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1967 NFL Championship Game

The 1967 NFL Championship Game was the 35th NFL championship, played on December 31 at Lambeau Field in Green Bay, Wisconsin.

It determined the NFL's champion, which met the AFL's champion in Super Bowl II, then formally referred to as the second AFL–NFL World Championship Game. The Dallas Cowboys (9–5), champions of the Eastern Conference, traveled north to meet the Western champion Green Bay Packers (9–4–1), the two-time defending league champions. It was a rematch of the previous year's title game, and pitted two future Hall of Fame head coaches against each other, Tom Landry for the Cowboys and Vince Lombardi for the Packers. The two head coaches had a long history together, as both had coached together on the staff of the late 1950s New York Giants, with Lombardi serving as offensive coordinator and Landry as defensive coordinator.

Because of the adverse conditions in which the game was played, the rivalry between the two teams, and the game's dramatic climax, it has been immortalized as the Ice Bowl and is considered one of the greatest games in NFL history. NFL 100 Greatest Games ranked this game as the 3rd greatest game of all time. It is still the coldest game ever played in NFL history.

Leading up to the 50th Anniversary of the game, NFL Films released an episode of its Timeline series about the events that day and the lasting impact. The episode is narrated and co-produced by filmmaker Michael Meredith, whose father Don Meredith was the quarterback for the Cowboys that day.

Route to the NFL championship
The NFL added a sixteenth team in and realigned to four divisions, with each winner advancing to the postseason. Future hall of fame head coach Tom Landry of Dallas led his team to first place in the Capitol Division with a 9–5 record. The Green Bay Packers, and future hall of fame head coach Vince Lombardi, won the Central Division with a 9–4–1 record.

1967 NFL playoffs
In the first round of the four-team playoffs, the Cowboys met the Century Division champions, the Cleveland Browns (9–5) for the Eastern Conference title. In the Western Conference, the Packers hosted the Los Angeles Rams (11–1–2), the Coastal Division champions (with the league's best record). The Baltimore Colts of the Coastal Division were also 11–1–2, but lost the tiebreaker to the Rams and were excluded from the postseason.

At the Cotton Bowl, in a spectacular game by quarterback Don Meredith, the Cowboys obliterated the Browns 52–14. In the week prior to the Rams game, Vince Lombardi inspired his team all week with a rendition of St. Paul's Run to Win letter to the Corinthians and, in what Bart Starr would later say was Lombardi's most rousing pre-game speech, incited his team to a 28–7 victory over the Rams at Milwaukee County Stadium.

The home field for the NFL Championship alternated between the two conferences; even-numbered years were hosted by the Eastern and odd-numbered by the Western. Starting with the season, playoff sites were determined by regular season record, rather than a rotational basis.

Buildup
The 1967 game was a rematch of the previous season played in Dallas on January 1, 1967, just 364 days earlier. More than two years after football had become the most popular televised sport in the nation, this game featured a match up that all of America hoped for in the NFL Championship.

Landry's and Lombardi's paths crossed in 1954 with the New York Giants when Lombardi became the offensive coordinator and Landry, the left cornerback for the Giants, took on the added role of defensive coordinator. Landry was the best defensive mind of his era and Lombardi was the best offensive coach of his era. From a personality standpoint, Landry and Lombardi were the antithesis of each other. Lombardi was a vociferously demanding coach who would respond with the greatest elation to success and tremendous sadness to the slightest setback. Landry was stoic and calm in even the most tense situations.

The Las Vegas betting line listed the Packers as 6½-point favorites. The Cowboys would employ their vaunted "Doomsday Defense", a nickname given to the defensive unit by a Dallas journalist because it had been successful at making goal line stands. The eight-year-old Dallas franchise was trying to win its first world championship. The Packers were on a quest to achieve what had never been done before in the modern era – three consecutive world championships (Green Bay had previously won three championships in a row, 1929–1931, when titles were determined on a won-loss percentage basis). To the game, Green Bay brought its renowned Packers sweep and the Cowboys brought a defensive scheme, the Flex, which was specifically designed by Landry to stop the "running to daylight" tactic the Packers employed in their sweep. Although the Packers and the Chicago Bears were arch-rivals,   Lombardi's most passionate game planning was in preparing for Landry's "Flex".

Saturday, on the eve of the game, NFL commissioner Pete Rozelle called Jim Kensil and Don Weiss, the executive directors of the NFL, for an update on the weather conditions. It is suspected that they informed him that Sunday's game time temperature of about 5 F was playable. Rozelle, who in June 1966 had seen to it that the AFL-NFL Championship game would always be in a warm weather city, inquired if the game could be postponed until Monday. Predictions held Monday would be even colder than Sunday and the game was not postponed. Little did they know that the cold front would be far colder and would arrive much sooner than expected. The Packers, who had for years eschewed late-season home games because of the cold winters, would play host to the Cowboys in a game that would mark the coldest New Year's Eve in the history of Green Bay, and the coldest title game in the history of the NFL, a record that still stands. David Maraniss recounts in his 1999 Vince Lombardi biography When Pride Still Mattered that Packers safety Willie Wood left his home Sunday morning to find his car's battery frozen and dead. When a local service-station attendant was summoned to start the car, Wood told him, "It's just too cold to play. They're going to call this game off."

Weather
The game became known as the Ice Bowl because of the brutally cold conditions. The game-time temperature at Lambeau Field was about -15 F, with an average wind chill around -48 F; under the revised National Weather Service wind chill index implemented in 2001, the average wind chill would have been -36 F. Lambeau Field's turf-heating system malfunctioned, and when the tarpaulin was removed from the field before the game, it left moisture on the field. The field began to freeze gradually in the extreme cold, leaving an icy surface that became worse as more and more of the field fell into the shadow of the stadium. The heating system, made by General Electric, cost $80,000 and was bought from the nephew of George Halas, George S. Halas. On the sidelines before the game, some Dallas players believed that Lombardi had purposely removed power to the heating coils. The heating system would eventually be given the moniker Lombardi's Folly. The prior convention to prevent the football field from icing up was to cover the field with hay.

The Wisconsin State University–La Crosse (now the University of Wisconsin–La Crosse) Marching Chiefs band was scheduled to perform the pre-game and half-time shows. However, during warm-ups in the brutal cold, the woodwind instruments froze and would not play; the mouthpieces of brass instruments got stuck to the players' lips; and seven members of the band were transported to local hospitals for hypothermia. The band's further performances were canceled for the day. Packer linebacker Dave Robinson recalled that the field did not get really bad until the second half, saying that since the halftime show was canceled there was no traffic on the field for an extended period to keep the surface crust broken up. During the game, an elderly spectator in the stands died from exposure.

Prior to the game, many of the Green Bay players were unable to start their cars in the freezing weather, forcing them to make alternate travel arrangements to make it to the stadium on time. Linebacker Dave Robinson had to flag down a random passing motorist for a ride. The officials for the game found they did not have sufficient clothing for the cold, and had to make an early trip to a sporting goods store for earmuffs, heavy gloves, and thermal underwear. Packers quarterback Bart Starr attended an early church service with his father, who had visited for the game, and as Starr later said, "It was so cold that neither of us talked about it. Nobody wanted to bring it up."

The officials were unable to use their whistles after the opening kick-off. As referee Norm Schachter blew his metal whistle to signal the start of play, it froze to his lips. As he attempted to free the whistle from his lips, the skin ripped off and his lips began to bleed. The conditions were so hostile that instead of forming a scab, the blood simply froze to his lip. For the rest of the game, the officials used voice commands and calls to end plays and officiate the game. Nothing was immune from the cold; at one point during the game, CBS commentator Frank Gifford remarked, "I'm going to take a bite of my coffee," as it too had frozen in the mug.

Media
The game was televised by CBS, with play by play being done by Ray Scott for the first half and Jack Buck for the second half, while Frank Gifford handled the color commentary for the entire game. Pat Summerall and Tom Brookshier served as sideline reporters.

Gifford and Summerall were intimately aware of the personality differences that existed between Landry and Lombardi because they had both played on the New York Giants during Landry's and Lombardi's tenure at the Giants. Over 30 million people would tune in to watch the game.

No copy of the complete telecast is known to exist. Some excerpts (such as the announcers' pre-game comments on the field) were saved and are occasionally re-aired in retrospective features. The Cowboys' radio broadcast on KLIF, with Bill Mercer announcing, and the Packers' radio broadcast on WTMJ, with Ted Moore announcing, still exist.

Game summary
Kickoff was shortly after 1 pm CST. The Packers took a 14–0 lead after two touchdown passes from Bart Starr to Boyd Dowler on their first three possessions of the game. However, despite gaining only two first downs in the first half, Dallas scored twice off Green Bay fumbles late in the half to cut the Packers' lead to 14–10.

The Cowboys then started the second half with a long drive into Green Bay territory, but lost the ball on a fumble. However, they took the lead, 17–14, on a 50-yard halfback option pass by Dan Reeves on the first play of the fourth quarter. After missing a potential game-tying field goal, Green Bay scored the game-winning touchdown on its subsequent drive, re-gaining the lead, 21–17, with only 13 seconds remaining.

First half
Aided by two Dallas penalties and a 17-yard reception from Donny Anderson, Green Bay opened up the scoring with an 83-yard, 16-play drive that took nearly 9 minutes off the clock. Bart Starr detected a blitz coming on the Dallas 8-yard line, audibled, and rifled a touchdown pass to Boyd Dowler, giving the team a 7–0 first quarter lead. Green Bay's defense quickly forced a punt, and their offense stormed back for another score, this time driving 65 yards. After a 13-yard run by Ben Wilson and a 6-yard run by Travis Williams, the Packers moved to a third-and one on the Dallas 43-yard line. Starr faked to Ben Wilson and threw a 43-yard touchdown pass to Dowler who got behind Mel Renfro, making the score 14–0. Then on the second play of the Cowboys ensuing drive, defensive back Herb Adderley intercepted Don Meredith's pass and returned it 15 yards to the Dallas 32. But after a run for no gain and an incompletion, Cowboys lineman George Andrie sacked Starr for a 10-yard loss, pushing Green Bay out of field goal range.

Dallas' offense went the entire second quarter without gaining a first down, but Green Bay committed two costly turnovers that led to 10 Dallas points. First, Starr lost a fumble while being sacked by Cowboys lineman Willie Townes. Andrie recovered the ball and returned it 7 yards for a touchdown, cutting the lead in half. Then, with time almost out in the second quarter, Packers safety Willie Wood fumbled a Dallas punt after calling for a fair catch, and Cowboys rookie defensive back Phil Clark recovered the ball at the Green Bay 17-yard line. The Packers were able to keep Dallas out of the end zone, but kicker Danny Villanueva kicked a 21-yard field goal to cut the deficit to 14–10 by halftime.

Second half
In the third quarter, the Cowboys finally managed to get a sustained drive going, moving the ball to the Green Bay 18-yard line. But Packers linebacker Lee Roy Caffey ended the drive by forcing a fumble from Meredith that was recovered by Adderley. Then after a Packers punt, Dallas once again got moving with a drive to the Green Bay 30-yard line. But once again they failed to score as Caffey sacked Meredith for a 9-yard loss on third down and Villanueva missed a 47-yard field goal attempt.

On the first play of the final quarter, the Cowboys took a 17–14 lead with running back Dan Reeves' 50-yard touchdown pass to wide receiver Lance Rentzel on a halfback option play. The Cowboys ran the play to their left side, figuring that Green Bay would not expect the right-handed Reeves to throw from that side.

Later in the quarter, a 15-yard facemask penalty on Dallas rookie Dick Daniels during a Wood punt return gave Green Bay the ball on the Cowboys 47-yard line. The Packers then drove into scoring range and had a chance to tie the game, but kicker Don Chandler missed a 40-yard field goal attempt.

The Cowboys then gained two first downs before Green Bay stopped them at the Dallas 38. Meredith had slipped trying to retreat to pass on third down, but got up and fired a desperation heave that landed harmlessly between Green Bay defenders. With just over 5 minutes remaining, Villanueva punted the ball deep into Packer territory, and Wood returned it nine yards before being brought down at the Packers own 32-yard line.

The Drive
In their last offensive drive, the Packers took possession at their own 32-yard line with 4:50 left in regulation time. With the wind chill around −70 F (or −50 F according to the revised formula) Starr led his team down the field, toward the south end zone. He began the drive with a double fake to his backs, but after no one was open downfield he flipped a safety valve pass to running back Donny Anderson who gained six yards. Fullback Chuck Mercein then picked up seven on a sweep around right end, and went out of bounds to stop the clock. Starr dropped straight back on first down and fired a 13-yard pass to Dowler over the middle. Cornell Green's tackle slammed the receiver's helmet off the icy turf, and Max McGee replaced Dowler. Dallas end Willie Townes broke through and smothered Anderson for a 9-yard loss on what was supposed to be a halfback option play.

Anderson had told Starr on the sideline that he could pick up 8 to 10 yards on dump passes since the Dallas linebackers were laying back. Starr used this tip to complete two passes to Anderson for 12 and 9 yards, gaining a key first down on the Dallas 30. Anderson juked linebacker Chuck Howley on both plays and ran by him as Howley sprawled on the icy turf. Mercein told Starr he was also open on the left, and Starr flipped him a pass that the fullback carried down to the Cowboys 11-yard line and out of bounds with 1:11 to play. Then Starr called a play he had kept ready for the right situation, 54-Give, a play that Lombardi frankly called the "sucker" play in the Packer playbook. Left guard Gale Gillingham pulled to his right like it was a typical sweep, and Cowboy right tackle Bob Lilly with his great reflexes instantly followed him. The Packers' left tackle Bob Skoronski blocked Cowboy end George Andrie and Mercein shot through the hole to the 3-yard line.

Anderson carried on the next play to the 1-yard line for a first down (some Cowboys thought Anderson scored on this play, but the officials missed it). Twice Anderson attempted to run the ball into the end zone, but both times he slipped on the icy field before taking the handoff and was tackled inside the 1-yard line. The second time he almost fell down before Starr gave him the ball. By then the thermometer read −20 F, and the Packers called their last timeout. With the low winter sun angle and the shade of the stands, the south end of the field had received a minimal amount of sunlight. The game had started off shortly after 1 p.m. CST, and it was nearing sunset.

The Block
On third-and-goal at the Dallas two-foot line with 16 seconds remaining, Starr went to the sidelines to confer with Lombardi. Starr had asked right guard Jerry Kramer whether he could get enough traction on the icy turf for a wedge play, and Kramer responded with an unequivocal yes. Summerall told the rest of CBS crew to get ready for a roll-out pass, because without any timeouts remaining a failed run play would end the game. Landry would say he expected a rollout pass attempt because an incompletion would stop the clock and allow the Packers one more play on fourth down, either for a touchdown (to win) or a field goal attempt (to tie and send the game into overtime). But Green Bay's pass protection on the slick field had been seriously tested during the game; the Cowboys had sacked Starr eight times.

On the sidelines, according to Starr, he told Lombardi, "Coach, the linemen can get their footing for the wedge, but the backs are slipping. I'm right there, I can just shuffle my feet and lunge in." Lombardi told Starr, "Run it, and let's get the hell out of here!" Lombardi was asked by Pat Peppler what play Starr would call, to which Lombardi replied, "Damned if I know." Starr returned to the huddle and called a Brown right 31 Wedge. The play was a short yardage play using a double-team block to force an opening for the fullback. Starr made the play call in the huddle, but did not tell his teammates he was keeping the ball. Kramer and center Ken Bowman executed a post-drive block (double-team) on left defensive tackle Jethro Pugh and Starr lunged across the goal line for a 20–17 lead.

Radio/TV calls of the Block
"'Here are the Packers, third down, inches to go, to paydirt. 17–14, Cowboys out in front, Packers trying for the go-ahead score. Starr begins the count. Takes the snap...He's got the quarterback sneak and he's in for the touchdown and the Packers are out in front! 20–17! And 13 seconds showing on the clock and the Green Bay Packers are going to be...World Champions, NFL Champions, for the third straight year!' – Ted Moore, Packers radio announcer"

"'About a half-yard to go, here come the Packers up again. Mercein sets his feet. Bart Starr's all set...16 seconds left... Starr's in, touchdown!' (About 12 seconds of crowd noise) 'And the crowd has gone wild and ran onto the field with 16, 13 seconds left, the Packers are ahead.' – Bill Mercer, Cowboys radio announcer"

"'Starr on 3rd down, 3rd and goal, quarterback sneak, touchdown Green Bay! With 14 seconds left!.' – Jack Buck, CBS-TV announcer"

Conclusion
Don Chandler kicked the extra point to make the score 21–17. Dallas downed the kickoff in their end zone, and after two Dallas incompletions the game was over. At the conclusion of the game, jubilant Packers fans streamed onto the field knocking over Packers and Cowboys players alike. Since the playoff era began in 1933, the 1967 Packers are the only team to win a third consecutive NFL title. (The 1931 Packers won a third consecutive, but without a postseason.)

Aftermath
Emotionally, both the Packers and Cowboys players were spent. In the Packers' locker room, the players openly wept. Kramer told interviewers, "Many things have been said about Coach (Lombardi). And he is not always understood by those who quote him. The players understand.  This is one beautiful man." Packers linebacker Ray Nitschke developed frostbite in his feet, causing his toenails to fall off and his toes to turn purple. Bart Starr had frostbite on his fingers and several Packer players were suffering from flu-like symptoms. Cowboys George Andrie, Willie Townes, and Dick Daniels also suffered frostbite from the game.

The furthest thing from Starr's mind was the thought of playing in the AFL–NFL World Championship Game. To him, this was the Packers' championship game. Green Bay went on to finish the postseason by easily defeating the American Football League (AFL) champion Oakland Raiders, 33–14, in the second AFL–NFL World Championship Game.

Brookshier and other journalists went into the winning locker room for post-game interviews. At some point, journalists had become aware of the significance of the block Kramer and Bowman had placed on Pugh. Of the eleven cameras Ed and Steve Sabol set up to film the game, the pivot and motion capabilities of Camera Five had become frozen by the time Starr's sneak occurred. This particular camera, however, was fortuitously positioned to offer a perfect view of the block. CBS had been replaying the block repeatedly and had been giving the TV audience a detailed perspective of the workings of the offensive and defensive line.

Frank Gifford recounted in his 1993 autobiography The Whole Ten Yards that he requested and received permission from CBS producers to go into the losing locker room for on-air post-game interviews—a practice unheard of in that era. Gifford, as a New York Giants player and a broadcaster, already enjoyed a friendship with Meredith, and he approached the quarterback for his thoughts on the game. The exhausted Meredith, in an emotion-choked voice, expressed pride in his teammates' play, and said, in a figurative sense, that he felt the Cowboys did not really lose the game because the effort expended was its own reward. Gifford wrote that the interview attracted considerable attention, and that Meredith's forthcoming and introspective responses played a part in his selection for ABC's Monday Night Football telecasts three years later. Defensive tackle Bob Lilly took a different view, telling reporters that the Cowboys were a great team except that they could not win the "big one". Wide receiver Lance Rentzel later remarked that on the team plane home from Green Bay to Dallas' Love Field, "not one word was spoken the entire flight."

Legacy
The game was the end of an era and the beginning of another. This would be the last year the NFL championship game was considered more important than the AFL-NFL World Championship Game, for in the following year Joe Namath and the New York Jets staged an upset victory over the Baltimore Colts that would bring the AFL to full legitimacy and validate the merger of the two leagues that had been agreed upon in 1966 and would be consummated in 1970. Landry, along with others, believed that football games should never be held in weather conditions so harsh. In the post-merger era of the NFL, the World Championship Game (as the Super Bowl is officially called) would be offered to cities on a bid, and no outdoor stadium in a cold-weather city would be offered the World Championship Game until 2013, when MetLife Stadium in East Rutherford, New Jersey, hosted Super Bowl XLVIII on February 2, 2014. The NFL, reflecting the impact the "Ice Bowl" had on the sport, considered the selection of MetLife Stadium to be a "one off" occasion. Fortunately, the temperature at kickoff was a relatively hospitable 49 F degrees, and the game just missed a snowstorm that came the following day.

With Green Bay having won five NFL championships in seven years and the first two Super Bowls, Vince Lombardi retired as head coach of the Packers on February 1, 1968, but retained his position of general manager for the 1968 season. Many Dallas players described this game as the most devastating loss of the 1966–1970 period. Having lost this game and the 1966 title game in the winning seconds of each game, Landry was subject to criticism that he was unable to win the Big One, a stigma that persisted until Dallas won its first NFL title in the 1971 season. In the three seasons following 1967, the Cowboys suffered two upsets in the playoffs to the Cleveland Browns, then lost Super Bowl V to the Baltimore Colts 13–16 on a last-second field goal. Schramm considered this game to be the turning point to Dallas becoming America's Team because of the way the Cowboys battled back in the game.

There has been a bit of revisionism in some Cowboys memories concerning the game. Frank Clarke thought the Packers' final drive was "lucky football," though Chuck Howley acknowledged that the Cowboys' double coverage on the wide receivers left the backs open underneath. Cornell Green even claimed that a bad pass interference call, "the worst call I've seen in history," on Dave Edwards aided the Packers' final drive: "That was the game." In reality, the play Green recalled in which Starr threw a pass behind Donny Anderson happened back in the first quarter; but the call was defensive holding (Willie Townes held tight end Marv Fleming), a 5-yard penalty, and the infraction occurred before Starr threw the pass. There were no penalties called on either team during the final Packers drive. Even Tom Landry in the NFL Film of the Ice Bowl stated that if he had realized the field was frozen, the Cowboys would have switched to a zone defense.

If the Packers did not score on the final drive, Lombardi likely would not have become the iconic fixture in football that he is. Landry later remarked that on the "tundra" of Lambeau Field the better team lost, and that it was Lombardi's ability to develop character in his Packers that gave them the ability to never lose hope. Schramm believed that Lombardi's installation of the heating-coils under the playing field showed he was more concerned with sportsmanship than winning. At Lombardi's funeral mass in 1970 in New York, Cardinal Terence Cooke gave the eulogy, based on Lombardi's favorite scripture, the "run to win" passage that concludes chapter 9 of the First Epistle to the Corinthians.

Interviewed by reporters amid the Packers' post-game celebrations, Jerry Kramer's comments about Lombardi were widely quoted later. Intimating that past press treatments of the coach, including an unflattering 1967 Esquire magazine piece by sportswriter Leonard Schecter were unfair, Kramer said "Many things have been said about Coach. And he is not always understood by those who quote him. The players understand. This is one beautiful man."

The synergy between Gifford and Meredith in the post-game interview prompted Roone Arledge to team Gifford with Meredith and Howard Cosell for the second season of Monday Night Football in 1971. Don Meredith would never win a championship, but he would later become more famous as an announcer for Monday Night Football than he had been as a player. Although Landry and Lombardi were very different, they did respect each other and regarded each other as friends.

A few months later, Lombardi assembled family members, friends and journalists to his home to watch The Greatest Challenge, the 1967 Packers season highlight film, which was produced by Ed Sabol and his son, Steve, and narrated by John Facenda. In the finale of the film, Facenda would say of the Green Bay Packers: They will be remembered as the faces of victory. They will be remembered for their coach, whose iron discipline was the foundation on which they built a fortress. And most of all, they will be remembered as a group of men who faced the greatest challenge their sport has ever produced—and conquered.

ESPN's SportsCentury ranked it as #6 on the Greatest Games of the 20th Century in 1999, one of three NFL Games to reach that mark (Super Bowl III in 1969 at #3 and the 1958 NFL Championship Game in 1958 as #1.).

NFL Films produced two highlight films of the Ice Bowl itself, one called "A Chilling Championship" narrated by William Woodson, and another version which was the NFL Game of the Week with a different narrator. Those films were then later used to produce the NFL Films recreation of the game in their "Greatest Games Series", released on VHS and on the Packers History DVD.

On the NFL Network's countdown program, NFL Top 10, the Ice Bowl has been named the top or near the top of several lists such as: The multimedia narrative 17776, which centers on fantastically arduous football games, refers to the 1967 game and to Gifford's "bite of my coffee" jape in its first chapter.
 * Top 10 Bad Weather Games– #1
 * Top 10 Games with a Name– #2
 * Top 10 Gutsy Calls– #1 (Bart Starr's sneak)
 * Top 10 Clutch drives– #4

In 2017, NFL Films produced an episode of its series The Timeline about the Ice Bowl. The episode is co-produced and narrated Michael Meredith, a New York-based filmmaker and son of the Cowboys’ quarterback that day, Don Meredith. At the end of his review, Sports Illustrated writer Peter King wrote "I highly recommend you watch this documentary if you love a good history story, or if you love football—or, of course, if you love either team." Among the people interviewed about the game included actor Willem Dafoe, who attended the game as a 12-year old.

Ice Bowl II
Since the original Ice Bowl game, there have been other playoff games at Lambeau Field that have been dubbed by fans and/or the media as "Ice Bowl II":

 * The 1996 NFC Championship Game between the Packers and the Carolina Panthers. It was noted that many Packers fans had hoped for the Cowboys, who the Panthers had eliminated from the playoffs the previous week, to come to Green Bay, since the Packers have played the Cowboys in Dallas in each of the previous 7 meetings between the two teams, all of which were Cowboys victories. The game time temperature lived up to the "Ice Bowl II" moniker, with a reported kick-off temperature of 3 F with a −17° wind chill. The Packers won 30–13, earning their first trip to the Super Bowl since 1967. The Packers then went on to win Super Bowl XXXI.
 * The 2007 NFC Championship Game between the Packers and the New York Giants. With a game time temperature of 0 F with a −23° wind chill, this game was the coldest game at Lambeau Field since the Ice Bowl. A back and forth game, the Giants won in overtime on a Lawrence Tynes 47-yard field goal, 23–20. The Giants then went on to win Super Bowl XLII, upsetting the undefeated New England Patriots. This game was also Brett Favre's last game as a Green Bay Packer.
 * The 2014 NFC Divisional playoff game between the Packers and the Cowboys. This game marked the Cowboys' first playoff appearance at Lambeau Field since the Ice Bowl, and their first visit to Green Bay since 2010. Compared to the original Ice Bowl, as well as the other games called "Ice Bowl II", this game had relatively mild temperatures, especially for Green Bay in January, with a game time temperature of 24 F. This game also had two interesting winning streaks on the line, as the Packers had been 8–0 at Lambeau Field during the regular season, while the Cowboys were 8–0 on the road during the regular season. The Cowboys led for most of the game, with the Packers' Aaron Rodgers, playing with a strained left calf, helping give the Packers the lead late in the second half. Late in the 4th quarter, the Cowboys went for it on 4th down, with Tony Romo throwing a deep pass to Dez Bryant that initially looked like a catch that would've given the Cowboys a first down at the 1-yard line of Green Bay. A replay challenge by the Packers showed that Bryant was unable to complete the reception of the pass, therefore making the pass incomplete and turning the ball over to the Packers, who ran out the clock the rest of the way in a 26–21 win. Coincidentally, the disputed Dez Bryant catch occurred at the 1-yard line of Lambeau Field's south end zone, the same yard line where Bart Starr made his game-winning quarterback sneak in the original Ice Bowl.

Packers

 * Vince Lombardi (coach/general manager)
 * Bart Starr (quarterback)
 * Forrest Gregg (offensive tackle)
 * Willie Wood (safety)
 * Jerry Kramer (guard)
 * Willie Davis (defensive end)
 * Ray Nitschke (linebacker)
 * Henry Jordan (defensive tackle)
 * Herb Adderley (cornerback)
 * Dave Robinson (linebacker)

Cowboys

 * Tex Schramm (GM)
 * Tom Landry (coach)
 * Gil Brandt (director of personnel)
 * Bob Lilly (defensive tackle)
 * Mel Renfro (cornerback)
 * Rayfield Wright (offensive tackle)
 * Bob Hayes (wide receiver)
 * Chuck Howley (linebacker)

Officials

 * Referee: (56) Norm Schachter
 * Umpire: (57) Joe Connell
 * Head Linesman: (30) George Murphy
 * Line Judge: (28) Bill Schleibaum
 * Back Judge: (25) Tom Kelleher
 * Field Judge: (34) Fritz Graf

 * Alternate Referee: (32) Jim Tunney
 * Alternate Umpire: (36) Pat Harder

The NFL had six game officials in ; the line judge was added two seasons earlier in and the side judge arrived eleven years later in.

title: 1967 NFL Championship Game


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Valtellina

Valtellina or the Valtelline (occasionally spelled as two words in English: Val Telline; Vuclina ; Valtelina or Valtulina; Veltlin; Valtellina) is a valley in the Lombardy region of northern Italy, bordering Switzerland. Today it is known for its ski centre, hot spring spas, bresaola, cheeses (in particular Bitto, named after the river Bitto) and wines. In past centuries it was a key Alpine pass between northern Italy and Germany. The control of the Valtellina was much sought after, particularly during the Thirty Years' War as it was an important part of the Spanish Road.

Geography
The most important comune of the valley is Sondrio; the others major centres are Aprica, Morbegno, Tirano, Bormio and Livigno. Although Livigno is on the northern side of the alpine watershed, it is considered part of Valtellina as it falls within the province of Sondrio.

Antiquity and the middle ages
The region was conquered in 16 BC by the Romans. By the 5th century, it was Christianized with around ten pieve (rural churches with a baptistery) under the Diocese of Como. The Lombards gained control over the area after 720, but about fifty years later Charlemagne gave the valley to Saint Denis Monastery near Paris. Later the valley returned to the Bishop of Como.

Early modern period
During the 16th, 17th and 18th centuries, the Valtellina belonged to the Three Leagues (the "Grey Leagues"), which was then a mutual-defence region independent of Switzerland but is now the easternmost Swiss Canton of Graubünden. Graubünden is an area in which German, Romansh, Lombard and Italian are all spoken, and hence during 16th-century rule by Graubünden, the region became known variously as Veltlin, Westtirol (West Tyrol), and the Welsche Vogteien ("Romanic Bailiwicks").

During the Thirty Years' War, the Valtellina was a theatre of intense military and diplomatic struggle among France, the Habsburg powers and the local authorities which culminated in the Valtellina war of 1620–1626. Control over the routes through the Valtellina to the passes between Lombardy and the Danube watershed was at stake as it formed part of the so-called Spanish Road. The anti-Habsburg forces in the Three Leagues put together a court named 'clerical overseers' that between 1618 and 1620 handed down a number of convictions (often in absentia) against Catholics in the Leagues and Valtellina. This included the arresting under false pretences and torturing to death of the (catholic) arch-priest Nicolò Rusca of Sondrio. This and similar harsh judgments of the anti-Habsburg Thusis court led to a conspiracy to drive the Protestants out of the valley. The leader of the conspiracy, Giacomo Robustelli of the Planta family, had ties to Madrid, Rome and Paris. On the evening of 18/19 July 1620, a force of Valtellina rebels supported by Austrian and Italian troops marched into Tirano and began killing Protestants. When they finished in Tirano, they marched to Teglio, Sondrio and further down the valley killing every Protestant that they found. Between 500 and 600 people were killed on that night and in the following four days. The attack drove nearly all the Protestants out of the valley, prevented further Protestant incursions and took the Valtellina out of the Three Leagues. The killings in Valtellina were part of the conflicts in Graubünden known as the Bündner Wirren or Confusion of the Leagues.

In February 1623 France, Savoy, and Venice signed the Treaty of Paris in which all three signatories agreed to re-establish the territory of Valtellina by attempting to remove Spanish forces stationed there.

18th and 19th centuries
In 1797 the growing power of the First French Republic created the Cisalpine Republic in Northern Italy. On 10 October 1797, the French supported a revolt in the Valtellina against the Graubünden (Grisons in French and English), and it joined the Cisalpine Republic.

After the Congress of Vienna in 1815, the Valtellina became part of the Kingdom of Lombardy–Venetia, which was a constituent land of the Austrian Empire. In 1859 it came, together with Lombardy, to the Kingdom of Sardinia, and finally in 1861 it became part of the Kingdom of Italy.

At the end of the 19th century, there was substantial migration out of the Valtellina for reasons of the prevailing economically depressed conditions of the region and for young men to avoid conscription. Australia, especially Western Australia, was a popular destination for such migrants.

Industrially, the area is famous as the home of the world's first mainline electrified railway. The electrification of the Ferrovia della Valtellina took place in 1902, using three-phase power at 3,600 V, with a maximum speed of 70 km/h. The system was designed by the brilliant Hungarian engineer Kálmán Kandó who was employed by the main contractors the Budapest-based Ganz company.

Mussolini and the Valtellina Redoubt
During the last months of World War II, the Italian dictator Benito Mussolini and other diehard fascist leaders of the Italian Social Republic (RSI) proposed making a "last stand" against the advancing Allied armies in the Valtellina. The Fascist Party secretary Alessandro Pavolini was the main proponent of the idea, which he first raised with Mussolini in September 1944. However, the fascist leadership was divided over the plan and only minimal preparatory work was carried out to establish the area as a stronghold. By the time the Allies made their final advance in April 1945, the Valtellina was not ready to be used as a redoubt. In any event, Mussolini's capture on 27 April by the partisans at Dongo, barely short of the Valtellina, ended any possibility of a fascist last stand.

Culture and language
The official language is Italian, but the Valtellinese variety of the Lombard Language is also spoken.

L'è foeu el sginer and l'è foeu l'ors de la tana
On 31 January there was the tradition of l'è foeu el sginer ("January's out"), a custom very similar to that celebrated on 2 February known as l'è foeu l'ors de la tana ("the bear is out from its den"). Both celebrated the end of winter and the imminent arrival of spring. The two customs involved walking around the town and inviting people to leave their houses under any pretext, like throwing a large piece of wood or a pot down the stairs. When people ran outside to check what had happened, they were greeted with the shout l'è foeu el sginer! or l'è foeu l'ors de la tana!

Intraverser l’ann
Intraverser l'èn or intraverser l'ann (literally "to put the year across") also celebrated New Year's Eve: during the night young people used to build barricades of gates, doors, benches, agricultural tools, logs, stairs, sledges, and carts in the main square or in front of the church, to prevent the old year from leaving. The next morning, the owners of the stolen objects had to go and recover them, dismantling the barricade and metaphorically opening up the way to the new year.

The gabinat
On 6 January, the custom of the gabinat is still celebrated today, especially in Tirano, in the Upper Valley, and in the nearby Poschiavo Valley (Switzerland). Traditionally, children would suddenly enter other people's homes shouting gabinat! and in exchange, they would receive a handful of cooked chestnuts, some sweets or dried fruit. The adults competed to precede the other in exclaiming gabinat when they met. Whoever lost had to pay a pledge; often, the prize at stake was established in advance and the gabinat thus became the object of bets. To win, various strategies were adopted: stalking, disguises, fake illnesses ... Nowadays, it is only the children who do the gabinat, and they usually show up to relatives, friends, and local shopkeepers.

The custom of the gabinat most likely comes from Bavaria, Germany, where Christmas, New Year's Eve and Epiphany were indicated with the name Geb-nacht (Gaben means "gifts" and Nacht means "night", therefore "night of gifts"): on the eve of these holidays, the poor young people sang in front of the doors of the wealthiest in the hope to receive a gift.

Andà a ciamà l'erba (Let's go call the grass)
On the first of March, throughout Valtellina and Valchiavenna, people used to go to ciamà l'erba ("call the grass"). The children walked in the meadows making noise with cowbells to call the grass and awaken it from its winter slumber. This custom also served to propitiate a bountiful harvest.

The Carneval vegg (Old Carnival)
In the village of Grosio, the Carnival is celebrated, unlike the rest of Valtellina, on the first Sunday of Lent, according to the Ambrosian calendar in force before the Gregorian Reform. For this reason, it is called Carneval vegg ("Old Carnival").

In the past, it was customary for people to gather all together to dance, sing, eat and drink. Being an agricultural ritual that represents the death of winter and the beginning of summer, Carnival officially began on January 17 with the parade of the blessed cattle adorned with coloured ribbons. It included numerous bonfires, with which the paths were cleared to facilitate the passage of farmers, their agricultural vehicles and their livestock. A straw puppet with horns on his head representing the Carnival was also burnt.

Nowadays, the districts of the towns challenge each other to the sound of allegorical floats, and the parade is attended by traditional masks, eight characters representing traditions, past events, and moments of everyday life: the Old Carnival, a bearded and joyful man dressed as a mountaineer, and Lean Lent, a thin woman dressed in a humble way, with a dark handkerchief on her head and an empty basket on her arm, represent the transition from the glories of Carnival to Lenten fasts. They are accompanied by the Paralytic, the Bear Handler, a funny shepherd who dances and rolls on the ground named Toni, an old man with a butt covered with Nutella, a hunchbacked mountaineer whose hump is filled with chestnut urchins, and Bernarda, a man disguised as a baby put in a pannier supported by a fake old woman, and accompanied by another man dressed as a farmer).

During the Carnival period, manzòli or manzòla, white flour and buckwheat pancakes mixed with slices of cheese and cut into the shape of a calf were eaten to propitiate the abundance of livestock parts.

The Carneval di Mat (Carnival of the fools)
In Bormio, during the day of the Carnival of the Fools, the Mayor hands over his power to the Podestà di Mat (Podestà of the Fools) to Harlequin, and to the Compagnia di Mat ("the Company of the Fools") who give a public reading of the gossip and complaints that citizens have deposited in a box placed in the square of the Kuerc. The festival also includes a parade along the streets of the historic centre led by the Harlequins of the Company of Mat, with children escorting the Podestà.

La coscrizione (the conscription)
The conscription was originally a celebration on the occasion of the call to the draft: the tradition seems to have originated in the second half of the nineteenth century with the unification of Italy when young men were forced to serve a period in the Army. The feast of the conscripts of eighteen-year-olds was therefore a kind of rite of passage to adulthood. Today is simply the celebration of the coming of age.

The duration of the celebration varied from town to town: in Grosio the conscription could last up to ten days, during which the boys and girls met in bars, taverns, or in places specially set up for the purpose. The conscripts had the task of embroidering on the tricolour flag the symbol and possibly the motto that the group had chosen. On the walls of the villages, it was customary to write W LA CLASSE... ("cheers to the year...") followed by the year of birth: nowadays, conscripts hang a tricolour banner with the same wording and the names (or nicknames) of the members of the group.

The feast of the conscripts is particularly felt in Alta Valtellina: in Grosio, for a week, the conscripts meet in a club to celebrate and travel through the streets of the town in a car from which the flag decorated with the symbol of the group waves. On New Year's Eve, amid fireworks and the noise of whistles, cowbells, motorcycles, and tractors, they entrust the flag to conscripts one year younger, after having it blessed in church. Each group chooses different coloured sweatshirts and decorates the tricolour with a symbol that represents the group's motto or identity.

I Pasquali
The Pasquali are allegorical floats with a religious theme, prepared during the winter by the various districts of Bormio (Buglio, Combo, Dossiglio, Dossorovina and Maggiore) for Easter (Pasqua meaning Easter in Italian). On Easter day, the Pasquali are carried on the shoulders of the boys and are accompanied by a band, folk groups, women, seniors, and children who embellish the parade with flowers and other small crafts. Everyone wears the traditional red, black and white costume. After having followed the entire Via Roma and upon arrival at the Piazza del Kuerc (the main square of the town) the ancient bell called Bajona starts tolling and a jury draws up a ranking of the best Pasquali. At the end of the parade, the floats are exhibited in Piazza del Kuerc where they stay until Easter Monday.

Il Palio delle Contrade
Started in 1963, the Palio delle Contrade sees the inhabitants of the five districts of Bormio compete against each other, divided according to age, in downhill, cross-country, combined, and relay races. The cross-country race takes place through the streets of the town, covered with snow for the purpose.

Wines
In Valtellina, wines are produced mainly from Chiavennasca (the local name of Nebbiolo grape variety) with other minor varieties such as Rossola nera permitted up to 20% for the Denominazione di origine controllata (DOC) and 10% for the Denominazione di Origine Controllata e Garantita (DOCG). Grapes are limited to a harvest yield of 12 tonnes per hectare. The finished wine must be aged for at least two years prior to release (three years if a Riserva bottling) with a minimum alcohol level of at least 11%. Yields for the DOCG wines are further restricted to a maximum of 8 tonnes/ha. While the ageing requirements are the same as the DOC, the minimum alcohol level for the DOCG wine is 12%.

The best-known villages for red wines are: Grumello, Sassella, Inferno, Valgella, and Maroggia. The village names are normally indicated on the label. Additionally, there is an Amarone style DOCG wine called Sforzato (Sfursat).

In the lower part of the Val Poschiavo, the valley in the Graubünden canton of Switzerland that descends into the Valtellina at Tirano, similar wines are produced – but under different regulations such as appellation and the allowance of sugar addition, or chaptalization.

Tourism
One of the most notable tourist attractions of the area is the Bernina Line ("Trenino Rosso", little red train) of the Rhaetian Railway, which links the town of Tirano in the Valtellina with St. Moritz in Graubünden, Switzerland via the Bernina Pass. The mountains of the Valtellina offer numerous possibilities for sports activities: skiing and winter sports in Bormio, Aprica or Livigno, hiking and biking in the same locations and especially in the secondary valleys, and rock climbing in the Val Masino.

The Rupe Magna, a unique large rock with more than 5,000 engraved figures dating from between the 4th and 1st millennia BCE, can be found at the Rock Engraving Park in Grosio.

Notable people
Born in Valtellina:
 * Achille Compagnoni (Mountaineer)
 * Deborah Compagnoni (Alpine skier)
 * Marco De Gasperi (Athlete, Skyrunner)
 * Arianna Fontana (Short track speed skater)
 * Fabio Meraldi (Ski mountaineer)
 * Giuseppe Piazzi (Priest, mathematician and astronomer)
 * Luigi Torelli (Patriot)
 * Giulio Tremonti (Politician)

title: Valtellina


text: Category:Classical ciphers

title: Category:Classical ciphers


text:
Talk:Sammamish, Washington

Untitled
Sammamish is a nice city, but the language in this article is really over-the-top flowery. Transportation "thriving" on major arterials? "Pristine" "beautiful" ad nauseum. City articles should be matter-of-fact, not read like some sort of advertising pamphlet. I'll clean this up myself if there isn't an objection. -- wac (talk contrib) 03:14, 11 January 2006 (UTC)

 * After a year of no objections, I cleaned up some of this myself. Petershank 17:43, 17 January 2007 (UTC)

Sammamish, originally called The Pine Lake Plateau, was a beautiful place with forests, ponds and incredible wildlife. The clear cutting for expensive McMansions on tiny lots (called estates) and the gridlocked traffic between Sammamish and anywhere is disgusting. I have lived there for 25 years and seen a beautiful place destroyed by greed and pretentiousness. The author must be a real estate broker because his/her description doesn't meet with reality. Saami.lax 18:08, 14 May 2007 (UTC)

Fair use rationale for Image:Sammlogo official.gif
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BetacommandBot (talk) 04:53, 24 January 2008 (UTC)

Edits by Washingtonletsgo
The numbers in the snowfall section do not add up to the yearly total. Also, no source says Sammamish gets 10 inches of snow in any month. There has never been -12 F in Sammamish (this person might be a vandal), and the account doesn't exist.Jtadesse (talk) 19:38, 30 October 2023 (UTC)

The inaccurate edits are fixed.Jtadesse (talk) 19:22, 18 January 2024 (UTC)

title: Talk:Sammamish, Washington


text: User talk:69.0.25.225

title: User talk:69.0.25.225


text:
Talk:Early history of Switzerland

I was not aware that the Fraumuenster monastery was in existence before Louis the German gave it to his daughters. If that is the case, my corresponding entry in the Zürich article needs to be corrected. dab 07:57, 12 Oct 2004 (UTC)

 * I have that info from the Fraumünster-Gesellschaft. Maybe needs verification? Lupo 08:15, 12 Oct 2004 (UTC)

 * Most sources claim the convent was founded in 853, including . But whether that is an oversimplification, I cannot judge. just states that the "documented history" of the convent began in 853. The document itself is shown at . Lupo 08:44, 12 Oct 2004 (UTC)

Orphan text
The following text was moved from Switzerland. MadGeographer (talk) 15:45, 27 June 2009 (UTC)

By 561 AD the Merovingian king Guntram, Clovis I's grandson, had inherited the Frankish kingdom of Burgundy, which extended east nearly to the Rhine. East of this, the Alemanni were ruled under a nominal dukedom within Frankia, as the Franks filled the vacuum caused by the declining western reach of Roman Byzantium. By this time Frankia was beginning to form the tripartite character that would characterise the rest of its history. The territories were subdivided into Neustria in the west (referred to simply as Frankia at the time; the name Neustria did not appear in writing until some 80 years later), Austrasia in the northeast and Burgundy.

Throughout the rest of the sixth and early seventh centuries AD the Swiss regions continued under Frankish hegemony, with the Franks largely occupied with infighting about issues of succession amongst the Frankish sub-kingdoms (whose kings were close blood relatives). In 632 AD, following the death of Chlothar II, the entire Frankish realm was briefly united under Dagobert, who is described as the last Merovingian king able to exercise real power. Under Dagobert, the Austrasians agitated for self-governance as a means of countering the influence of the Neustrians, who dominated the royal court. Dagobert was forced by the strong Austrasian aristocracy to appoint his infant son, Sigebert III, as sub-king of Austrasia in 633 AD. The weakness of the realm became clear, and this led to consideration of the risks and benefits of rebellion by those subject to the Franks. After Sigebert III suffered a military defeat at the hands of Radulf, King of Thuringia, in 640 AD, the Alemanni also revolted against Frankish rule. The ensuing period of Alemanni independence lasted more or less continuously until the middle of the eighth century AD.

Mayors of the Palace had been appointed by the Frankish kings as court officials since the early seventh century AD to act as mediators between the king and the people. However, following Dagobert's death in 639 AD, with infants on the throne in both Neustria (Clovis II—a babe in arms in 639 AD) and Austrasia (Sigebert III—about four years old in 639 AD), these court appointees assumed greater power, eventually to such an extent that they ended the rule of the Merovingian monarchs and took over the Frankish throne themselves. The first step was taken by the Mayor of the Palace of Austrasia, Grimoald I, who persuaded the childless Sigebert III to adopt his own son, Childebert, as heir to the throne.

Meanwhile in the Neustrian palace, the Mayors of the Palace, Erchinoald and his successor Ebroin, were likewise increasing their hold on power behind Clovis II and his successor Chlothar III. Ebroin reunited the Frankish kingdom by defeating and removing Childebert (and Grimoald) from Austrasia in 661 AD.

Chlothar III's younger brother, Childeric II, was then installed as king of the Austrasians, and together they ruled the empire. When Chlothar III died in 673 AD, Childeric II became king of the entire realm, ruling from Austrasia, until he was assassinated two years later by members of the Neustrian elite. After his death, Theuderic III, son of Clovis II, ascended to the throne, ruling from Neustria. He and his Mayor of the Palace, Berthar, declared war on Austrasia, which was ruled by Dagobert II, son of Sigebert III, and Pepin of Herstal (Pepin II), the Arnulfing Mayor of Austrasia. Theuderic and Berthar were defeated by Pepin at the Battle of Tertry in 687 AD, after which Pepin was appointed the sole mayor of all Frankia, nominating himself as duke and prince of all the Franks.

Pepin was the product of the marriage of two very powerful houses—that of the Pippinids and that of the Arnulfings. His success at Tertry was to mark the end of Merovingian power.

Pepin again tasted military success in his campaign to bring the Frisians, of Europe's north coast, back under Frankish control. Between 709 AD and 712 AD he fought a similar campaign against the Alemanni, including those within the borders of present-day Switzerland, and succeeded in reimposing Frankish rule, for the first time since the Alemannic revolt of 640 AD. However Frankish control of this and other outlying areas was again lost when a Frankish civil war of succession followed Pepin's death in 714 AD.

The war was a continuation of the ageless Neustrian–Austrasian rivalry. Pepin's illegitimate son, Charles Martel (who was the son of Pepin's mistress Alpaida), had been proclaimed mayor of Austrasia by the Austrasian nobility in defiance of Pepin's widow, Plectrude, who preferred that her 8-year-old grandson, Theudoald, be appointed. Neustria invaded Austrasia under Chilperic II, who had been appointed by the Neustrians without the agreement of the rest of the Frankish peoples. The turning point of the war came at the Battle of Ambleve, when Charles Martel, using brilliant and unconventional tactics, defeated combined Neustrian and Frisian forces under Chilperic II and Mayor Ragenfrid. Charles struck when the Neustrians were marching home after triumphing at Cologne over Plectrude and the child Theudoald.

By 717 AD, Charles had confirmed his supremacy, with victory over the Neustrians at the Battle of Vincy, thereby marking the beginning of Carolingian rule over the Frankish empire.

After 718 AD, Charles, who was a brilliant commander, embarked upon a series of wars to strengthen Frankish dominion over Western Europe. This included bringing the Alemanni back under Frankish hegemony, and even, in the 720s AD, forcing some Alemannic elements to participate in his wars against their eastern neighbours, the Bavarians.

Alemannia, however, remained restless, with Duke Lantfrid in the late 720s AD expressing independence by issuing revisions of the laws of the Alemans. Charles invaded again in 730 AD and subjugated the Alemanni by force.

Charles is perhaps best known for stopping the Arab advance into Western Europe at the Battle of Tours in 732 AD, in a military stand that arguably halted Islamic expansionism into the European homeland.

When Charles died in 741 AD, the dominion over Frankia was divided between his two sons from his first marriage, namely Pepin the Short and Carloman. Carloman was given Austrasia, Alemannia and Thuringia, while Pepin took control of Neustria, Provence and Burgundy (including present-day western Switzerland).

By 743 AD, Carloman was vowing to impose a greater degree of control over Alemannia. This resulted ultimately in the arrest, trial and execution of several thousand Alemannic noblemen at the blood court at Cannstatt in 746 AD.

Carloman retired to a monastery in 747 AD, leaving Pepin to assume the Frankish crown (after a vote of nobles) in 751 AD. Pepin further strengthened his position by forming an alliance, in 754 AD, with Pope Stephen II, who then came all the way to Paris to anoint him king in a ceremony at St Denis's Basilica. In return Pepin subdued the Lombards and donated the Exarchate of Ravenna as well as captured territory around Rome to the church. This was a turning point in the history of the Roman Catholic Church and Western Europe, as it foreshadowed later events under Charlemagne that led to formation of the Holy Roman Empire. It is claimed that Pope Stephen II tabled the forged Donation of Constantine during his negotiations with Pepin. The Donation is a falsified imperial order purported to have been issued by Constantine to give to Pope Sylvester I and all his successors dominion over not only the Western Roman Empire but also all of Judea, Greece, Asia, Thrace and Rome.

Upon Pepin's death in 768 AD, the Frankish empire was passed to his sons Charles and Carloman I. Carloman withdrew to a monastery and died shortly afterwards, leaving Charles, later known as the legendary Charlemagne, the sole ruler of the Franks. Charles expanded Frankish sovereignty to include the Saxons, Bavarians, and the Lombards in northern Italy, and he expanded the empire into today's Austria and parts of Croatia. He offered the papacy the promise of enduring Frankish protection, and he patronized monastic centers of learning.

Charles therefore emerged as the leader of Western Christendom.

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text:
Airhead (disambiguation)

An airhead is a military term for the endpoint of an airborne assault

Airhead may also refer to:
 * Airhead (slang), a common derogatory term for a foolish or ignorant person

Music

 * Airhead (band), a British indie-pop group active in the early 1990s, best known for their minor UK hit "Funny How"
 * "Airhead", a song by Thomas Dolby from his 1988 album Aliens Ate My Buick
 * "Airhead", a song by Millencolin from their 1995 album Life on a Plate
 * "Airhead", a song by Seaway from their 2015 album Colour Blind
 * "Airhead", a 2001 song by Girls@Play
 * "Airheads", a song by Queen Drummer Roger Taylor from his 1981 solo album Fun in Space

Other media

 * Airhead (novel), a 2008 novel by Meg Cabot
 * Airheads, a 1994 comedy movie

Other uses

 * Airhead (motorcycle), a line of motorcycles featuring the air-cooled flat twin Type 247 engine, built by BMW since 1923
 * AirHeads (candy), a popular candy manufactured by Perfetti Van Melle

title: Airhead (disambiguation)