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ERE Informatique

ERE Informatique was one of the first French video game companies, founded in 1983 by Emmanuel Viau, joined a year later by Philippe Ulrich. The company hired freelance game programmers that received royalties for their creations.

History
Initially, the company published titles for the Amstrad CPC, Spectrum and Oric home computers. In 1984 they published their first national hit, a flight simulator created by Marc André Rampon: Intercepteur Cobalt for Sinclair ZX81 and Spectrum, also known under the name of Mission Delta for Oric, Amstrad and Thomson MO5. Rampon also acquired some shares of the company owned by Viau and established the company's first distribution network.

Their first international hit, topping many international sales list for several months, was Macadam Bumper (1985), a pinball simulation programmed by Rémi Herbulot, a self-taught ex-employee of Valeo living in Caen. This and several later titles were distributed (and labelled) by PSS in the United Kingdom, thanks to a mutual distribution agreement.

ERE underwent serious financial problems due to some distributors delaying payments (and some ultimately entering bankruptcy), and was looking to partner with a company able to ensure a secure distribution. FIL and Infogrames went into competitive bidding and eventually Infogrames entered Ere's share capital by buying out Rampon's shares by the end of 1986. Infogrames later acquired complete control of ERE in June, 1987.

Its Exxos label, announced in 1988 would produce their most famous and creative games. Due to financial problems, chiefly royalty inpayment, ERE's members left Infogrames in 1989 to form an independent developer group named Cryo, that would be made into an official company in 1992 as Cryo Interactive Entertainment.

Exxos

The development label Exxos was announced to the press in a ceremony at Champs Elysées ERE Studio 102 on June 12, 1988. Philippe Ulrich delivered the following litany to the press (translated from French):

Mesdames and Messieurs, the decision was not easy, but all the same, we have agreed to reveal to you the secret of our dynamism and the creativity which makes ERE Informatique a success.

If there are sensitive people in the room, I ask them to be strong. They have nothing to fear if their vibrations are positive; the telluric forces will save them...

My friends, the inspiration does not fall from the sky, the genius is not the fruit of chance...

The inspirer and the genius which designed Macadam Bumper, that is not the fabulous Remi Herbulot or the marvellous Michel Rho...the inspirer and the genius which generated Captain Blood, it is not the inextinguishable Didier Bouchon and even less your servant.

It is Him! Him who has been in our offices for months... He who comes from outside the Universe. He that we reveal today to the world, because the hour has come. I name Exxos.

I ask you to say after me some magic sentences which point out his country to him: ATA ATA hoglo hulu, ATA ATA hoglo hulu...

The new label would release games with two requisites: original stories and worlds drawn from science fiction — a running interest among many members of ERE — or fantasy and translated to various languages, to achieve wide international distribution.

ERE label

 * Mission Delta (1984) (also known as Intercepteur Cobalt)
 * Macadam Bumper (1985) (also known as Pinball Wizard)
 * Painting Joe
 * Contamination (1985).
 * Pacific (1986)
 * 1001 BC (1986)
 * Sram I (1986)
 * Sram II (1986)
 * Get Dexter (1986) (also known as its French title Crafton & Xunk)
 * Phalsberg (1987)
 * Eden Blues (1987)
 * Bubble Ghost (1987)
 * Despotik Design (1987)
 * Oxphar (1987)
 * Crash Garrett (1987)
 * Qin (1987)
 * Get Dexter 2 (1988) (also known as its French title L'Ange de Cristal)
 * RoBBBoT (1988)
 * Apocalypse (1988)
 * Teenage Queen (1988)

ERE label utils

 * VOX (1984) speech, Sound Manipulation
 * ZX Spectrum Compilateur (1985) (re-release by PSSS with name McoderIII)

Exxos label

 * Captain Blood (1988) (also known as L'Arche du capitaine Blood; first copies still under the ERE label)
 * Purple Saturn Day (1988)
 * KULT: The Temple of Flying Saucers (1989)

title: ERE Informatique


text:
Thérèse Humbert

Thérèse Humbert (1856–after 1936) was a French female fraudster, who pretended to be an heir of an imaginary American millionaire named Robert Crawford.

Biography
Humbert was born Thérèse Daurignac, a peasant girl in Aussonne, Midi-Pyrénées, France. As a child, she once convinced her friends to pool their jewelry so that she could fool others into believing she was wealthy. She married Frédéric Humbert, son of the mayor of Toulouse. Soon after, she began to tell a tale that she had received an unusual inheritance.

Humbert claimed that in 1879, when she was in a train, she heard groans from the next compartment. She entered into it by climbing along the outside of the train. There she found a man who was having a heart attack. When she had helped him with her smelling salts, the man told her he was an American millionaire named Robert Henry Crawford, and that he was eternally grateful and would reward her some day. Two years later in 1881, she received a letter stating that Crawford had died and made her beneficiary of his will. The will stated that the Humberts were to look after the family fortune in a safe that should remain sealed until her younger sister Marie was old enough to marry Henry Crawford, one of Crawford's two nephews.

With this story, Humbert obtained a huge loan using the supposed inheritance as a collateral. She moved to Paris with her husband and bought an elaborate house in Avenue de la Grande Armée.

Humbert gathered much influence, fame and wealth. Her salon became a center of socializing. Humbert and her associates, other members of the Humbert family, borrowed money against the nonexistent inheritance. They lived in luxury for about 20 years, spending their money on flowers, elaborate dresses and banquets. Eventually they had to borrow more money to cover the previous loans. There were suspicions, but nobody was able to prove the story false.

In 1883, Le Matin newspaper published a skeptical article, but Humbert's father-in-law, who at the time was the minister of justice, supported her story. Humbert claimed that the Crawfords had sued him so that she would have to place her part of the inheritance to Crédit Lyonnais bank. After lengthy litigation, during which the two Crawford nephews, Henry and Robert, appeared in court, the court ruled that the locked safe should remain in Humbert's possession.

When Jules Bizat, official for the French bank, asked Humbert how she had invested her money, she claimed that it was in government bonds. Bizat checked and found that it was not the case. Humbert had organized a generous pension plan she had named Rente Viagère to get more money and used it to pay her debts and buy bonds.

Eventually the creditors noticed that the supposed amount of the inheritance would never be able to cover all the loans and legal costs. Le Matin demanded that the safe should be opened. In 1901, Humbert's creditors sued her, and the next year the Parisian court gave an order that the fabled safe would be opened to prove the existence of the money. The safe was found nearly empty, containing only a brick and an English halfpenny.

The scandal rocked the French financial world, and thousands of smaller creditors and investors were ruined. The in-laws of the painter Henri Matisse, M. and Mme. Parayre, became scapegoats in the affair. Matisse's mother-in-law, who was the Humbert family's housekeeper, fell under suspicion, and her husband was arrested. Matisse's studio was searched by detectives, and his wife's family found themselves menaced by angry mobs of fraud victims. M. Parayre eventually went on hunger strike in an attempt to clear his name, with Matisse acting in lieu of a lawyer.

The Humberts had already fled the country, but they were arrested in Madrid in December 1902. Thérèse Humbert was tried and sentenced to five years' hard labor. Her two brothers, who had masqueraded as Crawford's nephews, were sentenced to two and three years each. Her husband Frédèric was also sentenced to five years. Her sister Marie, daughter Eve and deceased father-in-law, the justice minister Gustave Humbert, were stated to be victims of the fraud.

The generally held theory is that when Thérèse Humbert was released from prison, she emigrated to the United States and that she died in Chicago in 1918. People whom she had defrauded remained mostly silent to avoid further embarrassment.

Most sources repeat that Thérèse emigrated to Chicago where she died. However, in the weekly paper Détective, edition number 79 dated 1 May 1930, there is an article entitled Vingt Ans d'illusionnisme (20 Years of Conjuring'). The article is written by Monsieur J. France who was one of the leading lights in the prosecution against Thérèse Humbert and who went to Madrid to take her back to Paris for trial. The story of the fraud is retold in the article following the death of Romain Daurignac, the brother of Thérèse. In this article, J. France says: 'Thérèse Humbert is still living, poorly, in Paris. She has lost her miraculous vitality. What a reverse of fortune her golden past has left her. She is a quite humble old lady, who never speaks to anyone." (Thérése Humbert vit toujours, petitement, à Paris. Elle a perdu sa miraculeuse vitalité. Quels revers lui a laissés le passé d'or?  C'est une vieille femme assez humble, qui ne parle jamais'.) There are also two photos. One of these shows the door to a house in Paris and has underneath the note: 'Here, boulevard des Batignolles, lives to-day, she who was 'la Grande Thérèse'. (Ici, boulevard des batignolles, demeure aujourd'hui celle qui fut 'la Grande Thérèse'.) On the second photo the note beneath says: 'Behind these windows with the white curtains, Thérèse Humbert meditates on her past'. (Derrière ces fenêtres aux rideaux blancs, Thérèse Humbert médite sur son passé...) Her husband died in 1936; he is not listed as a widower.

Adaptations
A French crime drama based on her life was released in 1983, Thérèse Humbert, directed by Marcel Bluwal and written by Jean-Claude Grumberg, with Oscar and Emmy winning actress Simone Signoret as Thérèse Humbert.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Thérèse Humbert


text:
Raja Rao

Raja Rao (8 November 1908 – 8 July 2006) was an Indian-American writer of English-language novels and short stories, whose works are deeply rooted in metaphysics. The Serpent and the Rope (1960), a semi-autobiographical novel recounting a search for spiritual truth in Europe and India, established him as one of the finest Indian prose stylists and won him the Sahitya Akademi Award in 1963. For the entire body of his work, Rao was awarded the Neustadt International Prize for Literature in 1988. Rao's wide-ranging body of work, spanning a number of genres, is seen as a varied and significant contribution to Indian English literature, as well as World literature as a whole.

Early life
Raja Rao was born on 8 November 1908 in Hassan, in the princely state of Mysore (now in Karnataka in South India) into a Kannada-speaking Brahmin family and was the eldest of 9 siblings, with seven sisters and a brother named Yogeshwara Ananda. His father, H.V. Krishnaswamy, taught Kannada, the native language of Karnataka, and Mathematics at Nizam College in Hyderabad. His mother, Gauramma, was a homemaker who died when Raja Rao was 4 years old.

The death of his mother when he was four left a lasting impression on the novelist – the absence of a mother and orphanhood are recurring themes in his work. Another influence from early life was his grandfather, with whom he lived in Hassan and Harihalli or Harohalli).

Rao was educated at a Muslim school, the Madarsa-e-Aliya in Hyderabad. After matriculation in 1927, he studied for his degree at Nizam's College. Osmania University, where he became friend with Ahmed Ali. He began learning French. After graduating from the University of Madras, having majored in English and history, he won the Asiatic Scholarship of the Government of Hydrabad in 1929, for studying abroad.

Rao moved to the University of Montpellier in France. He studied French language and literature, and later at the Sorbonne in Paris, he explored the Indian influence on Irish literature. He married Camille Mouly, who taught French at Montpellier, in 1931. The marriage lasted until 1939. Later he depicted the breakdown of their marriage in The Serpent and the Rope. Rao published his first stories in French and English. In 1931 to 1932, he contributed four articles written in Kannada for Jaya Karnataka, an influential journal.

Nationalist novelist
Returning to India in 1939, he edited Changing India with Iqbal Singh, an anthology of modern Indian thought from Ram Mohan Roy to Jawaharlal Nehru. He participated in the Quit India Movement of 1942. In 1943–1944 he co-edited a journal from Bombay called Tomorrow with Ahmad Ali. He was a prime mover in the formation of cultural organisation Sri Vidya Samiti, devoted to reviving the values of ancient Indian civilisation.

Rao's involvement in the nationalist movement is reflected in his first two books. The novel Kanthapura (1938) was an account of the impact of Gandhi's teaching on nonviolent resistance against the British. Rao borrows the style and structure from Indian vernacular tales and folk-epics. He returned to the theme of Gandhism in the short story collection The Cow of the Barricades (1947). The Serpent and the Rope (1960) was written after a long silence, and dramatised the relationships between Indian and Western culture. The serpent in the title refers to illusion and the rope to reality. Cat and Shakespeare (1965) was a metaphysical comedy that answered philosophical questions posed in the earlier novels. He had great respect for women, and once said, "Women is the Earth, air, ether, sound, women is the microcosm of the mind".

Later years
Rao relocated to the United States and was Professor of Philosophy at the University of Texas at Austin from 1966 to 1986, when he retired as Emeritus Professor. Courses he taught included: Marxism to Gandhism; Mahayana Buddhism; Indian philosophy: The Upanishads; Indian philosophy: The Metaphysical Basis of the Male and Female Principle; and Razor's Edge.

In 1965, he married Katherine Jones, an American stage actress. They had one son, Christopher Rama. In 1986, after his divorce from Katherine, Rao married his third wife, Susan Vaught, whom he met when she was a student at the University of Texas in the 1970s. In 1988 he received the prestigious International Neustadt Prize for Literature. In 1998 he published Gandhi's biography Great Indian Way: A Life of Mahatma Gandhi.

Rao died of heart failure on 8 July 2006, at his home in Austin, Texas, at the age of 97.

Raja Rao Award for Literature
The 'Raja Rao Award for Literature' was created in Rao's honor, and with his permission, in the year 2000. It was established "to recognize writers and scholars who have made an out standing contribution to the Literature and Culture of the South Asian Diaspora." The award was administered by the Samvad India Foundation, a nonprofit charitable trust named for the Sanskrit word for dialogue, which was established by Makarand Paranjape of Jawaharlal Nehru University in New Delhi to bestow the award and to promote education and cultural contributions to India and the South Asian diaspora. No cash prize was attached to the award during its existence. The Award was bestowed seven times between 2000 and 2009.

The inaugural recipient of the Award was K. S. Maniam of Malaysia, who was bestowed the award in 2000. Other recipients were Yasmine Gooneratne of Sri Lanka, Edwin Thumboo of Singapore,  Harsha V. Dehejia of Canada, David Dabydeen of Guyana,  Varadaraja V. Raman of the United States,  and Vijay Mishra of Fiji. Meenakshi Mukherjee, chair of the last awarding jury, died in 2009, and the award was discontinued that same year, and has not since been bestowed.

Those who served as jurors for selection of the recipient included Meenakshi Mukherjee (Chair), Braj Kachru, Victor Ramraj, and Makarand Paranjape

Kanthapura
Raja Rao's first and best-known novel, Kanthapura (1938), is the story of a south Indian village named Kanthapura. The novel is narrated in the form of a Sthala Purana by an old woman of the village, Achakka. Dominant castes like Brahmins are privileged to get the best region of the village, while lower castes such as Pariahs are marginalized. Despite this classist system, the village retains its long-cherished traditions of festivals in which all castes interact and the villagers are united. The village is believed to be protected by a local deity named Kenchamma.

The main character of the novel, Moorthy, is a young Brahmin who leaves for the city to study, where he becomes familiar with Gandhian philosophy. He begins living a Gandhian lifestyle, wearing home-spun khaddar and discarded foreign clothes and speaking out against the caste system. This causes the village priest to turn against Moorthy and excommunicate him. Heartbroken to hear this, Moorthy's mother Narasamma dies. After this, Moorthy starts living with an educated widow, Rangamma, who is active in India’s independence movement.

Moorthy is then invited by Brahmin clerks at the Skeffington coffee estate to create an awareness of Gandhian teachings among the pariah coolies. When Moorthy arrives, he is beaten by the policeman Bade Khan, but the coolies stand up for Moorthy and beat Bade Khan - an action for which they are thrown out of the estate. Moorthy continues his fight against injustice and social inequality and becomes a staunch ally of Gandhi. Although he is depressed over violence at the estate, he takes responsibility and goes on a three-day fast and emerges morally elated. A unit of the independence committee is formed in Kanthapura, with office bearers vowing to follow Gandhi's teachings under Moorthy's leadership.

The British government accuses Moorthy of provoking the townspeople to inflict violence and arrests him. Though the committee is willing to pay his bail, Moorthy refuses their money. While Moorthy spends the next three months in prison, the women of Kanthapura take charge, forming a volunteer corps under Rangamma's leadership. Rangamma instills a sense of patriotism among the women by telling them stories of notable women from Indian history. They face police brutality, including assault and rape, when the village is attacked and burned. Upon Moorthy's release from prison, he has lost his faith in Gandhian principles as he sees most of the land of his village has been sold to city dwellers of Bombay and the village has changed beyond repair.

Awards

 * 1963: Sahitya Akademi Award
 * 1969: Padma Bhushan, India's third highest civilian award
 * 1988: Neustadt International Prize for Literature
 * 2007: Padma Vibhushan, India's second highest civilian award

title: Raja Rao


text:
David Rorvik

David Michael Rorvik (born 1944) is an American journalist and novelist who was the author of the 1978 book In his Image: The Cloning of a Man in which he claimed to have been part of a successful endeavor to create a clone of a human being. The book is widely considered to be a hoax.

Biography
Rorvik was born in Circle, Montana. He graduated with a B.A. from the University of Montana in 1966 and a M.S. summa cum laude from the Columbia University Graduate School of Journalism in 1967. He worked as a science writer and a medical reporter for Time and contributed articles to numerous publications, including The New York Times, and wrote several books.

In a 1969 magazine article, Rorvik outlined the Shettles Method to influence the sex of a child. Two years later, he and Landrum B. Shettles co-authored the bestselling book Your Baby's Sex: Now You Can Choose. In 1976, Rorvik was awarded an Alicia Patterson Foundation Fellowship for investigatory reporting on the politics of cancer research worldwide. Some of his findings from this investigation were reported on in Harper's Magazine, the Washington Post and other publications. Earlier in his career, he was the recipient of a Pulitzer Traveling Fellowship for investigation of the effects of apartheid politics in Africa on press freedoms.

In his Image
In In his Image, Rorvik claimed that in 1973 a wealthy businessman he dubbed "Max" had contacted him and recruited him to find scientists willing to create a clone of him. Rorvik claims to have formed a scientific team that was taken to a lab at a secret location. After a few years of experimentation they managed to implant a specially prepared body cell nucleus into the cytoplast of a human ovum (a technique known as somatic cell nuclear transfer) and, in turn, succeeded in implanting this egg into the uterus of a surrogate mother, a local resident called "Sparrow." A healthy child, it was claimed, was born nine months later. He stated in the book that he was able to tell the story only on the condition that he safeguard the identities of all involved and cautioned his readers that the book did not provide proof that the cloning had occurred, although he stated he was convinced that it had.

Before the book was published, the New York Post learned of the story and made it front-page news on March 3, 1978. Soon after, NBC's Tom Brokaw interviewed Rorvik on The Today Show. The book was very popular and caused much discussion about the ethics of cloning. However, scientists including Yale University professor Clement Markert generally disbelieved Rorvik's claims. Efforts to clone mammals had not been undertaken at that time and it was widely assumed that there would be enormous obstacles to achieving successful mammalian cloning.

British scientist Derek Bromhall filed a $7,000,000 defamation suit against Rorvik's publisher, J. B. Lippincott, alleging that the book was a hoax, that it incorporated parts of his doctoral thesis as the theoretical basis for the cloning process, and that it had used his name without permission. When Rorvik refused to reveal the identity of "Max" or provide proof of the existence of the clone, judge John Fullam found that the book was a "fraud and a hoax" in a pretrial ruling. The case went to trial in 1982, with the charges being reduced to invasion of privacy. The publisher soon entered into an out-of-court settlement that included a payment of $100,000 and a public representation that the book was a hoax. No evidence, however, was presented in pre-trial proceedings, during the trial, or thereafter that established either the truthfulness or the falsity of the book. Rorvik himself denied that there had been any hoax, and refused either to be party to the out-of-court settlement or to contribute to it financially. He wrote an article defending In his Image for Omni in 1980.

Rorvik has since written, ghost-written, edited and agented several books on diet and nutrition, psychology and other topics, including the Physician Desk Reference for Nutritional Supplements (2001). In 2006, a sixth edition of Your Baby's Sex: Now You Can Choose was published, marking nearly 40 years of continuous print.

title: David Rorvik


text:
Mike Tomlinson

Sir Michael John Tomlinson CBE (born 17 October 1942 in Rotherham) is the chair of the Working Group for 14–19 Reform which has been commissioned by the British Government to look into reform of the syllabus and qualifications structure for 14- to 19-year-olds in the English education system.

Early life
He passed the 11-plus and attended the Oakwood Technical High School (now the Oakwood Technology College) in Rotherham and Bournemouth Boys' School (a grammar school).

He studied for a BSc in chemistry at the University of Durham before going on to do a Postgraduate Certificate in Education at the University of Nottingham, followed by 12 years in the classroom as a science teacher, including some time on secondment to Imperial Chemical Industries as a schools liaison officer in 1977.

Teaching
He was a chemistry teacher at the Henry Mellish Grammar School (now called Henry Mellish School and Specialist Sports College) on Highbury Road in Bulwell, Nottingham from 1965 to 1969. From 1969 to 1977, he was head of chemistry at Ashby-de-la-Zouch Grammar School (a comprehensive school and now called Ashby School) in Leicestershire.

Education administration
In 1978 he joined Her Majesty's Inspectorate of Schools (now Ofsted) and, in this capacity, helped to re-establish the education system in Kuwait following the first Gulf War. In 1989, he became chief inspector (secondary). In November 2000 when Chris Woodhead resigned, he became Chief Inspector of Schools, a post which he held until his retirement in 2002.

Retirement
Shortly after his retirement, he led an enquiry (the Tomlinson Enquiry) into the controversy surrounding A-level grading, and was then appointed chair of the 14–19 Working Group in 2003. He is also a governor of the University of Hertfordshire, a member of the boards of the Qualifications and Curriculum Authority and the National Assessment Agency, a member of the Public Engagement group of the Science Museum, and a fellow and a member of the council of the Royal Society of Arts. Since 2008, he has been chief adviser for London Schools in the Department for Children, Schools and Families.

Recognition
In 1997 he was made a CBE. Tomlinson was made a knight in the New Year's Honours list of 31 December 2004.

Personal life
In 1965 he married Maureen Janet Tupling in Rotherham. They have a son (born 1968) and a daughter (born 1970). His children initially went to comprehensive schools, but later went to grammar schools.

News items

 * BBC Profile September 2002
 * Independent article April 2002
 * Independent article February 2001

title: Mike Tomlinson


text:
Talk:Hate crime

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Iran
I have a concern with this section. The individual country sections are detailing hate crime laws/legislation in those countries, where the entry for Iran talks about actions of the state against homosexuals. This material seems much more suited to Human rights in Iran. Kevin (talk) 21:18, 6 April 2009 (UTC)

 * If there are no objections I will move/merge the material as above. Kevin (talk) 22:39, 8 April 2009 (UTC)
 * Obviously I object. It's relevant because of Iran's presence in the media regarding their hate crimes against gays. Their own President saying "There aren't any homosexuals in Iran" was all over the news, world wide. The section on Iran's torture and killing of gay Iranians speaks to how it deals with hate crimes. - ✰ ALLST☆R ✰ echo 23:18, 8 April 2009 (UTC)
 * Is there a source describing their actions as a hate crime, rather than a human rights abuse? My view of hate crime is more related to individuals and/or groups actions toward others, rather than a governments actions toward it's citizens. Kevin (talk) 23:27, 8 April 2009 (UTC)
 * Anyone else? Kevin (talk) 03:23, 22 April 2009 (UTC)
 * It sounds like it would be relevant to both topics to me. Lady  of  Shalott  05:51, 22 April 2009 (UTC)

 * Has it already been moved or is it the last paragraph with many refs on it? -- Banj e  b oi   15:18, 23 April 2009 (UTC)
 * It's the last paragraph with many refs on it. - ℅ ✰ ALLST☆R ✰ echo 17:12, 23 April 2009 (UTC)

I have a concern with the entire section. It is supposed to be a section that describes the laws in the nation dealing specifically with hate crimes. None of the sentences do that, neither the ones referencing the constitution nor the ones that describe Iran's human rights record.

Look at all the other nation's entries. Each describes the state of hate crime enhancement laws, or the lack thereof, in the country. Iran just looks like someone added the consitution entries to make Iran look good in this light, and then others added the human rights record to debate that. Really, all of this material should be removed and replaced with specific information on hate crime punishment in Iran, of whatever form they might have.--joeOnSunset (talk) 04:58, 29 January 2010 (UTC)

 * Okay, I pared down the whole section. Most of the consitution references don't deal with hate crimes. I kept the one that came the closest, so as not to have to blank the entire section. I have been unable to source any material that deals directly with the topic of hate crimes protections in Iran. --joeOnSunset (talk) 03:15, 23 March 2010 (UTC)

 * Revisiting this, I now suggest removing the entire Iran section. Here's why: a nation does not necessarily have laws related to hate or bias crimes they way they are defined in this article. There is now already a list growing in this article naming such countries. The section of the Iran constitution quoted plainly does not relate to bias crimes. I have been unable to find ANY information from a secondary source about such legislation in Iran (for two years, see above.) So I've removed the section. Anyone wishing to bring it back should just please find a cite that's on-topic. --joeOnSunset (talk) 03:54, 8 December 2012 (UTC)

Change to lede: perceived membership
I have changed the following sentence in the lead:

 * Hate crimes (also known as bias-motivated crimes) occur when a perpetrator targets a victim because of his or her membership in a certain social group,

to

 * Hate crimes (also known as bias-motivated crimes) occur when a perpetrator targets a victim because of his or her perceived membership in a certain social group,

Hate crimes are generally defined according to motive. A gay-bashing does not become less a crime directed against gay people, for instance, just because the victim is a heterosexual mistaken for a homosexual. --TS 00:29, 22 May 2009 (UTC)

Israel
Why isn't Israel on the list? http://www.haaretz.com/hasen/spages/1104506.html —Preceding unsigned comment added by Marcovitaly (talk • contribs) 03:56, 2 August 2009 (UTC)

Canada in Eurasia
Got to be merged with Canada in its right place. 217.195.19.145 (talk) 13:25, 8 October 2009 (UTC)
 * Merged Canada into North America section. Per WP:CYCLE, I've made a few adjustments to the use of double and single quotes and attached references to each quote. I felt the two sentences regarding Section 319 were redundant and have merged them together as well. Feel free to re-word. Ruodyssey (talk) 01:29, 22 October 2009 (UTC)

Homeless
I removed the section about hate crimes against homeless persons (added here) for several reasons, none challenging its validity. All of its links are now dead, so it lacks a Reliable Source. This subsection was copied and pasted into both this article and Hate crime laws in the United States, where it would be more appropriate anyway. Hate crime#US is meant to be a Summary, so this just adds Undue Weight. More to the point, the section was added by the indefinitely banned sockpuppet Drutton57 and can be removed for this reason alone. - Ruodyssey (talk) 09:07, 23 January 2010 (UTC)

White-On-White Hate Crimes
A court in the United States has found that a white-on-white (or any same-race) crime can still be prosecuted as a racially motivated incident if the attacker was motivated by the victim's being in an interracial relationship. I'm not quite sure how to work this in, though (should it get its own section in this article, or should there be a separate article for same-race racially motivated violence?) Any advice would be welcome. Stonemason89 (talk) 17:24, 27 February 2010 (UTC)

 * The second ref may not be an RS, so it's a shame the first is so short. I'd recommend adding this tidbit into a subsection of Hate crime laws in the United States instead of here once we have some more informative refs -- maybe as this case plays out. Ruodyssey (talk) 04:27, 2 March 2010 (UTC)

 * There has been an increase of what would be called "hate crime" incidents over other social group status: Italians, Polish people, Mormons, French speaking Canadians, Southerners and Irish people. For example, to make an ethnic joke or claim "these people are so and so" can qualify as "hate speech" therefore an act of racial, sociocultural or ethnic group hatred. I'm not joking around here, this is serious since a person comes up to you and make fun of your group/background like they are "mafioso, polacks, polygamous or wackos, too stupid to speak English, rednecks or drunks/pagans". + 71.102.7.77 (talk) 00:19, 12 March 2010 (UTC)

Is "hate speech" a "hate crime"? No.
PYRRHON  talk   23:00, 24 April 2010 (UTC) - Hate speech should not be included in Hate Crimes, based on constitutional decisions that have been noted in my removal. Hate speech, as opposed to speech that constitutes "fighting words" is protected as defined in Wikipedia's article on the subject of "hate speech" This was reverted when I amended this sentence on the "hate crime" page, which I will challenge and request a decision from administratorsArodb (talk) 16:21, 10 December 2015 (UTC)
 * Wikipedia articles should have a ||WP:GLOBAL|global perspective]] as far as possible. You introduce a US perspective in the lead. A US perspective is OK to mention in the parts that discuss the specific situation in that country, but putting it in the lede puts undue weight on the law in one country. This is especially problematic as the US law regarding hate speech is unique. Sjö (talk) 06:13, 11 December 2015 (UTC)

Canada
I removed the opinion which introduced the section on Canada because "An encyclopedia is a collection of facts" not opinions (See WP:Writing better articles.), and because the opinion deals with hate speech although this article is about hate crime. I removed the information about hate propaganda because that information is a matter of hate speech not hate crime. (Matters of hate speech are at Hate speech laws in Canada.) I quoted the hate crime provision of Canada's Criminal Code to show how hate crime provisions are worded. I deleted the mention of Canada's civil laws against discrimination because those laws are not a matter of hate crime. PYRRHON  talk   16:18, 25 April 2010 (UTC)

Hate crime debate
I just visited this page for the first time, and noticed up front two comments about "Multiple issues." They were "Tagged since June, 2010." As I write this, the date is May 19, 2010. How can anything be tagged "since" a date in the future? George Hannauer georgehannauer@oberlin.net 208.66.211.248 (talk) 23:45, 19 May 2010 (UTC)

Proposed Merge
The article Hate crimes against white people contains some useful information. However, we don't have articles about Hate crimes against black people, or Hate crimes against Asians, and I don't think that hate crimes against whites deserve their own article either; it just isn't done on Wikipedia. Rather, the contents of that article should be merged, where appropriate, into the established articles Hate crime (general), Hate crimes in the United States (the section on the US) and South African farm attacks (the section on South Africa). Any thoughts? Stonemason89 (talk) 03:55, 21 July 2010 (UTC)
 * That's right. I agree. Choyoołʼįįhí:Seb az86556 > haneʼ 06:39, 21 July 2010 (UTC)

 * Following the discussion, I have merged contents to Hate crime laws in the United States and South African farm attacks, but I did not find any material to merge here. Thanks. --FormerIP (talk) 12:49, 20 August 2010 (UTC)

Critiquing reliance on the prison industrial complex
This subsection of Opposition is completely unsourced (by reliable sources) and puts undue weight on that particular argument. --70.128.125.237 (talk) 08:56, 26 July 2010 (UTC)

Undisclosed COI
While James Cantor was contesting my removal of an EL that he had added to his coworker, I looked into some of the many other ELs that he has added, and found that many of them were to his own blog, those of coworkers and, or colleagues. The EL to Gregory M. Herek's blog, which James Cantor added to two pages seemed not to be conflicted until I noticed that both Herek and Cantor were editors of the same magazine. Thoughts? BitterGrey (talk) 21:41, 26 September 2010 (UTC)

Doing the Math
Hi everyone,

I found the following article from Southern Poverty Law Center to be interesting:

 * <ref></ref>

It gives total victimization of target groups in the U.S. population for 1995-2008.

Here are its results in table format:

--Kevinkor2 (talk) 15:03, 28 November 2010 (UTC)

Color of Crime
The New Century Foundation's pamphlet The Color of Crime, does not deserve a section in this article - it has no relevance to the subject, represent a fringe POV and even mentioning it here is probably undue weight. ·Maunus· ƛ · 15:09, 28 April 2011 (UTC)

So it's okay to commit crimes for fun?
But it's not okay if you have a reason? 71.212.210.137 (talk) 19:28, 16 October 2011 (UTC)
 * says who? Choyoołʼįįhí:Seb az86556 > haneʼ 19:30, 16 October 2011 (UTC)

Examples section
I would question whether a well-written, well-referenced section on examples of incidents described as hate crimes would add anything to the article. The 'Examples' section being added to the article is far from that- I'm not about to go out and buy a book, just to find what page either of the dubious examples is discussed on, if they are discussed at all. The silliness about banning intimidation by the homeless as a hate crime is unacceptable without a direct quote. And the section on 'Kick a ginger day' says nothing about any of these incidents being described as hate crimes. Most coloured people I've spoken to about this episode had a sense of humor about it. Nevard (talk) 04:23, 7 December 2011 (UTC)
 * Moreover, despite the fact that the RCMP reportedly investigated the kid who started the group to determine whether he had actually committed a hate crime, he was never charged. Nevard (talk) 04:34, 7 December 2011 (UTC)

Context on a quote in the "Canada" section
Would someone please check over the concern voiced [http://answers.yahoo.com/question/index?qid=20120318173443AAG4SFd over on Yahoo! Answers]? The sentence is a quote, so it's probably relevant to include, but it seems POV when out-of-context—which it currently is in the article. I don't have immediate access to the source (not on Google Books :P ) and am somewhat too busy to look for a physical copy—would someone please either improve on the context for that sentence, or remove it? I've already tagged the sentence in question with a hidden note and a. Thanks, {{ Nihiltres |talk|edits|⚡}} 14:05, 19 March 2012 (UTC)

RfC
An RfC: Which descriptor, if any, can be added in front of Southern Poverty Law Center when referenced in other articles? has been posted at the Southern Poverty Law Center talk page. Your participation is welcomed. – MrX 16:46, 22 September 2012 (UTC)

Strangely worded sentence.
"The term "hate crime" is now used more often than in the past mainly because the groups that used to have official endorsement under with intergovernmental and/or armed forces involvement." There's clearly a problem here, but I cant figure out what exactly to change to fix it. 74.132.249.206 (talk) 12:53, 4 October 2012 (UTC)
 * I rewrote the History section before I read your post. I couldn't figure it out either, so I simply deleted it. If anyone can figure out what it meant they are welcome to put the information back, with references of course. Sjö (talk) 06:05, 13 November 2012 (UTC)

Discussion regarding the 'n' word(s)
In what countries do people say nig**r acceptably and how so is this even allowed. I thought that i may find for such knowledge here but am asking for further iscussion of interpretations. Is it just a racial problem or a problem of ethnicities and nationalism? How so? Examples? I think that such questions should be adressed as the current article is unclear as to what constitutes it. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 94.8.119.156 (talk) 16:12, 25 May 2015 (UTC)

Can someone please check this change in statistics?
Here. Thanks. Ping me please when you do. Doug Weller (talk) 20:45, 12 July 2015 (UTC)

 * The number 9 million LGBT Americans is on the first page of the Williams institute source. However, as the report explains, it's difficult to measure the percentage of Americans who identify as LGBT. The number will also depend on how you define the terms. 9 million refers to those that identify as LGBT, but the report mentions estimates that 19 million Americans have engaged in same-sex sexual behavior, and that over 25 million acknowledge some same-sex attraction. You could argue about the definition, but 9 million is a lower bound, according to the source, and it's not as low as 5,421,300 which seems to be a number grabbed from thin air. Of course, there are other estimates that might give different numbers but the one we have in the article now seems reliable enough. 9 million is a round number, which is reasonable given the difficulties of defining and estimating the size of the group. Let's not use some mathematical calcuation based on percentages and the current population to come up with some ridiculously exact number like the one that was removed in the edit above.

 * As for the victims, I checked the FBI sources and restored the number 7,231. That's the total number of offenses labeled Sexual Orientation less the number labeled Anti-Heterosexual. There's a problem there that means the article might need to be tweaked: the article says victims, but the statistics count offenses. There's not a one-to-one relation between the two, but I think it's close enough to allow calculating a per capita rate. Sjö (talk) 07:29, 13 July 2015 (UTC)

 * Thanks User:Sjö. I also thought that the made it up, as they apparently have on other articles, so gave them a 31 hour block. I see they've made a malformed block appeal and somehow managed to transclude something irrelevant from my talk page. Doug Weller (talk) 07:34, 13 July 2015 (UTC)

External links modified
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New article
2017 Chicago torture incident

In January 2017, four people were arrested for torturing a learning disabled man in Chicago, Illinois, after they livestreamed the incident on Facebook. The victim was kidnapped, bound, gagged, beaten, had part of his scalp removed with a knife, and was forced to drink from a toilet bowl. At least one of the suspects shouted "Fuck Trump" and "Fuck white people."

Bk33725681 (talk) 02:01, 6 January 2017 (UTC)

 * I think it's too soon to gauge its significance in the grand scheme of things. WP:Not news and all. Let's give it some time. —PermStrump  ( talk )  03:32, 6 January 2017 (UTC)

Evaluation of this article
In the "victims of the United States" section, there seems to be a bias on African American hate crimes rather than a broad view of hate crimes committed on all races, sexual orientation, and religion that is shown on the table. There were a few sentences that talked about hate crimes towards LGBTQ people but overall the section mainly focused on African Americans. The section itself is neutral but it lacks to mention any other races such as Asian Americans who are underrepresented in this article over all. Though Asian Americans are not always on the news does not mean that they have not been discriminated and harassed, same goes to every other race, religion, and LGBTQ people. Also the table that is placed in the section is outdated; the number of hate crimes committed to these people have increased since 2012. FBI 2015 hate crime statisticsSgarcia98 (talk) 20:07, 17 March 2017 (UTC)

 * I concur.
 * That section currently begins, "Most hate crimes in the United States are committed against African Americans," citing 2010 FBI statistics.
 * It that still true? Has it been true historically?
 * It's probably true, but not certain.
 * In any event, it would be good to have it updated to discuss an apparent increase in hate crimes since Trump began his campaign for the presidency in 2015. Unfortunately, I likely will not find the time to do it myself.  DavidMCEddy (talk) 14:58, 25 March 2017 (UTC)

 * I can't quite get my head around the two pages for 2015, see my comments below. Doug Weller  talk 15:03, 25 March 2017 (UTC)

FBI statistics
These badly need updating. The latest seem to be 2015. There are two pages of stats with different numbers, so that needs sorting. Doug Weller  talk 14:50, 18 March 2017 (UTC)

Hate Crime Satistics
Crimes in general are broken into catagories, but can not find Hate Crimes broken down. Believe these numbers are important, yet no factual numbers on Wiki. Just percentages used and all Hate Crimes are lumped in one pile of data. Can this issue be researched? Or admit the data provided by FBI is unclear? Not disputing hate crimes, just need numbers broken down and not only by group impacted. Thank you. Ruth31ess (talk) 16:51, 28 March 2017 (UTC)

External links modified
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Let's be real here
"Some have argued that if it is true that all violent crimes are the result of the perpetrator's contempt for the victim, then all crimes are hate crimes."

The citation that would presumably be relevant to this sentence makes no such arguments. The "some" being referred to are comedian TV writers in an episode of South Park. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 2001:48F8:4056:11D:D472:E058:C9BF:E028 (talk) 02:04, 31 July 2017 (UTC)

External links modified
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Etymology
Even though it is not an article about racial violence, but rather about the legal / cultural term "Hate Crime",

Nowhere in the article does it say why it is called a "hate crime", and it isn't a trivial question - the term reflects particular politics, and is very far from being a technical description of a type of crime. Even in the History section there's no real history, just a brief "it appeared in the 80s", and then an arbitrary account of racial violence events in history.

 * What was the first time a hate crime was judged as such?
 * What social changes led to the term being adopted?
 * What is the debate about the term, about what things fall under it and what don't and why,
 * Why do hate crimes in many jurisdictions carry increased sentences, what rational was guiding legislators in making it so, what are the effects of this legislation on crime statistics and all that.
 * What's even the connection between specifically hatred, and inter group violence based on ethnic, religious, sex and other differences?

Seriously, it's a weird term, it's very interesting how it came to be and what it means, it's even very special as a language thing - it's almost as if it came from Orwell's newspeak and should actually be written as hatecrime, like thoughtcrime, sexcrime, etc.

Compared to other Wikipedia articles, there seems to be a significant part of the article's essence missing.

Why not address bias in enforcing hate crime laws, and fake hate crimes?
It is (humorously) claimed that blacks cannot commit hate crimes. Funny, but humor tends to have a core of truth. https://u.osu.edu/huang.2130/2014/09/18/humor-is-a-way-of-telling-the-truth/  Shouldn't this article cover that truth, not just of blacks, but in fact all sorts of discrimination in the enforcement of hate-crime laws? Generally, there are indeed biases about the enforcement of hate crimes, and the incidences of fake hate crimes. Tawana Brawley was a very early example in about 1986 or so. The Duke Lacrosse team case was another, from about 2006. Google 'fake hate crime' for an eye opener. Just found this: http://www.fakehatecrimes.org/    2601:1C2:4E02:3020:69CA:E689:966C:1A0 (talk) 05:35, 29 July 2018 (UTC)
 * Can you provide reliable sources? I've not heard of "fake" hate crimes before.  Eve rgr een Fir  (talk) 07:07, 29 July 2018 (UTC)

Motive or Intent
In the subsection Hate crime, we state that "In Wisconsin v. Mitchell, the U.S. Supreme Court unanimously found that penalty-enhancement hate crime statutes...allow courts to consider motive [wikilinked] when sentencing". I'm not sure whether we mean motive or intent. Motive has to do with the criminal's background and, possibly, upbringing; intent is more immediate -- the state of his mind just before he committed his crime.

If we do mean intent, we should change the above text to read "consider intent when sentencing". If the Supreme Court actually allows the lower courts to consider motive then we should change the second sentence in the Motive (law) article to read "Motive, in itself, is not an element of any given crime (except hate crimes) ;".

I'm doing some research into Mitchell but if anyone knows the answer, you can save me some time. I'm adding this discussion to the talk page of Motive (law) as well. --RoyGoldsmith (talk) 16:08, 30 October 2018 (UTC)

Middle East in Sidebar
Small edit, but lack permissions to do it - Middle East is formatted one level too deep, and so shows under the "South America" section. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 2001:56A:F10E:100:A971:537:B4E9:E9A2 (talk) 06:19, 12 November 2018 (UTC)

Removed from article
I removed the following text from the article: "The murders of Channon Christian and Christopher Newsom and the Wichita Massacre were not classified as "hate crimes" by U.S. investigative officials or the media."

This was then followed by a sentence stating that multiple conservative commentators had said these crimes constituted black-against-white hate crimes, something which was not supported by the cited source. As far as I can see, without the remark about the commentators, this sentence is a mere un-cited hook to hang the commentary off, and I've removed it as it no longer logically belongs in the section without its context. -- The Anome (talk) 16:43, 18 March 2019 (UTC)

misogynistic terminology "forcible rapes"
In the Hate Crimes Laws section for the United States, mention is made of "...forcible rapes...". Are there non-forcible, consensual types? Is this acceptable terminology? It is misogynistic language used by some Republican politicians, should it be repeated here? What is the author trying to say here? RSTate (talk) 23:11, 27 May 2022 (UTC)

 * In the FBI classification scheme, "Forcible Rape" is the official term for the Part I offense and is defined as "the carnal knowledge of a female forcibly and against her will. Attempts or assaults to commit rape by force or threat of force are also included". The "forcible" prefix is done primarily to distinguish the offense from statutory rape incidents committed without the use of force. There's an argument to be made that all rape incidents occur as part of a social power differential, but there is legitimate reason for using the terminology in regards to the law, at least. Kidmax (talk) 00:28, 31 January 2023 (UTC)

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Mary Whiton Calkins

Mary Whiton Calkins (30 March 1863 – 26 February 1930 ) was an American philosopher and psychologist, whose work informed theory and research of memory, dreams and the self. In 1903, Calkins was the twelfth in a listing of fifty psychologists with the most merit, chosen by her peers. Calkins was refused a Ph.D. by Harvard University because of her gender.

Calkins is a key figure in the history of women psychologists. At Wellesley College, Calkins established the first psychological laboratory for women. She was the first woman to complete the requirements for a doctoral degree in psychology with the unanimous support of the Harvard University psychology faculty, although the university refused to bestow it on the grounds that Harvard did not accept women. She later became president of the American Psychological Association and the American Philosophical Association, and was the first woman to be president of both.

She taught psychology and philosophy at Wellesley College for four decades, and conducted research there and at Harvard University for the majority of that time.

Background
Mary Whiton Calkins was born on March 30, 1863, in Hartford, Connecticut. She was the eldest of eight children. Her parents were Wolcott and Charlotte Whiton Calkins. Mary was close with her family. In 1880, she moved to Newton, Massachusetts with her family to begin her education and remained there for the rest of her life. Her family moved from New York to Massachusetts because her father, who was a Presbyterian minister, got a new job there.

Since Mary's father took an active role in overseeing his children's education and planned her studies, she was able to enroll in college when she graduated high school. In 1882, Calkins entered Smith College as a sophomore. She studied there for a year. Following the death of her sister in 1883, she took a year off from college and learned by herself. While taking time off from school, Calkins received private tutoring lessons in Greece. During this year, she also tutored two of her brothers. She returned to Smith College in 1884 to graduate with a degree in classics and philosophy.

Upon graduation, Calkins and her family took an eighteen-month trip to Europe, and she was able to explore Leipzig, Italy, and Greece. As she was majoring in classics, Calkins took advantage of the opportunities and spent several months travelling and studying modern Greek and classics. When she returned to Massachusetts, her father set up an interview with the President of Wellesley College, an all women's college, for a tutoring job in the Greek department. She worked as a tutor and eventually as a teacher in the Greek department for three years. A professor in the philosophy department noticed Calkins' excellent teaching and offered her a position to teach psychology, which was new to the philosophy department's curriculum. Calkins accepted the offer on the contingency that she would be able to study psychology for one year.

Although women had had more educational opportunities to attend and teach at colleges back then, Calkins still faced sexism in the field and didn't have many options to earn a degree in psychology. She considered psychology programs at the University of Michigan with John Dewey, Yale University with George Trumbull Ladd, Clark University with Granville Stanley Hall, and Harvard University with William James. She expressed interest in studying in a laboratory setting, a specification of which only Clark University and Harvard University had at the time. She sought admission to Harvard most likely due to its proximity to her home in Newton. Harvard did not permit women to study at their institution, but it allowed her to sit in on lectures after her father and Wellesley's president had sent letters asking for her admittance. Calkins decided to take classes at Harvard Annex (predecessor of Radcliffe College), taught by Josiah Royce.

Career
Calkins published four books and over one hundred papers in her career, in both the fields of psychology and philosophy. Calkins was interested in memory and later in the concept of the self. She is best known for her accomplishments within the field of psychology and her struggles to achieve. After being rejected for a degree from Harvard, Calkins continued to work and strive for equality.

In 1903, Calkins ranked twelfth in a listing of fifty top-ranked psychologists, an achievement that happened after James McKeen Cattell asked ten psychologists to rank their American colleagues in order of merit.

Initial psychological training
Royce influenced Calkins to take classes taught by William James in Harvard, with men as her peers. However, Harvard president Charles William Eliot opposed this idea of a woman learning in the same room as a man. With pressure from James and Royce, along with a petition from Calkins' father, Eliot allowed her to study in the classes, with the stipulation that she was a guest, and not a registered student.

Calkins began her serious study of psychology under William James, shortly after his highly renowned textbook, The Principles of Psychology was printed in 1890. Calkins highly regards one of her first experiences with James in her autobiography, stating: "what I gained from the written page, and even more from tete-a-tete discussion was, it seems to me as I look back upon it, beyond all else, a vivid sense of the concreteness of psychology and of the immediate reality of 'finite individual minds' with their 'thoughts and feelings'." Although Calkins was very impressed by James' philosophies and he had initiated her into the field of psychology, James was not an experimentalist, and that was more of Calkins' area of interest. However, she claims that ultimately it was James' doctrines of the transitive feelings of relation, the feelings of and, if, and but, and the concept of consciousness as tending to the "personal form," which could have been what began her major interest in the self.

While studying with James, Calkins had first suggested attention as a topic for one of her papers, however, she said that James had frowned upon that since he was sick of the subject. Her topic of association was arbitrarily chosen, and became one of the major interests of her psychological career.

Experimental psychology
Following her training under James, Calkins worked alongside Edmund Sanford of Clark University, who later assisted her in setting up the first psychology laboratory run by women at Wellesley College. Sanford trained Calkins on experimental laboratory procedures, as well as helped in the creation and assembly of numerous laboratory instruments for Wellesley's psychological laboratory.

When Calkins was tutored by Sanford, she was allowed to conduct a research project that involved studying the contents of Sanford and her dreams recorded throughout a seven-week period. She recorded 205 dreams and Sanford 170. They woke themselves by using alarm clocks at different hours of the night and recorded their dreams at the instant of waking. They slept with a notepad right beside their bed to allow note-taking of dreams as quickly as possible. Each morning, they studied all the records regardless of whether they seemed slight and trivial, or significant. They also took account of the different types of dreams and they discovered elements of various emotions.

As part of the project, also considered was the relation of the dream to the conscious, waking life, distinguishing the individuals and places in their dream experiences. Calkins explains in her autobiography that the dream "merely reproduces in general the persons and places of recent sense perception and that is it rarely associated with that which is of paramount significance in one's waking experience". Calkins and Sanford address the loss of identity in dreams as "not a loss but a change or a doubling of self-consciousness ... yet all the time one is conscious that it is oneself who has changed or whose identity is doubled".

Calkins' research was cited by Sigmund Freud when he created his conception of the dream. She also claimed that Freudians at the time were "superficially concerned with the 'manifest content' of dreams". The results of a recent study done by Montangero and Cavallero (2015) suggest that the consecutive events of the dreams of their participants were rarely plausible, and often seemed to have no relation to one another. This suggests that dreams have little hidden meaning, and supports the findings of Calkin's original dream study.

Psychological laboratory and courses at Wellesley
In 1891, Calkins returned to Wellesley as an instructor of psychology in the philosophy department. 12 years after the first psychology laboratory was established by Wilhelm Wundt in Leipzig, Germany, Calkins established the first psychology lab to be founded by a woman in 1891, and the first lab to be established at a women's college. The lab was funded by $200, while all other labs were funded by $800 or more. Calkins had many of the apparatuses constructed at nearby venues. Her lab was in the attic spaces of the fifth floor of College Hall in Wellesley College. After the laboratory was established, it quickly gained popularity; her first course on "psychology approached from the physiological standpoint" yielded over fifty students. These students were instructed in some areas of psychology and conducted experiments on such subjects as sensation and association.

A fire broke out in a nearby physics lab, which burned down Calkins's laboratory among with others. No students or instructors were injured in the fire, but the first psychology laboratory established by a woman was destroyed. The laboratory was rebuilt, and Eleanor Gamble later succeeded Calkins in running it.

Further education
When Calkins began to make plans for furthering her education in psychology, advice from Sanford discouraged her from schools like Johns Hopkins and Clark, suggesting they were not likely to admit women as students much like her experience at Harvard. Sanford did encourage Calkins to explore programs in Europe, making an inference that Hugo Münsterberg admitted female students to his laboratory in Freiburg, Germany (after seeing a picture of Münsterberg in his lab with a woman). After expressing her desire to work with Münsterberg to James, she learned from him that Münsterberg would soon be coming to work at Harvard.

In the three years that Calkins studied under Münsterberg, several of her papers were published, including research she conducted with Sanford on dreams and her first paper on association. In her autobiography, she describes Münsterberg as "a man of deep learning, high originality, and astounding versatility."

Other work with Münsterberg included their dream study. Hugo would begin by training her in the detail of laboratory experiments, giving her a research problem based on records that the two of them had taken of their dreams over several weeks. Over those weeks they would wake themselves with alarm clocks at different hours of the night, recorded their dreams, and then studied them intensely. The conclusion they reached was that dreams were nothing more than reproductions of "the persons, places, and events of recent sense perception."

The discrimination she experienced due to her sex was also illustrated in earlier episodes. In her autobiography, Calkins reminisces on a date in which, as a member of the executive committee of the American Psychological Association, Munsterberg and his students, including Calkins, were to attend a lunch meeting of the Committee at the Harvard Union. The waiter there, though, protested the group's entrance stating that "no woman might set foot in the main hall; nor was it possible to admit so many men, balanced solely by one woman, to the ladies' dining-room." Although it seems like Calkins had a constant struggle as a female in her field, she expressed in her autobiography her gratitude for the individuals that did not discriminate against her. The "friendly, comradely, and refreshingly matter-of-fact welcome" that she received from the men working in Munsterberg's laboratory as assistants and students are described in her book with great appreciation. She also expressed her indebtedness to Munsterberg who "swung the Laboratory doors" open to her without hesitation.

Doctoral research
During this time, Calkins also studied memory, leading to her invention of the right associate's method, now known as the paired-associations technique. Calkins explains in her autobiography that "by showing series of colors paired with numerals, I found that a numeral which has repeatedly appeared in conjunction with a given color was more likely than either a vividly colored numeral or than the numeral last paired with the color, to be remembered, on a reappearance of the given color".

A series of Calkins' experiments under Hugo Münsterberg, taking place between 1894 and 1896, was concerned with the concept of recency as it relates to a person's ability to remember something. Her paired-associates technique showed that recency yields to the vividness, and both vividness and recency yields to frequency. Her method consisted of showing a series of colors paired with numerals, followed by testing for recall of the numbers when the colors with which they were previously paired are flashed again. The findings of her study revealed that numbers paired with bright colors were retained better than those associated with neutral colors. Yet, the prime factor influencing memory was not color but the frequency of exposure.

Calkins described the technical memorizing method that she used, known as paired-associations, as even more significant than the results of the experiment. The formula where a subject is presented with a stimulus and asked to provide the appropriate response became a standard tool for studying human learning. Although Georg Elias Müller criticized her method, he refined and adopted it, calling it Treffermethode (lit. 'hit method') and it has been widely used ever since. Edward B. Titchener included her research in his Student's Manual, and in her autobiography, Calkins refers to a Professor Kline who selected the paired-associates method for his textbook, Psychology By Experiment. The paired-associates technique was also included in psychology textbooks published by Herrnstein and Boring. Although the paired-associates technique is regarded as one of Calkins' biggest contributions to psychology, Calkins herself did not attach very much importance to this work.

It is suggested that, despite Calkins often downplaying the memory implications of her research, her writings "constitute a truly remarkable legacy ... [they] represent important, basic, replicable phenomena that are fundamentally important."

Her study on paired associates learning under Münsterberg constituted her doctoral dissertation which was published in 1896. Harvard refused to approve the unanimous recommendation of the Department of Philosophy and Psychology to grant Calkins her doctoral degree. Eliot believed strongly that the two sexes should be educated separately and, although he allowed Calkins to be a "guest," he and the rest of the board refused to grant her the degree. Calkins had completed all of the requirements for the Ph.D., including passing exams and completing a dissertation, and all of her Harvard professors had recommended her for the degree. Yet, solely due to her gender, she was denied the honour of a conferred degree. James was astonished and described her performance as "the most brilliant examination for the Ph.D. that we have had at Harvard."

Although the qualification has never been officially conferred, Calkins was the first woman to complete all the coursework, examinations, and research for a doctoral degree.

Calkins' most notable instance of social justice for women was her rejection of a PhD from Radcliffe, a women's college in association with Harvard. In 1902, Radcliffe offered doctoral degrees to Calkins and three other women who had completed their studies at Harvard but were not granted PhDs due to their gender. The three other women accepted the degree, and Munsterberg urged Calkins that she should also accept, claiming a PhD from Radcliffe held the same weight as a PhD from Harvard. Calkins rejected Radcliffe's offer, stating in a letter to the Radcliffe board: "I sincerely admire the scholarship of the three women to whom it is to be given and I should be very glad to be classed with them. I furthermore think it highly probable that the Radcliffe degree will be regarded, generally, as the practical equivalent of the Harvard degree and finally I should be glad to hold the Ph D degree for I occasionally find the lack of it an inconvenience, and now that the Radcliffe degree is offered, I doubt whether the Harvard degree will ever be open to women. On the other hand, I still believe that the best ideals of education would be better served if Radcliffe College refused to confer the doctor's degree. You will be quick to see that, holding this conviction, I cannot rightly take the easier course of accepting the degree."

Despite ongoing petitioning, as of 2015 Harvard University continues to refuse to posthumously award her with a doctoral degree.

Later work
With her supplemental education completed, she returned to Wellesley in 1895 as an associate professor of psychology. Two years after her return she became a professor of psychology and philosophy. This addition allowed her to return to her lectures on the classics and Greek. Her experimental work continued throughout this time.

Calkins' first textbook, An Introduction to Psychology, was published in 1901 ''. The Persistent Problems of Philosophy (1907) and The Good Man and The Good'' (1918) were two publications in which she expressed her philosophical views.

In 1905 she was elected president of the American Psychological Association and the American Philosophical Association in 1918. She was the first woman to hold a position in both societies. She was awarded an honorary Doctor of Letters in 1909 from the University of Columbia and a Doctorate of Laws in 1910 from Smith College. She was also the first woman elected to honorary membership on the British Psychological Association.

The self
One of her contributions to psychology was her system of self-psychology. Beginning in 1900, Calkins began to publish a series of papers in which she described psychology as a "science of the self" – this would be a premise to the development of her system of self-psychology. She spent many years trying to define the idea of the self, but she concluded that she could in no way define it. She stated that even though the self was indefinable, it was "a totality, one of many characters... a unique being in the sense that I am I and you are you ..."

In a time when there were several schools of thought, Calkins established the school of self-psychology. This became quite unpopular and controversial as many psychologists did not feel the self or soul was relevant. At the time, the main schools of psychology were structuralism and functionalism, which were quite competitive with one another; statements made by one school could expect a strong rebuttal from the other. Self-psychology was influenced by William James' theory of the idea of multiple selves (including the material self, social self, and spiritual self), and a particular interest to Calkin's, Josiah Royce's theory that humans define themselves through interpersonal communication.

She spent a great deal of time working with the system of self-psychology, critically examining the self from both philosophical and psychological viewpoints. Over her many years of study, Calkins wrote many books and articles on the topic of self-psychology. Over the years she spent working on the system, it was widely unpopular, which is why she is less often remembered for her work relating to it. Despite its lack of appreciation, Calkin's refused to lose interest in the subject, which is described as "the science of conscious selves." By way of studying self-psychology, she was able to form descriptions of the self, such as the self that remains the same, the self that is changed, the unique self, and a few other descriptions. She would go on to discuss self-psychology during the entirety of her career, mentioning it in some of her books, one of which is A First Book in Psychology.

Her reasoning for self-psychology being so unpopular was a notion that "one is so constantly aware of one's self that one might understandably overlook it when reporting on a sensational experience," and adding that it led to a lack of reference to the self in introspective studies. She also suggested that the system was not well taken by fellow psychologists or scientists, one of which being confusion over the self's relationship with the soul, which she discusses in her article, "The Case of Self Against Soul" in 1917. In this article, she explains that our soul should be considered life itself. She would take to theoretical arguments to promote her system, noting its organizing role within psychology. Calkins defined the three basal concepts in self-psychology to be the subject, the object, and the relation between the subject and the object. Calkins distinguished self-psychology from the predominant schools of atomism, behaviorism, Gestalt-psychology, and psychophysical personalism, while still maintaining that self-psychology could incorporate the central tenets espoused by these schools.

Calkins considered her self-psychology to be a form of introspectionist psychology, involving examining one's own mental experience. She believed that causing someone to think introspectively could help in multiple aspects of their life including religion, their morals, and various other aspects in the mind that otherwise may not be thought of. Introspectionistic psychology was composed of two schools: impersonalistic, which denied the "self" in its definition of psychology, and personalistic, which defined psychology as the study of consciousness, functioning, experiencing selves. Calkins' conviction was that a laboratory was essential for adequate instruction in psychology. Calkins claimed that self-psychology could be experimentally investigated, but did not personally involve herself in laboratory experiments relating to self-psychology. Calkins desired that her school of self-psychology would be a theory on which functionals and structuralists could find common ground.

Calkins' self-psychology did not live without criticism from fellow psychologists of the era. James Angell, a founding father of functionalism, opposed Calkins' neglect of the body as part of the self. Following Calkins' Presidential Address (of the American Psychological Association), where Calkins publicly outlined self-psychology, he claims: "Such as functional psychology as I have been presenting would be entirely reconcilable with Miss Calkins' 'psychology of selves' ... were it not for her extreme scientific conservatism in refusing to allow the self to have a body ... The real psychological self, as I understand her, is pure disembodied spirit - an admirable thing of good religious and philosophic ancestry, but surely not the thing before which psychology is under any obligation to know". This was written despite its inaccuracy; Calkins did in fact leave considerable room for the body in her address, taking sensorimotor processes and physiological phenomena into account, however, she did not consider the body as an essential "basal fact" of psychology.

Personal life
Outside of her contributions to the field of psychology, Calkins was an avid supporter of women's rights. Calkins was a suffragist - active in the fight for women's right to vote, disputing "in a democratic country, governed as this is by the suffrage of its citizens, and given over as this is to the principle and practice of educating women, a distinction based on the difference of sex is artificial and illogical". Calkins was a pacifist and a member of the American Civil Liberties Union. While working at Wellesley around the time of World War I, a colleague of Calkins was fired for holding pacifistic views. Calkins offered her resignation, stating she held the same views as her colleague who was terminated, but her resignation from Wellesley was not accepted by the President or board.

As it can be seen in her writings, although she was very grateful for the individuals who accepted her, she did not hold resentment against those who did not. For instance, instead of expressing disdain towards the Harvard board for not accepting her application for a degree, she conveyed her appreciation toward Harvard for allowing her to partake in the courses, conduct research under her professors, and work with individuals such as James, Sanford and Münsterberg. She also mentions the assistance of figures such as Robert MacDougall and several others who spent years with her as her mechanicians, subjects, counselors, and even friends. In addition, when the episode with the waiter refusing her admission took place, she stated in her autobiography that "he correctly insisted against her admission."

Calkins served as a faculty member at Wellesley College for forty years until she retired in 1929. Calkins died in 1930 after writing four books and over a hundred papers that are evenly divided between the fields of psychology and philosophy.

Books

 * 1888: Sharing the Profits, Ginn & Company.
 * 1896: Association: An Essay Analytic and Experimental, Macmillan
 * 1901: An Introduction to Psychology, The Macmillan Company.
 * 1907: The Persistent Problems of Philosophy: An Introduction to Metaphysics Through the Study of Modern Systems, The Macmillan Company.
 * 1909: A First Book in Psychology, The Macmillan Company
 * 1918: The Good Man and the Good, The Macmillan Company

title: Mary Whiton Calkins


text:
Jemmy Hirst

James "Jemmy" Hirst (1738–1829) was an English eccentric.

Hirst was born to a farmer family of Rawcliffe, Yorkshire. Even at school he kept a pet jackdaw and trained a hedgehog to follow him around. His parents' hope that he would become a priest never materialised when he was thrown out of school for his pranks. Hirst was apprenticed to a tanner, fell in love with his daughter and became engaged to her.

Reputedly Hirst's eccentricity began when his betrothed died of smallpox after he rescued her from a flooding river. At first Hirst retired to his bed and reputedly contracted "brain fever". When he recovered (apparently), he continued his habits of animal training. His first success was his later favourite, a bull he named "Jupiter" and trained to behave as a horse so he could ride him and use him to pull his carriage. The carriage itself was made of wicker, had unusually big wheels and looked like a lampshade upside down. It also had an odometer of Hirst's own design that would ring a bell after a mile of travel. When Jupiter found it hard to pull, Hirst fitted it with sails. The experiment was unsuccessful and the carriage crashed into a shop window in Pontefract; Hirst was banned from the town.

Hirst rode Jupiter in a fox hunt, using pigs as pointers instead of dogs. He tried to train an otter to fish - but getting the otter to let go of his catch was too hard. He went to Doncaster races dressed in a lambskin hat with a nine-foot brim and a waistcoat of duck feathers. Hirst also blew his hunting horn to summon the poor and the elderly to his house for tea. Sometimes the visitors found that the refreshments were served from their host's favourite coffin. Hirst hung the walls of his house with bits of old rope and iron and wrote doggerel verse. Eventually he married his housekeeper; during the ceremony he wore a toga and insisted that the formalities should be conducted in sign language. However, he did make a profitable trade of his produce and increased his wealth. His farm was the one at the North end of Chapel Lane. The farmhouse is still there but the stack yard behind it has been built on. His grave is in Rawcliffe churchyard.

Hirst's fame grew enough that King George III was intrigued and invited him to visit London. At first Hirst sent a reply that he was busy trying to train otters to fish, but would come later. When he arrived in his carriage he attracted much attention in his flamboyant costume. During his visit, one noble began to laugh. Hirst proceeded to throw a goblet of water in his face because he was clearly "having hysterics". He announced that he was pleased to find his monarch a "plain-looking fellow" and invited him to visit him in Rawcliffe for a good brandy. The king did not oblige, but reputedly gave him a number of bottles from the royal wine cellar.

Jemmy Hirst died in 1829. His will left £12 to twelve old maids who were to follow his coffin and two musicians, a fiddler and a bagpiper, who were to play happy songs. Only two old maids obliged. The priest did not let the piper play anything but O'er the hills and far away and forbade the fiddler from playing anything at all. He also left his accountant a piece of rope to "go hang himself with". Rumour claims that Hirst had had his own coffin built with windows and shelves, which he kept in his front room and charged people to sit in.

In his memory there is a pub in Rawcliffe near Goole named Jemmy Hirst at The Rose and Crown.

title: Jemmy Hirst


text:
Talk:Felicity (TV series)

Episode count
The current episode count listed in the article is 84. I count 22 episodes for season one, 23 for two, 17 for three, and 21 for four.
 * 22+23+17+21=83

Is there something I'm missing here? Let me know before I change 84 to 83. roguegeek (talk·cont) 18:54, 3 December 2008 (UTC)

 * Nevermind. I was counting the 2-hour series finale as one episode. They're separate. roguegeek (talk·cont) 19:18, 3 December 2008 (UTC)

Ratings
"The show's ratings declined in the 1999-2000 season" - the writing quality and themes of the show changed drastically at the very tail end of season 1 and season 2 onwards. The show went from serious college drama, with quirky comedy bits/side characters, to having paranormal (!) elements (spells? really?). I wouldn't be surprised if that big change had more to do with ratings than hair styles or time slots. -Scyfer (talk) 16:02, 7 May 2009 (UTC)
 * I know I stopped watching because of the hair. Eeekster (talk) 01:45, 27 September 2011 (UTC)

Preamble
In 2007, Felicity was one of Time magazine's "100 Best TV Shows of All-Time."[1] AOL TV named Felicity one of the "Best School Shows of All Time."[2] In June 2010, Entertainment Weekly named Felicity Porter one of the "100 Greatest Characters of the Last 20 Years".

Can't this be summarized by just saying that Time Warner really likes their own show? This is exactly the kind of thing that users of wikipedia should sensor. — Preceding unsigned comment added by DanJamis (talk • contribs) 02:39, 11 October 2014 (UTC)

External links modified
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title: Talk:Felicity (TV series)


text:
Roman Catholic Bishop of Shrewsbury

The Bishop of Shrewsbury is the Ordinary of the Roman Catholic Diocese of Shrewsbury in the Province of Birmingham, England.

The diocese covers an area of 6136 km2 of the counties and unitary authorities of Cheshire, Shropshire and Telford and Wrekin with parts of Derbyshire, Halton, Merseyside, Greater Manchester and Warrington. The see is in the town of Shrewsbury where the bishop's seat is located at the Cathedral Church of Our Lady Help of Christians and Saint Peter of Alcantara.

The diocese of Shrewsbury was erected on 29 September 1850 from parts of the Vicariates Apostolic of the Central, Lancashire and Welsh Districts.

The current incumbent is the Right Reverend Mark Davies who succeeded as the 11th Bishop of Shrewsbury on 1 October 2010. He had previously been appointed the Coadjutor Bishop of Shrewsbury by the Holy See on 22 December 2009 and ordained a bishop on 22 February 2010.

title: Roman Catholic Bishop of Shrewsbury


text:
Carneades

Carneades (Καρνεάδης, Karneadēs, "of Carnea"; 214/3–129/8 BC) was a Greek philosopher, perhaps the most prominent head of the Skeptical Academy in ancient Greece. He was born in Cyrene. By the year 159 BC, he had begun to attack many previous dogmatic doctrines, especially Stoicism and even the Epicureans, whom previous skeptics had spared.

As scholarch (leader) of the Academy, he was one of three philosophers sent to Rome in 155 BC where his lectures on the uncertainty of justice caused consternation among leading politicians. He left no writings. Many of his opinions are known only via his successor Clitomachus. He seems to have doubted the ability not just of the senses but of reason too in acquiring truth. His skepticism was, however, moderated by the belief that we can, nevertheless, ascertain probabilities (not in the sense of statistical probability, but in the sense of persuasiveness) of truth, to enable us to act.

Biography
Carneades, the son of Epicomus or Philokomus, was born at Cyrene, North Africa in 214/213 BC. He migrated early to Athens. There he attended the lectures of the Stoics, learning their logic from Diogenes of Babylon and studying the works of Chrysippus. He subsequently focused his efforts on refuting the Stoics, attaching himself to the Platonic Academy, which had suffered from the attacks of the Stoics. On the death of Hegesinus of Pergamon, he was chosen scholarch (head) of the Academy. His great eloquence and skill in argument revived the glories of the Academic Skeptics. He asserted nothing (not even that nothing can be asserted), and carried on a vigorous argument against every dogma maintained by other sects.

In the year 155 BC, when he was fifty-eight years old, he was chosen with the Stoic Diogenes of Babylon and the Peripatetic Critolaus to go as ambassadors to Rome to deprecate the fine of 500 talents which had been imposed on the Athenians for the destruction of Oropus. During his stay at Rome, he attracted great notice from his eloquent speeches on philosophical subjects. It was here that, in the presence of Cato the Elder, he delivered his several orations on justice. The first oration was in commendation of the virtue of Roman justice. The next day he delivered the second oration, in which he refuted all the arguments he had made the day before. He persuasively attempted to prove that justice was inevitably problematic, and not a given when it came to virtue, but merely a compact device deemed necessary for the maintenance of a well-ordered society. This oration shocked Cato. Recognizing the potential danger of Carneades' arguments, Cato moved the Roman Senate to send Carneades back to Athens to prevent Roman youth from being exposed to a re-examining of Roman doctrines. Carneades lived twenty-seven years after this at Athens.

Due to Carneades' ill health, he was succeeded as scholarch by Polemarchus of Nicomedia (137/136 BC), who died 131/130 BC and was succeeded by Crates of Tarsus. Crates died in 127/126 BC and was succeeded by Clitomachus. Carneades died in 129/128 BC, at the advanced age of 85 (although Cicero says 90).

Carneades is described as a man of unwearied industry. He was so engrossed in his studies, that he let his hair and nails grow to an immoderate length, and was so absent at his own table (for he would never dine out), that his servant and concubine, Melissa, was constantly obliged to feed him. Latin writer and author Valerius Maximus, to whom we owe the last anecdote, tells us that Carneades, before discussing with Chrysippus, was wont to purge himself with hellebore, to have a sharper mind. In his old age, he suffered from cataract in his eyes, which he bore with great impatience, and was so little resigned to the decay of nature, that he used to ask angrily, if this was the way in which nature undid what she had done, and sometimes expressed a wish to poison himself.

Philosophy

Carneades is known as an Academic Skeptic. Academic Skeptics (so called because this was the type of skepticism taught in Plato's Academy in Athens) hold that all knowledge is impossible, except for the knowledge that all other knowledge is impossible.

Carneades left no writings, and all that is known of his lectures is derived from his intimate friend and pupil, Clitomachus; but so true was he to his own principles of withholding assent, that Clitomachus confesses he never could ascertain what his master really thought on any subject. In ethics, which more particularly were the subject of his long and laborious study, he seems to have denied the conformity of the moral ideas with nature. This he particularly insisted on in the second oration on Justice, in which he manifestly wished to convey his own notions on the subject; and he there maintains that ideas of justice are not derived from nature, but that they are purely artificial for purposes of expediency.

All this, however, was nothing but the special application of his general theory, that people did not possess, and never could possess, any criterion of truth.

Carneades argued that, if there were a criterion, it must exist either in reason (logos), or sensation (aisthêsis), or conception (phantasia). But then reason itself depends on conception, and this again on sensation; and we have no means of judging whether our sensations are true or false, whether they correspond to the objects that produce them, or carry wrong impressions to the mind, producing false conceptions and ideas, and leading reason also into error. Therefore, sensation, conception, and reason, are alike disqualified for being the criterion of truth.

But after all, people must live and act, and must have some rule of practical life; therefore, although it is impossible to pronounce anything as absolutely true, we may yet establish probabilities of various degrees. For, although we cannot say that any given conception or sensation is in itself true, yet some sensations appear to us more true than others, and we must be guided by that which seems the most true. Again, sensations are not single, but generally combined with others, which either confirm or contradict them; and the greater this combination the greater is the probability of that being true which the rest combine to confirm; and the case in which the greatest number of conceptions, each in themselves apparently most true, should combine to affirm that which also in itself appears most true, would present to Carneades the highest probability, and his nearest approach to truth.

title: Carneades


text: Talk:Imam

title: Talk:Imam


text:
User talk:0101SOht

Hello, and welcome to Wikipedia! If you want to learn more about the contribution process, definitely check out the tutorial. It's a really simple and easy explanation of all the basics.

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title: User talk:0101SOht


text:
Cholfirst Tunnel

The Cholfirst Tunnel is a tunnel in Switzerland. The tunnel lies in the northern canton of Zuerich, and forms part of the Autostrasse A4. It was completed in 1996, and is 1260 m long.

The tunnel has three lanes (two heading for Zürich, and one heading for Schaffhausen). There is no central reservation.

title: Cholfirst Tunnel