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Cleveland Museum of Art

The Cleveland Museum of Art (CMA) is an art museum in Cleveland, Ohio, United States. Located in the Wade Park District of University Circle, the museum is internationally renowned for its substantial holdings of Asian and Egyptian art and houses a diverse permanent collection of more than 61,000 works of art from around the world. The museum provides free general admission to the public. With a $920 million endowment (2023), it is the fourth-wealthiest art museum in the United States. With about 770,000 visitors annually (2018), it is one of the most visited art museums in the world.

Beginnings
The Cleveland Museum of Art was founded as a trust in 1913 with an endowment from prominent Cleveland industrialists Hinman Hurlbut, John Huntington, and Horace Kelley. The neoclassical, white Georgian Marble, Beaux-Arts building was constructed on the southern edge of Wade Park, at the cost of $1.25 million. Wade Park and the museum were designed by the local architectural firm, Hubbell & Benes, with the museum planned as the park's centerpiece. The 75 acre green space takes its name from philanthropist Jeptha H. Wade, who donated part of his wooded estate to the city in 1881. The museum opened its doors to the public on June 6, 1916, with Wade's grandson, Jeptha H. Wade II, proclaiming it, "for the benefit of all people, forever". Wade, like his grandfather, had a great interest in art and served as the museum's first vice-president; in 1920 he became its president. Today, the park, with the museum still as its centerpiece, is on the National Register of Historic Places.

Mid to late 20th century expansion
In March 1958, the first addition to the building opened, doubling the museum's floorspace. This addition, which was on the north side of the original building, was designed by the Cleveland architectural firm of Hayes and Ruth. They designed new gallery space and a new art library.

The museum again expanded in 1971 with the opening of the North Wing. With its stepped, two-toned granite facade, the addition designed by modernist architect Marcel Breuer provided angular lines in distinct contrast with the flourishes of the 1916 building's neoclassical facade. The museum's main entrance was shifted to the North Wing. The auditorium, classrooms, and lecture halls were also moved into the North Wing, allowing their spaces in the Original Building to be renovated as gallery space.

In 1983, a West Wing, designed by the Cleveland architectural firm of Dalton, van Dijk, Johnson, & Partners, was completed. This provided larger library space, as well as nine new galleries.

Between 2001 and 2012, the 1958 and 1983 additions were demolished. A new wrap-around building, and east and west wings were constructed. Designed by Rafael Viñoly, this $350 million project doubled the museum's size to 592000 sqft. To integrate the new east and west wings with the Breuer building to the north, a new structure was built along the south side of the 1971 addition, creating extensive new gallery space on two levels, as well as providing for a museum store and other amenities. Viñoly covered the space created by the demolition of the 1958 and 1983 structures with a glass-roofed atrium. The east wing opened in 2009, and the north wing and atrium in 2012. The West Wing opened on January 2, 2014.

Expansion in the 21st century

The museum's building and renovation project, "Building for the Future", began in 2005 and was originally targeted for completion in 2012 (though it was not completed until 2013) at projected costs of $258 million. The museum celebrated the official completion of the renovation and expansion project with a grand opening celebration held on December 31, 2013, and additional activities that continued through the first week of 2014. The $350 million project—two-thirds of which was earmarked for the complete renovation of the original 1916 structure—added two new wings, and was the largest cultural project in Ohio's history. The new east and west wings, as well as the enclosing of the atrium courtyard under a soaring glass canopy, have brought the museum's total floor space to 592000 sqft (an increase of approximately 65%).

The first phase of the project had $9.3 million in cost overruns; the opening was delayed by 9 months. Museum director Timothy Rub assured the public that the increase in quality would be worth both the wait and expense. In June 2008, after being closed for nearly three years for the overhaul, the museum reopened 19 of its permanent galleries to the public in the renovated 1916 building main floor.

On June 27, 2009, the newly constructed East Wing (which contains the Impressionist, Contemporary, and Modern art collections) opened to the public.

On June 26, 2010, the ground level of the 1916 building reopened. It now houses the collections of Greek, Roman, Egyptian, Sub-Saharan African, Byzantine, and Medieval art. The expanded museum includes enhanced visitor amenities, such as new restrooms, an expanded store and café, a sit-down gourmet restaurant, parking capacity increased to 620 spaces, and a 34000 sqft glass-covered courtyard.

On June 12, 2021, Cleveland Museum of Art opened a community arts center in Cleveland's Clark-Fulton neighborhood. It hosts former Parade the Circle floats, displays and art that were previously in temporary storage.

Wade Park
Wade Park includes an outdoor gallery displaying part of the museum's holdings in the Wade Park Fine Arts Garden. The bulk of this collection is located between the original 1916 main entrance to the building and the lagoon. Highlights of the public sculpture include the large cast of Chester Beach's 1927 Fountain of the Waters; a monument to the Polish expatriate and American Revolutionary War-hero Tadeusz Kościuszko; and the 1928 bronze statuary sundial by Frank Jirouch, Night Passing the Earth to Day, which sits across Wade Lagoon from the museum, near the park's entrance on Euclid Avenue.

Auguste Rodin's The Thinker is installed at the top of the museum's main staircase. After being partially destroyed in a 1970 bombing (allegedly by the Weathermen), the statue was never restored. Art historians knew that Rodin was involved in the original casting of this sculpture, and it was the last bronze casting of The Thinker made during Rodin's lifetime. The 1970 damage (noted on a plaque since mounted at the base of the statue's pedestal) is considered to have made this casting unique among the more than twenty original large castings of this work.

Collections
The Cleveland Museum of Art divides its collections into 16 departments, including Chinese Art, Modern European Art, African Art, Drawings, Prints, European Art, Textiles and Islamic Art, American Painting and Sculpture, Greek and Roman Art, Contemporary Art, Medieval Art, Decorative Art and Design, Pre-Columbian and Native North American Art, Japanese and Korean Art, Indian and Southeast Asian Art, and Photography. Artists represented by significant works include Olivuccio di Ciccarello, Botticelli, Giambattista Pittoni, Caravaggio, El Greco, Poussin, Rubens, Frans Hals, Richard Hunt, Gerard David, Goya, J. M. W. Turner, Dalí, Matisse, Renoir, Gauguin (The Call), Frederic Edwin Church, Thomas Cole, Corot, Thomas Eakins, Monet, Vincent van Gogh, Picasso, and George Bellows. The museum has been active recently in acquiring later 20th-century art, having added important works by Warhol, Jackson Pollock, Christo, Anselm Kiefer, Ronald Davis, Larry Poons, Leon Kossoff, Jack Whitten, Morris Louis, Jules Olitski, Chuck Close, Robert Mangold, Ching Ho Cheng, Mark Tansey and Sol LeWitt, among others.

The museum's African art collection consists of 300 traditional, sub-Saharan works from the Bini, Congo, Senufo, and Yoruba peoples, mostly donated by Cleveland collector Katherine C. White. The museum is especially strong in the field of Asian art, possessing one of the best collections in the U.S.

In June 2004, the museum acquired an ancient bronze sculpture of Apollo Sauroktonos, believed to be an original work by Praxiteles of Athens. Because the work has a contested provenance, the museum continues to study the dating and attribution of the sculpture. In 2011, Michael Bennet, the Greek and Roman arts curator, announced that he had dated the piece to 350 B.C. to 250 B.C. In 2013, the museum held a focus exhibition on the statue. It announced reattribution of the work as Apollo the Python-Slayer, and said that the statue was almost certainly an original work by Praxiteles himself, and that laboratory investigations and expert testimony conclusively show the bronze was neither a recent discovery nor recovered from the sea.

In 2008, the United States Postal Service selected the Cleveland Museum's famed Botticelli painting entitled Virgin and Child with the Young John the Baptist as the Christmas stamp for that year.

Modern European Painting and Sculpture
The Cleveland Museum of Art's Modern European Painting and Sculpture collection holds pieces dating from 1800 to 1960, and contains about 537 pieces. The collection contains Impressionism and Post-impressionism works, avant-garde art styles, and German Expressionism and Neue Sachlichkeit art.

European Painting and Sculpture
This collection holds pieces dating from 1500 to 1800, with major works representing Italian Baroque, Spanish Baroque, Italian Renaissance, as well as significant French, British, and Dutch paintings.

American Painting and Sculpture
The collection is concise, containing about 300 paintings and 90 sculptures. Major attractions in the collection include William Sideny Mount's The Power of Music, Frederich Edwin Church's Twilight in the Wilderness, and Albert Pinkham Ryder's The Racetrack (Death on a Pale Horse). A number of Cleveland-based artists are also included in the museum's holdings, placing an emphasis on local art.

Photography
The Cleveland Museum of Art contains a small collection of fine art photography, dating back to 1893. Of special note are pieces from photography's first contributors, particularly French, English, and American photographers. Other highlights of the collection are "photography with complete sets of The North American Indian by Edward S. Curtis and Camera Work; surrealist photography created primarily between the two world wars; and Cleveland-specific subject matter produced by regional and national photographers".

Decorative Art and Design
An internationally renowned collection, the Decorative Art and Design collection "consists of useful objects in which the form and decoration are the primary focus, not objects intended purely as sculpture"

Ingalls Library
In addition to its comprehensive collection of fine art, the Cleveland Museum of Art is also home to the Ingalls Library, one of the largest art libraries in the United States. As part of the initial 1913 plan by the museum's founders, a library of 10,000 volumes was to be assembled, to include photographs and archival works. By the 1950s, the collection of books alone had surpassed 37,000 and the photographic collection neared 47,000. By the 21st century, the library had more than 500,000 volumes (and 500,000 digitized slides); renovation of the library space was one of the focal points in the museum's $350 million expansion. Established in 1989, the Museum Archives houses documentation about the Cleveland Museum of Art's role in the local community and the institutions the Cleveland Museum of Art has interacted with since its founding.

ARTLENS Gallery
The ARTLENS Gallery is a series of interactive displays and a mobile app that allow visitors to view and interact with the museum's digitized collection. ARTLENS is divided into four components:
 * The ArtLens Wall is a 40-foot display that lets visitors browse and scale all works that are displayed in the museum, as well as some artworks that are not. The wall rotates through artworks in groups organized by criteria such as type, shape, and color.
 * The ArtLens Exhibition is a rotating selection of artworks that are showcased through digital gesture-based games and activities. Examples of these activities are automatically matching the shape of a user's hand gestures to an artwork, or having the user imitate poses found in various works, which are then scored for accuracy.
 * The ArtLens Studio is a series of digital studios for visitors to make their own artwork, such as creating digital pottery by mimicking a potter's movements, or creating collages from images provided by the museum.
 * The ArtLens mobile application provides information about the museum and lists of all its artworks. The app is able to communicate via Bluetooth to beacons located throughout the museum to determine the user's location, and allows the user to mark and save artworks they come across. The app connects to the previously mentioned ArtLens Exhibition and Wall.

Following the launch of ARTLENS, the Cleveland Museum of Art conducted a two-year study to see how the gallery impacts visitor engagement. Surveys from November 2017 and January 2018 of 438 ARTLENS visitors found that 76% of viewers felt that the gallery "enhanced their overall museum experience"; 74% felt that it "encouraged them to look closely at art and notice new things"; and 73% said that it "increased their interest in the museum's collection." Museum visitors born between 1981 and 1996 were 15% more likely to visit the gallery compared to older individuals. The ARTLENS system also gathers analytical data; the time patrons spent looking at artworks went from an average of two-to-three seconds to fifteen seconds.

Programs
The Cleveland Museum of Art also maintains a schedule of special exhibitions, lectures, films and musical programs. The department of performing arts, music and film hosts a film series and the museum's Performing Arts Series, which brings the creative energies of internationally renowned artists into Cleveland.

The department of education at CMA creates programs for lifelong learning from lectures, talks and studio classes to outreach programs and community events, such as Parade the Circle", Chalk Festival and the "Winter Lights Lantern Festival". Educational programs include distance learning, "Art to Go", and the "Educator's Academy". The museum is also home to the Ingalls Library, one of the largest art museum libraries in the United States with over 500,000 volumes.

Open Access collection materials
In January 2019, the Cleveland Museum of Art announced that it was waiving its rights to "roughly 30,000 of the 61,328 objects in its permanent collection considered to be in the public domain". They are using the Creative Commons – Zero license for high-resolution images and data about its collection. Additionally, metadata for more than 61,000 pieces in its collection have been made available. The Open Access material is available on a special section of the museum website.

Attendance
The museum reported attendance of 597,715 during the period between July 1, 2013, and June 30, 2014, the highest total in more than a decade. In 2018, the museum had a record 769,435 visitors, replacing the previous record of 719,620 in 1987.

Finance
In 1958, a $35-million bequest by industrialist Leonard C. Hanna Jr. vaulted the Cleveland Museum of Art into the ranks of the country's richest art museums. Today, the museum receives operating support from the Ohio Arts Council through state tax dollars. It is also funded by Cuyahoga County residents through Cuyahoga Arts and Culture. The museum derives around two thirds of its $36 million budget from interest on its endowment, which was reported as $750 million in 2014. The museum has an acquisition fund of $277 million, from which it draws about $13 million a year for purchase of works for its collections.

Marketing
The museum has also taken an active role in presenting music concerts and lectures. These include performances by Chanticleer (ensemble), Roomful of Teeth, and John Luther Adams among others.

Looted art
In 2003 a controversy arose over The Aviator, a painting by Fernand Leger which had been owned by the German Jewish art dealer Alfred Flechtheim, due to an unexplained Nazi-era provenance gap. In 2013, the museum announced that it would pay the heirs of Arthur Feldmann in order to keep a drawing confiscated from him by the Nazis before they killed him in the Holocaust. The drawing was Allegory of Christian Faith, by the 17th century German artist Johann Liss In 2017, the museum announced that it would return to Italy an ancient Roman marble portrait head of Drusus Minor stolen in 1944 from a provincial museum near Naples. In August 2023, the Antiquities Trafficking Unit of the New York City District Attorney’s office seized important ancient Roman bronze sculpture from the museum in connection with an investigation into looting and trafficking of ancient art at the site of the ancient Roman town of Bubon in Southwestern Turkey. The museum then sued in the Federal District Court in Ohio to block the seizure, and while other looted works from other museums were returned to Turkey in December, the sculpture remained in the U.S. while the legal process continued.

Directors

 * William M. Griswold (2014–)
 * Fred Bidwell (2013–2014, interim director)
 * David Franklin (2010–2013)
 * Deborah Gribbon (2009–2010, interim director)
 * Timothy Rub (2006–2009)
 * Katharine Lee Reid (2000–2006)
 * Kate Sellars (1999–2000, interim director)
 * Robert P. Bergman (1993–1999)
 * Evan H. Turner (1983–1993)
 * Sherman E. Lee (1958–1982)
 * William M. Milliken (1930–1958)
 * Frederic Allen Whiting (1913–1930)

In popular culture
The museum is the stand-in for the fictional S.H.I.E.L.D. headquarters in the Marvel Cinematic Universe and can be extensively seen in several office and establishing shots of the 2014 film Captain America: The Winter Soldier. In several scenes, the museum's atrium can be seen as the "lobby" for the Washington, D.C.-based government organization. The outside of the museum and elevator tower are in other shots as well.

title: Cleveland Museum of Art


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Gerald Strickland, 1st Baron Strickland

Gerald Paul Joseph Cajetan Carmel Antony Martin Strickland, 6th Count della Catena, 1st Baron Strickland, (24 May 1861 – 22 August 1940) was a Maltese and British politician and peer, who served as Prime Minister of Malta, Governor of the Leeward Islands, Governor of Tasmania, Governor of Western Australia and Governor of New South Wales, in addition to sitting successively in the House of Commons and House of Lords in the Parliament of the United Kingdom.

Early life
Strickland was born in Valletta, the son of naval officer Commander Walter Strickland, from the ancient English Strickland family of Sizergh, and Maria Aloysia Bonici-Mompalao, the niece and heiress of Sir Nicholas Sceberras Bologna, fifth Count della Catena in Malta, whom Gerald succeeded in 1875. He was educated at St Mary's College, Oscott, and Trinity College, Cambridge (BA, LLB). Upon graduating, he was admitted to Inner Temple in 1887 entitled to practise as a barrister-at-law. He gained the rank of major in the service of the Royal Malta Militia.

Elected in 1886 to the council of the government of Malta, Strickland began to take an active part in Maltese politics at an early age and in December 1887, he accompanied Dr. Fortunato Mizzi – founder of the Maltese Nationalist Party – to the first Colonial Conference in London to submit a scheme for a legislative assembly. The result was that the new Maltese Constitution of December 1887 was largely based on the joint Strickland-Mizzi proposals. In the following year, he was appointed as Assistant Secretary to Malta in 1888 and held the office of Chief Secretary of Malta in 1889, a post which he held till July 1902 when to avert more troubles in Malta which were created by his orders-in-council to increase taxation, he was appointed as Governor of the Leeward Islands in the Caribbean.

Sir Gerald and Lady Edeline Strickland left Southampton for Antigua in September 1902, and took up residence at Government House, St Johns on arrival. He was appointed as Governor of Tasmania in 1904, serving as such until 1909, and then as Governor of Western Australia from 1909 to 1913. In the early years consequent upon Australian Federation he was involved in the delicate matter of State rights and the developing nature of the appointment, role and salaries of governors. Appointed as Governor of New South Wales in March 1913, on 30 May 1913 he was made a Knight Grand Cross of the Order of St Michael and St George (GCMG). He was a supporter of the Eugenics Education Society.

Political career
In 1917, Strickland returned to Malta and, after the grant of Self-Government, formed the Anglo-Maltese Party in 1921, which soon afterward amalgamated with the Maltese Constitutional Party to become the Constitutional Party under his leadership. Strickland was the leader of the Opposition between 1921 and 1927. In 1924, he won the seat of Lancaster for the Conservatives in the United Kingdom House of Commons. He left the House of Commons in 1928 upon being made a peer.

After the 1927 election, Strickland had a majority in the Legislative Assembly and became Head of the Ministry (the fourth Prime Minister of Malta) from August 1927 until 1932. Amongst the most important events of his government were the commencement of building works for St. Luke's Hospital in Gwardamanġia and his clash with the Senate, which led to the issue of Letters Patent which curtailed its powers and his concurrent clash with the ecclesiastical authorities.

On 1 May 1930, Sir Mauro Monsignor Caruana, Titular Archbishop of Rhodes and Bishop of Malta, and Mikiel Monsignor Gonzi, Bishop of Gozo, issued a pastoral letter, read in all the churches of Malta and Gozo. In it, Archbishop Caruana and Bishop Gonzi declared that whoever voted for the Constitutional Party and its former coalition partner, the Labour Party, committed a mortal sin. That year he narrowly avoided assassination.

This mortal sin was also committed by those who read Strickland's newspapers, printed by his Progress Press, namely the Daily Malta Chronicle and Ix-Xemx. He subsequently began publishing Il-Progress and Il-Berqa. The clash between the Catholic bishops and the Constitutional Party led to the suspension of the Maltese Constitution following consultations between the British Governor and London.

Between July 1932 and November 1933, Strickland was again the leader of the Opposition, and after the grant of a new Constitution in 1939, he became the leader of the elected majority in the Council of Government.

Personal life

Strickland married Lady Edeline Sackville-West (1869–1918), the daughter of the 7th Earl De La Warr and the Honourable Constance Mary Elizabeth Cochrane-Wishart-Baillie, on 26 August 1891. They had six daughters, and two sons who died at an early age. Their first daughter married Henry Hornyold, became known as Mrs Hornyold-Strickland and chaired the Conservative Party Conference in 1947. They had the following children:
 * Reginald Strickland (1893–1893)
 * Hon. Mary Christina Strickland (1895–1970)
 * Hon. Cecilia Victoria Strickland (1897–1982)
 * Hon. Mabel Edeline Strickland OBE (1899–1988)
 * Walter Strickland (1901–1902)
 * Margaret Angela Strickland (1903–1903)
 * Hon. Henrietta May Strickland (1905–1975), who married Robert Tatton Bower
 * Hon. Dr. Constance Teresa Strickland LMSSA (1911–1979)

On 31 August 1926, following the death of Lady Edeline in 1918, Strickland married Margaret Hulton, daughter of the newspaper proprietor Edward Hulton in the same church as his earlier wedding. She was made a Dame Commander of the Order of the British Empire (DBE) in the 1937 Coronation Honours. Strickland was appointed a Companion of the Order of St Michael and St George (CMG) in 1889, for rendering invaluable services during a severe cholera epidemic. He was promoted to Knight Commander of the Order of St Michael and St George in 1897. He was raised to the Peerage of the United Kingdom as Baron Strickland, of Sizergh Castle in the County of Westmorland, on 19 January 1928. He died at Villa Bologna, his residence in Attard, and is buried in the family crypt at St. Paul's Cathedral, Mdina.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Gerald Strickland, 1st Baron Strickland


text: Talk:Vagabonds of the Western World

title: Talk:Vagabonds of the Western World


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Khải Định

Khải Định (chữ Hán: 啓定; born Nguyễn Phúc Bửu Đảo; 8 October 1885 – 6 November 1925) was the 12th emperor of the Nguyễn dynasty in Vietnam, reigning from 1916 to 1925. His name at birth was Prince Nguyễn Phúc Bửu Đảo. He was the son of Emperor Đồng Khánh, but he did not succeed him immediately.

Biography
Before Emperor Đồng Khánh's era came the eras of Emperor Thành Thái and Emperor Duy Tân, both of whom were exiled by the French for their resistance to the colonial regime. After this trouble, the French decided to enthrone Bửu Đảo as he was the son of the monarch who was the most submissive Nguyễn collaborator with the colonial regime, standing with the French colonizers and opposing any independence movements, Emperor Đồng Khánh.

Nguyễn Phúc Bửu Đảo became the nominal ruler of Annam on 18 May 1916, after the exile of Duy Tân (Nguyễn Phúc Vĩnh San) and took the name Khải Định for his reign, meaning "auger of peace and stability." He said he wanted to restore the prestige of the empire, but this was not possible with his close collaboration with the French occupiers. Although not satisfied with his position, Khải Định enacted a policy of close collaboration with the French government and was effectively a puppet political figurehead for the French colonial rulers, following all of their instructions to give "legitimacy" to French policies.

Because of this, Khải Định was very unpopular with the Vietnamese people. The nationalist leader Phan Châu Trinh accused him of selling out his country to the French and living in imperial luxury while the people were exploited by France. Nguyễn Ái Quốc (later known as Hồ Chí Minh) wrote a play about Khải Định called "The Bamboo Dragon" that ridiculed him as being all grand appearance and ceremony but a powerless puppet of the French government.

From 1919 onward, the Emperor made a decree that Vietnam cease to use Chinese as official written language and was replaced by Romanized Vietnamese.

In 1922, the Emperor's visit to France to see the Marseilles Colonial Exhibition was also ridiculed by nationalist leaders, who hated Vietnam's status as a colonial subject of France and saw nothing in the exhibition worth celebrating.

Emperor Khải Định's unpopularity reached its peak in 1923 when he authorized the French to raise taxes on the Vietnamese peasants, part of which was to pay for the building of his palatial tomb, and which caused a great deal of hardship. He also signed the orders of arrest against many nationalist leaders, such as Phan Bội Châu, forcing them into exile and having their followers who were captured beheaded.

Marriages and sexuality
When he was still Duke of Phụng Hóa, Emperor Khải Định married his first wife Trương Như Thị Tịnh in 1907. She left him in 1915 and became a nun, before he was enthroned. Upon ascending the throne, he married his second wife, Ân phi, Noble consort of the first rank Hồ Thị Chỉ (1902–1982) of An Truyền Hồ Đắc clan. She is a daughter of Hồ Đắc Trung, who became Annam's Minister for Public Instruction. Emperor Khải Định had his first and only son with one of his concubines, Hoàng Thị Cúc (1890–1980). She gave birth to Nguyễn Phúc Vĩnh Thụy (later Emperor Bảo Đại) in 1913. After Khải Định's ascension, she was given the title of Huệ tần, noble consort of the third rank, later elevated to the title Huệ phi, noble consort of the second rank.

Historical records and studies state that Emperor Khải Định only had homosexual desires. He rarely slept with his wives during his reign. He was close to his male guard, Nguyễn Đắc Vọng, and always slept with him.

Death

Khải Định suffered poor health like his father and became a drug addict. He died of tuberculosis in the Imperial City of Huế, according to his concubine Ba Phi, who described him as "not interested in sex" and "physically weak".

title: Khải Định


text:
Talk:Night Life (album)

The original title is really "Nightlife" in one word, so I think the title of this poage should be changed...

Www.jpfo.org

title: Talk:Night Life (album)


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Harry Barron

Major General Sir Harry Barron, (11 August 1847 – 27 March 1921) was a British Army officer who served as Governor of Tasmania from 1909 to 1913, and Governor of Western Australia from 1913 to 1917.

Life
Barron was born in 1847 and attended Stubbington House School. In 1877 he married Clara Emily, daughter of Major General T. Conyngham Kelly; they had one daughter.

Barron was Governor of Tasmania from 1909 to 1913, and Governor of Western Australia from 1913 to 1917.

In 1920, he was made colonel commandant of the Royal Artillery.

title: Harry Barron


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Monte Castelo

Monte Castelo may refer to:

 * Castro of Monte Castelo, a Chalcolithic archaeological site in Portugal
 * Monte Castelo, São Paulo, Brazil
 * Monte Castelo, Santa Catarina, Brazil
 * Santa Cruz de Monte Castelo, Paranà, Brazil
 * "Monte Castelo" (song) by Brazilian band Legião Urbana

title: Monte Castelo


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William Ellison-Macartney

Sir William Grey Ellison-Macartney, (7 June 1852 – 4 December 1924) was an Irish-born British politician, who also served as the Governor of the Australian states of Tasmania and Western Australia.

Early life
Born as William Grey Ellison in Dublin, Ireland, he was the son of John William Ellison, the Conservative Member of Parliament for Tyrone in the British House of Commons. His father changed the family surname to Ellison-Macartney in 1859, as a condition of an inheritance from a maternal uncle.

Ellison-Macartney was educated at Eton College and Exeter College, Oxford, taking an early interest in law and politics, and was called to the Bar in 1878. He was an ardent supporter of Irish Unionism, and became grand secretary of the Orange Institution in Ireland.

Political career
At the 1885 UK general election, Ellison-Macartney ran for the House of Commons, and was elected as Conservative member for the newly created constituency of South Antrim. In January 1886, he convened a meeting which led to the formation of the Irish Unionist Party, for which he served as whip.

In 1895, Ellison-Macartney was appointed as Parliamentary and Financial Secretary to the Admiralty, holding the post until 1890, when a cabinet reshuffle resulted in the appointment of Liberal Unionist H. O. Arnold-Forster. As a consolation, Ellison-Macartney was appointed to the Privy Council.

By 1900, Ellison-Macartney's political fortunes had waned: his popularity in his constituency of South Antrim had dropped considerably due to his reluctance to dispense favour upon Antrim during his time as a junior minister, and he was criticised by the Belfast newspaper The News Letter.

Hoping to reassert his place in the loyalist hierarchy, Ellison-Macartney led a "law-and-order" campaign, targeted in particular at the violence and agrarian crime committed by William O'Brien's United Irish League. He retired from politics in early February 1903, after being offered several government appointments.

Government postings
Ellison-Macartney was appointed Deputy-Master of the Royal Mint in January 1903, serving to 1913, and was High Sheriff of Antrim in 1908.

Governor of Tasmania
In December 1912, Ellison-Macartney was knighted as a Knight Commander of the Order of St Michael and St George (KCMG), and appointed Governor of the Australian state of Tasmania. There was considerable concern over his appointment from Irish nationalists, who felt that Ellison-Macartney's Unionist political background may cause offence to Tasmanians who supported Irish Home Rule.

In 1914, Ellison-Macartney presided over a constitutional dispute in the Tasmanian House of Assembly. With the Labor and Liberal parties close to deadlock in the parliament, he granted an early election to the Liberal Premier of Tasmania, Albert Solomon. The Liberals gained an extra seat needed to retain power, but lost one in a subsequent by-election. Ellison-Macartney declined Solomon's request for another dissolution of parliament, and he called upon Labor's John Earle to form government, on the condition that an election be called. With Earle and his ministry sworn in, neither side desired to hold an election so parliament remained in session, with Ellison-Macartney's recommendations over-ridden by the Secretary of State for the Colonies.

Governor of Western Australia
Like Sir Harry Barron before him, and Sir Francis Newdegate after him, Ellison-Macartney was transferred as governor from Tasmania to Western Australia. His term in Western Australia was not a happy one – his critical comments about Tasmanian politicians had made Western Australians wary of his attitude, and he had to deal with the state's post-First World War economic depression and continued objection to his Unionist stance from those supportive of Irish Home Rule.

Ellison-Macartney returned to England after a three-year term. He died in Chelsea, London, aged 72.

Freemasonry
Ellison-Macartney was a freemason. He was initiated into the craft on 6 June 1872 in the Apollo University Lodge No. 357 the day before his twentieth birthday. In 1877, when he returned to Ireland, he became a member of the Lodge Cappagh No. 350 and then of the Concord Lodge No. 332. Finally, he became a founder of the new Border Lodge No. 482 on 25 April 1889. When he was appointed Governor of Tasmania, he agreed to become Grand Master of the Grand Lodge of Tasmania and was installed on 19 February 1914. He was also made Grand Master of the Grand Lodge of Western Australia during his term as the state's governor. He was also a member of the Apprentice Boys of Derry Parent Club, being initiated on the 12th of August 1877.

Family
Ellison-Macartney was the son of John William Ellison and Elizabeth Phoebe Ellison, née Porter. On 5 August 1897, he married Ettie Myers Scott at Holcombe, Somerset, and they had three children: daughters Phoebe (b.1898) and Mildred (b.1900) and a younger son John; Phoebe died in 1918, aged 20, as a result of a riding accident while the family lived were living in Perth, Australia. Ettie was the sister of Robert Falcon Scott, the Antarctic explorer.

title: William Ellison-Macartney


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Francis Newdegate

Sir Francis Alexander Newdigate Newdegate, (31 December 1862 – 2 January 1936) was an English Conservative Party politician. After over twenty years in the House of Commons, he served as Governor of Tasmania from 1917 to 1920, and Governor of Western Australia from 1920 to 1924.

Early life and family
Born in 1862, he was the son of Lieutenant Colonel Francis William Newdigate and his first wife Charlotte Elizabeth Agnes Sophia Woodford, and grandson of Francis Parker Newdigate. He was educated at Eton and the Royal Military College, Sandhurst, and was commissioned into the Grenadier Guards in 1883. He married Elizabeth Sophia Lucia Bagot on 13 October 1888.

Newdegate inherited estates at Arbury Hall, near Nuneaton and at Harefield, near Uxbridge, on the death of his father in 1893, and uncle Sir Edward Newdegate in 1902. He assumed the additional surname "Newdegate", differently spelt, under the terms of the will of a kinsman Charles Newdigate Newdegate, in September 1902. In 1911 he erected, at Arbury Hall, a monument to the memory of George Eliot, whose father had been employed on the Arbury estate.

Career
Newdegate was Member of Parliament for Nuneaton from 1892 to 1906, and for Tamworth from 1909 to 1917. He was on 14 February 1917 appointed Steward of the Manor of Northstead, a mechanism for resigning from the House of Commons, on his appointment as Governor of Tasmania.

Newdegate was appointed a Knight Commander of the Order of St Michael and St George in 1917 upon his appointment as Governor of Tasmania (1917 to 1920). He was appointed Governor of Western Australia in 1920 where he served until 1924. On retirement he was promoted to Knight Grand Cross of the Order of St Michael and St George in 1925. The Western Australian town of Newdegate is named after him.

Later life and death
Newdegate was appointed High Steward of the Royal Town of Sutton Coldfield in 1925. On his death in 1936 his estates passed to his daughter Lucia, who in 1919, had married John Maurice Fitzroy, father of the 3rd Viscount Daventry.

Personal life
He was a friend of Sir Alexander Russell Downer, who built a large home and gardens in the Adelaide Hills in South Australia and named it Arbury Park after the Newdigate family home.

title: Francis Newdegate


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Monte Santo

Monte Santo may refer to the following places:

 * Monte Santo, Bahia, a municipality in Bahia, Brazil
 * Monte Santo de Minas, a municipality in Minas Gerais, Brazil
 * Monte Santo do Tocantins, a municipality in Tocantins, Brazil
 * Monte Santo (Siligo), a mountain in the region of Siligo, Sardinia, Italy

title: Monte Santo


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William Campion (governor)

Sir William Robert Campion, (3 July 1870 – 2 January 1951) was a British soldier, politician, and the 21st Governor of Western Australia from 1924 to 1931.

Early years
Born in London, England on 3 July 1870, Campion was educated at Eton College and the University of Oxford, and was the Conservative MP for Lewes from 1910 to 1924.

Military career
Campion was commissioned into the part-time 2nd Volunteer Battalion, Royal Sussex Regiment, later 4th Battalion, Royal Sussex Regiment (of which his father was Honorary Colonel) in 1888. On the outbreak of World War I he was the battalion's senior Captain with the rank of honorary Major. He became Lieutenant-Colonel of the 1st Line battalion (1/4th Royal Sussex) and commanded it in the Gallipoli campaign. At its first action, at Suvla Bay on 9 August 1915, the Official History records that the orders given to Lt-Col Campion 'were vague in the extreme. The colonel was verbally told "to restore the line". No one knew where it was, but he was told that "if he went in that direction (pointing to a column of smoke from the burning scrub) he ought to find the 2/4th Queen's".' The 1/4th Sussex advanced steadily in extended order, found the Queen's who had been driven off the crest, and consolidated a line, having suffered heavy casualties. Campion was evacuated to England sick on 5 October.

Campion later commanded 15th (Reserve) Bn Royal Fusiliers in the UK and then went to France to command 6th (Service) Bn Bedfordshire Regiment and 17th (Garrison) Bn Royal Sussex on the Western Front before returning to the 4th Royal Sussex after its arrival from the Mediterranean in 1918. He led the battalion through the final Allied Hundred Days Offensive. He was awarded the Distinguished Service Order in 1918 and continued to command the battalion in the postwar Territorial Army.

Governor of Western Australia
In June 1924 Campion was appointed Governor of Western Australia. From October 1924 to June 1931 Campion worked with Labor and Nationalist premiers alike in harmony during a period without major political crises. He presided with dignity over the state's centennial celebrations in 1929.

Later years
Campion returned to England in 1931 and retired to his country house in Sussex, but spoke frequently in favour of organized migration to Australia. He was a member of the Empire Settlement Committee in 1935. He accepted appointment as chairman of two Australian based gold-mining companies. He visited Australia in 1935–36 to inspect properties and again in 1939. Campion died in Sussex on 2 January 1951, survived by his wife and four children: William Simon Campion (1895–1976) – married, with issue; Dorothy Mary Campion, Countess of Carnegie (1897–1967), married to John Carnegie, 12th Earl of Northesk with issue; Wilfred Edward Campion (1899–1972) – married with issue (divorced); Barbara Campion Willis Fleming (1903–1999) – married with issue (divorced).

title: William Campion (governor)


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List of The Legend of Zelda manga

Comic and manga adaptations of The Legend of Zelda series of video games, especially in Japan, have been published under license from Nintendo.

Wanpaku Comics
In September 1986, Wanpaku Comics published a manga book in Japan titled The Hyrule Fantasy. It was released as a companion to the first The Legend of Zelda video game. The story follows the game's plot but adds additional features including new characters, such as a companion parrot for Link.

Valiant Comics series
Valiant Comics published a comic series simply titled The Legend of Zelda in 1990, which lasted only five issues, with a sixth issue published as part of the Nintendo Comics System imprint. The series was more closely patterned after The Legend of Zelda TV series airing at the time, which in turn was loosely based on the first two NES games. The series depicted Link as he appears in the first game, with red hair and brown eyes. It also introduced new characters, including Captain Krin, Captain of the Guard of North Castle and Link's parents, Arn and Medilia.

Dreaming Island

 * Volume 1
 * ISBN 9784870255135
 * Release date: May 1994
 * Volume 2
 * ISBN 978-4-87025-524-1
 * Release date: September 1994

Triforce of the Gods

 * Original characters
 * Raska: Link's childhood friend, a martial arts enthusiast.
 * Tou: Raska's father. Shares the same enthusiasm for martial arts as Raska.
 * Volume 1
 * ISBN 978-4-87025-541-8
 * Release date: May 1995
 * Volume 2
 * ISBN 978-4-87025-552-4
 * Release date: November 1995
 * Volume 3
 * ISBN 978-4-87025-559-3
 * Release date: April 1996

Titles by Yuu Mishouzaki

 * Legend of Zelda
 * ISBN 4880636274
 * Release date: September 1989
 * Adventure of Link
 * ISBN 4796601910
 * Release date: August 1991

Titles by Akira Himekawa
The manga team of Akira Himekawa has been producing manga adaptations of The Legend of Zelda video games in Japan beginning with their manga adaptation of Ocarina of Time, which was first published in 1999 by Shogakukan.

Currently, Himekawa has produced manga adaptations of more than eight Zelda games (including both Oracle games), with the latest being Twilight Princess manga. Viz Media is currently publishing English translations of Himekawa's Zelda manga in North America, beginning with their adaptation of Ocarina of Time, which was published in October 2008.

Since July 2009, a French translation is being published by Soleil Manga. The first manga available was A Link to the Past followed by Ocarina of Time 1 & 2. Himekawa's other Zelda manga was later translated into French in 2010.

Himekawa's manga, which was released in Japan in and between 1998 and 2009, was also localised in the Federal Republic of Germany by Tokyopop in and between 2009 and 2011. The first ten tankōbon volumes sold more than 3 million copies worldwide.

After a seven-year hiatus, Akira Himekawa began the work on a new Zelda manga. Later revealed to be an adaptation of Twilight Princess, the manga series ran from February 2016 to January 2022.

Ocarina of Time
Released in 1998, and the English version in 2008, it is an adaptation of The Legend of Zelda: Ocarina of Time. There are two story arcs in this manga: Child arc (こども編 Kodomo-hen) and Adult arc (おとな編 Otona-hen). The protagonist is Link (リンク Rinku/Link) and during the course of the book he is on a quest to stop Ganondorf (ガノンドロフ Ganondorofu) from taking over Hyrule (ハイラル Hairaru). Princess Zelda (ゼルダ姫 Zeruda/Zelda-hime) helps him in his quest. The book more-or-less follows the same plot as the game, but there are a few differences in plot from the game. There are six chapters in the first book, and nine in the second. Some of the added information in the manga is added to explain certain points; for example, in the manga pierced ears is a traditional rite of Sheikah passage, although this is not included in the game. The series was published in English by Viz Media in North America as Volumes 1 and 2, respectively.
 * ISBN 4091496016 (Volume 1)
 * ISBN 4091496024 (Volume 2)
 * ISBN 1421523272 (Volume 1, English edition)
 * ISBN 1421523280 (Volume 2, English edition)

Majora's Mask
Released in 2000, and the English version in 2009, it is an adaptation of The Legend of Zelda: Majora's Mask, continuing from where the previous adaptation ended. It is one volume, and the last chapter includes the artist's speculation of where Majora's mask originated. The volume was published in English by Viz Media in North America as Volume 3.
 * ISBN 4091496032
 * ISBN 1421523299 (English edition)

Oracle of Seasons and Oracle of Ages
Based on Oracle of Seasons and Oracle of Ages, it spans 2 volumes. Oracle of Seasons and Oracle of Ages were published by Viz Media in English in North America as Volumes 4 and 5, respectively.

 * ISBN 4091496040 (Oracle of Seasons)
 * ISBN 4091496059 (Oracle of Ages)
 * ISBN 1421523302 (Oracle of Seasons, English edition)
 * ISBN 1421523310 (Oracle of Ages, English edition)

Four Swords
Based on The Legend of Zelda: Four Swords Adventures, it spans 2 volumes and 12 chapters. Included in volume two is an omake. The series is published in English by Viz Media in North America as Volumes 6 and 7, respectively.
 * ISBN 4091496067 (Volume 1)
 * ISBN 4091496075 (Volume 2)
 * ISBN 1421523329 (Volume 1, English edition)
 * ISBN 1421523337 (Volume 2, English edition)

The Minish Cap
Written by Akira Himekawa and published in early 2006 in Japan, this manga chronicles the adventures of Link in the game of the same name, including a short omake featuring Ezlo and Vaati. Viz released an English adaptation of this manga as Volume 8 of their Zelda series on December 1, 2009.
 * ISBN 4091401163
 * ISBN 1421523345 (English edition)

A Link to the Past
A manga adaptation of The Legend of Zelda: A Link to the Past (named Triforce of the Gods in Japan) following the release of the Game Boy Advance port. In its telling, Agahnim is revealed as a friend of Link's father. Agahnim took to magic and learned how to break the Seal of the Sages, being recruited to Ganon's services. When confronted by his friend, Agahnim sent him and his wife into the Dark World.
 * ISBN 4091496083
 * ISBN 1421523353 (English edition)

Viz released an English adaptation of this manga (renamed A Link to the Past to fit the game's North American counterpart) as Volume 9 of their Zelda series on February 2, 2010.

Phantom Hourglass
Originally released in Japan in early 2009, it is based on the DS adventure, The Legend of Zelda: Phantom Hourglass, the sequel to Wind Waker. Though the manga retains the game's characters and overall plot, many of the character's personalities and some events in the game were changed, sparking negative reactions from several fans of the original game. Despite this, however, it continues to receive positive reviews. Viz released an English adaptation of this manga as Volume 10 of their Zelda series on September 7, 2010.
 * ISBN 1421537249 (English edition)

Skyward Sword
The Legend of Zelda: Skyward Sword is a manga loosely based on the game of the same name drawn by Akira Himekawa. The 32 pages of the manga were included in the artbook Hyrule Historia. The manga serves as a prequel to the story of Skyward Sword.

Twilight Princess
A manga series based on The Legend of Zelda: Twilight Princess, penned and illustrated by Akira Himekawa, was first released on February 8, 2016. The adaptation began almost ten years after the release of the game on which it is based, but only a month before the release of the high-definition remake for the Wii U, Twilight Princess HD. The series concluded in January 2022 with 70 chapters spread across 11 volumes, all of which have since been translated and released into English.

A Link to the Past by Shotaro Ishinomori
It was created as a serial comic for Nintendo Power magazine by the acclaimed manga author Shotaro Ishinomori, and later collected in graphic novel form, this told an alternate version of the events from A Link to the Past. Though Link starts out a hapless, bumbling kid, caught up in something bigger than he ever imagined, he displays great courage and ultimately proves himself a determined and competent adventurer. This telling portrays Link's parents as Knights of Hyrule, lost to the Dark World.
 * ISBN 4091740111 (Japanese edition)
 * ASIN B0006QBMJ6 (English edition)

Novels and Yonkoma manga
Five novels (published by Futabasha) and several Yonkoma manga (published by Shiseisha) based on aspects of The Legend of Zelda series have also been published.

The Legend of Zelda: The Wind Waker – Link's Logbook
This manga is an adaptation of The Wind Waker, but parodies scenarios in the game. Although it adapts most of The Wind Waker, it skips most dungeons and scenes to the very peak of the stories. It was released almost directly after The Wind Waker was released.

Penny Arcade Presents The Legend of Zelda: Skyward Sword
A short comic published weekly in five parts on Nintendo's official The Legend of Zelda: Skyward Sword website, written and illustrated by Jerry Holkins and Mike Krahulik under their Penny Arcade Presents series. The story is narrated by Gaepora, Zelda's father.

Saitaro Komatsu manga
Saitaro Komatsu wrote a Japanese manga for CoroCoro Comic. Nintendo published a translated version as a web comic on its Play Nintendo website titled Link's Hijinks to promote Majora's Mask 3D.

title: List of The Legend of Zelda manga


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Ordnance QF 25-pounder

The Ordnance QF 25-pounder, or more simply 25-pounder or 25-pdr, with a calibre of 3.45 inches (87.6 mm), was a piece of field artillery used by British and Commonwealth forces in the Second World War. It was often described as being durable, easy to operate and versatile. It was the major British field gun and howitzer during the War.

It was introduced into service just before the War started, and combined both high-angle and direct-fire abilities, a relatively high rate of fire, and a reasonably lethal shell, with a highly mobile piece. Initial production was slow but, by 1945, over 12,000 had been manufactured. It remained the British Army's primary artillery field piece well into the 1960s, with smaller numbers used in training units until the 1980s. Many Commonwealth countries used theirs in active or reserve service until about the 1970s, and ammunition for the weapon is currently (2020s) being produced by Pakistan Ordnance Factories.

Design
The design was the result of extended studies looking to replace the 18-pounder (3.3 in bore) field gun and the 4.5-inch howitzer (114.3 mm bore), which had been the main field artillery piece during the First World War. The basic idea was to build one weapon with the high velocity of the 18-pounder and the variable propelling charges of the howitzer, firing a shell about halfway between the two in size, around 3.5 - 4.0 in of about 30 lb.

Development during the inter-war period was severely hampered by a lack of money and it was eventually decided to build a new design from existing 18-pounders by converting barrels but designing a new barrel and carriage for production when funds were available. The result was a 3.45 in weapon firing a shell weighing 25 lb. It was mounted on late model 18-pounder carriages. One of these used a circular firing platform and this was adopted for the new guns. The firing platform was attached to the gun and when lowered the gun was pulled onto it. This platform transferred most of the recoil forces to the ground, instead of using the spade at the end of the trail, making the gun very stable when firing. It also provided a smooth flat surface for the carriage to rotate on using the road wheels, this enabled the gunners to traverse the carriage quickly in any direction.

Unlike the 18-pounder, the 25-pounder used howitzer-type variable-charge ammunition. The 25-pounder was separate-loading; the shell was loaded and rammed, then the cartridge in its brass case was loaded and the breech closed. In British terminology, the 25-pounder was called "quick firing" (QF), originally because the cartridge case provided rapid loading compared with bag charges, and was automatically released when the breech was opened.

The use of separate shell and cartridge allowed the charge to be changed for different ranges. For the Mk 1 Ordnance on an 18-pounder carriage there were three "charges", charges one, two and three, all of which could be used in the common cartridge design. The Mk 2 Ordnance on Mk 1 carriage added a "super" charge in a different cartridge. In 1943 a separately bagged "increment" charge was added; used with the Super it provided higher velocity for anti-tank use. The introduction of the increment to super was only possible following the addition of the muzzle-brake in the previous year. Subsequently, another type of increment was introduced to be added to charges one and two to provide additional combinations for use in high angle fire. However, this fire required a dial sight adaptor, removal of the platform and some excavation of the ground.

In common with all British guns of the period the indirect fire sight was "calibrating". This meant that the range, not elevation angle, was set on the sight. The sight compensated for the difference in the gun's muzzle velocities from standard. The gun was also fitted with a direct-fire telescope for use with armour-piercing shot. It also used "one-man laying" in accordance with normal British practice.

An important part of the gun was the ammunition trailer ("trailer, artillery, No 27"). The gun was hooked to it and the trailer hooked to the tractor for towing. The gun did not need a limber and could be hooked directly to a tractor. The trailer provided the brakes as only a hand-brake was fitted to the gun carriage. The trailer carried ammunition; thirty-two rounds in trays (two rounds per tray) in the trailer protected by two doors. Ammunition was also carried in the gun tractor with the detachment and various gun stores. Some stores, such as sights, were carried cased on the gun. Each section (two guns) had a third tractor that carried ammunition and towed two ammunition trailers.

The normal gun detachment comprised six men:
 * No 1 – detachment commander (a sergeant)
 * No 2 – operated the breech and rammed the shell
 * No 3 – layer
 * No 4 – loader
 * No 5 – ammunition
 * No 6 – ammunition, normally the "coverer" – second in command and responsible for ammunition preparation and operating the fuze indicator

The official "reduced detachment" was four men.

Production
Many different companies manufactured the guns and component parts in the UK. Vickers-Armstrongs in Scotswood, Baker Perkins in Peterborough and Weirs in Glasgow were some of the most significant. The various Royal Ordnance factories produced most of the ordnance components. In Canada, Sorel Industries built complete guns and provided the ordnance for fitting to the Sexton. Australia also built complete guns, choosing to weld the carriages rather than rivet, as was the practice in the UK and Canada. In all, over 13,000 were made worldwide.

Ammunition
The 25-pounder fired "separate" or two-part ammunition – the projectile was loaded separately from the propelling charge in its (usually brass) cartridge case with its integral primer. Typically for a quick-firing gun, the cartridge case provided obturation.

There were two types of cartridge. The normal cartridge contained three cloth charge bags (coloured red, white and blue). White or blue bags would be removed from the cartridge to give "charge one" or "charge two", leaving all three bags in the cartridge case gave "charge three". The cartridge case was closed at the top with a leatherboard cup. The second type of cartridge was "super", which provided one charge only. The cup could not be removed from the cartridge case. In 1943, an incremental charge of 5.5 oz of cordite ("super-plus") was introduced to raise the muzzle velocity when firing armour-piercing shot with charge super; this required a muzzle brake to be fitted. Adoption of "upper-register" (high-angle) fire needed more charges to improve the range overlap. This led to the development of the "intermediate increment" of 4oz cordite, which was introduced in 1944. The bags were striped red and white to indicate that they should only be used with charges one and two. When one bag was used with charge 1 it provided charge 1/2. When one was added to charge 2 it provided charge 2 1/3, and two bags, charge 2 2/3. This allowed a range of seven different charges instead of four. There were many marks of cartridge, mostly differentiated by propellant type. Double-base propellant (nitrocellulose/nitroglycerine) was the UK standard but one mark used US single-base (nitrocellulose only). However, triple-base nitrocellulose/nitroglycerine/picrite was used throughout the war and eventually replaced all others.

The 25-pounder's main ammunition was the high-explosive (HE) streamlined shell with a 5/10 CRH ogive and boat tail. The explosive filling was 1.824 lb of TNT or Amatol. It was also provided with base ejection smoke (white and coloured), star shells, and chemical shells. Incendiary and coloured flare shells were developed but not introduced into service, and smoke shells were sometimes reloaded with propaganda leaflets or metal foil "window". The UK did not develop a WP smoke shell for the 25-pounder.

For anti-tank use, the 25-pounder was also supplied with a limited amount of 20 lb solid armour-piercing (AP) shot, later replaced with a more potent version with a ballistic cap (APBC). The AP shot was fired with maximum charge, charge No. 3, super, or super with Super increment depending on the ordnance mark, as muzzle velocity was critical in direct fire for penetration and a flat trajectory.

A shaped charge anti-tank shell was under development in Canada, but the introduction of the three-inch (76.2 mm) calibre QF 17-pounder, an anti-tank gun, in 1944 ended its development. After the Second World War, the UK replaced AP shot with a HESH shell. Coloured marker shells (dye and PETN) were also developed but not introduced.

The standard fuze was No 117 direct action (DA). No 119 (DA and graze) was also used. Combustion or mechanical time fuzes were used with base ejection shells and mechanical time with graze were used with HE. Proximity fuzes were used from the end of 1944 and subsequently replaced by CVT fuzes.

British service

The 25-pounder was the main field artillery weapon used by British Commonwealth and colonial infantry and armoured divisions of all types during the Second World War. It was also used by the RAF Regiment in North Africa. Throughout the war, each British-pattern infantry division was established with 72 25-pounders, in three field artillery regiments. Armoured divisions were eventually standardised with two field artillery regiments, one of which was self-propelled (see below). Before mid-1940, each regiment had two batteries of twelve guns; after that date, regiments changed to batteries of eight guns and added a third battery, a process that was not completed until early 1943. In the late 1950s, the British Army reverted to batteries of six guns. Field artillery regiments had two batteries of 25-pounders and one of 5.5 inch guns.

The early 18- and 25-pounders had been towed in the field by the Morris CDSW or the earlier Vickers Light Dragon Mk. III, a tracked vehicle derived from the Vickers VA50 which was also the basis of the Bren or Universal Carrier. Throughout most of the Second World War, the 25-pounder was normally towed, with its limber, behind a 4×4 field artillery tractor called a "quad". These were manufactured by Morris, Guy and Karrier in England, and, in greater numbers, as the Canadian Military Pattern field artillery tractor by Ford and Chevrolet in Canada. In the 1950s, the British Army replaced the various "quads" with a new Bedford three-ton gun tower fitted with a specialist body.

In 1941, the British Army improvised a self-propelled 25-pounder named the Bishop, on the chassis of the Valentine tank. This mount proved unsatisfactory and the Bishops were replaced in 1942 by the American M7 Priest, which did not use the 25-Pounder complicating the supply of ammunition in the field. The Priests were replaced in 1944 by the Sexton, which used the 25-Pounder. The Sexton was designed, and mostly manufactured, in Canada (some two thirds of the ordnance and mountings were imported from the UK due to limited Canadian production capacity) and was the result of mounting a 25-pounder on a Ram or Grizzly tank chassis.

By Second World War standards, the 25-pounder had a smaller calibre and lower shell-weight than many other field-artillery weapons, although it had longer range than most. (Most forces had entered the war with even smaller 75 mm designs but had quickly moved to 105 mm and larger weapons.) It was designed for the British practice of suppressive (neutralising) fire, not destructive fire that had proved illusory in the early years of the First World War. Nevertheless, the 25-pounder was considered by all to be one of the best artillery pieces in use. The effects caused by the gun (and the speed at which the British artillery control system could respond) in the North-West Europe Campaign of 1944–1945 made many German soldiers believe that the British had secretly deployed an automatic 25-pounder.

In UK service, during the 1960s, most 25-pounders were replaced by the 105mm Abbot SPG, some by the Oto Melara 105mm pack howitzer, and the remainder by the 105mm L118 light gun. The last British military unit to fire the 25-pounder in its field role (as opposed to ceremonial use) was the Gun Troop of the Honourable Artillery Company on Salisbury Plain in 1992.

Service with other nations
In addition to Commonwealth and colonial forces, other Second World War users included the free forces of France, Greece, Poland, Czechoslovakia, Netherlands, Belgium and Luxembourg. The first shot fired by US artillery against the German army in the war was from a 25-pounder of the 34th Infantry Division.

After the Second World War, 25-pounders remained in service with many Commonwealth armies into the 1960s. They were used in Korea by British, Canadian and New Zealand regiments and in Malaya by British and Australian batteries. They also featured in wars on the Indian sub-continent and in the service of Israeli and other Middle Eastern armies.

Australia
Australia used the 25-pounder extensively, including in WW2, Korea and the Malayan Emergency. They were kept in use by reserve units until the 1970s. Individual guns are now often seen as fixed memorials in memorial parks and Returned Servicemen's clubs. 1527 complete guns were manufactured in Australia from May 1941. Domestic production allowed the 25-pounder to be mounted in Australian-produced vehicles, such as the Thunderbolt tank and the post-war self-propelled gun, the Yeramba. This led to Australian development of a short-barrelled lighter version which was more suitable for off-road deployment, as required, e.g., in the New Guinea campaign. 213 of the shortened guns were produced, starting in 1943. These were declared obsolescent and placed in storage in 1946.

South Africa
The gun was called G1 by the South African Defence Force. It was extensively used in the early stages of the South African Border War, including Operation Savannah. The G1 is still used in the ceremonial role.

Rhodesia
The Rhodesian Army used the weapon during the Bush War but by this stage the round could not penetrate enemy bunkers.

Sri Lanka
The Ordnance QF 25 pounder Mark III was added to the Sri Lankan Army inventory in 1985 supplied by Pakistan at the early stages of the Sri Lankan civil war and was fielded by the 6th Field Regiment, Sri Lanka Artillery which was raised in September 1985. It was replaced by 122 mm Type 60 howitzers, but still remains in service with the Ceremonial Saluting Battery of the 6th Field Regiment.

Ireland
In 1949, 48 ex-British-Army Mark III 25-pounders were acquired by the Irish Defence Forces and were in service with the reserves until 2009, having been replaced in the army by the 105 mm Light Gun in 1981. The Irish Army maintains a six-gun ceremonial 25-pounder battery for use on state occasions.

India
The Indian Army used 25-pounders against Pakistan during the Indo-Pakistani War of 1947, the Indo-Pakistani War of 1965 and the Indo-Pakistani War of 1971 and against China during the Sino-Indian War in 1962.

Jordan
The Jordanian Arab Legion deployed eight 25-pounder field guns during the fighting in 1948. Later, the Royal Jordanian Army deployed several batteries of 25-pounders during the Six-Day War.

Lebanon
The Lebanese Army aligned twenty-one QF Mk III 25-Pounders on its inventory in 1975, with most of them being subsequently seized by the Tigers Militia and the Kataeb Regulatory Forces (KRF) militia in February 1976 and passed on to its successor, the Lebanese Forces in 1980, who employed them during the Lebanese Civil War.

Luxembourg
During World War II, the Free Luxembourgish Forces fielded four 25-pounders, which were named after the four daughters of Grand Duchess Charlotte: Princesses Elisabeth, Marie Adelaide, Marie Gabriele and Alix. Post-war, the Luxembourg Army used a number of 25-pounder guns. In 1955–1957, they were rebarrelled to 105 mm and fitted with new sights. The First Artillery Battalion with 18 guns was placed at the disposal of the 8th Infantry Division of the United States from 1963 to 1967. The last shots fired by the First Luxembourg Artillery Battalion left the tubes on May 31, 1967. Some are maintained for gun salutes.

Greece and Cyprus
The 25-pounder first entered service with Greek forces in North Africa during WWII. Three (numbered I, II and III) field artillery regiments of 24 pieces each were raised as part of the Greek infantry brigades raised by the Greek government in exile. Their only significant actions were at El Alamein in 1942 and Rimini in 1944. After the end of the Second World War, the 25-pounder served as part of the Greek Army during the Greek Civil War. A total of 125 25-pounder guns were used by the Greek artillery during the civil war of 1946–1949, in various organizational schemes. After the civil war, they were organized into seven independent regiments of 18 guns each. Following Greece's entry into NATO in 1952 and the standardization on American calibres in 1953, the 25-pounders, unlike other models, were not retired but reorganised into 13 battalions of eight guns each, as part of divisional artillery formations. In 1957, the influx of American artillery pieces permitted an increase from 8 to 12 guns per battalion. In 1964, 54 25-pdr guns were handed over from Greece to Cyprus, where they entered service with the Cyprus National Guard organized into four battalions of 12 guns each ( numbered 181, 182, 183 and 185) and one independent battery of six guns (184). They saw action during the Turkish invasion of the island in 1974. The 25-pounders remained in Greek Army service until 1992, when they were retired as part of the CFE agreement. The guns of the Cyprus National Guard remain in storage.

New Zealand
During World War II New Zealand Gunners of 2nd New Zealand division made extensive use of the 25-pr in Greece, North Africa and Italy. The 16th Field Regiment of the Royal New Zealand Artillery, equipped with 25-pounders, was formed to join the United Nations force in the Korean War. The 25-pdr was replaced in first-line units by the OTO Melara L5 gun. The guns were withdrawn from operational service with Territorial Force Artillery by 1977. Today, 25-pounders remain in service as ceremonial gun.

Nigeria
The Nigerian Federal Army used 25-pdr guns during the Biafran War. The Nigerian Army still fielded them in 2002.

Iraqi Kurdistan
A 2015 news report shows at least one 25-pounder in service with Kurdish Peshmerga forces, employed against ISIS positions in Mosul, Iraq.

South Vietnam
In 1953, the Vietnamese National Army was equipped with 122 QF 25 pounders.

Mark I

Known officially as the "Ordnance, Quick Firing 25-pounder Mark I on Carriage 18-pr Mark IV", or "Ordnance, Quick Firing 25-pounder Mark I on Carriage 18-pr Mark V" and commonly called the "18/25-pounder". The Mark I was a 25-pounder barrel and breech in the modified jacket of an 18-pounder gun, as a 'loose liner'. The jacket provided the interface to the 18-pounder carriage. The earliest versions retained 18-pounder type elevation sights but later ones had Probert pattern calibrating sights on the right side of the saddle. The Mark IV P, carriage was a box trail, Mark V P, was a split trail. These conversions of the 18-pounder first entered British service in 1937. A few were lost in the Norwegian campaign and 704 in France, leaving about the same number in UK's global stocks. They served in North Africa (until about late 1941) and India. This mark of 25-pounder was limited to charge 3 due to its 18-pounder carriage.

Mark II

The Mark II, fitted to the Mark I carriage was the standard gun during the war. They were built in Australia and Canada but mostly in UK. Deliveries (from UK production) started at the beginning of 1940 and first entered service with a Canadian regiment stationed in UK during May 1940. No Ordnance 25-pr Mk 2 on Carriage 25-pr Mark 1 were lost in France. This gun fired all charges, 1 – 3 and Super. In 1942, a muzzle brake was fitted to the gun to eliminate the instability caused when firing the 20 lb AP shell with Charge Super at direct fire low elevation angles. To preserve the gun's balance on the trunnions, a counterbalance weight was also fitted, just in front of the breech ring. The designation of the modified gun was not changed. Eventually, all guns serving in Europe were so converted.

The Mark II ordnance had six main marks of the barrel:

 * Mark I barrel
 * Original variant with a loose liner.

 * Mark II barrel
 * The standard design, also made in Canada as C Mk II barrel.

 * Mark II/I
 * In 1946, a programme was introduced to modify the gun's breech ring by morticing the rear corners. A corresponding modification was made to the rear corners of the breech block. This was to reduce the instances of cracking the ring.

 * Mark III barrel
 * The Mark III barrel was a Mark II with a modified receiver to prevent the rounds from slipping back out when loading at high angles. It was introduced in January 1944.

 * Mark III/I
 * This was a Mk III gun with the same modification to the ring and block as for the Mk II/I.

 * Mark IV barrel
 * The Mark IV was identical to the Mark III/I, and featured the modified ring and a paired block from new.

 * Mark VI barrel
 * The final alteration of the breech ring made in 1964.

Short, Mark I

The 25-pounder Short Mark I, or Baby 25-pr, was an Australian pack gun version of the 25-pounder, first produced in 1943. This was a shortened version of the standard 25-pounder, mounted on the Carriage 25-pr Light, Mark 1. Weighing 1,315 kg, it was around 315 kg lighter than the 25-pounder Mark II.

The "Baby" was intended for jungle warfare and was only used by Australian units in the South West Pacific theatre. The gun could be towed by a jeep or broken down into 13 sections and transported by air. During the New Guinea campaign the gun was manhandled up steep jungle tracks where trucks could not operate.

Carriages

 * Mark I
 * The Mark I carriage was the first real 25-pounder carriage. Later in the war, some guns had a double spacer-separated shield to improve protection. It had Probert-pattern calibrating sights, but with the range indicator wrapped into the distinctive cone that rotated against a fixed reader arm.

 * Jury axle
 * In Burma, artificers of 129 (Lowland) Jungle Field Regiment developed a local modification to use a Jeep axle and wheels to produce a 20-inch narrower axle track for easier movement along restricted jungle paths, along with some minor modifications to the gun trail; it was called the Jury Axle. Tests in action showed the gun was stable, it was first reported to GHQ India in October 1943. It appears that it was also used without its shield, and the gun could be disassembled for transport in pieces by Jeep. 139th (4th London) Jungle Field Regiment used the modified guns and developed procedures for dismantling them for stowage aboard Douglas C-47 Dakota transport aircraft.

The Mark II carriage was basically the War Office-approved formalisation of the Jury Axle version of the 25-pounder. Changes included a narrower shield, a new narrower track platform (No 22), and modified Jeep wheels.
 * Mark II

The Mark III carriage, also narrow, was a further development of the Mark II carriage to provide joints that enabled the trail to be cranked for "upper register" (high-angle) fire to avoid the need to dig a trail pit, and used with the cranked "dial sight adaptor" previously adopted for high-angle fire. It entered service soon after the war. High-angle fire had been introduced in Italy and used increments to charges 2 and 3 to give the 25-pounder seven charges.
 * Mark III

The British did further work on the Australian-designed short 25-pounder, enabling it to fire charge Super. One or two prototypes were produced and the carriage was officially designated the Mark IV, but never went into production.
 * Mark IV

Bishop
The Bishop was a British self-propelled 25-pounder using the Valentine tank chassis, soon replaced by better designs.

Sexton
The Sexton was a Canadian self-propelled 25-pounder using the Ram or Grizzly tank chassis.

Yeramba
The Yeramba was an Australian self-propelled 25-pounder using the M3 Lee tank chassis.

Current operators

 * 🇲🇦 Morocco
 * 🇦🇺 Australia
 * 🇨🇦 Canada (also used in military funerals)
 * 🇨🇾 Cyprus
 * 🇪🇬 Egypt
 * 🇫🇷 France: used by Free French and then in Indochina
 * 🇫🇯 Fiji
 * 🇬🇷 Greece
 * 🇮🇳 India Now as ceremonial gun.
 * 🇮🇩 Indonesia: 144 from Royal Netherlands East Indies Army (KNIL).
 * 🇮🇪 Ireland (relegated to ceremonial role)
 * 🇮🇱 Israel
 * 🇯🇴 Jordan
 * 🇰🇼 Kuwait
 * -Peshmerga
 * 🇱🇧 Lebanon
 * 🇱🇸 Lesotho
 * 🇱🇺 Luxembourg (relegated to ceremonial role)
 * 🇲🇹 Malta (relegated to ceremonial role)
 * 🇲🇿 Mozambique: still in service in 2002
 * 🇲🇲 Myanmar -50 in service
 * 🇳🇿 New Zealand (relegated to ceremonial role)
 * 🇳🇬 Nigeria
 * 🇵🇰 Pakistan: Some units inherited from the British Indian Army with several more captured from retreating Indian forces during Operation Grand Slam in 1965.
 * 🇵🇾 Paraguay: 12 from South Africa
 * 🇵🇱 Poland (Polish Armed Forces in the West)
 * 🇵🇹 Portugal: Registration – Obus 8,8 cm m/43 (relegated to ceremonial role)
 * 🇶🇦 Qatar
 * Rhodesia
 * 🇸🇬 Singapore (relegated to ceremonial role)
 * 🇿🇦 South Africa (relegated to ceremonial role)
 * 🇱🇰 Sri Lanka (relegated to ceremonial role)
 * 🇸🇷 Suriname: 3 displayed during parades in 2016
 * 🇬🇧 United Kingdom
 * 🇿🇼 Zimbabwe
 * 🇿🇼 Zimbabwe

Former operators

 * 🇧🇪: Used by Belgian Field Battery during WWII; also in Belgian Congo post-WWII
 * Czechoslovakia: used during WWII
 * Kingdom of Italy: Captured examples and 1943–45 co-belligerent forces
 * Kingdom of Iraq
 * Nazi Germany: (Captured examples) Mk I designated 8.76 cm Feldkanone 280(e), MK II designated 8.76 cm Feldkanone 281(e).
 * 🇳🇱 Netherlands: Used by Royal Netherlands Motorized Infantry Brigade "Princess Irene", Royal Netherlands East Indies Army (1945–1949), Marines Brigade (1945–1949), Royal Netherlands Army (1945–1984)
 * 🇴🇲 Oman: ~40 in 1976
 * South Vietnam: 122 in 1953
 * 🇺🇸: during Tunisian Campaign, Battle of the Bulge and Pacific War

title: Ordnance QF 25-pounder


text:
Saint Edmund

Saint Edmund may refer to:

 * Saint Edmund the Martyr (d. 869), king of East Anglia who was venerated as a martyr saint soon after his death at the hands of Vikings
 * Saint Edmund Arrowsmith (1585–1628), Jesuit, one of the Forty Martyrs of England and Wales
 * Saint Edmund Campion (1540–1581), English Jesuit priest and martyr
 * Saint Edmund Gennings (1567–1591), English priest and martyr
 * Saint Edmund Rich (1175–1240), otherwise Edmund of Abingdon, Archbishop of Canterbury

 * MV St Edmund a British Rail car ferry

title: Saint Edmund


text:
User talk:TrevorPerry

Hi. Your edits as User:FoucaultYou have now been reattributed to you. Regards  — Kate Turner | Talk 01:09, 2004 Oct 14 (UTC)

Hey Trevor, this is Ralph/jeff_andonuts from LJ. Fancy seeing you here. >_> Ralphael 06:30, 22 January 2006 (UTC)

title: User talk:TrevorPerry


text:
Montes Claros

Montes Claros is a city located in northern Minas Gerais state, in Brazil. It is located north of the state capital, about 422 km away from it. The population is 413,487 (2020 est.) in an area of 3569 km2. It was made a seat of a municipality in 1831 and attained city status in 1857.

History
The region was originally inhabited by the Anais people and Tapuias Amerindians. The first Portuguese settlers arrived in this region during the eighteenth century. In 1707 they formed three great ranches: Jaiba, Olhos d'Água and Montes Claros. The latter was created by Antônio Gonçalves Figueira. In order to get his cattle to market Figueira opened up roads to Tranqueiras in Bahia and to the São Francisco River Soon the Fazenda de Montes Claros became the greatest producer of cattle in the north of Minas Gerais, and a small village was formed. In 1554 the Espinosa-Navarro expedition, composed of twelve Bandeirantes. The settlers moved north from the coast in search of diamonds and gold in the streams, and to conquer the region from the native Amerindians. It was officially founded in 1768 with as Arraial de Formigas.Later it would be renamed to Arraial de Nossa Senhora da Conceição and São José de Formigas. In 1810 the town was made a bishopric. In 1831 the settlement had grown to a village and was renamed to Vila de Montes Claros de Formigas. In 1847 the first doctor arrived and set up practice. By 1857, Vila Montes Claros de Formigas had around 2,000 inhabitants and became the city of Montes Claros.

The 20th century brought fast development to the city. In 1912 the first telephone line was installed. In 1914 the first cinema (Cinema Recreio) was created. Electricity arrives in 1917. The first automobile arrives in 1920. In 1926 the first railroad service starts to operate. In 1938 the city implements a drinking water system. Finally in 1956 the city is connected to the national telephone system.

Geography
According to the modern (2017) geographic classification by Brazil's National Institute of Geography and Statistics (IBGE), the city is the main municipality in the Intermediate Geographic Region of Montes Claros.

Neighboring municipalities

 * North: São João da Ponte
 * Northeast: Capitão Enéas
 * East: Francisco Sá
 * Southeast: Juramento, Glaucilândia
 * South: Bocaiúva
 * Southwest: Claro dos Poções
 * West: São João da Lagoa, Coração de Jesus
 * Northwest: Mirabela,  Patis

Microregion of Montes Claros
Montes Claros is also a statistical microregion (number 36) consisting of 22 municipalities: Brasília de Minas, Campo Azul, Capitão Enéas, Claro dos Poções, Coração de Jesus, Francisco Sá, Glaucilândia, Ibiracatu, Japonvar, Juramento, Lontra, Luislândia, Mirabela, Montes Claros, Patis, Ponto Chique, São João da Lagoa, São João da Ponte, São João do Pacuí, Ubaí, Varzelândia, and Verdelândia. The population was 501,480 in 2000 and the area was 22,322.10 km2.

Distances
It is 418 km from the capital, Belo Horizonte, and is connected by the following highways:
 * BR 135 – Bocaiúva/Januária
 * BR 365 – Pirapora/Uberlândia
 * BR 251 – Rio-Bahia/Salinas/Coração de Jesus
 * BR 122 – Janaúba

Climate
The climate is tropical with an annual average temperature of 24.2 °C. The vegetation of the municipality is mainly Cerrado with areas of transition between cerrado and Caatinga.

Economy
Producer of dairy and beef cattle, followed by agriculture: beans, corn, manioc, cotton, and irrigated rice. The industrial sector began to increase with the arrival of electric power in 1965 and the participation of the government agency SUDENE in the industrial development of the region. Today industry is the main activity in the city. The factories installed are, among others, the largest factory of condensed milk in the world (Nestlé), one of the three factories of insulin in Latin America (BIOBRAS now Novo Nordisk Produção Farmacêutica do Brasil), a modern textile factory (COTENOR), and the seventh largest cement factory in Brazil (LAFARGE BRASIL)
 * Primary sector:
 * Secondary sector:

Montes Claros is also recognized nationally as the capital of Carne de Sol, a local jerky-like dry beef and Arroz com Pequi, a very popular meal that is made of rice and Pequi. According to CAGED (Cadastro Geral de Empregados e Desempregados), Montes Claros is ranked #3 in the list of the cities of the state of Minas Gerais in number of employed people, only behind Belo Horizonte and Uberlândia.

Education and health
Several higher education institutions are located in Montes Claros. There are three public universities: Universidade Estadual de Montes Claros (Unimontes), Instituto Federal do Norte de Minas Gerais (IFNMG) and a campus of the Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais (UFMG), and five private colleges: Universidade Paulista (UNIP), Universidade Norte do Paraná (Unopar), Faculdades Pitágoras, Faculdades Unidas do Norte de Minas (FUNORTE), Faculdade de Ciência e Tecnologia de Montes Claros (Facit), Faculdade de Saúde Ibituruna (Fasi), and Faculdades Santo Agostinho.

In 2005 there were 1 public and 2 private hospitals with 996 beds. There were also 62 public and 78 private clinics.

Airport
Mário Ribeiro Airport has a runway with capability to receive planes as large as Boeing 737. It has a navigation system and a rescue and fire combat system. There are 8 daily flights to Belo Horizonte.

Tourism
Montes Claros has innumerous caves and 164 cataloged archaeological sites, among which the most important are the caves of Lapa Grande, where there is an underground river with a length of more than one kilometers. Lapa Grande is located in the Serra da Vieira, 12 km from Montes Claros.

In the city itself there are several large parks, among which the most important are Parque Municipal Milton Prates, with a lake and zoo. In the rural area there is Parque Sapucaia, a forest reserve and Parque Guimarães Rosa along the banks of the Córrego Carrapato.

Notable people

 * Kamilla Cardoso, basketball player
 * Barbara Fialho, model
 * Ronildo Pereira de Freitas (born 1977), football player
 * André Muniz, MMA fighter
 * Nikão, football player
 * Odair, football player
 * Hugo Ragelli, football player
 * Anne Shibuya, curler
 * Yara Tupynambá (born 1932), artist

title: Montes Claros


text:
Perpetual Emigration Fund

The Perpetual Emigration Fund (PEF) was a 19th-century program of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (LDS Church) that provided economic assistance to emigrants seeking to join the main church community in the Salt Lake Valley and surrounding regions. The fund concept was launched in 1849, two years after the first Mormon pioneers arrived in Utah. In September 1850, based on proposals made in the church's general conference, the provisional government of the State of Deseret formally incorporated the fund as the Perpetual Emigrating Company. Ultimately the fund and corporation operated under the name Perpetual Emigrating Fund Company (PEFC).

Fund practices and operations
The PEF used a combination of church resources and private contributions to provide initial aid for impoverished church members as they moved west. The ordinance incorporating the PEF set aside Antelope Island and Stansbury Island, two islands in the Great Salt Lake, for the company's exclusive use. On Antelope Island, the church operated a ranch with tithing herds of cattle and sheep in order to generate revenue for the fund.

The aid provided to emigrants was structured in the form of loans, with the design of constantly replenishing the fund by having these members repay the assistance once established in their new homes. Recipients would sign a promissory note to reimburse the company for their costs, and were often permitted to satisfy their obligation with commodities or labor in addition to cash. Over the life of the program, nearly 30,000 individuals received assistance, primarily with travel arrangements and outfitting.

As the funding was never able to support all who might need assistance, priority was given to longstanding church members and those with useful skills needed in the Western frontier environment. While proselyting efforts in Europe led to increasing numbers of new converts drawing on the PEF, the company only sometimes paid for a recipient's ship passage; more often it assisted with overland travel costs for those already residing or newly arrived in the US. In the Utah economy, availability of cash remained a limiting factor. For members seeking to emigrate from Great Britain, church mission president Samuel W. Richards instituted a plan that the emigrants would pool their existing if meager resources into the PEF, then pay back the full amount of assistance regardless of whether they had also donated. As not all could be accommodated at once, this would help the earlier group of emigrants support those coming after. The earlier growth of the LDS Church in Britain meant that a higher percentage of British members received PEF assistance than emigrants coming from elsewhere (primarily Scandinavia). Those who had relatives already in Utah were more likely to receive support, and donors to the PEF could also designate recipients with their contribution.

Innovations and evolution of emigrant travel
Efforts to ease the journey for the emigrants and make the program less expensive for them and the church continued over the PEF's lifetime. At first, church leadership believed that members in Europe should be advised to wait until a potential canal was built through Panama or Nicaragua, so they could land in California and avoid the difficult overland journey from the Atlantic seaboard. However, as the canal projects failed to move forward, this approach to the voyage never developed.

Beginning in 1856, instead of supplying covered wagons with oxen to cross the plains from the western railroad terminus, church leaders organized many emigrants into handcart companies provided with two-wheeled carts that they would pull themselves, like a very large wheelbarrow. The new approach allowed the PEF to support nearly twice as many individuals as it had in 1855. The increased numbers were also problematic, however, as procuring the additional ships and difficulties in building sufficient handcarts caused travel delays. This led to two companies starting the handcart stage of their journey too late in the year, with significant loss of life when they were caught in an October blizzard before reaching Salt Lake City.

A few more handcart companies followed in subsequent years, the last in 1860 as the final emigration stage reverted to wagon trains. Instead, church President Brigham Young began promoting the idea of sending teams from Utah with cattle and wagons to meet the emigrants across the plains. By drawing on available resources, it would reduce the challenges and costs of outfitting each group separately, and the wagons could carry the necessary gear and supplies while the majority of travelers walked alongside. Young also suggested that with Utah still having few merchants, existing residents might arrange to have team leaders obtain goods for them back East and bring those items back more cheaply than they could otherwise be obtained. These teams became known as "down-and-back companies" based on their journey "down" to the Missouri River gathering point and back to Utah, and contributed significantly in facilitating the larger emigrant groups organized through the PEF over the course of the decade.

For those coming from Europe, the place of departure was typically Liverpool, except for a handful of parties from the continent who sailed to America directly from Hamburg. Church agents engaged sailing vessels almost exclusively for the transatlantic crossing until 1868, to keep fares as low as possible (whether paid by the individual or the PEF). By this time, the majority of overseas immigration to the US had already shifted to steamships, and the church followed suit in developing a relationship with the Guion Line to carry its emigrants as steerage passengers. The shift to a quicker, more reliable crossing by steam was in part connected to a separate concession from the Union Pacific Railroad, which offered free railroad fare from Omaha for able-bodied men who could help build the roadbed for its portion of the first transcontinental railroad. The railroad's completion the next year also eliminated the wagon stage of the journey.

Final years and legacy
Since repayment depended on the recipients building up sufficient means after emigration, the PEFC often did not collect on the notes it held. President Young and others occasionally issued harsh criticism of those who failed to repay, or at least return the gear with which they had been outfitted. However, church bishops who oversaw PEF repayments were directed that collection should be "consistent with the ability of the debtors to pay, without distressing the poor, the widow, the aged, or the infirm." As the company continued to balance these competing considerations, by 1880 the amounts owed to the PEF had grown to $1.6 million. As part of the jubilee celebration of the 50th year since the church's organization, its soon-to-be President John Taylor announced a goal to forgive half the amount. With instructions to identify those too poor to pay, church bishops managed in the end to forgive $337,000 of obligations to the PEF during the year.

As the US federal government stepped up its campaign to suppress the practice of polygamy by the church, the PEFC came under collateral attack. Utah territorial Governor Eli H. Murray complained to the Secretary of the Interior in 1883 that the PEFC's incorporation meant the legislature had effectively handed over to the church the entire system of immigration into the territory. Subsequent sessions of Congress repeatedly considered bills to disincorporate both the LDS Church and the Perpetual Emigrating Fund Company on the grounds that it fostered the practice. The disincorporation finally took effect when the Edmunds-Tucker Act was enacted in 1887.

The church was ultimately allowed to continue operating and its assets were released in 1893 after a manifesto officially discontinuing the practice of polygamy, but the PEFC was never reinstated. At the conclusion of court proceedings to dissolve it, the receiver took possession of $417,968.50 in net assets, nearly all uncollectable promissory notes of no value. In 2001 the LDS Church established a new program inspired by the Perpetual Emigration Fund, this time designed to help members in developing countries obtain vocational and technical training, and named it the Perpetual Education Fund.

title: Perpetual Emigration Fund


text:
San Francisco Canyon Company

San Francisco Canyon Company was a software development company that was contracted by Apple Computer in 1992 to port the QuickTime technology to Microsoft Windows. They made their first release of QuickTime for Windows in November 1992.

In July 1993, Intel contracted the San Francisco Canyon Company to improve the performance of Microsoft's Video for Windows technology on Intel processors. By the end of 1993, Intel and Microsoft had combined their efforts to improve Video for Windows by creating a joint technology called Display Control Interface that was included in version 1.1d of Video for Windows (released in late 1994). As with WinG, the main problem this technology fixed was that Windows 3.x video drivers implemented all GDI routines including for drawing bitmaps in the video drivers themselves, and performance of these routines varied across drivers.

The lawsuit "Apple Computer v. San Francisco Canyon Co.", filed on December 6, 1994, alleged that the San Francisco Canyon Company used some of the code developed under contract to Apple in their additions to Video for Windows. Apple expanded the lawsuit to include Intel and Microsoft on February 10, 1995, alleging that Microsoft and Intel knowingly used the software company to aid them in stealing several thousand lines of Apple's QuickTime code in their effort to improve the performance of Video for Windows.

On March 3, 1995, a Federal judge issued a temporary restraining order that prohibited Microsoft from distributing its current version of Video for Windows. Microsoft subsequently released version 1.1e of Video for Windows, which removed all of the code contributed by the San Francisco Canyon Company, stating in the release notes "does not include the low-level driver code that was licensed from Intel Corporation".

Later testimony in the United States v. Microsoft Corp. case revealed that, at the time, Apple was threatening Microsoft with a multibillion-dollar lawsuit over the allegedly stolen code, and in return Bill Gates was threatening the cancellation of Microsoft Office for Mac. In August 1997, Apple and Microsoft announced a settlement deal. Apple would drop all current lawsuits, including all lingering issues from the "Look & Feel" lawsuit and the "QuickTime source code" lawsuit, and agree to make Internet Explorer for Mac the default browser on the Macintosh unless the user explicitly chose the bundled Netscape browser. In return, Microsoft agreed to continue developing Office, Internet Explorer, and various developer tools and software for the Mac for the next 5 years, and purchase $150 million of non-voting Apple stock. The companies also agreed to mutual collaboration on Java technologies, and to cross-license all existing patents, and patents obtained during the five-year deal, with one another.

title: San Francisco Canyon Company


text:
Wikipedia:Articles for deletion/Saddle (volcanology)

Saddle (volcanology)
Saddle is not a "volcanology" term and information on the page is largely inaccurate - Marshman 01:13, 14 Oct 2004 (UTC)

 * Received no comments, so I'm going to delete the article page - Marshman 17:41, 21 Oct 2004 (UTC)