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Combat stress reaction

Combat stress reaction (CSR) is acute behavioral disorganization as a direct result of the trauma of war. Also known as "combat fatigue", "battle fatigue", or "battle neurosis", it has some overlap with the diagnosis of acute stress reaction used in civilian psychiatry. It is historically linked to shell shock and can sometimes precurse post-traumatic stress disorder.

Combat stress reaction is an acute reaction that includes a range of behaviors resulting from the stress of battle that decrease the combatant's fighting efficiency. The most common symptoms are fatigue, slower reaction times, indecision, disconnection from one's surroundings, and the inability to prioritize. Combat stress reaction is generally short-term and should not be confused with acute stress disorder, post-traumatic stress disorder, or other long-term disorders attributable to combat stress, although any of these may commence as a combat stress reaction. The US Army uses the term/initialism COSR (combat stress reaction) in official medical reports. This term can be applied to any stress reaction in the military unit environment. Many reactions look like symptoms of mental illness (such as panic, extreme anxiety, depression, and hallucinations), but they are only transient reactions to the traumatic stress of combat and the cumulative stresses of military operations.

In World War I, shell shock was considered a psychiatric illness resulting from injury to the nerves during combat. The nature of trench warfare meant that about 10% of the fighting soldiers were killed (compared to 4.5% during World War II) and the total proportion of troops who became casualties (killed or wounded) was about 57%. Whether a person with shell-shock was considered "wounded" or "sick" depended on the circumstances. Soldiers were personally faulted for their mental breakdown rather than their war experience. The large proportion of World War I veterans in the European population meant that the symptoms were common to the culture.

In World War II it was determined by the US Army that the time it took for a soldier to experience combat fatigue while fighting on the front lines was somewhere between 60 and 240 days, depending on the intensity and frequency of combat. This condition isn't new among the combat soldiers and was something that soldiers also experienced in World War I as mentioned above, but this time around the military medicine was gaining a better grasp and understanding of what exactly was causing it. What had been known in previous wars as "nostalgia", "old sergeant's disease", and "shell shock", became known as "combat fatigue".

Signs and symptoms
Combat stress reaction symptoms align with the symptoms also found in psychological trauma, which is closely related to post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). CSR differs from PTSD (among other things) in that a PTSD diagnosis requires a duration of symptoms over one month, which CSR does not.

Fatigue-related symptoms
The most common stress reactions include:

 * The slowing of reaction time
 * Slowness of thought
 * Difficulty prioritizing tasks
 * Difficulty initiating routine tasks
 * Preoccupation with minor issues and familiar tasks
 * Indecision and lack of concentration
 * Loss of initiative with fatigue
 * Exhaustion

Autonomic nervous system – autonomic arousal

 * Headaches
 * Back pains
 * Inability to relax
 * Shaking and tremors
 * Sweating
 * Nausea and vomiting
 * Loss of appetite
 * Abdominal distress
 * Frequency of urination
 * Urinary incontinence
 * Heart palpitations
 * Hyperventilation
 * Dizziness
 * Insomnia
 * Nightmares
 * Restless sleep
 * Excessive sleep
 * Excessive startle
 * Hypervigilance
 * Heightened sense of threat
 * Anxiety
 * Irritability
 * Depression
 * Substance abuse
 * Loss of adaptability
 * Attempted suicides
 * Disruptive behavior
 * Mistrust of others
 * Confusion
 * Extreme feeling of losing control

Battle casualty rates
The ratio of stress casualties to battle casualties varies with the intensity of the fighting. With intense fighting, it can be as high as 1:1. In low-level conflicts, it can drop to 1:10 (or less). Modern warfare embodies the principles of continuous operations with an expectation of higher combat stress casualties.

The World War II European Army rate of stress casualties of 1 in 10 (101:1,000) troops per annum is skewed downward from both its norm and peak by data by low rates during the last years of the war.

Diagnosis
The following PIE principles were in place for the "not yet diagnosed nervous" (NYDN) cases:
 * Proximity – treat the casualties close to the front and within sound of the fighting.
 * Immediacy – treat them without delay and not wait until the wounded were all dealt with.
 * Expectancy – ensure that everyone had the expectation of their return to the front after a rest and replenishment.

United States medical officer Thomas W. Salmon is often quoted as the originator of these PIE principles. However, his real strength came from going to Europe and learning from the Allies and then instituting the lessons. By the end of the war, Salmon had set up a complete system of units and procedures that was then the "world's best practice". After the war, he maintained his efforts in educating society and the military. He was awarded the Distinguished Service Medal for his contributions.

Effectiveness of the PIE approach has not been confirmed by studies of CSR, and there is some evidence that it is not effective in preventing PTSD.

US services now use the more recently developed BICEPS principles:
 * Brevity
 * Immediacy
 * Centrality or contact
 * Expectancy
 * Proximity
 * Simplicity

Between the wars
The British government produced a Report of the War Office Committee of Inquiry into "Shell-Shock", which was published in 1922. Recommendations from this included:

";In forward areas
 * No soldier should be allowed to think that loss of nervous or mental control provides an honorable avenue of escape from the battlefield, and every endeavor should be made to prevent slight cases leaving the battalion or divisional area, where treatment should be confined to provision of rest and comfort for those who need it and to heartening them for return to the front line.

 * In neurological centers
 * When cases are sufficiently severe to necessitate more scientific and elaborate treatment they should be sent to special Neurological Centers as near the front as possible, to be under the care of an expert in nervous disorders. No such case should, however, be so labelled on evacuation as to fix the idea of nervous breakdown in the patient's mind.

 * In base hospitals
 * When evacuation to the base hospital is necessary, cases should be treated in a separate hospital or separate sections of a hospital, and not with the ordinary sick and wounded patients. Only in exceptional circumstances should cases be sent to the United Kingdom, as, for instance, men likely to be unfit for further service of any kind with the forces in the field.  This policy should be widely known throughout the Force.

 * Forms of treatment
 * The establishment of an atmosphere of cure is the basis of all successful treatment, the personality of the physician is, therefore, of the greatest importance. While recognizing that each individual case of war neurosis must be treated on its merits, the Committee are of opinion that good results will be obtained in the majority by the simplest forms of psycho-therapy, i.e., explanation, persuasion and suggestion, aided by such physical methods as baths, electricity and massage.  Rest of mind and body is essential in all cases.

 * The committee are of opinion that the production of deep hypnotic sleep, while beneficial as a means of conveying suggestions or eliciting forgotten experiences are useful in selected cases, but in the majority they are unnecessary and may even aggravate the symptoms for a time.
 * They do not recommend psycho-analysis in the Freudian sense.

 * In the state of convalescence, re-education and suitable occupation of an interesting nature are of great importance. If the patient is unfit for further military service, it is considered that every endeavor should be made to obtain for him suitable employment on his return to active life.

 * Return to the fighting line
 * Soldiers should not be returned to the fighting line under the following conditions:

 * (1) If the symptoms of neurosis are of such a character that the soldier cannot be treated overseas with a view to subsequent useful employment.
 * (2) If the breakdown is of such severity as to necessitate a long period of rest and treatment in the United Kingdom.
 * (3) If the disability is anxiety neurosis of a severe type.
 * (4) If the disability is a mental breakdown or psychosis requiring treatment in a mental hospital.
 * It is, however, considered that many of such cases could, after recovery, be usefully employed in some form of auxiliary military duty."

Part of the concern was that many British veterans were receiving pensions and had long-term disabilities.

By 1939, some 120,000 British ex-servicemen had received final awards for primary psychiatric disability or were still drawing pensions – about 15% of all pensioned disabilities – and another 44,000 or so were getting pensions for 'soldier's heart' or effort syndrome. There is, though, much that statistics do not show, because in terms of psychiatric effects, pensioners were just the tip of a huge iceberg."

War correspondent Philip Gibbs wrote: "Something was wrong. They put on civilian clothes again and looked to their mothers and wives very much like the young men who had gone to business in the peaceful days before August 1914. But they had not come back the same men.  Something had altered in them.  They were subject to sudden moods, and queer tempers, fits of profound depression alternating with a restless desire for pleasure.  Many were easily moved to passion where they lost control of themselves, many were bitter in their speech, violent in opinion, frightening."

One British writer between the wars wrote:

"There should be no excuse given for the establishment of a belief that a functional nervous disability constitutes a right to compensation. This is hard saying. It may seem cruel that those whose sufferings are real, whose illness has been brought on by enemy action and very likely in the course of patriotic service, should be treated with such apparent callousness.  But there can be no doubt that in an overwhelming proportion of cases, these patients succumb to 'shock' because they get something out of it.  To give them this reward is not ultimately a benefit to them because it encourages the weaker tendencies in their character.  The nation cannot call on its citizens for courage and sacrifice and, at the same time, state by implication that an unconscious cowardice or an unconscious dishonesty will be rewarded."

American
At the outbreak of World War II, most in the United States military had forgotten the treatment lessons of World War I. Screening of applicants was initially rigorous, but experience eventually showed it to lack great predictive power.

The US entered the war in December 1941. Only in November 1943 was a psychiatrist added to the table of organization of each division, and this policy was not implemented in the Mediterranean Theater of Operations until March 1944. By 1943, the US Army was using the term "exhaustion" as the initial diagnosis of psychiatric cases, and the general principles of military psychiatry were being used. General Patton's slapping incident was in part the spur to institute forward treatment for the Italian invasion of September 1943. The importance of unit cohesion and membership of a group as a protective factor emerged.

John Appel found that the average American infantryman in Italy was "worn out" in 200 to 240 days and concluded that the American soldier "fights for his buddies or because his self respect won't let him quit". After several months in combat, the soldier lacked reasons to continue to fight because he had proven his bravery in battle and was no longer with most of the fellow soldiers he trained with. Appel helped implement a 180-day limit for soldiers in active combat and suggested that the war be made more meaningful, emphasizing their enemies' plans to conquer the United States, encouraging soldiers to fight to prevent what they had seen happen in other countries happen to their families. Other psychiatrists believed that letters from home discouraged soldiers by increasing nostalgia and needlessly mentioning problems soldiers could not solve. William Menninger said after the war, "It might have been wise to have had a nation-wide educational course in letter writing to soldiers", and Edward Strecker criticized "moms" (as opposed to mothers) who, after failing to "wean" their sons, damaged morale through letters.

Airmen flew far more often in the Southwest Pacific than in Europe, and although rest time in Australia was scheduled, there was no fixed number of missions that would produce transfer out of combat, as was the case in Europe. Coupled with the monotonous, hot, sickly environment, the result was bad morale that jaded veterans quickly passed along to newcomers. After a few months, epidemics of combat fatigue would drastically reduce the efficiency of units. Flight surgeons reported that the men who had been at jungle airfields longest were in bad shape:
 * Many have chronic dysentery or other disease, and almost all show chronic fatigue states. ... They appear listless, unkempt, careless, and apathetic with almost mask-like facial expression. Speech is slow, thought content is poor, they complain of chronic headaches, insomnia, memory defect, feel forgotten, worry about themselves, are afraid of new assignments, have no sense of responsibility, and are hopeless about the future.

British
Unlike the Americans, the British leaders firmly held the lessons of World War I. It was estimated that aerial bombardment would kill up to 35,000 a day, but the Blitz killed only 40,000 in total. The expected torrent of civilian mental breakdown did not occur. The Government turned to World War I doctors for advice on those who did have problems. The PIE principles were generally used. However, in the British Army, since most of the World War I doctors were too old for the job, young, analytically trained psychiatrists were employed. Army doctors "appeared to have no conception of breakdown in war and its treatment, though many of them had served in the 1914–1918 war." The first Middle East Force psychiatric hospital was set up in 1942. With D-Day for the first month there was a policy of holding casualties for only 48 hours before they were sent back over the Channel. This went firmly against the expectancy principle of PIE.

Appel believed that British soldiers were able to continue to fight almost twice as long as their American counterparts because the British had better rotation schedules and because they, unlike the Americans, "fight for survival" – for the British soldiers, the threat from the Axis powers was much more real, given Britain's proximity to mainland Europe, and the fact that Germany was concurrently conducting air raids and bombarding British industrial cities. Like the Americans, British doctors believed that letters from home often needlessly damaged soldiers' morale.

Canadian
The Canadian Army recognized combat stress reaction as "Battle Exhaustion" during the Second World War and classified it as a separate type of combat wound. Historian Terry Copp has written extensively on the subject. In Normandy, "The infantry units engaged in the battle also experienced a rapid rise in the number of battle exhaustion cases with several hundred men evacuated due to the stress of combat. Regimental Medical Officers were learning that neither elaborate selection methods nor extensive training could prevent a considerable number of combat soldiers from breaking down."

Germans
In his history of the pre-Nazi Freikorps paramilitary organizations, Vanguard of Nazism, historian Robert G. L. Waite describes some of the emotional effects of World War I on German troops, and refers to a phrase he attributes to Göring: men who could not become "de-brutalized".

In an interview, Dr Rudolf Brickenstein stated that:

"... he believed that there were no important problems due to stress breakdown since it was prevented by the high quality of leadership. But, he added, that if a soldier did break down and could not continue fighting, it was a leadership problem, not one for medical personnel or psychiatrists. Breakdown (he said) usually took the form of unwillingness to fight or cowardice."

However, as World War II progressed there was a profound rise in stress casualties from 1% of hospitalizations in 1935 to 6% in 1942. Another German psychiatrist reported after the war that during the last two years, about a third of all hospitalizations at Ensen were due to war neurosis. It is probable that there was both less of a true problem and less perception of a problem.

Finns
The Finnish attitudes to "war neurosis" were especially tough. Psychiatrist Harry Federley, who was the head of the Military Medicine, considered shell shock as a sign of weak character and lack of moral fibre. His treatment for war neurosis was simple: the patients were to be bullied and harassed until they returned to front line service.

Earlier, during the Winter War, several Finnish machine gun operators on the Karelian Isthmus theatre became mentally unstable after repelling several unsuccessful Soviet human wave assaults on fortified Finnish positions.

Post-World War II developments
Simplicity was added to the PIE principles by the Israelis: in their view, treatment should be brief, supportive, and could be provided by those without sophisticated training.

Peacekeeping stresses
Peacekeeping provides its own stresses because its emphasis on rules of engagement contains the roles for which soldiers are trained. Causes include witnessing or experiencing the following:
 * Constant tension and threat of conflict.
 * Threat of land mines and booby traps.
 * Close contact with severely injured and dead people.
 * Deliberate maltreatment and atrocities, possibly involving civilians.
 * Cultural issues.
 * Separation and home issues.
 * Risk of disease including HIV.
 * Threat of exposure to toxic agents.
 * Mission problems.
 * Return to service.

SNS activation
Many of the symptoms initially experienced by people with CSR are effects of an extended activation of the human body's fight-or-flight response. The fight-or-flight response involves a general sympathetic nervous system discharge in reaction to a perceived stressor and prepares the body to fight or run from the threat causing the stress. Catecholamine hormones, such as adrenaline or noradrenaline, facilitate immediate physical reactions associated with a preparation for violent muscular action. Although the flight-or-fight-response normally ends with the removal of the threat, the constant mortal danger in combat zones likewise constantly and acutely stresses soldiers.

General adaptation syndrome
The process whereby the human body responds to extended stress is known as general adaptation syndrome (GAS). After the initial fight-or-flight response, the body becomes more resistant to stress in an attempt to dampen the sympathetic nervous response and return to homeostasis. During this period of resistance, physical and mental symptoms of CSR may be drastically reduced as the body attempts to cope with the stress. Long combat involvement, however, may keep the body from homeostasis and thereby deplete its resources and render it unable to normally function, sending it into the third stage of GAS: exhaustion. Sympathetic nervous activation remains in the exhaustion phase and reactions to stress are markedly sensitized as fight-or-flight symptoms return. If the body remains in a state of stress, then such more severe symptoms of CSR as cardiovascular and digestive involvement may present themselves. Extended exhaustion can permanently damage the body.

7 Rs
The British Army treated Operational Stress Reaction according to the 7 Rs:
 * Recognition – identify that the individual has an Operational Stress Reaction
 * Respite – provide a short period of relief from the front line
 * Rest – allow rest and recovery
 * Recall – give the individual the chance to recall and discuss the experiences that have led to the reaction
 * Reassurance – inform them that their reaction is normal and they will recover
 * Rehabilitation – improve the physical and mental health of the patient until they no longer show symptoms
 * Return – allow the soldier to return to their unit

Screening
Historically, screening programs that have attempted to preclude soldiers exhibiting personality traits thought to predispose them to CSR have been a total failure. Part of this failure stems from the inability to base CSR morbidity on one or two personality traits. Full psychological work-ups are expensive and inconclusive, while pen and paper tests are ineffective and easily faked. In addition, studies conducted following WWII screening programs showed that psychological disorders present during military training did not accurately predict stress disorders during combat.

Cohesion
While it is difficult to measure the effectiveness of such a subjective term, soldiers who reported in a WWII study that they had a "higher than average" sense of camaraderie and pride in their unit were more likely to report themselves ready for combat and less likely to develop CSR or other stress disorders. Soldiers with a "lower than average" sense of cohesion with their unit were more susceptible to stress illness.

Training
Stress exposure training or SET is a common component of most modern military training. There are three steps to an effective stress exposure program.

 * Providing knowledge of the stress environment

Soldiers with a knowledge of both the emotional and physical signs and symptoms of CSR are much less likely to have a critical event that reduces them below fighting capability. Instrumental information, such as breathing exercises that can reduce stress and suggestions not to look at the faces of enemy dead, is also effective at reducing the chance of a breakdown.

 * Skills acquisition

Cognitive control strategies can be taught to soldiers to help them recognize stressful and situationally detrimental thoughts and repress those thoughts in combat situations. Such skills have been shown to reduce anxiety and improve task performance.

 * Confidence building through application and practice

Soldiers who feel confident in their own abilities and those of their squad are far less likely to develop combat stress reaction. Training in stressful conditions that mimic those of an actual combat situation builds confidence in the abilities of themselves and the squad. As this training can actually induce some of the stress symptoms it seeks to prevent, stress levels should be increased incrementally as to allow the soldiers time to adapt.

Narcosynthesis

A technique that was used to treat PTSD disorders during World War II by using sodium pentothal was created by psychiatrists Roy Grinker and John Spiegel. During the treatment, they offered soldiers an opportunity to abreact their trauma by re-experiencing it in a hospital environment in the presence of supportive, protective, and understanding therapists. The therapists induced a dream state or twilight sleep by injecting sodium pentothal, after which most soldiers spontaneously started to express their anxiety. While the psychiatrist fulfilled the soldier's need for protection, the soldier's ego was nurtured, and the soldier was encouraged to abreact his trauma.

Prognosis
Figures from the 1982 Lebanon war showed that with proximal treatment, 90% of CSR casualties returned to their unit, usually within 72 hours. With rearward treatment, only 40% returned to their unit. It was also found that treatment efficacy went up with the application of a variety of front line treatment principles versus just one treatment. In Korea, similar statistics were seen, with 85% of US battle fatigue casualties returned to duty within three days and 10% returned to limited duties after several weeks.

Though these numbers seem to promote the claims that proximal PIE or BICEPS treatment is generally effective at reducing the effects of combat stress reaction, other data suggests that long term PTSD effects may result from the hasty return of affected individuals to combat. Both PIE and BICEPS are meant to return as many soldiers as possible to combat, and may actually have adverse effects on the long-term health of service members who are rapidly returned to the front-line after combat stress control treatment. Although the PIE principles were used extensively in the Vietnam War, the post traumatic stress disorder lifetime rate for Vietnam veterans was 30% in a 1989 US study and 21% in a 1996 Australian study. In a study of Israeli Veterans of the 1973 Yom Kippur War, 37% of veterans diagnosed with CSR during combat were later diagnosed with PTSD, compared with 14% of control veterans.

Controversy
There is significant controversy with the PIE and BICEPS principles. Throughout a number of wars, but notably during the Vietnam War, there has been a conflict among doctors about sending distressed soldiers back to combat. During the Vietnam War this reached a peak with much discussion about the ethics of this process. Proponents of the PIE and BICEPS principles argue that it leads to a reduction of long-term disability but opponents argue that combat stress reactions lead to long-term problems such as post-traumatic stress disorder.

The use of psychiatric drugs to treat people with CSR has also attracted criticism, as some military psychiatrists have come to question the efficacy of such drugs on the long-term health of veterans. Concerns have been expressed as to the effect of pharmaceutical treatment on an already elevated substance abuse rate among former people with CSR.

Recent research has caused an increasing number of scientists to believe that there may be a physical (i.e., neurocerebral damage) rather than psychological basis for blast trauma. As traumatic brain injury and combat stress reaction have very different causes yet result in similar neurologic symptoms, researchers emphasize the need for greater diagnostic care.

title: Combat stress reaction


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Omphalotus illudens

Omphalotus illudens, commonly known as the eastern jack-o'lantern mushroom, is a large, orange mushroom that is often found in clumps on decaying stumps, buried roots, or at the base of hardwood trees in eastern North America. Its gills often exhibit a weak green bioluminescence when fresh. This green glow has been mentioned in several journal articles, which state that the phenomenon can persist up to 40–50 hours after the mushroom has been picked. It is believed that this display serves to attract insects to the mushroom's gills during nighttime, which can then distribute its spores across a wider area.

Omphalotus illudens is sometimes confused with edible chanterelles, but can be distinguished by its thicker, fleshier appearance, tendency to form large clusters, and clearly separated caps when young. Unlike chanterelles, the Eastern jack-o'-lantern is poisonous to humans when eaten, whether raw or cooked, and typically causes vomiting, cramps, and diarrhea. Although some older literature claims the name is synonymous with Omphalotus olearius, phylogenetic analysis confirms the two as distinct species.

Toxicity
The poisonous chemical compounds illudin S and illudin M were isolated from Omphalotus illudens. In addition to their antibacterial and antifungal effects, illudins appear to be the cause of human toxicity when these mushrooms are eaten raw or cooked. Muscarine has also been indirectly implicated in toxicity, but modern studies to demonstrate its presence in O. illudens are needed.

The cytotoxic effect of illudin is of interest for treating some cancers, but illudin itself is too poisonous to use directly so it must first be chemically modified. Inside human cells, illudin S reacts with DNA and creates a type of DNA damage that blocks transcription. This block can only be relieved by a repair system called nucleotide excision repair. Damage in non-transcribed DNA areas is left unrepaired by the cell. This property was exploited by the company MGI Pharma to develop an illudin-derivative called Irofulven for use as a cancer treatment. Its application is still in the experimental phase.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Omphalotus illudens


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Luciferianism

Luciferianism is a belief system that venerates the essential characteristics that are affixed to Lucifer, the name of various mythological and religious figures associated with the planet Venus. The tradition usually reveres Lucifer not as the Devil, but as a destroyer, a guardian, liberator, light bringer or guiding spirit to darkness, or even the true god. According to Ethan Doyle White of the Britannica, among those who "called themselves Satanists or Luciferians", some insist that Lucifer is an entity separate from Satan, while others maintain "the two names as synonyms for the same being".

Etymology
The word Lucifer is taken from the Latin Vulgate, which translates הֵילֵל as lucifer, even though the Biblical Hebrew word הֵילֵל, which occurs only once in the Hebrew Bible, has been transliterated as hêlêl, or heylel. The Septuagint renders הֵילֵל in Greek as ἑωσφόρος  (heōsphoros),  a name, literally "bringer of dawn", for the morning star.

Literary and religious character
Later Christian tradition came to use the Latin word for "morning star", lucifer, as a proper name ("Lucifer") for the Devil; as he was before his fall. As a result, Lucifer has become a by-word for Satan or the Devil in the church and in popular literature", as in Dante Alighieri's Inferno, Joost van den Vondel's Lucifer and John Milton's Paradise Lost. However, the Latin word never came to be used almost exclusively, as in English, in this way, and was applied to others also, including Jesus. The image of a morning star fallen from the sky is generally believed among scholars to have a parallel in Canaanite mythology.

According to both Christian and Jewish exegesis, in Chapter 14 of the Book of Isaiah, the King of Babylon (Nebuchadnezzar II), conqueror of Jerusalem, is condemned in a prophetic vision by the prophet Isaiah and is called the "Morning Star" (planet Venus). The Hebrew text in this chapter says, הֵילֵל בֶּן-שָׁחַר (Helel ben Shachar, "shining one, son of dawn"). Helel ben Shahar may refer to the Morning Star, but the text in Isaiah 14 gives no indication that Helel was a star or planet.

Medieval
The Luciferian label—in the sense of Lucifer-worshipper—was first used in the Gesta Treverorum in 1231 for a religious circle led by a woman named Lucardis (Luckhardis). It was said that in private she lamented the fall of Lucifer (Satan) and yearned for his restoration to heavenly rule. The sect was exposed by the Papal Inquisition. In 1234, Pope Gregory IX issued the bull Vox in Rama calling for a crusade against the Stedinger, who were accused of Luciferianism. The bull contains a detailed description of supposed rites and beliefs. This description was repeated and occasionally expanded in the following centuries, but "modern historiography agrees on their entirely fictitious nature". The actual identity of the heretics accused of Luciferianism is often difficult to ascertain. Those of the 13th-century Rhineland appear to have been Cathars (Alexander Patschovsky) or a distinct off-shoot of the Cathars (Piotr Czarnecki).

In the 14th century, the term Luciferians was applied to what appear to have been Waldensians. They were persecuted under the Luciferian label in Schweidnitz in 1315 and in Angermünde in 1336. In 1392–1394, when some four hundred Luciferians from Brandenburg and Pomerania were brought before the inquisitor Peter Zwicker, he exonerated them of devil-worship and correctly identified them as Waldensians. At the same time, the inquisitor Antonio di Settimo in Piedmont believed the local Waldensians to be Luciferians.

Modern
Lucifer the Lightbearer was an individualist anarchist journal published in the United States by Moses Harman in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. It has been reported that "the title was selected, stated Harman, because it expressed the paper's mission. Lucifer, the name given to the morning star by the people of the ancient world, served as the symbol of the publication and represented the ushering in of a new day. He declared that freethinkers had sought to redeem and glorify the name Lucifer while theologians cursed him as the prince of the fallen angels. Harman suggested that Lucifer would take on the role of an educator. 'The God of the Bible doomed mankind to perpetual ignorance,' wrote Harman, 'and [people] would never have known Good from Evil if Lucifer had not told them how to become as wise as the gods themselves.

Lucifer was a publication edited by the influential occultist Helena Blavatsky. The journal was first published by Blavatsky. From 1889 until Blavatsky's death in May 1891, Annie Besant was a co-editor. Rudolf Steiner's writings, which formed the basis for anthroposophy, characterised Lucifer as a spiritual opposite to Ahriman, with Christ between the two forces, mediating a balanced path for humanity. Lucifer represents an intellectual, imaginative and otherworldly force which might be associated with visions, subjectivity, psychosis and fantasy. He associated Lucifer with the religious and philosophical cultures of Egypt, Rome, and Greece. Steiner believed that Lucifer, as a supersensible Being, had incarnated in China about 3000 years before the birth of Christ.

Léo Taxil (1854–1907) claimed that Freemasonry is associated with worshipping Lucifer. In what is known as the Taxil hoax, he alleged that leading Freemason Albert Pike had addressed "[t]he 23 Supreme Confederated Councils of the world" (an invention of Taxil), instructing them that Lucifer was God, and was in opposition to the evil god Adonai. Supporters of Freemasonry contend that, when Albert Pike and other Masonic scholars spoke about the "Luciferian path" or the "energies of Lucifer", they were referring to the Morning Star, the light bearer, the search for light, the very antithesis of dark, Satanic evil. Taxil promoted a book by Diana Vaughan (actually written by himself, as he later confessed publicly) that purported to reveal a highly secret ruling body called the Palladium, which controlled the organization and had a Satanic agenda. As described by Freemasonry Disclosed in 1897: "With frightening cynicism, the miserable person we shall not name here [Taxil] declared before an assembly especially convened for him that for twelve years he had prepared and carried out to the end the most sacrilegious of hoaxes. We have always been careful to publish special articles concerning Palladism and Diana Vaughan. We are now giving in this issue a complete list of these articles, which can now be considered as not having existed."

Taxil's work and Pike's address continue to be quoted by anti-Masonic groups.

In Devil-Worship in France, Arthur Edward Waite compared Taxil's work to what today would be called a tabloid story, replete with logical and factual inconsistencies.

Madeline Montalban was an English astrologer and witch. She co-founded the esoteric organisation known as the Order of the Morning Star (OMS), through which she propagated her own form of Luciferianism. In 1952, she met Nicholas Heron, with whom she entered into a relationship. An engraver, photographer, and former journalist for the Brighton Argus, he shared her interest in the occult and together they developed a magical system based upon Luciferianism, the veneration of the deity Lucifer, or Lumiel, whom they considered to be a benevolent angelic deity. In 1956, they founded the Order of the Morning Star, or Ordo Stella Matutina (OSM), propagating it through a correspondence course. The couple sent out lessons to those who paid the necessary fees over a series of weeks, eventually leading to the twelfth lesson, which contained The Book of Lumiel, a short work written by Montalban that documented her understanding of Lumiel, or Lucifer, and his involvement with humankind. The couple initially lived together in Torrington Place, London, from where they ran the course; but in 1961 moved to the coastal town of Southsea in Hampshire, where there was greater room for Heron's engraving equipment.

In Rules for Radicals (his final work, published in 1971 one year before his death), the prominent American community organizer and writer Saul Alinsky wrote at the end of his personal acknowledgements:

"Lest we forget at least an over-the-shoulder acknowledgment to the very first radical: from all our legends, mythology, and history (and who is to know where mythology leaves off and history begins or which is which), the first radical known to man who rebelled against the establishment and did it so effectively that he at least won his own kingdom – Lucifer."

In Anton LaVey's The Satanic Bible, Lucifer is one of the four crown princes of hell, particularly that of the East, the "lord of the air", and is described as the bringer of light, the morning star, intellectualism, and enlightenment. The title "lord of the air" is based upon Ephesians 2:2, which uses the phrase "prince of the power of the air'" to refer to Satan.

Author Michael W. Ford has written on Lucifer as a "mask" of the adversary, a motivator and illuminating force of the mind and subconscious.

Church of Lucifer
As of early 2024, a one page website with the name, luciferchurch.org mentioned several churches with Lucifer or Luciferian in the name: The Luciferian Church in Denmark, the National Church of Lucifer, The Scandinavian Church of Lucifer, Church of Lucifer, Greater Church of Lucifer, Neo-Luciferian Church, (none of which have websites specifically under their name).

It included a seal of "the Church of Lucifer, Denmark", stated that "The Great Church of Lucifer based in Fanø island Denmark", but also "'Who are we: We are The Luciferian Church in Denmark or the National Church of Lucifer, The Scandinavian Church of Lucifer sometimes called the Church of Lucifer or Greater Church of Lucifer. We are an established, privately-owned church in Denmark.'"

It stated that the Neo-Luciferian Church incorporates "elements from Thelema, Gnosticism, Voodoo, traditional occultism, and witchcraft" in its practices, and denounces its rivals at the Church of Satan and The Satanic Temple as partaking in "Cosplaying for Tax Evasion". It lists as its "Danish Luciferian Background: The Neo-Luciferian Church was started in 2005 by Danish occultist Bjarne Sally Pedersen." and that it is a "reawakening and modern interpretation of the Luciferian Gnosticism advocated by Danish occultist and member of the Ordo Templi Orientis Carl William Hansen", aka Ben Kadosh "in the early 1900s".

The Neo-Luciferian Church website is no longer in existence, but the original can be seen on archive.org.

Fraternitas Saturni
Stephen Flowers, in his book on the German magical order Fraternitas Saturni (FS), says that "the FS is (or was) the most unabashedly Luciferian organization in the modern Western occult revival".

Greater Church of Lucifer
The one known brick and mortar church having some connection to Lucifer, "The Greater Church of Lucifer", located in Old Town Spring, Texas, opened 30 October 2015 and closed less than one year later. In 2014, Luciferians founded a worldwide organization for Luciferians from Houston, Texas, known as the Greater Church of Lucifer (GCoL) under the leadership of church founder Jacob McKelvy, co-presidents Michael W. Ford and Jeremy Crow, founder of the Luciferian Research Society. In 2017 McKelvy converted to Christianity. Michael W. Ford and his wife have described their religion as "Luciferian witchcraft".

In 2015, the GCoL opened a house of worship in Old Town Spring, Texas, with several dozen members. (They had previously contacted online.) Over a hundred local residents, mainly Catholic, protested the opening of the church.

The town of Old Town Spring suffered from a boycott in response to the church, The church itself had windows smashed and its roof damaged after someone sawed off the branch of a 200-year-old pecan tree hanging over the church  in the middle of the night. Ford stated that The Greater Church of Lucifer was forced to shut down one year later because their landlord refused to renew their lease after receiving death threats.

As of 2024 a website called the Assembly of Light Bearers stated that it is "the successor guild" for the Greater Church of Lucifer, following the church's "(at least temporarily)" closing, and that "the ALB is drastically different in structure and purpose from the GCOL".

title: Luciferianism


text: Category:Economic indicators

title: Category:Economic indicators


text:
Route summit

A route summit is the highest point on a transportation route crossing higher ground. The term is often used in describing railway routes, less often in road transportation. In canal terminology, the highest pound on a route is called the summit pound.

Rail

 * Beattock Summit
 * Stainmore Summit, formerly the second highest railway in England until its closure in 1962
 * Summit Tank - highest point Unanderra - Moss Vale
 * Cullerin - highest point Sydney - Albury
 * Shap

title: Route summit


text:
Moral nihilism

Moral nihilism (also called ethical nihilism) is the meta-ethical view that nothing is morally right or morally wrong and that morality does not exist.

Moral nihilism is distinct from moral relativism, which allows for actions to be wrong relative to a particular culture or individual. It is also distinct from expressivism, according to which when we make moral claims, "We are not making an effort to describe the way the world is ... we are venting our emotions, commanding others to act in certain ways, or revealing a plan of action".

Moral nihilism today broadly tends to take the form of an Error Theory: The view developed originally by J.L. Mackie in his 1977 book Ethics: Inventing Right and Wrong. Error theory and nihilism broadly take the form of a negative claim about the existence of objective values or properties. Under traditional views there are moral properties or methods which hold objectively in some sense beyond our contingent interests which morally obligate us to act. For Mackie and the Error Theorists, such properties do not exist in the world, and therefore morality conceived of by reference to objective facts must also not exist. Therefore, morality in the traditional sense does not exist.

However, holding nihilism does not necessarily imply that one should give up using moral or ethical language; some nihilists contend that it remains a useful tool. In fact Mackie and other contemporary defenders of Error Theory, such as Richard Joyce, defend the use of moral or ethical talk and action even in knowledge of their fundamental falsity. The legitimacy of this activity is a subject of debate in philosophy.

Forms of nihilism
Moral nihilists agree that all claims such as 'murder is morally wrong' are not true. But different nihilistic views differ in two ways.

Some may say that such claims are neither true nor false; others say that they are all false.

Nihilists differ in the scope of their theories. Error theorists typically claim that it is only distinctively moral claims which are false; practical nihilists claim that there are no reasons for action of any kind; some nihilists extend this claim to include reasons for belief.

Ethical language: false versus not truth-apt
J. L. Mackie argues that moral assertions are only true if there are moral properties, but because there are none, all such claims are false. Under such a view moral propositions which express beliefs are then systematically in error. For under Mackie's view, if there are to be moral properties, they must be objective and therefore not amenable to differences in subjective desires and preferences. Moreover any claims that these moral properties, if they did exist would need to be intrinsically motivating by being in some primitive relation to our consciousness. They must be able of guiding us morally just by the fact of being in some clear awareness of their truth.

Other versions of the theory claim that moral assertions are not true because they are neither true nor false. This form of moral nihilism claims that moral beliefs and assertions presuppose the existence of moral facts that do not exist. Consider, for example, the claim that the present king of France is bald. Some argue that this claim is neither true nor false because it presupposes that there is currently a king of France, but there is not. The claim suffers from "presupposition failure". Richard Joyce argues for this form of moral nihilism under the name "fictionalism".

The scope question
Error theory is built on three principles:

 * 1) There are no moral features in this world; nothing is right or wrong.
 * 2) Therefore, no moral judgments are true.
 * 3) However, our sincere moral judgments try, but always fail, to describe the moral features of things.

Thus, we always lapse into error when thinking in moral terms. We are trying to state the truth when we make moral judgments. But since there is no moral truth, all of our moral claims are mistaken. Hence the error. These three principles lead to the conclusion that there is no moral knowledge. Knowledge requires truth. If there is no moral truth, there can be no moral knowledge. Thus moral values are purely chimerical.

Applied ethics
A pressing question is how one might apply the belief that there are no objective morals. Perhaps the most common response, and the position which Mackie adopts, is to view moralizing as an inherently useful practice, and that everyone is better off behaving in a moralistic manner.

On the other hand, Richard Garner advocated for the idea of “moral abolitionism”. He argues that, if one were to believe that there are no objective morals, then to engage in moralism is a deceptive behavior. It is wrong because it harms one’s epistemological integrity. Furthermore, by refusing to make moral judgements generally, people would be more likely to engage with others in a more genuine fashion. The social benefit is that “we will find that there will be less to argue about, and that our conflicts and disagreements with others, at last seen for what they are, can be addressed and resolved”. Garner encouraged people to adhere to an alternative to traditional normative morality: "informed, compassionate amoralism," a blend of compassion, non-duplicity, and clarity of language that he believed would nurture our capability for tolerance, creation, and cooperation.

Argument from queerness
The most prominent argument for nihilism is the argument from queerness.

J. L. Mackie argues that there are no objective ethical values, by arguing that they would be queer (strange):"If there were objective values, then they would be entities or qualities or relations of a very strange sort, utterly different from anything else in the universe."

For all those who also find such entities queer (prima facie implausible), there is reason to doubt the existence of objective values.

In his book Morality without Foundations: A Defense of Ethical Contextualism (1999), Mark Timmons provides a reconstruction of Mackie's views in the form of the two related arguments. These are based on the rejection of properties, facts, and relationships that do not fit within the worldview of philosophical naturalism, the idea "that everything—including any particular events, facts, properties, and so on—is part of the natural physical world that science investigates" (1999, p. 12). Timmons adds, "The undeniable attraction of this outlook in contemporary philosophy no doubt stems from the rise of modern science and the belief that science is our best avenue for discovering the nature of reality".

There are several ways in which moral properties are supposedly queer:
 * our ordinary moral discourse purports to refer to intrinsically prescriptive properties and facts "that would somehow motivate us or provide us with reasons for action independent of our desires and aversions"—but such properties and facts do not comport with philosophical naturalism.
 * given that objective moral properties supposedly supervene upon natural properties (such as biological or psychological properties), the relation between the moral properties and the natural properties is metaphysically mysterious and does not comport with philosophical naturalism.
 * a moral realist who countenances the existence of metaphysically queer properties, facts, and relations must also posit some special faculty by which we have knowledge of them.

Responses and criticisms
Christine Korsgaard responds to Mackie by saying:

"Of course there are entities that meet these criteria. It's true that they are queer sorts of entities and that knowing them isn't like anything else. But that doesn't mean that they don't exist. ... For it is the most familiar fact of human life that the world contains entities that can tell us what to do and make us do it. They are people, and the other animals."

Other criticisms of the argument include noting that the very fact that such entities would have to be something fundamentally different from what we normally experience, therefore assumably outside our sphere of experience, we cannot prima facie have reason to either doubt or affirm their existence. Therefore if one had independent grounds for supposing such things to exist (such as a reductio ad absurdum of the contrary) the argument from queerness cannot give one any particular reason to think otherwise. An argument along these lines has been provided by e.g. Akeel Bilgrami.

Argument from explanatory impotence
Gilbert Harman argued that we do not need to posit the existence of objective values in order to explain our 'moral observations'.

title: Moral nihilism


text:
Coutances

Coutances is a commune in the Manche department in Normandy in north-western France.

History
The capital of the Unelli, a Gaulish tribe, the town was given the name of Constantia in 298 during the reign of Roman Emperor Constantius Chlorus. The surrounding region, called in Latin the pagus Constantinus, subsequently became known as the Cotentin Peninsula.

The town was destroyed by the invading Normans in 866; they later established settlements and incorporated the whole peninsula into the Duchy of Normandy in 933.

On 17 July 1944, during the Battle of Normandy during World War II, the city was bombed during the Allied offensive against the occupying Germans.

Climate
Coutances has an oceanic climate (Köppen climate classification Cfb). The average annual temperature in Coutances is 11.2 C. The average annual rainfall is 1061.2 mm with December as the wettest month. The temperatures are highest on average in August, at around 17.5 C, and lowest in January, at around 5.5 C. The highest temperature ever recorded in Coutances was 38.9 C on 5 August 2003; the coldest temperature ever recorded was -14.4 C on 17 January 1985.

Sights
Coutances Cathedral is one of the major buildings of Norman architecture and contains a chapel and stained glass dedicated to Saint Marcouf. The bishop of Coutances exercised ecclesiastical jurisdiction over the Channel Islands until the Reformation, despite the secular division of Normandy in 1204. The final rupture occurred definitively in 1569.

Coutances houses a well-known botanical garden and an art museum.

Jazz festival
Coutances is the location of Jazz sous les pommiers ("Jazz under the apple trees"), an annual jazz festival held since 1982. The festival traditionally takes place during the week of Ascension.

International relations
Coutances is twinned with:

title: Coutances


text:
Eric Campbell

Eric Campbell may refer to:

 * Eric Campbell (actor) (1880–1917), Scottish silent film star
 * Eric Campbell (baseball) (born 1987), American baseball player
 * Eric Campbell (basketball) (born 1977), American basketball player
 * Eric Campbell (political activist) (1893–1970), Australian political activist, leader of the New Guard Fascist movement
 * Eric Campbell (reporter), Australian foreign correspondent
 * Eric Campbell (rugby union) (1942—2006), Irish rugby union international
 * Eric Campbell Geddes (1875–1937), British Conservative politician
 * Eric-Campbell, a British car maker between 1919 and 1926

title: Eric Campbell


text:
Bravo (British TV channel)

Bravo was a British and Irish television channel owned by Living TV Group, a subsidiary of BSkyB. Its target audience was males in their 20s to early 40s. It broadcast a variety of both archive programming (such as Knight Rider and MacGyver) and original productions.

The Bravo channel closed down on 1 January 2011, with the most popular programmes moved to other Sky channels.

Early history
Bravo was launched on 20 December 1985 as a cable only channel, created by United Artists Programming broadcasting black & white B-movies from the 1950s and 1960s and vintage TV series. Initially, the channel was a cassette-delivered service provided to cable headends for automatic play-out.

In 1991, United Artists merged with their largest shareholder TCI ( Liberty Media), to form the largest cable operator in the United States. TCI and US West announced a joint venture and, in 1992, the joint venture company became Telewest Communications. In 1993, talks were held with Tele-Communications Inc. which resulted in Flextech acquiring TCI's European programming business in exchange for shares. By January, the deal was complete with TCI, allowing it to acquire 60.4% of Flextech while Flextech acquired 100% of Bravo, 25% of UK Gold, 31% of UK Living, and 25% of the Children's Channel which increased its share in that channel.

On 22 July 1993, Bravo launched on the Astra 1C satellite in anticipation of the launch of Sky Multichannels in September 1993. With the launch on Astra, the channel started broadcasting between noon and midnight (as opposed to 3pm to 3am).

Its programming output was altered around the same time, when the channel obtained many of the ITC Entertainment productions and other cult TV series including The Avengers. In 1990, it upgraded its on-screen image with an elaborate station identifier of a modernist skyscraper under rolling thunderclouds and promoted itself as 'Timewarp Television'. It used both Roger Moore and Tony Curtis to feature in speciality shot trails. Armstrong and Miller made their first broadcast television appearance on Bravo in a series of presentation promotions during its Cult Weekend on 5 August 1995.

Reinvention as young-adult channel (1996-2000's)
In 1996, a policy change to withdraw the black & white shows contributed to the channel moving on to specialise in science fiction and horror with movies from the Troma Entertainment catalogue. It then became known for showing crime documentaries by day and adult programming at night.

On February 3, 1997, Flextech launched Trouble, which took over the channel's afternoon and early evening broadcast hours, meaning Bravo would broadcast between 8pm to 6am. During mornings, European Business News time shared with the channel on weekdays and Living on weekends until 2001. With the change in hours, Bravo was given a refreshed look, being branded as "an altered species of television", applying to the increased amount of adult-focused programs. The channel began to air Extreme Championship Wrestling's show ECW Hardcore TV around this time; as well as ECW's biggest events, including what were pay-per-views in the US, up to January 2001.

Addition of sports and acquired programming
Over the later years, Bravo decreased the adult content shown and increased sports and imported shows such as Alias. Bravo aired World Championship Wrestling's flagship show Nitro during WCW's final year in business (2000–2001).

On 28 August 2005, the channel started showing Serie A Italian football, bringing back the Channel 4 format Football Italia.

On March 2, 2006, a sister channel called Player was launched, which originally aired as a late-night block on fellow-Flextech channel Challenge. Player aired programming aimed at a similar audience to Bravo, alongside the addition of gambling-related shows.

On September 28, 2006, Bravo introduced a brand new graphics package to memorate its 21st birthday, which coincided with the full rebranding of Player as Bravo 2.

Poor viewing figures resulted first in the cancellation of the weekly Gazetta Football Italia show, then the announcement that Bravo would stop showing Italian Football altogether after 23 December 2006. The channel's other highest-profile sports coverage was Ultimate Fighting Championship archives, for which it held exclusive UK rights, as well as recent events (live rights are now held by BT Sport), as well as the related reality TV show The Ultimate Fighter.

From January 2007, Bravo's sister channel Bravo 2, which had launched three months earlier, had the exclusive UK rights to broadcast Total Nonstop Action Wrestling programming, a two-day delay from the American broadcast of TNA's weekly show TNA iMPACT! and a three-day delay for TNA's monthly Pay Per Views. (On 3 February 2011, this programming moved to Challenge, and is now known as Impact Wrestling.) On 5 January 2008, TNA iMPACT was moved to Bravo with replays of the show on Bravo 2. Bravo's original contract for TNA Wrestling programming was for eighteen months and was distributed by RDA TV; the deal, which was once again negotiated by RDA TV, was extended on 1 July 2008 for an additional eighteen months.

From 3 June 2008 onward, Bravo, along with the other VMT owned channels began broadcasting in widescreen (16:9). This was coupled with a redesign of the on-screen graphic; the word BRAVO was shown rather than the logo.

"Home of the Brave" and closure (2010/2011)
On 25 May 2010, Virgin Media Television unveiled new channel branding for Bravo to coincide with a major new series Spartacus: Blood and Sand. It involved a new logo to "match the premium content and ambition of the channel" along with a new strapline, "Bravo: Home of the Brave".

On 15 September 2010, BSkyB announced that it would close Bravo as well as its sister channel Bravo 2.

For November 2010, Bravo rebranded as Brav-Mo to celebrate Movember.

From 24 to 31 December 2010, Bravo celebrated its final week with a marathon of its most popular shows called "Bravo, We Salute You".

On the morning of 1 January 2011, Bravo ceased broadcasting on all platforms. The last program aired was series 3 of World's Most Amazing Videos. Since the closure, the Bravo programmes (as well as the Channel One programmes) were moved to Pick TV in May 2012.

Possible relaunch
In August 2013, it was revealed that BSkyB had registered the trademark for 'Sky Bravo'.

title: Bravo (British TV channel)


text:
Vanguard Youth

Vanguard Youth is a common and useful name for youth organization of a Maoist party or other left parties. It may refer to:

 * Vanguard Youth (Vietnam)
 * Vanguard Youth (Turkey)

title: Vanguard Youth


text:
Talk:Type A Kō-hyōteki-class submarine

There seems to be some dizdfdssagreement over whether the fixed charge was intended and/or likely to be effective against other vessels. Can I ask what the evidence is either way? Was the demolition charge (as I have always heard it described) ever used against other vessels? Andrewa 12:38, 26 Sep 2004 (UTC)

 * The Proceedings article on which I based the first draft of this article was very clear: the charge was far larger than necessary to simply scuttle the ko-kyoteki itself -- clearly the Japanese designers intended for the explosion to accomplish more than that. --the Epopt 14:49, 26 Sep 2004 (UTC)

Interesting. I can't source the article offhand, but I have read that the Japanese Admiralty permission to use these submarines in the Sydney raid was conditional on them not being used as suicide weapons. This order was sufficiently effective that after the Sydney attack the mother ships waited for three days at the rendez-vous point off Port Hacking, an incredible risk for a formation of submarines to take and one from which they probably only escaped because it never occurred to the Australian defenders that they would do such a thing. Lacking any means of recharging their batteries, the chance that any midgets would return on the third day was remote.

I suspect that what has happened is that the Pearl Harbour submarines were fitted with far larger demolition charges than the Sydney ones. One of the two captured in Sydney did set off its demolition charge, the other was disabled by depth charges and captured with its demolition charge intact (and its motor still running). The effect of the demolition charge that was detonated was to destroy half of the submarine only. All four crew bodies were recovered (two from each wreck), as were the bow section of one submarine and the stern of the other (I can't remember which way around it was). There was enough left of the two wrecks to combined into one intact hull, which was mounted on a truck and toured New South Wales to raise war funds (it was called Tojo's Circus) and is now on display at the Australian War Memorial in Canberra.

Various accounts have put the size of the charge fitted to these two submarines at 35 to 45Kg. Andrewa 23:02, 26 Sep 2004 (UTC)

 * I like your rewrite about the size of the demolition charge! --the Epopt 13:06, 28 Sep 2004 (UTC)

The bit about the theory of some midget sub(s?) having made it inside Pearl Harbor being "completely disproven" doesn't provide any sources, and sounds a lot like editorialising to me.

I agree -- I am removing it until the comment has been sourced. --Draugen 22:09, 6 July 2006 (UTC)

 * Pearl Harbor mini-submarine mystery solved? Researchers think they have found the remains of a Japanese mini-submarine that probably fired on U.S. battleships on Dec. 7, 1941. Article dated December 7 2009. The remains of a Japanese mini-submarine that participated in the Dec. 7, 1941, attack on Pearl Harbor have been discovered, researchers are to report today, offering strong evidence that the sub fired its torpedoes at Battleship Row. The complete article can be viewed here. Jrcrin001 (talk) 08:16, 8 December 2009 (UTC)

Australia just announced they have discovered and dived on the third (and Missing Type A) outside Sydney Harbor. They are leaving the still intact submarine there as its not financially conceivable to raise it. It looks like it may of gotten caught in some fishing nets. After 65 Years Submarine Found Patrick Havens 23:08, 25 May 2007 (UTC)

How were these mini-subs transported ?
I'd be inerested in knowing about how these mini-subs were transported.

Where they contained within the main sub, like a torpedo ?

Fastened alongside ?

Towed by a cable ?

I would think that carrying around one of these subs would create significant drag, and impair the main sub's ability to operate. Where they ever abandoned for this reason ?

Given what seems to be their very limited usefulness, I wonder what the japanese sub commanders thought about them. Travel speed, fuel-efficiency, etc...

Some photos or illustrating the mini-subs "in transit" would be very nice.

I also wonder about the "back-story". Was there a Japanese Officer that is credited for being their advocate, an equivalent of Billy Mitchell ? —Preceding unsigned comment added by 72.177.232.9 (talk) 16:21, 6 April 2009 (UTC)

Fifth submarine fired on CL-49 USS St Louis ?
According to the wikipedia entry on the USS St. Louis, and this Navy reference http://www.history.navy.mil/danfs/s17/st_louis-v.htm, one of the midget submarines fired on the St. Louis. Why is there no mention of this in the article? Jim Davis 17:27, 22 May 2009 (UTC)

Possible error
The table under Characteristics states that type B and C could move faster under water than on the surface. It looks like these figures need to be switched to me. 86.87.73.104 (talk) 10:28, 28 August 2011 (UTC)

Landslide Pier?
What is a landslide pier, please? — Preceding unsigned comment added by 121.44.185.245 (talk) 08:48, 16 May 2016 (UTC)

Sydney Harbour Attack
Please provide refs for 2006 location of submarine #2, now a war grave. 121.44.185.245 (talk) 08:52, 16 May 2016 (UTC)

Fifth Pearl Harbor Midget Submarine Found in 2009?
I have a few questions about the paragraph beginning "In 2009..."

First, to my knowledge and reading, nothing has positively identified the submarine as being the fifth submarine. It is "believed" to be the fifth submarine, based on it's configuration, but the only way to prove it would be to raise it and look for identifying marks (like data plates).

Secondly the paragraph contains the sentence "When a series of explosions sank an amphibious fleet being assembled in the Loch in 1944, the remains of the sub were collected and dumped in the subsequent salvage operation, which was kept classified as secret until 1960." This needs to be documented. From everything I have read, no documentation of the submarine has been found in the reports of the salvage efforts after the West Loch disaster of 1944. That is part of the mystery. This sentence is misleading, because it sounds like there was documentation describing its salvage declassified in 1960.

It seems just as likely to me that this submarine was captured somewhere during or after the war, and that after study it was cut up and scuttled. A total of fifty of this model were constructed during the war, and only eight were actually used in combat. There is fairly strong evidence, from at least two ship's logs, that Midget E was the source of the torpedoes fired at USS St. Louis as she was exiting the harbor around 1000 hours, yet this event is not mentioned in the article. This is also mentioned in the Attack on Pearl Harbor and USS St. Louis (CL-49) articles. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 160.147.160.16 (talk) 17:09, 16 February 2018 (UTC)

title: Talk:Type A Kō-hyōteki-class submarine


text:
Talk:Lists of animated television series

Animated Television series vs Anime
Who wants to discern the difference between those two terms? If I recall - anime is broadcast on TV as well. Thus, anime is a form of animation that is broadcast on TV. See TV Tokyo and Cartoon Network. Both are television stations who broadcast animation - either Western domestic animation or Japanese animation. KyuuA4 18:09, 30 January 2007 (UTC)
 * Last time I remember anime means animated series made in Japan, so isn't that the same thing? TheBlazikenMaster 20:47, 6 August 2007 (UTC)
 * Animé is a Japanese short for animation. An animated series is a television program made up of animation. When we say animé, it doesnt immediately mean as animated series. A number of words are related to the word animation like suspended animation, digital animation, etc. †B lo o d p ac k†  02:47, 7 August 2007 (UTC)
 * Maybe so, but they are still animated series made in Japan. TheBlazikenMaster 16:38, 7 August 2007 (UTC)

Wallace and Gromit
Is wallace and gromit really 2000s? I thought they were produced mid nineties. —Preceding unsigned comment added by Richard cocks (talk • contribs)
 * It is mid-1990s. I changed it --b. Touch 21:22, 11 Nov 2004 (UTC)

A few things:

I corrected the article as such. --b. Touch 21:21, 11 Nov 2004 (UTC)
 * Theatrical cartoons shouldn't be listed, as they are not produced for television.
 * Scooby-Doo, Where Are You! was first broadcast in 1969.
 * Crusader Rabbit was first broadcast in 1949.
 * The Felix the Cat TV cartoons were first broadcast in 1957.
 * Peanuts never had a series until the 1980s; they had a string of TV specials that were not produced on a regular or dependable schedule.
 * Duplicate series should only be posted if a series stops and then is brought back after having been out of production for a significant amount of time (example: The Jetsons was originally produced in 1962, and never had new episodes made until 1985, so it can be listed twice.)
 * How much does this last point affect scooby-doo? It's been on and off production throughout it's whole lifetime, usually under changing names; although not all it's incarnations are listed here. Richard cocks 08:18, Nov 13, 2004 (UTC)
 * Scooby-Doo ran, uninterrupted, from 1969 to 1986. The name and format may have changed, but it was still the same show. Therefore, only Scooby-Doo, A Pup Named Scooby-Doo, and What's New, Scooby-Doo? should be ion this list. — Preceding unsigned comment added by B Touch (talk • contribs)

American Only?
It seems this list does pertain to American animation only. KyuuA4 18:22, 30 January 2007 (UTC)

Shouldn't this page be 'US Animated television series' ? - Ravedave 20:10, 20 October 2005 (UTC)

 * No, there are series from other countries listed too - quite a few French series, some British ones, and various others. --Bonalaw 08:40, 21 October 2005 (UTC)

 * The list is highly incomplete in that case. In the introduction, it states it is only a "sample list" whatever that means. It also says "the list omits most [anime] series", but gives no restrictions as to which to actually include. --Kamasutra 18:33, 14 March 2006 (UTC)

 * I agree; there is a very obvious U.S. bias in the list. As this is just a "sample list", the list should be restricted to notable or influential series only, and not limited mainly to the U.S. (there are a number of anime series that one would consider influential, for example).  Or better yet, the list could/should be removed entirely. — Matthew0028  21:27, 23 April 2006 (UTC)

 * Yes its Biased. Please fix this list.

 * I think the best way to fix this list is for people to contribute more non-US series to it, and to get rid of the US-oriented introduction section. It's possible that only US television watchers have contributed so far - feel free to add some! T He He 07:46, 19 December 2006 (UTC)

I've finished off the 80s section today with BCDB information it's now up to the main maintainers to put my new updates into date or alphabetical order and to put the correct amount of episodes onto it hope those 80s updates were good enough as the 80s deserves much better than what we had. (Wrestletube1 (talk) 15:57, 18 August 2012 (UTC))

I'm thinking of updating 90s eventually as well with more BCDB info's but I don't know yet but I feel that deserves more respect as well as I grew up with the 80s and 90s cartoons as well as repeats of old 60s & 70s stuff also on during the period. Somebody else do it if I don't get to it at all. (Wrestletube1 (talk) 16:01, 18 August 2012 (UTC))

InuYasha
How the hell did InuYasha get put under 1960s? Geez, someone should police this place —Preceding unsigned comment added by 141.213.185.86 (talk • contribs)

Shouldn't the name of this list be changed..?
..since there are many more titles of animated television series than only the onece on this list... maybe the title should be changed to something on the lines of Notable or Influential animated television series ...?--Acidburn24m 19:32, 28 April 2006 (UTC)

 * But what qualifies a series as notable? I think the list is the problem, not the title. Anyone catching omissions should add them in. --Maxrandom777 16:25, 14 July 2006 (UTC)

Someone missed Naruto (HOW COULD THEY!!!)... I added it though...
I added Naruto to the list and I placed a template {incomplete} because there may be other animation shows missing. Please add all you can guys. Thanks, --Kabuto Yakushi 17:38, 28 September 2006 (UTC)

There is another show missed that i watched as a child but i cant remember the name of it
for the life of me. It was about a high school of monsters and a weedy teacher comes and has to teach them. It had Frankensteins child, a weird vamp girl, mummy child, so on. 12:57, 4 November 2006

That'd be Gravedale High. I'm disappointed in myself that I actually remember that. Barryap 15:56, 19 December 2006 (UTC)

 * me too... i watch an anime where there is a metal robot cat... i forget the name, but not sure if it is on the list...Ragnaroknike 16:11, 29 November 2006 (UTC)

Lead Section
I don't think that an introduction is needed for this list beyond a simple: "This is a list of animated television series. An animated series is a television series produced by means of animation." (my reading of List guideline). Anything else belongs in a separate article.

I'll make the changes tomorrow if there's no further discussion T He He 07:43, 19 December 2006 (UTC)

 * Unfortunately, animated television series also redirects here. I think the details of the lead section should be sent over there in place of the redirection.  It needs serious cleanup though. Chovain 08:00, 19 December 2006 (UTC)

 * I've removed the lead section to this article, although I do agree that there are other places for it to go. As the intro is very specifically oriented at cartoons (particularly American cartoons) than the more general 'animated series'  I've changed the redirect at Cartoon Series Cartoon series to the intro as it was, keeping the cleanup tag, but  I've kept animated television series as a redirect.  I don't think the previous intro was generalised enough for the latter. T He He 08:49, 20 December 2006 (UTC)

"Television?"
Uh, why is this page called "List of animated television series" and then have categories for "1910s", "1930s", and "1940s" when during those time periods televison either hadn't been invented yet, or were not widely distributed enough for it to have television programing for it? I think this page either needs to be renamed or those sections need to be moved. -- Grandpafootsoldier 01:04, 23 December 2006 (UTC)

 * Good point. From History of television it seems that broadcasting was begun around 1928 to 1929 in Europe/US, although televisions were not common.  More relevantly, going to each of the cartoons mentioned up to 1950s - Felix the Cat, Popeye and Crusader Rabbit makes it clear that at some point during their history they were specifically produced for television, although it was not the initial medium.  The only solution I can think of is to try to ensure that production dates are kept strictly to dates of production for television - but that may be hard to determine for some series.  What do you think?  T He He 01:33, 29 December 2006 (UTC)

"1910s", "1930s", and "1940s" see list of anmation tiaterical shorts series.The Tramp 10:34, 6 March 2007 (UTC)

What if the show was canceled, then began again?
As in, if the show was canceled in the 90's but then started up (as in making new episodes again) in the 2000's, should it be listed under both? Or no?

Anything that starts with a "The"
As the list is in alphabetical order should any that begin with the word "The" should be listed in true alphabetical order tradition like should "The Simpsons" be listed as a T or should it be listed as an S? --Yuri Elite 18:55, 21 May 2007 (GMT)
 * Generally titles that start with "The" are listed under the following word, e.g. The Simpsons would be listed under S. Always a good thing to clear up on a list as long as this one! T He He 11:30, 24 May 2007 (UTC)

adding a "See Also" section in the articles listed here
Adding a See also section of List of animated television series in the articles listed here would be helpful. Theres too many listed here, and one can start adding now. Thanks! †B lo o d p ac k† 13:55, 24 July 2007 (UTC)

Centralized TV Episode Discussion
Over the past months, TV episodes have been redirected by (to name a couple) TTN, Eusebeus and others. No centralized discussion has taken place, so I'm asking everyone who has been involved in this issue to voice their opinions here in this centralized spot, be they pro or anti. Discussion is here. Even if you have not, other opinions are needed because this issue is affecting all TV episodes in Wikipedia. --User: (talk) 23:18, 16 January 2008 (UTC)

garbage pale kids
I remember watching this show from (i think) nickelodeon. Anyone remember it? †B lo o d p ac k† 15:38, 4 March 2008 (UTC)

It's added into one of the late 80s now which was when it was made. Anyway it's in the wiki database now thanks to my BCDB mega updates which are now finished for 80s which I may do 90s as well some time. (Wrestletube1 (talk) 16:05, 18 August 2012 (UTC))

Unknown cartoon about Cats
There was a old cartoon late 80's early 90's I remember but can't figure out what it was called. I think it was called "The Scratch C.A.T.S." or something like that they roamed around and saved the world like James Bond, and Heathcliff type, it was a bit like the movie Cats & Dogs but released quite a while before that I think. Would anyone know the name of this cartoon? I know its not Scratchcats. (Floppydog66 (talk) 13:48, 21 July 2008 (UTC))

Hello, did you mean SWAT Kats: The Radical Squadron?

Define: YEAR
We need a definition, preferable on the page, to indicate what is meant by the YEAR collum.

What it includes and doesn't include. Personally I would prefer it only pertaining to original run air-dates in the show's home country.

Currently Yogi Bear is listed as 35 eps from 1958-1988 = 30 years for a 35 eps show. This doesn't work well.

The other dates that might make sense is the production date, as this is when the work captures the values of the society it was created in. But This is a list of TV shows, so I think the Air dates ON Tv are more important in this context.

Reruns and Syndication, shouldn't be included as any show could be realistically shown again at any time. Larek (talk) 18:51, 6 May 2009 (UTC)

higgle and giggle cartoons
Bold text

X-Men someone add
The 1992 X-Men series. How did that get missed?! http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/X-Men_(TV_series) —Preceding unsigned comment added by 71.163.183.176 (talk) 23:08, 4 July 2009 (UTC)

May be added if I do what I'm thinking of doing and that is updating the 90s with more BCDB results just like I did the 80s as both really deserve more respect as in a mega update for each year. (Wrestletube1 (talk) 16:16, 18 August 2012 (UTC))

Did I dream this?
Can you name the early sixties carton involving a small fiesty american character, possibly from out west, gun-toting and drove a car at one point. I just cannot find a name for this cartoon.

And what about Deputy Dawg - should that be added. —Preceding unsigned comment added by Stuffed cat (talk • contribs) 18:38, 24 July 2009 (UTC)
 * I have added Deputy Dawg. Thanks for the suggestion.--Cattus talk 16:42, 26 July 2012 (UTC)

Somebody help me out here
I grew up in Montreal, Canada and sometime in the 80s I was watching animated series that had a big impact on me. But I was very young and can't remember the name. I thought it might be Goldorak (french version) but it isn't. All I can remember today is the climactic finale ended in a swimming pool where the bad guy was finally defeated. Anyone have any idea which series that might be? —Preceding unsigned comment added by 74.72.229.154 (talk) 15:51, 16 April 2011 (UTC)

removing Lancelot Link
I'm going to remove "Lancelot Link, Secret Chimp" from this list, because it doesn't belong. It's not animation, and even other Wiki articles don't refer to it as such. Elsquared (talk) 05:38, 1 April 2012 (UTC)

Don't forget some stuff could be on both animated & live mediums like an entry I put into 80s in my BCDB mega update Gentle Ben I think it was. I'd check on the BCDB first to see if the animated one exists. I've only ever looked at 80s & 90s on BCDB and I don't think even myself has seen that one. lol. I'll check now. Edit: Nope, doesn't exist via a BCDB search neither. (Wrestletube1 (talk) 16:12, 18 August 2012 (UTC))

WorldCat Genres
Maximilianklein (talk) 22:58, 5 December 2012 (UTC)


text:
Talk:Home rule

Untitled
This article should NOT be merged with devolution, at least not entirely. "Home rule" is a principle that extends beyond the specifics of UK politics. older ≠ wiser 12:38, 26 Sep 2004 (UTC)
 * For example, District of Columbia home rule, which perhaps should be mentioned somewhere in this article. KCinDC (talk) 00:25, 20 July 2008 (UTC)

POV in "Further reading" section?
The inclusion of a single publication promoting a unionist stance ('Against Home Rule; the case for the Union') seems to me to be an attempt to push a specific point of view; I propose deleting it, since any attempt to select another publication to balance it is fraught with hazards. -- Timberframe (talk) 22:40, 11 November 2008 (UTC)
 * I'll take the ensuing silence as agreement / apathy and delete the "further reading" section. -- Timberframe (talk) 17:26, 5 January 2009 (UTC)

Municipal home rule
Many town/city articles link to this article, while they should instead link to Municipal home rule. --141.3.48.218 (talk) 12:58, 5 January 2009 (UTC)
 * Then please be bold - go ahead and change the links as you see fit, unless the article talk pages show a good reason for leaving them pointing here. -- Timberframe (talk) 17:23, 5 January 2009 (UTC)

Greenland a province?
The article currently says
 * Greenland is a self-governing Danish province. Home rule was granted by Danish parliament in 1979.

But the article Greenland says

 * On 21 June 2009, Greenland assumed self-determination with responsibility for self-government of judicial affairs, policing, and natural resources

Does this mean it is no longer a "province" (if it ever was -- I don't see that word anywhere in the article Greenland)? If so, this should be updated. Duoduoduo (talk) 22:48, 19 February 2013 (UTC)

So-called "English home rule"
It is not So-called "English home rule" it is English home rule. — Preceding unsigned comment added by Alanalan001 (talk • contribs) 10:35, 9 December 2014 (UTC)

Topic Expansionism, aka UK-centric POV
Is this article too expansive in claiming that home rule is, in general and without qualification, "the power of a constituent part (administrative division) of a state to exercise such of the state's powers of governance within its own administrative area that have been decentralized to it by the central government"?

Simply judging by the number of translations of the article, it seems inappropriate not to limit such a definition to "English (or English-influenced) political systems." A simple Wikipedia search in French, German, Spanish and Portuguese will show that, what is commonly referred to in the UK (and India and the US) as home rule, is actually coined self government and autonomy in the rest of the world. Even if the English Wikipedia article insists that Greenland achieved "home rule" from Denmark in 1979, international versions of the Greenland article speak of autonomy and self government. In international Wikipedia versions, the notion of "home rule" is limited in scope to the UK and its former, colonial areas of influence, see the Portuguese, Italian, Dutch and German versions of the "Home rule" article, for instance.

In any event, the lack of any reference in the English version of the "Home rule" article to countless other countries and territories that actually benefit from self governance (something that is also amazingly missing in the self government and autonomy articles), which are rather listed in the List of autonomous areas by country article (where the political concept is named "autonomy"), would indicate the need to put in quite some effort in order to clean up and give consistency to how these terms are defined and their geographic reach explained throughout Wikipedia --86.24.167.128 (talk) 12:34, 17 July 2016 (UTC)

title: Talk:Home rule


text:
D20 Future

d20 Future is an accessory for the d20 Modern role-playing game written by Christopher Perkins, Rodney Thompson, and JD Wiker. It facilitates the playing of campaigns in the far future, using elements such as cybernetics, mecha, mutations, robotics, space travel, starships, and xenobiology. d20 Future is one of the most extensive of science-fiction d20 games and has its own SRD, which is a source for many other sci-fi d20 games.

New rules
d20 Future introduced a number of new elements to d20 Modern, including:
 * New classes, occupations, feats, and skill applications
 * New equipment, include cybernetics and mecha
 * Rules for robot player characters
 * Rules for mutations
 * Rules for scientific engineering, spaceships, and constructs
 * Hazards and environments, including vacuum and radiation
 * Progress levels, describing global levels of technological development

Campaigns
The book presented a number of campaign models, which provided a framework for building a full campaign setting but did not include a full-scale setting. Campaign models introduced include:

 * Bughunters, an adventure game and bug hunt setting inspired by Aliens, Starship Troopers, and its predecessor in Amazing Engine.
 * Dimension X, an adventure game setting based on the concept of parallel universes, which are referred to as dimensions.
 * From the Dark Heart of Space, a Fifth Element style setting inspired by the eternal struggle between good and evil, with a touch of the Cthulhu Mythos.
 * Genetech, apparently an uncredited adaptation of the background of the Moreau series of books by S. Andrew Swann. It originally appeared as a mini-game in Polyhedron #155.
 * Mecha Crusade, an anime-inspired (primarily Gundam-inspired) setting taking place in the 2050s that focuses on the war between Earth and the Colonists, with giant fighting robots (mecha) being used on both sides. It originally appeared as a mini-game in Polyhedron #154. Mecha Crusade uses a different system than the Guardians of Order-published d20 Mecha.
 * Star*Drive, a political space opera taking placed in the 26th century. It is a remake of Alternity campaign setting of the same name.
 * Star Law, a remake of the popular 1980s Star Frontiers space opera-based role-playing game. The mini-setting is cited to use material from Star Frontiers Alpha Dawn and Zebulon's Guide to Frontier Space.
 * The Wasteland, a somewhat western-flavored post-apocalyptic fiction setting inspired by its predecessors in Metamorphosis Alpha and Gamma World.

d20 Cyberscape
d20 Cyberscape is an expansion for the d20 Future supplement of d20 Modern. It adds more Cybernetics to accompany those found in d20 Future, as well as alternate forms of cybernetics, such as cybernetics in fantasy. It also includes a cyberpunk campaign model called CyberRave, in which the world has become a collection of corporation-owned and run countries.

d20 Future Tech
d20 Future Tech is a 96-page supplement for the d20 Modern role-playing game and the d20 Future supplement. This supplement contains rules which expand on various weaponry and gadgets from d20 Future.

The book contains additional material expands of the following topics already established in d20 Future: Weapons/Personal Gear, Starships, Mecha, and Robotics. There is a chapter on how future technology affects life, and one on integrating different types of combat (Mecha vs Vehicle, Starship vs. Mecha, etc.).

Reviews

 * Pyramid

title: D20 Future


text:
Ambert

Ambert (Auvergnat: Embèrt) is a commune in the Puy-de-Dôme department in Auvergne in central France.

Administration
Ambert is the seat of the canton of Ambert and the arrondissement of Ambert. It is a sub-prefecture of the department. The arrondissement consists of eight cantons (before March 2015).

Geography
Ambert lies on the river Dore, a tributary of the Allier.

Sights
Ambert is famous for its fourme d'Ambert cheese - "Fourme d'Ambert", its paper mills - "Le moulin Richard de Bas" - (the first edition of Diderot's Encyclopédie was printed on paper made in Ambert) and its circular town market hall - "La Mairie" - (popularized by Jules Romains in his novel Les copains).

The Agrivap Chemin de Fer Touristique operates out of Ambert. There is a steam engine that makes a local run, but to see the line in full a ride on the Panoramique Autorail is not to be missed.

There is an industrial museum with an interesting collection of tractors and small steam engines.

In the town the Museum of Cheese is worth a visit, as is the old paper mill a few kilometres outside the main town.

Personalities
Ambert was the birthplace of the mathematician Michel Rolle (1652–1719), composer Emmanuel Chabrier (1841–1894), and anthropologist Henri Pourrat (1887–1959), who collected the oral traditions of the Auvergne. It is also the birthplace of actor and director Pierre-Loup Rajot (1958–).

International relations
Ambert is twinned with:
 * 🇩🇪 Annweiler, Germany, since 1988
 * 🇯🇵 Higashichichibu, Saitama, Japan, since 1989
 * 🇮🇹 Gorgonzola, Italy, since 2002. Both cities, known for their blue cow's-milk cheeses (cheese and Fourme d'Ambert), have almost the same latitude: 45° 32' N for Gorgonzola, 45° 33' N for Ambert.

Touristic places near Ambert
Some semi-famous places to go when visiting Ambert, France are:
 * La Mairie (a round town hall, fun when the farmer's market is there)
 * Le Moulin Richard-de-Bas (a paper mill, with a great tour for all ages, workshops, activities and a nice little garden)

title: Ambert