text:
Talk:Maxime Faget

Death date
Though the news came out October 10, NASA and the Houston Chronicle give Faget's date of death as Saturday, October 9. -- ke4roh 01:35, Oct 12, 2004 (UTC)

Max
Is he commonly referred to as Max Faget? Tyciol (talk) 07:24, 9 April 2009 (UTC)

Aw.
What an unfortunate name. Smart fella though. 174.97.179.132 (talk) 12:59, 12 July 2011 (UTC)

Yes, he was commonly referred to as Max. He was my uncle. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 75.27.138.192 (talk) 03:16, 2 February 2012 (UTC)

You pronounce his last name, "FAH-SHEY". — Preceding unsigned comment added by 24.126.94.9 (talk) 16:42, 19 February 2013 (UTC)

The X-15 was designed and built by North American Aviation, not Lockheed. — Preceding unsigned comment added by ScottSpurlock (talk • contribs) 16:13, 16 January 2018 (UTC)

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title: Talk:Maxime Faget


text:
Gemelli

Gemelli is Italian for twins. It may also refer to:
 * Agostino Gemelli (1878–1959), Italian psychologist
 * Giovanni Francesco Gemelli Careri (1651–1725), Italian traveler, adventurer and jurist
 * Agostino Gemelli University Polyclinic, a teaching hospital in Rome
 * Gemelli (pasta), a kind of pasta in the shape of twisted-paired spiral tubes
 * Gemelli, a collective reference to the superior gemellus muscle and inferior gemellus muscle (muscles of the pelvis)

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Gemelli


text: User talk:66.30.247.217

title: User talk:66.30.247.217


text:
Shinto shrine

A Shinto shrine (神社) is a structure whose main purpose is to house ("enshrine") one or more kami, the deities of the Shinto religion.

The honden (本殿, meaning: "main hall") is where a shrine's patron kami is/are enshrined. The honden may be absent in cases where a shrine stands on or near a sacred mountain, tree, or other object which can be worshipped directly or in cases where a shrine possesses either an altar-like structure, called a himorogi, or an object believed to be capable of attracting spirits, called a yorishiro, which can also serve as direct bonds to a kami. There may be a haiden (拝殿) and other structures as well.

Although only one word ("shrine") is used in English, in Japanese, Shinto shrines may carry any one of many different, non-equivalent names like gongen, -gū, jinja, jingū, mori, myōjin, -sha, taisha, ubusuna or yashiro. Miniature shrines (hokora) can occasionally be found on roadsides. Large shrines sometimes have on their precincts miniature shrines, sessha (摂社) or massha (末社). Mikoshi, the palanquins which are carried on poles during festivals (matsuri), also enshrine kami and are therefore considered shrines.

In 927 CE, the Engi-shiki (延喜式) was promulgated. This work listed all of the 2,861 Shinto shrines existing at the time, and the 3,131 official-recognized and enshrined kami. In 1972, the Agency for Cultural Affairs placed the number of shrines at 79,467, mostly affiliated with the Association of Shinto Shrines (神社本庁). Some shrines, such as the Yasukuni Shrine, are totally independent of any outside authority. The number of Shinto shrines in Japan is estimated to be around 100,000.

Since ancient times, the Shake (社家) families dominated Shinto shrines through hereditary positions, and at some shrines the hereditary succession continues to present day.

The Unicode character representing a Shinto shrine (for example, on maps) is.

Etymology
is the most general name for shrine. Any place that owns a honden (本殿) is a jinja. These two characters used to be read either "kamu-tsu-yashiro" or "mori" in kunyomi, both meaning "kami grove". Both readings can be found for example in the Man'yōshū.

itself was not an initially secular term. In Chinese it alone historically could refer to Tudigong, or soil gods, a kind of tutelary deity seen as subordinate to City Gods. Such deities are also often called, or the same characters in the reverse order. Its Kunyomi reading Yashiro (社) is a generic term for shinto shrine like jinja.

It is also used as a suffix -sha or sometimes -ja (社), as in Shinmei-sha or Tenjin-ja, indicates a minor shrine that has received through the kanjō process a kami from a more important one.

A mori (杜) is a place where a kami is present. It can therefore be a shrine and, in fact, the characters 神社, 社 and 杜 can all be read "mori" ("grove"). This reading reflects the fact the first shrines were simply sacred groves or forests where kami were present.

Hokora/hokura (神庫) is an extremely small shrine of the kind one finds for example along country roads. The term Hokora (祠), believed to have been one of the first Japanese words for Shinto shrine, evolved from hokura (神庫), literally meaning "kami repository", a fact that seems to indicate that the first shrines were huts built to house some yorishiro.

indicates a shrine enshrining an imperial prince, but there are many examples in which it is used simply as a tradition. The word often found at the end of names of shrines such as Hachimangu, Tenmangū, or Jingu (神宮) comes from the Chinese  meaning palace or a temple to a high deity.

Jingū (神宮) is a shrine of particularly high status that has a deep relationship with the Imperial household or enshrines an Emperor, as for example in the case of the Ise Jingū and the Meiji Jingū. The name Jingū alone, however, can refer only to the Ise Jingū, whose official name is just "Jingū". It is a formulation close to with the character  being replaced with, emphasizing its high rank

Miya (宮) is the kunyomi of and indicates a shrine enshrining a special kami or a member of the Imperial household like the Empress, but there are many examples in which it is used simply as a tradition. During the period of state regulation, many -miya names were changed to jinja.

A taisha (大社) (the characters are also read ōyashiro) is literally a "great shrine" that was classified as such under the old system of shrine ranking, the shakaku (社格), abolished in 1946. Many shrines carrying that shōgō adopted it only after the war.

Chinjusha (鎮守社•鎮社) comes from Chinju written as 鎮守 or sometimes just 鎮. meaning Guardian, and

Setsumatsusha (摂末社) is a combination of two words Sessha (摂社) and massha (末社). They are also called also called eda-miya (枝宮) which contains Miya (宮)

During the Japanese Middle Ages, shrines started being called with the name gongen (権現), a term of Buddhist origin. For example, in Eastern Japan there are still many Hakusan shrines where the shrine itself is called gongen. Because it represents the application of Buddhist terminology to Shinto kami, its use was legally abolished by the Meiji government with the Shinto and Buddhism Separation Order (神仏判然令), and shrines began to be called jinja.

Early origins
Ancestors are kami to be worshipped. Yayoi period village councils sought the advice of ancestors and other kami, and developed instruments, yorishiro (依り代), to evoke them. Yoshishiro means "approach substitute" and were conceived to attract the kami to allow them physical space, thus making kami accessible to human beings.

Village council sessions were held in quiet spots in the mountains or in forests near great trees or other natural objects that served as yorishiro. These sacred places and their yorishiro gradually evolved into today's shrines, whose origins can be still seen in the Japanese words for "mountain" and "forest", which can also mean "shrine". Many shrines have on their grounds one of the original great yorishiro: a big tree, surrounded by a sacred rope called shimenawa (標縄・注連縄・七五三縄).

The first buildings at places dedicated to worship were hut-like structures built to house some yorishiro. A trace of this origin can be found in the term hokura (神庫), "deity storehouse", which evolved into hokora (written with the same characters 神庫) and is considered to be one of the first words for shrine.

First temporary shrines
True shrines arose with the beginning of agriculture, when the need arose to attract kami to ensure good harvests. These were, however, just temporary structures built for a particular purpose, a tradition of which traces can be found in some rituals.

Hints of the first shrines can still be found. Ōmiwa Shrine in Nara, for example, contains no sacred images or objects because it is believed to serve the mountain on which it stands—images or objects are therefore unnecessary. For the same reason, it has a worship hall, a haiden (拝殿), but no place to house the kami, called shinden (神殿). Archeology confirms that, during the Yayoi period, the most common shintai (神体) (a yorishiro actually housing the enshrined kami) in the earliest shrines were nearby mountain peaks that supplied stream water to the plains where people lived. Besides the already mentioned Ōmiwa Shrine, another important example is Mount Nantai, a phallus-shaped mountain in Nikko which constitutes Futarasan Shrine's shintai. The name Nantai (男体) means "man's body". The mountain provides water to the rice paddies below and has the shape of the phallic stone rods found in pre-agricultural Jōmon sites.

First known shrine
The first known Shinto shrine was built in roughly 478.

Rites and ceremonies
In 905 CE, Emperor Daigo ordered a compilation of Shinto rites and rules. Previous attempts at codification are known to have taken place, but, neither the Konin nor the Jogan Gishiki survive. Initially under the direction of Fujiwara no Tokihira, the project stalled at his death in April 909. Fujiwara no Tadahira, his brother, took charge and in 912 and in 927 the Engi-shiki (延喜式, literally: "Procedures of the Engi Era") was promulgated in fifty volumes. This, the first formal codification of Shinto rites and Norito (liturgies and prayers) to survive, became the basis for all subsequent Shinto liturgical practice and efforts. In addition to the first ten volumes of this fifty volume work (which concerned worship and the Department of Worship), sections in subsequent volumes addressing the Ministry of Ceremonies (治部省) and the Ministry of the Imperial Household (宮内省) also regulated Shinto worship and contained liturgical rites and regulation. Felicia Gressitt Brock published a two-volume annotated English language translation of the first ten volumes with an introduction entitled Engi-shiki; procedures of the Engi Era in 1970.

Arrival and influence of Buddhism
The arrival of Buddhism in Japan in around the sixth century introduced the concept of a permanent shrine. A great number of Buddhist temples were built next to existing shrines in mixed complexes called jingū-ji (神宮寺) to help priesthood deal with local kami, making those shrines permanent. Some time in their evolution, the word miya (宮), meaning "palace", came into use indicating that shrines had by then become the imposing structures of today.

Once the first permanent shrines were built, Shinto revealed a strong tendency to resist architectural change, a tendency which manifested itself in the so-called shikinen sengū-sai (式年遷宮祭), the tradition of rebuilding shrines faithfully at regular intervals adhering strictly to their original design. This custom is the reason ancient styles have been replicated throughout the centuries to the present day, remaining more or less intact. Ise Grand Shrine, still rebuilt every 20 years, is its best extant example. In Shinto it has played a particularly significant role in preserving ancient architectural styles. Izumo Taisha, Sumiyoshi Taisha, and Nishina Shinmei Shrine in fact represent each a different style whose origin is believed to predate Buddhism in Japan. These three styles are known respectively as taisha-zukuri, sumiyoshi-zukuri, and shinmei-zukuri.

Shrines show various influences, particularly that of Buddhism, a cultural import which provided much of Shinto architecture's vocabulary. The rōmon (楼門), the haiden, the kairō (回廊), the tōrō, or stone lantern, and the komainu, or lion dogs, are all elements borrowed from Buddhism.

Shinbutsu shūgō and the jingūji
Until the Meiji period (1868–1912), shrines as they exist today were rare. With very few exceptions like Ise Grand Shrine and Izumo Taisha, they were just a part of a temple-shrine complex controlled by Buddhist clergy. These complexes were called jingū-ji (神宮寺), places of worship composed of a Buddhist temple and of a shrine dedicated to a local kami. The complexes were born when a temple was erected next to a shrine to help its kami with its karmic problems. At the time, kami were thought to be also subjected to karma, and therefore in need of a salvation only Buddhism could provide. Having first appeared during the Nara period (710–794), the jingū-ji remained common for over a millennium until, with few exceptions, they were destroyed in compliance with the new policies of the Meiji administration in 1868.

Shinbutsu bunri
The Shinto shrine went through a massive change when the Meiji administration promulgated a new policy of separation of kami and foreign Buddhas (shinbutsu bunri) with the Kami and Buddhas Separation Order (神仏判然令). This event triggered the haibutsu kishaku, a violent anti-Buddhist movement which in the final years of the Tokugawa shogunate and during the Meiji Restoration caused the forcible closure of thousands of Buddhist temples, the confiscation of their land, the forced return to lay life of monks, and the destruction of books, statues and other Buddhist property.

Until the end of Edo period, local kami beliefs and Buddhism were intimately connected in what was called shinbutsu shūgō (神仏習合), up to the point where even the same buildings were used as both Shinto shrines and Buddhist temples.

After the law, the two would be forcibly separated. This was done in several stages. At first an order issued by the Jingijimuka in April 1868 ordered the defrocking of shasō and bettō (shrine monks performing Buddhist rites at Shinto shrines). A few days later, the 'Daijōkan' banned the application of Buddhist terminology such as gongen to Japanese kami and the veneration of Buddhist statues in shrines. The third stage consisted of the prohibition against applying the Buddhist term Daibosatsu (Great Bodhisattva) to the syncretic kami Hachiman at the Iwashimizu Hachiman-gū and Usa Hachiman-gū shrines. In the fourth and final stage, all the defrocked bettō and shasō were told to become "shrine priests" (kannushi) and return to their shrines. In addition, monks of the Nichiren sect were told not to refer to some deities as kami.

After a short period in which it enjoyed popular favor, the process of separation of Buddhas and kami however stalled and is still only partially completed. To this day, almost all Buddhist temples in Japan have a small shrine (chinjusha) dedicated to its Shinto tutelary kami, and vice versa Buddhist figures (e.g. goddess Kannon) are revered in Shinto shrines.

Shintai
The defining features of a shrine are the kami it enshrines and the shintai (or go-shintai if the honorific prefix go- is used) that houses it. While the name literally means "body of a kami", shintai are physical objects worshiped at or near Shinto shrines because a kami is believed to reside in them. Shintai are not themselves part of kami, but rather just symbolic repositories which make them accessible to human beings for worship; the kami inhabits them. Shintai are also of necessity yorishiro, that is objects by their very nature capable of attracting kami.

The most common shintai are objects like mirrors, swords, jewels (for example comma-shaped stones called magatama), gohei (wands used during religious rites), and sculptures of kami called shinzō (神像), but they can be also natural objects such as rocks, mountains, trees, and waterfalls. Mountains were among the first, and are still among the most important, shintai, and are worshiped at several famous shrines. A mountain believed to house a kami, as for example Mount Fuji or Mount Miwa, is called a shintai-zan (神体山). In the case of a man-made shintai, a kami must be invited to reside in it.

The founding of a new shrine requires the presence of either a pre-existing, naturally occurring shintai (for example a rock or waterfall housing a local kami), or of an artificial one, which must therefore be procured or made to the purpose. An example of the first case are the Nachi Falls, worshiped at Hiryū Shrine near Kumano Nachi Taisha and believed to be inhabited by a kami called Hiryū Gongen.

The first duty of a shrine is to house and protect its shintai and the kami which inhabits it. If a shrine has more than one building, the one containing the shintai is called honden; because it is meant for the exclusive use of the kami, it is always closed to the public and is not used for prayer or religious ceremonies. The shintai leaves the honden only during festivals (matsuri), when it is put in portable shrines (mikoshi) and carried around the streets among the faithful. The portable shrine is used to physically protect the shintai and to hide it from sight.

Re-enshrinement
Often the opening of a new shrine will require the ritual division of a kami and the transferring of one of the two resulting spirits to the new location, where it will animate the shintai. This process is called kanjō, and the divided spirits bunrei (分霊), go-bunrei (御分霊), or wakemitama (分霊). This process of propagation, described by the priests, in spite of this name, not as a division but as akin to the lighting of a candle from another already lit, leaves the original kami intact in its original place and therefore does not alter any of its properties. The resulting spirit has all the qualities of the original and is therefore "alive" and permanent. The process is used often—for example during Shinto festivals (matsuri) to animate temporary shrines called mikoshi.

The transfer does not necessarily take place from a shrine to another: the divided spirit's new location can be a privately owned object or an individual's house. The kanjō process was of fundamental importance in the creation of all of Japan's shrine networks (Inari shrines, Hachiman shrines, etc.).

Shake families
The shake (社家) are families and the former social class that dominated Shinto shrines through hereditary positions within a shrine. The social class was abolished in 1871, but many shake families still continue hereditary succession until present day and some were appointed hereditary nobility (Kazoku) after the Meiji Restoration.

Some of the most well-known shake families include:
 * Arakida and Watarai of Ise Grand Shrine
 * Senge and Kitajima of Izumo Taisha
 * Ōnakatomi of Kasuga Taisha
 * Urabe of Yoshida Shrine

Famous shrines and shrine networks
Those worshiped at a shrine are generally Shinto kami, but sometimes they can be Buddhist or Taoist deities, as well as others not generally considered to belong to Shinto. Some shrines were established to worship living people or figures from myths and legends. An example is the Tōshō-gū shrines erected to enshrine Tokugawa Ieyasu, or the many shrines dedicated to Sugawara no Michizane, like Kitano Tenman-gū.

Often the shrines which were most significant historically do not lie in a former center of power like Kyoto, Nara, or Kamakura. For example, Ise Grand Shrine, the Imperial household's family shrine, is in Mie prefecture. Izumo-taisha, one of the oldest and most revered shrines in Japan, is in Shimane Prefecture. This is because their location is that of a traditionally important kami, and not that of temporal institutions.

Some shrines exist only in one locality, while others are at the head of a network of branch shrines (分社). The spreading of a kami can be evoked by one or more of several different mechanisms. The typical one is an operation called kanjō, a propagation process through which a kami is invited to a new location and there re-enshrined. The new shrine is administered completely independent from the one it originated from.

However, other transfer mechanisms exist. In Ise Grand Shrine's case, for example, its network of Shinmei shrines (from Shinmei, 神明; another name for Amaterasu) grew due to two concurrent causes. During the late Heian period the cult of Amaterasu, worshiped initially only at Ise Grand Shrine, started to spread to the shrine's possessions through the usual kanjō mechanism. Later, branch shrines started to appear further away. The first evidence of a Shinmei shrine far from Ise is given by the Azuma Kagami, a Kamakura-period text which refers to Amanawa Shinmei-gū's appearance in Kamakura, Kanagawa. Amaterasu began to be worshiped in other parts of the country because of the so-called tobi shinmei (飛び神明) phenomenon, the belief that she would fly to other locations and settle there. Similar mechanisms have been responsible for the spreading around the country of other kami.

Notable shrines
The Ise Grand Shrine in Mie prefecture is, with Izumo-taisha, the most representative and historically significant shrine in Japan. The kami the two enshrine play fundamental roles in the Kojiki and Nihon Shoki, two texts of great importance to Shinto. Because its kami, Amaterasu, is an ancestor of the Emperor, Ise Grand Shrine is the Imperial Household's family shrine. Ise Grand Shrine is, however, dedicated specifically to the emperor and in the past, even his mother, wife and grandmother needed his permission to worship there. Its traditional and mythological foundation date goes back to 4 BCE, but historians believe it was founded around the 3rd to 5th century CE.

Izumo Taisha in Shimane Prefecture is so old that no document about its origin survives, and the year of foundation is unknown. The shrine is the center of a series of sagas and myths. The kami it enshrines, Ōkuninushi, created Japan before it was populated by Amaterasu's offspring, the Emperor's ancestors. Because of its physical remoteness, in historical times Izumo has been eclipsed in fame by other sites, but there is still a widespread belief that in October all Japanese gods meet there. For this reason, the month of October is also known as the "Month Without Gods" (神無月), while at Izumo Taisha alone it is referred to as the Month With Gods (神在月・神有月).

Fushimi Inari Taisha is the head shrine of the largest shrine network in Japan, which has more than 32,000 members (about a third of the total). Inari Okami worship started here in the 8th century and has continued ever since, expanding to the rest of the country. Located in Fushimi-ku, Kyoto, the shrine sits at the base of a mountain also named Inari and includes trails up the mountain to many smaller shrines. Another very large example is the Yūtoku Inari Shrine in Kashima City, Saga Prefecture.

Ōita Prefecture's Usa Shrine (called in Japanese Usa Jingū or Usa Hachiman-gū) is, together with Iwashimizu Hachiman-gū, the head of the Hachiman shrine network. Hachiman worship started here at least as far back as the Nara period (710–794). In the year 860, the kami was divided and brought to Iwashimizu Hachiman-gū in Kyoto, which became the focus of Hachiman worship in the capital. Located on top of Mount Otokoyama, Usa Hachiman-gū is dedicated to Emperor Ōjin, his mother Empress Jingū, and female kami Hime no Okami.

Itsukushima Shrine is, together with Munakata Taisha, at the head of the Munakata shrine network. Remembered for its torii raising from the waters, it is a UNESCO World Heritage Site. The shrine is dedicated to the three daughters of Susano-o no Mikoto, kami of seas and storms and brother of the great sun kami.

Kasuga Taisha is a Shinto shrine in the city of Nara, in Nara Prefecture, Japan. Established in 768 AD and rebuilt several times over the centuries, it is the shrine of the Fujiwara family. The interior is noted for its many bronze lanterns, as well as the many stone lanterns that lead up the shrine. The architectural style Kasuga-zukuri takes its name from Kasuga Taisha's honden.

The Kumano Sanzan shrine complex, head of the Kumano shrine network, includes Kumano Hayatama Taisha (Wakayama Prefecture, Shingu), Kumano Hongu Taisha (Wakayama Prefecture, Tanabe), and Kumano Nachi Taisha (Wakayama Prefecture, Nachikatsuura). The shrines lie between 20 and 40 km one from the other. They are connected by the pilgrimage route known as "Kumano Sankeimichi" (熊野参詣道). The great Kumano Sanzan complex also includes two Buddhist temples, Seiganto-ji and Fudarakusan-ji.

The religious significance of the Kumano region goes back to prehistoric times and predates all modern religions in Japan. The area was, and still is, considered a place of physical healing.

Yasukuni shrine, in Tokyo, is dedicated to the soldiers and others who died fighting on behalf of the Emperor of Japan.

San Marino Jinja in Serravalle, San Marino, is the first Shinto shrine in Europe.

Shrine networks
There are estimated to be around 80,000 shrines in Japan. The majority of Shinto shrines are associated with a shrine network. This number includes only shrines with resident priests; if smaller shrines (such as roadside or household shrines) are included, the number would be twice the amount. These are highly concentrated; over one-third are associated with Inari (over 30,000 shrines), and the top six networks comprise over 90% of all shrines, though there are at least 20 networks with over 200 shrines.

The next ten largest networks contain between 2,000 branches down to about 200 branches, and include the networks headed by Matsunoo-taisha, Kibune Shrine, and Taga-taisha, among others.

Inari shrines
The number of branch shrines gives an approximate indication of their religious significance, and neither Ise Grand Shrine nor Izumo-taisha can claim the first place. By far the most numerous are shrines dedicated to Inari, tutelary kami of agriculture popular all over Japan, which alone constitute almost a third of the total. Inari protects fishing, commerce, and productivity in general. Many modern Japanese corporations have shrines dedicated to Inari on their premises. Inari shrines are usually very small and easy to maintain, but can be very large, as in the case of Fushimi Inari Taisha, the head shrine of the network. The kami is enshrined in some Buddhist temples.

The entrance to an Inari shrine is usually marked by one or more vermilion torii and two white foxes. This red color has come to be identified with Inari because of the prevalence of its use among Inari shrines and their torii. The kitsune statues are at times mistakenly believed to be a form assumed by Inari, and they typically come in pairs, representing a male and a female, although sex is usually not obvious. These fox statues hold a symbolic item in their mouths or beneath a front paw – most often a jewel and a key, but a sheaf of rice, a scroll, or a fox cub are common. Almost all Inari shrines, no matter how small, will feature at least a pair of these statues, usually flanking, on the altar, or in front of the main sanctuary.

Hachiman shrines
A syncretic entity worshiped as both a kami and a Buddhist daibosatsu, Hachiman is intimately associated with both learning and warriors. In the sixth or seventh century, Emperor Ōjin and his mother Empress Jingū came to be identified together with Hachiman. First enshrined at Usa Hachiman-gū in Ōita Prefecture, Hachiman was deeply revered during the Heian period. According to the Kojiki, it was Ōjin who invited Korean and Chinese scholars to Japan, and for this reason he is the patron of writing and learning.

Because as Emperor Ōjin he was an ancestor of the Minamoto clan, Hachiman became the tutelary kami (氏神) of the Minamoto samurai clan of Kawachi (Osaka). After Minamoto no Yoritomo became shōgun and established the Kamakura shogunate, Hachiman's popularity grew, and he became by extension the protector of the warrior class the shōgun had brought to power. For this reason, the shintai of a Hachiman shrine is usually a stirrup or a bow.

During the Japanese medieval period, Hachiman worship spread throughout Japan among samurai and the peasantry. There are 25,000 shrines in Japan dedicated to him, the second most numerous after those of the Inari network. Usa Hachiman-gū is the network's head shrine together with Iwashimizu Hachiman-gū. However, Hakozaki Shrine and Tsurugaoka Hachiman-gū are historically no less significant shrines and are more popular.

Shinmei shrines
While the ritsuryō legal system was in use, visits by commoners to Ise were forbidden. With its weakening during the Heian period, commoners started being allowed in the shrine. The growth of the Shinmei shrine network was due to two concomitant causes. During the late Heian period, goddess Amaterasu, worshiped initially only at Ise Grand Shrine, started to be re-enshrined in branch shrines in Ise's own possessions through the typical kanjō mechanism. The first evidence of a Shinmei shrine elsewhere is given by the Azuma Kagami, a Kamakura period text which refers to Amanawa Shinmei-gū's appearance in Kamakura. Amaterasu spread to other parts of the country because of the so-called tobi shinmei (飛び神明) phenomenon, the belief that Amaterasu flew to other locations and settled there.

Tenjin shrines
The Tenjin shrine network enshrines 9th-century scholar Sugawara no Michizane. Sugawara had originally been enshrined to placate his spirit, not to be worshiped. Michizane had been unjustly exiled in his life, and it was necessary to somehow placate his rage, believed to be the cause of a plague and other disasters. Kitano Tenman-gū was the first of the shrines dedicated to him. Because in life he was a scholar, he became the kami of learning, and during the Edo period schools often opened a branch shrine for him. Another important shrine dedicated to him is Dazaifu Tenman-gū.

Munakata shrines
Headed by Kyūshū's Munakata Taisha and Itsukushima Shrine, shrines in this network enshrine the Three Female Kami of Munakata (宗像三女神), namely Chikishima Hime-no-Kami, Tagitsu Hime-no-Kami, and Tagori Hime-no-Kami. The same three kami are enshrined elsewhere in the network, sometimes under a different name. However, while Munakata Taisha enshrines all three in separate islands belonging to its complex, branch shrines generally do not. Which kami they enshrine depends on the history of the shrine and the myths tied to it.

Suwa Shrines
Suwa Shrines are branch shrines of Suwa Taisha.

Hiyoshi shrines
Hiyoshi shrines are branch shrines of Hiyoshi Taisha. They have origins in Sannō Ichijitsu Shintō and worship Oyamakui no Kami.

Kumano shrines
Kumano shrines enshrine the three Kumano mountains: Hongū, Shingū, and Nachi (the Kumano Gongen (熊野権現)). The point of origin of the Kumano cult is the Kumano Sanzan shrine complex, which includes Kumano Hayatama Taisha (熊野速玉大社) (Wakayama Prefecture, Shingu), Kumano Hongu Taisha (Wakayama Prefecture, Tanabe), and Kumano Nachi Taisha (Wakayama Prefecture, Nachikatsuura). There are more than 3,000 Kumano shrines in Japan.

Gion Shrines
Gion shrines are branch shrines of Tsushima Shrine, Yasaka Shrine or Hiromine Shrine. Historically associated with Gozu Tenno, they became dedicated to Susanoo during the separation of Shinto and Buddhism.

Structure

The following is a list and diagram illustrating the most important parts of a Shinto shrine:
 * 1) Torii – Shinto gate
 * 2) Stone stairs
 * 3) Sandō – the approach to the shrine
 * 4) Chōzuya or temizuya – place of purification to cleanse one's hands and mouth
 * 5) Tōrō – decorative stone lanterns
 * 6) Kagura-den – building dedicated to Noh or the sacred kagura dance
 * 7) Shamusho – the shrine's administrative office
 * 8) Ema – wooden plaques bearing prayers or wishes
 * 9) Sessha/massha – small auxiliary shrines
 * 10) Komainu – the so-called "lion dogs", guardians of the shrine
 * 11) Haiden – oratory or hall of worship
 * 12) Tamagaki – fence surrounding the honden
 * 13) Honden – main hall, enshrining the kami
 * 14) On the roof of the haiden and honden are visible chigi (forked roof finials) and katsuogi (short horizontal logs), both common shrine ornamentations.

The general blueprint of a Shinto shrine is Buddhist in origin. The presence of verandas, stone lanterns, and elaborate gates is an example of this influence. The composition of a Shinto shrine is extremely variable, and none of its many possible features is necessarily present. Even the honden can be missing if the shrine worships a nearby natural shintai.

However, since its grounds are sacred, they are usually surrounded by a fence made of stone or wood called tamagaki, while access is made possible by an approach called sandō. The entrances themselves are straddled by gates called torii, which are usually the simplest way to identify a Shinto shrine.

A shrine may include within its grounds several structures, each built for a different purpose. Among them are the honden or sanctuaries, where the kami are enshrined,  the heiden or hall of offerings, where offers and prayers are presented, and the haiden or hall of worship, where there may be seats for worshippers. The honden is the building that contains the shintai, literally, "the sacred body of the kami". Of these, only the haiden is open to the laity. The honden is usually located behind the haiden and is often much smaller and unadorned. Other notable shrine features are the temizuya, the fountain where visitors cleanse their hands and mouth, and the shamusho (社務所), the office which oversees the shrine. Buildings are often adorned by chigi and katsuogi, variously oriented poles which protrude from their roof.

Before the Meiji Restoration it was common for a Buddhist temple to be built inside or next to a shrine, or vice versa. If a shrine housed a Buddhist temple, it was called a jingūji (神宮寺). Analogously, temples all over Japan adopted tutelary kami (鎮守/鎮主) and built temple shrines (寺社) to house them. After the forcible separation of Buddhist temples and Shinto shrines (shinbutsu bunri) ordered by the new government in the Meiji period, the connection between the two religions was officially severed, but continued nonetheless in practice and is still visible today.

Architectural styles
Shrine buildings can have many different basic layouts, usually named either after a famous shrine's honden (e.g. hiyoshi-zukuri, named after Hiyoshi Taisha), or a structural characteristic (e.g., irimoya-zukuri, after the hip-and gable roof it adopts. The suffix -zukuri in this case means "structure".)

The honden's roof is always gabled, and some styles have a veranda-like aisle called hisashi (a 1-ken wide corridor surrounding one or more sides of the core of a shrine or temple). Among the factors involved in the classification, important are the presence or absence of:
 * hirairi or hirairi-zukuri (平入・平入造) – a style of construction in which the building has its main entrance on the side which runs parallel to the roof's ridge (non gabled-side). The shinmei-zukuri, nagare-zukuri, hachiman-zukuri, and hie-zukuri belong to this type.
 * tsumairi or tsumairi-zukuri (妻入・妻入造) – a style of construction in which the building has its main entrance on the side which runs perpendicular to the roof's ridge (gabled side). The taisha-zukuri, sumiyoshi-zukuri, ōtori-zukuri and kasuga-zukuri belong to this type.

Proportions are important. A building of a given style often must have certain proportions measured in ken (the distance between pillars, a quantity variable from one shrine to another or even within the same shrine).

The oldest styles are the tsumairi shinmei-zukuri, taisha-zukuri, and sumiyoshi-zukuri, believed to predate the arrival of Buddhism.

The two most common are the hirairi nagare-zukuri and the tsumairi kasuga-zukuri. Larger, more important shrines tend to have unique styles.

Most common styles
The following are the two most common shrine styles in Japan.

Nagare-zukuri
The flowing style (流造) or flowing gabled style (流破風造) is a style characterized by a very asymmetrical gabled roof (kirizuma-yane (切妻屋根) in Japanese) projecting outwards on the non-gabled side, above the main entrance, to form a portico. This is the feature which gives the style its name, the most common among shrines all over the country. Sometimes the basic layout consisting of an elevated core (母屋) partially surrounded by a veranda called hisashi (all under the same roof) is modified by the addition of a room in front of the entrance. The honden varies in roof ridge length from 1 to 11 ken, but is never 6 or 8 ken. The most common sizes are 1 and 3 ken. The oldest shrine in Japan, Uji's Ujigami Shrine, has a honden of this type. Its external dimensions are 5×3 ken, but internally it is composed of three sanctuaries (内殿) measuring 1 ken each.

Kasuga-zukuri
Kasuga-zukuri (春日造) as a style takes its name from Kasuga Taisha's honden. It is characterized by the extreme smallness of the building, just 1×1 ken in size. In Kasuga Taisha's case, this translates in 1.9 m × 2.6 m. The roof is gabled with a single entrance at the gabled end, decorated with chigi and katsuogi, covered with cypress bark and curved upwards at the eaves. Supporting structures are painted vermillion, while the plank walls are white.

After the Nagare-zukuri, this is the most common style, with most instances in the Kansai region around Nara.

Styles predating the arrival of Buddhism
The following four styles predate the arrival in Japan of Buddhism:

Primitive shrine layout with no honden
Unique in that the honden is missing, it is believed shrines of this type are reminiscent of what shrines were like in prehistorical times. The first shrines had no honden because the shintai, or object of worship, was the mountain on which they stood. An extant example is Nara's Ōmiwa Shrine, which still has no honden. An area near the haiden (hall of worship), sacred and taboo, replaces it for worship. Another prominent example of this style is Futarasan Shrine near Nikkō, whose shintai is Mount Nantai.

Shinmei-zukuri
Shinmei-zukuri (神明造) is an ancient style typical of, and most common at, Ise Grand Shrine, the holiest of Shinto shrines. It is most common in Mie prefecture. Characterized by an extreme simplicity, its basic features can be seen in Japanese architecture from the Kofun period (250–538 CE) onwards and it is considered the pinnacle of Japanese traditional architecture. Built in planed, unfinished wood, the honden is either 3×2 ken or 1×1 ken in size, has a raised floor, a gabled roof with an entry on one of the non-gabled sides, no upward curve at the eaves, and decorative logs called chigi and katsuogi protruding from the roof's ridge. The oldest extant example is Nishina Shinmei Shrine.

Sumiyoshi-zukuri
Sumiyoshi-zukuri (住吉造) takes its name from Sumiyoshi Taisha's honden in Ōsaka. The building is 4 ken wide and 2 ken deep and has an entrance under the gable. Its interior is divided in two sections, one at the front (外陣) and one at the back (内陣) with a single entrance at the front. Construction is simple, but the pillars are painted in vermilion and the walls in white.

The style is supposed to have its origin in old palace architecture. Another example of this style is Sumiyoshi Jinja, part of the Sumiyoshi Sanjin complex in Fukuoka Prefecture. In both cases, as in many others, there is no veranda.

Taisha-zukuri

Taisha-zukuri or Ōyashiro-zukuri (大社造) is the oldest shrine style, takes its name from Izumo Taisha and, like Ise Grand Shrine's, has chigi and katsuogi, plus archaic features like gable-end pillars and a single central pillar (shin no mihashira). Because its floor is raised on stilts, it is believed to have its origin in raised-floor granaries similar to those found in Toro, Shizuoka prefecture.

The honden normally has a 2×2 ken footprint (12.46 × 12.46 m in Izumo Taisha's case), with an entrance on the gabled end. The stairs to the honden are covered by a cypress bark roof. The oldest extant example of the style is Kamosu Jinja's honden in Shimane Prefecture, built in the 16th century.

Other styles
Many other architectural styles exist, most of them rare.

Interpreting shrine names
Shrine nomenclature has changed considerably since the Meiji period. Until then, the vast majority of shrines were small and had no permanent priest. With very few exceptions, they were just a part of a temple-shrine complex controlled by Buddhist clergy. They usually enshrined a local tutelary kami, so they were called with the name of the kami followed by terms like gongen; ubusuna (産土), short for "ubusuna no kami", or guardian deity of one's birthplace; or great kami (明神). The term jinja (神社), now the most common, was rare. Examples of this kind of pre-Meiji use are Tokusō Daigongen and Kanda Myōjin.

Today, the term "Shinto shrine" in English is used in opposition to "Buddhist temple" to mirror in English the distinction made in Japanese between Shinto and Buddhist religious structures. This single English word however translates several non-equivalent Japanese words, including jinja (神社) as in Yasukuni Jinja; yashiro (社) as in Tsubaki Ōkami Yashiro; miya (宮) as in Watarai no Miya; -gū (宮) as in Iwashimizu Hachiman-gū; jingū (神宮) as in Meiji Jingū; taisha (大社) as in Izumo Taisha; mori (杜); and hokora/hokura (神庫).

Shrine names are descriptive, and a difficult problem in dealing with them is understanding exactly what they mean. Although there is a lot of variation in their composition, it is usually possible to identify in them two parts. The first is the shrine's name proper, or meishō (名称), the second is the so-called shōgō (称号), or "title".

Meishō
The most common meishō is the location where the shrine stands, as for example in the case of Ise Jingū, the most sacred of shrines, which is located in the city of Ise, Mie prefecture.

Very often the meishō will be the name of the kami enshrined. An Inari Shrine for example is a shrine dedicated to kami Inari. Analogously, a Kumano Shrine is a shrine that enshrines the three Kumano mountains. A Hachiman Shrine enshrines kami Hachiman. Tokyo's Meiji Shrine enshrines the Meiji Emperor. The name can also have other origins, often unknown or unclear.

Shōgō
The second part of the name defines the status of the shrine.
 * Jinja (神社) is the most general name for shrine. Any place that owns a honden (本殿) is a jinja. These two characters used to be read either "kamu-tsu-yashiro" or "mori", both meaning "kami grove". Both readings can be found for example in the Man'yōshū.
 * Yashiro (社) is a generic term for shinto shrine like jinja.
 * A mori (杜) is a place where a kami is present. It can therefore be a shrine and, in fact, the characters 神社, 社 and 杜 can all be read "mori" ("grove"). This reading reflects the fact the first shrines were simply sacred groves or Chinju no Mori where kami were present.
 * The suffix -sha or -ja (社), as in Shinmei-sha or Tenjin-ja, indicates a minor shrine that has received through the kanjō process a kami from a more important one.
 * Hokora/hokura (神庫) is an extremely small shrine of the kind one finds for example along country roads.
 * Jingū (神宮) is a shrine of particularly high status that has a deep relationship with the Imperial household or enshrines an Emperor, as for example in the case of the Ise Jingū and the Meiji Jingū. The name Jingū alone, however, can refer only to the Ise Jingū, whose official name is just "Jingū".
 * Miya (宮) indicates a shrine enshrining a special kami or a member of the Imperial household like the Empress, but there are many examples in which it is used simply as a tradition. During the period of state regulation, many -miya names were changed to jinja.
 * -gū (宮) indicates a shrine enshrining an imperial prince, but there are many examples in which it is used simply as a tradition.
 * A taisha (大社)(the characters are also read ōyashiro) is literally a "great shrine" that was classified as such under the old system of shrine ranking, the shakaku (社格), abolished in 1946. Many shrines carrying that shōgō adopted it only after the war.
 * During the Japanese Middle Ages, shrines started being called with the name gongen, a term of Buddhist origin. For example, in Eastern Japan there are still many Hakusan shrines where the shrine itself is called gongen. Because it represents the application of Buddhist terminology to Shinto kami, its use was legally abolished by the Meiji government with the Shinto and Buddhism Separation Order (神仏判然令), and shrines began to be called jinja.

These names are not equivalent in terms of prestige: a taisha is more prestigious than a -gū, which in turn is more important than a jinja.

Etiquette at shrines

At shrines there is a relatively standardized system of visit ettiquette that is called Two bows, two claps, one bow. It goes roughly as follows

 * 1) Bow once before entering Torii
 * 2) Do not walk through the center of a Torii as that is reserved for deities
 * 3) Purify hands and mouth with chozuya
 * 4) Put money in the offering box
 * 5) Ring the bell 2-3 times if present
 * 6) Bow twice
 * 7) Clap twice
 * 8) Bow once  This bow should be deeper than the others at a 90-degree angle
 * 9) When exiting the shrine, turn around and again bow once at the Torii.

There are, however, rare exceptions to this system. For example, at Usa Jingū and Izumo-taisha, it is correct etiquette to clap four times in front of the offering box rather than the usual twice.

Shrines with structures designated as National Treasures
Shrines that are part of a World Heritage Site are marked with a dagger (†).
 * Tōhoku region
 * Ōsaki Hachiman Shrine (Sendai, Miyagi)
 * Kantō region
 * Nikkō Tōshō-gū† (Nikkō, Tochigi)
 * Rinnō-ji† (Nikkō, Tochigi)
 * Chūbu region
 * Nishina Shinmei Shrine (Ōmachi, Nagano)
 * Kansai region
 * Onjō-ji (Ōtsu, Shiga)
 * Hiyoshi Taisha (Ōtsu, Shiga)
 * Mikami Shrine (Yasu, Shiga)
 * Ōsasahara Shrine (Yasu, Shiga)
 * Tsukubusuma Shrine (Nagahama, Shiga)
 * Namura Shrine (Ryūō, Shiga)
 * Kamo Shrine† (Kyoto, Kyoto)
 * Daigo-ji† (Kyoto, Kyoto)
 * Toyokuni Shrine (Kyoto, Kyoto)
 * Kitano Tenman-gū (Kyoto, Kyoto)
 * Ujigami Shrine† (Uji, Kyoto)
 * Sumiyoshi Taisha (Osaka, Osaka)
 * Sakurai Shrine (Sakai, Osaka)
 * Kasuga Shrine† (Nara, Nara)
 * Enjō-ji (Nara, Nara)
 * Isonokami Shrine (Tenri, Nara)
 * Udamikumari Shrine (Uda, Nara)
 * Chūgoku region
 * Sanbutsu-ji (Misasa, Tottori)
 * Izumo Taisha (Taisha, Shimane)
 * Kamosu Shrine (Matsue, Shimane)
 * Kibitsu Shrine (Okayama, Okayama)
 * Itsukushima Shrine† (Hatsukaichi, Hiroshima)
 * Sumiyoshi Shrine (Shimonoseki, Yamaguchi)
 * Shikoku region
 * Kandani Shrine (Sakaide, Kagawa)
 * Kyūshū region
 * Usa Shrine (Usa, Ōita)
 * Aoi Aso Shrine (Hitoyoshi, Kumamoto)

Kannushi

A kannushi (神主) or shinshoku (神職) is a priest responsible for the maintenance of a shrine, as well as for leading worship of a given kami. These two terms were not always synonyms. Originally, a kannushi was a holy man who could work miracles and who, thanks to purification rites, could work as an intermediary between kami and man, but later the term evolved to being synonymous with shinshoku, a man who works at a shrine and holds religious ceremonies there. Women can also become kannushi, and it is common for widows to succeed their husbands.

Miko
A miko (巫女) is a shrine maiden who has trained for and taken up several duties at a shrine including assistance of shrine functions such as the sale of sacred goods (including amulets known as omamori, paper talisman known as ofuda, wood tablets known as ema and among other items), daily tidying of the premises, and performing the sacred kagura dances on certain occasions.

title: Shinto shrine


text: User talk:203.10.110.144

title: User talk:203.10.110.144


text: Category:Tata vehicles

title: Category:Tata vehicles


text: Category:Tata

title: Category:Tata


text:
Emotional Freedom Techniques

Emotional Freedom Techniques (EFT) is a technique that stimulates acupressure points by pressuring, tapping or rubbing while focusing on situations that represent personal fear or trauma. EFT draws on various theories of alternative medicine – including acupuncture, neuro-linguistic programming, energy medicine, and Thought Field Therapy (TFT). EFT also combines elements of exposure therapy, cognitive behavioral therapy and somatic stimulation. It is best known through Gary Craig 's EFT Handbook, published in the late 1990s, and related books and workshops by a variety of teachers. EFT and similar techniques are often discussed under the umbrella term "energy psychology."

Advocates claim that the technique may be used to treat a wide variety of physical and psychological disorders, and as a simple form of self-administered therapy. The Skeptical Inquirer describes the foundations of EFT as "a hodgepodge of concepts derived from a variety of sources, [primarily] the ancient Chinese philosophy of chi, which is thought to be the 'life force' that flows throughout the body." The existence of this life force is "not empirically supported."

EFT has no benefit as a therapy beyond (1) the placebo effect or (2) any known effective psychological techniques that may be provided in addition to the purported "energy" technique. It is generally characterized as pseudoscience, and it has not garnered significant support in clinical psychology.

Process
During a typical EFT session, the person will focus on a specific issue while tapping on "end points of the body's energy meridians." EFT tapping exercises combine elements of cognitive restructuring and exposure techniques with acupoint stimulation. The technique instructs individuals to tap on meridian endpoints of the body – such as the top of the head, eye brows, under eyes, side of eyes, chin, collar bone, and under the arms. While tapping, they recite specific phrases that target an emotional component of a physical symptom.

According to the EFT Manual, the procedure consists of the participant rating the emotional intensity of their reaction on a Subjective Units of Distress Scale (SUDS) – i.e., a Likert scale for subjective measures of distress, calibrated 0 to 10 – then repeating an orienting affirmation while rubbing or tapping specific points on the body. Some practitioners incorporate eye movements or other tasks. The emotional intensity is then rescored and repeated until no changes are noted in the emotional intensity.

Mechanism
Proponents of EFT and other similar treatments believe that tapping/stimulating acupuncture points provide the basis for significant improvement in psychological problems. However, the theory and mechanisms underlying the supposed effectiveness of EFT have "no evidentiary support" "in the entire history of the sciences of biology, anatomy, physiology, neurology, physics, or psychology." Researchers have described the theoretical model for EFT as "frankly bizarre" and "pseudoscientific." One review noted that one of the highest quality studies found no evidence that the location of tapping points made any difference, and attributed effects to well-known psychological mechanisms, including distraction and breathing therapy.

An article in the Skeptical Inquirer argued that there is no plausible mechanism to explain how the specifics of EFT could add to its effectiveness, and they have been described as unfalsifiable and therefore pseudoscientific. Evidence has not been found for the existence of meridians.

Research quality
EFT has no useful effect as a therapy beyond the placebo effect or any known-effective psychological techniques that may be used with the purported "energy" technique, but proponents of EFT have published material claiming otherwise. Their work, however, is flawed and hence unreliable: high-quality research has never confirmed that EFT is effective.

A 2009 review found "methodological flaws" in research studies that had reported "small successes" for EFT and the related Tapas Acupressure Technique. The review concluded that positive results may be "attributable to well-known cognitive and behavioral techniques that are included with the energy manipulation. Psychologists and researchers should be wary of using such techniques, and make efforts to inform the public about the ill effects of therapies that advertise miraculous claims."

A 2016 systematic review found that EFT was effective in reducing anxiety compared to controls, but also called for more research to establish the relative efficacy to that of established treatments.

Reception
A Delphi poll of an expert panel of psychologists rated EFT on a scale describing how discredited EFT has been in the field of psychology. On average, this panel found EFT had a score of 3.8 on a scale from 1.0 to 5.0, with 3.0 meaning "possibly discredited" and a 4.0 meaning "probably discredited." A book examining pseudoscientific practices in psychology characterized EFT as one of a number of "fringe psychotherapeutic practices," and a psychiatry handbook states EFT has "all the hallmarks of pseudoscience."

EFT, along with its predecessor, Thought Field Therapy, has been dismissed with warnings to avoid their use by publications such as The Skeptic's Dictionary and Quackwatch.

Proponents of EFT and other energy psychology therapies have been "particularly interested" in seeking "scientific credibility" despite the implausible proposed mechanisms for EFT. A 2008 review by energy psychology proponent David Feinstein concluded that energy psychology was a potential "rapid and potent treatment for a range of psychological conditions." However, this work by Feinstein has been widely criticized. One review criticized Feinstein's methodology, noting he ignored several research papers that did not show positive effects of EFT, and that Feinstein did not disclose his conflict of interest as an owner of a website that sells energy psychology products such as books and seminars, contrary to the best practices of research publication.

Another review criticized Feinstein's conclusion, which was based on research of weak quality and instead concluded that any positive effects of EFT are due to the more traditional psychological techniques rather than any putative "energy" manipulation. A book published on the subject of evidence-based treatment of substance abuse called Feinstein's review "incomplete and misleading" and an example of a poorly performed evidence-based review of research.

Feinstein published another review in 2012, concluding that energy psychology techniques "consistently demonstrated strong effect sizes and other positive statistical results that far exceed chance after relatively few treatment sessions." This review was also criticized, where again it was noted that Feinstein dismissed higher quality studies which showed no effects of EFT, in favor of methodologically weaker studies which did show a positive effect.

In response to a literature review by D. Feinstein on "Manual Stimulation of Acupuncture Points", published in 2023 in the Journal of Psychotherapy Integration, Cassandra L. Bonessa, Rory Pfundb, and David F. Tolin publish, in the same journal, a critical analysis of 3 meta-analyses highlighted by this study. By using the AMSTAR2 analysis criteria, they come to the conclusion that these were poorly carried out and that their quality is “Critically low”. The 3 researchers call EFT pseudo-science and an “unsinkable rubber duck”.

title: Emotional Freedom Techniques


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Karl Haas

Karl Haas (December 6, 1913 – February 6, 2005) was a German-American classical music radio host, known for his sonorous speaking voice, humanistic approach to music appreciation, and popularization of classical music. He was the host of the classical music radio program Adventures in Good Music, which was syndicated to commercial and public radio stations around the world. He also published the book Inside Music. He was a respected musicologist, as well as an accomplished pianist and conductor. In 1996, he received an honorary degree in Doctor of Letters from Oglethorpe University.

Early life and family
Haas was born in Speyer, Palatinate, Germany in 1913. He studied at the Mannheim Conservatory and earned a doctorate in music literature from Heidelberg University. He studied piano with Artur Schnabel. Faced with the rise of Nazism, the Jewish Haas fled Germany for the United States in 1936. He first settled in Detroit, Michigan, then lived in other places, returning to Detroit near the end of his life. He and his wife, Trudie, had two sons and one daughter. Trudie died in 1977.

Adventures in Good Music
Haas began his radio program, Adventures in Good Music, on WJR in Detroit, Michigan in 1959. Syndicated broadcasts of the show across the United States began in 1970 on WCLV, a radio station in Cleveland, Ohio. The show was eventually syndicated to commercial and public radio stations around the world and became the world's most widely heard classical music radio program.

The theme music for Adventures in Good Music was the second movement from Beethoven's "Pathétique" Sonata (Sonata No. 8 in C minor), performed by Haas live for each program. He started every show with his trademark greeting "Hello everyone", and later entitled a track of his CD with those words. For several years the program had the most listeners of any classical music radio show in the world.

Haas received the Charles Frankel Award of the National Endowment for the Humanities in 1991. President George H. W. Bush presented the award to him at the White House. Haas also twice won the George Foster Peabody Award for excellence in broadcasting. In 1997 he became the first classical music broadcaster to be named to the National Radio Hall of Fame.

Haas did not produce any new episodes of the show in the last two years of his life. WCLV continued to syndicate recordings of his previous shows until June 2007. That month, WCLV announced "with great regret" that it would broadcast and syndicate its last Adventures in Good Music program on June 29, 2007. The announcement explained that the number of stations that carried the show had dropped from more than 400 to fewer than 20, which made it unfeasible to continue the program's national distribution.

Most episodes of Adventures in Good Music are not available publicly because of copyright, which is closely held by his family, although three cassettes/CDs have been issued featuring Haas and his commentary: The Romantic Piano, The Story of the Bells, and Song and Dance. In the 1960's Columbia Records released a Karl Haas commercial LP, "How to Listen to a Symphony," on their Columbia Special Products label.

Death
Near the end of his life, Haas returned to Detroit. He died at the age of 91 on 6 February 2005 at a hospital in Royal Oak, Michigan. He was survived by his sons, Jeffrey and Andrew, by his daughter, Alyce, and by two grandchildren.

title: Karl Haas


text:
Talk:First person adventure/to do

 * Replace "unearthly arachnids" with the real name for those things.
 * FPS advocates, please provide some examples of games classified as FPS that could be FPA.

title: Talk:First person adventure/to do


text:
Category:Archbishops of Canterbury

Since the Reformation, the Archbishops of Canterbury have been bishops of the Church of England; before the Reformation, they were bishops of the Roman Catholic Church. Their see is the Diocese of Canterbury and their episcopal chair ('cathedra') is at Canterbury Cathedral. The Archbishop of Canterbury is the most senior bishop of the Church of England and of the worldwide Anglican Communion, outranking the other English archbishop, the Archbishop of York.

no:Kategori:Anglikanske erkebiskoper av Canterbury

title: Category:Archbishops of Canterbury


text:
James Hamilton, 2nd Duke of Abercorn

James Hamilton, 2nd Duke of Abercorn (24 August 1838 – 3 June 1913), styled Viscount Hamilton until 1868 and Marquess of Hamilton from 1868 to 1885, was a British nobleman, courtier, and diplomat. He was the son of James Hamilton, 1st Duke of Abercorn, and Lady Louisa Jane Russell.

Biography
Lord Hamilton was born on 24 August 1838, the eldest son of James Hamilton, second marquess and later first duke of Abercorn (1811–1885), and his wife Lady Louisa Jane Russell (1812–1905), second daughter of John Russell, sixth duke of Bedford. He was educated, like his father, at Harrow and Christ Church, Oxford, where he matriculated on 28 May 1857. After graduating from Oxford with a BA in 1860, he entered Parliament as Conservative MP for County Donegal, a constituency he represented from 1860 to 1880. After serving as High Sheriff of Tyrone for 1863, he re-entered university and emerged with an M.A. in 1865 (he was created a Companion of the Order of the Bath the same year). That year, he also embarked upon a diplomatic mission to Denmark. He served as a Lord of the Bedchamber to the Prince of Wales from 1866 to 1885; in the latter year, he took over his father's position of Lord Lieutenant of County Donegal, and inherited his father's peerage titles. He led the Lords' reply to the Speech from the throne wearing the uniform of Lord Lieutenant of Donegal on 21 January 1886. He was chosen Grand Master of the Grand Lodge of Ireland in 1886, a post he held until his death. In 1887 he was appointed to the Privy Council of Ireland.

Abercorn held several positions after acceding to that title, including Groom of the Stole to the Prince of Wales (1886–1891), and chairman of the British South Africa Company. In early 1901 he was appointed by King Edward to lead a special diplomatic mission to announce the King's accession to the governments of Denmark, Sweden and Norway, Russia, Germany and Saxony.

He was created a Knight of the Garter. He died of pneumonia in London at the age of 74. He is buried in the cemetery at Baronscourt Parish Church, the traditional burial place of the Dukes of Abercorn and their families.

In 1883 he held 76,500 acres in Tyrone and Donegal. He also held 2,100 acres in Scotland.

Family and children
In 1869 he married Lady Mary Anna Curzon-Howe (1848–1929), daughter of Anne Gore (bef. 1832–1877), daughter of Adm. Sir John Gore (died 1836), and Richard Curzon-Howe, 1st Earl Howe (1796–1870). Together they had two daughters and seven sons:

 * James Albert Edward Hamilton, 3rd Duke of Abercorn (1869–1953)
 * Lord Claud Penn Alexander Hamilton (18 October 1871 – 18 October 1871) (same day)
 * Lord Charlie Hamilton (10 April 1874 – 10 April 1874) (same day)
 * Lady Alexandra Phyllis Hamilton (1876–1918), who had Princess Alexandra of Wales as sponsor at her baptism. She died when the RMS Leinster was torpedoed by a German U-boat and sank. She was unmarried.
 * Lord Claud Francis Hamilton (25 October 1878 – 25 December 1878) (aged 2 months)
 * Lady Gladys Mary Hamilton (1880–1917), who in 1902 married Ralph Francis Forward-Howard, 7th Earl of Wicklow (1877–1946). She was his first wife, and together they had one son.
 * Lord Arthur John Hamilton (1883–1914), who was Deputy Master of the Household from 1913, Captain in the Irish Guards and was killed in action at the First Battle of Ypres.
 * Lord (unnamed) Hamilton (31 October 1886 – 31 October 1886) (same day)
 * Lord Claud Nigel Hamilton (1889–1975), Captain in the Grenadier Guards, fought in the First World War and served in the household of King George V, his widow and Queen Elizabeth II as Deputy Master of the Household, as Extra Equerry, as Equerry in Ordinary and as Comptroller, Treasurer. In 1933 he married Violet Ruby Ashton. They had no children.

Honours and arms

 * British
 * CB: Companion of the Bath (civil division), 1865
 * KG: Knight of the Garter, 10 August 1892

 * Foreign
 * Austria-Hungary:
 * Commander of the Imperial Order of Leopold, 1881
 * Order of the Iron Crown
 * 🇩🇰 Denmark: S.K.: Grand Cross of the Dannebrog, 10 March 1888
 * Russian Empire: Order of St. Anna

title: James Hamilton, 2nd Duke of Abercorn


text:
User talk:Avatarum

I created the stub for Samuel Fuller and I hope that some one can help add more too it. At this time it is my first article for Wikipedia. --Avatarum 01:47, 12 Oct 2004 (UTC)

title: User talk:Avatarum


text:
Talk:Theremin/to do

 * Expand the "How it Works" to be more useful
 * Expand section on Moog in "History"
 * Add "Tin Hat Quartet" band to "The theremin in use", song is called "Tin Hat Trio - O.N.E.O."
 * Settle apparent Ondes Martenot/Loulie Jean Norman Star Trek contradictions
 * Add Lucie Rosen as early thereminist and financial supporter of Leon, related Caramoor history
 * Add under Popular Music that Nikki Sixx of Motley Crue used this instrument during his bass solo on the Carnival of Sins DVD and during live shows of the same name

title: Talk:Theremin/to do


text:
Lewis Cubitt

Lewis Cubitt (29 September 1799 – 9 June 1883) was an English civil engineer and architect.

Life
He was a younger brother of Thomas Cubitt, the leading master builder in London in the second quarter of the 19th century, and he designed many of the housing developments constructed by his sibling. He also was a younger brother of William Cubitt, the Lord Mayor of London.

He built many bridges in his career, most of them being in South America, Australia and India. Lewis was jointly responsible for designing the rebuilt London Bridge railway station in 1844. He also designed Bricklayers Arms (1844) and King's Cross railway stations (1851–52) and the Great Northern Hotel (1854). As part of the ongoing redevelopment of the adjoining railway lands, now known as King's Cross Central, a granary designed by Cubitt has been refurbished as the main campus facility for Central Saint Martins, a constituent college of the University of the Arts London.

The structural rivet Cubitt used in his development of the granary inspired the hinges used by eyewear brand Cubitts, who are named after the Cubitt brothers.

Family
He married Sophia Kendall (1811-1879) on 23 January 1830.

title: Lewis Cubitt


text:
DVD R

DVD R may refer to:
 * DVD+R
 * DVD-R

title: DVD R


text: User talk:68.105.48.69

title: User talk:68.105.48.69


text:
Terence Blacker

Terence Blacker (born 5 February 1948, near Hadleigh, Suffolk) is an English songwriter, author and columnist.

Biography
Blacker is the son of General Sir Cecil Blacker, and the brother of sculptor and former jockey Philip Blacker.

He grew up on the family farm in Suffolk. He attended Hawtreys preparatory school and Wellington College, before reading English at Trinity College, Cambridge, whence he graduated in 1969.

Blacker began his working life in horse-racing and as an amateur jockey. Subsequently, he worked in publishing for 10 years during the 1970s and 1980s, where he was responsible for overseeing the publication of works by Jerzy Kosinski.

Blacker became a full-time writer in 1983 and has written children's books and mysteries for adults. His first children's book, If I Could Work, was published in 1987 and his first adult novel, FIXX, won critical acclaim and was described by The Guardian as a "tour de force". He is an active member of English PEN, and is also an EAW member.

In 1975 he married Caroline Soper, youngest daughter of the radical Methodist minister Donald Soper (div. 2001). They have two children, Xan and Alice. Blacker's partner is now Angela Sykes.

He writes the "Endpaper" for The Author. For many years, he wrote the "Harvey Porlock" column in The Sunday Times, as well as a column about the book business for Publishing News. His regular writing for The Independent, newspaper, usually consisting of twice-weekly columns, came to an end in December 2013 after nearly 16 years.

Blacker was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society of Literature in 2017.

title: Terence Blacker


text:
Antoinette Brown Blackwell

Antoinette Louisa Brown, later Antoinette Brown Blackwell (May 20, 1825 – November 5, 1921), was the first woman to be ordained as a mainstream Protestant minister in the United States. She was a well-versed public speaker on the paramount issues of her time and distinguished herself from her contemporaries with her use of religious faith in her efforts to expand women's rights.

Early life and education
Brown was born the youngest of seven in Henrietta, New York, to Joseph Brown and Abby Morse. Brown was recognized as highly intelligent as early as three years old. The preaching of evangelist Charles Grandison Finney from nearby Rochester led Brown's family to join the Congregational Church. After daring to inject a prayer into her family's religious observance, Brown was accepted into the church before the age of nine. Shortly after becoming a member of the congregation, she began to preach during Sunday meetings. In 1841 at the age of 16, after completing her requisite early schooling at Monroe County Academy, Brown taught school herself. She did not intend to spend her life teaching and so she set her sights on a degree in theology from Oberlin College and a career in the pulpit. For four years, Antoinette taught school and saved enough money to cover the cost of her tuition at Oberlin College in Ohio. Supported by her parents, who believed not only in equal education for men and women, but also for blacks, she enrolled at Oberlin College in 1846. At the college, she completed the literary course and received her literary degree in 1847, the prescribed course for women students. She spent her vacations in teaching and in the study of Hebrew and Greek. In 1847, after graduating with her bachelor's degree, she lobbied the college for admission to the college's theological course with its emphasis on Congregationalist ministry. The administration, opposed to the idea of a woman engaging in any kind of formal theological learning and training, eventually capitulated but with a specific set of pre-conditions: Antoinette may enroll in the courses, but she was not to receive formal recognition. Despite the stipulations made regarding her participation in the theology course, Antoinette was a prolific writer and charismatic public speaker. Her exegesis on the writings of the Apostle Paul was published in the Oberlin Quarterly Review. It is there, from a brief excerpt, that her understanding of what may now be popularly called feminist theology, takes shape as she writes: "Paul meant only to warn against 'excesses, irregularities, and unwarrantable liberties' in public worship.'" She insisted that the Bible and its various pronouncements about women were for a specific span of time and certainly not applicable to the 19th century. Even though women were not asked to do public speaking during this time Antoinette was asked to speak in Ohio and New York to speak about anti-slavery and on women's rights. In April 1860, Brown returned to Oberlin College to deliver a lecture entitled "Men and Women." Testament to Brown's oratory skills appeared in a student letter which noted, "it was an excellent lecture."

Abolition and Ordination
Without a preaching license following graduation, Brown decided to pause her ministerial ambitions to write for Frederick Douglass' abolitionist paper, The North Star. She spoke in 1850 at the first National Women's Rights Convention, giving a speech that was well received and served as the beginning of a speaking tour in which she would address issues such as abolition, temperance, and women's rights. Brown spoke at many of the subsequent annual National Women's Rights Conventions.

Brown was eventually given a license to preach by the Congregational Church in 1851 and then offered a position as Minister of a Congregationalist church in South Butler, New York in 1852. She temporarily suspended her vast speaking engagements, writing to her friend (and later sister-in-law) Lucy Stone that she had lectured eighteen times in almost as many days, and was ordained by a socially radical Methodist minister named Luther Lee, a passionate and vocal advocate of women's right to theological education and leadership. At her ordination, Lee delivered a sermon testifying to Antoinette's suitability as a preacher and her calling from God: "If God and mental and moral culture have not already qualified her," he said to the crowd assembled for the occasion, "we cannot, by anything we may do by way of ordaining or setting her apart ... All we are here to do ... is ... to subscribe our testimony to the fact, that in our belief, our sister in Christ, Antoinette L. Brown, is one of the ministers of the New Covenant, authorized, qualified, and called by God to preach the gospel of his Son Jesus Christ." A month after her ordination Brown traveled as a delegate to the World's Temperance Convention in New York City, where despite representing two temperance organizations, she was denied a chance to speak by the organizers. In the words of Carol Lasser and Marlene Deahl Merrill, Brown again "faced the difficulties of combining essentially conservative causes with women's right's work" at the Temperance Conference At a crossroads in her life, in 1854, Blackwell wrote, "I [find] that the whole groundwork of my faith has dropped away from me." This tension manifested itself within her, and after a year she decided to leave South Butler; and unfortunately, even Luther Lee's unqualified support of Antoinette was not enough to provide her with a sustainable lifestyle there. The Boston Investigator reported her departure with the headline: "REV. ANTOINETTE BROWN, more recently Rev. Mrs. Blackwell, seems to have made a failure in her first pastorate." She did not fail the pastorate due to her gender, but rather a growing insecurity of belief in the orthodoxy of the Congregational ministry, compounded with a lack of sustainable resources for her work. In 1857, she returned to her work as an orator and reformer.

Women's rights
Following her separation from the ministry, she focused increasingly on women's rights issues. While many women's rights activists opposed religion on the basis that it served to oppress women, Blackwell was steadfast in her belief that women's active participation in religion could serve to further their status in society. Unlike many of her peers, she cared more about improving women's status in society than for suffrage. She believed that the inherent differences between men and women limited men's effectiveness in representing women in politics; thus suffrage would have little positive impact for women unless it was coupled with tangible leadership opportunities. Brown also diverged in opinion from other reformers with her opposition to divorce as a means of easing women's marital restrictions.

Antoinette left for New York City to do charity work in the slums and to lecture and raise money for the people who lived there. On her way to New York City, she stopped in Worcester, Massachusetts to attend the first National Woman's Rights Convention. This convention influenced her so much that she decided to become an independent speaker. She traveled throughout New England in places like Pennsylvania and Ohio to speak on Woman's Rights, Anti-Slavery and Temperance. She sometimes even spoke in church sermons when she had the chance.

With regard to her own prospect of marriage, Brown believed that it was best to remain single because single women experienced greater levels of independence than married women. Upon meeting Samuel Blackwell, her opinions began to waver in favor of marriage. The two married on January 24, 1856, and they had seven children, two dying in infancy.

Blackwell continued her career until domestic responsibilities and her disagreement with many aspects of the women's rights movement caused her to discontinue lecturing. Writing became her new outlet for asserting social change for women; in her works she encouraged women to seek out masculine professions and men to share in household duties, yet she retained the belief that women's primary role was care of the home and family. Inspired by yet critical of the writings of Charles Darwin and Herbert Spencer, who she considered to be the most influential men of her day, Blackwell published several works in the fields of theology, science and philosophy. She believed both Darwin and Spencer employed a tainted version of the scientific method, one that embraced a solely masculine vantage point. Blackwell instead asserted that in order to understand women in society, women themselves ought to conduct the study of women, which Blackwell termed the "science of Feminine Humanity." Perhaps her most notable work was published in 1875, The Sexes Throughout Nature, in which she presented a quasi-scientific theory arguing that the sexes are different but equal by way of natural evolution. She knew she would be considered presumptuous for criticizing evolutionary theory, but wrote that "However great the disadvantages under which we [women] are placed, these will never be lessened by waiting." Darwin had written a letter to her in 1869, thanking her for a copy of her book, Studies in General Science. She also wrote a novel, The Island Neighbors, in 1871, and a collection of poetry, Sea Drift, in 1902.

In 1860, at the last National Woman's Rights Convention held before the outbreak of the Civil War, Antoinette engaged in the heated debate about divorce with her colleagues and contemporaries, Susan B. Anthony and Elizabeth Cady Stanton. She was opposed to an easy divorce arguing, "the married partner can not annul his obligations to the other… All divorce is naturally and morally impossible." Antoinette, a staunch abolitionist and suffragist, contrary to the hopes of her friends and fellow suffragists, supported the passage of the Fourteenth Amendment to the Constitution, which did not include the right of free women to vote. In 1869, during the controversy over the amendment, she and Lucy Stone separated from other preeminent women's rights activists to form the American Woman Suffrage Association as a counterweight to Anthony's National Woman Suffrage Association.

In 1873, Blackwell founded the Association for the Advancement of Women in an attempt to address women's issues that similar organizations ignored. She was elected president of the New Jersey Woman Suffrage Association in 1891 and helped found the American Purity Association. She also lectured on behalf of the poor of New York City.

Later life
Oberlin College awarded Brown an honorary Master's and Doctoral degrees in 1878 and 1908, respectively.

In 1878, she returned to organized religion, becoming a Unitarian. She applied to the American Unitarian Association and was recognized as a minister. She spoke in Unitarian churches and resumed her lecture touring.

In 1893, Brown attended the Parliament of Religions during the Columbian Exposition in Chicago. There, she said, "Women are needed in the pulpit as imperatively and for the same reason that they are needed in the world—because they are women. Women have become—or when the ingrained habit of unconscious imitation has been superseded, they will become—indispensable to the religious evolution of the human race." In 1903, she helped found the Unitarian Society of Elizabeth, New Jersey, serving as its minister.

In 1920, at age 95, she was the only surviving participant of the 1850 Women's Rights Convention that took place in Worcester, Massachusetts, to see the passage of the Nineteenth Amendment to the Constitution, which gave women the right to vote. She voted for Warren G. Harding in the 1920 presidential election.

Death and legacy
Antoinette Brown Blackwell died November 5, 1921, at the age of 96 in Elizabeth, New Jersey.

Her childhood home was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1989.

In 1975, the United Church of Christ at its 10th General Synod began awarding the Antoinette Brown Awards to ordained UCC women who "exemplify the contributions that women can make through ordained ministry, have provided outstanding ministry in a parish or other church-related institutions, including women in specialized ministry, and have a sensitivity concerning the challenges and possibilities of women in ministry and advocacy on behalf of all women in the church."

In 1993, Antoinette Brown Blackwell was inducted into the National Women's Hall of Fame.

Selected works

 * Studies in General Science. New York: G.P. Putnam and Son, 1869.
 * The Sexes Throughout Nature. New York: G.P. Putnam and Son, 1875.
 * The Physical Basis of Immortality. New York: G.P. Putnam and Son, 1876.
 * The Philosophy of Individuality. New York: G.P. Putnam and Son, 1893.
 * The Making of the Universe. Boston, Massachusetts: The Gorham press, 1914.
 * The Social Side of Mind and Action. New York: The Neale Publishing Company, 1915.
 * The Island Neighbors. New York: Harper & Brothers, 1871. (Novel)
 * Sea Drift. New York: J.T. White & Co., 1902. (Poetry)

title: Antoinette Brown Blackwell


text: Category:Talbot vehicles

title: Category:Talbot vehicles


text:
Talk:Plant tissue culture

History
Missing.--65.26.30.35 (talk) 22:37, 16 May 2018 (UTC)

Untitled

 * For me it is unacceptable to think of micropropagation and plant tissue culture as synonyms, just like algebra is not tantamount to mathematics and dynamics is not the same as physics.
 * So some kind of general definition of PTC is needed, that would suit both micropropagation and e.g. fertilization in vitro, in vitro mutagenesis and selection, cell fusion, genetic transformation, biotechnological production of metabolites and proteins etc.
 * Perhaps it could sound more or less to this effect:
 * Plant tissue culture = growing plants or plant fragments (organs, tissues, cells, protoplasts) on artificial media under conditions of sterility. Very often p.t.c. is initiated with a small fragment of a plant (the so called explant) and results in formation of complete, though tiny, plants (plantlets) or unorganized cell masses (calluses, cell suspensions).
 * DJM 29 June, 2006

 * Generally I do agree. Something like this is needed.  R eo  ON   |   + + +  09:01, 29 June 2006 (UTC)

This information came from the old plant improvement article: It's a machine translation from Italian, but may be useful to mine for plant tissue culture--nixie 02:24, 12 Oct 2004 (UTC)

Clonal Popagation

Asexual reproduction Among the most ancient and widespread methods of plant propagation we find scions and layerings, which are really shoots produced by asexual (agamic) reproduction of the [cormofites].

Asexual reproduction determines the aggressiveness of a species in colonizing the nearby environment, with evolutionary advantages because the offspring are all clones of the parent -- that is to say, they are genetically identical. In a lot of multicellular cryptogams (fungi, lichens, bryophytes and pteridophytes) this happens through spores, produced following mitosis and contained in the sporangia, in the cormofites (bryophyta, pteridophyta and spermatophyta) through parts of the body of the plant that, once fallen to earth, are able to take root.

The scion is a portion of a plant (usually a stem or branch) cut immediately under a knot, without leaves, and buried. The result of the operation depends on persuading it to take root. Layering consists of making the buried part of the plant take root while it is still united to the parent plant. The buried branch or stem is surrounded by a mound of earth or well dampened peat in which the new roots will grow. This is therefore a more rapid and efficient method than the scion.

Evidently these methods do not bring genetic changes, but serve only to clone the plant.

Micropropagation The use of plant cells or organs has allowed the researchers to study callus culture. Callus culture involves induction of callus tissue (a callus is an unorganized mass of cells) from various types of explants (it may be a petiole, a leaf, a pollen grain, a bud or an anthurium). The original plant does not need to be destroyed. The explants are disinfected, and placed on a medium of growth. The medium is also sterilized to avoid the rapid growth of bacteria or fungus that might suffocate the growth of the callus. A cell will begin to divide itself if the correct nutrient substances (salts, sugars and vitamins) and traces of plant hormones are present. The cells will begin to form buds, which can be further separated and cultivated for a new cycle of propagation. Limiting the number of in vitro cycles, however, has been reported to minimize plant variation.

Calluses can be obtained both from somatic cells and from sexual cells.

Through the passage to protoplasm, the cells fabric-specifications of the plant differentiation in totipotent cells, able that is to express any part of their genetic information. This characteristic, together with the ability to form crowd you cellular immortal, differentiates the vegetable cells from those animal. Even a single cell of a callus can regenerate a whole organism in one of two principal ways:

somatic embriogenesis: the callus develops into an embryo, which develops into an adult plant. For example, this occurs in the carrot. somatic organogenesis: an organ -- usually a leaf bud -- regenerates from the callus, and subsequently the rest of the plant regenerates from that. For example, this occurs in tobacco. In both cases the growth in vitro happens in the Fitotroms, sterile climate-controlled enclosures where temperature, damp and light-dark cycle are checked and programmable. With the somatic embryogenesis vegetable embryos of certain kinds can be encapsulated (as with carrots, celery and tomatoes) to get artificial seeds. An important part of the process depends on vegetable hormones, whose role has been revealed mainly through analysis of the behavior of cells in the crop; the production of roots is checked by the auxine class of hormones, while the Cytokinines regulate the growth of the buds and therefore of the stem. They can be used as inductors in the scions and layerings.

Evidently, these techniques of micropropagation allow production of many plants, even millions, in just a few months. These techniques also can prevent plants from becoming infected, simply by using meristematic fabrics or withdrawing fabrics in the healthy zones of the plant and cultivating in presence of antibiotics and antivirals.

Somaclonal variability Many of the plants produced through micropropagation are not genetically identical to the original. This is referred to as somaclonal variation. It is yet unclear why some of these these variations take place, though explanations for some cases have been demonstrated and other explanations have been proposed.

The most frequent reason why plants are not identical to their donor is mutation of their genetic material, from the nucleus or otherwise. Frequent mutations occur when the cells are cultivated in vitro. Depending on the goal (obtaining identical plants or, on the contrary, attempting to get new characteristics) somaclonal variability is considered a disadvantage or a benefit.

There is an important distinction between genetic variability (hereditary mutations of the DNA) and non-hereditary epigenetic variability.

Obviously not all the mutations will be advantageous, but among the many that happen some will be the desired ones. As it is unlikely that the same mutation will happen on both alleles of a diploid plant (not to mention tetraploid plants), when one wants to exploit the phenomenon of somaclonal variability to get the best mutants, aploid cells are cultivated in vitro as immature pollen. The embryogenesis of aploid plants is induced ny properly dosing with vegetable hormones. This facilitates the recognition of mutations, because that the heterozygote can disguise its phenototype. Once recognised and isolated the changed plant the diploid state can be reestablished with clochicina, an alkaloid derived from the plant of the autumn crocus that binds it to the molecules of [tubulina], thereby preventing the formation of the fused mitotic and therefore the [citodieresi]. The [cromatidis] brothers separate it and they become homologous chromosome. This technique is known with the name of androgenesis. More than a hundred species of commercially valuable plants have been "improved" in this way, among which are tobacco, bowline, grapes, potatoes, rice, maize and wheat.

Mechanisms that produce variability

Changes in the [ploidia] of the cells in crop Owed to:

the origin of the fabric used for the [espianto], as farther away from the meristematic apexes, that much taller the dismal fraction of cells - and [octaploidi]; the effects of the process of crop same (lasted, hormones, nutritional limitations); three phenomena that occur during mitosis: [Endomitosis]:: the [cromatidis] brothers separate, but there is no formation of a fused one [citodieresi]; Endoreduplication:: the chromosome of the [interphase] suffer an extra-duplication; formation of a [plasmodio]:: there is no [citodieresis], [bi] - or [multinucleate] cells are formed; A high rate of these phenomena doesn't correspond to a high percentage of cells or so-called polyploids. This is due to diploid selection: in a mixed population of cells with different ploidies, the diploids preserve their potential [organogenetico] better than the polyploids, probably because of an increased ability to form meristems.

artificial rearrangement of tissue layers A lot of horticultural plants are chimeras [PERICLINALI], that is they have suffered a mutation in a meristem cell and this has given origin to a different layer from the preceding and from the following one. The cells of the meristems in fact can divide anticlinally (perpendicularly to the surface) or periclinally (in parallel); if a continuous cell to divide itself periclinally gives origin to a layer of fabric. These layers can mix during a rapid proliferation as that of the calluses (if you/he/she is used really that meristems). Therefore regenerated plants with these unforeseen event can contain a different artificial composition or even not to be more artificial.

structural changes in the sequence of the DNA They are induced by radiation and chemical substances but can be also spontaneous. The coarse alterations of the genome are the principal cause of somaclonal variability. We distinguish:

deletions inversions duplications transpositions point mutations These alterations inasmuch changes of ploidy, increase with the increase of the duration of the crop.

phenotypic epigenetic alterations They are temporary and reversing changes, but can persist for the whole life of the regenerated seedling. Common is the phenomenon of the rejuvenation/reinvigoration, especially in woody kind (gymnosperms), which leads to morphological differences, precocious flowering, increase in the formation of temporary roots and the vigor of the plant. The causes of these non-hereditable alterations are not known, but are probably induced by the environment of the crop.

In vitro selection With this method a plant resistant to illnesses, insects and environmental stress can be obtained. It implicates subjecting a calliform population to a proper selective pressure (such as the increase in small doses of herbicides) and the recovery of a varying line of cells that has developed resistance or tolerance to the stress. You can benefit of some speed in the propagation of the crop of the calluses to obtain a real natural selection (spontaneous mutations) or to get variability through the use of chemical or physical agents (induced mutations). The fields of research try to select resistant lines to salinity, cold, herbicides, to heavy metals, etc.

Cellular hybrids The genetic information contained in cells of different origin can be combined in a single nucleus through cellular fusion. Cellular fusion requires that some cells come into contact and it includes a brief destruction of the cellular membranes using chemical agents. When the reconstitution of the membranes happens, the adjacent cells can reform their membranes together producing a single hybrid cell. Initially the cell derived by fusion will contain two nucleuses (binucleated heterocariont), but after the cellular division the chromosomal outfits of the two cells are placed inside a single nucleus (sincariont). It is possible to perform the fusion on two types of cells that belong to the same kind (in this case we speak of inter-species hybrid) as well as on two types of cells belonging to different kinds. In the first case the hybrid cell will preserve the whole chromosomal order of the two initial cells, while in the second case the fused cell curtains to eliminate the chromosome belonging to one type of cell. The products of the fusion of more than two cells generally has scarce possibilities of survival. Any cell can be interbred with any other, without limits; very fanciful experiments have been made, in which man-mouse cells were obtained, animal-vegetal cells and even with microorganisms!

Isolating them, the hybrids obtained in this way can be propagated in crop a Cellular Line it Interbreeds, that more stable as the initial organisms were more similar. Subsequently to the fusion of the nucleuses, during the following cellular divisions, the genes of one of the two kinds are progressively eliminated.

This has allowed the study of the genetic expression in different cellular environments of the usual ones and above all of the organization of the genome: by checking what chromosome or fragment of chromosome has been lost, it is possible to make a genetic map of the chromosome that contains the location of every single gene.

Despite this obstruction to the formation of a completely hybrid plant, it can be seen that a fraction of the genes can be preserved with formation of the so-called Asymmetrical Hybrid. You get a plant with all the characteristics of a progenitor anymore some line of the other. In this way it is possible to transfer useful qualities even if the sexual hybridization doesn't allow it.

The other sexual hybridization is nothing but the pollination driven by man of a plant of variety or, when it is possible, of different kind. Thus they gather the positive qualities of different varieties, selecting then for different generations up to stability genotypical and fenotypical.

plant tissue
predicting,observing,communicating and interpreting data are important words —Preceding unsigned comment added by 98.206.112.252 (talk) 23:05, 20 October 2008 (UTC)

Wiki Education assignment: Molecular Genetics
— Assignment last updated by Sanjana Kancharla (talk) 03:19, 12 September 2022 (UTC)

title: Talk:Plant tissue culture


text: User talk:69.151.147.92

title: User talk:69.151.147.92


text:
Talk:Pepsi Edge

Is Splenda the only sweetener used?
 * No. http://www.pepsi.com/help/faqs/faq.php?category=pepsi_brands&page=pepsi_edge shows that high-frutose corn syrup and/or (conventional) sugar is also used. Tenbaset 03:06, May 24, 2005 (UTC)

whoever redirected this page to Pepsi? They are two diffrent drinks, information on both is valueable.

title: Talk:Pepsi Edge