, with the longest measurable rib (on vertebra 6) measuring 3.42 m – about 18% longer than the longest rib reported for Giraffatitan, but exceeded in length by the cervical ribs of Mamenchisaurus. Estimates of Sauroposeidon's size are based on a comparison between the four Sauroposeidon vertebrae and the vertebrae of the HM SII specimen of Giraffatitan brancai, located in the Berlin's Natural History Museum. The HM SII is the most complete brachiosaur known, though since it is composed of pieces from different individuals its proportions may not be totally accurate. Comparisons to the other relatives of Sauroposeidon are difficult due to limited remains. The neck length of Sauroposeidon is estimated at 11.25 - 12 m, compared to a neck length of 9 m for the HM SII Giraffatitan. This is based on the assumption that the rest of the neck has the same proportions as Giraffatitan, which is a reasonably good conjecture.

Sauroposeidon was probably able to raise its head 16.5 – above the ground, which is as high as a six-story building. In comparison, Giraffatitan could probably raise its head 13.5 m into the air.

Sauroposeidon's shoulder height has been estimated at 6 - 7 m based on an interpretation of the animal as a brachiosaurid. Estimates of its total possible length have ranged from 27 m to 34 m.

The mass of Sauroposeidon is estimated at 40 - 60 MT. While the vertebrae of Sauroposeidon are 25–33% longer than Giraffatitan', they are only 10–15% larger in diameter. This means that while Sauroposeidon probably has a larger body than Giraffatitan its body is smaller in comparison to the size of its neck, so it did not weigh as much as a scaled-up Giraffatitan. By comparison, Giraffatitan might have weighed 36 - 40 MT. This estimate of the Giraffatitan is an average of several different methodologies.

However, Sauroposeidon has a gracile neck compared to Giraffatitan. If the rest of the body turns out to be similarly slender, the mass estimate may be too high. This could be similar to the way the relatively robust Apatosaurus weighs far more than the longer but much slimmer Diplodocus. In addition, it is possible that sauropods may have had an air sac system, like those in birds, which could reduce all sauropod mass estimates by 20% or more.

Paleoecology
"Sauroposeidon was an unexpected discovery, because it was a huge, gas-guzzling barge of an animal in an age of subcompact sauropods."

- Matt Wedel, Sauroposeidon team leader

Sauropods, which include the largest terrestrial animals of all time, were a very wide-ranging and successful group. They first appeared in the Early Jurassic and soon spread across the world. By the time of the late Jurassic, North America and Africa were dominated by the diplodocids and brachiosaurids and, by the end of the Late Cretaceous, titanosaurids were widespread (though only in the southern hemisphere). Between these periods, in the Early Cretaceous, the fossil record is sparse. Few specimens have been found in North America from that time and those specimens that do exist are often fragmentary or represent juvenile members of their species. Most of the surviving sauropods at the time were also shrinking in size to a mere 15 m in length, and maybe 10 - 15 MT, which makes the discovery of an extremely specialized super-giant like Sauroposeidon very unusual.

Sauroposeidon lived on the shores of the Gulf of Mexico, which ran through Oklahoma at that time, in a vast river delta similar to the Mississippi delta today. This paleoenvironment, which has been preserved in the Antlers Formation, also stretches from southwest Arkansas through southeastern Oklahoma and into northeastern Texas. This geological formation has not been dated radiometrically. Scientists have used biostratigraphic data and the fact that it shares several of the same genera as the Trinity Group of Texas, to surmise that this formation was laid down during the Aptian and Albian stages of the Early Cretaceous Period, approximately 110 mya. The area preserved in this formation was a large floodplain that drained into a shallow inland sea. Several million years later, this sea would expand to the north, becoming the Western Interior Seaway and dividing North America in two for nearly the entire Late Cretaceous period. The paleoenvironment of Sauroposeidon consisted of tropical or sub-tropical forests, river deltas, coastal swamps, bayous and lagoons, probably similar to that of modern-day Louisiana. There were few predators which could attempt to attack a full-grown Sauroposeidon, but juveniles were likely to be preyed on by the contemporary Acrocanthosaurus atokensis (a carnosaur slightly smaller than a Tyrannosaurus), which likely were the apex predators in this region, and the small dromaeosaur Deinonychus antirrhopus. Sauroposeidon also shared its paleoenvironment with other dinosaurs, such as the sauropod Astrodon (Pleurocoelus) and the most common dinosaur in this region, the ornithopod Tenontosaurus. Other vertebrates present during this time included the amphibian Albanerpeton arthridion, the reptiles Atokasaurus metarsiodon and Ptilotodon wilsoni, the cartilaginous fish Hybodus buderi and Lissodus anitae, the ray-finned fish Gyronchus dumblei, the crocodilians Goniopholis, Bernissartia, and Paluxysuchus, and the turtles Glyptops and Naomichelys. Possible indeterminate bird remains are also known from the Antlers Formation. The fossil evidence suggests that the gar Lepisosteus was the most common vertebrate in this region. The early mammals known from this region included Atokatherium boreni and Paracimexomys crossi.

title: Sauroposeidon


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Walter Wyman

Walter Wyman (August 17, 1848 – November 21, 1911) was an American physician and soldier. He was appointed the third Surgeon General of the United States from 1891 until his death in 1911.

Early years
Wyman was born in St. Louis, Missouri. He obtained his A.B. degree from Amherst College in 1870 and then graduated in 1873 from the St. Louis Medical College (now Washington University School of Medicine)

Career
Wyman served as a physician at the city hospital in St. Louis for two years and then engaged in private practice for another year before joining the Marine Hospital Service in 1876 as an Assistant Surgeon. He was promoted to Surgeon the following year, and served successively in the marine hospitals at St. Louis, Cincinnati, Baltimore, and New York City. While he was in charge of the marine hospital in Staten Island, New York, the Hygienic Laboratory (forerunner of the National Institutes of Health) was established there in 1887 by Supervising Surgeon General John B. Hamilton. Wyman had studied in Europe in 1885, and was well acquainted with the bacteriological investigations of Robert Koch and others. He fully supported the creation of the Hygienic Laboratory.

In December 1888, Wyman moved to Washington, D.C. as Chief of the Quarantine Division. When Hamilton resigned as Supervising Surgeon General, Wyman was appointed to the position as of June 1, 1891. He was to remain at the helm of the Marine Hospital Service for 20 years.

During Wyman's tenure, the Marine Hospital Service significantly expanded its responsibilities, and in 1902 was renamed the Public Health and Marine Hospital Service. At that time, Wyman's title was also changed from Supervising Surgeon General to just Surgeon General. As a result of immigration legislation passed on March 3, 1891, shortly before Wyman took office, the Marine Hospital Service was assigned responsibility for the medical inspection of arriving immigrations. The largest immigration depot was Ellis Island in New York, opened in 1892, where service physicians would inspect thousands of arriving immigrants on busy days. The quarantine activities of the service were expanded by legislative acts of 1893 and 1906, and maritime quarantine functions were extended to Hawaii, Cuba, Puerto Rico, the Panama Canal, and the Philippine Islands.

The 1902 act, which changed the name of the service, also charged the Surgeon General with convening a conference of state health authorities at least on an annual basis, and directed him to prepare and distribute to state health officers forms for the uniform compilation of vital statistics. This statistical information was published in the service's journal, Public Health Reports. The 1902 law also expanded the Hygienic Laboratory, which Wyman had moved to Washington, D.C. in 1891. Under Wyman's administration, the Laboratory significantly increased its research activities, including studies on diseases such as hookworm and Rocky Mountain spotted fever, and was provided with a new building in 1901. The 1902 Biologics Control Act gave the Laboratory responsibility for the regulation of biological products such as vaccines and antitoxins.

In the early years of the twentieth century, Surgeon General Wyman found himself in the midst of a controversy over the San Francisco plague of 1900–1904. The service first became involved in the situation in 1900 when MHS physician Joseph J. Kinyoun, stationed in San Francisco, confirmed by bacteriological analysis that the death of a laborer in the city's Chinatown section was due to bubonic plague. Many local officials and business leaders, as well as Chinatown residents, concerned about how fears of plague would affect their lives and businesses, denied the existence of the disease and/or resisted quarantine and immunization efforts. When Wyman attempted to enforce an embargo on interstate travel for Californians without proper health certificates, the Governor of the state, Henry Gage, persuaded President McKinley to lift the travel ban. By 1903, however, the situation had become serious enough that an emergency conference was held in Washington, D.C., and a recommendation was made that all traffic between California and the rest of the country be halted unless Federal authorities were permitted to carry out their eradication campaign. Faced with the threat of a national boycott, San Francisco officials cooperated with Wyman and the service, and a successful campaign to eliminate the disease was led by Public Health Service physician Rupert Blue (who later served as Surgeon General). The service under Wyman also cooperated with state and local health authorities in the control of other infectious diseases such as yellow fever.

Wyman was involved in the creation of the Pan American Sanitary Bureau in 1902. From the time of its organization until 1936, the Surgeons General of the Public Health Service served as the Directors of the Bureau, with Wyman as Director until his death in 1911. Many of Wyman's health policies and principles were adopted by the Bureau. He also played a leading role in the first four Inter-American Sanitary Conferences, acting as President of the first two and attending the next two as the United States Delegate.

Wyman authorized a nationwide study of the prevalence of leprosy in 1901, and worked to establish a leprosy hospital and laboratory in Hawaii. In 1905, Wyman personally went to Hawaii to select the site of the new facility.

During his tenure as surgeon general, Wyman was active in professional service in a number of organizations. For example, he served as president of the American Public Health Association in 1902 and as president of the Association of Military Surgeons in 1904.

Wyman was a member of the Society of Colonial Wars. Lake Wyman in Boca Raton, Florida was named for him. He was reported being to the north in Lake Worth in 1883.

Wyman continued to serve as surgeon general until his death at Providence Hospital in Washington, D.C., on November 21, 1911.

Commemoration
The Public Health Service boarding tug USPHS Walter Wyman, in service from 1932 to 1957, was named for Wyman.

title: Walter Wyman


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Talk:Edmund Whittaker

To merge with E. T. Whittaker. Charles Matthews 21:49, 23 Oct 2004 (UTC)

title: Talk:Edmund Whittaker


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Hal Smith

Hal Smith may refer to:

Baseball players

 * Hal Smith (pitcher) (1902–1992), American in MLB between 1932 and 1935
 * Hal W. Smith (1930–2020), American in MLB between 1955 and 1964
 * Hal R. Smith (1931–2014), American in MLB between 1956 and 1965

Others

 * Hal Smith (screenwriter) (1912–1970), American Academy Award winner for The Defiant Ones
 * Hal Smith (actor) (1916–1994), American who played Otis on The Andy Griffith Show
 * Hal Smith (American football) (born 1935), defensive tackle in 1957 NFL draft

title: Hal Smith


text: Category:Chinese singers

title: Category:Chinese singers


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Lewis Buxton

Lewis Edward Buxton (born 10 December 1983) is an English former professional footballer who played as a defender.

Buxton began his career with Portsmouth where he progressed through the youth ranks at the club. He gained first team experience with loan spells at Exeter City and AFC Bournemouth. He joined Stoke City in January 2005 in order to find first team football. His time at the Britannia Stadium was hampered by injury and he left for Sheffield Wednesday in October 2008. With the Owls Buxton established himself as a regular member of the team and spent seven years, making 207 appearances.

Portsmouth
A promising young defender, after working his way up through the Portsmouth youth ranks, Buxton made his first team debut at the beginning of the 2001–02 season, aged 17, in a 1–0 win at Stockport County. He was soon a regular in Graham Rix's squad.

However, following Harry Redknapp's appointment as manager at the club, and the subsequent influx of new players, Buxton found games harder to come by. He was loaned out to Exeter City for October 2002, but upon his return to Fratton Park still found the competition too great. In January he was loaned to AFC Bournemouth for the remainder of the season. He played 18 games whilst at Bournemouth, and helped them achieve promotion.

He returned to Portsmouth for the 2003–04 season, but by October he was again not in the first team picture, and so returned to Bournemouth for the season, this time playing 28 games for the Cherries. It was a similar story during the 2004–05 season when Buxton failed to break into the team on a regular basis.

Stoke City
After turning down several loan offers he decided to call time on his Portsmouth career and transferred to Football League Championship club Stoke City in January 2005. He scored his first senior goal in Stoke's 3–1 defeat to Wolverhampton Wanderers in September 2005.

He was sidelined for the first 2 months of the season due to a back injury, but he made his first start of the season in Stoke City's 1–0 win at Ipswich Town as a centre-half. However, he required an operation on his back, which kept him out for the remainder of the 2006–07 season. He since recovered and was ready for pre-season training, prior to the start of the 2007–08 season. He made his comeback as a substitute for Stephen Wright in the 33rd minute of Stoke's 2–1 win over Charlton Athletic on 18 August 2007. Buxton only appeared fleetingly in the 2007–08 season.

Sheffield Wednesday
On 17 October 2008 Buxton moved to Sheffield Wednesday on an initial one-month loan deal. This was made a full deal on 26 January 2009 after Buxton expressed his desire to leave Stoke and move to Wednesday. He signed a $2 1/2$-year contract. On 31 January 2009, Buxton scored his first goal for Wednesday against Birmingham City. He has played in many different positions at Hillsborough. These are Right Back, Left Back, Centre Back, Right Wing and Centre Midfield. He achieved promotion to the Championship with Wednesday in May 2012.

In 2012–13, Buxton was voted player of the year by the Sheffield Wednesday supporters. This was following a consistency across over 40 games in a regularly changed Wednesday defensive unit. Buxton was released by Wednesday at the end of the 2014–15 season.

Rotherham United
In June 2015 Buxton signed for Rotherham United on a one-year contract with the option of a further year. After Rotherham had succeeded in surviving from relegation in the Championship, finishing one place above the drop in 21st, the club decided to opt in not keeping Buxton for a further season, and instead let his contract run out, releasing him.

Bolton Wanderers
On 5 August 2016, following a successful trial with Charlton Athletic, Buxton turned down a one-year contract signing in favour of a one-year contract to join Bolton Wanderers. On 11 May 2017 the club confirmed that Buxton would be leaving at the end of his contract on 30 June. Buxton retired from playing football after leaving the Trotters.

Post Retirement
After retiring Buxton co-founded Human Experience Coaching, working with players in the Premier League, Championship, and Major League Soccer and also wrote a book named "The Athlete’s Bible"https://www.amazon.co.uk/Athletes-Bible-High-Performance-Mindset-ebook/dp/B087TKYG73

Career statistics
Source:

 * A. The "Other" column constitutes appearances and goals in the Football League play-offs and Football League Trophy.

Honours

 * Bournemouth:
 * Football League Two runner-up: 2002–03

 * Stoke City:
 * EFL Championship runner-up: 2007–08

 * Sheffield Wednesday:
 * Football League One runner-up: 2011–12
 * Player of the Year 2012–13

 * Bolton Wanderers
 * EFL League One runner-up: 2016–17

title: Lewis Buxton


text:
Talk:Boxer shorts/Archive 1

Revert
Why was the information reverted?

Becuase you deleted a vast amount of information however if you like it the way it is i will leave alone. Maybe you could include some of the information you got rid of. 578
 * Please provide the links where I deleted information. 172.192.245.106 22:02, 23 Oct 2004 (UTC)

ok http://en.wikipedia.org/w/wiki.phtml?title=Boxer_shorts&diff=6808322&oldid=6808307 578

I believe you are reading it wrong. I added information. 172.192.245.106

I am deeply sorry for that misunderstanding, I have dislexyia, once again i am very sorry 578 22:07, 23 Oct 2004 (UTC)
 * Oh, it's okay. no problem.  172.192.245.106 22:09, 23 Oct 2004 (UTC)

Sperm count?
Does anybody have viable proof that wearing boxer shorts increases sperm count? (In context from article: 'The temperature inside boxer shorts is much cooler, which is better for a higher sperm count.') From what I understand, this is just an urban myth, and there's no real difference either way.
 * There have been some studies done, but I don't believe that they found any difference in temperature between briefs and boxers. Perhaps that should be edited to 'some people contend' or something. -Fipe 02:10, Feb 27, 2005 (UTC)
 * That sounds like a nice compromise. 172.193.235.223 05:22, 27 Mar 2005 (UTC)
 * If this is discredited or non-verifiable, I suggest deleting it rather keeping it and compromising its factuality. Or perhaps insert statement like "no verifiable research has been done". See Avoid weasel words. Tache 15:59, 13 August 2006 (UTC)

Pros and cons
The genitals are not supported and tend to move around a lot. - That's a disadvantage? Who the hell needs genital support?? -Branddobbe 19:23, 5 November 2005 (UTC)

 * To some people that is certainly a disadvantage. Genitals moving around can be pretty distracting. - furrykef (Talk at me) 20:50, 20 November 2005 (UTC)
 * I personally find it annoying to have my genitals bouncing around with each step I take... feels like I have nothing on. That's one of the reasons I switched back to briefs. Obviously, many guys don't care or it doesn't bother them. Here's another disadvantage: I find it harder to put on pants with boxers, especially jeans (even if they're loose or relaxed fit). With briefs or boxer briefs, you can just slide your pants on, but with regular boxers, you have to stuff the boxer legs down so they sit flat (just like tucking in a shirt). I find that annoying, but again, I guess it doesn't bother most guys. --Birdhombre 21:07, 10 February 2006 (UTC)

I removed the information that most men like to have sex with boxer shirts on. I doubt that very much (I personally don't know anyone who has ever done it). Lenineleal 19:11, 3 February 2006 (UTC)

 * "I personally don't know anyone who has ever done it." Have you asked? TRiG 01:07, 6 June 2006 (UTC)

Pros & Cons no.2
"The wider and thicker waistband found on most boxer shorts compared to other types of underwear has a higher chance of irritating the skin. This can be avoided, whether you wear briefs, boxers, boxer-briefs, or trunks, by tucking your undershirt or any shirt inside your underpants. However, this leads to possible waistband visibility and the increased likelihood of receiving a wedgie. The advantages include: keeping the skin warmer, a neater appearance, and the avoidance of waistband indentation on the skin."
 * I'd consider removing this bit from the pro's and con's, I cant say I've heard of anyone that has experienced irritation from the waistband of their underwear. More importantly, I cant think of anyone that would tuck their shirt in to prevent it. The easier solution is of course to go commando... JonEastham 10:09, 27 April 2006 (UTC)

Pros & Cons no.3
"An erection is much more noticeable when wearing boxers," says the article. A mildly amusing misrelated construction (surely it is the man, not the errection, which is wearing the boxers). In any case, I'm not sure if it's accurate. If you get an errection in tight briefs, the whole front of the underwear can move away from your body, and the genital area can become quite exposed through the leg holes and the top of the underwear. I suppose the solution is to wear briefs with stronger elastic and looser cloth. On the other hand, an errection in flyless boxers may also be quite obvious!

If the article was referring not to wearing only underwear, but to wearing underwear as underwear (below trowsers), it is probably correct. But it should be made clearer.

TRiG 01:07, 6 June 2006 (UTC)

Conflict of generations
http://www.slate.com/id/2143313/nav/tap1/ : "Compared to my briefs—which revealed my pale and scrawny pre-teen upper thighs—those modest, roomy boxers looked positively dignified. And cutting-edge, too: My father didn't wear them, thus by definition they were modern and stylish. (I didn't realize at the time that baby-boomer men had switched to briefs in large part to tack away from their own boxers-wearing fathers.)" Is there a serious study on this issue? Apokrif 18:05, 22 June 2006 (UTC)

advantages and disadvantages
One advantage is actually for women. They provide a comfortable compromise in outerwear to the short tight styles currently available everywhere and the "granny style" kulots. They are comfy over a bathing suit, doing chores, protecting the "lower buttocks" from sunburn and various other uses. Many stores carry plaid or other "feminine" versions of boxers in the ladies undergarment sections.76.2.209.25 18:51, 24 January 2007 (UTC)Elizabeth Andrews

This page seems to be concentrated solely on sex. When reading an article about a piece of clothing, metioning how easy it is to see the 'genitalia' is ridiculous. I would expect this to be seen on such websites as 'uncyclopedia'(no offensive, but at the end of the day it is meant to be a humourous website).

Surely the articles advantages and disadvantages should be about how comfortable they are etc. Not how easy it is to have sex with them on!razza 19:12, 14 July 2006 (UTC)

 * I must say that I am finding myself in agreement. Although these are valid points, I do not feel that they are suitable for wikipedia.Lofty 19:14, 14 July 2006 (UTC)

 * I agree, this is wikipedia. Please make the artical less sexually orientated. Some users may find this offensive.--Chickenfeed9 19:49, 18 July 2006 (UTC)

 * That's just silly, how can anyone find an underwear entry as too sexually orientated.

 * Exactly, the content in that section was in no way encyclopedic. I removed it, but feel free to add back if there's a consensus.  Corpx 14:16, 22 January 2007 (UTC)

Are you sure?
Some men prefer to have sexual intercourse while wearing boxer shorts on their head. ? What's that about? Maybe that should be deleted?

image
The current image of the kickboxing boxing trunks used for the sport doesn't match the article about the underwear. Are the boxing trunks used in the sport serve the same purpose as the underwear?

The images
I too, disagree about the images on the page. One or the other needs to be chosen, we shouldn't have both, and we should have a picture of the item the actual article is about.

My point is one or the other of the images please, and can we have the image of the model in the Boxer Shorts back again? That picture made much more sense. Thanks.
 * Unfortunately we cannot: the fine model picture was deleted for lack of copyright release - an equivalent replacement could solve the problem, but is still lacking Fastifex 13:13, 11 September 2006 (UTC)

Removed Image
I removed an image from this page because it was of... me. I'm new to wikipedia and I don't know how to get into contact with whoever posted the image. Some help would be greatly appreciated. Until then, I feel very uncomfortable with the image on the page. 68.148.60.48 02:38, 11 February 2007 (UTC)

 * I think the person who posted the image has been banned, although I may be wrong. Someone else want to check it out? Fair enough that you don't want your image on the page. (Maybe this would be a good time to get a decent picture of an actual pair of boxers rather than a pair of kickboxing shorts?) Fipe 13:53, 22 February 2007 (UTC)

There's a Pub Domain Pic of a man in boxers on the Underwear page, but I'm not sure how to add it here if we wanted to use it. Just figured I tell someone Sagittarius Flame 20:55, 8 March 2007 (UTC)

title: Talk:Boxer shorts/Archive 1


text:
Talk:Livestrong wristband

Livestrong Giro Atmos
''Removed the text below. This is an article about Livestrong wristbands, not Livestrong products in general. There's no relationship between the Giro Atmos and the wristbands, except they happen to belong to the same charity and bear the same logo. The text should either be moved to an article about Livestrong in general, or about Livestrong promotional products in particular.''

Giro, a growing manufacturer of helmets in the United States and Canada teamed up with the discovery channel in early 2007 to release a special livestrong edition of Giro's best selling helmet: the Giro Atmos. 5% of sales from the discovery channel store benefit the Lance Armstrong Foundation, and the helmet comes in a regular black and yellow Livestrong style with the Livestrong logo found on bracelets, cycling jerseys etc.

LAF
''Since this article isn't about the LAF, I removed the following segment of text from the article. Feel free to recycle.''

Today, nearly 10 million people are living with cancer, and chances are you know one of them. The Lance Armstrong Foundation helps people with cancer focus on living. We believe knowledge is power and attitude is everything. Join us in our work to provide the practical information and tools they need to live strong. -- [[User:MacGyverMagic|Mgm|(talk)]] 21:54, Oct 23, 2004 (UTC)

This page move needs to be undone. livestrong.org is clear that Livestrong is spelled Livestrong. Bollar 23:04, July 24, 2005 (UTC)

Requested move
The page was originally at Livestrong wristband, but was moved to LiveStrong wristband by User:Richardbooth. User:Bollar then moved it back by cutting and pasting., that has now been reverted. Livestrong seems to be correct according to (though it usually uses all upper case). --Vclaw 17:15, 28 July 2005 (UTC)
 * Support -- as above, the page move to LiveStong was in error and most wiki links are to Livestrong wristband. Bollar 21:00, July 28, 2005 (UTC)
 * Support per Bollar and Vclaw. --WikiFan04Talk 4:33, 12 Aug 2005 (CDT)

I've done the move. Paul August ☎ 04:19, August 15, 2005 (UTC)

Discussion
Who is the manufacturer of the wristband?

 * Nike. --WikiFan04Talk 4:32, 12 Aug 2005 (CDT)

Why?
This entire article is written in the past sense, yet the LAF and the livestrong campaign are still in effect today —Preceding unsigned comment added by T-rex (talk • contribs) 17:33, 30 July 2005

Image
I think the image should be reverted back to the other one of just the wristband, it was much clearer. WestJet
 * Agreed- I don't think the current image shows the colour very well. -- Dandelions 13:40, 5 August 2006 (UTC)

Jews?
honestly what is all this about? with out any links soon, I think I'll delete that section --T-rex 22:42, 2 August 2006 (UTC)
 * Alrgiht, I've given this enough time, I'm deleting it --T-rex 12:16, 4 August 2006 (UTC)

intro
Who's the idiot that talks about blue armbands when everyone knows they're yellow? See the photograph. In case you're wondering why they are yellow: ask yourself which is the color of the yellow jersey in the Tour de France? Also, it's quite possible Lance survived pneumonia. It seems slightly more important he survived cancer. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 84.82.140.68 (talk) 18:27, 4 December 2011 (UTC)

John Edwards???
As an example of a man who cares enough about cancer to, say, stay loyal to his wife as she is dying of it? This photo is supposed to represent Livestrong? Dudes! --Christofurio (talk) 15:04, 18 March 2012 (UTC)

title: Talk:Livestrong wristband


text:
Tommy DeVito

Tommy DeVito may refer to:

 * Tommy DeVito (American football), American football quarterback
 * Tommy DeVito (musician) (1928–2020), American musician and singer, member of The Four Seasons
 * Tommy DeVito, a character in the film Goodfellas played by Joe Pesci, based on real-life gangster Thomas DeSimone

title: Tommy DeVito


text:
Category:Divination

Articles relating to divination, the attempt to gain insight into a question or situation by way of an occultic, standardized process or ritual. Used in various forms throughout history, diviners ascertain their interpretations of how a querent should proceed by reading signs, events, or omens, or through alleged contact with a supernatural agency.

title: Category:Divination


text:
User:CyborgTosser/name

Cyborgs beware, I am the CyborgTosser.

What my name is not
My user name may be a matter of concern to some people from the UK. I discovered this quite to my surprise when I nominated myself for adminship back in September. There were those who said that some users would find it offensive, and there were those who thought it was funny. For the benefit of those, like myself, who are not from the UK, "tosser" is slang for someone who masturbates a lot.

For the record, I was only peripherally aware of the slang word, and unaware of what it meant. Thus, the name was not intended to mean what some have interpreted it to mean. After some deliberation, I decided to keep the name; I feel that anyone who misinterprets my name can read my user page before voicing their concern.

What my name is
Cyborg and tosser are types of computer players in Scorched Earth. I like this explanation, but it is not actually not something considered when I came up with the name. The original idea was that when cyborgs got in my way, I would toss them aside. Ok, I'll admit both explanations are equally geeky, but I make no apologies. In fact, perhaps you computer geeks out there will find this Java code sample entertaining:

title: User:CyborgTosser/name


text: User talk:66.120.158.84

title: User talk:66.120.158.84


text:
User:Vervin

||| .. 0 --

I am since 1 September 2004 here.

Countries that I have visited:

• •  •  •  •  •  •  •  •  •  •  •  •  •  •

Links

 * WikiCommons

bg:User:Vervin cs:User:Vervin de:User:Vervin el:User:Vervin es:User:Vervin fr:User:Vervin nl:User:Vervin pl:User:Vervin ru:User:Vervin sl:User:Vervin uk:User:Vervin

title: User:Vervin


text:
Talk:Alexander Wilson (ornithologist)

Images
Both images in this article are of poor quality. Perhaps someone familiar with the American Memory can dig out some better ones? There's better version of Wilson's birds on, so probably we can use it (the book itself is in the PD so probably the scan from the book is in PD too, right?). --romanm (talk) 22:05, 23 Oct 2004 (UTC)

Re-insertion of interesting link
Since I noticed that there was some concern with the link to “Majesty Sublime” I had added previously, I am re-inserting it (under the more precise title "Alexander Wilson")with the assurance that it is not spam and does pertain directly to Alexander Wilson. The link provides a brief overview of Wilson’s work not only as an ornithologist, but also as a writer and poet. The link is a well-researched and reputable online exhibit from Cornell University libraries.--MannLib (talk) 12:52, 19 August 2008 (UTC)MannLib

Non-Wilson Illustration
"Oiseaux" is not from American Ornithology. See one of the reference links on the page to see all of Wilson's illustrations. Isegot 01:40, 21 March 2015 (UTC) — Preceding unsigned comment added by Isegot (talk • contribs)

 * "Oiseaux" was by Jacques Barraband, in H.N. Zoologie. Updated image, and removed from Wilson's gallery. Zeete (talk) 22:14, 9 May 2016 (UTC)

"Alexander Wilson"
The usage of and the existence of this topic is under discussion, see Talk:Alexander Wilson (disambiguation) -- 70.51.46.39 (talk) 06:21, 26 March 2016 (UTC)

Move discussion in progress
There is a move discussion in progress on Talk:Alexander Wilson (disambiguation) which affects this page. Please participate on that page and not in this talk page section. Thank you. —RMCD bot 03:45, 29 March 2016 (UTC)

title: Talk:Alexander Wilson (ornithologist)


text:
Tay

Tay or TAY may refer to:

People and languages

 * Tay (name), including lists of people with the given name, surname and nickname
 * Tay people, an ethnic group of Vietnam
 * Tày language
 * Atayal language, an Austronesian language spoken in Taiwan (ISO 639-3 code "tay")
 * TAY (singer), Portuguese singer Tiago Amaral (born 1999)

Canada

 * Tay, Ontario, a township
 * Tay River, Ontario
 * Tay Canal, a part of the river
 * Tay Sound, Nunavut

Scotland

 * River Tay
 * Tay Bridge, a railway bridge that collapsed, killing all on board a train
 * Loch Tay, a freshwater loch
 * Firth of Tay, the estuary into which the Tay flows

Elsewhere

 * Tay, Iran, a village
 * Tay, Ardabil, a village
 * Lough Tay, a lake in County Wicklow, Ireland
 * Tay Head, Antarctica
 * Firth of Tay (Antarctica)

Transportation

 * Rolls-Royce RB.44 Tay, a turbojet aircraft engine
 * Rolls-Royce RB.183 Tay, a turbofan aircraft engine
 * ASL Airlines Belgium, formerly TNT Airways, ICAO airline code TAY
 * Tartu Airport, Estonia, IATA code TAY

Other uses

 * Tay (treasurer), a high official of Ancient Egypt
 * HMS Tay, several Royal Navy ships
 * Tay (chatbot), an AI chatbot released by Microsoft in 2016
 * Radio Tay, a group of three Independent Local Radio stations in Scotland
 * Tay FM
 * Tay 2
 * University of Tampere (Finnish: Tampereen yliopisto (Tay)), a university in Finland
 * Tay, a fictional location in the video game Riven

title: Tay


text:
Italian grammar

Italian grammar is the body of rules describing the properties of the Italian language. Italian words can be divided into the following lexical categories: articles, nouns, adjectives, pronouns, verbs, adverbs, prepositions, conjunctions, and interjections.

Articles
Italian articles vary according to definiteness (definite, indefinite, and partitive), number, gender, and the initial sound of the subsequent word. Partitive articles compound the preposition di with the corresponding definite article, to express uncertain quantity. In the plural, they typically translate into English as "few"; in the singular, typically as "some".

Inflection of nouns and adjectives
Nouns have gender (masculine, feminine or, in many instances, both) and inflect in number (singular and plural). When a noun refers to people or animals with natural gender, grammatical gender typically corresponds. The gender each noun is written in is the opposite of arbitrary. Because most nouns have a masculine and a feminine form, the form the given noun is written in could change the entire structure of the sentence. As in most other Romance languages, the historical neuter has merged with the masculine. A subgroup of these deriving from Latin's second declension are considered feminine in the plural. Subclauses and infinitives are masculine. Adjectives inflect for gender and number in patterns broadly similar to nouns.

In the last two examples, only the article carries information about gender and number.

Most masculine words that end in -io pronounced as drop the -o and thus end in -i in the plural: vecchio / vecchi ("old"), funzionario / funzionari ("functionary(-ies)"), esempio / esempi ("example(s)"), etc.

The Italian hard and soft C and G phenomenon leads to certain peculiarities in spelling and pronunciation:
 * Words in -cio and -gio form plurals in -ci and -gi, e.g. bacio / baci ("kiss(es)")
 * Words in -cia and -gia have been a point of contention. According to a commonly employed rule, they:
 * form plurals in -ce and -ge if the final letter before the suffix is a consonant: frangia, frange ("fringe(s)"); faccia, facce ("face(s)").
 * form plurals in -cie and -gie if the final letter before the suffix is a vowel: camicia, camicie ("shirt(s)"); ciliegia, ciliegie ("cherry"/"cherries"). Note that the presence of an i in the plural ending has no impact on the pronunciation in this case.
 * when the i is stressed, it always remains in plural: farmacia / farmacie ("chemist's shop(s)"), nevralgia / nevralgie ("neuralgia(s)").
 * Words in -co and -go behave irregularly: for some words the plural form causes the hard consonant to become soft, and for others the consonant remains hard. "The grammarians are skeptical of any attempt at giving a ruling about this area". There are, however, certain rules of thumb:
 * plurals are formed with -chi and -ghi if the last letter before the suffix is a consonant or a stressed vowel: fungo / funghi ("mushroom(s)"), stecco / stecchi ("stick(s)"), mago / maghi ("magician(s)"), fuoco / fuochi ("fire(s)")
 * plurals are formed with -ci and -gi if the last letter before the suffix is an unstressed vowel: comico / comici ("comedian(s)"), medico / medici ("physician(s)")
 * in words ending with -logo suffix, the plural is usually in -gi when -logo means "expert" or "student", corresponding to English -logist (e.g. archeologo / archeologi, "archaeologist(s)"), while it is in -ghi when it means "speech" or "reasoning", corresponding often to English -logue/-log (e.g. catalogo / cataloghi, "catalogue(s)").
 * there are exceptions such as amico / amici ("friend(s)"), greco / greci ("Greek(s)"), valico / valichi ("mountain pass(es)"), carico / carichi ("cargo(s)").
 * Words in -ca and -ga form plurals in -che and -ghe, e.g. amica / amiche ("female friend(s)")

Nouns
Most nouns are derived from Latin. Many of these are themselves borrowed from Greek (e.g. poeta below). Although Italian nouns do not inflect for case, they are derived from a mixture of the Latin nominative and accusative cases:

Nouns ending in any letter other than -a, -e or -o, as well as nouns ending in a stressed vowel, are normally invariable in the plural. Thus:
 * la gru / le gru ("the crane(s)", from Latin grūs / grūes)
 * la città / le città ("the city(ies)", contracted form of archaic cittade, cittadi, from Latin cīvitātem, cīvitātēs)
 * il caffè / i caffè ("the coffee(s)")
 * il film / i film ("the film(s)")

There are certain words (derived from Latin second-declension neuter nouns) that are masculine in the singular and feminine or masculine in the plural. Examples include: These nouns' endings derive regularly from the Latin neuter endings of the second declension (sg. -um / pl. -a), but there are some from the third declension as well: e.g. il gregge / le greggi (flock(s), but i greggi works, too); the tradition of calling them "irregular" or "mobile gender" (genere mobile) would come from the paradigm that there are so few nouns of this kind that the existence of neuter can be considered vestigial (compared to Romanian, which has many more nouns of the masculine singular–feminine plural type, and as such are usually classified as a separate neuter gender). The choice of plural is sometimes left to the user, while in some cases there are differences of meaning:
 * il braccio / le braccia or i bracci ("the arm(s)")
 * l'uovo / le uova ("the egg(s)")
 * il ginocchio / le ginocchia or i ginocchi ("the knee(s)")
 * il sopracciglio / le sopracciglia or i sopraccigli ("the eyebrow(s)")
 * Sometimes, for body parts, the feminine/neuter plural denotes the literal meaning while the masculine one denotes a figurative meaning: il braccio ("the arm") / le braccia ("the arms") / i bracci ("the isthmuses", "the inlets"); il corno ("the horn") / le corna ("the horns" of an animal) / i corni ("the horns" as musical instruments)
 * Sometimes, especially in poetic and old-fashioned Italian, the masculine plural acts as a count noun, while the neuter/feminine plural acts as a mass noun: il cervello ("the brain") / due cervelli ("two brains") / le cervella ("the cerebral matter"); l'anello ("the ring") / due anelli ("two rings") / le anella ("ringlets"); furthermore, il dito ("the finger") / le dita ("the fingers") and also due dita ("two fingers") / but i diti indici ("the index fingers")

Most noun stems are derived from the accusative: Latin socer/socerum begets Italian suocero, and Latin pēs/pēdem begets Italian piede. There are a few exceptions, however, such as uomo from Latin homo/hominem and moglie from Latin mulier/mulierem. Neuter third-declension nouns may bequeath Italian nouns either from the nominative/accusative case (e.g. capo from caput, cuore from cor) or from the oblique case used for other cases and for the plural (e.g. latte from lac, lact-, giure from ius, iur-).

Irregular plurals
There are a few genuine irregular plurals in Italian (plurali irregolari). Most of these were introduced in Vulgar Latin, but some derive from irregular Latin plurals. Examples include:
 * uomo / uomini (man/men; Latin homo / homines)
 * il dio / gli dei (god(s); note also the irregularity in the article: gli instead of i)
 * bue / buoi (ox(en); Latin bovem / boves)
 * tempio / templi (temple(s); the plural retains the l from Vulgar Latin templi in order to distinguish it from tempi, the plural of tempo; the l is lost in the singular)

Alteration
In Italian, altered nouns are nouns with particular shades of meaning. They are divided into diminutives, "vezzeggiativi" (diminutives with kindness and sympathy nuance), augmentatives and pejoratives.

Many other alterations can be built, sometimes with more than one suffix: for example, libro (book) can become libretto (diminutive), libricino (double diminutive), libercolo (diminutive + pejorative), libraccio (pejorative), libraccione (pejorative + augmentative). Uomo (man), coming from Latin homo, becomes om- in altered forms: omino/ometto (diminutive), omone (augmentative), omaccio (pejorative), omaccione (augmentative + pejorative).

Adjectives
In Italian, an adjective can be placed before or after the noun. The unmarked placement for most adjectives (e.g. colours, nationalities) is after the noun, but this is reversed for a few common classes of adjective — those denoting beauty, age, goodness, and size are placed before the noun in the unmarked case, and after the noun for emphasis.

Placing the adjective after the noun can alter its meaning or indicate restrictiveness of reference. If a noun has many adjectives, usually no more than one will be before the noun.

 * un libro rosso = a red book (the unmarked case)
 * un rosso libro = a book that is red (the marked case; it is especially important to the intended meaning that the book is red, as opposed to some other color)
 * un buon uomo = a good man (the unmarked case)
 * un uomo buono = a man who is good (the marked case; it is especially important to the intended meaning that he is good, the adjective is emphasized)

Adjectives are inflected for gender and number:

Degrees of comparison
Italian has three degrees of comparison: comparative, relative superlative and absolute superlative.

The comparative and relative superlative are formed with più ("more", "most"); for instance:
 * sono più alto di te ("I am taller than you")
 * sono il più alto fra gli uomini ("I am the tallest of men")

Vice versa, inverting the order of the words, it's required to replace più with meno ("less, fewer"); for instance:
 * sono il meno forte del campionato ("I am the least strong of the championship")
 * tu sei meno alto di me  ("You are less tall than me")

Another comparative form is made with the word come ('as', 'like'); for instance:
 * sono alto come te ("I am as tall as you")

The absolute comparative is formed by placing troppo ("too") before the adjective; for instance:
 * sei troppo buono ("you are too good").

The absolute superlative, derived from the Latin synthetic superlative in -issimus, is formed by adding -issimo to an adjective: intelligente ("intelligent"), intelligentissimo ("very intelligent"); sporco ("dirty") sporchissimo ("very dirty"). If the two letters before the last vowel are pr or br (e.g., aspro, celebre), the r is removed and -errimo is the suffix used (asperrimo, celeberrimo) ("very sour", "very famous"). Another way to form the absolute superlative is to place either molto or assai ("very") before the adjective. For instance sporchissimo and molto sporco ("very dirty") are the same, although the form ending in issimo is usually perceived as more emphatic; that is, sporchissimo is dirtier than molto sporco.

Some adjectives have irregular comparatives (though with regularly-formed variants also in common use), like
 * buono ("good"), migliore / più buono ("better" or "best"), ottimo / buonissimo ("very good")
 * cattivo ("bad"), peggiore / più cattivo ("worse" or "worst"), pessimo / cattivissimo ("very bad")
 * grande ("big"), maggiore / più grande ("bigger"), massimo / grandissimo ("very big")
 * piccolo ("small"), minore / più piccolo ("smaller"), minimo / piccolissimo ("very small")

Possessive adjectives
With the exception of 3rd person plural loro 'their', possessive adjectives, like articles, must agree with the gender and number of the noun they modify. Hence, mio zio (my uncle), but mia zia (my aunt). So depending on what is being modified, the possessive adjectives are:

In most cases the possessive adjective is used with an article, usually the definite article:

And sometimes with the indefinite article:

The only exception is when the possessive refers to an individual family member (unless the family member is described or characterized in some way):

Mamma and papà (or babbo, in Central Italy; "mother" and "father"), however, are usually used with the article.

For emphasis, however, possessive adjectives are sometimes placed after the noun. This is usually after words like 'colpa' (fault, sin); 'casa' (house, home); 'merito' (merit); 'piacere' (pleasure); or in vocative expressions.

If the antecedent of a third person possessive (being used as an object) is the subject of the sentence, proprio can be used instead of suo, though the usage of proprio is declining in spoken language:

The first sentence is unambiguous and states that Marco took his own point of view, whereas the second sentence is ambiguous because it may mean that Marco took either his own or Maria's point of view.

Demonstrative adjectives
Italian originally had three degrees of demonstrative adjectives: questo (for items near or related to the first person speaker: English "this"), quello (for items near or related to an eventual third person: English "that"), and codesto (for items near or related to an eventual second person). The usage has undergone a simplification, including the meaning of codesto in quello, and only Tuscan speakers still use codesto. Its use is very rare in modern language, and the word has acquired a rather pejorative connotation.

Pronouns
Italian features a sizeable set of pronouns. Personal pronouns are inflected for person, number, case, and, in the third person, gender. Literary subject pronouns also have a distinction between animate (egli, ella) and inanimate (esso, essa) antecedents, although this is lost in colloquial usage, where lui, lei and loro are the most used forms for animate subjects, while no specific pronoun is employed for inanimate subjects (if needed, demonstrative pronouns such as "questo" or "quello" may be used). There is also the uninflected pronoun ciò, which is only used with abstract antecedents.

Personal pronouns are normally omitted in the subject, as the conjugation is usually enough to determine the grammatical person. They are used when some emphasis is needed, e.g. sono italiano ("I am Italian") vs. io sono italiano ("I [specifically, as opposed to others] am Italian").

The words ci, vi and ne act both as personal pronouns (respectively instrumental and genitive case) and clitic pro-forms for "there" (ci and vi, with identical meaning – as in c'è, ci sono, v'è, vi sono, ci vengo, etc.) and "from there" (ne – as in: "è entrato in casa alle 10:00 e ne è uscito alle 11:00").

Notes:

Clitic pronouns
Though objects come after the verb as a rule, this is often not the case with a class of unstressed clitic pro-forms.

Clitic pronouns are replaced with the stressed form for emphatic reasons. A somewhat similar situation is represented by the dative shift in English ditransitive verbs. Compare, for example, (emphasis in italic) "John gave a book to her" with "John gave her a book". In Italian these two different emphases map respectively to "John diede un libro a lei" (stressed form) and "John le diede un libro" (clitic form). Compared to English, Italian presents a richer set of cases.

Clitic pronouns generally come before the verb, but in certain types of constructions, such as lo devo fare, they can also appear as enclitics (attached to the verb itself) – in this case, devo farlo. In the infinitive, gerund and, except with third-person courtesy forms, imperative moods clitic pronouns must always be compound to the suffix as enclitics (as in confessalo! [2p. sg.]/confessiamolo! [1p. pl.]/confessatelo! [2p. pl.], ricordandolo and mangiarlo).

Other examples:

(Compare with the similar use of objective pronouns and pro-forms in French and Catalan.)

Finally, in the imperative mood, the objective pronouns come once again after the verb, but this time as a suffix:

 * Stressed forms of all four non-subject cases are used when emphasized (e.g. "uccidi me, non lui" ("kill me, not him"), dallo a lei ("give it to her"), lo farò con lui ("I'll do it with that"), etc.).
 * In colloquial speech, form I. of the dative (mi, ti, gli, le, si, ci, vi) is often associated with the emphasized form of the dative (a me, a te, a lui, a lei, a sé, a noi, a voi, a loro) in such a way: a me mi danno un libro ("they give me a book"), a loro gli hanno venduto una casa ("they sold them a house"). Though widely used, this redundant usage is considered non-standard.

Combinations of clitics
In Italian it is possible to append more than one clitic to a single verb. In normal usage, two is the usual limit, although clusters of three can occasionally arise for some speakers, especially with impersonal constructs (e.g. Ce la si sente = "One feels up to it", or Nessuno ha ancora visto l'ultimo film di Woody Allen, quindi ce lo si vede tutti insieme! = "Nobody has watched the last Woody Allen movie yet, so we have to watch it together!"). Any two cases can be used together, except for accusative + genitive, and word order is strictly determined according to one of the following two patterns:

When third-person non-reflexive accusative or genitive clitics are used, form II. of the other clitic is used, which always precedes it. Thus:

For example:
 * Ve lo dico già da ora: io non verrò! = "I already told you [pl.] (said it to you): I'm not coming!" (dative + accusative)
 * Ce li ha già dati = "He/she/you already gave them to us" (dative + accusative)
 * Ecco l'uomo di cui mi innamorai! Te ne ho portato la foto! = "Here's the man I fell in love with! I brought you the picture (of him)!" (dative + genitive)
 * Vedresti Carla con una gonna lunga e un cappello? – Sì, ce la vedrei = "Could you imagine Carla with a long skirt and a hat? – Yes, I could imagine her with that" (instrumental + accusative)
 * Riuscirai a trasportare abbastanza mele con quel piccolo furgoncino? – Uomo di poca fede! Ce ne trasporterò quintali! = "Will you be able to transport enough apples with such a small van? – Man of little faith! I'll transport quintals of them (with it)!" (instrumental + genitive)

Otherwise, form I. is used for both clitics:

Thus:
 * Mi ti mostro senza veli = "I'm showing myself without veils to you" (accusative + dative)
 * Ti si fece incontro = "He/she approached you (moved himself/herself to you)" (dative + accusative)
 * "[G]li ti darò nelle mani, perché in pezzi ti faccia come tu meriti" = "I will deliver you to him, so that he will tear you to pieces as you deserve" (dative + accusative)
 * Marco ha vinto! Che farà con tutti quei soldi? – Ci si pagherà l'Università = "Marco won! What's he going to do with all that money? – He'll use it to pay for college (pay for college for himself with it)" (instrumental + dative)
 * Metti via quella pistola! Ti ci ammazzi! = "Put away that pistol! You'll use it to kill yourself (kill yourself with it)!" (accusative + instrumental)

Apocopated forms
Clitic forms (except "cui") before a verbal form beginning with a  vowel (except when they are compound to the suffix) can be apocopated; apocopations are more common before verbal forms "è", "ho", "hai", "ha", "hanno", "abbia", and "abbiano" of verbs "essere" and "avere", than when they are before verbal forms of other verbs, which are more rare, also apocopations of "che" are rare, while apocopation of "cui" is avoided due to phonetic ambiguities with words such as "qua" (homophone to "cu'ha"). Apocopation is not mandatory. Ci is graphically apocopated only in front of "e" and "i" (as in c'è and c'inserisco), but the "i" is graphically kept in front of other vowels (as in mi ci addentro), although in all cases it is pronounced /t͡ʃ/ (without the "i"); similarly gli is graphically apocopated only in front of "i" (as in gl'impongo) but not in front of other vowels (gli è dato sapere), although in all cases the "i" is never pronounced. The apocopated form of che is always pronounced /k/, even when otherwise common phonetic rules switch their pronunciations.

T–V distinction
Italian makes use of the T–V distinction in second-person address. The second-person nominative pronoun is tu for informal use, and for formal use, the third-person form Lei (and historically Ella) has been used since the Renaissance. It is used like "Sie" in German, "usted" in Spanish, and "vous" in French. Lei was originally an object form of ella, which in turn referred to an honorific of the feminine gender such as la magnificenza tua/vostra ("Your Magnificence") or Vossignoria ("Your Lordship"), and by analogy, Loro came to be used as the formal plural. Previously, and in some Italian regions today (e.g. Campania), voi was used as the formal singular, like French "vous". The pronouns lei (third-person singular), Lei (formal second-person singular), loro (third-person plural), and Loro (formal second-person plural) are pronounced the same but written as shown, and formal Lei and Loro take third-person conjugations. Formal Lei is invariable for gender (always feminine), but adjectives that modify it are not: one would say to a man La conosco ("I know you") but Lei è alto ("You are tall"). Formal Loro is variable for gender: Li conosco ("I know you [masc. pl.]") vs. Le conosco ("I know you [fem. pl.]"), etc. The formal plural is very rarely used in modern Italian; the unmarked form is widely used instead. For example: ''Gino, Lei è un bravo ingegnere. Marco, Lei è un bravo architetto. Insieme, voi sarete una gran bella squadra.'' ("Gino, you are a good engineer. Marco, you are a good architect. Together, you will make a very good team.").

Verbs
Based on the ending of their infiniti presenti (-are, -ere, or -ire), all Italian verbs can be assigned to three distinct conjugation patterns. Exceptions are found: fare "to do/make" (from Latin FACĔRE) and dire "to say" (from Latin DICĔRE) were originally 2nd conjugation verbs that reduced the unstressed vowel in the infinitive (and consequentially in the future and conditional, whose stem derives from the infinitive), but still follow the 2nd conjugation for all the other tenses; this behaviour is similarly featured in the verbs ending in -trarre, -porre and -durre, derived respectively from the Latin TRAHĔRE (to drag), PONĔRE (to put) and DVCĔRE (to lead).

Just like many other Romance languages, Italian verbs express distinct verbal aspects by means of analytic structures such as periphrases, rather than synthetic ones; the only aspectual distinction between two synthetic forms is the one between the imperfetto (habitual past tense) and the passato remoto (perfective past tense), although the latter is usually replaced in spoken language by the passato prossimo.

Compound tenses
Aspects other than the habitual and the imperfective, such as the perfective, the progressive and the prospective, are rendered in Italian by a series of periphrastic structures that may or may not be perceived as different tenses by different speakers. Note the difference between:
 * Perfect aspect: io ho fatto (English: I have done)
 * Progressive aspect: io sto facendo (English: I'm doing)
 * Prospective aspect: io sto per fare (English: I'm about to do)

Impersonal forms

 * Notes

Compound tense auxiliary verbs
In Italian, compound tenses expressing perfect aspect are formed with either auxiliary verb avere ("to have") for transitive verbs and some intransitive verbs and with essere ("to be") for the remaining intransitive verbs, plus the past participle. Progressive aspect is rendered by verb stare plus the gerund. The prospective aspect is formed with stare plus the preposition per and the infinitive.

The passive voice of transitive verbs is formed with essere in the perfective and prospective aspects, with venire in the progressive or habitual aspect, and with either essere or venire in the perfective aspects:
 * Il cancello è stato appena aperto. ("The gate has just been opened.")
 * Il cancello sta per essere aperto ("The gate is about to be opened")
 * Il cancello sta venendo aperto in questo momento. ("The gate is being opened right now.")
 * Il cancello viene aperto ogni giorno. ("The gate is opened every day.")
 * Il cancello fu/venne aperto in fretta. ("The gate was quickly opened.")

For the perfect tenses of intransitive verbs a reliable rule cannot be given, although a useful rule of thumb is that if a verb's past participle can take on adjectival value, essere is used, otherwise avere. Also, reflexive verbs and unaccusative verbs use essere (typically non-agentive verbs of motion and change of state, i.e. involuntary actions like cadere ("to fall") or morire ("to die")).

The distinction between the two auxiliary verbs is important for the correct formation of the compound tenses and is essential to the agreement of the past participle. Some verbs, like vivere ("to live"), may use both: Io ho vissuto ("I have lived") can alternatively be expressed as, Io sono vissuto.

Past participle
The past participle is used in Italian as both an adjective and to form many of the compound tenses of the language. There are regular endings for the past participle, based on the conjugation class (see below). There are, however, many irregular forms as not all verbs follow the pattern, particularly the -ere verbs. Some of the more common irregular past participles include: essere (to be) → stato (same for stare); fare (to do, to make) → fatto; dire (to say, to tell) → detto; aprire (to open) → aperto; chiedere (to ask) → chiesto; chiudere (to close) → chiuso; leggere (to read) → letto; mettere (to put) → messo; perdere (to lose) → perso; prendere (to take, to get) → preso; rispondere (to answer) → risposto; scrivere (to write) → scritto; vedere (to see) → visto.

For the intransitive verbs taking essere, the past participle always agrees with the subject—that is, it follows the usual adjective agreement rules: egli è partito; ella è partita. This is also true for reflexive verbs, the impersonal si construction (which requires any adjectives that refer to it to be in the masculine plural: Si è sempre stanchi alla fine della giornata – One is always tired at the end of the day), and the passive voice, which also use essere (Queste mele sono state comprate da loro – These apples have been bought by them, against Essi hanno comprato queste mele – They bought these apples).

The past participle when used with avere never changes to agree with the subject. It must agree with the object, though, in sentences where this is expressed by a third person clitic pronoun (e.g. Hai mangiato la mela? – Sì, l ' ho mangiata (Have you eaten the apple? – Yes, I have eaten it)). When the object is expressed by a first or second person clitic pronoun instead, the agreement is optional: ''Maria! Ti ha chiamato / chiamata Giovanni? – No, non mi ha chiamato / chiamata'' (Maria! Has Giovanni called you? – No, he has not).

In all the other cases where the object is not expressed by a clitic pronoun, the agreement with the object is obsolescent in modern Italian (but still correct): La storia che avete raccontata (obsolete) / raccontato non mi convince (The story you told does not convince me); or compare Manzoni's Lucia aveva avute due buone ragioni with the more modern Lucia aveva avuto due buone ragioni (Lucia had had two good reasons).

Tense relationship in subordinate sentences
Italian inherits consecutio temporum, a grammar rule from Latin that governs the relationship between the tenses in principal and subordinate clauses. Consecutio temporum has very rigid rules. These rules require the subjunctive tense in order to express contemporaneity, posteriority and anteriority in relation with the principal clause.

 * To express contemporaneity when the principal clause is in a simple tense (future, present, or simple past,) the subordinate clause uses the present subjunctive, to express contemporaneity in the present.
 * Penso che Davide sia intelligente. I think David is smart.
 * When the principal clause has a past imperfect or perfect, the subordinate clause uses the imperfect subjunctive, expressing contemporaneity in the past.
 * Pensavo che Davide fosse intelligente. I thought David was smart.
 * To express anteriority when the principal clause is in a simple tense (future, or present or passato prossimo) the subordinate clause uses the past subjunctive.
 * Penso che Davide sia stato intelligente. I think David has been smart.
 * To express anteriority when the principal clause has a past imperfect or perfect, the subjunctive has to be pluperfect.
 * Pensavo che Davide fosse stato intelligente. I thought David had been smart.
 * To express posteriority the subordinate clause uses the future tense in the indicative mood, not the subjunctive, because the subjunctive has no future tense.
 * Penso che Davide sarà intelligente. I think David will be smart.
 * To express posteriority with respect to a past event, the subordinate clause uses the past conditional, whereas in other European languages (such as French, English, and Spanish) the present conditional is used.
 * Pensavo che Davide sarebbe stato intelligente. I thought that David would have been smart.

Regular conjugation
The infinitive of first conjugation verbs ends in -are, that of second conjugation verbs in -ere, and that of third conjugation verbs in -ire. In the following examples for different moods, the first conjugation verb is parlare (meaning to talk/speak), the second conjugation verb is temere (to fear) and the third conjugation verb is partire (to leave/depart.)

Indicative mood
Many third conjugation verbs insert an infix -sc- between the stem and the endings in the first, second, and third persons singular and third person plural of the present indicative and subjunctive, e.g., capire > capisco, capisci, capisce, capiamo, capite, capiscono (indicative) and capisca, capisca, capisca, capiamo, capiate, capiscano (subjunctive). This subgroup of third conjugation verbs is usually referred to as incoativi, because in Latin the original function of the suffix -sc- was to denote inchoative verbs, but this meaning is totally lost in modern Italian, where the suffix mostly serves a euphonic function.

Subjunctive mood
The Italian subjunctive mood is used to indicate cases of desire, express doubt, make impersonal emotional statements, and to talk about impending events.

 * Third conjugation verbs like capire mentioned above insert -isc- in the first, second, and third persons singular and third person plural of the present.
 * Compound forms (past and past perfect) are made by adding the past participle (e.g. parlato) to the corresponding auxiliary form (as "abbia") in the present and imperfect.

Conditional mood
As the table shows, verbs each take their own root from their class of verb: -are becomes -er-, -ere becomes -er-, and -ire becomes -ir-, the same roots as used in the future indicative tense. All verbs add the same ending to this root.

Some verbs do not follow this pattern, but take irregular roots, these include: Andare (to go) ~ Andr-, Avere (to have) ~ Avr-, Bere (to drink) ~ Berr-, Dare (to give) ~ Dar-, Dovere (to have to) ~ Dovr-, Essere (to be) ~ Sar-, Fare (to make/do) ~ Far-, Godere (to enjoy) ~ Godr-, Potere (to be able to) ~ Potr-, Rimanere (to remain) ~ Rimarr-, Sapere (to know) ~ Sapr-, Sedere (to sit) ~ Sedr-, Stare (to be/feel) ~ Star-, Tenere (to hold) ~ Terr-, Vedere (to see) ~ Vedr-, Venire (to come) ~ Verr-, Vivere (to live) ~ Vivr-, Volere (to want) ~ Vorr- etc.

The Italian conditional mood is a mood that refers to an action that is possible or likely, but is dependent upon a condition. Example:

It can be used in two tenses, the present, by conjugation of the appropriate verb, or the past, using the auxiliary conjugated in the conditional, with the past participle of the appropriate noun:

Many Italian speakers often use the imperfect instead of the conditional and subjunctive. Prescriptivists usually view this as incorrect, but it is frequent in colloquial speech and tolerated in all but high registers and in most writing:

The conditional can also be used in Italian to express "could", with the conjugated forms of potere ("to be able to"), "should", with the conjugated forms of dovere ("to have to"), or "would like", with the conjugated forms of "volere" (want):

Imperative mood
Verbs like capire insert -isc- in all except the noi and voi forms. Technically, the only real imperative forms are the second-person singular and plural, with the other persons being borrowed from the present subjunctive.

Non-finite forms

 * Infinitive: present: -are, -ere, -ire; past: avere/essere + past participle
 * Gerund: present: -ando, -endo, -endo; past: avendo/essendo + past participle
 * Participle: present: -ante -ente -ente; past: -ato, -uto (though verbs of the second conjugation almost always have a contracted desinence, e.g. "cuocere" (to cook) "cotto" (cooked)), -ito

Irregular verbs
While the majority of Italian verbs are regular, many of the most commonly used are irregular. In particular, the auxiliary verbs essere, stare and avere, and the common modal verbs dovere (expressing necessity or obligation), potere (expressing permission and to a lesser degree ability), sapere (expressing ability) and volere (expressing willingness) are all irregular.

The only irregular verbs of the first conjugation are dare (to give), which follows the same pattern as stare, and andare (to go), which features suppletive forms in the present of the indicative, subjunctive and imperative from the Latin verb VADERE. While apparently a 1st conjugation verb, fare is actually a highly irregular verb of the second conjugation. Even the third conjugation features a small handful of irregular verbs, like morire (to die), whose present is muoio, muori, muore, moriamo, morite, muoiono (indicative) and muoia, muoia, muoia, moriamo, moriate, muoiano (subjunctive).

The second conjugation combines the second and third conjugation of Latin; since the verbs belonging to the third conjugation were athematic, and they behaved less regularly than the ones belonging to the other conjugations (compare AMĀRE > AMAVI, AMATVS, first conjugation, and LEGĚRE > LEGI, LECTVS, third conjugation), the second conjugation Italian features many irregularities that trace back to the original paradigms of the Latin verbs: amare > amai, amato (first conjugation, regular), but leggere > lessi, letto (second conjugation, irregular).

Adverbs
An adjective can be made into a modal adverb by adding -mente (from Latin "mente", ablative of "mens" (mind), feminine noun) to the ending of the feminine singular form of the adjective. E.g. lenta "slow (feminine)" becomes lentamente "slowly". Adjectives ending in -re or -le lose their e before adding -mente (facile "easy" becomes facilmente "easily", particolare "particular" becomes particolarmente "particularly").

These adverbs can also be derived from the absolute superlative form of adjectives, e.g. lentissimamente ("very slowly"), facilissimamente ("very easily").

There is also a plethora of temporal, local, modal and interrogative adverbs, mostly derived from Latin, e.g. quando ("when"), dove ("where"), come ("how"), perché ("why"/"because"), mai ("never"), sempre ("always"), etc.

Prepositions
Italian has a closed class of basic prepositions, to which a number of adverbs can be added that also double as prepositions, e.g.: sopra il tavolo ("upon the table"), prima di adesso ("before now").

In modern Italian the prepositions tra and fra are interchangeable, and often chosen on the basis of euphony: tra fratelli ("among brothers") vs. fra i tralicci ("between the power pylons").

In modern Italian, all the basic prepositions except tra, fra, con and per have to be combined with an article placed next to them. Of these, con and per have optional combining forms: col, collo, colla, coll', coi, cogli, colle; pel, pello, pella, pell', pei, pegli, pelle; except for col and coi, which are occasionally used, however, these are archaic and very rare.

Prepositions normally require the article before the following noun in a similar way as the English language does. However Latin's lack of articles influenced several cases of prepositions used without article in Italian (e.g., "a capo", "da capo", "di colpo", "in bicicletta", "per strada").

The preposition su becomes su di before a pronoun (e.g., "su di te"). Some speakers also use su di before a word beginning in u for euphonic reasons (e.g., "su di un cavallo"), but this is regarded as incorrect by grammarians. Historically the variant form sur was used before the letter u; however, this form fell into disuse during the nineteenth century.

Syntax
Italian is an SVO language. Nevertheless, the SVO sequence is sometimes replaced by one of the other arrangements (SOV, VSO, OVS, etc.), especially for reasons of emphasis and, in literature, for reasons of style and metre: Italian has relatively free word order.

The subject is usually omitted when it is a pronoun – distinctive verb conjugations make it redundant. Subject pronouns are considered emphatic when used at all.

Questions are formed by a rising intonation at the end of the sentence (in written form, a question mark). There is usually no other special marker, although wh-movement does usually occur. In general, intonation and context are important to recognize questions from affirmative statements.

In general, adjectives come after the noun they modify, adverbs after the verb. But: as with French, adjectives coming before the noun indicate essential quality of the noun. Demonstratives (e.g. questo this, quello that) come before the noun, and a few particular adjectives (e.g. bello) may be inflected like demonstratives and placed before the noun.

Disputed points in Italian grammar
Among sometimes proscribed Italian forms are:
 * The usage of an indicative form where a subjunctive one is traditional; for instance: credo che Giorgio ieri fosse a casa ("I believe that yesterday George was at home") is considered proper, while credo che Giorgio ieri era a casa may not be; se Maria fosse stata a casa, le avrei telefonato ("if Mary had been at home, I would have telephoned her") is preferred, se Maria era a casa le telefonavo is often proscribed, despite being found in classic Italian writers.
 * The use of the object forms (lui, lei, loro and Lei) of third person pronouns instead of the subject forms (egli, ella, essi and Ella), which are employed in formal language.
 * Ma però, despite being widespread in spoken language, is proscribed in formal usage because it is redundant (ma and però are synonyms).

Italian grammar books
The first Italian grammar was printed by Giovanni Francesco Fortunio in 1516 with the title Regole grammaticali della volgar lingua. Ever since, several Italian and foreign scholars have published works devoted to its description. Among others may be mentioned the famous Grammatica storica della lingua italiana e dei suoi dialetti written by the philologist Gerhard Rohlfs, published at the end of the 1960s.

Among the most modern publications are those by Luca Serianni, in collaboration with Alberto Castelvecchi, Grammatica italiana. Suoni, forme, costrutti (Utet, Torino, 1998); and by Lorenzo Renzi, Giampaolo Salvi and Anna Cardinaletti, Grande grammatica italiana di consultazione (3 vol., Bologna, Il Mulino, 1988–1995). The most complete and accurate grammar in English is A Reference Grammar of Modern Italian by Martin Maiden and Cecilia Robustelli (McGraw-Hill, Chicago, 2000; 2nd edition Routledge, New York, 2013).

title: Italian grammar


text:
Category:Italian occultists

Italian occultists.

title: Category:Italian occultists