text:
User talk:202.21.158.12

May 2007
Your recent edit to P-n junction (diff) was reverted by an automated bot that attempts to recognize and repair vandalism to Wikipedia articles. If the bot reverted a legitimate edit, please accept my humble creator's apologies – if you bring it to the attention of the bot's owner, we may be able to improve its behavior. Click here for frequently asked questions about the bot and this warning. // MartinBot 04:30, 3 May 2007 (UTC)

Your recent edit to Microwave (diff) was reverted by an automated bot that attempts to recognize and repair vandalism to Wikipedia articles. If the bot reverted a legitimate edit, please accept my humble creator's apologies – if you bring it to the attention of the bot's owner, we may be able to improve its behavior. Click here for frequently asked questions about the bot and this warning. // MartinBot 03:28, 9 May 2007 (UTC)

The recent edit you made to Flow battery constitutes vandalism, and has been reverted. Please do not continue to vandalize pages; use the sandbox for testing. Thanks – Gurch 07:30, 9 May 2007 (UTC)

Please stop. If you continue to vandalize pages, you will be blocked from editing Wikipedia. Andrew_pmk | Talk 07:35, 9 May 2007 (UTC)

Please stop. If you continue to blank out (or delete portions of) page content, templates or other materials from Wikipedia, as you did to Microwave, you will be blocked from editing. ~ Enviroboy TalkContribs - 02:03, 10 May 2007 (UTC)

This is your last warning. The next time you vandalize Wikipedia, you will be blocked from editing. --Imroy 04:13, 11 May 2007 (UTC)

July 2007
Please do not add nonsense to Wikipedia, as you did to the Media Development Authority page. It is considered vandalism. If you would like to experiment, use the sandbox. Thank you. — Sengkang 09:01, 18 July 2007 (UTC)

Regarding edits to Agonist (muscle)
Thank you for contributing to Wikipedia, 202.21.158.12! However, your edit here was reverted by an automated bot that attempts to remove spam from Wikipedia. If you were trying to insert a good link, please accept my creator's apologies, but note that the link you added, matching rule example\.com, is on my list of links to remove and probably shouldn't be included in Wikipedia. Please read Wikipedia's external links guidelines for more information, and consult my list of frequently-reverted sites. For more information about me, see my FAQ page. Thanks! AntiSpamBot 02:58, 20 July 2007 (UTC)

Regarding edit to Yarn
Please stop. If you continue to vandalize Wikipedia, you will be blocked from editing. Joshuas88 03:26, 20 July 2007 (UTC)

Please refrain from making unconstructive edits to Wikipedia. Your edits appear to be vandalism and have been reverted. If you would like to experiment, please use the sandbox. Kuru talk  03:38, 23 July 2007 (UTC)

Please stop. If you continue to vandalize Wikipedia, you will be blocked from editing. Kuru talk  03:49, 23 July 2007 (UTC)

Please stop. If you continue to vandalize pages, you will be blocked from editing Wikipedia. — Sengkang 02:17, 30 July 2007 (UTC)

August 2007
Please stop. If you continue to vandalize Wikipedia, as you did to Raised-cosine filter, you will be blocked from editing. SMC89 12:31, 1 August 2007 (UTC)
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September 2007
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Regarding edits to Knowledge
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October 2007
Welcome to Wikipedia. Everyone is welcome to contribute constructively to the encyclopedia. However, one or more of the external links you added do not comply with our guidelines for external links and have been removed. Wikipedia is not a mere directory of links; nor should it be used for advertising or promotion. Since Wikipedia uses nofollow tags, external links do not alter search engine rankings. If you feel the link should be added to the article, then please discuss it on the before reinserting it. Please take a look at the welcome page to learn more about contributing to this encyclopedia. --Imroy 13:53, 4 October 2007 (UTC)

September 2008
Please refrain from making unconstructive edits to Wikipedia. Your edits appear to constitute vandalism and have been reverted. If you would like to experiment, please use the sandbox. Dicklyon (talk) 03:21, 9 September 2008 (UTC)
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April 2011
Please refrain from making unconstructive edits to Wikipedia, as you did at Spontaneous generation. Your edits appear to constitute vandalism and have been reverted or removed. If you would like to experiment, please use the sandbox. Thank you. P. D. Cook Talk to me! 04:09, 18 April 2011 (UTC)
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August 2011
Hello, and welcome to Wikipedia! I edit Wikipedia too, under the username Griffinofwales. I noticed that one of your recent edits, such as the one you made to Heat transfer with this edit, appeared to be unconstructive, and I’ve reverted it. In the future, I recommend you use the sandbox for testing. It also helps to let other people know about your change to Wikipedia with an informative edit summary. Please feel free to ask me questions about editing Wikipedia (or anything else) on my talk page. You may also wish to read the introduction to editing. Thanks! Griffinofwales (talk) Simple English Wikipedia - Come and join! 01:15, 3 August 2011 (UTC)

Please stop your disruptive editing. If you continue to vandalize Wikipedia, as you did at Boeing CH-47 Chinook, you may be blocked from editing. MilborneOne (talk) 09:15, 8 August 2011 (UTC)

January 2012
Thank you for your interest in editing Wikipedia. Your edit on the page Critical Mach number was successful, but because it was not considered beneficial to the article, the edit has been reverted or removed. If you would like to experiment with editing, please use the sandbox instead. Please take a look at the welcome page to learn more about contributing to this encyclopedia. Thank you. Soliloquialtalk 03:01, 4 January 2012 (UTC)

May 2012
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July 2012
Hello, and welcome to Wikipedia. Although everyone is invited to contribute, at least one of your recent edits, such as the one you made to Argument, did not appear to be constructive and has been reverted or removed. Please use the sandbox for any test edits you would like to make, and read the welcome page to learn more about contributing constructively to this encyclopedia. Thank you. Grayfell (talk) 05:00, 4 July 2012 (UTC)
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Please refrain from making unconstructive edits to Wikipedia, as you did at Jay Chou. Your edits appear to constitute vandalism and have been reverted or removed. If you would like to experiment, please use the sandbox. Thank you. SeoMac (talk) 03:29, 10 July 2012 (UTC)

October 2012
Hello, I'm Moe Epsilon. I wanted to let you know that I undid one or more of your recent contributions to Human anatomy because it didn't appear constructive. If you think I made a mistake, or if you have any questions, you can leave me a message on my talk page. Regards, — Moe   Epsilon  04:23, 23 October 2012 (UTC)
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January 2013
Hello, I'm Webclient101. I noticed that you made a change to an article, Qian Hu Corporation, but you didn't provide a source. I’ve removed it for now, but if you’d like to include a citation to a reliable source and re-add it, please do so! If you think I made a mistake, or if you have any questions, you can leave me a message on my talk page. Thanks, Webclient101 talk 03:39, 24 January 2013 (UTC)

May 2013
Please refrain from making test edits in Wikipedia pages, such as those you made to Halogen , even if you intend to fix them later. Your edits do not appear to be constructive and have been reverted. If you would like to experiment again, please use the sandbox. Thank you. Materialscientist (talk) 03:53, 7 May 2013 (UTC)

Please refrain from making test edits in Wikipedia pages, such as those you made to Halogen , even if you intend to fix them later. Your edits do not appear to be constructive and have been reverted. If you would like to experiment again, please use the sandbox. Thank you. Materialscientist (talk) 04:43, 7 May 2013 (UTC)

August 2013
Hello, I'm Widr. I wanted to let you know that I undid one or more of your recent contributions to Hospitality because it did not appear constructive. If you would like to experiment, you can use the sandbox. If you think I made a mistake, or if you have any questions, you can leave me a message on my talk page. Widr (talk) 07:30, 12 August 2013 (UTC)
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November 2013
Hello, I'm Jackfork. I wanted to let you know that I undid one or more of your recent contributions to Biosafety cabinet because it did not appear constructive. If you would like to experiment, you can use the sandbox. If you think I made a mistake, or if you have any questions, you can leave me a message on my talk page. Thanks! Jackfork (talk) 08:52, 2 November 2013 (UTC)
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May 2014
Hello, I'm Cubs197. I wanted to let you know that I undid one of your recent contributions, such as the one you made with this edit to Classful network, because it didn’t appear constructive to me. If you think I made a mistake, or if you have any questions, you can leave me a message on my talk page. Thanks. Cubs 197  02:33, 21 May 2014 (UTC)

Please refrain from making nonconstructive edits to Wikipedia, as you did at History of basketball with this edit. Your edits appear to constitute vandalism and have been reverted or removed. If you would like to experiment, please use the sandbox. Administrators have the ability to block users from editing if they repeatedly engage in vandalism. Thank you. ♥ Solarra ♥ ♪ Talk ♪  ߷  ♀ Contribs ♀ 06:02, 27 May 2014 (UTC)

June 2014
Hello, I'm Solarra. I wanted to let you know that I undid one of your recent contributions, such as the one you made with this edit to Pea, because it didn’t appear constructive to me. If you think I made a mistake, or if you have any questions, you can leave me a message on my talk page. Thanks. ♥ Solarra ♥ ♪ 話 ♪  ߷  ♀ 投稿 ♀ 06:54, 2 June 2014 (UTC)

August 2014
Hello, I'm Frosty. I wanted to let you know that I undid one of your recent contributions, such as the one you made with this edit to Bring your own device, because it didn’t appear constructive to me. If you think I made a mistake, or if you have any questions, you can leave me a message on my talk page. Thanks. —Frosty ☃ 02:16, 15 August 2014 (UTC)

October 2014
Hello, I'm John Cline. I wanted to let you know that I undid one of your recent contributions —the one you made with this edit to Joseph Schooling— because it didn’t appear constructive to me. If you think I made a mistake, or if you have any questions, you can leave me a message on my talk page. Thanks. —John Cline (talk) 06:11, 23 October 2014 (UTC)

Please refrain from making nonconstructive edits to Wikipedia, as you did at Joseph Schooling with this edit. Your edits appear to constitute vandalism and have been reverted or removed. If you would like to experiment, please use the sandbox. Administrators have the ability to block users from editing if they repeatedly engage in vandalism. Thank you. —John Cline (talk) 06:12, 23 October 2014 (UTC)

Please stop your disruptive editing. If you continue to vandalize Wikipedia, as you did at Jillian Hall, you may be blocked from editing. Oleaster (talk·contribs) 09:19, 30 October 2014 (UTC)

title: User talk:202.21.158.12


text:
Lopper Road Tunnel

The Lopper Road Tunnel is a tunnel in central Switzerland. The tunnel connects Hergiswil in the canton of Nidwalden with Alpnach in the canton of Obwalden, and forms part of the A8 motorway. The tunnel was opened in 1984, and is 1590 m long. The tunnel has two lanes (one in each direction), and there is no central reservation. The tunnel runs under the Lopper, a shoulder of Mount Pilatus which extends into Lake Lucerne.

The northern portal of the Lopper Tunnel is near to that of the Kirchenwald Tunnel on the A2 motorway, and most of the junction between the two motorways lies to the north of their respective portals. However the link for westbound traffic from the A2 to the A8 utilises a 350 m long single-lane link tunnel within the mountain between the two main motorway tunnels.

The Lopper I railway tunnel, on the Zentralbahn Brünig line, parallels the Lopper road tunnel. The Lopper II railway tunnel, on the Zentralbahn Luzern–Stans–Engelberg line, parallels the Kirchenwald road tunnel.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Lopper Road Tunnel


text:
User:M. Dingemanse

I'm no longer active here. Looking for my professional homepage?  Do not be overcome by evil, but overcome evil with good. Epistle to the Romans 12:21 Dùngììn máárrá góshkó gáályá. In the kingdom of blind men the one-eyed is king. (Nobiin proverb) Núnyá gale núnyá gódó. There is knowledge beyond knowledge. (Ewe proverb)

Did you know...
From articles I contributed  ...that Sonjo, a Bantu language of northern Tanzania, has been spoken for centuries in an isolated enclave in Maasai territory? ...that a large portion of the vocabulary of the coastal Mozambiquean language Ekoti derives from a past variety of Swahili? ...that the border between Nilo-Saharan languages and Bantu languages among the languages of Uganda roughly coincides with the Victoria Nile? ...that Diedrich H. Westermann found out that some of the Sudanic languages were related to the Bantu languages but did not explicitly state this conclusion until much later in his career, out of respect for his teacher Carl Meinhof? ...that the 1318 Mamluk Qala'un Mosque was considered the most glamorous mosque in Cairo until its wooden dome collapsed in the 16th century? ...that the Yaaku at a community meeting between 1925 and 1936 decided to abandon their own language in favour of Maasai? ...that Bono Manso, the capital of Bono state, was an ancient Akan trading town in present-day Ghana, which was frequented by caravans from Djenné as part of the Trans-Saharan trade? ...that Dorobo is a derogatory Maa term for various unrelated hunter-gatherer groups of Kenya and Northern Tanzania?

...that the Defaka people of Nigeria are gradually abandoning their language in favour of the language of the Nkoroo, their close neighbours?

...that missionaries of the Belgian Congregatio Immaculati Cordis Mariae did missionary work in China, Mongolia, the Philippines, and in Congo Free State/Belgian Congo?

...that many speakers of Nobiin were forcedly resettled to Kom Ombo (Egypt) and New Halfa (Sudan) due to the construction of the Aswan High Dam?

About me
I edited here on a regular basis from August 2004 until February 2007. I was made an administrator in March 2005. I haven't been an active contributor since early 2007, though I do check in now and then. See here for my current whereabouts.

title: User:M. Dingemanse


text:
Paul Carus

Paul Carus (18 July 1852 – 11 February 1919) was a German-American author, editor, a student of comparative religion and philosopher.

Life and education
Carus was born in Ilsenburg, Germany, and educated at the universities of Strassburg (then Germany, now France) and Tübingen, Germany. After obtaining his PhD from Tübingen in 1876 he served in the army and then taught school. He had been raised in a pious and orthodox Protestant home, but gradually moved away from this tradition.

He left Bismarck's Imperial Germany for the United States, "because of his liberal views". After he emigrated to the USA (in 1884) he lived in Chicago, and in LaSalle, Illinois. Paul Carus married Edward C. Hegeler's daughter, engineer Mary Hegeler (Marie) and the couple later moved into the Hegeler Carus Mansion, built by her father. They had seven children, the firstborn, Robert died at birth, but Edward (b. 1890), Gustave (b. 1892), Paula (b. 1894), Elisabeth or "Libby" (b. 1896), Herman (b. 1899), and Alwin (b. 1901) all lived long lives. Mary ran the family business, Matthiessen-Hegeler Zinc Company and the Open Court business and later took on the editorial role after Carus' death, alongside their daughter Elizabeth.

Career
In the United States, Carus briefly edited a German-language journal and wrote several articles for the Index, the Free Religious Association organ.

Soon after, he became the first managing editor of the Open Court Publishing Company, founded in 1887 by his father-in-law. The goals of Open Court were to provide a forum for the discussion of philosophy, science, and religion, and to make philosophical classics widely available by making them affordable.

He also acted as the editor for two periodicals published by the company, The Open Court and The Monist.

He was introduced to Charles Sanders Peirce, the founder of American Pragmatism, by Judge Francis C. Russell of Chicago. Carus stayed abreast of Peirce's work and would eventually publish a number of his articles.

During his lifetime, Carus published 75 books and 1500 articles, mostly through Open Court Publishing Company. He wrote books and articles on history, politics, philosophy, religion, logic, mathematics, anthropology, science, and social issues of his day. In addition, Carus corresponded with many of the greatest minds of the late 19th and early 20th century, sending and receiving letters from Leo Tolstoy, Thomas Edison, Nikola Tesla, Booker T. Washington, Elizabeth Cady Stanton, Ernst Mach, Ernst Haeckel, John Dewey, and many more.

Carus's world view and philosophy
Carus considered himself a theologian rather than philosopher. He referred to himself as "an atheist who loved God".

Carus is proposed to be a pioneer in the promotion of interfaith dialogue. He explored the relationship of science and religion, and was instrumental in introducing Eastern traditions and ideas to the West. He was a key figure in the introduction of Buddhism to the West, sponsoring Buddhist translation work of D.T. Suzuki, and fostering a lifelong working friendship with Buddhist Master, Soyen Shaku. Carus' interest in Asian religions seems to have intensified after he attended the World's Parliament of Religions (in 1893).

For years afterwards, Carus was a strong sympathizer of Buddhist ideas, but stopped short of committing fully to this, or any other, religion. Instead, he ceaselessly promoted his own rational concept which he called the "Religion of Science." Carus had a selective approach and he believed that religions evolve over time. After a battle for survival, he expected a "cosmic religion of universal truth" to emerge from the ashes of traditional beliefs.

Carus proposed his own philosophy similar to panpsychism known as 'panbiotism', which he defined as "everything is fraught with life; it contains life; it has the ability to live."

Religion of Science
Carus was a follower of Benedictus de Spinoza; he was of the opinion that Western thought had fallen into error early in its development in accepting the distinctions between body and mind and the material and the spiritual. (Kant's phenomenal and noumenal realms of knowledge; Christianity's views of the soul and the body, and the natural and the supernatural). Carus rejected such dualisms, and wanted science to reestablish the unity of knowledge. The philosophical result he labeled Monism.

His version of monism is more closely associated with a kind of pantheism, although it was occasionally identified with positivism. He regarded every law of nature as a part of God's being. Carus held that God was the name for a cosmic order comprising "all that which is the bread of our spiritual life." He held the concept of a personal God as untenable. He acknowledged Jesus Christ as a redeemer, but not as the only one, for he believed that other religious founders were equally endowed with similar qualities.

His beliefs attempted to steer a middle course between idealistic metaphysics and materialism. He differed with metaphysicians because they "reified" words and treated them as if they were realities, and he objected to materialism because it ignored or overlooked the importance of form. Carus emphasized form by conceiving of the divinity as a cosmic order. He objected to any monism which sought the unity of the world, not in the unity of truth, but in the oneness of a logical assumption of ideas. He referred to such concepts as henism, not monism.

Carus held that truth was independent of time, human desire, and human action. Therefore, science was not a human invention, but a human revelation which needed to be apprehended; discovery meant apprehension; it was the result or manifestation of the cosmic order in which all truths were ultimately harmonious.

Criticisms of Carus' ideas
It is claimed that Carus was dismissed by Orientalists and philosophers alike because of his failure to comply with the rules of either discipline.

Legacy
The legacy of Paul Carus is honored through the efforts of the Hegeler Carus Foundation, the Carus Lectures at the American Philosophical Association (APA), and the Paul Carus Award for Interreligious Understanding by the Council for a Parliament of the World's Religions (CPWR). Mary Hegeler Carus and their daughter Elizabeth Carus took on the editorial role after Carus' death.

title: Paul Carus


text:
Talk:Shtokavian

Migration of people and Shtokavian speakers from eastern Herzegovina
I quote part of this article " By far the most numerous, mobile and expansionist migrations were those of Ijekavian-Shtokavian speakers of eastern Herzegovina, who have spread into most of Western Serbia, many areas of eastern and western Bosnia, large swathes of Croatia (Banovina, Kordun, Lika, parts of Gorski kotar, continental parts of northern Dalmatia, some places north of Kupa, parts of Slavonia, southeastern Baranya etc.). This is the reason Eastern Herzegovinian is the most spoken Serbo-Croatian dialect today, and why it bears the name that is only descriptive of its area of origin. These migrations also played the pivotal role in the spread of Neo-Shtokavian innovations. ".... We do not have any history documents which talks about migration of peoples from eastern Herzegovina to western Bosnia, Croatia (Banovina, Kordun, Lika, parts of Gorski kotar, continental parts of northern Dalmatia, some places north of Kupa, parts of Slavonia, southeastern Baranya etc.. Only larger migration that I know is migration to the Dubrovnik area and to the Venetian Dalmatian side. How can that information be there when it's not true, I see that some Serbian historian is quoted as the source of this information "Okuka, Miloš (2008), Srpski dijalekti,(Serbian dialects) SDK Prosvjeta". Therefore in that source there is no evidence that this migration exist. Also it states that I quote "migrations were those of Ijekavian-Shtokavian speakers" Historical sources for this area speak differently I quote "Najbrojniji su jezični spomenici na ovim prostorima natpisi sa stećaka. Na njima do druge polovice 15. st. nailazimo isključivo na ikavske odraze jata, u 15. st.18 ikavski odrazi uvjerljivo pretežu, ali nalazimo i sve brojnije ijekavske, u 16. st. podjednako često nalazimo i ikavske i ijekavske odraze jata... The most numerous linguistic monuments in this region are inscriptions from the stećak tombstones. On them until in the second half of the 15th century we find exclusively the reflections of Ikavian, in the 15th c. they are convincingly prevalent, but we also find more and more Jekavian ones. Domagoj Vidović Institute for Croatian Language and Linguistics, Republic of Austria 16, Zagreb..Ikavian I ijekavian speech in the wider Neretva area, page 6. In this source we also have listed and documents at Ikavian from year 1241, 14th and 15th centurie, 1416, 1380-1390, 1419, there are also mentioned and Ikavian toponyms. Further, concrete example is given here I quoted "" A group of Croats immigrants from eastern Herzegovina to south Chakavian region Korcula (cf. Fazinic 2004). Many refugees found refuge there in yeare 1672. this families originating from eastern Herzegovina, mostly from Popovo (Botica, Curic, Franic, Matic, Šušak) and Dubrava (Borovac, Dabelić).""page 9. Although they came from areas(eastern Hezegovina) where today speak Ijekavian-Shtokavian in Racista(Korcula) they speaking Ikavian not Ijekavian. It says that migrants from area of eastern Hezegovina bring Ikavian speech not Ijekavian and as I said migrants go to Venetian Dalmatia(if we follow written records) not to " Croatia (Banovina, Kordun, Lika, parts of Gorski kotar, continental parts of northern Dalmatia,etc, etc)" as it stated in this article. Final conclusion of the source (scientific paper), I quote "CONCLUSION, The dialectologically area of the Neretva region is very diverse. In that area in the past was bordered  Šćakavian and Štakavian speeches, and today borders Ikavian and Ijekavian-Shtokavian speeches." Considering that this part of the article does not correspond with material truth I suggest to remove this part of the article and replace with true data that speaks about history of population and speeches in eastern Herzegovina.

31.217.27.56 (talk) 12:05, 1 October 2019 (UTC)mikola

Serbian propaganda or truth
If i said that there are no written historical sources which prove migration of someone from eastern Herzegovina towards I quote "western Bosnia, large swathes of Croatia (Banovina, Kordun, Lika, parts of Gorski kotar, continental parts of northern Dalmatia, some places north of Kupa, parts of Slavonia, southeastern Baranya etc." then my statement is true when there is no evidence for that migration. I noted that area of eastern Herzegovina before these alleged migration are and Ikavian and Šćakavian(where these people migrated?). Therefore I give it a few more days that someone remove that part because it is untrue and unprovable or I will start deleting that part myself in the article. On the source link is a book "Okuka, Miloš (2008), Srpski dijalekti, SDK Prosvjeta" used as evidence for that part of the article but there is no evidence which prove migration from eastern Herzegovina. We cannot quote a book that talks about some migration when there is no evidence in that book which proves that migration. Where is article on English Wikipedia that talking about Serbian migration from eastern Herzegovina? Therefore everything is clear. 46.188.148.21 (talk) 09:03, 21 October 2019 (UTC)mikola
 * I can see no sense whatsoever, just wishful thinking and clear, stupid, bias. Sadkσ   (talk is cheap)  10:47, 21 October 2019 (UTC)
 * You can think whatever you want, but there is still no written historical records that proves this migration from eastern Herzegovina. If that proof does not exist then that part of the article is a lie and as such it must be dropped from the article.

46.188.147.77 (talk) 16:36, 21 October 2019 (UTC)mikola

Deleting parts of the article that have no evidence in the original historical records
"By far the most numerous, mobile and expansionist migrations were those of Ijekavian-Shtokavian speakers of eastern Herzegovina, who have spread into most of Western Serbia, many areas of eastern and western Bosnia, large swathes of Croatia (Banovina, Kordun, Lika, parts of Gorski kotar, continental parts of northern Dalmatia, some places north of Kupa, parts of Slavonia, southeastern Baranya etc.)" This claim from article is based on information from book of "Okuka, Miloš (2008), Srpski dijalekti, SDK Prosvjeta", Evidence (original historical records) for migration  of someone from  eastern Herzegovina to western Bosnia, large swathes of Croatia (Banovina, Kordun, Lika, parts of Gorski kotar, continental parts of northern Dalmatia, some places north of Kupa, parts of Slavonia, southeastern Baranya etc, do not exist in historical documents and for this reason that claim cannot be part of this article. Southeastern Baranya and parts of Slavonia(eastern) might stay because there peoples are coming from Serbian area "Great Migrations of the Serbs"  but someone this part of article has prove it with a source and also noted that and in this area of Croatia Vlachs have been mentioned who have nothing to do with these newcomers. However and this migration of Serbs does not starts from eastern Herzegovina either, so that must be known too. Mikola22 (talk) 07:35, 22 October 2019 (UTC)Mikola22
 * Once again that people understand, in historiography there is no data on migration from eastern Herzegovina at least not in most of the Croatia and Bosnia and Herzegovina. Historical data, history books talk about mass migration to the Dubrovnik area and along the Adriatic coast (Venetian side).Mikola22 (talk) 17:56, 6 December 2019 (UTC)

Quote requested
The section that repeatedly has been removed in the current edit war, is sourced by Okuka, Miloš (2008) Srpski dijalekti, SDK Prosvjeta. Since the facts supposedly supported by this source has been repeatedly challenged by one editor, it would be very nice if someone could present quotes from the book (with translation into English), thereby perhaps avoiding further edit war. --T*U (talk) 21:59, 6 December 2019 (UTC)
 * Okuka, Miloš (2008)Najbrojnije, najpokretljivije i najekspanzivnije bile su seobe štokavaca ijekavaca istočnohercegovačkog porijekla. Oni su preplavili veći dio zapadne Srbije, mnoga predjela u istočnoj i zapadnoj Bosni, veliki dio Hrvatske (Baniju, Kordun, Liku, dio Gorskog kotara, dio kopna sjeverne Dalmacije, neka mjesta sjeverno od Kupe, neke dijelove Slavonije, jugoistočne Baranje itd.). Doprli su i u pojedine predjele Slovenije i Mađarske. ("The most numerous, mobile and  expansive were the migrations of Stokhavian ijekavians of eastern Herzegovinan origin. They have flooded much of western Serbia, many parts of eastern and western Bosnia, much of Croatia (Baniju, Kordun, Lika, part of Gorski Kotar, part of mainland northern Dalmatia, some places north of Kupa, some parts of Slavonia, southeast Baranja, etc.) . They also reached certain regions of Slovenia and Hungary.") page 16. Stokhavian ijekavian Croats live in Banija, Kordun, Lika, Gorski Kotar, Dalmatia, Slavonia, Hungary and there is no historical information or history books who talk about migration from eastern Herzegovina into these areas, there is also no information for Bosniaks or Croatian Serbs. Domagoj Vidović (Institute for Croatian Language and Linguistics ) "S obzirom na činjenicu da s područja istočno od Neretve nemamo ni jednu veću kompaktnu iseljeničku skupinu koja se iselila prije turskoga prodora, rekonstrukcija je predmigracijske dijalektne slike tih krajeva nepotpuna" "Due to the fact that from  area east of Neretva(eastern Herzegovina) we do not have one bigger compact emigrant group that emigrated before  arrival of the Turks reconstruction of the pre-migration dialect image of these regions is incomplete." Mikola22 (talk) 09:11, 7 December 2019 (UTC)

 * Thank you,, for the quote and the translation. As far as I can see, Okuka is a widely published and widely quoted scholar, so there should be no doubt that his works in general will be considered to be reliable sources. To remove the content that is sourced to him, is thus disruptive. If there are other WP:RS telling a different story, this may be added as a "second opinion", but it can never be used as a pretext for removing the sourced text already there. --T*U (talk) 11:40, 7 December 2019 (UTC)
 * He can be RS but that part of the book and his claim is not RS. He follows an older Serbian sources. I quote "The most notable Serbian linguist of the 19th century, Vuk Karadžić, was a follower of the view that all south Slavs that speak the Shtokavian dialect (of Serbo-Croatian) were Serbs, speaking the Serbian language." I can add sources that say otherwise but that clame is not true and includes Bosniaks and Croats. However we do not have history sources or history books that talk about Serbian migration from eastern Herzegovina and we don't even need to talk about Croats and Bosniaks. This quote is false and not in good faith. This is not about linguism but about historical data of migration from some area. "The most numerous, mobile and  expansive were the migrations of Stokhavian ijekavians of eastern Herzegovinan origin, They have flooded much of western Serbia, many parts of eastern and western Bosnia, much of Croatia (Baniju, Kordun, Lika, part of Gorski Kotar, part of mainland northern Dalmatia, some places north of Kupa, some parts of Slavonia, southeast Baranja, etc.). They also reached certain regions of Slovenia and Hungary.. No historian talks about it because there is no historical data that would prove this migration to that areas. Serbs goes from central Serbia to parts of Slavonia and Hungary but eastern Herzegovina is mentioned here. Serbian academic and historian in book "Serbs" 2004. (part of book "escaping, relocating, settling") does not mention mass migration from eastern Herzegovina. He mentions some Vlach movements from Herzegovina not eastern Hezegovina and that Serbs from Smederevo area  going to Hungary and Slavonia. It is relevant history. Mikola22 (talk) 12:34, 7 December 2019 (UTC)

 * I find it just a bit boring to have to repeat the same things over and over again. If you want to contribute to Wikipedia, you need to be familiar with the basics, in this case WP:V and WP:RS. I do not know if you have not read it, or if you have read it and not understood it. If we have concluded that a source is reliable, we cannot choose to accept some statements from the source and reject other parts because we think the author is wrong. And we cannot reject one reliable source because another reliable source says something different. We report what the RS says. We cannot say "Source X says so-and-so, but that is wrong". If we have other sources saying otherwise, we can say things like "Source A says this, while source B says that", provided both sources are reliable. --T*U (talk) 15:58, 7 December 2019 (UTC)
 * I don't know if you are right or wrong on this but this is getting really tiresome. Mikola and Ceha are in conflict with just about everyone, from Poland and White Croatia to Bosnia and Donji Kraji, and it would be arduous to list all ANs, DRNs, RSNs and TP infinite discussion where these two have brought their bias and tendentious editing in righting great wrongs. This has to stop. There are at least half of dozen of editors who found themselves pin-down by duo.-- ౪ Santa ౪  99°  22:21, 7 December 2019 (UTC)

mismatch in classification (New/Old) between the map and the article
The classification on doesn't match the groupings in Shtokavian. Namely, I've noticed that:

 * Slavonian and East Bosnian are Old Shtokavian in the article, but Neo-Shtokavian on the map.

x-post to Commons Imz (talk) 12:20, 22 September 2023 (UTC)

title: Talk:Shtokavian


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Sandy Nairne

Alexander Robert Nairne (born 8 June 1953) is a British art historian and curator. From 2002 until February 2015 he was the director of the National Portrait Gallery, London.

Life and career
Nairne is the son of senior civil servant Sir Patrick Nairne, attended Radley College and studied at University College, Oxford in the early 1970s and rowed for the Oxford University second crew Isis.

Nairne came into contact with Nicholas Serota, while working at the Museum of Modern Art, Oxford in 1974–76.

After a period as an Assistant Curator at the Tate Gallery (1976–80) - during which he additionally worked on international curation projects such as the Irish biennial EVA International - Nairne was appointed Director of Exhibitions at the Institute of Contemporary Arts (ICA), a position he held until 1984 - exhibitions included "Brand New York", Robert Mapplethorpe, Mary Miss, "Women's Images of Men", and "About Time".

In 1987, Nairne wrote the television documentary series "State of the Art" for Channel 4. The series and Nairne's accompanying book acts as a follow on to the Robert Hughes series The Shock of the New and provides a critical survey of contemporary visual arts from America and Europe through the 1980s.

In 1988, Nairne was appointed as the director of the Visual Arts Department at the Arts Council. In this capacity, Nairne oversaw the re-invigoration of the British Art Show, the establishing of the Institute of International Visual Arts (InIVA) as a permanent organisation to promote culturally diverse projects, the furtherance of Percent for Art and the creation of the Curating Contemporary Art Course at the Royal College of Art.

In 1996, Nairne co-edited with Reesa Greenberg and Bruce W. Ferguson the book Thinking about Exhibitions (1996), a review of international practice in contemporary art exhibitions.

Nairne became Director of Programmes for the Tate Gallery under Nicholas Serota. In this capacity, Nairne was responsible for the restructuring of the Tate's collection administration in preparation for the opening of Tate Modern and the redevelopment of the original Tate Gallery in Millbank as Tate Britain.

Nairne was responsible for the successful recovery of two late J. M. W. Turner paintings, stolen in Germany in 1994, and put back on display at Tate Britain in early 2003. He negotiated secretly for 8 years on behalf of the Tate to get the two paintings back. His experience is chronicled in his 2011 book, Art Theft and the Case of the Stolen Turners.

Nairne became Director of the National Portrait Gallery in London in 2002. On 12 June 2014 he announced his resignation which took effect in early 2015. He was succeeded by Nicholas Cullinan.

He was appointed Commander of the Order of the British Empire (CBE) in the 2011 Birthday Honours for services to the arts.

Nairne was among those appointed on 29 January 2015 to the Bank of England's Banknote Character Advisory Committee, whose first task would be to decide who should appear on the next £20 banknote.

Personal life
Nairne's wife is the art historian Lisa Tickner, with whom he has a son, the lighting designer Christopher Nairne, and a daughter, the curator and art historian Eleanor Nairne. His brother, Andrew Nairne, is Director of Kettle's Yard Gallery, Cambridge. His other brother, James Nairne, Andrew's twin, is head of Art at Cranleigh School, Surrey.

title: Sandy Nairne


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Template:Article resources

This template is a self-reference and so is part of the Wikipedia project rather than the encyclopaedic content.

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Bonnie Bernstein

Bonnie Lynn Bernstein (born August 16, 1970) is an American sports journalist and media executive. She has been named one of the most accomplished female sportscasters in history by the American Sportscasters Association, spending nearly 20 years as a reporter and studio host at ESPN, ABC and CBS Sports, covering the NFL, NBA, MLB and college football and basketball. Bernstein is currently the founder and CEO of Walk Swiftly Productions, a multimedia production company specializing in non-scripted sports and entertainment content.

Early life and education
Bernstein was born in Brooklyn, New York, and grew up in Howell, New Jersey. She was salutatorian of her class at Howell High School, where she is a member of the school’s Hall of Fame. Bernstein was a four-time MVP of the Rebels gymnastics team, and also received varsity letters in indoor track and outdoor track and field, where she competed in hurdles, the 4x400 relay, javelin and shotput. Bernstein attended the University of Maryland, where she graduated magna cum laude with a degree in broadcast journalism. She was a four-time Academic All-America in gymnastics, receiving the Thomas M. Fields award for excellence in academics and athletics. Bernstein maintains close ties to her alma mater, and is on the Board of Visitors for the Philip Merrill College of Journalism at the University of Maryland and the advisory board for the Povich Center for Sports Journalism.

Early career
Bernstein spent three years climbing the local broadcast ladder, launching her career as the news and sports director at WXJN-FM radio in Lewes, Delaware. She transitioned to television at WMDT-TV in Salisbury, Maryland as the ABC affiliate's weekend news anchor, then became Reno, Nevada's, first-ever female weekday sports anchor at NBC affiliate KRNV-TV.

ESPN
Bernstein first joined ESPN in 1995 as its Chicago Bureau Chief, where she covered Michael Jordan and the Chicago Bulls' record-setting championship run (1996–98). She also was a correspondent for Sunday NFL Countdown and College GameDay and filed reports for SportsCenter during the Major League Baseball post-season and the NCAA Women's Division I Basketball Championship.

CBS Sports
Bernstein joined CBS Sports in 1998 as the lead sideline reporter for the NCAA Men's Basketball Championships and feature reporter for The NFL Today. The following year, she transitioned to sideline reporting for the NFL on CBS. She worked with the Verne Lundquist/Dick Enberg and Dan Dierdorf crew until 2003, when she was promoted to the lead crew of Jim Nantz and Phil Simms. Bernstein covered Super Bowls XXXV and XXXVIII for the network and during Super Bowl XXXVIII, became the first correspondent ever to cover the game for both network television and network radio, filing reports for CBS Sports and Westwood One Radio.

Upon signing with CBS/Westwood One Radio in 2001, Bernstein often pulled "double duty" during the NFL season, covering a Sunday game for CBS and Monday Night Football for radio.

In addition to her NFL and college basketball duties, Bernstein hosted the NCAA Women's Gymnastics Championship and CBS' anthology series, Championships of the NCAA, and was a studio host for CBS SportsDesk and At The Half, CBS Sports' college basketball halftime studio show. Bernstein also covered tennis, track and field, horse racing and figure skating for the network and  hosted the U.S. Open Tennis Championships studio show and the Hambletonian.

Return to ESPN
In July 2006, Bernstein rejoined ESPN as the lead college football reporter for ESPN on ABC and the field reporter for Sunday Night Baseball with Jon Miller and Joe Morgan. On October 11, 2006, five days after experiencing severe leg pain while covering the Texas-Oklahoma Red River Rivalry, doctors discovered life-threatening blood clots in both of Bernstein's lungs (pulmonary emboli) that originated in her left leg (deep vein thrombosis). She returned to ESPN and ABC several weeks later, but reduced her travel schedule the following season as a precautionary health measure, shifting focus to studio hosting many of ESPN’s high-profile shows, including NFL Live, Jim Rome Is Burning, Outside the Lines, First Take and College Football Live.

Radio hosting
In September 2009, Bernstein was named co-host of The Michael Kay Show on 1050 ESPN Radio in New York. She also covered the New York Jets and hosted specialty programming during the 2009–10 NFL playoffs. In July 2010, Bernstein was given her own daily NFL show, New York Football Live, co-hosted by Jets linebacker Greg Buttle.

Campus Insiders
In April 2013, Bernstein was named vice president of Content and Brand Development for Campus Insiders, a digital partnership between Silver Chalice Ventures, founded by Chicago Bulls and White Sox owner Jerry Reinsdorf, and IMG College, the nation's largest collegiate sports marketing company. Bernstein was also the on-air "face" of the network, hosting daily studio shows during the college football season and NCAA Basketball Championship. Her off-air responsibilities included creating original programming for the network, developing and securing new sponsor partnerships, and designing brand extensions that enhanced the reach of CI's digital and social platforms.

Walk Swiftly Productions
In January 2017, Bernstein founded Walk Swiftly Productions, where she is CEO. Through WSP and her consultancy, Velvet Hammer Media, Bernstein collaborates with some of sports’ most prominent organizations, including the NCAA and the College Football Playoff (CFP). In 2019, ESPN's docuseries, GOOD GAME: UC Irvine, produced by WSP and executive produced by Bernstein, received the Tempest Award for "Best Esports-Themed Program;", and CMT's Country on Campus received nominations for "Best Music Series" and "Best Sports and Recreation" series at the Cynopsis Short Form Video Awards. Other notable WSP titles include the XFL’s signature series, “For the Love of Football" and the Audible Originals audio series, She Got Game.

Other broadcast work
Bernstein is the only female ever to solo fill-in host for the syndicated radio and TV program, The Dan Patrick Show and appears as a guest commentator on several news networks, including NBC, MSNBC and FOX News Channel, to discuss prominent sports stories.

Outside endeavors
Bernstein's philanthropic efforts focus on two areas: deep vein thrombosis awareness and youth health and wellness. Bernstein has been the co-national spokesperson for the Coalition to Prevent Deep Vein Thrombosis, raising awareness about the blood disorder she was diagnosed with in 2006. In 2010, she co-chaired the coalition supporting congressional passage of the National Foundation on Fitness, Sports and Nutrition, which raises private funds for childhood obesity initiatives. From 2012-15, Bernstein was a media strategist and national ambassador for ING KiDS ROCK, one of the nation's largest school-based running programs. Bernstein is a Celebrity Ambassador for the Alliance for a Healthier Generation and Co-Chair of the Advisory Board for Every Kid Sports, a nonprofit that provide grants to cover youth sports league registration fees for children in underserved communities (link).

title: Bonnie Bernstein


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Hookworm infection

Hookworm infection is an infection by a type of intestinal parasite known as a hookworm. Initially, itching and a rash may occur at the site of infection. Those only affected by a few worms may show no symptoms. Those infected by many worms may experience abdominal pain, diarrhea, weight loss, and tiredness. The mental and physical development of children may be affected. Anemia may result.

Two common hookworm infections in humans are ancylostomiasis and necatoriasis, caused by the species Ancylostoma duodenale and Necator americanus respectively. Hookworm eggs are deposited in the stools of infected people. If these end up in the environment, they can hatch into larvae (immature worms), which can then penetrate the skin. One type can also be spread through contaminated food. Risk factors include walking barefoot in warm climates, where sanitation is poor. Diagnosis is by examination of a stool sample with a microscope.

The disease can be prevented on an individual level by not walking barefoot in areas where the disease is common. At a population level, decreasing outdoor defecation, not using raw feces as fertilizer, and mass deworming are effective. Treatment is typically with the medications albendazole or mebendazole for one to three days. Iron supplements may be needed in those with anemia.

Hookworms infected about 428 million people in 2015. Heavy infections can occur in both children and adults, but are less common in adults. They are rarely fatal. Hookworm infection is a soil-transmitted helminthiasis and classified as a neglected tropical disease.

Signs and symptoms
No symptoms or signs are specific for hookworm infection, but they give rise to a combination of intestinal inflammation and progressive iron-deficiency anemia and protein deficiency. Coughing, chest pain, wheezing, and fever sometimes result from severe infection. Epigastric pains, indigestion, nausea, vomiting, constipation, and diarrhea can occur early or in later stages, as well, although gastrointestinal symptoms tend to improve with time. Signs of advanced severe infection are those of anemia and protein deficiency, including emaciation, cardiac failure, and abdominal distension with ascites.

Larval invasion of the skin (mostly in the Americas) can produce a skin disease called cutaneous larva migrans also known as creeping eruption. The hosts of these worms are not human and the larvae can only penetrate the upper five layers of the skin, where they give rise to intense, local itching, usually on the foot or lower leg, known as ground itch. This infection is due to larvae from the A. braziliense hookworm. The larvae migrate in tortuous tunnels between the stratum basale and stratum corneum of the skin, causing serpiginous vesicular lesions. With advancing movement of the larvae, the rear portions of the lesions become dry and crusty. The lesions are typically intensely itchy.

Incubation period
The incubation period can vary between a few weeks to many months, and is largely dependent on the number of hookworm parasites an individual is infected with.

Cause
Hookworm infections in humans include ancylostomiasis and necatoriasis. Ancylostomiasis is caused by Ancylostoma duodenale, which is the more common type found in the Middle East, North Africa, India, and (formerly) in southern Europe. Necatoriasis is caused by Necator americanus, the more common type in the Americas, sub-Saharan Africa, Southeast Asia, China, and Indonesia.

Other animals such as birds, dogs, and cats may also be affected. A. tubaeforme infects cats, A. caninum infects dogs, and A. braziliense and Uncinaria stenocephala infect both cats and dogs. Some of these infections can be transmitted to humans.

Morphology
A. duodenale worms are grayish white or pinkish with the head slightly bent in relation to the rest of the body. This bend forms a definitive hook shape at the anterior end for which hookworms are named. They possess well-developed mouths with two pairs of teeth. While males measure approximately one centimeter by 0.5 millimeter, the females are often longer and stouter. Additionally, males can be distinguished from females based on the presence of a prominent posterior copulatory bursa.

N. americanus is very similar in morphology to A. duodenale. N. americanus is generally smaller than A. duodenale with males usually 5 to 9 mm long and females about 1 cm long. Whereas A. duodenale possesses two pairs of teeth, N. americanus possesses a pair of cutting plates in the buccal capsule. Additionally, the hook shape is much more defined in Necator than in Ancylostoma.

Life cycle
The hookworm thrives in warm soil where temperatures are over 18 C. They exist primarily in sandy or loamy soil and cannot live in clay or muck. Rainfall averages must be more than 1000 mm a year for them to survive. Only if these conditions exist can the eggs hatch. Infective larvae of N. americanus can survive at higher temperatures, whereas those of A. duodenale are better adapted to cooler climates. Generally, they live for only a few weeks at most under natural conditions, and die almost immediately on exposure to direct sunlight or desiccation.

Infection of the host is by the larvae, not the eggs. While A. duodenale can be ingested, the usual method of infection is through the skin; this is commonly caused by walking barefoot through areas contaminated with fecal matter. The larvae are able to penetrate the skin of the foot, and once inside the body, they migrate through the vascular system to the lungs, and from there up the trachea, and are swallowed. They then pass down the esophagus and enter the digestive system, finishing their journey in the intestine, where the larvae mature into adult worms.

Once in the host gut, Necator tends to cause a prolonged infection, generally 1 to 5 years (many worms die within a year or two of infecting), though some adult worms have been recorded to live for 15 years or more. Ancylostoma adults are short-lived, surviving on average for only about 6 months. However, the infection can be prolonged because dormant larvae can be "recruited" sequentially from tissue "stores" (see Pathology, above) over many years, to replace expired adult worms. This can give rise to seasonal fluctuations in infection prevalence and intensity (apart from normal seasonal variations in transmission).

They mate inside the host, females laying from 10,000 to 30,000 eggs per day and some 15 to 56 million eggs during their adult lifetimes, which pass out in feces. Because 5 to 7 weeks are needed for adult worms to mature, mate, and produce eggs, in the early stages of very heavy infection, acute symptoms might occur without any eggs being detected in the patient's feces. This can make diagnosis very difficult.

N. americanus and A. duodenale eggs can be found in warm, moist soil where they eventually hatch into first-stage larvae, or L1. L1, the feeding noninfective rhabditoform stage, will feed on soil microbes and eventually molt into second-stage larvae, L2, which is also in the rhabditoform stage. It will feed for about 7 days and then molt into the third-stage larvae, or L3. This is the filariform stage of the parasite, that is, the nonfeeding infective form of the larvae. The L3 larvae are extremely motile and seek higher ground to increase their chances of penetrating the skin of a human host. The L3 larvae can survive up to 2 weeks without finding a host. While N. americanus larvae only infect through penetration of skin, A. duodenale can infect both through penetration and orally. After the L3 larvae have successfully entered the host, they then travel through the subcutaneous venules and lymphatic vessels of the human host. Eventually, the L3 larvae enter the lungs through the pulmonary capillaries and break out into the alveoli. They then travel up the trachea to be coughed and swallowed by the host. After being swallowed, the L3 larvae are then found in the small intestine, where they molt into the L4, or adult worm stage. The entire process from skin penetration to adult development takes about 5–9 weeks. The female adult worms release eggs (N. americanus about 9,000–10,000 eggs/day and A. duodenale 25,000–30,000 eggs/day), which are passed in the feces of the human host. These eggs hatch in the environment within several days and the cycle starts anew.

Pathophysiology
Hookworm infection is generally considered to be asymptomatic, but as Norman Stoll described in 1962, it is an extremely dangerous infection because its damage is "silent and insidious." An individual may experience general symptoms soon after infection. Ground-itch, which is an allergic reaction at the site of parasitic penetration and entry, is common in patients infected with N. americanus. Additionally, cough and pneumonitis may result as the larvae begin to break into the alveoli and travel up the trachea. Then once the larvae reach the small intestine of the host and begin to mature, the infected individual will experience diarrhea and other gastrointestinal discomfort. However, the "silent and insidious" symptoms referred to by Stoll are related to chronic, heavy-intensity hookworm infections. Major morbidity associated with hookworm infection is caused by intestinal blood loss, iron deficiency anemia, and protein malnutrition. They result mainly from adult hookworms in the small intestine ingesting blood, rupturing erythrocytes, and degrading hemoglobin in the host. This long-term blood loss can manifest itself physically through facial and peripheral edema; eosinophilia and pica/geophagy caused by iron deficiency anemia are also experienced by some hookworm-infected patients. Recently, more attention has been given to other important outcomes of hookworm infection that play a large role in public health. It is now widely accepted that children who have chronic hookworm infection can experience growth retardation as well as intellectual and cognitive impairments. Additionally, recent research has focused on the potential of adverse maternal-fetal outcomes when the mother is infected with hookworm during pregnancy.

The disease was linked to nematode worms (Ankylostoma duodenalis) from one-third to half an inch long in the intestine chiefly through the labours of Theodor Bilharz and Griesinger in Egypt (1854).

The symptoms can be linked to inflammation in the gut stimulated by feeding hookworms, such as nausea, abdominal pain and intermittent diarrhea, and to progressive anemia in prolonged disease: capricious appetite, pica/geophagy (or dirt-eating), obstinate constipation followed by diarrhea, palpitations, thready pulse, coldness of the skin, pallor of the mucous membranes, fatigue and weakness, shortness of breath and in cases running a fatal course, dysentery, hemorrhages and edema. The worms suck blood and damage the mucosa. However, the blood loss in the stools is not visibly apparent.

Blood tests in early infection often show a rise in numbers of eosinophils, a type of white blood cell that is preferentially stimulated by worm infections in tissues (large numbers of eosinophils are also present in the local inflammatory response). Falling blood hemoglobin levels will be seen in cases of prolonged infection with anemia.

In contrast to most intestinal helminthiases, where the heaviest parasitic loads tend to occur in children, hookworm prevalence and intensity can be higher among adult males. The explanation for this is that hookworm infection tends to be occupational, so that coworkers and other close groups maintain a high prevalence of infection among themselves by contaminating their work environment. However, in most endemic areas, adult women are the most severely affected by anemia, mainly because they have much higher physiological needs for iron (menstruation, repeated pregnancy).An interesting consequence of this in the case of Ancylostoma duodenale infection is translactational transmission of infection: the skin-invasive larvae of this species do not all immediately pass through the lungs and on into the gut, but spread around the body via the circulation, to become dormant inside muscle fibers. In a pregnant woman, after childbirth some or all of these larvae are stimulated to re-enter the circulation (presumably by sudden hormonal changes), then to pass into the mammary glands, so that the newborn baby can receive a large dose of infective larvae through its mother's milk. This accounts for otherwise inexplicable cases of very heavy, even fatal, hookworm infections in children a month or so of age, in places such as China, India and northern Australia. An identical phenomenon is much more commonly seen with Ancylostoma caninum infections in dogs, where the newborn pups can even die of hemorrhaging from their intestines caused by massive numbers of feeding hookworms. This also reflects the close evolutionary link between the human and canine parasites, which probably have a common ancestor dating back to when humans and dogs first started living closely together. Filariform larvae is the infective stage of the parasite: infection occurs when larvae in soil penetrate the skin, or when they are ingested through contaminated food and water following skin penetration.

Diagnosis
Diagnosis depends on finding characteristic worm eggs on microscopic examination of the stools, although this is not possible in early infection. Early signs of infection in most dogs include limbular limping and anal itching. The eggs are oval or elliptical, measuring 60 by 40 μm, colorless, not bile stained and with a thin transparent hyaline shell membrane. When released by the worm in the intestine, the egg contains an unsegmented ovum. During its passage down the intestine, the ovum develops and thus the eggs passed in feces have a segmented ovum, usually with 4 to 8 blastomeres. As the eggs of both Ancylostoma and Necator (and most other hookworm species) are indistinguishable, to identify the genus, they must be cultured in the lab to allow larvae to hatch out. If the fecal sample is left for a day or more under tropical conditions, the larvae will have hatched out, so eggs might no longer be evident. In such a case, it is essential to distinguish hookworms from Strongyloides larvae, as infection with the latter has more serious implications and requires different management. The larvae of the two hookworm species can also be distinguished microscopically, although this would not be done routinely, but usually for research purposes. Adult worms are rarely seen (except via endoscopy, surgery or autopsy), but if found, would allow definitive identification of the species. Classification can be performed based on the length of the buccal cavity, the space between the oral opening and the esophagus: hookworm rhabditoform larvae have long buccal cavities whereas Strongyloides rhabditoform larvae have short buccal cavities.

Recent research has focused on the development of DNA-based tools for diagnosis of infection, specific identification of hookworm, and analysis of genetic variability within hookworm populations. Because hookworm eggs are often indistinguishable from other parasitic eggs, PCR assays could serve as a molecular approach for accurate diagnosis of hookworm in the feces.

Prevention
The infective larvae develop and survive in an environment of damp dirt, particularly sandy and loamy soil. They cannot survive in clay or muck. The main lines of precaution are those dictated by good hygiene behaviors:
 * Do not defecate in the open, but rather in toilets.
 * Do not use untreated human excreta or raw sewage as fertilizer in agriculture.
 * Do not walk barefoot in known infected areas.
 * Deworm pet dogs and cats. Canine and feline hookworms rarely develop to adulthood in humans. Ancylostoma caninum, the common dog hookworm, occasionally develops into an adult to cause eosinophilic enteritis in people, but their invasive larvae can cause an itchy rash called cutaneous larva migrans.

Moxidectin is available in the United States as (imidacloprid + moxidectin) topical solution for dogs and cats. It utilizes moxidectin for control and prevention of roundworms, hookworms, heartworms, and whipworms.

Children
Most of these public health concerns have focused on children who are infected with hookworm. This focus on children is largely due to the large body of evidence that has demonstrated strong associations between hookworm infection and impaired learning, increased absences from school, and decreased future economic productivity. In 2001, the 54th World Health Assembly passed a resolution demanding member states to attain a minimum target of regular deworming of at least 75% of all at-risk school children by the year 2010. A 2008 World Health Organization publication reported on these efforts to treat at-risk school children. Some of the interesting statistics were as follows: 1) only 9 out of 130 endemic countries were able to reach the 75% target goal; and 2) less than 77 million school-aged children (of the total 878 million at risk) were reached, which means that only 8.78% of at-risk children are being treated for hookworm infection.

School-based mass deworming
School-based mass deworming programs have been the most popular strategy to address the issue of hookworm infection in children. School-based programs are extremely cost-effective as schools already have an available, extensive, and sustained infrastructure with a skilled workforce that has a close relationship with the community. With little training from a local health system, teachers can easily administer the drugs which often cost less than US$0.50 per child per year.

Recently, many people have begun to question if the school-based programs are necessarily the most effective approach. An important concern with school-based programs is that they often do not reach children who do not attend school, thus ignoring a large number of at-risk children. A 2008 study by Massa et al. continued the debate regarding school-based programs. They examined the effects of community-directed treatments versus school-based treatments in the Tanga Region of Tanzania. A major conclusion was that the mean infection intensity of hookworm was significantly lower in the villages employing the community-directed treatment approach than the school-based approach. The community-directed treatment model used in this specific study allowed villagers to take control of the child's treatment by having villagers select their own community drug distributors to administer the antihelminthic drugs. Additionally, villagers organized and implemented their own methods for distributing the drugs to all children. The positive results associated with this new model highlight the need for large-scale community involvement in deworming campaigns.

Public health education
Many mass deworming programs also combine their efforts with a public health education. These health education programs often stress important preventative techniques such as: washing your hands before eating, and staying away from water/areas contaminated by human feces. These programs may also stress that shoes must be worn, however, these come with their own health risks and may not be effective. Shoe wearing patterns in towns and villages across the globe are determined by cultural beliefs, and the levels of education within that society. The wearing of shoes will prevent the entry of hookworm infections from the surrounding soils into tender skin regions; such as areas between the toes.

Sanitation
Historical examples, such as the hookworm campaigns in Mississippi and Florida from 1943 to 1947 have shown that the primary cause of hookworm infection is poor sanitation, which can be solved by building and maintaining toilets. But while these may seem like simple tasks, they raise important public health challenges. Most infected populations are from poverty-stricken areas with very poor sanitation. Thus, it is most likely that at-risk children do not have access to clean water to wash their hands and live in environments with no proper sanitation infrastructure. Health education, therefore, must address preventive measures in ways that are both feasible and sustainable in the context of resource-limited settings.

Integrated approaches
Evaluation of numerous public health interventions has generally shown that improvement in each individual component ordinarily attributed to poverty (for example, sanitation, health education and underlying nutrition status) often have minimal impact on transmission. For example, one study found that the introduction of latrines into a resource-limited community only reduced the prevalence of hookworm infection by four percent. However, another study in Salvador, Brazil found that improved drainage and sewerage had a significant impact on the prevalence of hookworm infection but no impact at all on the intensity of hookworm infection. This seems to suggest that environmental control alone has a limited but incomplete effect on the transmission of hookworms. It is imperative, therefore, that more research is performed to understand the efficacy and sustainability of integrated programs that combine numerous preventive methods including education, sanitation, and treatment.

Anthelmintic drugs
The most common treatment for hookworm are benzimidazoles, specifically albendazole and mebendazole. BZAs kill adult worms by binding to the nematode's β-tubulin and subsequently inhibiting microtubule polymerization within the parasite. In certain circumstances, levamisole and pyrantel pamoate may be used. A 2008 review found that the efficacy of single-dose treatments for hookworm infections were as follows: 72% for albendazole, 15% for mebendazole, and 31% for pyrantel pamoate. This substantiates prior claims that albendazole is much more effective than mebendazole for hookworm infections. Also of note is that the World Health Organization does recommend anthelmintic treatment in pregnant women after the first trimester. It is also recommended that if the patient also has anemia that ferrous sulfate (200 mg) be administered three times daily at the same time as anthelmintic treatment; this should be continued until hemoglobin values return to normal which could take up to 3 months.

Hookworm infection can be treated with local cryotherapy when the hookworm is still in the skin.

Albendazole is effective both in the intestinal stage and during the stage the parasite is still migrating under the skin.

In case of anemia, iron supplementation can cause relief symptoms of iron-deficiency anemia. However, as red blood cell levels are restored, shortage of other essentials such as folic acid or vitamin B12 may develop, so these might also be supplemented.

During the 1910s, common treatments for hookworm included thymol, 2-naphthol, chloroform, gasoline, and eucalyptus oil. By the 1940s, the treatment of choice used tetrachloroethylene, given as 3 to 4 cc in the fasting state, followed by 30 to 45 g of sodium sulfate. Tetrachloroethylene was reported to have a cure rate of 80 percent for Necator infections, but 25 percent in Ancylostoma infections, and often produced mild intoxication in the patient.

Reinfection and drug resistance
Other important issues related to the treatment of hookworm are reinfection and drug resistance. It has been shown that reinfection after treatment can be extremely high. Some studies even show that 80% of pretreatment hookworm infection rates can be seen in treated communities within 30–36 months. While reinfection may occur, it is still recommended that regular treatments be conducted as it will minimize the occurrence of chronic outcomes. There are also increasing concerns about the issue of drug resistance. Drug resistance has appeared in front-line anthelmintics used for livestock nematodes. Generally human nematodes are less likely to develop resistance due to longer reproducing times, less frequent treatment, and more targeted treatment. Nonetheless, the global community must be careful to maintain the effectiveness of current anthelmintic as no new anthelmintic drugs are in the late-stage development.

Epidemiology
It is estimated that between 576 and 740 million individuals are infected with hookworm. Of these infected individuals, about 80 million are severely affected. The major cause of hookworm infection is N. americanus which is found in the Americas, sub-Saharan Africa, and Asia. A. duodenale is found in more scattered focal environments, namely Europe and the Mediterranean. Most infected individuals are concentrated in sub-Saharan Africa and East Asia/the Pacific Islands with each region having estimates of 198 million and 149 million infected individuals, respectively. Other affected regions include: South Asia (50 million), Latin America and the Caribbean (50 million), South Asia (59 million), Middle East/North Africa (10 million). A majority of these infected individuals live in poverty-stricken areas with poor sanitation. Hookworm infection is most concentrated among the world's poorest who live on less than $2 a day.

While hookworm infection may not directly lead to mortality, its effects on morbidity demand immediate attention. When considering disability-adjusted life years (DALYs), neglected tropical diseases, including hookworm infection, rank among diarrheal diseases, ischemic heart disease, malaria, and tuberculosis as one of the most important health problems of the developing world.

It has been estimated that as many as 22.1 million DALYs have been lost due to hookworm infection. Recently, there has been increasing interest to address the public health concerns associated with hookworm infection. For example, the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation recently donated US$34 million to fight Neglected Tropical Diseases including hookworm infection. Former US President Clinton also announced a mega-commitment at the Clinton Global Initiative (CGI) 2008 Annual Meeting to de-worm 10 million children.

Many of the numbers regarding the prevalence of hookworm infection are estimates as there is no international surveillance mechanism currently in place to determine prevalence and global distribution. Some prevalence rates have been measured through survey data in endemic regions around the world. The following are some of the most recent findings on prevalence rates in regions endemic with hookworm.

Darjeeling, Hooghly District, West Bengal, India (Pal et al. 2007)
 * 43% infection rate of predominantly N. americanus although with some A. duodenale infection
 * Both hookworm infection load and degree of anemia in the mild range

Xiulongkan Village, Hainan Province, China (Gandhi et al. 2001)
 * 60% infection rate of predominantly N. americanus
 * Important trends noted were that prevalence increased with age (plateau of about 41 years) and women had higher prevalence rates than men

Hòa Bình, Northwest Vietnam (Verle et al. 2003)
 * 52% of a total of 526 tested households infected
 * Could not identify species, but previous studies in North Vietnam reported N. americanus in more than 95% of hookworm larvae

Minas Gerais, Brazil (Fleming et al. 2006)
 * 63% infection rate of predominantly N. americanus

KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa (Mabaso et al. 2004)
 * Inland areas had a prevalence rate of 9% of N. americanus
 * Coastal plain areas had a prevalence rate of 63% of N. americanus

Lowndes County, Alabama, United States
 * 35% infection rate of predominantly N. americanus

There have also been technological developments that may facilitate more accurate mapping of hookworm prevalence. Some researchers have begun to use geographical information systems (GIS) and remote sensing (RS) to examine helminth ecology and epidemiology. Brooker et al. utilized this technology to create helminth distribution maps of sub-Saharan Africa. By relating satellite derived environmental data with prevalence data from school-based surveys, they were able to create detailed prevalence maps. The study focused on a wide range of helminths, but interesting conclusions about hookworm specifically were found. As compared to other helminths, hookworm is able to survive in much hotter conditions and was highly prevalent throughout the upper end of the thermal range.

Improved molecular diagnostic tools are another technological advancement that could help improve existing prevalence statistics. Recent research has focused on the development of a DNA-based tool that can be used for diagnosis of infection, specific identification of hookworm, and analysis of genetic variability in hookworm populations. Again this can serve as a major tool for different public health measures against hookworm infection. Most research regarding diagnostic tools is now focused on the creation of a rapid and cost-effective assay for the specific diagnosis of hookworm infection. Many are hopeful that its development can be achieved within the next five years.

Discovery
The symptoms now attributed to hookworm appear in papyrus papers of ancient Egypt (c. 1500 BC), described as a derangement characterized by anemia. Avicenna, a Persian physician of the eleventh century, discovered the worm in several of his patients and related it to their disease. In later times, the condition was noticeably prevalent in the mining industry in England, France, Germany, Belgium, North Queensland, and elsewhere.

Italian physician Angelo Dubini was the modern-day discoverer of the worm in 1838 after an autopsy of a peasant woman. Dubini published details in 1843 and identified the species as A. duodenale. Working in the Egyptian medical system in 1852 German physician Theodor Bilharz, drawing upon the work of colleague Wilhelm Griesinger, found these worms during autopsies and went a step further in linking them to local endemic occurrences of chlorosis, which would probably be called iron-deficiency anemia today.

A breakthrough came 25 years later following a diarrhea and anemia epidemic that took place among Italian workmen employed on the Gotthard Rail Tunnel. In an 1880 paper, physicians Camillo Bozzolo, Edoardo Perroncito, and Luigi Pagliani correctly hypothesized that hookworm was linked to the fact that workers had to defecate inside the 15 km tunnel, and that many wore worn-out shoes. The work environment often contained standing water, sometimes knee-deep, and the larvae were capable of surviving several weeks in the water, allowing them to infect many of the workers. In 1897, it was established that the skin was the principal avenue of infection and the biological life cycle of the hookworm was clarified.

Eradication programmes
In 1899, American zoologist Charles Wardell Stiles identified progressive pernicious anemia seen in the southern United States as being caused by the hookworm A. duodenale. Testing in the 1900s revealed very heavy infestations in school-age children. In Puerto Rico, Dr. Bailey K. Ashford, a US Army physician, organized and conducted a parasite treatment campaign, which cured approximately 300,000 people (one-third of the Puerto Rican population) and reduced the death rate from this anemia by 90 percent during the years 1903–04.

On October 26, 1909, the Rockefeller Sanitary Commission for the Eradication of Hookworm Disease was organized as a result of a gift of US$1 million from John D. Rockefeller, Sr. The five-year program was a remarkable success and a great contribution to the United States' public health, instilling public education, medication, field work and modern government health departments in eleven southern states. The hookworm exhibit was a prominent part of the 1910 Mississippi state fair.

The commission found that an average of 40% of school-aged children were infected with hookworm. Areas with higher levels of hookworm infection prior to the eradication program experienced greater increases in school enrollment, attendance, and literacy after the intervention. Econometric studies have shown that this effect cannot be explained by a variety of alternative factors, including differential trends across areas, changing crop prices, shifts in certain educational and health policies and the effect of malaria eradication. No significant contemporaneous results were found for adults who should have benefited less from the intervention owing to their substantially lower (prior) infection rates. The program nearly eradicated hookworm and would flourish afterward with new funding as the Rockefeller Foundation International Health Division.

The RF's hookworm campaign in Mexico showed how science and politics play a role in developing health policies. It brought together government officials, health officials, public health workers, Rockefeller officials and the community. This campaign was launched to eradicate hookworms in Mexico. Although the campaign did not focus on long-term treatments, it did set the terms of the relationship between Mexico and the Rockefeller Foundation. The scientific knowledge behind this campaign helped shape public health policies, improved public health and built a strong relationship between US and Mexico.

In the 1920s, hookworm eradication reached the Caribbean and Latin America, where great mortality was reported among people in the West Indies towards the end of the 18th century, as well as through descriptions sent from Brazil and various other tropical and sub-tropical regions.

Treatments
Treatment in the early 20th century relied on the use of Epsom salt to reduce protective mucus, followed by thymol to kill the worms. By the 1940s, tetrachloroethylene was the leading method. It was not until later in the mid-20th century when new organic drug compounds were developed.

Anemia in pregnancy
It is estimated that a third of all pregnant women in developing countries are infected with hookworm, 56% of all pregnant women in developing countries experience anemia, 20% of all maternal deaths are either directly or indirectly related to anemia. Numbers like this have led to an increased interest in the topic of hookworm-related anemia during pregnancy. With the understanding that chronic hookworm infection can often lead to anemia, many people are now questioning if the treatment of hookworm could effect change in severe anemia rates and thus also on maternal and child health as well. Most evidence suggests that the contribution of hookworm to maternal anemia merits that all women of child-bearing age living in endemic areas be subject to periodic anthelmintic treatment. The World Health Organization even recommends that infected pregnant women be treated after their first trimester. Regardless of these suggestions, only Madagascar, Nepal and Sri Lanka have added deworming to their antenatal care programs.

This lack of deworming of pregnant women is explained by the fact that most individuals still fear that anthelmintic treatment will result in adverse birth outcomes. But a 2006 study by Gyorkos et al. found that when comparing a group of pregnant women treated with mebendazole with a control placebo group, both illustrated rather similar rates in adverse birth outcomes. The treated group demonstrated 5.6% adverse birth outcomes, while the control group had 6.25% adverse birth outcomes. Furthermore, Larocque et al. illustrated that treatment for hookworm infection actually led to positive health results in the infant. This study concluded that treatment with mebendazole plus iron supplements during antenatal care significantly reduced the proportion of very low birth weight infants when compared to a placebo control group. Studies so far have validated recommendations to treat infected pregnant women for hookworm infection during pregnancy.

A review found that a single dose of antihelminthics (anti-worm drugs) given in the second trimester of pregnancy "may reduce maternal anaemia and worm prevalence when used in settings with high prevalence of maternal helminthiasis".

Malaria co-infection
Co-infection with hookworm and Plasmodium falciparum is common in Africa. Although exact numbers are unknown, preliminary analyses estimate that as many as a quarter of African schoolchildren (17.8–32.1 million children aged 5–14 years) may be coincidentally at-risk of both P. falciparum and hookworm. While original hypotheses stated that co-infection with multiple parasites would impair the host's immune response to a single parasite and increase susceptibility to clinical disease, studies have yielded contrasting results. For example, one study in Senegal showed that the risk of clinical malaria infection was increased in helminth-infected children in comparison to helminth-free children while other studies have failed to reproduce such results, and even among laboratory mouse experiments the effect of helminths on malaria is variable.

Some hypotheses and studies suggest that helminth infections may protect against cerebral malaria due to the possible modulation of pro-inflammatory and anti-inflammatory cytokines responses. Furthermore, the mechanisms underlying this supposed increased susceptibility to disease are unknown. For example, helminth infections cause potent and highly polarized immune response characterized by increased T-helper cell type 2 (Th2) cytokine and Immunoglobulin E (IgE) production. However, the effect of such responses on the human immune response is unknown. Additionally, both malaria and helminth infection can cause anemia, but the effect of co-infection and possible enhancement of anemia is poorly understood.

Hygiene hypothesis and hookworm as therapy
The hygiene hypothesis states that infants and children who lack exposure to infectious agents are more susceptible to allergic diseases via modulation of immune system development. The theory was first proposed by David P. Strachan who noted that hay fever and eczema were less common in children who belonged to large families. Since then, studies have noted the effect of gastrointestinal worms on the development of allergies in the developing world. For example, a study in Gambia found that eradication of worms in some villages led to increased skin reactions to allergies among children.

Vaccines
While annual or semi-annual mass antihelminthic administration is a critical aspect of any public health intervention, many have begun to realize how unsustainable it is due to aspects such as poverty, high rates of re-infection, and diminished efficacy of drugs with repeated use. Current research, therefore, has focused on the development of a vaccine that could be integrated into existing control programs. The goal of vaccine development is not necessarily to create a vaccine with sterilizing immunity or complete protection against immunity. A vaccine that reduces the likelihood of vaccinated individuals developing severe infections and thus reduced blood and nutrient levels could still have a significant impact on the high burden of disease throughout the world.

Current research focuses on targeting two stages in the development of the worm: the larval stage and the adult stage. Research on larval antigens has focused on proteins that are members of the pathogenesis-related protein superfamily, Ancylostoma Secreted Proteins. Although they were first described in Anyclostoma, these proteins have also been successfully isolated from the secreted product of N. americanus. N. americanus ASP-2 (Na-ASP-2) is currently the leading larval-stage hookworm vaccine candidate. A randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled study has already been performed; 36 healthy adults without a history of hookworm infection were given three intramuscular injections of three different concentrations of Na-ASP-2 and observed for six months after the final vaccination. The vaccine induced significant anti-Na-ASP-2 IgG and cellular immune responses. In addition, it was safe and produced no debilitating side effects. The vaccine is now in a phase one trial; healthy adult volunteers with documented evidence of previous infection in Brazil are being given the same dose concentration on the same schedule used in the initial study. If this study is successful, the next step would be to conduct a phase two trial to assess the rate and intensity of hookworm infection among vaccinated persons. Because the Na-ASP-2 vaccine only targets the larval stage, it is critical that all subjects enrolled in the study be treated with antihelminthic drugs to eliminate adult worms prior to vaccination.

Adult hookworm antigens have also been identified as potential candidates for vaccines. When adult worms attach to the intestinal mucosa of the human host, erythrocytes are ruptured in the worm's digestive tract which causes the release of free hemoglobin which is subsequently degraded by a proteolytic cascade. Several of these proteins that are responsible for this proteolytic cascade are also essential for the worm's nutrition and survival. Therefore, a vaccine that could induce antibodies for these antigens could interfere with the hookworm's digestive pathway and impair the worm's survival. Three proteins have been identified: the aspartic protease-hemoglobinase APR-1, the cysteine protease-hemoglobinase CP-2, and a glutathione S-transferase. Vaccination with APR-1 and CP-2 led to reduced host blood loss and fecal egg counts in dogs. With APR-1, vaccination even led to reduced worm burden. Research is currently stymied at the development of at least one of these antigens as a recombinant protein for testing in clinical trials.

Terminology
The term "hookworm" is sometimes used to refer to hookworm infection. A hookworm is a type of parasitic worm (helminth).

title: Hookworm infection


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Francis Scarfe

Francis Harold Scarfe (1911–1986) was an English poet, critic and novelist, who became an academic, translator and Director of the British Institute in Paris.

He was born in South Shields; he was brought up from a young age at the Royal Merchant Seaman's Orphanage. He was educated at Armstrong College in Newcastle, which was then part of Durham University, where he earned a Bachelor of Arts degree in 1933. He also studied at Fitzwilliam College, Cambridge and at the Sorbonne.

While in Paris he wrote surrealist verse, and dabbled in communism, from which he then retreated. He taught at the University of Glasgow briefly before the outbreak of World War II, in which he worked in the British Army's Education Corps. He was posted to Orkney, and the Faroe Islands. While in Orkney he lodged with the family of the young George Mackay Brown, on whom he was a major influence.

His book from 1942 was one of the first to engage critically with the Auden Group, if superficially; he returned to Auden in a post-war book of greater depth. After the war he held a number of academic positions.

Works

 * Inscapes (1940), poems
 * Forty Poems and Ballads (1941)
 * Auden & After: The Liberation Of Poetry, 1930-41 (1942), criticism
 * Promises (?) first novel
 * W. H. Auden (1948), criticism
 * Underworlds (1950), poems
 * Single Blessedness (1951), novel
 * The Unfinished Woman (1954), novel
 * The Art of Paul Valéry (1954)
 * Picasso by Frank Elgar and Robert Maillard (1956), translator
 * Baudelaire (1961, Penguin Books), editor
 * Conversations on the Dresden Gallery, by Louis Aragon and Jean Cocteau (1982), translator
 * Complete Verse of Charles P. Baudelaire (1986 Anvil Press Poetry), translator
 * Baudelaire: the Poems in Prose (1989, Anvil Press Poetry), translator

title: Francis Scarfe