text:
Duke Pearson

Columbus Calvin "Duke" Pearson Jr. (August 17, 1932 – August 4, 1980) was an American jazz pianist and composer. Allmusic describes him as having a "big part in shaping the Blue Note label's hard bop direction in the 1960s as a record producer."

Early life
Pearson was born Columbus Calvin Pearson Jr. in Atlanta, Georgia, to Columbus Calvin and Emily Pearson. The moniker "Duke" was given to him by his uncle, who was a great admirer of Duke Ellington. Before he was six, his mother started giving him piano lessons. He studied the instrument until he was twelve, when he took an interest in brass instruments: mellophone, baritone horn and ultimately trumpet. He was so fond of the trumpet that through high school and college he neglected the piano. He attended Clark College while also playing trumpet in groups in the Atlanta area. While in the U.S. Army, during his 1953–54 draft, he continued to play trumpet and met, among others, the pianist Wynton Kelly. Pearson himself confessed in a 1959 interview that he was "so spoiled by Kelly's good piano" that he decided to switch to piano again. Also, it seems that dental problems forced him to give up brass instruments.

Career
Pearson performed with different ensembles in Georgia and Florida, including with Tab Smith and Little Willie John, before he moved to New York City in January 1959. He had, however, been able to get at least one song, "Tribute to Brownie" (dedicated to Clifford Brown), recorded by the Cannonball Adderley Quintet on their 1957 album, Sophisticated Swing. In New York, Pearson gained the attention of the trumpeter Donald Byrd, who saw Pearson performing with the Art Farmer/Benny Golson Sextet (known as the Jazztet). Shortly afterwards, Byrd asked Pearson to join his newly formed band, the Donald Byrd–Pepper Adams Quintet. Pearson was also the accompanist for Nancy Wilson on tour in 1961. During that same year, Pearson became ill before a Byrd-Adams show, and a newcomer, Herbie Hancock, took over for him. Hancock eventually took over the position permanently.

On the 1963 Byrd album A New Perspective, Pearson arranged four tracks, including "Cristo Redentor", which became a hit. The composition, Pearson later commented, was inspired by a trip he took to Brazil while touring with Wilson. Also that year, after the death of Ike Quebec, Pearson took over his position as A&R man of Blue Note. From that year until 1970, Pearson was a frequent session musician and producer for numerous Blue Note albums while also recording his own albums as bandleader. This was odd, since Pearson also recorded with his co-led big band with Byrd for Atlantic Records, a stipulation he made sure was in his Atlantic contract. The Byrd-Pearson band consisted of musicians such as Chick Corea, Pepper Adams, Randy Brecker, and Garnett Brown; the latter three were members also of the Thad Jones-Mel Lewis band that played the same night club, The Village Vanguard, but on different nights. Between the two ensembles, the musicians performed at their own discretion.

Pearson's compositions include the now standard, frequently covered "Jeannine", composed c. 1960. An early cover of "Jeannine" appears on the Cannonball Adderley album Them Dirty Blues, recorded in February 1960; the song was also covered by Donald Byrd on the album At the Half Note Cafe, recorded in November 1960. A vocalese version with lyrics by Oscar Brown, Jr. was recorded by Eddie Jefferson on the album The Main Main, recorded in October 1974, and was covered on The Manhattan Transfer's 1984 album Bop Doo-Wopp. The Steve Lehman Trio recorded the song on their 2011 album Dialect Fluorescent.

As a small side project at Blue Note, Pearson penned the liner notes for Grant Green’s 1963 album, Idle Moments. He was the pianist for the recording. Having also composed the album’s title track, he wrote, “I wonder while listening to this recording, just what the people involved were thinking of while idling away (so to speak). The dreamlike mood that prevails gave me the idea of naming this tune Idle Moments.”

Pearson eventually retired from his position with Blue Note in 1971 after personnel changes were made; co-founder Alfred Lion retired in 1967 after the label was sold to Liberty Records the previous year, and co-founder Francis Wolff died in 1971. Pearson opted to teach at Clark College in 1971, toured with Carmen McRae and Joe Williams through 1973, and eventually re-formed his big band during that time.

He was diagnosed with multiple sclerosis in the 1970s, from which he died in 1980 at Atlanta Veterans Hospital.

As leader
Source:

As sideman
With Donald Byrd With Johnny Coles With Grant Green With Bobby Hutcherson With Thad Jones/Pepper Adams Quintet With Carmen McRae
 * Fuego (1959)
 * Byrd in Flight (1960)
 * At the Half Note Cafe (1960)
 * The Cat Walk (1961)
 * A New Perspective (1963)
 * Fancy Free (1970)
 * Kofi (1969–70)
 * Electric Byrd (1970)
 * Little Johnny C (Blue Note, 1963, and arranger)
 * Idle Moments (Blue Note, 1963)
 * The Kicker (Blue Note, 1963)
 * Mean What You Say (Milestone, 1966)
 * Carmen (1972)

As Arranger

 * Lou Donaldson - Lush Life (1967)
 * Donald Byrd - A New Perspective (1963), I'm Tryin' to Get Home (1964)
 * Grant Green - Am I Blue (1963)
 * Blue Mitchell - Boss Horn (1966), Heads Up! (1967)
 * Hank Mobley - A Slice of the Top (1966)
 * Lee Morgan - Standards (1967)
 * Stanley Turrentine - Rough 'n' Tumble (1966), The Spoiler (1966), A Bluish Bag (1967), The Return of the Prodigal Son (1967), The Look of Love (1968)

title: Duke Pearson


text:
Austin Maxi

The Austin Maxi is a medium-sized, 5-door hatchback family car that was produced by Austin and later British Leyland between 1969 and 1981. It was the first British car to feature a hatchback body style.

History
The Maxi (code name ADO14) was the last car designed under the British Motor Corporation (BMC) before it was incorporated into the new British Leyland group, and the last production car designed by famed designer Alec Issigonis. It was the first car to be launched by British Leyland.

Originally, under BMC's plan for its new model range, which it had been developing since 1965, the Maxi was to have been called the "Austin 1500" on its spring 1969 launch, and a saloon version the "Morris 1500" was to follow in the autumn. However, upon the merger of BMC and Leyland the new management abandoned the four-door saloon notchback and developed the Morris Marina instead. The Marina, launched in April 1971, was a rear-wheel drive car available as a saloon, coupe or estate.

The new chairman Lord Stokes decided to also change the hatchback's name to the Maxi in homage to the Mini of 10 years earlier. All Maxis were produced at the Cowley plant in Oxford, although the E-Series engines were made at a new factory at Cofton Hackett in Longbridge.

The Maxi was launched in Oporto, Portugal, on 24 April 1969, in a blaze of publicity; it was one of the first cars to appear on the BBC's new car programme Wheelbase, a forerunner to Top Gear, which debuted in 1977. It was one of the first hatchback models to be produced in the world, and the first in Britain; the five-door hatchback echoed the French-produced Renault 16, which was European Car of the Year following its launch in 1965. This type of car increased in popularity rapidly during the 1970s and during the 1980s became the most popular type of car in most European markets.

Underneath the Maxi's practical and spacious bodyshell lay an all-new front-wheel drive chassis, which was interlinked with an innovative five-speed manual transmission; the fifth gear was another rarity on family cars in 1969 and one which many manufacturers did not adopt until more than a decade later. The gear selector suffered from notorious problems with its control linkage, especially in early models which had a cable-operated linkage prone to cable stretch and other problems. These were noted by autotesters such as Vicar in Today's Driver (1969), who wrote: "This is probably a good idea that just needs a little bit of working on." This criticism actually came as a result of a road test two months before the car officially went on sale. The later rod linkage was less problematic. All models were prone to problems brought on by the "cogs in the sump" layout, whereby the gearbox and engine shared a common oil supply. The clutch oil seal was also prone to leakage.

Power came from a 1485 cc, E-Series petrol engine which would later be used in other British Leyland products, such as the Austin Allegro. The 1750 and twin-carburettor 1750 HL models, added to the range in 1971, offered good performance by the standards of the era, with a top speed of 97 mph, while the smaller-engine version could exceed 90 mph.

Despite the new platform, the Maxi's styling suffered from the decision to save tooling costs by re-using door panels from the Austin 1800 "Landcrab", which gave the Maxi an unusually long wheelbase in relation to its length, coupled with the fact that the carried-over doors made the Maxi resemble a scaled down version of the 1800 (and the Austin 3-Litre, which also used the same doors). This design was by then five years old, at a time when curvaceous American-inspired "coke bottle" styling (typified by contemporaries such as the Ford Cortina Mk III and Hillman Avenger) was very much in vogue, contrasting sharply with the Maxi's obviously mid-1960s looks. Another styling ambition for the car was a four-door saloon version, to compete directly with the Ford Cortina. A prototype was built, badged as a Morris, but it was not put into production, since the booted extension made the Maxi almost the same size as the 1800 model, which was itself replaced in March 1975 by the 18-22 series models (renamed the Princess soon after its launch). Also worthy of note is that the Maxi was voted the least stolen car in 1971 and 1972.

In Australia, owing to recently increased local content assembly tariffs which would have resulted in the Maxi being uneconomic to build, Leyland Motor Corporation of Australia developed in the UK the Morris Nomad, a hybrid utilizing the Maxi's E-series engine/transmission and rear tailgate, fitted to the Morris 1100 body which was already being assembled in that country. For a short while the Nomad (under the Austin name) was exported to New Zealand and offered alongside the locally assembled Maxi.

The Maxi featured a spacious interior, comfortable passenger accommodation, competitive prices and reasonable running costs. It was let down by a dull interior and poor build quality, although it was not as notorious for its failings as the Austin Allegro and Morris Marina were during the 1970s.

The Maxi had several rivals during the 1970s, including the Volkswagen Passat (1973) and Chrysler Alpine (1975), although its best-selling rivals from Ford and Vauxhall did not produce a hatchback until the early 1980s.

One unusual feature of this car was that the rear seat back, as well as folding forward as in a conventional hatchback, also folded back. In combination with fully-reclining front seats, this gave satisfactory, if spartan, sleeping accommodation.

Towards the end of the Maxi's life, in 1980, a lightly revised model was marketed as the "Maxi 2", although by now sales were declining and a new car to succeed the Allegro and Maxi was being developed. Its launch was delayed by the extra investment required to develop the Austin Metro, launched in October 1980.

End of production
On 8 July 1981, the Austin Maxi's 12-year production run came to an end. Its replacement, the Austin Maestro, which also replaced the smaller Allegro, was introduced in March 1983. Shortly after the Maxi's demise, BL met the demand for a larger family hatchback by revamping the Princess and renaming it the Austin Ambassador, although this was a short-lived model which only lasted until 1984, when the Austin Montego was launched. This completed BL's rationalisation, as it now had just one model competing in this market sector, whereas the Maxi had been one of three designs competing in a sector of the market which had been led by the Ford Cortina.

The Maxi production lines at Cowley were taken over by production of the Triumph Acclaim, which was launched in October 1981.

Despite its practical design and remarkable space efficiency (it is shorter, narrower and lower than the sixth generation Ford Fiesta), the Maxi never came close to reaching its projected sales targets. BL management decisions involving the Maxi had significant knock-on effects to the rest of the car line-up. BL marketing decreed that the Maxi should be the only car in the range to feature a hatchback. This stance prevented the Austin Allegro and Princess models gaining hatchbacks despite those designs being capable of receiving them. The policy was discontinued with the arrival of the Rover SD1 in 1976, and the fast-growing popularity of hatchbacks during the 1970s and 1980s saw British Leyland launch a raft of new hatchback models. The Austin Metro, launched in 1980, was only available as a hatchback, as was the 1983 Austin Maestro.

Popular culture
On 1 July 1969, John Lennon crashed a white Maxi on the single track A838 road near Loch Eriboll in the Highlands of Scotland. He was on his way to visit his uncle in Durness with Yoko Ono, his son Julian and Yoko's daughter Kyoko. Originally they had set off from Tittenhurst Park, his home near Ascot in his Mini Cooper, however it soon became apparent that it was too small for them to drive all the way to Scotland, so they stayed overnight at his relatives' home in Liverpool. From there, he rang Apple Records and arranged for a driver to bring the "staff" car; a recently acquired Snowberry White Austin Maxi registered RLA 888G. It featured a full-length white webasto roof and also had a silver apple mounted on the radio speaker top of the front fascia. The following morning, Ono and Lennon transferred all of their luggage over to the Maxi and his driver took the Mini back to Tittenhurst, and the four set off north again to Northern Scotland; stopping briefly in Windermere and Edinburgh.

Whilst driving along the narrow A838 road, Lennon panicked when he saw another car approaching him and sent the Maxi headlong into a ditch. While the children escaped relatively unhurt, Lennon received a gash to his forehead and Ono injured her back, resulting in a hospital stay in Golspie's Lawson Memorial Hospital for five days where he was treated by Dr. Michael Simpson. After they returned to London, Lennon arranged for the Maxi to be placed on a plinth outside his Tittenhurst home as an homage to their luck, where it stayed for the next few years, during which time Julian took the silver apple from the dash and kept it as a keepsake, though the vehicle was auctioned many years later. Lennon also had its steering wheel removed and it was hung up in his billiard room in the house. When Lennon and Ono finally left the UK for the United States, Lennon sold Tittenhurst to friend and former bandmate Ringo Starr who had the Maxi scrapped. In October 2016, James Walshe, the deputy editor of Practical Classics car magazine retraced Lennon's journey in his 1969 Maxi. The feature later received a top award as 'Best Feature' at the 2017 Bauer Awards.

In 1972, a married couple escaped the Soviet quarter of Berlin at Checkpoint Charlie in the back of a Maxi. Once over into the western sector, the British Royal Military Police and the West German Polizei were so surprised that two people could fit into a Maxi's boot, that it was then taken up by Leyland West Germany and re-created in a television advert shown across West Germany, Switzerland and Austria.

Also in 1972, at the Earl's Court Motor Show a competition was staged by The Daily Telegraph, the Institute of British Coachbuilders and Motor Manufactures (later incorporated into the Society of Motor Manufacturers and Traders) to design a futuristic concept car based on a Maxi. The winning design was by a young designer, Chris Field, and the prize was to have his design on paper turned into reality. The "Aquila" was constructed by Woodhall Nicolson of Halifax with help from Lucas, Smiths (Motor Accessory Division & Radiomobile) and Triplex. The resultant car was exhibited at the 1973 show and then given to Field.

From 1975-80, British Leyland supplied the Lawn Tennis Association every year with official "Wimbledon" Maxis. These were standard single carburettor 1750s but fitted with HL velour seat trim and extra sound proofing. Afterwards, they were sold through local Surrey dealers as ex-demonstration cars. In 1991, punk revival band Fabulous used a Maxi as their "Fab-Mobile" decked out in Punk-art graffiti. It also made an appearance in a video of The Farm's cover version of The Human League's "Don't You Want Me". The 1750 was registered as FRK 315T and according to the DVLA website was last taxed in April 1993.

The Maxi, grumbled AC/DC singer Brian Johnson, "was like a matchbox on steroids. The only reason you knew it was a car was cos it had a steering wheel. It was the most basic form of frickin' transport! But it could have been worse. My next-door neighbour had a Lada."

Timeline

 * May 1969: Introduction of the Austin Maxi 1500 5-door hatchback with transversely-mounted 1485 cc E Series engine and 5-speed manual gearbox driving the front wheels, independent suspension with hydrolastic shock absorbers (often referred to as the "cable-change" models).
 * October 1970: Revisions: redesigned front grille with centre badge, bodyside strips, gearchange rods (instead of cables), better sound insulation, new seat facings, all-new veneered wood dash design and smaller steering wheel. Introduction of the Austin Maxi 1750 with larger 1748 cc engine and revisions as for Maxi 1500. Assembly by IMV in Yugoslavia also commenced in 1970.
 * 1971: Alternator fitted to all UK models, revised direction indicator circuit, matt finish wood dash, plastic engine shield now black instead of cream. 1750 now has its own gold/yellow chequered grill badge.
 * 1972: Introduction of the Austin Maxi 1750 HL, with twin SU HS6 carburettor version of the 1748 cc engine, which gave a higher output of 91 bhp at 5250 rpm. Other additional features for the HL were 165 x 13 radial ply tyres, black grille with chrome upper and lower strips and red "HL" motif, red chequered front badge, front bumper under-riders, chrome exhaust trim, black rimmed hub caps, body coloured mouldings along the sides and rear, electric windscreen washers, 3-spoke alloy steering wheel with leather-bound rim, padded vinyl dashboard, dipping rear view mirror, vanity mirror on passenger sun visor, front door pockets, simulated wooden gear knob and brushed nylon upholstery.
 * 1973: Hazard flashers introduced on UK models. In common with the Austin/Morris 1800, body changes to the Maxi simplify production and reduce costs (the A posts are no longer lead loaded).
 * 1974: Optional 4-speed automatic transmission available on 1750 and (from May 1979) 1750 HL.
 * 1975: Fuel tank enlarged, revisions to the rear squab bed adaption facility. All models now feature cigar lighter and heated rear window as standard.
 * 1976: All export LHD models now designated "Maxi HL" with specification similar to UK 1750 HL but without twin carburettor or three-spoke alloy steering wheel.
 * 1977: Austin name officially dropped by BL under recommendation by the Ryder Report. Model now officially designated "Maxi". The only noticeable difference was the rear tailgate badge along with the handbooks, so general public and dealers unofficially still called it the same name. Dual circuit brakes now fitted to UK spec cars.
 * 1978: All models now have Hydragas suspension instead of the Hydrolastic system which required a revised front subframe, and all models now feature electric windscreen washers. The HL loses its three-spoke steering wheel and a walnut finish dash replaces its padded dash.
 * May 1979: Introduction of the Maxi 1750 HLS with walnut dash and twin carburettor 91 bhp engine previously restricted to the HL (the HL now with the single carburettor and wood dash). All models now feature the same copper-coloured front grill badge, black wipers and door mirrors, the rear tailgate badge is now below the trim line, also revised illuminated switches, cigar lighter and revised windscreen wiper control instrumentation. The 1500/1750 now have 'Marle' fabric seat facings replacing the previous PVC "basketweave" leatherette. Single rear fog-light now fitted across the range.
 * Dec 1979: Maxi 1500 discontinued.
 * Aug 1980: Introduction of the Maxi 2 range in 1750 L, 1750 HL and 1750 HLS variants. All models feature revisions including new bumpers incorporating indicators (front) and reversing lights (rear), new side repeaters, full cover plastic wheel trims and broader side moulding inserts. Inside the instrument bezels are now in matt black, the switchgear is again revised, the headlight switch is now on the steering column and there is a choke warning light. The L replaced the previous Base model and added LM/MW push button radio, nylon trim, door bins, laminated windscreen and walnut veneer dashboard. The HL gained intermittent screen wipe, velour seats, tinted glass and extra sound insulation. The HLS gained a burr walnut veneer dashboard. However, LHD export Maxi 2s were still referred to as 'Austin' Maxis in sales literature, only one version being available, the single carburettor HL, though unlike the UK spec cars it did not feature a radio as standard.
 * 1981: Chrome bumpers replaced by matt black.
 * July 1981: Last Maxi 2 rolls off production line, its place at Cowley taken by the new Triumph Acclaim. The last Maxi, a champagne L model, is now owned by the British Motor Museum, Gaydon.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Austin Maxi


text:
Guttman scale

In the analysis of multivariate observations designed to assess subjects with respect to an attribute, a Guttman scale (named after Louis Guttman) is a single (unidimensional) ordinal scale for the assessment of the attribute, from which the original observations may be reproduced. The discovery of a Guttman scale in data depends on their multivariate distribution's conforming to a particular structure (see below). Hence, a Guttman scale is a hypothesis about the structure of the data, formulated with respect to a specified attribute and a specified population and cannot be constructed for any given set of observations. Contrary to a widespread belief, a Guttman scale is not limited to dichotomous variables and does not necessarily determine an order among the variables. But if variables are all dichotomous, the variables are indeed ordered by their sensitivity in recording the assessed attribute, as illustrated by Example 1.

Deterministic model
Example 1: Dichotomous variables

A Guttman scale may be hypothesized for the following five questions that concern the attribute "acceptance of social contact with immigrants" (based on the Bogardus social distance scale), presented to a suitable population:

 * 1) Would you accept immigrants as residents in your country? (No=0; Yes=1)
 * 2) Would you accept immigrants as residents in your town? (No=0; Yes=1)
 * 3) Would you accept immigrants as residents in your neighborhood? (No=0; Yes=1)
 * 4) Would you accept immigrants as next-door neighbors? (No=0; Yes=1)
 * 5) Would you accept an immigrant as your child's spouse? (No=0; Yes=1)

A positive response by a particular respondent to any question in this list, suggests positive responses by that respondent to all preceding questions in this list. Hence one could expect to obtain only the responses listed in the shaded part (columns 1–5) of Table 1. '''Table 1. Hypothesized responses to the five social distance variables form a Guttman scale (a cumulative scale)'''

Every row in the shaded part of Table 1 (columns 1–5) is the response profile of any number (≥ 0) of respondents. Every profile in this table indicates acceptance of immigrants in all senses indicated by the previous profile, plus an additional sense in which immigrants are accepted. If, in a large number of observations, only the profiles listed in Table 1 are observed, then the Guttman scale hypothesis is supported, and the values of the scale (last column of Table 1) have the following properties:

 * 1) They assess the strength of the attribute "acceptance of social contact with immigrants";
 * 2) They reproduce the original observations. (For example, a respondent's scale score of 2 implies that that respondent responded positively to questions 1 and 2 and negatively to questions 3, 4, and 5.)

Guttman scale, if supported by data, is useful for efficiently assessing subjects (respondents, testees or any collection of investigated objects) on a one-dimensional scale with respect to the specified attribute. Typically, Guttman scales are found with respect to attributes that are narrowly defined.

While other scaling techniques (e.g., Likert scale) produce a single scale by summing up respondents' scores—a procedure that assumes, often without justification, that all observed variables have equal weights — Guttman scale avoids weighting the observed variables; thus 'respecting' data for what they are. If a Guttman scale is confirmed, the measurement of the attribute is intrinsically one-dimensional; the unidimensionality is not forced by summation or averaging. This feature renders it appropriate for the construction of replicable scientific theories and meaningful measurements, as explicated in facet theory.

Ordinal variables
Given a data set of N subjects observed with respect to n ordinal variables, each having any finite number (≥2) of numerical categories ordered by increasing strength of a pre-specified attribute, let aij be the score obtained by subject i on variable j, and define the list of scores that subject i obtained on the n variables, ai=ai1...ain, to be the profile of subject i. (The number of categories may be different in different variables; and the order of the variables in the profiles is not important but should be fixed).

Define:

Two profiles, as and at are equal, denoted as=at, iff asj=atj for all j=1...n

Profile as is greater than Profile at, denoted as>at, iff asj ≥ atj for all j=1...n and asj' > atj for at least one variable, j.

Profiles as and at are comparable, denoted asSat, iff as=at; or as>at; or at>as

Profiles as and at are incomparable, denoted as$at, if they are not comparable (that is, for at least one variable, j, asj' > atj and for at least one other variable, j  , atj  > asj''.

For data sets where the categories of all variables are similarly ordered numerically (from high to low or from low to high) with respect to a given attribute, Guttman scale is defined simply thus:

Definition: Guttman scale is a data set in which all profile-pairs are comparable.

Example: Non-dichotomous variables
Consider the following four variables that assess arithmetic skills among a population P of pupils:

V1: Can pupil (p) perform addition of numbers? No=1; Yes, but only of two-digit numbers=2; Yes=3.

V2: Does pupil (p) know the (1-10) multiplication table? No=1; Yes=2.

V3: Can pupil (p) perform multiplication of numbers? No=1; Yes, but only of two-digit numbers=2; Yes=3.

V4: Can pupil (p) perform long division? No=1; Yes=2.

Data collected for the above four variables among a population of school children may be hypothesized to exhibit the Guttman scale shown below in Table 2:

'''Table 2. Data of the four ordinal arithmetic skill variables are hypothesized to form a Guttman scale'''

The set profiles hypothesized to occur (shaded part in Table 2) illustrates the defining feature of the Guttman scale, namely, that any pair of profiles are comparable. Here too, if the hypothesis is confirmed, a single scale-score reproduces a subject's responses in all the variables observed.

Any ordered set of numbers could serve as scale. In this illustration we chose the sum of profile-scores. According to facet theory, only in data that conform to a Guttman scale such a summation may be justified.

Reproducibility
In practice, perfect ("deterministic") Guttman scales are rare, but approximate ones have been found in specific populations with respect to attributes such as religious practices, narrowly defined domains of knowledge, specific skills, and ownership of household appliances. When data do not conform to a Guttman scale, they may either represent a Guttman scale with noise (and treated stochastically ), or they may have a more complex structure requiring multiple scaling for identifying the scales intrinsic to them.

The extent to which a data set conforms to a Guttman scale can be estimated from the coefficient of reproducibility of which there are a few versions, depending on statistical assumptions and limitations. Guttman's original definition of the reproducibility coefficient, CR is simply 1 minus the ratio of the number of errors to the number of entries in the data set. And, to ensure that there is a range of responses (not the case if all respondents only endorsed one item) the coefficient of scalability is used.

In Guttman scaling is found the beginnings of item response theory which, in contrast to classical test theory, acknowledges that items in questionnaires do not all have the same level of difficulty. Non-deterministic (i.e., stochastic) models have been developed such as the Mokken scale and the Rasch model. Guttman scale has been generalized to the theory and procedures of "multiple scaling" which identifies the minimum number of scales needed for satisfactory reproducibility.

As a procedure that ties substantive contents with logical aspects of data, Guttman scale heralded the advent of facet theory developed by Louis Guttman and his associates.

Guttman scale in qualitative variables
Guttman's original definition of a scale allows also for the exploratory scaling analysis of qualitative variables (nominal variables, or ordinal variables that do not necessarily belong to a pre-specified common attribute). This definition of Guttman scale relies on the prior definition of a simple function.

For a totally ordered set X, say, 1,2,...,m, and another finite set, Y, with k elements k ≤ m, a function from X to Y is a simple function if X can be partitioned into k intervals which are in a one-to-one correspondence with the values of Y.

A Guttman scale may then be defined for a data set of n variables, with the jth variable having kj (qualitative, not necessarily ordered) categories, thus:

Definition: Guttman scale is a data set for which there exists an ordinal variable, X, with a finite number m of categories, say, 1,...,m with m≥ maxj(kj) and a permutation of subjects' profiles such that each variable in the data set is a simple function of X.

Despite its seeming elegance and appeal for exploratory research, this definition has not been sufficiently studied or applied.

title: Guttman scale


text:
On a Pale Horse

On a Pale Horse is a fantasy novel by Piers Anthony, first published in 1983. It is the first of eight books in the Incarnations of Immortality series. The book focuses on Zane, a photographer about to commit suicide who instead kills Death and must assume his office. The book spawned a five-issue comic series, released by Innovation Publishing from 1991 to 1993, but Innovation went out of business before releasing the sixth and final issue. It was also the inspiration for the television series, Dead Like Me, which worked on the premise that there are multiple Grim Reapers working the planet.

Plot summary
In the 1980s, Zane is living a pathetic life without money or employment. When a magic gem merchant cheats Zane out of an opportunity for romance, Zane decides to take his own life. As he starts to pull the trigger, he sees the spectre of Death (Thanatos) advancing on him. Startled, he pulls the gun from his own head and shoots Death right between the eyes. He is then visited by a woman who introduces herself as Fate, who insists that Zane must now assume the position of the man he has killed, since whoever kills Death must become the new Death. As Zane makes his way downstairs, he gets his first view of a pale limousine with the license plate reading "Mortis", his Death Steed (Death rides a pale horse) who can assume the form of a pale boat, a plane, or a pale limousine, as well as the form of a pale horse. Fate then departs and leaves Zane in the care of Chronos, the Incarnation of Time, who then instructs Zane how to use his deathwatch, how Mortis changes form, how to use other instruments of the office, and exactly what his new duties are. This entails residing in Purgatory and visiting Earth to collect the souls of humans who are in a close balance of good and evil and cannot determine their eternal destination (Heaven or Hell) without help.

In the course of learning the job, he discovers that his coming into the office of Death was not accidental, but was manipulated by a powerful magician (Cedric Kaftan Jr.). Despite being a mortal, this magician has strong ties to the other Incarnations from Purgatory and reveals to Zane that the Incarnation of Fate arranged Zane's destiny for the magician's purpose. There is a prophecy which states that Luna Kaftan, the magician's daughter, is destined to go into politics and thwart the schemes of Satan, the Incarnation of Evil. Luna Kaftan is thus a target for the forces of Hell and is in need of supernatural protection. The magician, who has done a great deal of research, feels that Zane is the best candidate for the Incarnation of Death to fall in love with Luna and thus want to protect her.

The only way for the magician Kaftan to meet with Death without Satan's knowledge is to die with his soul in balance. The magician chooses to sacrifice his own life to introduce Zane to Luna and explain to Zane the circumstances which brought him into the office of Death.

The dead magician's plans, however, seem to go awry. Due to manipulation by Satan, Luna is also destined to die before she can fulfill the prophecy. The magician had used too much black magic for his soul to be in balance. To bring it into balance before committing suicide, he has transferred the excess evil on his soul to Luna's soul, whom he has assumed to be innocent of evil. However, Luna has a burden of evil on her soul already, and her father's scheme has put her on the course to Hell. To correct this, she volunteers to switch places with one of Death's other clients. By sacrificing her own life to save another, she manages to balance the evil on her soul.

Her actions play right into Satan's trap, who does not care whether she goes to Heaven or Hell, only that she dies and is no longer a threat to his plots. However, Zane has already fallen in love with Luna by this time, just like the magician had planned, and he refuses to take the soul of the woman he loves.

Now the motives behind the magician's choice of Zane are made clear to him when the other four Incarnations (Time, Fate, War, and Nature) from Purgatory approach him and explain that they were all in on the plan. The previous Death could not be manipulated into betraying the duties of his office for love, so the Incarnations of Immortality decided to replace him with a young, stubborn man like Zane, who could.

Because Luna's soul is next in the queue, Zane cannot take the souls of other mortals until he deals with hers. He refuses to do so, thereby going on strike and leaving dying mortals in agony, unable to be released by death. As this is not to Satan's advantage, he first tries to bribe Zane, then intimidate him into going back to work.

Zane, however, has had a conversation with Gaea, the Incarnation of Nature, who has demonstrated to him the absolute power each Incarnation wields in its own sphere of influence. Zane eventually realises that the office of Death is unassailable by Satan and that he cannot be harmed within the sphere of that office. As an Incarnation, Satan himself has a soul and is subject to Zane's dominion. The conflict ends in a draw and Satan has no choice but to admit defeat.

With Satan's plot exposed, Purgatory changes Luna's destiny and she is free to return to life. Zane lifts his strike, and with Luna under his protection, Satan can no longer interfere with her fate through the means of death.

Reception
Dave Langford reviewed On a Pale Horse for White Dwarf #66, and stated that "One reason why this book works: matters of life and death deserve such agonizing - the Xanth books waste it on white lies or table manners. Another reason: the mechanics of magic and the after-life are fresh and inventive - whereas Xanth has been worn smooth. Not great literature, but good fun."

Reviews

 * Review by Debbie Notkin (1983) in Locus, #273 October 1983
 * Review by Mary S. Weinkauf (1984) in SF & Fantasy Review, April 1984
 * Review by Frank Catalano (1984) in Amazing Science Fiction, May 1984
 * Review by Neal Wilgus (1985) in Science Fiction Review, Spring 1985

The Liberati
Richard Mathews says that On a Pale Horse "explores fantasy's (and Anthony's) unique ability to embody abstractions. In the novel, an incarnation of Death engages in symbolic interactions written with the goal of helping readers come to terms with the inevitable end of life."

title: On a Pale Horse


text:
Talk:Dickies

Untitled
This is one of the few articles on clothing companies that isn't a huge ad.

"Despite the fact that Dickies clothing has traditionally been worn by blue-collar workers, some white-collar urbanites—particularly hipsters—also consider items of Dickies clothing, usually the work pants, to be at least moderately "hip" fashion accessories."

Wow, snotty much? --Aemilia 01:17, 23 July 2006 (UTC)

What do you mean? 65.183.135.166 00:36, 17 October 2007 (UTC)

Still, all info about them comes from Dickies, even the businesswire bit is a mere press release. I found out today from Dickies own customer service people that they don't manufacture any boots any more, Kodiak does, in China. Funny, you didn't read that on the Dickies site. You can buy different widths of boots from people Kodiak supplies, but not from the Dickies website. Dickies as a company now is out of the boots business in essence, Kodiak handles the manufacturing so completely that they don't even supply the Dickies own website with different widths? It's a fact confirmable with a call to their customer service. If it was in writing I could get it on the man page. Jackhammer111 (talk) 05:30, 11 January 2013 (UTC)

Licensing
Fair use rationale for use of Dickies corporate/commercial logo:

As per Wikipedia 'non-free use rationale' guidelines, this image is acceptable for the following reasons:

- The copyrighted work is small, and it does not compete with the copyright holder's usage. The image is a logo, and the resolution has been reduced from the original.

- The image is a logo and is directly related to the main subject of the article.

- The image is the primary means of visual identification of the subject or topic (e.g., a corporate logo).

- The image assists in visual identification and ilustration of the subject of the article.

- The image is NOT REPLACEABLE by any free content image.

S. Hulce (talk) 07:44, 6 January 2008 (UTC)

Fair use rationale for Image:Dickies logo.gif
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BetacommandBot (talk) 21:28, 13 February 2008 (UTC)

title: Talk:Dickies


text:
Högne

For other people named Högne, see Haguna.

Högne was a king of Östergötland who appears in sources of Norse mythology.

Heimskringla
Snorri Sturluson wrote that he was the king of Östergötland and that he had a son named Hildur and daughter Hilda who was married to Granmar, the king of Södermanland. When Ingjald Ill-ruler murdered most of the sub-kings of Sweden, Högne and Granmar successfully defended their kingdoms. Snorri states that Högne and his son Hildur often made raids into the Swedish provinces killing many of Ingjald's men, and that he ruled his kingdom until he died.

Volsunga saga
In the Volsunga saga, the kings Högne and Granmar also appear, and in this saga, Högne has the sons Bragi and Dag, and a daughter Sigrun who he had promised to Granmar's son Hothbrodd. However, Sigrun has a suitor, Helgi Hundingsbane who attacks Granmar. Helgi kills both Högne, Bragi, Dag and Granmar's sons Hothbrodd, Gudmund and Starkad.

title: Högne


text:
Rover CityRover

The Rover CityRover is a supermini car that was marketed by the former British manufacturer MG Rover under the Rover marque, between 2003 and 2005. Launched in the autumn of 2003, the car was a rebadged version of the Indian developed Tata Indica. Its performance was considered poor for a small car in contemporary road tests, and its lack of quality, poor road handling and high price were not well received.

Production of the CityRover ceased in April 2005, along with the rest of the MG Rover range, when the company fell into administration.

Technical details
The CityRover was offered with only one engine: a Peugeot derived 1,405 cc (1.4 L) four cylinder, eight valve engine producing 85 bhp and 88 lbft. It could accelerate to 60 mph in 11.9 seconds and had a top speed of 100 mi/h.

The CityRover was manufactured by Tata Motors, at their factory in Pune, India. Alterations for the British market included new bumpers, Rover badge grille, 14" wheels, and new suspension settings.

Safety
The high driving position and large glass area afforded drivers with good all-round visibility, while the rear lamps were mounted high up on the structure so other road users could see them more prominently. All doors were fitted with anti-intrusion bars, with child locks on the rear doors.

The steering column was collapsible, and a driver-side airbag was fitted as standard to all models, with a passenger airbag standard on the top trim level and available as an option on the entry-level and midrange trims. All seats had anti-submarine ramps and three-point seatbelts, with the front getting belt pretensioners and height-adjustable head restraints. ABS was included on "style" models.

Criticism
MG Rover was reported to be paying Tata £3,000 for each car and, with each model featuring a Rover corporate nose and revised suspension settings, the buying public was not impressed by the £6,495 starting price.

In May 2004, Rover refused to lend a CityRover to motoring show Top Gear to test it. In order to answer the question of "just how bad could it be?" James May went undercover and test drove one at a dealer while carrying a hidden camera. May went on to say, "that is the worst car I have driven on this programme".

Sales were well short of MG Rover's targets, so the CityRover was given an upgrade for the model year of 2005, with more standard equipment. In December 2004, prices were reduced by £900, confirming that the car's previous prices had not been competitive.

According to car reviewer Parker's, the CityRover was the worst rated Rover car from MG Rover, with a rating of two out of five. In October 2013, Top Gear Magazine placed the CityRover as number two behind the Perodua Kelisa on its list of "The thirteen worst cars of the last twenty years."

title: Rover CityRover


text: Template:Germany districts Saarland

title: Template:Germany districts Saarland


text:
Bob Kiley

Robert R. Kiley (September 16, 1935 – August 9, 2016) was an American public transit planner and supervisor known for his ability to rehabilitate transit systems experiencing serious problems. From 2001 to 2006 he was the initial commissioner of Transport for London, the public organisation that runs and maintains London's public transport network.

Kiley also worked as a CIA agent, CEO of the Massachusetts Bay Transportation Authority, deputy mayor of Boston, chairman and CEO of the Metropolitan Transportation Authority, and president and CEO of the New York City Partnership. He is credited as being the architect of the revival of Boston and New York's ailing public transport systems in the 1970s and 1980s respectively.

Kiley unsuccessfully ran for mayor of Boston in 1983.

Minneapolis, Boston and New York
Kiley was born in Minneapolis, Minnesota and educated at the University of Notre Dame in Indiana. He graduated magna cum laude and went on to study at Harvard's Graduate School. In 1963 he joined the Central Intelligence Agency. The BBC reported that although former colleagues say it would be incorrect to regard Bob Kiley as a "spook," he did travel around the world in his role as manager of intelligence operations. He later served as executive assistant to agency director Richard Helms.

Kiley left the CIA in 1970 and embarked on a career in management. He first worked as an assistant director at the Police Foundation in Washington D.C. Two years later, he became deputy mayor of Boston, a position he held for three years. During his time as deputy mayor, he prioritised public safety during the court-mandated desegregation of schools. In 1975 Kiley took on two new roles – one as adjunct professor of public management at Boston University and the other as chairman and CEO of the Massachusetts Bay Transportation Authority. He left the MBTA in 1979 and became a vice president at the Management Analysis Center (now part of Cap Gemini).

In 1983 Kiley moved to New York City to become the chairman and CEO of the Metropolitan Transportation Authority (MTA). He remained in the position until 1990 and in his time in the role secured state funding to the tune of $16bn to revitalise the railroads, buses and subways in the MTA region. Gene Russianoff, of the New York Straphangers Campaign, said that the money was spent wisely – "Even normally grudging New Yorkers say he did a good job," Russianoff said. The clean-up campaign involving arresting fare dodgers and cleaning up graffiti is now regarded as a prelude to the citywide policy of "zero tolerance" enforced by Rudy Giuliani during his time as Mayor in the 1990s.

In 1991 Kiley became president of the New York construction company Fischbach Corporation. He briefly held the role of chairman before moving again to become president and CEO of the New York City Partnership in 1995. From 1994 to 1998 he was also principal of Kohlberg & Company, a private equity investment house. Kiley's Transport for London biography notes that Kiley was also "Member of the Council on Foreign Relations, board member of the Salzburg Seminar, the American Repertory Theater, MONY Group Inc, the Princeton Review Inc and Edison Schools, Inc. He was on the Advisory Board of the Harvard University Center for State and Local Government".

London
In October 2000, Kiley was recruited to become the first commissioner of Transport for London (TfL), London's new integrated transport body, reporting directly to the mayor of London. Following his appointment, Kiley was criticised by the press due to his £4m four-year contract, the use of a £2m grace and favour property in Belgravia, and his expatriate status. He was regarded by the press as "a strange bedfellow" for Ken Livingstone, the socialist elected in 2000 as London's first mayor. However, Livingstone considered Kiley "the best candidate," with very similar views on transportation to himself. In January 2001 Kiley became Chairman of London Regional Transport (the public body appointed by the Secretary of State for Transport to run London's Underground network of trains), replacing Sir Malcolm Bates.

Livingstone's and Kiley's were opposed to the government's plans for public-private partnerships (PPP) to run London Underground. Kiley was sacked as chairman of London Regional Transport in July 2001 amid repeated clashes with his boss, Transport Secretary Stephen Byers, and was replaced by Malcolm Bates, who returned to lead the organisation. Remaining as commissioner of Transport for London, he and Livingstone took the government to court in trying to prevent PPP. They failed, and in January 2003 two separate private companies – Metronet and Tube Lines – took control of maintaining various tube lines. In July 2003 powers for running the rest of the Tube network, including manning and maintaining the stations, was transferred to TfL and London Regional Transport became defunct. Kiley welcomed the opportunity to take greater control over the running of the Tube, but warned that he felt he would be hampered by PPP:

"'I maintain that the Government’s Public Private Partnership (PPP) is not the right way to manage the maintenance and renewal of the Tube. As they stand, the PPP contracts do not satisfactorily address the improvements to the Underground that TfL and the public demand. Nevertheless, we will do everything within our power to hold the infrastructure companies to account on those Tube improvements they have promised to deliver.'"

Subsequently, the PPPs collapsed due to financial difficulties in the late 2000s.

In November 2005, Kiley announced that he would be standing down in January 2006, after five years in the job, albeit three years earlier than expected. Kiley was credited as helping Livingstone bring in the London congestion charge, introducing the Oyster card payment system, as well as improving the quality and frequency of Buses in London. He was paid almost £2 million in a settlement for standing down, and remained as a £3,200-a-day consultant. In a controversial interview with the London Evening Standard, he admitted he was unsure exactly what he did to deserve his consultancy fee, and denied rumours of a rift with Livingstone. He also revealed his struggles with alcoholism, exacerbated by overwork and the loss of his family in a car accident, followed by the death of his father shortly afterwards. He was replaced as Commissioner by Peter Hendy in February 2006.

Personal life
Kiley's first wife and two children died in a car accident in 1974. He was married to his second wife, Rona, at the time of his death. They have two sons.

title: Bob Kiley


text:
North Wessex Downs

The North Wessex Downs are an area of chalk downland landscapes located in the English counties of Berkshire, Hampshire, Oxfordshire and Wiltshire. The North Wessex Downs has been designated as a National Landscape (formerly known as Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty or AONB) since 1972.

The name North Wessex Downs is not a traditional one, the area covered being better known by various overlapping local names, including the Berkshire Downs, the North Hampshire Downs, the White Horse Hills, the Lambourn Downs, the Marlborough Downs, the Vale of Pewsey and Savernake Forest.

Topography
The AONB covers an area of some 1,730 km2. It takes the form of a horseshoe, with the open end facing east, surrounding the town of Newbury and the River Kennet catchment area. The northern arm reaches as far east as the suburbs of Reading in mid-Berkshire and as far north as Didcot in South Oxfordshire, whilst the southern arm extends to Basingstoke in northern Hampshire. To the west, the AONB reaches as far as Calne and Devizes. The highest points are the 297 m (974 ft) summit of Walbury Hill, situated southeast of Hungerford in West Berkshire (and the highest point in southern England east of the Mendip Hills), and the Milk Hill-Tan Hill plateau northeast of Devizes in central Wiltshire, at 295 m (968 ft) above sea level.

At its northeast extreme, Lardon Chase within the North Wessex Downs AONB faces across the Goring Gap to the Chilterns AONB on the other side of the River Thames. From here working anti-clockwise around the horseshoe, the Berkshire Downs have a steep scarp slope facing north over the Vale of White Horse and a gentler dip slope facing south into the valley of the Kennet. This area includes the horse-racing village of Lambourn and is hence sometimes known as the Lambourn Downs. Beyond the town of Marlborough the downs (now called the Marlborough Downs) sweep in a semicircle to the south around the headwaters of the River Kennet, with the Vale of Pewsey cutting through these downs carrying the headwaters of the Hampshire River Avon. Here too can be found the wooded area of Savernake Forest. Finally, the highest stretch of the Downs runs east along the Berkshire-Hampshire border on the opposite side of the River Kennet from the Berkshire Downs. Again the scarp slope is to the north (facing down in the valley of the Kennet) and the dip slope is to the south into Hampshire.

Geology and natural history
The downland is part of the Southern England Chalk Formation which runs from Dorset in the west to Kent in the east and also includes the Dorset Downs, Purbeck Hills, Cranborne Chase, Wiltshire Downs, Salisbury Plain, the Isle of Wight, Chiltern Hills and the North and South Downs.

The area is a site of scientific interest in numerous fields and has an internationally important habitat for early gentian. Geologically, its chalk downs, dry valleys and sarsen outcrops are of note, the last in the area around Marlborough providing material for many of the Neolithic and Bronze Age sites in the area such as Avebury Henge.

Economy
Horse racing forms a major industry in the area, largely because of the good quality turf that comes with the chalk underlay, and much of upland area is made over to gallops and other training areas. Several of the upland villages, and especially the large village of Lambourn, are home to major racing stables. Other villages with strong horse racing connections include Beckhampton, Kingsclere and West Ilsley. The term steeplechase originated in this area, a steeplechase originally being a race between two villages, navigated by reference to the church steeples visible across the rolling downs.

Literature
On the south-east arm of the AONB can be found Watership Down where the book Watership Down by Richard Adams is set, to the north of the small market town of Whitchurch, Hampshire.

Significant parts of Jude the Obscure by Thomas Hardy are set on and in the villages connected to the Berkshire Downs.

AONB Council of Partners
The Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty was designated in 1972. It is managed by a Council of Partners whose members are:
 * Local Authorities: Basingstoke and Deane Borough Council, Hampshire County Council, Vale of White Horse District Council, West Berkshire Council, Wiltshire Council, Oxfordshire County Council, South Oxfordshire District Council, Swindon Borough Council and Test Valley Borough Council
 * Representing the interests of nature conservation: Natural England, Hampshire and Isle of Wight Wildlife Trust and Action for the River Kennet
 * Representing the interests of the historic environment: Council for British Archaeology and English Heritage
 * Representing the interests of farming and rural business: Axis Farming, Country Land and Business Association, Forestry Commission, Government Office for the South East and the National Farmers' Union
 * Representing the interests of communities and parishes: Connecting Communities in Berkshire, the Friends of Pang, Kennet and Lambourn Valleys, Whitchurch Town Parish Council and Hungerford Town Council
 * Representing the interests of recreation and rural tourism: Friends of the Ridgeway and the Ramblers' Association.

title: North Wessex Downs


text:
CK722

The CK722 was the first low-cost junction transistor available to the general public. It was a PNP germanium small-signal unit. Developed by Norman Krim, it was introduced by Raytheon in early 1953 for $7.60 each; the price was reduced to $3.50 in late 1954 and to $0.99 in 1956. Norm Krim selected Radio Shack to sell the CK721 and CK722 through their catalog. Krim had a long-standing personal and business relationship with Radio Shack. The CK722s were selected "fall out" from the Raytheon's premium-priced CK721 (which are fallouts from CK718 hearing-aid transistors). Raytheon actively encouraged hobbyists with design contests and advertisements.

In the 1950s and 1960s, hundreds of hobbyist electronics projects based around the CK722 transistor were published in popular books and magazines. Raytheon also participated in expanding the role of the CK721/CK722 as a hobbyist electronics device by publishing "Transistor Applications" and "Transistor Applications – Volume 2" during the mid-1950s.

Construction
The original CK722 were direct fallouts from CK718 hearing-aid transistors that did not meet specifications. These fallouts were later stamped with CK721 or CK722 numbers based on gain, noise and other dynamic characteristics. Early CK722s were plastic-encapsulated and had a black body. As Raytheon improved its production of hearing-aid transistors with the introduction of the smaller CK78x series, the body of the CK721/CK722s was changed to a metal case. Raytheon, however, kept the basic body size and used a unique method by taking the smaller CK78x rejects and inserting it into the larger body and sealing it. The first metal-cased CK721/CK722s were blue, and the later ones were silver. More details of this can be found in Jack Ward's website, Semiconductor Museum or the CK722 Museum, see external link reference below.

Norman Krim – father of the transistor hobbyist market
In the late 1930s, Norm Krim, then an engineer for Raytheon, was looking into subminiature tubes for use in consumer applications such as hearing aids and pocket radios. Krim's team developed the CK501X subminiature amplifier tube that could run on penlight A type batteries or small 22.5 V B-type batteries.

Following World War II, Krim was interested in developing the first pocket vacuum tube radio. Raytheon approved, and a team headed by Krim designed a set of subminiature tubes specifically for radios (2E32, 2E36, 2E42 and 2G22). Raytheon’s acquisition of Belmont Radio proved prescient, and the result was the Belmont Boulevard in 1945. The radio did not sell well, and Raytheon took a loss. Despite this setback, Krim remained at the company and shifted his attention to the newly developed transistor.

Carl David Todd – participant in the CK722 design contest
Carl Todd, a hobbyist and later engineer in GE’s transistor division, placed 6th in Raytheon's CK722 design contest. His hobby work with this early transistor inspired him to pursue electrical engineering as a career. As an engineer, he helped develop the 2N107 transistor, GE's alternative to the CK722.

title: CK722


text:
Schema (psychology)

In psychology and cognitive science, a schema (: schemata or schemas) describes a pattern of thought or behavior that organizes categories of information and the relationships among them. It can also be described as a mental structure of preconceived ideas, a framework representing some aspect of the world, or a system of organizing and perceiving new information, such as a mental schema or conceptual model. Schemata influence attention and the absorption of new knowledge: people are more likely to notice things that fit into their schema, while re-interpreting contradictions to the schema as exceptions or distorting them to fit. Schemata have a tendency to remain unchanged, even in the face of contradictory information. Schemata can help in understanding the world and the rapidly changing environment. People can organize new perceptions into schemata quickly as most situations do not require complex thought when using schema, since automatic thought is all that is required.

People use schemata to organize current knowledge and provide a framework for future understanding. Examples of schemata include mental models, social schemas, stereotypes, social roles, scripts, worldviews, heuristics, and archetypes. In Piaget's theory of development, children construct a series of schemata, based on the interactions they experience, to help them understand the world.

History
"Schema" comes from the Greek word schēmat or schēma, meaning "figure".

Prior to its use in psychology, the term "schema" had primarily seen use in philosophy. For instance, "schemata" (especially "transcendental schemata") are crucial to the architectonic system devised by Immanuel Kant in his Critique of Pure Reason.

Early developments of the idea in psychology emerged with the gestalt psychologists (founded originally by Max Wertheimer) and Jean Piaget. The term schéma was introduced by Piaget in 1923. In Piaget's later publications, action (operative or procedural) schémes were distinguished from figurative (representational) schémas, although together they may be considered a schematic duality. In subsequent discussions of Piaget in English, schema was often a mistranslation of Piaget's original French schéme. The distinction has been of particular importance in theories of embodied cognition and ecological psychology.

This concept was first described in the works of British psychologist Frederic Bartlett, who drew on the term body schema used by neurologist Henry Head in 1932. In 1952, Jean Piaget, who was credited with the first cognitive development theory of schemas, popularized this ideology. By 1977, it was expanded into schema theory by educational psychologist Richard C. Anderson. Since then, other terms have been used to describe schema such as "frame", "scene", and "script".

Schematic processing
Through the use of schemata, a heuristic technique to encode and retrieve memories, the majority of typical situations do not require much strenuous processing. People can quickly organize new perceptions into schemata and act without effort. The process, however, is not always accurate, and people may develop illusory correlations, which is the tendency to form inaccurate or unfounded associations between categories, especially when the information is distinctive.

Nevertheless, schemata can influence and hamper the uptake of new information, such as when existing stereotypes, giving rise to limited or biased discourses and expectations, lead an individual to "see" or "remember" something that has not happened because it is more believable in terms of his/her schema. For example, if a well-dressed businessman draws a knife on a vagrant, the schemata of onlookers may (and often do) lead them to "remember" the vagrant pulling the knife. Such distortion of memory has been demonstrated. (See below.) Furthermore, it has also been seen to affect the formation of episodic memory in humans. For instance, one is more likely to remember a pencil case in an office than a skull, even if both were present in the office, when tested on certain recall conditions.

Schemata are interrelated and multiple conflicting schemata can be applied to the same information. Schemata are generally thought to have a level of activation, which can spread among related schemata. Through different factors such as current activation, accessibility, priming, and emotion, a specific schema can be selected.

Accessibility is how easily a schema can come to mind, and is determined by personal experience and expertise. This can be used as a cognitive shortcut, meaning it allows the most common explanation to be chosen for new information.

With priming (an increased sensitivity to a particular schema due to a recent experience), a brief imperceptible stimulus temporarily provides enough activation to a schema so that it is used for subsequent ambiguous information. Although this may suggest the possibility of subliminal messages, the effect of priming is so fleeting that it is difficult to detect outside laboratory conditions.

Frederic Bartlett
The original concept of schemata is linked with that of reconstructive memory as proposed and demonstrated in a series of experiments by Frederic Bartlett. Bartlett began presenting participants with information that was unfamiliar to their cultural backgrounds and expectations while subsequently monitoring how they recalled these different items of information (stories, etc). Bartlett was able to establish that individuals' existing schemata and stereotypes influence not only how they interpret "schema-foreign" new information but also how they recall the information over time. One of his most famous investigations involved asking participants to read a Native American folk tale, "The War of the Ghosts", and recall it several times up to a year later. All the participants transformed the details of the story in such a way that it reflected their cultural norms and expectations, i.e. in line with their schemata. The factors that influenced their recall were:

 * Omission of information that was considered irrelevant to a participant;
 * Transformation of some of the details, or of the order in which events, etc., were recalled; a shift of focus and emphasis in terms of what was considered the most important aspects of the tale;
 * Rationalization: details and aspects of the tale that would not make sense would be "padded out" and explained in an attempt to render them comprehensible to the individual in question;
 * Cultural shifts: the content and the style of the story were altered in order to appear more coherent and appropriate in terms of the cultural background of the participant.

Bartlett's work was crucially important in demonstrating that long-term memories are neither fixed nor unchanging but are constantly being adjusted as schemata evolve with experience. His work contributed to a framework of memory retrieval in which people construct the past and present in a constant process of narrative/discursive adjustment. Much of what people "remember" is confabulated narrative (adjusted and rationalized) which allows them to think of the past as a continuous and coherent string of events, even though it is probable that large sections of memory (both episodic and semantic) are irretrievable or inaccurate at any given time.

An important step in the development of schema theory was taken by the work of D.E. Rumelhart describing the understanding of narrative and stories. Further work on the concept of schemata was conducted by W.F. Brewer and J.C. Treyens, who demonstrated that the schema-driven expectation of the presence of an object was sometimes sufficient to trigger its incorrect recollection. An experiment was conducted where participants were requested to wait in a room identified as an academic's study and were later asked about the room's contents. A number of the participants recalled having seen books in the study whereas none were present. Brewer and Treyens concluded that the participants' expectations that books are present in academics' studies were enough to prevent their accurate recollection of the scenes.

In the 1970s, computer scientist Marvin Minsky was trying to develop machines that would have human-like abilities. When he was trying to create solutions for some of the difficulties he encountered he came across Bartlett's work and concluded that if he was ever going to get machines to act like humans he needed them to use their stored knowledge to carry out processes. A frame construct was a way to represent knowledge in machines, while his frame construct can be seen as an extension and elaboration of the schema construct. He created the frame knowledge concept as a way to interact with new information. He proposed that fixed and broad information would be represented as the frame, but it would also be composed of slots that would accept a range of values; but if the world did not have a value for a slot, then it would be filled by a default value. Because of Minsky's work, computers now have a stronger impact on psychology. In the 1980s, David Rumelhart extended Minsky's ideas, creating an explicitly psychological theory of the mental representation of complex knowledge.

Roger Schank and Robert Abelson developed the idea of a script, which was known as a generic knowledge of sequences of actions. This led to many new empirical studies, which found that providing relevant schema can help improve comprehension and recall on passages.

Schemata have also been viewed from a sociocultural perspective with contributions from Lev Vygotsky, in which there is a transactional relationship between the development of a schema and the environment that influences it, such that the schema does not develop independently as a construct in the mind, but carries all the aspects of the history, social, and cultural meaning which influences its development. Schemata are not just scripts or frameworks to be called upon, but are active processes for solving problems and interacting with the world. However, schemas can also contribute to influential outside sociocultural perspectives, like the development of racism tendencies, disregard for marginalized communities and cultural misconceptions.

Modification
New information that falls within an individual's schema is easily remembered and incorporated into their worldview. However, when new information is perceived that does not fit a schema, many things can happen. One of the most common reactions is for a person to simply ignore or quickly forget the new information they acquired. This can happen on an unconscious level—meaning, unintentionally an individual may not even perceive the new information. People may also interpret the new information in a way that minimizes how much they must change their schemata. For example, Bob thinks that chickens do not lay eggs. He then sees a chicken laying an egg. Instead of changing the part of his schema that says "chickens don't lay eggs", he is likely to adopt the belief that the animal in question that he has just seen laying an egg is not a real chicken. This is an example of disconfirmation bias, the tendency to set higher standards for evidence that contradicts one's expectations. This is also known as cognitive dissonance. However, when the new information cannot be ignored, existing schemata must be changed or new schemata must be created (accommodation).

Jean Piaget (1896–1980) was known best for his work with development of human knowledge. He believed knowledge was constructed on cognitive structures, and he believed people develop cognitive structures by accommodating and assimilating information. Accommodation is creating new schema that will fit better with the new environment or adjusting old schema. Accommodation could also be interpreted as putting restrictions on a current schema, and usually comes about when assimilation has failed. Assimilation is when people use a current schema to understand the world around them. Piaget thought that schemata are applied to everyday life and therefore people accommodate and assimilate information naturally. For example, if this chicken has red feathers, Bob can form a new schemata that says "chickens with red feathers can lay eggs". This schemata, in the future, will either be changed or removed entirely.

Assimilation is the reuse of schemata to fit the new information. For example, when a person sees an unfamiliar dog, they will probably just integrate it into their dog schema. However, if the dog behaves strangely, and in ways that does not seem dog-like, there will be an accommodation as a new schema is formed for that particular dog. With accommodation and assimilation comes the idea of equilibrium. Piaget describes equilibrium as a state of cognition that is balanced when schema are capable of explaining what it sees and perceives. When information is new and cannot fit into a previous existing schema, disequilibrium can happen. When disequilibrium happens, it means the person is frustrated and will try to restore the coherence of his or her cognitive structures through accommodation. If the new information is taken then assimilation of the new information will proceed until they find that they must make a new adjustment to it later down the road, but for now the person remains at equilibrium again. The process of equilibration is when people move from the equilibrium phase to the disequilibrium phase and back into equilibrium.

In view of this, a person's new schemata may be an expansion of the schemata into a subtype. This allows for the information to be incorporated into existing beliefs without contradicting them. An example in social psychology would be the combination of a person's beliefs about women and their beliefs about business. If women are not generally perceived to be in business, but the person meets a woman who is, a new subtype of businesswoman may be created, and the information perceived will be incorporated into this subtype. Activation of either woman or business schema may then make further available the schema of "businesswoman". This also allows for previous beliefs about women or those in business to persist. Rather than modifying the schemata related to women or to business persons, the subtype is its own category.

Self-schema
Schemata about oneself are considered to be grounded in the present and based on past experiences. Memories are framed in the light of one's self-conception. For example, people who have positive self-schemata (i.e. most people) selectively attend to flattering information and ignore unflattering information, with the consequence that flattering information is subject to deeper encoding, and therefore superior recall. Even when encoding is equally strong for positive and negative feedback, positive feedback is more likely to be recalled. Moreover, memories may even be distorted to become more favorable: for example, people typically remember exam grades as having been better than they actually were. However, when people have negative self views, memories are generally biased in ways that validate the negative self-schema; people with low self-esteem, for instance, are prone to remember more negative information about themselves than positive information. Thus, memory tends to be biased in a way that validates the agent's pre-existing self-schema.

There are three major implications of self-schemata. First, information about oneself is processed faster and more efficiently, especially consistent information. Second, one retrieves and remembers information that is relevant to one's self-schema. Third, one will tend to resist information in the environment that is contradictory to one's self-schema. For instance, students with a particular self-schema prefer roommates whose view of them is consistent with that schema. Students who end up with roommates whose view of them is inconsistent with their self-schema are more likely to try to find a new roommate, even if this view is positive. This is an example of self-verification.

As researched by Aaron Beck, automatically activated negative self-schemata are a large contributor to depression. According to Cox, Abramson, Devine, and Hollon (2012), these self-schemata are essentially the same type of cognitive structure as stereotypes studied by prejudice researchers (e.g., they are both well-rehearsed, automatically activated, difficult to change, influential toward behavior, emotions, and judgments, and bias information processing).

The self-schema can also be self-perpetuating. It can represent a particular role in society that is based on stereotype, for example: "If a mother tells her daughter she looks like a tom boy, her daughter may react by choosing activities that she imagines a tom boy would do. Conversely, if the mother tells her she looks like a princess, her daughter might choose activities thought to be more feminine." This is an example of the self-schema becoming self-perpetuating when the person at hand chooses an activity that was based on an expectation rather than their desires.

Schema therapy
Schema therapy was founded by Jeffrey Young and represents a development of cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) specifically for treating personality disorders. Early maladaptive schemata are described by Young as broad and pervasive themes or patterns made up of memories, feelings, sensations, and thoughts regarding oneself and one's relationships with others; they can be a contributing factor to treatment outcomes of mental disorders and the maintenance of ideas, beliefs, and behaviors towards oneself and others. They are considered to develop during childhood or adolescence, and to be dysfunctional in that they lead to self-defeating behavior. Examples include schemata of abandonment/instability, mistrust/abuse, emotional deprivation, and defectiveness/shame.

Schema therapy blends CBT with elements of Gestalt therapy, object relations, constructivist and psychoanalytic therapies in order to treat the characterological difficulties which both constitute personality disorders and which underlie many of the chronic depressive or anxiety-involving symptoms which present in the clinic. Young said that CBT may be an effective treatment for presenting symptoms, but without the conceptual or clinical resources for tackling the underlying structures (maladaptive schemata) which consistently organize the patient's experience, the patient is likely to lapse back into unhelpful modes of relating to others and attempting to meet their needs. Young focused on pulling from different therapies equally when developing schema therapy. Cognitive behavioral methods work to increase the availability and strength of adaptive schemata while reducing the maladaptive ones. This may involve identifying the existing schema and then identifying an alternative to replace it. Difficulties arise as these types of schema often exist in absolutes; modification then requires replacement to be in absolutes, otherwise the initial belief may persist. The difference between cognitive behavioral therapy and schema therapy according to Young is the latter "emphasizes lifelong patterns, affective change techniques, and the therapeutic relationship, with special emphasis on limited reparenting". He recommended this therapy would be ideal for clients with difficult and chronic psychological disorders. Some examples would be eating disorders and personality disorders. He has also had success with this therapy in relation to depression and substance abuse.

title: Schema (psychology)


text:
Talk:Bathala

source for photo?
like what century it was made, what region, etc. it'll help the article, but i'm also really curious. 75.45.188.144 (talk) 01:51, 21 May 2009 (UTC)

"those from Manila to the South"
In the third paragraph of the Mentions during Spanish colonial era section, there is a sentence that says the term Bathala was only used among "those from Manila to the South." The south of where, though? Can someone specify where this location is, please? Manong Kimi (talk) 19:14, 13 March 2022 (UTC) Manong Kimi

title: Talk:Bathala


text:
International Independent Hockey League

The International Independent Hockey League (IIHL) was an independent semi-professional ice hockey league that played for less than one month in the Great Lakes Region of the United States in December 2003 and January 2004.

History
Six teams made up the IIHL, but only three teams Lansing, Northern Michigan and Soo City played more than six games.

The first IIHL game was played on December 7, 2003 in Harbor Springs, Michigan, between the Northern Michigan Predators and the Lansing Ice Nuts.

The league quickly gained a reputation for fluctuating schedules, folding teams and instability, and after just 16 games were played, folded in January 2004.

Former National Hockey League and minor league player Darren Banks served as head coach of the Motor City Snipers.

Teams

 * Lansing Ice Nuts (11-1)
 * Motor City Snipers (0-2)
 * Northern Michigan Predators (4-4)
 * Ohio Valley Ice Cats (0-4)
 * Soo City Mavericks (1-5)
 * Tri-State Hurricanes - never played a league game

title: International Independent Hockey League


text:
Ella Jenkins

Ella Jenkins (born August 6, 1924) is an American folk singer and actress. Dubbed "The First Lady of the Children's Folk Song" by the Wisconsin State Journal, she has been a leading performer of children's music for over 50 years. Her album, Multicultural Children's Songs (1995), has long been the most popular Smithsonian Folkways release. She has appeared on numerous children's television programs and in 2004, she received a Grammy Lifetime Achievement Award.

Family and personal life
Jenkins was born in St. Louis, Missouri and grew up in predominantly lower-middle-class neighborhoods in the south side of Chicago. Although she received no formal musical training, she benefited from her rich musical surroundings. Her uncle Floyd Johnson introduced her to the harmonica and the blues of such renowned musicians as T-Bone Walker, Memphis Slim and Big Bill Broonzy. Her family frequently moved around the south side and, as she moved to different neighborhoods, she learned new children's rhythms, rhymes and games. Gospel music became a part of her soundscape as neighborhood churches broadcast their services onto the street. She also enjoyed tap dancing lessons at the local theater and was able to go to the Regal Theater to see such performers as Cab Calloway, Count Basie, and Peg Leg Bates. Cab Calloway is the person who she credits with getting her interested in call and response singing. While attending Woodrow Wilson Junior College, she became interested in the music of other cultures through her Mexican, Cuban and Puerto Rican friends. In 1951, she earned a Bachelor of Arts in Sociology with minors in Child Psychology and Recreation from San Francisco State University. Here, she picked up songs of the Jewish culture from her roommates. Upon graduating, she returned to Chicago where she began her career.

Career
In Chicago, Jenkins began writing songs for children while volunteering in recreation centers. She subsequently was hired as a Teenage Program Director for the YWCA in 1952. While working at the YWCA, she was invited to perform on the Chicago public television show, The Totem Club. She was soon offered a regular job as the host of its Thursday program, which she entitled This is Rhythm. She invited guests from diverse cultures to share their music's rhythms on her show.

In 1956, Jenkins decided to become a full-time freelance musician, a vocation she has pursued for over 50 years. She began her career as a children's musician touring school assemblies in the United States, often sleeping in a different place each night and encountering racial discrimination. As she performed in more varied venues, she began to write music about her experiences. Later that year, a friend recommended that she bring a demo tape to Moses Asch, the founder of Folkways Records. Asch was receptive to her music and in 1957, her first album, Call-And-Response: Rhythmic Group Singing, was released by Folkways. Since then, Folkways Records and, more recently, Smithsonian Folkways Recordings have released 39 albums, including the popular You'll Sing a Song and I'll Sing a Song. Her 1995 album Multicultural Children's Songs is the most popular Smithsonian Folkways release to date. She has not only been an important force in children's lives, but in the lives of parents and fellow music educators as well. She has participated in many conferences on music education, and has offered workshops for music educators, parents, and caregivers all over the world.

As a performer and educator, Jenkins has traveled extensively, performing her songs on all seven continents (even Antarctica). As she travels, she not only shares her music and experiences but also learns about the cultures of the people she is visiting, taking with her musical traditions and languages that she then shares with her audiences. She has also made television appearances on shows including NBC's Today Show, CNN's Showbiz Today, and PBS programs such as Barney & Friends, Mister Rogers' Neighborhood, The Me Too Show, Look at Me, and in films shown on Sesame Street. She performed at America's Reunion on the Mall in 1993, America's Millennium Celebration in 2000, and at Smithsonian's 150th Birthday Party on the Mall in Washington, DC in 1996. In collaboration with the John F. Kennedy Center for the Performing Arts, she has acted as a U.S. delegate to Hong Kong, the People's Republic of China, and the former Soviet Union.

As a recording artist, Jenkins has gained extensive recognition. Her recordings have received Parents' Choice awards and two Grammy Award nominations in the category of Best Musical Album for Children. In 2004, she was recognized with a Grammy Lifetime Achievement Award.

As an educator
Jenkins' favorite people are children. She sees them as genuine, down to earth people who should be listened to and recognized as having much to offer. Fellow music educator Patricia Sheehan Campbell lauds her as "a pioneer in her early and continuing realization that children have something to sing about, that the essence of who they are may be expressed through song, and that much of what they need to know of their language, heritage, and current cultural concepts may be communicated to them through song." Through her songs, she hopes to develop greater intercultural understanding and rhythmic-consciousness, and to help people discover the joy of singing and communicating through active participation in songs.

Jenkins' repertoire includes nursery rhymes, holiday songs, bilingual songs, African-American folk songs, international songs, rhythmic chants, and original songs. Drawing from cultures all over the world, she sings in many languages, exposing her audiences to diverse cultures and promoting greater cultural awareness.

Through her style of call-and-response singing, Jenkins promotes group participation. Found in cultures worldwide, from Greece to the Middle East to West Africa, call-and-response singing involves a leader or leaders singing a phrase and the rest of the participants commenting or responding with another phrase. Using this technique, she breaks the barrier between audience and performer, and turns everyone into a performer. By encouraging active participation, she promotes the development of a warm group feeling, cooperation among the participants, greater attentiveness, an enjoyment of singing, and a desire to sing. She also encourages children to lead songs, make up their own variations of songs, and experiment with fun and silly sounds. This allows children to think independently, develop leadership skills, and improvise, resulting in increased self-confidence.

In helping children discover music and participate in its creation, Jenkins provides them with a new tool of communication that they can use and enjoy for the rest of their lives.

Awards

 * Lifetime Achievement Award from the American Society of Composers, Authors, and Publishers Foundation (First recipient in the field of Children's Music and the first woman selected for the honor) (1999)
 * Grammy Nomination for Best Musical Album for Children for Ella Jenkins and a Union of Friends (1999)
 * Award from the Music Educators National Conference "in appreciation of her support for music education and the National Association for Music Education" (2000)
 * Grammy Association Lifetime Achievement Award (2004)
 * Honorary Doctorate of Human Letters from the Erikson Institute (2004)
 * Inducted into the San Francisco State University Alumni Hall of Fame (2004)
 * Grammy Nomination for Best Musical Album for Children for Sharing Cultures with Ella Jenkins (2005)
 * Voted 2005 Chicagoan of the year by Chicago Magazine
 * Fellow Award in Music from United States Artists (2009)
 * National Endowment for the Arts Grant, with Illinois Arts Council matching grant
 * Named Honorary Citizen of Louisville, KY, during The Year of the Child
 * National Academy of Recordings Arts and Sciences, Chicago Chapter, Governor's Award, contribution in children's recording and performance
 * Proclamation of Ella Jenkins Day (December 12) in Chicago, IL
 * American Academy of Children's Entertainment, Best Variety Performer Award
 * American Library Association Award
 * Fifth Star Award from the City of Chicago (2015)
 * National Heritage Fellowship recipient (2017)

1950s and 1960s

 * 1957: Call-and-Response Rhythmic Group Singing (1990) Reissue of FW7638 from 1957. SFW45030 (LP, Cassette, CD).
 * 1959: Adventures in Rhythm (1989) Reissue of FW7682 from 1959. SFW45007 (LP, Cassette, CD).
 * 1960: African-American Folk Rhythms (1998) Reissue of Negro Folk Rhythms FW7654 from 1960. SFW45003 (LP, Cassette, CD).
 * 1961: This-a-Way-That-a-Way (1989) Reissue of FW7652 from 1961. SFW45002 (LP, Cassette, CD).
 * 1961: This is Rhythm (1994) Reissue of FW7652 from 1961. SFW45028 (LP, Cassette, CD).
 * 1964: Rhythm & Game Songs for Little Ones (1991) Reissue of FW7680 from 1964. SFW45027 (LP, Cassette, CD).
 * 1964: Songs and Rhythms From Near and Far (1997) Reissue of FW7655 from 1964. SFW45033 (LP, Cassette, CD).
 * 1966: You'll Sing a Song and I'll Sing a Song (1989) Reissue of FW7664 from 1966. SFW45010 (LP, Cassette, CD).
 * 1968: Play Your Instruments & Make a Pretty Sound (1994) Reissue of FW7665 from 1968. SFW45018 (LP, Cassette, CD).
 * 1969: Counting Games & Rhythms for the Little Ones (1990) Reissue of FW7679 from 1969. SFW45029 (LP, Cassette, CD).
 * 1969: A Long Time to Freedom (1992) Reissue of FW7754 from 1969. SFW45034 (LP, Cassette, CD).

1970s

 * 1970: Rhythms of Childhood (1989) Reissue of FW7653 from 1963. SFW45008 (LP, Cassette, CD).
 * 1970: Seasons for Singing (1990) Reissue of FW7656 from 1970. SFW45031 (LP, Cassette, CD).
 * 1970: A Long Time to Freedom (1992) Reissue of FW7754 from 1970. SFW45034 (LP, Cassette, CD).
 * 1971: And One And Two & Other Songs for Pre-School and Primary Children (1990) Reissue of FW7544 from 1971. SFW45016 (LP, Cassette, CD).
 * 1971: My Street Begins at My House (1989) Reissue of FW7543 from 1971. SFW45005 (LP, Cassette, CD).
 * 1972: Little Johnny Brown (1990) Reissue FW7631 from 1972. SFW45026 (LP, Cassette, CD).
 * 1973: This-A-Way That-A-Way (1973) Folkways FC 7546. (Vinyl LP, Cassette, CD)
 * 1974: Nursery Rhymes: Rhyming & Remembering for Young Children & for Older Girls & Boys with Special Language Needs (1990) Reissue of FW7660 from 1974. SFW45019 (LP, Cassette, CD).
 * 1974: Jambo and Other Call and Response Songs and Chants (1996) Reissue of FW7661 from 1974. SFW 45017 (LP, Cassette, CD).
 * 1976: Growing Up With Ella Jenkins (1990) Reissue of FW7662 from 1976. SFW45032 (LP, Cassette, CD).
 * 1977: Songs, Rhythms And Chants for the Dance (2000) Reissue of FW7000AB from 1977. SFW45004 (LP, Cassette, CD).
 * 1979: Travellin' with Ella Jenkins: – A Bilingual Journey (1989) Reissue of FW7640 from 1979. SFW45009 (LP, Cassette, CD).

1980s

 * 1981: I Know the Colors of the Rainbow (1981) EA595 (CD).
 * 1981: Looking Back and Looking Forward (1981) EA596 (CD).
 * 1982: Early Early Childhood Songs (1996) Reissue of FW7630 from 1982. SFW45015 (LP, Cassette, CD).
 * 1983: Hopping Around from Place to Place Vol. 1 (1983) EA613 (CD).
 * 1983: Hopping Around from Place to Place Vol. 2 (1983) EA614 (CD).
 * 1989: ''This-a-Way, This-a-Way" (1988) SFW45002 (LP, Cassette, CD).
 * 1989: My Street Begins at my House (1989) SFW45005 (LP, Cassette, CD).
 * 1989: Adventure in Rhythm (1989) SFW45007 (LP, Cassette, CD).
 * 1989: Rhythm of Childhood (1989) SFW45008 (LP, Cassette, CD).
 * 1989: You'll Sing a Song, I'll Sing a Song (1989) SFW45010 (LP, Cassette, CD).

1990s

 * 1990: We Are America's Children (1990) Reissue of FW7666. SFW45006 (LP, Cassette, CD).
 * 1990: And One and Two (1990) SFW45016 (LP, Cassette, CD).
 * 1990: Nursery Rhymes: Rhyming & Remembering for Young Children & for Older Girls & Boys with Special Language Needs (1990) SFW45019 (LP, Cassette, CD).
 * 1990: Counting Games and Rhythms For the Little Ones (1990) SFW45029 (LP, Cassette, CD).
 * 1990: Call and Response (1990) SFW45030 (LP, Cassette, CD).
 * 1990: Seasons for Singing (1990) SFW45031 (Cassette, CD).
 * 1991: Live at the Smithsonian (1991) SFW48001 (VHS, DVD).
 * 1991: For the Family (1991) SFW48002 (VHS, DVD).
 * 1991: Little Johnny Brown with Ella Jenkins and Girls and Boys from "Uptown" ( Chicago) (1991) SFW45026 (Cassette, CD).
 * 1991: Rhythm and Game Songs for the Little Ones (1991) SFW45027 (Cassette, CD).
 * 1992: Come Dance by the Ocean (1992) SFW45014 (LP, Cassette, CD).
 * 1994: Play Your Instruments and Make a Pretty Sound (1994) SFW45018 (LP, Cassette, CD).
 * 1994: This is Rhythm (1994) SFW45028 (LP, Cassette, CD).
 * 1995: Multi-Cultural Children's Songs (1995) SFW45045 (LP, Cassette, CD).
 * 1996: Early Early Childhood Songs (1996) SFW45015 (LP, Cassette, CD).
 * 1996: Jambo and Other Call and Response Songs and Chants (1996) SFW45017 (LP, Cassette, CD).
 * 1996: Holiday Times (1996) SFW45041 (Cassette, CD).
 * 1996: Songs Children Love To Sing (1996) SFW45042 (Cassette, CD).
 * 1997: Songs and Rhythms from Near and Far (1997) SFW45033 (Cassette, CD).
 * 1999: Ella Jenkins and A Union of Friends Pulling Together (1999) SFW45046 (LP, Cassette, CD).

2000s and 2010s

 * 2000: Song Rhythms and Chants for the Dance with Ella Jenkins; Interviews with "Dance People" (2000) SFW45004 (Cassette, CD).
 * 2003: Sharing Cultures With Ella Jenkins (2003) SFW45058 (CD).
 * 2004: cELLAbration: A Tribute to Ella Jenkins (2004) SFW45059 (CD).
 * 2011: A Life of Song (2011) SFW45067 (CD)
 * 2013: Get Moving with Ella Jenkins (2013) SFW45073 (CD).
 * 2014: 123s and ABCs (2014) SFW45076 (CD)
 * 2014: More Multicultural Children's Songs (2014) SFW45078 (CD)
 * 2017: Camp Songs with Ella Jenkins and Friends (2017) (CD)

Filmography

 * 1991: Ella Jenkins Live at the Smithsonian (1991) SFW48001 (VHS, DVD).
 * 1991: For the Family! (1991) SFW48002 (VHS, DVD).
 * 2007: cELLAbration Live! A Tribute to Ella Jenkins (2007) SFW48007 (DVD).

title: Ella Jenkins