text:
Elodea

Elodea is a genus of 6 species of aquatic plants often called the waterweeds described as a genus in 1803. Classified in the frog's-bit family (Hydrocharitaceae), Elodea is native to the Americas and is also widely used as aquarium vegetation and laboratory demonstrations of cellular activities. It lives in fresh water. An older name for this genus is Anacharis, which serves as a common name in North America.

The introduction of some species of Elodea into waterways in parts of Europe, Australia, Africa, Asia, and New Zealand has created a significant problem and it is now considered a noxious weed in these areas.

Elodea canadensis, sometimes called American or Canadian water weed or pond weed, is widely known as the generic water weed. The use of these names causes it to be confused with similar-looking plants, like Brazilian elodea (Egeria densa) or hydrilla (Hydrilla verticillata). American water weed is an attractive aquarium plant and is a good substitute for Brazilian elodea. It can be used for science experiments in classrooms demonstrating how plants use carbon dioxide with the usage of bromothymol blue.

The American water weed lives entirely underwater with the exception of small white flowers which bloom at the surface and are attached to the plant by delicate stalks. It produces winter buds from the stem tips that overwinter on the lake bottom. It also often overwinters as an evergreen plant in mild climates. In the Autumn, leafy stalks will detach from the parent plant, float away, root, and start new plants. This is the American water weed's most important method of spreading, while seed production plays a relatively minor role.

Silty sediments and water rich in nutrients favor the growth of American water weed in nutrient-rich lakes. However, the plants will grow in a wide range of conditions, from very shallow to deep water, and in many sediment types. It can even continue to grow uprooted, as floating fragments. It is found throughout temperate North America, where it is one of the most common aquatic plants.

American water weed is an important part of lake ecosystems. It provides good habitat for many aquatic invertebrates and cover for young fish and amphibians. Waterfowl, especially ducks, as well as beaver, muskrat and aquatic turtles eat this plant. It is also of economic importance as an attractive and easy to keep aquarium plant, although in the states of Alabama, New Hampshire, New York, South Carolina, and Washington it has been deemed an invasive species and is illegal to sell.

 * Species
 * 1) Elodea bifoliata H.St.John – Canada (AB, SK), W United States (OR + CA to NM + MN)
 * 2) Elodea callitrichoides (Rich.) Casp. – Argentina, Uruguay
 * 3) Elodea canadensis Michx. – most of United States + Canada
 * 4) Elodea granatensis Humb. & Bonpl. – much of South America
 * 5) Elodea nuttallii (Planch.) H.St.John – much of United States + Canada
 * 6) Elodea potamogeton (Bertero) Espinosa – Chile, Peru, Bolivia, Ecuador

Chemical control
Chemical methods are ineffective in eradicating Elodea – at best they only slow growth for a season or two. As Elodea spreads into new ecosystems, it experiences rapid growth for 5–6 years and then slows as soil nutrients are used up. Elodea is threatening aquatic environments across Europe. Chemicals may be used in places that cause undue economic concerns, but very few aquatic herbicides are registered for aquatic use in the EU. Fluridone, the most commonly used aquatic herbicide is highly effective against Hydrilla, but only marginally effective against Elodea, especially at lower use rates.

Mechanical control
The plants can also be removed from lakes and rivers mechanically. They are extracted either by hand or by using rakes, chains, mowing boats or weed buckets. The problem is that through vegetative reproduction via fragments, mechanical removal methods can contribute to the spread of the plant. Torn fragments can be transported downstream or are introduced to new environments via attachment to boats and anchor chains.

title: Elodea


text:
12 gauge

12 gauge may refer to:

Size

 * 12-gauge shotgun, the most popular shotgun shell
 * 12 gauge sheet metal
 * 12 gauge wire

Music

 * 12 Gauge (Kalmah album), 2010 album by Finnish band Kalmah
 * 12 Gauge (rapper) (born 1968), American rapper active in the 1990s
 * 12 Gauge (12 Gauge album), 1994 album by the above artist
 * Emerson Drive, a Canadian rock group known as 12 Gauge from 1995 to 2000 before moving to Nashville

Sports

 * Paige VanZant, MMA fighter, nicknamed "12 gauge".

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: 12 gauge


text: Category:Shotgun shells

title: Category:Shotgun shells


text:
Talk:MD2 (hash function)

Untitled

 * Article: de:MD2
 * Corresponding English-language article: MD2
 * Originally Requested by: — Matt 18:12, 27 Jul 2004 (UTC)
 * Status: Done Mpolo 17:41, Oct 6, 2004 (UTC)
 * Other notes:

Ambiguity: MD2 is also the Quake_2 3D model format. This is used a lot in 3D circles. http://tfc.duke.free.fr/coding/md2-specs-en.html MD3 is the model format for Quake_3 etc 203.213.7.133 00:16, 19 March 2007 (UTC)

Citation needed?
As of January 2013, https access to www.facebook.com serves a certificate that is signed by a verisign class 3 certificate. The class 3 cert at the root of that chain it is self-signed using the MD2 hash function. Since this cert is self-signed, it doesn't provide anything in the way of security. However, if MD2 is ever broken with an arbitrary preimage attack, the signature on that root cert could be transferred to arbitrary certs. I'm not sure how to add a citation to wikipedia, however. (At least not to a fact, rather than to a paper in which someone claims the fact.)  — Preceding unsigned comment added by 128.12.106.206 (talk) 02:04, 12 January 2013 (UTC)

As of Feb. 18th, 2013, the certificates on *.facebook.com and mail.google.com have chains with roots that are self-signed by SHA1, not MD2. I have removed the assertion. 128.111.8.104 (talk) 21:55, 18 February 2013 (UTC)

Year?
First published: 1992 But in the text someone wrote 1989 I think its 1989 because MD4 got published in 1990 and MD5 in 1991. And I dont think someone will make things with a high versionnumber and will decrease it later :) —Preceding unsigned comment added by 82.92.18.24 (talk) 21:38, 28 January 2008 (UTC)

 * As far as I can tell there's no contradiction: it was designed in 1989 and simply not published until 1992. -- intgr [talk] 06:57, 29 January 2008 (UTC)
 * RFC 1115 was published in 1989 and mentiones a Message-Digest-Algorithm called RSA-MD2 in Section 4.2. The referenced Source in this Section has a Notice "by Ronald L. Rivest 10/1/88" -- ThePacker (talk) 22:31, 29 August 2008 (UTC)

title: Talk:MD2 (hash function)


text: Category:Military computers

title: Category:Military computers


text:
Lugdunum (disambiguation)

Lugdunum is a classical Roman place name, most commonly referring to one of two places:

 * Lugdunum, Gaul; now Lyon, France
 * Lugdunum Batavorum, a castellum on the mouth of the Rhine river near Katwijk, Netherlands

Other places:
 * Lugdunum Convenarum, now Saint-Bertrand-de-Comminges, France
 * Lugdunum Clavatum, now Laon, France
 * Lugdunum Consoranorum, now Saint-Lizier, France

Lugdunum may also refer to:
 * Lugdunum (museum), formerly the Gallo-Roman Museum of Lyon-Fourvière, in Lyons, France
 * Lugdunum Server, a server software for the EDonkey network

title: Lugdunum (disambiguation)


text:
Kinnikuman

Kinnikuman (キン肉マン) is a Japanese manga series created by the duo Yoshinori Nakai and Takashi Shimada, known as Yudetamago. It follows Suguru Kinniku, a superhero who must win a wrestling tournament to retain the title of prince of Planet Kinniku. Nakai and Takashi planned the series when they were attending high school originally as a parody to Ultraman.

The manga was originally published in Shueisha's manga magazine Weekly Shōnen Jump from 1979 to 1987, and was first adapted by Toei Animation into a 137-episode anime series broadcast on Nippon Television from 1983 to 1986. It restarted publication in 2011 in Shueisha's web magazine Shū Play News, and has spawned spin-off manga and anime series, video games, anime films, and several Kinnikuman-related merchandise.

There is also a sequel, the manga that was serialized in Weekly Playboy between 1998 and 2004. It was published in North America by Viz Media under the title of Ultimate Muscle. It was also adapted into three different television series, all of which were broadcast on TV Tokyo in Japan and released in North America by 4Kids Entertainment.

Kinnikuman is one of the best-selling manga series in Japan, selling over 77 million copies by 2021. As popular as was the anime series and its merchandise, such as Kinkeshi, a line of action figures released as M.U.S.C.L.E. in North America. It received the Shogakukan Manga Award for children's manga in 1984.

A new anime television series adaptation produced by Production I.G, based on the 2011 revival manga and celebrating the 40th anniversary of the original anime television series, premiered in July 2024 on CBC and TBS' programming block Agaru Anime, and is to be streamed worldwide on Netflix.

Kinnikuman
The story involves Kinnikuman (real name Suguru Kinniku), a clumsy, foolish, comical superhero who discovers that he is the missing prince of the planet Kinniku (known for producing the greatest superheroes in the universe). Since he is a clumsy fool, however, he must prove himself worthy of the throne. To do so he enters wrestling competitions and battles evil Chojin, culminating in a tournament between Kinnikuman and five pretenders to the throne: Kinnikuman Big Body, Soldier, Zebra, Mariposa and Super Phoenix. Many of Kinnikuman's allies begin as villains (Ramenman, Buffalo Man, Ashuraman and Warsman) or arrogant heroes (Terryman, Robin Mask and Wolfman). The heroes and villains are collectively known as Chojin (超人), which literally means "supermen".

Ultimate Muscle
Mantaro Muscle (also known as Kid Muscle, Mantaro Kinniku in the Japanese version) is the spoiled son of superhero wrestler King Muscle (Kinnikuman in the Japanese version). After 28 years of peace, the Seigi Choujins' (Muscle League) old enemies regroup and form the Demon Manufacturing Plant (dMp, known in the English version as Destruction, Mayhem and Pain). The Muscle League has lost its edge and are overwhelmed by the young, well-trained fighters. Recognizing their weakness, the Seigi Chojin reopen the Hercules Factory (a school for superheroes) and begin training a new generation of heroes to take on the dMp. At first unwilling, Mantaro (Kid Muscle) is one of the young heroes and defeats his father to prove his readiness to graduate. He and the other new Seigi Choujin defeat several members of the dMp and meet Kevin Mask, who quits dMp when he discovers their lack of honor. They also battle Sunshine and his pupils, who destroy the dMp after developing a renewed respect for the fighting spirit of the Seigi Choujins. The manga continues with the New Generation Replacement Tournament, Mantaro's challenge to master his inherited potential (Kajiba no Kuso Chikara, "burning inner strength" or "the fire"), the return of the Chojin Olympics, a fight with the Demon Seed (a villainous group), a backstory for Robin Mask and a tag-team tournament set in the past. Although the manga begins as a fairly lighthearted, humorous (albeit violent) story, later arcs (the No Respect and Demon Seed storylines in particular) have a darker tone and frequently deal with psychological trauma.

Manga
Yoshinori Nakai and Takashi Shimada (collectively known as "Yudetamago"), friends since fourth grade, decided to create a manga series in high school. Before its regular publication, the series (originally a parody of Ultraman) was released as two one-shots in Shueisha's magazine Weekly Shōnen Jump in December 1978 and March 1979: Okamarasu no Maki, (オカマラスの巻) which won the Akatsuka Award, and Eraginesu no Maki. (エラギネスの巻) Kinnikuman was serliazed in the same magazine from the May 28, 1979, to the May 4, 1987 issues. Shueisha collected its 387 chapters into 36, releasing them from February 15, 1980, to April 15, 1988.

The first 36 volumes were re-published as part of the Jump Comics Selection line in 26 volumes from July 19, 1994, to August 26, 1996, as part of the Jump Comics Deluxe line in 18  volumes from January 14 to November 18, 1999,  and on June 6, 2013, all 36 were published in  format.

A one-shot, Muscle Returns (マッスル・リターンズ), was published in Kadokawa Shoten's Kakutō Ace in January 1996. Despite the title, the series only began regular publication on November 28, 2011, in Shū Play News, Shueisha's web version of Weekly Playboy. The 37th was released on January 29, 2010, and the latest—the 85th volume—was released on July 4, 2024. Starting on July 5, 2012, e-book volumes began to be published as part of the Jump Comics Digital line; the latest digital volume publication date coincides with the print edition.

Since the series' 2011 restart, Yudetamago has published two related one-shots in Shueisha's magazines. In 2015, a 43-page one-shot titled "Kinnikuman Chōjin Retsuden" (Kinnikuman Superman Biographies) was released in Grand Jump to unfold the story of "supermen" characters. Four years later, the 47-page "Sayonara, Kinnikuman!! no Maki" (The 'Goodbye, Kinnikuman' Story) appeared in Weekly Shōnen Jump, depicting these supermen's arrival during the main character's retirement ceremony.

Sequel and spin-offs
The first manga spun off from Kinnikuman was Tatakae!! Ramenman (闘将!!拉麺男), a series focused on Ramenman which was published in Fresh Jump from 1982 to 1988. It was compiled into twelve volumes released between 1983 and 1989. In 1998 and 1999, ''Tatakae!! Ramenman'' was re-published in 9 volumes, in 2002 in 8 volumes,  between 2004 and 2006 in 12 volumes,  and in 2009 in 5 volumes. Toei Animation adapted it into a 35-episode anime series, which was broadcast from January 10 to September 11, 1988. In 1988, a film was released on July, and a video game on August. On March 21, 2009, the anime series and film were released in a box set. Also, a spin-off of ''Tatake!! Ramenman'', subtitled Chōjin Dai Meikan (超人大名鑑), was released in 1995.

After the publication of several one-shots of Ultimate Muscle: The Kinnikuman Legacy (キン肉マンII世) from August 1997 to February 1998, it began appearing regularly in Weekly Playboy from April 1998 to 2004 and was published in 29 volumes from October 19, 1998, to August 19, 2005. This 29 volumes were released by Viz Media in North America between July 5, 2004, and July 5, 2011. It was re-released in 21 aizoban volumes from September 18, 2009, to January 18, 2011. Three one-shots of Kinnikuman Legacy were published in 2002. The first, Densetsu no Joshō: Heracles Factory (伝説の序章～ヘラクレス・ファクトリー), was released on February 22, and the second, SP Densetsu Chōjin Zenmetsu! (SP伝説超人全滅!), was released on May 24. A guidebook titled Kinnikuman II Sei: Chōjin Taizen (キン肉マン2世　超人大全) was released on July 19, 2002.

All Chōjin Dai-Shingeki (オール超人大進撃), an Ultimate Muscle: The Kinnikuman Legacy spin-off, was serialized in V Jump from May 21, 2001, to March 20, 2007, and its four were published from August 2, 2002, to August 3, 2007. To continue Ultimate Muscle: The Kinnikuman Legacy's storyline, Kyūkyoku no Chōjin Tag Hen (究極の超人タッグ編) was published in serial form from 2004 to 2011 and released in 28 from November 18, 2005, to December 19, 2011.

A feminized version of the series, Kinnikuman Lady (キン肉マンレディー), was created by Masashi Ogawa and began as a webcomic on the Ultra Jump Egg site in June 2008. Its first was published on March 19, 2009, and in 2011 it was moved to the Ultra Jump website. The series concluded with the release of its 46th chapter in Ultra Jump, and the release of third, both on June 19, 2013.

Television series
The first animated series based on Kinnikuman was produced by Toei Animation and directed by Yasuo Yamayoshi, Takenori Kawada and Tetsuo Imazawa. The 137-episode series was originally broadcast in Japan on Nippon TV from April 3, 1983, to October 1, 1986. It was followed by Kinnikuman: Scramble for the Throne (キン肉マン キン肉星王位争奪編), directed by Takeshi Shirato and Atsutoshi Umezawa. This 46-episode series was produced by Toei and aired on Nippon TV from October 6, 1991, to September 27, 1992. The first series was packaged into 12 DVDs, released from December 6, 2002, to November 21, 2003, and the second series was released on four DVDs from December 5, 2003, to March 21, 2004.

On January 9, 2002, Kinnikuman: Second Generation premiered; the 51-episode series aired until December 25 of that year, and was released on 12 DVDs from September 21, 2002, to August 8, 2003. Licensed by 4Kids Entertainment as Ultimate Muscle: The Kinnikuman Legacy, it was broadcast on FoxBox in the United States. In 2003 a 13-episode sequel primarily focused on non-Japanese audiences was announced; it aired on FoxBox in North America, and from April 7 to June 30, 2004, in Japan. Another 13-episode spin-off, Kinnikuman Second Generation: Ultimate Muscle 2, was broadcast from January 4 to March 29, 2006, in Japan. All three series were directed by Toshiaki Komura, produced by Toei Animation and broadcast in Japan by TV Tokyo. The two spin-off series were released as two-DVD box sets on February 24 and June 23, 2006. In October 2022, Discotek Media announced that they had licensed Ultimate Muscle and they released the 77 episodes on Blu-ray Disc on May 30, 2023.

A new anime celebrating the 40th anniversary of the original anime television series was announced on March 16, 2023. It was later confirmed to be a television series, titled Kinnikuman Perfect Origin Arc (キン肉マン 完璧超人始祖編), based on the 2011 revival manga's arc of the same name, produced by Production I.G and directed by Akira Sato, with Makoto Fukami in charge of series composition, Hirotaka Marufuji designing the characters and Yasuharu Takanashi composing the music. premiered on July 7, 2024, on CBC and TBS' brand new Agaru Anime programming block, with Netflix licensing it for streaming worldwide weekly starting on July 8 of the same year.

Films
Seven films based on the original Kinnikuman were released from 1984 to 1986. The first, Kinnikuman, was directed by Takeshi Shirato and released on July 14, 1984. Kinnikuman: Seigi Chōjin vs. Senshi Chōjin (キン肉マン 正義超人vs戦士超人), the last film, was released on December 20, 1986, and was directed by Yasuo Yamayoshi. All seven films were compiled on a DVD released April 21, 2004.

Two films based on Kinnikuman: Second Generation were directed by Toshiaki Komura. The first (eponymous) film was released at the Anime Fair on July 14, 2001 and the second, Kinnikuman II Sei: Muscle Ninjin Sōdatsu! Chōjin Dai Sensō (キン肉マンII世 マッスル人参争奪!超人大戦争), was released at the same venue on July 20, 2002. The films were released on DVD on May 12, 2002, and April 21, 2003, respectively.

Video games
Several video games based on the series were released. The first were for home computers; a simulation game was released for the PC-88 in November 1984, followed by the 1985 fighting game Kinnikuman: Colosseum Deathmatch (キン肉マン コロシアムデスマッチ). The first console game (Tag Team Match: M.U.S.C.L.E.) was released on November 8, 1985, for Nintendo Entertainment System, and the last game (Kinnikuman: Muscle Grand Prix 2 Tokumori (キン肉マン マッスルグランプリ2 特盛)) was released for PlayStation 2 on September 25, 2008. The social networking service GREE released Kinnikuman Memorial (キン肉マン～メモリアル～) on February 27, 2014.

Other media
With the manga's popularity, Bandai produced a brand of eraser-like action figures (keshi) titled Kinkeshi between 1983 and 1987. In Japan, Bandai has released 418 different types of figures, and it was mainly sold through Gashapon. As it attracted the Northern American market's interest, it was brought out by Mattel under the name M.U.S.C.L.E., and a total of 236 figures were traded domestically in the 1980s.

In 2007, Toei asked fans if they would like to see all 418 figure types included in the Kinnikuman complete box set. On December 20, 2008, the box set with all the two first series episodes, all seven films, a TV special, and all the figures was released.

Aside from this most known series of products, a myriad of other Kinnikuman-based merchandise were released both in Japan and in the America, which vary from action figures to plush dolls, from key holders to pen drives,  from picture books  to trading card games.

Reception
The manga series has received several awards and sold well during both its 1980s serialization and its 2010s revival. In 1984, Kinnikuman won the 30th Shogakukan Manga Award in the category Best Children's Manga. The 2013 edition of Takarajimasha's guidebook Kono Manga ga Sugoi!, a survey of the manga and publishing industries, named Kinnikuman the seventh-best manga series for male readers. Media Factory's Da Vinci magazine ranked it 23rd on the "Book of the Year" in 2019. Several volumes of the series have been featured on Oricon's weekly chart of best-selling manga in Japan; all volumes between the 40th and the 66th have reached the top 20. Between 2008 and 2010, five volumes of Kinnikuman II Sei: Kyūkyoku no Chōjin Tag Hen also ranked on Oricon's top 30 list. The series as whole has sold more than 77 million copies in Japan as of 2021. As well as Kinnikuman's manga was considered a hit, the series' merchandise in general was also successful. Bandai reports that over 180 million units of Kinkeshi were sold in Japan. Shaenon K. Garrity said, "The M.U.S.C.L.E. figurines ... were the sole American extrusion of a 1980s manga/anime/licensing phenomenon."

The original 1983 anime series was popular, premiering with a rating over 20 percent. Despite being considered "too old to be marketable on American television" by 4Kids in the 2000s, the 2008 Kinnikuman complete box set had 25,000 reservation requests by August in Japan. In 2005, Japanese television network TV Asahi conducted a "Top 100" online web poll and nationwide survey; Kinnikuman placed 97th in the online poll and Ultimate Muscle placed 39th in the survey. In 2006, TV Asahi conducted another online poll for the top one hundred anime, and Kinnikuman placed 12th in the "Celebrity List". In France, however, it caused some controversy because of the depiction of a character's garment featuring a swastika; the episode in which the character appeared was requested to be removed from air.

Garrity called Kinnikuman a "cross between superhero parody and pro-wrestling goofiness". Liann Cooper of the Anime News Network said that the "artwork alone is enough to clothesline itself and the whole concept of superhero wrestlers is like a manga-fied Mucha Lucha", but Ultimate Muscle "is actually pretty funny". Eduardo M. Chavez of Mania.com wrote that in 1979, "the series relied on its comedy and action to bring in an audience." Ultimate Muscle, while "keeping some of the old silliness", adds "some depth through a mature writing style and better action scenes." On T.H.E.M Anime Reviews, Christi wrote, "Overall, Ultimate Muscle is the best thing about the FoxBox anthology." She praised the "funny, and in their own disgusting way, charming" characters, its "crisp and well-done" animation and the "very clean and appealing" character designs.

Legacy
Widely regarded as a classic manga series, it has been cited by Fullmetal Alchemist creator Hiromu Arakawa as a series she "love[s]" and as an influence to her work, as well as by Fairy Tail's Hiro Mashima. Assassination Classroom's Yūsei Matsui cited it as one of his favorite mangas, while Yoshihiro Togashi was influenced by Kinnikuman on shifting the focus of his Yu Yu Hakusho from occult detective fiction to the martial arts genre based on a similar shift Kinnikuman did from comedy to action.

Moreover, Kinnikuman has inspired real life wrestling events. At the Fight Entertainment Group's Dynamite!! 2008 martial arts event at the Saitama Super Arena, Bob Sapp fought Kid Muscle (played by Akihiko Tanaka) in an MMA match. Toei Animation announced a Kinnikumania 2009 wrestling event, scheduled at the JCB Hall in Tokyo Dome City on May 29, 2009, for the manga's 30th anniversary.

Kinnikuman's enduring popularity is also shown by it being used to co-promote Green Lantern in 2011 for the Japanese release of the film, and other characters of it appearing other merchandise, such as a series-themed, and a pollen mask advertisement.

title: Kinnikuman


text:
Pyrohy

Pyrohy may refer to

 * Pyrih (pl. pyrohy), a kind of Ukrainian  pie
 * Pierogi, boiled dumplings with a variety of fillings, called pyrohy by Western Ukrainians
 * Pyrohiv, a village south of Kyiv

title: Pyrohy


text:
The Monthly Aspectarian

The Monthly Aspectraian, founded in 1979 by the late Guy Spiro, an astrologer, was a free print and later online magazine featuring the daily “Astro-Weather” for the upcoming month.

History and profile
Founded in 1979 by Guy Spiro, The Monthly Aspectraian started its publishing the same year. It was based in Morton Grove, a suburb of Chicago, and published under the auspices of Lightworks.

The monthly periodical was distributed in the Milwaukee, Wisconsin area, northwestern Indiana and northern Illinois, as well as nationwide by subscription.

The magazine described itself as "dedicated to awakening consciousness, with the focus of our efforts being in the areas of personal growth, healthy and holistic living, spiritual transformation, and global awareness."

The Monthly Aspectarian was revived in November 2012 as Conscious Community Magazine. The original Monthly Aspectarian had a large section so named featuring a wide variety of diverse modalities from acupuncture to zen meditation.

title: The Monthly Aspectarian


text:
Masashi Kishimoto

Masashi Kishimoto (岸本 斉史) is a Japanese manga artist. His manga series, Naruto, which was in serialization from 1999 to 2014, has sold over 250 million copies worldwide in 46 countries as of May 2019. The series has been adapted into two anime and multiple films, video games, and related media. Besides the Naruto manga, Kishimoto also personally supervised the two canonical anime films, The Last: Naruto the Movie and Boruto: Naruto the Movie, and has written several one-shot stories. In 2019, Kishimoto wrote Samurai 8: The Tale of Hachimaru which ended in March 2020. From May 2016 through October 2020 he supervised the Boruto: Naruto Next Generations manga written by Ukyō Kodachi and illustrated by Mikio Ikemoto. In November 2020 it was announced that he had taken over as writer on the series, replacing Kodachi.

A reader of manga from a young age, Kishimoto showed a desire to write his own manga, citing authors Akira Toriyama and Katsuhiro Otomo as his main influences. As a result, Kishimoto spent several years working to write his own shōnen manga for Weekly Shōnen Jump magazine which he was a fan of.

Early life
Masashi Kishimoto was born in Okayama Prefecture, Japan on November 8, 1974, as the older identical twin of Seishi Kishimoto. His home was close to Hiroshima where his grandfather originated. Kishimoto's grandfather often told him about stories of war and how it was related to grudges. During his childhood, Kishimoto showed interest in drawing characters from the anime shows he watched, such as Dr. Slumps Arale and Doraemons titular protagonist.

In elementary school, Kishimoto started watching the Kinnikuman and Dragon Ball anime alongside his brother. During the following years, Kishimoto started idolizing Dragon Ball's creator Akira Toriyama, enjoying not only his series Dragon Ball and Dr. Slump, but also Dragon Quest, a series of role-playing video games for which Toriyama is the character designer. While he could not afford to buy Weekly Shōnen Jump where the Dragon Ball manga was published, he followed the series thanks to a friend from school who had subscribed to the magazine. By high school, Kishimoto started losing interest in manga as he started playing baseball and basketball, sports he practiced at his school. However, upon seeing a poster for the animated film Akira, Kishimoto became fascinated with the way the illustration was made and wished to imitate the series' creator Katsuhiro Otomo's style. Other series he enjoyed reading are Jin-Roh: The Wolf Brigade; Ninku; and Ghost in the Shell.

During his last years before graduating from Kyushu Sangyo University, Kishimoto spent time drawing manga and went to an art college with the hopes of becoming a manga artist. Upon entering college, Kishimoto decided he should try creating a Chanbara manga since Weekly Shōnen Jump had not published a title from that genre. However, during the same year, Kishimoto started reading Hiroaki Samura's Blade of the Immortal and Nobuhiro Watsuki's Rurouni Kenshin (the latter of which was published in Weekly Shonen Jump), which used the said genre. Kishimoto recalls having never been surprised by manga ever since reading Akira and found that he still was not able to compete against them.

In his second year of college, Kishimoto started drawing manga for magazine contests. However, he noted that his works were similar to seinen manga, aimed towards an adult demographic, rather than the shōnen manga read by children and teenagers. Wishing to write a manga for Shōnen Jump (which targets a young demographic), Kishimoto found his style unsuitable for the magazine. When watching the anime series Hashire Melos!, Kishimoto was surprised by the character designs employed by the animators and he started researching works from animators. He later met Tetsuya Nishio, the designer from the anime adaptation of the manga Ninku, whom he deemed a big influence. Having emulated the drawing style of multiple character designers from anime series, Kishimoto noted that his own style began to resemble that of shōnen series.

Early works
Kishimoto's first successful manga pilot was Karakuri (カラクリ), which he submitted to Shueisha in 1995. This earned him an honorable mention in Shueisha's monthly "Hop Step Award" in 1996, granted to promising rookie manga artists. At this point he was assigned an editor, Kosuke Yahagi, and worked on a number of rejected drafts including a slice-of-life manga, Michikusa (道くさ), and an action manga, Asian Punk (アジアンパンク). In 1997, he wrote a one-shot version of Naruto (NARUTO－ナルト－) which was published in Akamaru Jump Summer.

In December 1997, while redeveloping Karakuri for serialization, Kishimoto was offered a one-shot in Weekly Shōnen Jump. The new version of Karakuri debuted two weeks later in Weekly Shōnen Jump 1998 No. 4-5, but was hampered by the sudden deadline and performed poorly in reader surveys, being canceled immediately.

Following the failure of Karakuri, Kishimoto reduced his output and began moving in a seinen direction with drafts for a baseball manga, Yakyūō (野球王), and a mafia manga, Mario (マリオ), hoping to find better luck with a seinen magazine. Yahagi persuaded him to give the shōnen genre one last shot and Kishimoto began working on storyboards for a fantasy one-shot, Magic Mushroom (マジックマッシュルーム), but stopped when Yahagi called and asked him to instead develop storyboards for serialization. The two decided to submit a version of Naruto with a reworked story and world and produced storyboards for the first three chapters, winning a spot in the magazine. With a six-month lead time, Kishimoto repeatedly revised and redrew the first several chapters of the series.

Naruto
In September 1999, the serialized version of Naruto premiered in Weekly Shōnen Jump 1999 No. 43 and quickly became a hit. It ended on November 10, 2014, after more than 15 years of serialization, with a total of 700 chapters collected in 72 volumes. Sales have exceeded 113 million copies in Japan and over 95 million copies in the US, followed by over 93 million copies worldwide (outside Japan and United States) as of volume 36. This makes total sales for the series approximately 301 million copies.

Kishimoto was also the winner of "Rookie of the Year" for the series in the Agency for Cultural Affairs. It was adapted into two successful anime series, Naruto and Naruto Shippuden. Kishimoto requested that Tetsuya Nishio oversee the character designs of Naruto when the manga was adapted into an anime series. The Naruto manga series became one of Viz Media's top properties, accounting for nearly 10% of all manga sales in the US in 2006. The seventh volume of Viz's release became the first manga to ever win a Quill Award when it claimed the award for "Best Graphic Novel" in 2006.

War is a theme Kishimoto wanted to tell in the manga based on the Hiroshima crisis he was told from his grandfather. Despite understanding that war has no good side, Kishimoto wrote the concept of war in Naruto with a hopeful theme. Responding to Naruto ' s success, Kishimoto said in Naruto Collector Winter 2007/2008 that he was "very glad that the American audience has accepted an understood ninja. It shows that the American audience has good taste... because it means they can accept something previously unfamiliar to them." While writing the manga, Kishimoto met Eiichiro Oda, author of One Piece who he considered his rival. When Naruto ended, Oda left a message in the series' final volume acknowledging him as a rival. According to Kishimoto "That felt so gratifying."

Additionally, before the anime adaptation's premiere of My Hero Academia, he praised Kōhei Horikoshi's work, believing it would be a success overseas. Additionally, Kishimoto referred to Yoshihiro Togashi as one of his favorite artists.

For the video game Tekken 6, Kishimoto redesigned its new character, Lars Alexandersson. CyberConnect2 CEO Hiroshi Matsuyama said he was attracted by this design and thus asked the Tekken staff if he could include Lars in the video game Naruto Shippuden: Ultimate Ninja Storm 2. For Naruto Shippuden: Ultimate Ninja Storm Revolution, Kishimoto was responsible for Mecha Naruto upon being suggested by the staff to include a new character. Kishimoto decided on adding a character that would create a big impact worldwide, which resulted in Mecha Naruto. CyberConnect2 CEO Hiroshi Matsuyama was surprised when seeing the new character.

For the ninth Naruto film, Road to Ninja: Naruto the Movie, Kishimoto was responsible for both the story planning and the characters' designs. The designs used for the film were the designs Kishimoto made for a planned Part 3 of Naruto, however that idea was scrapped for Boruto so they were repurposed for The Last. To promote the film, Kishimoto worked in Motion Comic Naruto, a DVD that showed scenes from the manga in 3D that was given to the first 1.5 million people who went to the cinema. Regarding Naruto's publication, Kishimoto told Tetsuya Nishio in July 2012 that the series would take over a year and a half to end. However, Kishimoto admitted that it now appears that the manga will continue beyond that timeframe.

Throughout 2014, Kishimoto supervised the film The Last: Naruto the Movie, which would act as a bridge connecting the series' conclusion and epilogue, providing the story concept and character designs. The Naruto series finally concluded on November 10, 2014, with The Last: Naruto the Movie premiering a month later on December 6, 2014.

Kishimoto also worked on several other projects during Naruto's serialization. In 2010, Kishimoto produced a one-shot baseball manga, Bench (ベンチ), as part of Jump's "Top of the Super Legend" project, a series of six one-shot manga by famed Weekly Shōnen Jump artists. In April 2012, it was announced that Kishimoto would publish a one-shot version of his long-postponed mafia manga, Mario, in Jump Square, based on the rough, 160-page manuscript he began working on before Naruto became serialized. Throughout 2013, several of Kishimoto's one-shots saw their English-language debut in issues of the  Weekly Shonen Jump digital magazine, including Mario, Bench, and the original Naruto pilot. In 2015, Kishimoto also illustrated the cover of violinist Chisako Takashima's album Strings on Fire.

After Naruto
Following Naruto‘s conclusion, Kishimoto became involved in the Start of a New Era Project commemorating both the manga's conclusion and 15th anniversary. On the last page of the final chapter, Weekly Shōnen Jump announced that a spin-off miniseries, also authored by Kishimoto, would be released in 2015. The miniseries, Naruto: The Seventh Hokage and the Scarlet Spring, ran from April to July 2015, leading up to the premiere of Boruto: Naruto the Movie on August 7, 2015, which he supervised and co-wrote with Ukyō Kodachi. He also illustrated several light novels set during the same time period as The Last. When asked by Boruto Uzumaki's voice actress Yūko Sanpei to continue making Naruto films, Kishimoto stated that he was taking a break and could not physically do so.

In August 2015, Kishimoto announced that he already has finalized what he wants to do for his next manga series. A sci-fi manga, the series will feature a unique protagonist, with Kishimoto having already completed the character designs. He plans for the work to surpass Naruto in quality, and plans to release the series monthly via the digital magazine Shonen Jump Plus due to the taxing effort required for a weekly series. Kishimoto had not yet finalized when he plans to officially announce the series, as he wants to spend time with his family.

On December 19, 2015, it was announced that Kishimoto would supervise the monthly Boruto: Naruto Next Generations (BORUTO−ボルト−) manga series beginning in Spring 2016. The new spinoff will be illustrated by Kishimoto's chief assistant on Naruto, Mikio Ikemoto, and written by his writing partner for Boruto: Naruto the Movie, Ukyo Kodachi. It was preceded by a Naruto: The Path Lit by the Full Moon one-shot written and illustrated by Kishimoto. In the June 10, 2019 issue of Weekly Shōnen Jump it was announced that Boruto: Naruto Next Generations would transition to the magazine's sister publication, V Jump, beginning with its June 20, 2019 issue.

In December 2017 at Jump Festa 2018 it was confirmed that Kishimoto was developing a new science fiction adventure series tentatively scheduled to debut in 2018. A year later at Jump Festa 2019 the series was formally announced as Samurai 8: The Tale of Hachimaru (サムライ8 八丸伝). Kishimoto will be handling the script and rough storyboards, while Akira Ōkubo, a former assistant on Naruto and brother of Atsushi Ōkubo, is responsible for illustrating the final manuscript. The series debuted in Weekly Shōnen Jump on May 13, 2019, as the magazine's first new series of Japan's Reiwa period, following a 4-page preview chapter on April 27, 2019, marking the end of the Heisei period. The series however failed to find an audience and concluded a year later in the 17th issue of Weekly Shōnen Jump on March 23, 2020.

In November 2020 it was announced that after 51 chapters and 13 volumes Kodachi would step down as writer of the Boruto: Naruto Next Generations manga, with Kishimoto assuming full writing duties and Ikemoto continuing as illustrator beginning with chapter 52 in the upcoming December issue of V Jump magazine, published on November 21, 2020.

Manga

 * Karakuri (one-shot) (1995; Hop Step Award winner, published in Hop Step Award Selection 18 ('95~'96) (1996) and Akamaru Jump Winter (1997))
 * Karakuri (December 21, 1997; debuted and canceled in Weekly Shōnen Jump #4–5, 1998)
 * Bench (one-shot) (October 11, 2010, published in Weekly Shōnen Jump #45, 2010)
 * Mario (one-shot) (May 2, 2013, published in the June 2013 issue of Jump Square)
 * Samurai 8: The Tale of Hachimaru — creator, writer, storyboard artist (May 13, 2019–March 23, 2020; serialized in Weekly Shōnen Jump; debuted in issue #24, 2019)

Manga

 * Naruto (one-shot) (1997; published in Akamaru Jump Summer (1997)
 * Naruto (September 21, 1999–November 10, 2014; serialized in Weekly Shōnen Jump; debuted in issue #43, 1999)
 * Naruto: The Seventh Hokage and the Scarlet Spring (April 27, 2015–July 6, 2015; serialized in Weekly Shōnen Jump, debuted in issue #22–23, 2015)
 * Boruto: Road to B (one-shot) (August 17, 2015, published in Weekly Shōnen Jump #36, 2015) — collaboration between Kishimoto and Kenji Taira (author of Rock Lee SD)
 * Naruto: The Path Lit by the Full Moon (one-shot) (April 25, 2016, published in Weekly Shōnen Jump #21–22, 2016)
 * Boruto: Naruto Next Generations — editorial supervisor (volumes 1–13; May 9, 2016–November 2020), writer (volume 14–20; December 2020–May 2023) (serialized in Weekly Shōnen Jump (2016–19) and V Jump (2019–23); debuted in Weekly Shōnen Jump #23, 2016)
 * Naruto: The Whorl Within the Spiral (one-shot) (July 18, 2023, published in Weekly Shōnen Jump #33, 2023)
 * Boruto: Two Blue Vortex — writer and editorial supervisor (August 2023–present; serialized in V Jump; debuted in issue #10, 2023)

Motion comic

 * Motion Comic: Naruto — 2012, designer

Anime films

 * Road to Ninja: Naruto the Movie — 2012, story planning and original character designer
 * The Last: Naruto the Movie — 2014, original story, original character designer and chief story supervisor
 * Boruto: Naruto the Movie — 2015, original story, screenwriter, original character designer and chief production supervisor

Video games

 * Tekken 6 — 2009, guest character designer
 * Naruto Shippuden: Ultimate Ninja Storm Revolution — 2014, character designer and editorial supervisor

Artbooks

 * The Art of Naruto: Uzumaki (岸本斉史画集 UZUMAKI) — 2004
 * Paint Jump: Art of Naruto (PAINT JUMP Art of NARUTO－ナルト－) — 2008
 * Naruto Illustration Book (NARUTO―ナルト―イラスト集 NARUTO) — 2010
 * Uzumaki Naruto: Illustrations (NARUTO―ナルト―イラスト集 UZUMAKI NARUTO) — 2015

Guides

 * Naruto Secret Manual, Book of Meetings: Official Character Data Book (2002)
 * Naruto Secret Manual, Book of Soldiers: The Official Fanbook (2002)
 * Naruto Secret Manual, Book of Conflict: Official Character Data Book (2005)
 * Naruto Secret Manual, Book of People: Official Character Data Book (2008)
 * Naruto Secret Manual, Book of Everyone: The Official Fanbook (2009)
 * Naruto Secret Manual, Book of War: Official Character Data Book (2014)
 * Naruto Secret Manual, Book of Formation: Official Movie Guidebook (2014)
 * Naruto Secret Manual, Book of Nations: Official Movie Book (2015)
 * Naruto Kizuna: The Words That Bind — Heaven Scroll (2013)
 * Naruto Kizuna: The Words That Bind — Earth Scroll (2013)

Novels

 * Naruto: Hozuki Castle
 * Naruto Jinraiden: The Day the Wolf Howled (NARUTO－ナルト－　迅雷伝　狼の哭く日) — 2012, illustrator
 * The Last: Naruto the Movie
 * Boruto: Naruto the Movie

Jiraiya Ninja Scrolls series

 * Naruto: Tales of a Gutsy Ninja (NARUTO―ナルト―　ド根性忍伝) — 2010, illustrator, co-author
 * Naruto: Tales of a Pure Ninja (NARUTO―ナルト―ド純情忍伝) — 2015, illustrator

Secret Stories series

 * Naruto: Kakashi's Story — Lightning in the Frozen Sky (NARUTO－ナルト－　カカシ秘伝 氷天の雷) — 2015, illustrator
 * Naruto: Shikamaru's Story — A Cloud Drifting in the Silent Dark (NARUTO－ナルト－　シカマル秘伝 闇の黙に浮ぶ雲) — 2015, illustrator
 * Naruto: Sakura's Story — Love Riding the Spring Breeze (NARUTO－ナルト－　サクラ秘伝 思恋、春風にのせて) — 2015, illustrator
 * Naruto: Konoha's Story — The Perfect Day for a Wedding (NARUTO－ナルト－　木ノ葉秘伝 祝言日和) — 2015, illustrator
 * Naruto: Gaara's Story — Sandstorm Mirage (NARUTO－ナルト－　我愛羅秘伝 砂塵幻想) — 2015, illustrator
 * Naruto: Akatsuki's Story — Evil Flowers in Bloom (暁秘伝 咲き乱れる悪の華) — 2015, illustrator

True Stories series

 * Naruto: Itachi's Story — Daylight (NARUTO－ナルト－ イタチ真伝 光明篇) — 2015, illustrator
 * Naruto: Itachi's Story — Midnight (NARUTO－ナルト－ イタチ真伝 暗夜篇) — 2015, illustrator
 * Naruto: Sasuke's Story — Sunrise (NARUTO－ナルト－　サスケ真伝 来光篇) — 2015, illustrator

New Stories series

 * Naruto: Konoha's Story — The Steam Ninja Scrolls (NARUTO－ナルト－　木ノ葉新伝) — 2016, illustrator
 * Naruto: Naruto's Story — Family Day (NARUTO－ナルト－　ナルト新伝) — 2016, illustrator
 * Naruto: Sasuke's Story — Star Pupil (NARUTO－ナルト－　サスケ新伝) — 2016, illustrator
 * Naruto: Shikamaru's Story — Mourning Clouds (NARUTO－ナルト－　シカマル新伝) — 2016, illustrator

Intense Stories series

 * Naruto: Kakashi's Story — The Sixth Hokage and the Failed Prince — 2019, illustrator
 * Naruto: Sasuke's Story — The Uchiha and the Heavenly Stardust — 2019, illustrator
 * Naruto: Naruto's Story — Uzumaki Naruto and the Spiral Destiny — 2019, illustrator

Other

 * Strings on Fire by Chisako Takashima — 2015, special album cover artist
 * Learning Japanese History Through Manga, Volume 1 — 2016, cover artist
 * Learning Japanese History Through Manga, Volume 5 — 2016, cover artist

Personal life
Kishimoto is the twin brother of Seishi Kishimoto, the author of 666 Satan and Blazer Drive. In 2003, Kishimoto married, but did not take a honeymoon with his wife until 2015 due to being busy with Naruto. In the making of The Last: Naruto the Movie, Kishimoto based the idea of Hinata Hyuga wanting to make a scarf for Naruto Uzumaki on how his wife had once done the same for him. The couple has one son.

Influences and style
While as a child Kishimoto enjoyed reading manga, he was inspired to write one after seeing a promotional image for the film Akira. This made him analyze the artwork of Akira's original author, Katsuhiro Otomo, as well as Akira Toriyama, another artist he admired. Realizing both had their own style regarding the designs, Kishimoto decided to draw manga while crafting his own images. While attending art school, Kishimoto was also an avid reader of Hiroaki Samura's Blade of the Immortal, and extensively studied Samura's page layouts, action sequences, and anatomical techniques.

When Kishimoto was originally creating the Naruto series, he looked to other shōnen manga for influences while attempting to make his characters as unique as possible. Kishimoto cites Akira Toriyama's Dragon Ball series as one of his influences, noting that Goku, the protagonist, was a key factor when creating Naruto Uzumaki due to his energetic and mischievous personality. Kishimoto cited The Matrix as an inspiration for the redesigned character outfits. He has also cited Yoshihiro Togashi as one of his favorite manga authors, while the manga Sasuke by Sanpei Shirato inspired Kishimoto in the developing Sasuke Uchiha.

Kishimoto has also cited other influences such as Takeshi Kitano and Quentin Tarantino. He also mentioned Michael Bay's technique "of shooting a scene against the background light" but found it difficult to make. Another technique inspired by Jackie Chan's films he used in the Naruto manga is the "double-action"; in this action, a punch is shown in three different angles in order to give a big impact on the punch's strength. This was first shown in Naruto Uzumaki's battle against Haku. Kishimoto sometimes draws panels as intentionally confusing during fight scenes to add a sense of speed. On the other hand, Kishimoto commented that for the fights between Naruto and Sasuke, he added action from the top of the page to the bottom in order for them to be easier to follow.

During the series' publication, Kishimoto got married and had children. The changes to his personal life affected the story as he made Naruto Uzumaki meet his parents, something the author wanted the character to feel based on his own experiences as a father.

When drawing the characters, Kishimoto consistently follows a five-step process: concept and rough sketch; drafting; inking; shading; and coloring. These steps are followed when he is drawing the manga and making the color illustrations that commonly adorn the cover of tankōbon; the cover of Weekly Shōnen Jump; or other media. The toolkit he uses occasionally changes. For instance, he used an airbrush for one illustration for a Weekly Shōnen Jump cover but decided not to use it for future drawings largely due to the cleanup required.

Masashi and his twin brother Seishi have been drawing manga together since early childhood; thus their styles are similar. As a result, each has been frequently accused of copying the other- not just artwork, but story elements as well. Seishi notes that the similarities are not intentional but are likely because they were influenced by many of the same things.

Kishimoto has admitted he made no plans in regards to the development of Naruto's story developments. For example, when introducing Sasuke, the character says he wants to kill a person named "Itachi" who he had to redesign a number of times. By this time, Kishimoto only thought that Sasuke's brother, Itachi, had done a wrong deed in the past but was not certain of what was exactly. By volume 16 of the series which featured Itachi's actual introduction, Kishimoto decided Itachi was an agent working for Konohagakure to kill all members from the Uchiha clan except Sasuke. This is later revealed in volume 43 of the manga. Another one was the revelation that the late Minato Namikaze would be Naruto's father. When Kishimoto had the idea that Minato would be Naruto's father, he started adding hints of that to the reader such as giving the Hokage mountain from Konohagakure spiky hair similar to Naruto's.

In the making of the film Boruto: Naruto the Movie Kishimoto paid tribute to several movies, the most notable being the 1996 film The Rock and the 2002 film Spider-Man. The tribute to The Rock was mostly done by using Kishōtenketsu, which is a common way of structuring stories in Japan. He also claimed he was a fan of Avi Arad, most notably his films based on the Spider-Man comic book character.

title: Masashi Kishimoto


text:
Turning Torso

Turning Torso is a neo-futurist residential skyscraper built in Malmö, Sweden, in 2005. It was the tallest building in the Nordic region until September 2022, when it was surpassed by Karlatornet in Gothenburg. Located on the Swedish side of the Öresund strait, it was built and is owned by Swedish cooperative housing association HSB. It is regarded as the second twisted skyscraper in the world to receive the title after Telekom Tower in Malaysia.

It was designed by Spanish architect, structural engineer, sculptor and painter Santiago Calatrava and officially opened on 27 August 2005. It reaches a height of 190 m with 54 stories and 147 apartments. Turning Torso won the 2005 Gold Emporis Skyscraper Award; and in 2015, the 10 Year Award from the Council on Tall Buildings and Urban Habitat.

Design
Turning Torso is based on Twisting Torso, a white marble sculpture by Calatrava that was based on the form of a twisting human being.

In 1999, HSB Malmö's former managing director, Johnny Örbäck, saw the sculpture in a brochure presenting Calatrava in connection with his contribution to the architectural competition for the Öresund Bridge. It was on this occasion that Örbäck was inspired to build HSB Turning Torso. Shortly afterwards he travelled to Zurich to meet Calatrava, and ask him to design a residential building based on the idea of a structure of twisting cubes.

It is a solid, immobile building constructed in nine segments of five-story pentagons that twist relative to each other as it rises; the topmost segment is twisted 90 degrees clockwise from the ground floor. Each floor consists of an irregular pentagonal shape rotating around the vertical core, which is supported by an exterior steel framework. The two bottom segments are intended as office space. Segments three to nine house 147 rental apartments.

Construction
Construction started in February 2001. One reason for building Turning Torso was to re-establish a recognisable skyline for Malmö since the removal in 2002 of the Kockums Crane, which was located less than 1 km from Turning Torso. The local politicians deemed it important for the inhabitants to have a new symbol for Malmö in lieu of the crane that had been used for shipbuilding and somewhat symbolised the city's blue collar roots.

The construction of part of this building was featured on Discovery Channel Extreme Engineering TV programme which showed how a floor of the building was constructed.

Prior to the construction of Turning Torso, the 86 m Kronprinsen had been the city's tallest building.

The apartments were initially supposed to be sold, but insufficient interest resulted in the apartments being let. The owner has several times unsuccessfully tried to sell the building. Construction costs for the building were over twice the initial budgeted costs.

Events
On 18 August 2006, Austrian skydiver Felix Baumgartner parachuted onto the Turning Torso, and then jumped off it.

Floor 49 is home to the public observation deck while floors 50–52 contain a private club, meeting events, the reception, and the venue restaurant.

Floor 53 and 54 in the Turning Torso are conference floors booked and managed by Sky High Meetings. Since 2009 the owner, HSB, has decided to let the public visit these floors but only on special scheduled days, and pre-booking is required.

title: Turning Torso


text:
Royal Corps of Army Music

The Royal Corps of Army Music (RCAM, widely known by its former acronym CAMUS) is a Corps of the British Army dedicated to the provision and promotion of military music.

History
The formation of the Corps of Army Music was triggered by a defence review known as Options for Change in 1991 and followed a 1993 announcement by the Chief of the General Staff that the number of regular army bands was to be reduced from 69 to 30. The period saw the number of personnel fall from 2,000 to 1,100, with Lieutenant Colonel Roger Tomlinson of the Royal Military School of Music describing it as "a gloomy time for those of us in the military music business". The Queen signed a warrant on 13 August 1994 to allow the formation of the Corps of Army Music. All regular army officers who were Directors of Music in the various corps and regiments and all regular army musicians would transfer to the Corps of Army Music - now the newest and most junior corps in the army - on 1 September 1994.

The home of the corps was established at Kneller Hall in Twickenham, a site that already encompassed the Royal Military School of Music. The school was founded by the Duke of Cambridge, soon after his appointment as Commander in Chief in 1857, when the first class of military musicians was formed, a 'Class of Music'. The establishment was retitled as The Royal Military School of Music by Queen Victoria in 1887.

The Future Army Structure review of 2004 saw the bands of the Regular Army reduced from 30 to 23. In 2019 the number of Regular Army bands was further reduced to 14.

2019 restructuring
In 2019, the Corps of Army Music was restructured with a number of bands being co-located and re-named. In a process of 'Military Music Optimization', the regular Army band laydown was adjusted to enable several smaller bands to train and perform as larger bands for more significant Army events: 'Co-locating 11 of the smaller bands in three major garrisons and Sandhurst has increased the flexibility of CAMUS to perform at a huge breadth of events without compromising any of the traditional bands that have been performing for many years'.

Renaming and move
During a visit to Kneller Hall in December 2020, the Earl and Countess of Wessex announced the Corps of Army Music would be renamed the Royal Corps of Army Music from January 2021. This change was formally marked with a new title presentation in January 2021 with the Countess in attendance.

In September 2021, the Corps Headquarters moved to Gibraltar Barracks in Minley, whilst the Royal Military School of Music moved to HMS Nelson alongside the Royal Marines School of Music.

Bands of the Corps
The 14 constituent bands of the Corps are as follows:

 * Band of the Household Cavalry, at Combermere Barracks, Windsor
 * Band of the Grenadier Guards, at Wellington Barracks, Westminster, London
 * Band of the Coldstream Guards, at Wellington Barracks, Westminster, London
 * Band of the Scots Guards, at Wellington Barracks, Westminster, London
 * Band of the Irish Guards, at Wellington Barracks, Westminster, London
 * Band of the Welsh Guards, at Wellington Barracks, Westminster, London
 * Band of the Royal Regiment of Scotland, at Dreghorn Barracks, Edinburgh
 * Band and Bugles of The Rifles, at Worthy Down Barracks, Winchester
 * Countess of Wessex's String Orchestra, at Royal Artillery Barracks, Woolwich Station, London
 * British Army Band Catterick, at Piave Lines, Catterick Garrison
 * Band of the Royal Armoured Corps
 * Band of the King's Division
 * Band of the Royal Electrical and Mechanical Engineers
 * British Army Band Tidworth, at Lucknow Barracks, Tidworth Camp
 * Royal Artillery Band
 * Band of the Royal Engineers
 * Band of the Adjutant General's Corps
 * British Army Band Sandhurst, at the Royal Military Academy Sandhurst, Camberley
 * Band of the Royal Corps of Signals
 * Band of the Royal Logistic Corps
 * British Army Band Colchester, at Merville Barracks, Colchester Garrison
 * Band of the Queen's Division (originally disbanded in 2018)
 * Band of the Parachute Regiment
 * Band of the Army Air Corps
 * Band of the Prince of Wales, at Brecon

In addition to providing personnel for all the above bands, the Corps of Army Music provides 'technical support' for the Band of the Brigade of Gurkhas, based at Shorncliffe Camp, Folkestone, which is separately constituted. Other bands may be formed from time to time by drawing together personnel from different ensembles; for example the British Army Brass Band (founded by two Army Bandmasters in 2007) is 'made up of players across all bands of the Army, Regulars and Reservists'.

Army Reserve bands
All Army Reserve bands are not part of RCAM, reporting to their respective regimental/battalion headquarters, and provide around 30% of all the Army's musical output. The current Army Reserve bands, as of April 2021, are as follows:

 * Band of the Honourable Artillery Company
 * The Band of The Royal Yeomanry (Inns of Court & City Yeomanry)
 * Lancashire Artillery Volunteers Band
 * The Nottinghamshire Band of the Royal Engineers
 * The (Northern) Band of the Royal Corps of Signals
 * Lowland Band of the Royal Regiment of Scotland
 * Highland Band of the Royal Regiment of Scotland
 * Band of the Princess of Wales's Royal Regiment (Queen's and Royal Hampshires)
 * Band of the Royal Regiment of Fusiliers
 * Band of the Royal Anglian Regiment
 * Volunteer Band of the Royal Gibraltar Regiment
 * Band of The Royal Irish Regiment (27th (Inniskilling) 83rd and 87th and Ulster Defence Regiment)
 * Band of the Royal Welsh
 * Band of the Duke of Lancaster's Regiment (King's Lancashire and Border)
 * Band of the Yorkshire Regiment (14th/15th, 19th & 33rd/76th Foot)
 * The Band of The Mercian Regiment
 * The Salamanca Band of The Rifles
 * The Waterloo Band of The Rifles
 * Band of 150th (Yorkshire) Regiment, Royal Logistic Corps
 * Band of the Army Medical Services

Army Volunteer bands
All Army Volunteer Bands serve in a voluntary capacity and have no army reserves commitment but still perform for various mess functions, church parades and civic functions, supporting their regiment and the wider regimental family. The uniform worn is that of the regular regiment which is headquartered in the Tower of London.

 * The Band and Drum Corps of the Royal Regiment of Fusiliers (Lancashire)
 * The Band of the Royal Regiment of Fusiliers (Warwickshire)

title: Royal Corps of Army Music


text:
Talk:Face Dances

Album Title
Which is it, Face Dances or Face Fances? Bill 17:51, 6 Oct 2004 (UTC)
 * It's Face Dances, of course. What an odd question.

"The Quiet One"
Since when is "The Quiet One" a joint composition between John Entwistle and Pete Townshend? My Face Dances liner notes credit the song solely to John Entwistle.

Reviewed in Boston Globe?
removed this text: "Some critics, notably in the Boston Globe in a review in April 1981, said it was the Who's best album since 1973's Quadrophenia." because a search of the Boston Globe archive shows no such review in that date range. Maybe the range is wrong? If someone else finds it, please re-add Jessamyn (talk) 01:43, 16 January 2016 (UTC)

External links modified
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title: Talk:Face Dances


text:
List of Game Gear games

This is a list of the  games available for Sega's Game Gear handheld video game system. For games that were announced for the Game Gear, but never ended up releasing, see the list of cancelled Game Gear games.

There was an adapter for the Game Gear that allowed it to play Master System games. This article lists only the video games that were conceived for the Game Gear. For games originally released for the Master System, see List of Master System games.

title: List of Game Gear games


text:
Shotgun cartridge

A shotgun cartridge, shotshell, or shell is a type of rimmed, cylindrical (straight-walled) ammunition used specifically in shotguns. It is typically loaded with numerous small, spherical sub-projectiles called shot. Shotguns typically use a smoothbore barrel with a tapered constriction at the muzzle to regulate the extent of scattering.

Some cartridges contain a single solid projectile known as a slug (sometimes fired through a rifled slug barrel). The casing usually consists of a paper or plastic tube with a metallic base containing the primer. The shot charge is typically contained by wadding inside the case. The caliber of the cartridge is known as its gauge.

The projectiles are traditionally made of lead, but other metals such as steel, tungsten and bismuth are also used due to restrictions on lead, or for performance reasons such as achieving higher shot velocities by reducing the mass of the shot charge. Other unusual projectiles such as saboted flechettes, rubber balls, rock salt and magnesium shards also exist. Cartridges can also be made with specialty non-lethal projectiles such as rubber and bean bag rounds.

Shotguns have an effective range of about 35 m with buckshot, 45 m with birdshot, 100 m with slugs, and well over 150 m with saboted slugs in rifled barrels.

Most shotgun cartridges are designed to be fired from a smoothbore barrel, as "shot" would be spread too wide by rifling. A rifled barrel will increase the accuracy of sabot slugs, but makes it unsuitable for firing shot, as it imparts a spin to the shot cup, causing the shot cluster to disperse. A rifled slug uses rifling on the slug itself so it can be used in a smoothbore shotgun.

History
Early shotgun cartridges used brass cases, not unlike pistol and rifle cartridge cases of the same era. These brass shotgun hulls or cases closely resembled large rifle cartridges, in terms of both the head and primer portions of the cartridge, as well as in their dimensions. Card wads, made of felt, leather, and cork, as well as paperboard, were all used at various times. Waterglass (Sodium silicate) was commonly used to cement the top overshot wad into these brass casings. No roll crimp or fold crimp was used on these early brass cases, although roll crimps were eventually used by some manufacturers to hold the overshot wad in place securely. The primers on these early shotgun cartridges were identical to pistol primers of the same diameter.

Starting in the late 1870s, paper hulls began replacing brass hulls. Paper hulls remained popular for nearly a century, until the early 1960s. These shotgun cartridges using paper hulls were nearly always roll crimped, although fold crimping also eventually became popular. The primers on these paper hull cartridges also changed from the pistol primers used on the early brass shotgun shells to a primer containing both the priming charge and an anvil, making the shotgun primer taller. Card wads, made of felt and cork, as well as paperboard, were all used at various times, gradually giving way to plastic over powder wads, with card wads, and, eventually, to all plastic wads. Starting from the early 1960s to the late 1970s, plastic hulls started replacing paper hulls for the majority of cartridges and by the early 1980s, plastic hulls had become universally adopted.

Typical construction
Modern shotgun cartridges typically consist of a plastic hull, with the base covered in a thin brass or plated steel covering. Paper cartridges used to be common and are still made, as are solid brass shells. Some companies have produced what appear to be all-plastic shells, although in these there is a small metal ring cast into the rim of the cartridge to provide strength. More powerful loads may use "high brass" shells, with the brass extended up further along the sides of the cartridge, while light loads will use "low brass" shells. The brass does not actually provide a significant amount of strength, but the difference in appearance provides shooters with a way to quickly differentiate between high and low powered ammunition.

The base of the cartridge is fairly thick to hold the large primer, which is longer than primers used for rifle and pistol ammunition. Modern smokeless powders are far more efficient than the original black powder, so very little space is actually taken by propellant; shotguns use small quantities of double base powders, equivalent to quick-burning pistol powders, with up to 50% nitroglycerin. After the powder comes the wadding or wad. The primary purpose of a wad is to prevent the shot and powder from mixing, and to provide a seal that prevents gas from blowing through the shot rather than propelling it. The wad design may also encompass a shock absorber and a cup that holds the shot together until it is out of the barrel.

A modern wad consists of three parts, the powder wad, the cushion, and the shot cup, which may be separate pieces or be one part. The powder wad acts as the gas seal (known as obturation), and is placed firmly over the powder; it may be a paper or plastic part. The cushion comes next, and it is designed to compress under pressure, to act as a shock absorber and minimize the deformation of the shot; it also serves to take up as much space as is needed between the powder wad and the shot. Cushions are almost universally made of plastic with crumple zones, although for game shooting in areas grazed by farm stock or wildlife biodegradable fiber wads are often preferred. The shot cup is the last part of the cartridge, and it serves to hold the shot together as it moves down the barrel. Shot cups have slits on the sides so that they peel open after leaving the barrel, allowing the shot to continue on in flight undisturbed. Shot cups, where used, are also almost universally plastic. The shot fills the shot cup (which must be of the correct length to hold the desired quantity of shot), and the cartridges is then crimped, or rolled closed.

The only known shotgun cartridge using rebated rims is the 12 Gauge RAS12, specially made for the RAS-12 semi automatic shotgun.

Standard
Shotgun cartridges are generally measured by "gauge", which is the weight, in fractions of a pound, of a pure lead round ball that is the same diameter as the internal diameter of the barrel; in Britain and some other locations outside the United States the term "bore" is used with the same meaning. This contrasts with rifles and handguns, which are almost always measured in "caliber", a measurement of the internal diameter of the barrel measured in millimeters or inches and, consequently, is approximately equal to the diameter of the projectile that is fired.

For example, a shotgun is called "12-gauge" because a lead sphere that just fits the inside diameter of the barrel weighs 1/12 lb. This measurement comes from the time when early cannons were designated in a similar manner—a "12 pounder" would be a cannon that fired a 12 lb cannonball; inversely, an individual "12-gauge" shot would in fact be a $1⁄12$ pounder. Thus, a 10-gauge shotgun has a larger-diameter barrel than a 12-gauge shotgun, which has a larger-diameter barrel than a 20-gauge shotgun, and so forth.

The most popular shotgun gauge by far is 12-gauge. The larger 10-gauge, once popular for hunting larger birds such as goose and turkey, is on the decline with the advent of the longer, "magnum" 12-gauge cartridges, which offer similar performance. The mid-size 20-gauge is also a very popular chambering for smaller-framed shooters who favor its reduced recoil, those hunting smaller game, and experienced trap and skeet shooters who like the additional challenge of hitting their targets with a smaller shot charge. Other less-common, but commercially available gauges are 16 and 28. Several other gauges may be encountered but are considered obsolete. The 4, 8, 24, and 32 gauge guns are collector items. There are also some shotguns measured by diameter, rather than gauge. These are the .410 (10.4mm), .380 (9mm), and .22 (5.5mm); these are correctly called ".410 bore", not ".410-gauge".

The .410 bore is the smallest shotgun size which is widely available commercially in the United States. For size comparison purposes, the .410, when measured by gauge, would be around 67- or 68-gauge (it is 67.62-gauge), The .410 is often mistakenly assigned 36-gauge. The 36 gauge had a 0.506" bore. Reloading components are still available.

Other calibers

Snake shot (AKA: bird shot, rat shot, and dust shot) refers to handgun and rifle cartridges loaded with small lead shot. Snake shot is generally used for shooting at snakes, rodents, birds, and other pest at very close range. The most common snake shot cartridges are .22 Long Rifle, .22 Magnum, .38 Special, 9×19mm Luger, .40 Smith & Wesson, .44 Special, .45 ACP, and .45 Colt.

Commonly used by hikers, backpackers and campers, snake shot is ideally suited for use in revolvers and derringers, chambered for .38 Special and .357 Magnum. Snake shot may not cycle properly in semi-automatic pistols. Rifles specifically made to fire .22 caliber snake shot are also commonly used by farmers for pest control inside of barns and sheds, as the snake shot will not shoot holes in the roof or walls, or more importantly injure livestock with a ricochet. They are also used for airport and warehouse pest control.

Shot shells have also been historically issued to soldiers, to be used in standard issue rifles. The .45-70 "Forager" round, which contained a thin wooden bullet filled with birdshot, was intended for hunting small game to supplement the soldiers' rations. This round in effect made the .45-70 rifle into a small gauge shotgun, capable of killing rabbits, ducks, and other small game.

During World War II, the United States military developed the .45 ACP M12 and M15 shot cartridge cartridges. They were issued to pilots, to be used as foraging ammunition in the event that they were shot down. While they were best used in the M1917 revolvers, the M15 cartridge would actually cycle the semi-automatic M1911 pistols action.

Garden guns
Garden guns are smooth-bore firearms specifically made to fire .22 caliber snake shot, and are commonly used by gardeners and farmers for pest control. Garden guns are short-range weapons that can do little harm past 15 to 20 yards, and they are quiet when fired with snake shot, compared to a standard ammunition. These guns are especially effective inside of barns and sheds, as the snake shot will not shoot holes in the roof or walls, or more importantly injure livestock with a ricochet. They are also used for pest control at airports, warehouses, stockyards, etc.

Shotgun gauge diameter formula
The standard definition of shotgun gauge assumes that a pure lead ball is used. The following formulas relate the bore diameter dn (in inches) to the gauge n:

 * $$d_n = 1.67 / \sqrt[3]{n} = \sqrt[3]{4.66/n}$$

 * $$n= (1.67 / d_n)^{3} = 4.66 / (d_n)^{3}$$

For example, the common bore diameter dn = 0.410 inches (.410 bore) is effectively gauge n = 67.6.

Lead free
By 1957 the ammo industry had the capability of producing a nontoxic shot, made out of either iron or steel. In 1976 the United States Fish and Wildlife Service took the first steps toward phasing out lead shot by designating steel-shot-only hunting zones for waterfowl. In the 1970s lead-free ammunition loaded with steel, bismuth, or tungsten composite pellets instead of more traditional lead-based shot was introduced and required for Migratory Bird Hunting (Ducks & Geese). Lead shot in waterfowl hunting was banned throughout the United States in 1991. Due to environmental regulations, lead-loaded ammunition must be used carefully by hunters in Europe. For instance, in France, it cannot be fired in the vicinity of a pond. In fact, the laws are so complex that some hunters in Europe prefer not to risk getting into problems for firing lead pellets in the wrong places, so they opt for composite pellets in all situations. The use of lead shot is banned in Canada and the United States when hunting migratory game birds, such as ducks and geese, forcing the use of non-toxic shot in these countries for waterfowl hunting (lead shot can still legally be used in the United States for hunting game other than waterfowl). This means that manufacturers need to market new types of lead-free shotgun ammunition loaded with alternative pellets to meet environmental restrictions on the use of lead, as well as lead-based and cheaper shotshell ammunition, to remain competitive worldwide.

The C.I.P. enforces approval of all ammunition a manufacturer or importer intends to sell in any of the (mainly European) C.I.P. member states. The ammunition manufacturing plants are obliged to test their products during production against the C.I.P. pressure specifications. A compliance report must be issued for each production lot and archived for later verification if needed.

Besides pressure testing, cartridges containing steel pellets require an additional Vickers hardness test. The steel pellets used must have a hardness under 100 HV1, but, even so, steel is known to wear the barrel excessively over time if the steel pellet velocities become too high, leading to potentially harmful situations for the user. As a result, the measurement of pellet velocity is also an additional obligation for cartridges in 12-, 16-, and 20-gauges in both standard and high performance versions sold in Europe. The velocity of pellets must be below 425 m/s, 390 m/s and 390 m/s respectively for the standard versions. Another disadvantage of steel pellets is their tendency to ricochet unpredictably after striking any hard surface. This poses a major hazard at indoor ranges or whenever metal targets or hard backstops (e.g. concrete wall vs. a dirt berm) are used. For this reason, steel shot is explicitly banned at most indoor shooting ranges. Any shooters who are considering buying ammo loaded with steel for anything other than hunting purposes should first find out if using it won't cause undue hazard to themselves and others.

However, data supporting the danger of firing high velocity cartridges loaded with steel shot causing barrel wear has not been published and the US equivalent of CIP, SAAMI, does not have any such restrictive limitations on the velocity of commercial steel shot cartridges sold in the United States. Similarly, shotgun manufacturers selling shotguns in the United States select their own appropriate standards for setting steel hardness for shotgun barrels and for velocities of steel shot ammunition.

Some indoor shooting ranges prohibit the use of steel shot over concern of it causing a spark when hitting an object down range and causing a fire.

Shot sizes

Cartridges are loaded with different sizes of shot depending on the target. For skeet shooting, a small shot such as a No. 8 or No. 9 would be used, because range is short and a high density pattern is desirable. Trap shooting requires longer shots, and so a larger shot, usually #$7 1/2$ is used. For hunting game, the range and penetration needed to assure a clean kill is considered. Shot loses its velocity very quickly due to its low sectional density and ballistic coefficient (see external ballistics). Small shot, like that used for skeet and trap, will have lost all appreciable energy by around 100 yd, which is why trap and skeet ranges can be located in relatively close proximity to inhabited areas with negligible risk of injury to those outside the range.

Birdshot

Birdshots are designed to be used for waterfowl and upland hunting, where the game is agile small/medium-sized birds. Their sizes are numbered similarly to the shotgun gauges—the smaller the number, the larger the shot (except in the obsolete Swedish system, in which it is reversed). Generally birdshot is just called "shot", such as "number 9 shot" or "BB shot".

To make matters more complex, there are small differences in the size of American, Standard (European), Belgian, Italian, Norwegian, Spanish, Swedish, British, and Australian shot. That is because some systems go by diameter in inches (American), some go by diameter in millimeters (European), and the British system goes by the number of lead shot per ounce. Australia has a hybrid system due to its market being flooded with a mixture of British, American, and European cartridges.

For American shot, a useful method for remembering the diameter of numbered shot in inches is simply to subtract the shot size from 17. The resulting answer is the diameter of the shot in hundredths of an inch. For example, #2 shot gives 17−2 = 15, meaning that the diameter of #2 shot is $15/100$ or 0.15 in. B shot is 0.170 in, and sizes go up in 0.01 in increments for BB and BBB sizes.

In metric measurement, it is easy to remember that #5 shot is 3 mm; each number up or down represents a 0.25 mm change in diameter, so e.g. #7 shot is 2.5 mm.

Number 11 and number 12 lead shot also exists. Shot of these sizes is used in specialized cartridges designed to be fired at close range (less than four yards) for killing snakes, rats and similar-sized animals. Such cartridges are typically intended to be fired from handguns, particularly revolvers. This type of ammunition is produced by Federal and CCI, among others.

Birdshot selection
For hunting, shot size must be chosen not only for the range, but also for the game. The shot must reach the target with enough energy to penetrate to a depth sufficient to kill the game. Lead shot is still the best ballistic performer, but environmental restrictions on the use of lead, especially with waterfowl, require steel, bismuth, or tungsten composites. Steel, being significantly less dense than lead, requires larger shot sizes, but is a good choice when lead is not legal and cost is a consideration. It is argued that steel shot cannot safely be used in some older shotguns without causing damage to either the bore or to the choke due to the hardness of steel shot. However, the increased pressure in most steel cartridges is a far greater problem, causing more strain to the breech of the gun. Since tungsten is very hard, it must also be used with care in older guns. Tungsten shot is often alloyed with nickel and iron, softening the base metal. That alloy is approximately 1/3 denser than lead, but far more expensive. Bismuth shot falls between steel and tungsten shot in both density and cost. The rule of thumb in converting appropriate steel shot is to go up by two numbers when switching from lead. However, there are different views on dense patterns versus higher pellet energies.

Buckshot
Larger sizes of shot, large enough that they must be carefully packed into the cartridge rather than simply dumped or poured in, are called "buckshot" or just "buck". Buckshot is used for hunting medium to large game, as a tactical round for law enforcement and military personnel, and for personal self-defense. Buckshot size is most commonly designated by a series of numbers and letters, with smaller numbers indicating larger shot. Sizes larger than "0" are designated by multiple zeros. "00" (usually pronounced "double-aught" in North American English) is the most commonly sold size.

The British system for designating buckshot size is based on the amount of shot per ounce. The sizes are LG (large grape – from grapeshot derived from musket shooting), MG (medium grape), and SG (small grape). For smaller game, SSG shot is half the weight of SG, SSSG shot is half the weight of SSG, SSSSG shot is half the weight of SSSG, and so on. The Australian system is similar, except that it has 00-SG, a small-game cartridge filled with 00 buckshot.

Loads of 12-gauge 00 buckshot are commonly available in cartridges holding from 8 (eight) to 18 (eighteen) pellets in standard lengths ($1/2$ inches, 3 inches, and $1/2$). Reduced-recoil 00 buckshot is often used in tactical and self-defense rounds, minimizing shooter stress and improving the speed of follow-up shots.

Specialist loads
Other rounds include:
 * Ferret rounds: rounds designed to penetrate a thin barrier (e.g. a car door) and release a gas payload.
 * Bolo rounds: two large lead balls attached by a wire.
 * Piranha rounds: loaded with sharp tacks.
 * Dragon's breath rounds: loaded with incendiary chemicals that create a fireball/flame when discharged, and can ignite a flammable target at close range.

Spread and patterning
Most modern sporting shotguns have interchangeable choke tubes to allow the shooter to change the spread of shot that comes out of the gun. In some cases, it is not practical to do this; the gun might have fixed choke, or a shooter firing at receding targets may want to fire a wide pattern immediately followed by a narrower pattern out of a single barrelled shotgun. The spread of the shot can also be altered by changing the characteristics of the cartridge.

Narrower patterns
A buffering material, such as granulated plastic, sawdust, or similar material can be mixed with the shot to fill the spaces between the individual pellets. When fired, the buffering material compresses and supports the shot, reducing the deformation the shot pellets experience under the extreme acceleration. Antimony-lead alloys, copper plated lead shot, steel, bismuth, and tungsten composite shot all have a hardness greater than that of plain lead shot, and will deform less as well. Reducing the deformation will result in tighter patterns, as the spherical pellets tend to fly straighter. One improvised method for achieving the same effect involves pouring molten wax or tar into the mass of shot. Another is a partial ring cut around the case intended to ensure that the shot comes out tightly bunched along with the portion of the case forward of the cut, creating a 'cut-shell'. This can be dangerous, as it is thought to cause higher chamber pressures—especially if part of the cartridge remains behind in the barrel and is not cleared before another shot is fired.

Wider patterns
Shooting the softest possible shot will result in more shot deformation and a wider pattern. This is often the case with cheap ammunition, as the lead used will have minimal alloying elements such as antimony and be very soft. Spreader wads are wads that have a small plastic or paper insert in the middle of the shot cup, usually a cylinder or "X" cross-section. When the shot exits the barrel, the insert helps to push the shot out from the center, opening up the pattern. Often these result in inconsistent performance, though modern designs are doing much better than the traditional improvised solutions. Intentionally deformed shot (hammered into ellipsoidal shape) or cubical shot will also result in a wider pattern, much wider than spherical shot, with more consistency than spreader wads. Spreader wads and non-spherical shot are disallowed in some competitions. Hunting loads that use either spreaders or non-spherical shot are usually called "brush loads", and are favored for hunting in areas where dense cover keeps shot distances very short.

Spread
Most shotgun cartridges contain multiple pellets in order to increase the likelihood of a target being hit. A shotgun's shot spread refers to the two-dimensional pattern that these projectiles (or shot) leave behind on a target. Another less important dimension of spread concerns the length of the in-flight shot string from the leading pellet to the trailing one. The use of multiple pellets is especially useful for hunting small game such as birds, rabbits, and other animals that fly or move quickly and can unpredictably change their direction of travel. However, some cartridges only contain one metal shot, known as a slug, for hunting large game such as deer.

As the shot leaves the barrel upon firing, the three-dimensional shot string is close together. But as the shot moves farther away, the individual pellets increasingly spread out and disperse. Because of this, the effective range of a shotgun, when firing a multitude of shot, is limited to approximately 20 to 50 m. To control this effect, shooters may use a constriction within the barrel of a shotgun called a choke. The choke, whether selectable or fixed within a barrel, effectively reduces the diameter of the end of the barrel, forcing the shot even closer together as it leaves the barrel, thereby increasing the effective range. The tighter the choke, the narrower the end of the barrel. Consequently, the effective range of a shotgun is increased with a tighter choke, as the shot column is held tighter over longer ranges. Hunters or target shooters can install several types of chokes, on guns having selectable chokes, depending on the range at which their intended targets will be located. For fixed choke shotguns, different shotguns or barrels are often selected for the intended hunting application at hand. From tightest to loosest, the various choke sizes are: full choke, improved modified, modified, improved cylinder, skeet, and cylinder bore.

A hunter who intends to hunt an animal such as rabbit or grouse knows that the animal will be encountered at a close range—usually within 20 m—and will be moving very quickly. So, an ideal choke would be a cylinder bore (the loosest) as the hunter wants the shot to spread out as quickly as possible. If this hunter were using a full choke (the tightest) at 20 m, the shot would be very close together and cause an unnecessarily large amount of damage to the rabbit, or, alternatively, a complete miss of the rabbit. This would waste virtually all of the meat for a hit, as the little amount of meat remaining would be overly-laden with shot and rendered inedible. By using a cylinder bore, this hunter would maximize the likelihood of a kill, and maximize the amount of edible meat. Contrarily, a hunter who intends to hunt geese knows that a goose will likely be approximately 50 m away, so that hunter would want to delay the spread of the shot as much as possible by using a full choke. By using a full choke for targets that are farther away, the shooter again maximizes the likelihood of a kill, and maximizes the amount of edible meat. This also maximizes the chances of a swift and humane kill as the target would be hit with enough shot to kill quickly instead of only wounding the animal.

For older shotguns having only one fixed choke, intended primarily for equally likely use against rabbits, squirrels, quail, doves, and pheasant, an often-chosen choke is the improved cylinder, in a 28 in barrel, making the shotgun suitable for use as a general all-round hunting shotgun, without having excess weight. Shotguns having fixed chokes intended for geese, in contrast, are often found with full choke barrels, in longer lengths, and are much heavier, being intended for fixed use within a blind against distant targets. Defensive shotguns with fixed chokes generally have a cylinder bore choke. Likewise, shotguns intended primarily for use with slugs invariably also are found with a choke that is a cylinder bore.

Dram equivalence
"Dram" equivalence is sometimes still used as a measure of the powder charge power in a cartridge. Today, it is an anachronistic equivalence that represents the equivalent power of a cartridge containing this equivalent amount of black-powder measured in drams avoirdupois. A dram in the avoirdupois system is the mass of $1/2$ pound or $1/2$ ounce or 27.3 grains. The reasoning behind this archaic equivalence is that when smokeless powder first came out, some method of establishing an equivalence with common loads was needed in order to sell a box of cartridges. For example, a cartridge containing a 3 or 3 1/2 dram load of black-powder was a common hunting field load, and a heavy full power load would have contained about a 4 to 4-1/2 dram load, whereas a cartridge containing only a 2 dram load of black-powder was a common target practice load. A hunter looking for a field or full power load familiar with black-powder shotgun loads would have known exactly what the equivalence of the cartridges would have been in the newly introduced smokeless powder. Today, however, this represents a poorly understood equivalence of the powder charge power in a cartridge. To further complicate matters, "dram" equivalence was only defined for 12 gauge cartridges, and only for lead shot, although it has often been used for describing other gauges of shells, and even steel shot loads. Furthermore, "dram" equivalence only came around about 15 years after smokeless powder had been introduced, long after the need for an equivalence had started to fade, and actual black-powder loaded shotshells had largely vanished. In practice, "dram" equivalence today most commonly equates just to a velocity rating equivalence in fps (feet-per-second), while assuming lead shot.

A secondary impact of this equivalence was that common cartridges needed to stay the same size, physically, e.g., 2-1/2 or 2-3/4-inch shells, in order to be used in pre-existing shotguns when smokeless powder started being in the place of black-powder. As smokeless powder did not have to be loaded in the same volume as black-powder to achieve the same power, being more powerful, the volumes of wads had to increase, to fill the cartridge enough to permit proper crimps still to be made. Initially, this meant that increased numbers of over powder card wads had to be stacked to achieve the same stack-up length. Eventually, this also led to the introduction of one-piece plastic wads in the late 1950s through the early 1960s, to add additional wad volumes, in order to maintain the same overall cartridge length.

Dram equivalence has no bearing on the reloading of cartridges with smokeless powder; loading a cartridge with an equivalent dram weight of smokeless powder would cause a shotgun to explode. It only has an equivalence in reloading with black powder.

title: Shotgun cartridge


text: User talk:69.138.151.5

title: User talk:69.138.151.5


text:
Breath spray

Breath spray is a product sprayed into the mouth for the purpose of temporarily eliminating or at least covering up bad breath. The masking effect is short-term and reported to last for 4-6 hours. Breath sprays are occasionally advertised as being for smokers or those who dip tobacco, and occasionally to cover up the smell of cigarette/cigar smoking. Common flavours include cinnamon, spearmint and peppermint, as well as company-specific flavors, such as "Ice Mint", "Cool Mint" or "Supermint".

Some breath sprays are purported by their manufacturers to have antibacterial or anti-plaque properties, containing ingredients, such as chlorine dioxide, chlorhexidine, cetylpyridinium chloride, essential oils, hinokitiol, and zinc ions. As alcohol is frequently a prime ingredient of breath sprays, some brands advertise their products as alcohol-free. Alcohol is thought to be responsible for causing dry mouth when alcohol-containing breath sprays or mouthwashes are used too frequently. Some brands also advocate for using sugar-free formulations considering the disadvantageous consequences of sugar of causing caries.

title: Breath spray


text:
Chung Kwei (algorithm)

Chung Kwei is a spam filtering algorithm based on the TEIRESIAS Algorithm for finding coding genes within bulk DNA. It is named after Zhong Kui, a figure in Chinese folklore.

title: Chung Kwei (algorithm)