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Centenary College of Louisiana

Centenary College of Louisiana is a private liberal arts college in Shreveport, Louisiana. The college is affiliated with the United Methodist Church. Founded in 1825, it is the oldest chartered liberal arts college west of the Mississippi River and is accredited by the Southern Association of Colleges and Schools (SACS).

History
Centenary College of Louisiana is the oldest college in Louisiana and is the nation's oldest chartered liberal arts college west of the Mississippi River. Centenary traces its origins to two earlier institutions. In 1825, the Louisiana state legislature issued a charter for the College of Louisiana at Jackson. Its curriculum included courses in English, French, Greek, Latin, logic, rhetoric, ancient and modern history, mathematics, and natural, moral, and political philosophy. In 1839, the Mississippi Conference of the Methodist Episcopal Church, South, established Centenary College, first located in Clinton, Mississippi, then relocated to Brandon Springs. When the College of Louisiana lost the financial support from the state legislature in 1845, Centenary College purchased the facility and moved to Jackson.

In 1846, the college's trustees changed the institution's name to Centenary College of Louisiana and adopted the alumni of the two predecessor colleges. During the 1850s, enrollment reached 260, and the college constructed a large central building, which included classrooms, laboratories, literary society rooms, a library, a chapel, offices, and an auditorium with seating for over 2,000 people. This prosperity halted with the American Civil War. Following a meeting on October 7, 1861, the faculty minute book states, "Students have all gone to war. College suspended; and God help the right! " During the war, both Confederate and Union troops occupied the campus’ buildings. Centenary reopened in the fall of 1865, though struggled financially through the remainder of the nineteenth century. In 1906, the Louisiana Conference of the Methodist Episcopal Church, South, accepted an offer from the Shreveport Progressive League to relocate the college. The Jackson campus now serves as the Centenary State Historic Site operated by the Louisiana Office of State Parks; it is listed on the National Register of Historic Places.

Centenary opened in Shreveport, Louisiana, in 1908. Enrollment and course offerings increased during the 1920s, and Centenary received accreditation from the Southern Association of Colleges and Schools in 1925. During the 1920s and 1930s, the college's football program earned fame for defeating such teams as Baylor, LSU, Rice, SMU, and Texas A & M. The Centenary College Choir, formed in 1941, began performing throughout the region and eventually expanded to making national as well as international tours. In 1942, Centenary acquired a satellite campus, the former Dodd College, which served as a pre-flight training facility for air force cadets. Following the Second World War, the college undertook many new construction projects – dormitories, a cafeteria, a science building, a religious education center, a chapel, an expanded student center, a library, a theater, and a music building.

Presidents
College of Louisiana (Jackson, Louisiana)
 * Jeremiah Chamberlain (1826–1829)
 * Henry H. Gird (1829–1834)
 * James Shannon (1835–1840)
 * William B. Lacey (1841–1845)

Centenary College (Brandon Springs, Mississippi)
 * Thomas C. Thornton (1841–1844)

Centenary College of Louisiana (Jackson, Louisiana)
 * David O. Shattuck (1844–1848)
 * Augustus Baldwin Longstreet (1848–1849)
 * Richard H. Rivers (1849–1853)
 * John C. Miller (1855–1866)
 * William H. Watkins (1866–1871)
 * Charles G. Andrews (1871–1882)
 * D. M. Rush (1882–1885)
 * T. A. S. Adams (1885–1888)
 * W. L. C. Hunnicutt (1888–1894)
 * Charles W. Carter (1894–1898)
 * Inman J. Cooper (1898–1902)
 * Henry B. Carre (1902–1903)
 * Charles C. Miller (1903–1906)

Centenary College of Louisiana (Shreveport, Louisiana)

 * William Lander Weber (1907–1910)
 * Felix R. Hill (1910–1913)
 * Robert H. Wynn (1913–1918)
 * W. R. Bourne (1919–1921)
 * George Sexton (1921–1932)
 * William Angie Smith (interim, 1932–1933)
 * Pierce Cline (1933–1945)
 * Joe J. Mickle (1945–1964)
 * Jack Stauffer Wilkes (1964–1969)
 * John Horton Allen (1969–1976)
 * Donald A. Webb (1977–1991)
 * Kenneth L. Schwab (1991–2009)
 * B. David Rowe (2009–2016)
 * Christopher L. Holoman (2016–present)

Campus
Centenary College's campus spans sixty-five acres and is located two miles south of downtown Shreveport. The Dr. Ed Leuck Academic Arboretum, located in the heart of campus, is home to more than 300 species of plant life.

Major buildings

 * The Anderson Choral Building, named in memory of G. M. "Jake" and Dr. Gertie Anderson, longtime trustees and benefactors of the college, the building houses the Nancy Mikell Carruth Choir Room, the Dr. Alberta E. Broyles Choral Room, and the Harvey and Alberta Broyles Choral Lounge. The Anderson building also contains a soundproof practice room and atrium.
 * The Brown Memorial Chapel was erected in 1955, after a gift was made by the late Paul M. Brown, Jr., Chairman Emeritus of the Board of Trustees, and his brother, Colonel S. Perry Brown, a life member of the Board, in honor of their parents. The chapel was renovated and rededicated in January 2003 and hosts religious services and special events.

 * Bynum Memorial Commons, the cafeteria, built in 1956, was named in 1974 to honor Robert Jesse Bynum, New Orleans businessman and benefactor of the college. A generous grant from the Frost Foundation funded a 2006 renovation of the entire building, including the Edwin Frost Whited Room and the Centenary Alumni Hall of Fame.

 * The Gold Dome, completed in 1971, is a physical education facility. The geodesic dome has a capacity of 3,000 and serves as the home basketball and volleyball court and gymnastics arena. After a recent renovation in 2011, the Gold Dome features a new hardwood painted floor, updated sub-floor electronics, premium seating, and a new Hi-Fi public address system.
 * Hamilton Hall, the administration building completed in 1971, was largely the result of gifts by the late Mr. and Mrs. David Philip Hamilton. Mrs. Hamilton was a trustee of the college and a member of the first Centenary class to graduate in Shreveport.
 * The Hargrove Memorial Amphitheatre was a gift of Mrs. R. H. Hargrove and her children and was built in memory of her husband, Mr. Reginald H. Hargrove. It is used for convocations, plays, and concerts.
 * The Meadows Museum of Art, established in 1975, was created from the gift of Centenary alumnus Algur H. Meadows. After donating 360 works by the French artist Jean Despujols, Meadows also provided funding to renovate the former administrative building into a museum.  The museum's permanent collection now includes around 1500 works by various artists and regularly hosts exhibits that aim to educate students and the public on the importance of art.
 * The John F. Magale Memorial Library, commonly shortened to Magale Library, was built in 1963 with the donation from the Magale Foundation. It provides students with access to many academic and student resources, free printing, study areas, tutoring, and more. The library building also contains the Centenary Archives and the Learning Commons. The emblem for Centenary College of Louisiana contains the signature bell tower that sits atop the Magale Library.

Academics
Centenary is a selective liberal arts college with 25 majors in the arts and sciences, numerous academic concentrations, a variety of pre-professional programs, and two graduate programs.

Accreditation
Centenary College of Louisiana is accredited by the Commission on Colleges of the Southern Association of Colleges and Schools to award bachelors’ and master's degrees. The music program is accredited by the National Association of Schools of Music.

Greek life
There are several Greek social organizations at Centenary College.

Athletics

Centenary is currently a member of the NCAA Division III's Southern Collegiate Athletic Conference (SCAC), having moved from the American Southwest Conference (ASC) after the 2011–12 academic year. Prior to July 2011, the college was a member of The Summit League in NCAA Division I.

The first official records of athletic teams at Centenary College are to be found in the 1908–1909 college catalog and the November 1909 issue of the Maroon and White, a monthly publication edited by the students.

Centenary fields 20 intercollegiate athletic teams including football, baseball, basketball, cross country, golf, lacrosse, soccer, and swimming for men; and basketball, cross country, golf, gymnastics, soccer, softball, swimming, tennis, and volleyball for women.

U.S. Olympics Women's Gymnastics Coach (Tokyo, 1964) Vannie Edwards coached the Centenary women's gymnastics team from 1964 to 1968 and again from 1977 to 1985. Coach Edwards was also the team manager for the U.S. Olympics Women's Gymnastics teams in 1968 (Mexico City) and 1972 (Munich). He was inducted into the U.S. Gymnastics Hall of Fame in 1986.

Centenary previously fielded a college football team. From 1927 thru 1936, the team compiled a record of 73–22–11, including two undefeated seasons (1927 & 1932). The 1927 team featured wins over four powers in the Southwest Conference: Southern Methodist, Baylor, Rice, and Texas Christian. The 1932 team featured wins over Louisiana State, Texas, Texas A&M, and Mississippi. Head Coach Homer Norton left Centenary after the 1933 season, and success and fan interest dwindled. After an 0–8–2 season in 1941, the team was discontinued for the duration of World War II due to budget deficits. Football resumed in 1947, but after winning only one game during the season, the football program was halted for good in December 1947.

In 2023, Centenary reinstated their football team for the first time in seven decades.

Alumni

 * Nathan Allen (Class of 1967) – internationally recognized trial lawyer, conservationist and patron of the arts
 * Lonnie O. Aulds (1925–1984, Class of 1950) – Louisiana state representative from Caddo Parish from 1968 to 1972; real estate developer in Shreveport
 * Brady Blade – drummer, music producer, founded record label Brick Top Recordings LLC, and owner of Blade Studios
 * Riemer Calhoun (Class of 1930, 1909–1994) – member of the Louisiana State Senate for Caddo and DeSoto parishes from 1944 to 1952
 * Sherri Smith Buffington – member of the Louisiana State Senate since 2004
 * John William Corrington – poet and author; early television writing pioneer
 * George W. D'Artois (transferred to LSU in Baton Rouge) – Shreveport public safety commissioner 1962–1976
 * Taylor Scott Davis - church musician and composer
 * John Allen Dixon (Class of 1940, 1920–2003) – Chief Justice of the Louisiana Supreme Court
 * Scott Durbin – Emmy-award winner and progenitor of the children's music group Imagination Movers as seen on Disney
 * George Dement (1922–2014) – mayor of Bossier City from 1989 to 2005; attended after World War II but did not graduate; holds honorary doctorate from Centenary
 * John Spencer Hardy (Class of 1938, 1913–2012) – Lieutenant General of the United States Air Force, later member of the Centenary board of directors and the Hall of Fame
 * Lovette Hill – former head baseball coach for the University of Houston
 * James Hoyt (baseball) – pitcher, most recently for the Los Angeles Angels
 * Cal Hubbard – former professional football player, member of Baseball Hall of Fame and the Professional Football Hall of Fame
 * Whitfield Jack (attended 1924, 1906–1989) – Shreveport attorney and World War II United States Army office; major general in United States Army Reserve
 * Clyde Lee – former head football coach for the University of Houston
 * Seth Lugo (2008–2011) – pitcher for the San Diego Padres
 * James M. McCoy (Class of 1966), sixth Chief Master Sergeant of the Air Force.
 * Eldred Kurtz Means (March 11, 1878 - February 19, 1957) – Minister, author
 * Charlotte Moorman – avant-garde performance artist
 * Robert Parish – basketball player, four-time NBA champion, member of the Basketball Hall of Fame
 * Buddy Parker – professional football player and head coach of Detroit Lions and Pittsburgh Steelers
 * Clarence Cullam Pope – Bishop of Fort Worth, Texas
 * Edward White Robertson (1823–1887) – United States Representative from Louisiana
 * Versha Sharma (Class of 2008) - current Editor-in-chief at Teen Vogue
 * Virginia Shehee (Class of 1943, 1923–2015) – first woman elected to the Louisiana State Senate; businesswoman and philanthropist
 * Hal Sutton – PGA Tour golfer; captain of the 2004 U.S. Ryder Cup team
 * Rose Van Thyn (Class of 2002, 1921–2010), honorary doctorate – Auschwitz concentration camp survivor, holocaust educator
 * Steve Weddle (Class of 1992) – poet and author
 * Louise Yazbeck (1910-1995) – composer
 * J. Smith Young (1834–1916) – member of the United States House of Representatives from Louisiana
 * James Logie Dobie (Class of 1956, 1934–2017) – paleontologist and herpetologist, Auburn University faculty (1967–1996)
 * Kathy Johnson (1959-) - American olympic gymnast, silver and gold medalist

Faculty and staff

 * Earle Labor – Official biographer of novelist Jack London; curator of the Jack London Museum in Shreveport.
 * Arthur C. Morgan – sculptor

Other

 * Rose Van Thyn (1921–2010) – Holocaust survivor; Attaway Fellow in Civic Culture; Honorary Doctorate of Humane Letters in 2002; Van Thyn Endowed Professorship

title: Centenary College of Louisiana


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United Goans Democratic Party

United Goans Democratic Party (UGDP) is one of two formerly dominant political parties in the Indian state of Goa. UGDP has its base amongst the Christian part of the population. It was founded in 1983 by Churchill Alemao.

In Goa, the UGDP is however not related to the old United Goans Party. The name United Goans Democratic Party is a mere spin-off of the name of the United Goans Party, and their election symbol of "two leaves" is a spin-off of the symbol of "two leaves" which was designated in the plebiscite to determine whether Goa should be independent, as against the rose symbol for voting Goa as a part of Maharashtra. The present United Goans Democratic Party had absolutely no role to play in the plebiscite to decide whether Goa should be a separate entity or not, but they continue to use the Two Leaves symbol and a name similar to that of the party which played a major role in ensuring that Goa remains distinct, the erstwhile United Goans Party. UDGP is much weaker than its claimed predecessor, the United Goans Party which was the main opposition party during the 1960s.

At the June 2007 state elections, the party took one out of 40 seats. It was allied with the Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP), while in opposition in Goa and in the national government.

In the Assembly elections of 2012, the United Goans Democratic Party could not win a single seat, while its lone MLA from the previous election, Mr. Mathany Saldanha, contested and won on a BJP ticket.

The United Goans Democratic Party and its founder Churchill Alemao (now in the NCP) along with his hand-picked three other family members were defeated in the hustings, causing the worst Congress defeat since the time when Congress first ruled Goa, almost thirty years ago. The present BJP government has rejected all attempts of the UGDP of showing that they are close to the present dispensation. The lone UGDP legislator from the last assembly Mr. Mathany Saldanha however, was rewarded for finally quitting the UGDP by having been allotted a prime ministry. After his untimely death, his widow is holding the responsibility.

The UGDP in the meanwhile, has lost its recognition as a party and has also lost its right to ownership of the "two leaves" symbol.

Its original leader though, went beyond using a name similar to the UGP (United Goans Party) and a symbol similar to Goa's Opinion Poll (plebiscite to determine whether Goa should be a separate identity). In the last elections he rode on the back of the Save Goa movement, a movement by various groups to save Goa from the badly prepared Regional Plan, and formed a party on ts own. His newly formed party won two seats, Navelim for himself and Curtorim for his protege Reginaldo Lourenco, under the name "SAVE GOA FRONT", a clear rip off of the Save Goa Movement which was ruling the press releases at that time.

The UGDP is a party which takes up every issue that crops up before it. Its two supreme leaders Anacleto Viegas and Radharao Gracias always take up opposite stands, with one supporting the issue and the other opposing it.

Whichever side of the issue appears to be getting successful, gets the full UGDP backing, with the opposing leader relegating himself to a spectator.

The said two party supremos, Anacleto Viegas and Radharao Gracias are also senior advocates at Margao and South Goa. Both have been presidents of the Margao and South Goa Advocates Councils. Such appointments have led them to lead their own political campaigns under the banner of the Advocates' Union.

UDGP in Jharkhand
In Jharkhand the group of Joba Majhi is formally attached to the party, in order to be able to use the party election symbol 'two leaves'. In 2005 two seats in the Jharkhand assembly were won on the UGDP symbol.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: United Goans Democratic Party


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Category:Internet fraud

This category is about fraud on the World Wide Web and E-mail.

title: Category:Internet fraud


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Talk:List of games featuring Sonic the Hedgehog

Moved this from the regular "Sonic" page, as it took up way too much space for something this trivial which was already a part of something trivial. So don't let the page history fool you, I had nothing to do with writing any of this. For the real page history check out the page history of Sonic the Hedgehog. -R. fiend 20:41, 22 Oct 2004 (UTC)

Sonic & Soleil
Just for your interest, there is one Sonic Cameo appearance that appears to be missing here.

When you walk around the beach level in the game "Soleil" on the Megadrive, you'll notice him lying on a beach chair somewhere along the way. If I recall correctly, he even utters a few different lines :).
 * I anticipate I'm a few months late in replying, but Soleil=Crusader of Centy. So no, we aren't missing it. --Shadow Hog 01:33, 15 Mar 2005 (UTC)

Cut the fat
I think some of this article can be consolidated and others can be cut (do all of the mods really have to be here?) Also, I can't find any Brazil-only games, so why is it in the key

Adventure DX PC North America Too
I've seen several copies of Adventure DX PC at my local Best Buy and I live in the USA. So why does it say only Europe and Japan? --Katori22 19:27, 18 July 2006 (UTC)

It's out in the US, so I don't know why it's been left out. I'll fix it. NiGHTS into Dreams... 13:42, 24 March 2007 (UTC)

List of Sonic Games by Year
What happened to the list of sonic games by year? I don't want them by system I was looking for all of the games by their release order. someone please ffigure out why it now redirects me to this retarded page. I dont know.-- User:Mark Alvarez

Mess

 * 1) Sonic the Hedgehog 2 (RealArcade, Sega Smash Pack 2 a.k.a. "SEGA Archives from USA Vol. 3" in Japan)(JN) [1]
 * 2) Sonic the Hedgehog Spinball (RealArcade, Sega Smash Pack a.k.a. "SEGA Archives from USA Vol. 1" in Japan) (JN) [2]
 * 3) Dr. Robotnik's Mean Bean Machine (RealArcade, Sega Puzzle Pack a.k.a. "SEGA Archives from USA Vol. 2" in Japan) (JN) [3]

This is messy. Japan only got the "SEGA Archives from USA" versions (a.k.a. "Sega Smash/Puzzle Pack"), and not the RealArcade versions. This could be expressed in a better way. (Stefan2 13:37, 6 October 2006 (UTC))

I have fixed this by putting (N) on Real Arcade versions. Is that okay? Yawachary 18:16, 17 November 2006 (UTC)

Sonic Jump
Template:SonicGames has a link to Sonic Jump, which redirects here. However, Sonic Jump is mentioned nowhere on this page. I haven't heard of any Sonic Jump game either. (Stefan2 10:55, 8 October 2006 (UTC))

It's a game on the cell phone.I have it,short but,fun.-SLJCOAAATR

Keys

 * 1) E = PAL (Europe, Asia, Australia, Brazil)
 * 2) X = PAL excluding Brazil

PAL is the video format used for TVs in some countries. This is not applicable to portable games and computer games, because they use different video formats. (Stefan2 11:52, 8 October 2006 (UTC))

Brazilian Sonic Game Gear games
According to the article, it says that some Sonic games were officially released in Brazil for the Game Gear however there is so far no proof of any scans as the games were published by Tectoy not Sega (the Game Gear was released in Brazil but not popular).

Is there a box of a Brazilian version otherwise all JUE would change to JUX. Yawachary 18:23, 17 November 2006 (UTC)

Are Those Flash Games Official?
I'm not sure if some of the Flash Sonic Games are official. I know ShTH Flash is, but the others seem like they might be fanmade. RememberMe? 20:44, 20 November 2006 (UTC)

The only one I could think of that is fan-made is Ultimate Flash Sonic, pretty certain the others were from Sega sites. Yawachary 17:40, 23 November 2006 (UTC)

Two Additions to the Gameboy Advance Game List
Added "Sega Smash Pack" and the Game Boy Advance Video "Sonic X: A Super Sonic Hero". Now, I know "A Super Sonic Hero" isn't an actual game, but it is played on the Game Boy Advance, which is a video game handheld. Also, I don't know where the two were released, other than North America. Could anyone figure this out?--Hyper Sonic 14:07, 9 December 2006 (UTC)

Chronological order?
Didn't this article used to list all the games in chronological order of release? That would be a LOT more useful than being listed by platform. -Power Slave 23:43, 16 December 2006 (UTC)

Sega Superstars Tennis
Why isn't it here? It's for PS3,360,WII,and DS. The game's confirmed at SONICSTADIUM.ORG Sonic,Knuckles,Blaze,Big,Samba,Ulala,and many others will be appearing. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 24.186.99.218 (talk) 22:24, 20 October 2007 (UTC)
 * Fine! There it is. --User:Mark Alvarez —Preceding unsigned comment added by 66.65.112.15 (talk) 20:51, 27 November 2007 (UTC)
 * Yup. There it is. --user:Mark Alvarez

Yoshi games on the list?
I was confused as there was some Yoshi games on that list, but Yoshi eventually came from Nintendo. If those don't get any citations, then I'll remove them from the list. Kurvjuh (talk) 14:41, 26 December 2009 (UTC)

Sonic Ipod games is wrong
Sonic Pinball is not on the list even though its on my Ipod while sonic olympic games is on the list but not on the ipod. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 88.111.155.148 (talk) 02:33, 15 December 2011 (UTC)

Bogus entries being added by 114.76.243.239
The user with IP 114.76.243.239 seems to be adding a lot of fake entries to both this page and other Sonic-related pages, e.g. Knuckles' Chaotix. See Special:Contributions/114.76.243.239. ---GerbilSoft (talk) 04:29, 27 December 2009 (UTC)
 * Issue has been fixed. All fan games/incorrect information that I could locate has been removed. - Enzo Aquarius - Walkie Talkie!  04:32, 27 December 2009 (UTC)

Merge/Redirect?
With cleaning out all the trivial/unsourced mentions, this list is rather redundant/inferior to the Sonic (series) article, where there's background information on the games, and List of Sonic the Hedgehog video games, which is formatted far better. I feel like we should just merge/redirect to the "List of" article. Thoughts? Sergecross73  msg me   14:38, 30 March 2012 (UTC)


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User talk:Jolson

Username change
Since I figured you might not be aware that your request was moved into the 'pending requests' section, I thought I'd draw your attention to it. I think your name change has not taken place yet because you did not follow the procedure as stated on the Changing username page. In particular, you should make the new account (without typo) and confirm your request for name change with it. Then you can go editing on with your new account, and one day you will find that all contributions from your old account are attributed to your new account. Good luck! - Mark Dingemanse (talk)  20:40, 22 Oct 2004 (UTC) (just another user who is in the middle of a name change).

title: User talk:Jolson


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User:Emdec

I have been an editor at Wikipedia since July 2004 with my main interests being Swansea, Welsh personalities and history.

Q - Where are you from?

A - I am a Swansea Jack, Wales, UK - although I did some brief missionary work in Llanelli.

Q - Why Are you called Emdec?

A - Some bright spark thought it sounded like my initials: M.D.E.C.

Q - What are your interests?

A - I.T. stuff (web development, networks etc), Watercolour painting, Folk music.

Q - What are you doing here then ?

A - In the profound words of Eccles "Everybody 's got to be somewhere."

Q - What do you think of Wikipedia ?

A - A work of absolute genius. People from all over the world working as individuals but creating a team effort (if that makes sense). Apart from the odd prat or two of course.

Q - What are you going to do next?

A - Going for a pint. Coming?

title: User:Emdec


text: User talk:70.112.46.116

title: User talk:70.112.46.116


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Garba

Garba may refer to:

 * Garba (dance), a form of dance originating from Gujarat, India

People

 * Garba (given name), list of people
 * Ahmed Garba (born 1980), Nigerian football striker
 * Bala Garba (born 1974), Nigerian football coach
 * Binta Masi Garba (born 1967), Nigerian politician and businesswoman
 * Hamsou Garba (born 1958), Nigerien singer
 * Harouna Garba (born 1986), Nigerian track hurdler
 * Ibrahim Garba, Nigerian university vice-chancellor
 * Idris Garba (born 1947), military governor of Kano State, Nigeria
 * Issoufou Boubacar Garba (born 1990), Nigerien football player
 * Joseph Nanven Garba (1943–2002), Nigerian Foreign Minister, President of the United Nations General Assembly
 * Manu Garba (born 1965), Nigerian football manager
 * Mario Garba (born 1977), Croatian football player
 * Rufai Garba, military governor of Anambra State, Nigeria
 * Sam Garba (1948–1978), Nigerian football player
 * Seyni Garba, Nigerien army general
 * Yohannan Garba (fl. 691–693), anti-patriarch of the Church of the East

Places

 * Garba, Central African Republic
 * Garba, Sichuan
 * Garba, the Hungarian name for Gurba village, Șicula Commune, Arad County, Romania
 * Garba Chowk, a square in Bhat, Daskroi, Gujarat
 * Garba (see), a Roman Catholic titular bishopric in modern Algeria

title: Garba


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Pedal keyboard

A pedalboard (also called a pedal keyboard, pedal clavier, or, with electronic instruments, a bass pedalboard ) is a keyboard played with the feet that is usually used to produce the low-pitched bass line of a piece of music. A pedalboard has long, narrow lever-style keys laid out in the same semitone scalar pattern as a manual keyboard, with longer keys for C, D, E, F, G, A, and B, and shorter, raised keys for C♯, D♯, F♯, G♯ and A♯. Training in pedal technique is part of standard organ pedagogy in church music and art music.

Pedalboards are found at the base of the console of most pipe organs, pedal pianos, theatre organs, and electronic organs. Standalone pedalboards such as the 1970s-era Moog Taurus bass pedals are occasionally used in progressive rock and fusion music. In the 21st century, MIDI pedalboard controllers are used with synthesizers, electronic Hammond-style organs, and with digital pipe organs. Pedalboards are also used with pedal pianos and with some harpsichords, clavichords, and carillons (church bells).

13th century to 16th century
The first use of pedals on a pipe organ grew out of the need to hold bass drone notes, to support the polyphonic musical styles that predominated in the Renaissance. Indeed, the term pedal point, which refers to a prolonged bass tone under changing upper harmonies, derives from the use of the organ pedalboard to hold sustained bass notes. These earliest pedals were wooden stubs nicknamed mushrooms, which were placed at the height of the feet. These pedals, which used simple pull-downs connected directly to the manual keys, are found in organs dating to the 13th century. The pedals on French organs were composed of short stubs of wood projecting out of the floor, which were mounted in pedalboards that could be either flat or tilted. Organists were unable to play anything but simple bass lines or slow-moving plainsong melodies on these short stub-type pedals. Organist E. Power Biggs, in the liner notes for his album Organs of Spain noted that "One can learn to play them, but fluent pedal work is impossible".

There were two approaches used for the accidental notes (colloquially referred to as the "black" notes). The first approach can be seen in the 1361 Halberstadt organ, which uses shorter black keys placed above the white keys. Other organs positioned the black keys on the same level and depth as the white keys. The first pedal keyboards only had three or four notes. Eventually, organ designers augmented this range by using eight notes, an approach now called a "short octave" keyboard, because it does not include accidental notes such as C♯, D♯, F♯, G♯, and A♯. The 17th-century north German organ builder Arp Schnitger used an F♯ and G♯ in the lowest octave of the manuals and pedal keyboards, but not a C♯ and D♯. From the 16th to 18th centuries, short octave keyboards were also used in the lowest octave of upper manual keyboards.

By the 14th century, organ designers were building separate windchests for the pedal division, to supply the pipes with the large amount of wind that bass notes need to speak. These windchests were often built into tall structures called "organ towers". Until the 15th century, most pedal keyboards only triggered the existing Hauptwerk pipes already used by the upper manual keyboards. Beginning in the 15th century, some organ designers began giving pedal keyboards their own set of pipes and stops. In the 15th and 16th centuries, the pedal division usually consisted of a few 8′ ranks and a single 16′ rank. By the early 17th century, pedal divisions became more complex, with a richer variety of pipes and tones. Nevertheless, the pedal division was usually inconsistent from one country to another.

17th century to 18th century
By the beginning of the 17th century, organ designers began to give pedalboards on large organs a larger range, encompassing twenty-eight to thirty notes. As well, German organ designers began to use longer, narrower pedals, with a wider space between the pedals. By this point, most pedals were given a smoother lever-action by including a fulcrum at the back of each pedal. These design changes allowed performers to play more complex, fast-moving pedal lines. This gave rise to the dramatic pedal solos found in German organ works from composers from the North German organ school, such as Dieterich Buxtehude, Johann Adam Reincken and J.S. Bach. In Bach's organ music the cantus firmus melody, which is usually a hymn tune, is often performed in the pedal, using a reed stop to make it stand out.

Several sources, including an encyclopedia on the organ, claim that the pedalboard design improvements of the 17th century allowed the organist to actuate the pedals either with the toe of the foot or with the heel. However, organist Ton Koopman argues that "Bach's complete oeuvre [can be played] with the pedal technique of his time, in other words without the use of the heel." Koopman claims that in "Bach's day toe and heel pedalling was not yet known, as is evident from his organ works, in which all the pedal parts can be played with the toe." What evolved as the "German" pedal technique in the late 18th and early 19th century promoted heel-and-toe pedaling, while the "French" style was predicated on the "toe only" pedal technique. In the 17th and 18th centuries, pedalboards were rare in England. A critic for the New York Times in 1895 argued that this may explain why Handel's published organ works are generally lighter-sounding than those of J.S. Bach. In the 17th and 18th centuries, the pedal part of organ music was rarely given its own staff. Instead, the organ part would be put into two staves, which were mostly used for the upper and lower manual parts. When the composer wanted a part played with the pedal keyboard, they marked Pedal, Ped., or simply P. Often, composers omitted these signs, and player had to decide if the range of all the parts or the lowest part was appropriate for the pedal keyboard. This lack of specification is in keeping with many other aspects of Baroque musical performance practice, such as the use of improvised chords by organists and harpsichord players in the figured bass tradition and the use of improvised ornaments by solo singers and instrumentalists.

19th century to 20th century
In the late 1820s, the pedalboard was still fairly unfamiliar in the UK. In the organ at the Church of St James at Bermondsey in 1829, "a finger [manual] keyboard was added for those unable to play with their feet." If an organist was performing a piece with a pedal part, "an assistant was needed to play the bottom line of the finger keyboard, offset on the bass side of the console." In 1855 in England, Henry Willis patented a concave design for the pedalboard that also radiated the ends keyboard outward and used longer keys, bringing the end keys closer to the performer. This design became common in the UK and in the US in the late 19th century, and by 1903, the American Guild of Organists (AGO) adopted it as their standard.

In the 19th century and early 20th century, the pedal division also underwent changes. The pedal divisions of the Baroque era often included a small number of higher-pitched stops, which allowed performers to perform higher melodies on the pedalboard. In the 19th century and early 20th century, organ designers omitted most of these higher-pitched stops, and used pedal divisions which were dominated by 8′ and 16′ stops. This design change, which coincided with the musical trend for music with a deep, rich bass part, meant that players used the pedalboard mainly for bass parts.

By the mid-19th century, the pedal part of organ music was increasingly given its own staff, which meant that composers and transcribers began writing organ music in three-stave systems (right hand, left hand, and pedal keyboard). Whereas early organ composers left the way that pedal keyboard lines were played to the player's discretion, in the later 19th century, composers began to indicate specific foot actions.

In addition to telling the organist whether to use the left or right foot, symbols indicate whether they should use the toe or heel. A "^" symbol indicates the toe, and a "u" or "o" indicates the heel. Symbols below notes indicate the left foot, and above notes indicates the right foot.

Swedish organist L. Nilson published a method for the pedal keyboard, the English translation of which was titled A System of Technical Studies in Pedal Playing for the Organ (Schirmer, 1904). Nilson lamented that it "...is a melancholy fact that only very few eminent organists since Bach's time have made it their business to lift pedal-playing out of its primitive confusion..." (page 1 of Preface). He argued that the great organ pedagogues such as Kittel and Abbe Vogler did not make any efforts to improve the "...system of playing on the pedals". Nilson makes one exception from this critique: the organ method of J. Lemmens, who he praises as having reformed pedal playing by introducing "...sound principles of execution" (page 2 of Preface). Nilson's pedal method includes scale and arpeggio studies, polyphonic studies with both feet playing in contrary motion, studies written in parallel octaves, and studies written in thirds.

1990s–2000s
In the 1990s, standalone electronic MIDI controller pedalboards became widely available on the market. MIDI pedalboards do not produce any tones by themselves, and so they must be connected to a MIDI-compatible electronic keyboard or MIDI sound module and an amplified loudspeaker to produce musical tones. In the 1990s and 21st century, some churches began using electronic-trigger equipped pedalboards for the 16′ and 32′ stops. The MIDI information from the electronic pedalboard sensors triggers pipe organ sounds from digital sound modules (e.g., Wicks CM-100, Ahlborn Archive Modules, or Walker Technical sound generation), which are then amplified through loudspeakers.

These MIDI systems can be much less expensive than metal or wooden bass pipes, which are very costly to purchase and install, due to their heavy weight (up to one ton per pipe), large size, and need for large amounts of wind. Another rationale for using MIDI systems is that it may be easier to get a focused sound with a MIDI system, because all of the bass tone emanates from a single speaker or set of speakers. With traditional pipes, it can be difficult to give the pedal division a focused sound, because the large pipes tend to be spread out over the entire organ pipe chest.

This cost-saving measure has been the subject of controversy in the organ scene. Advocates of MIDI pedal divisions argue that a good quality MIDI system produces a better tone than an inexpensive set of bass pipes with money-saving "shortcuts" such as using stopped pipes and resultant tones to reduce the number of required pipes. However, critics dislike the way that the use of MIDI pedal divisions blends electronically amplified lower voices with the natural, wind-driven upper ranks. Willi Apel and Peter Williams argue that by definition, an organ must make its sound by air flowing through pipes. Some critics argue that the bass tone from a MIDI pedal division, which comes from an amplified 12-inch subwoofer, is not as "natural" and "open-sounding" as the vibrations from a massive, wind-driven 32-foot pipe.

Keyboards
Pedalboards range in size from 13 notes on small spinet organs designed for in-home use (an octave, conventionally C2–C3) to 42 notes (three and a half octaves, G1–C5) on church or concert organs. Modern pipe organs typically have 30- or 32-note pedalboards, while some electronic organs and many older pipe organs have 25-note pedalboards.

Besides the number of pedals, the two main identifying aspects of a pedalboard are:
 * 1) whether all the pedals are at the same height relative to the floor ("flat"), or whether the pedals in the middle are lower than those on the outer edges, forming a curved-in shape ("concave"), and
 * 2) whether all the pedals are completely parallel to each other ("parallel"), or whether the pedals are closer together at the far end than at the end closest to the organ console ("radiating"). Specifications vary by country, organ builder, era, and individual tastes.

Exact design specifications for pedalboards are published in Great Britain by the RCO, in the United States by the AGO (which requires a design similar to the RCO's), and in Germany by the BDO (which allows both 30- and 32-note pedalboards, of both concave/radiating and concave/parallel varieties).

Pedal division
In an organ with more than one keyboard, the stops and the ranks that the stops control are separated into different divisions, in which the ranks of pipes are grouped together so that they make a "focused" or coherent sound. The pedal division, which is played from the pedal keyboard, usually includes more stops of 16′ pitch. The sound of the pedal division is generally voiced so that the pedal division complements the sound of the great division. Common 16′ stops found in the pedal division include the 16′ Bourdon, the 16′ Principal, and the 16′ Trombone. Eight foot stops include the 8′ Open Diapason. Pedal divisions may also include higher-register stops, such as the 4′ Choral Bass or various mixtures. When pedal parts are performed, a 16′ stop is usually paired with an 8′ one to provide more definition. For pedal parts that need accentuation, such as the Cantus Firmus melody in a 17th-century organ piece, many organs have a nasal-sounding reed stop in the pedal division, or a 4′ Principal designated on the stop knob as "Choralbass".

A few pedalboards have a pedal divide system that lets the organist split the pedalboard at its midpoint. With this system, an organist can play a melody with the right foot and a bass part with the left. The divided pedal is a type of coupler. It allows the sounds played on the pedals to be split, so the lower octave (principally that of the left foot) plays stops from the pedal division while the upper half (played by the right foot), plays stops from one of the manual divisions. The choice of manual is at the discretion of the performer, as is the 'split point' of the system.

The system can be found on the organs of Gloucester Cathedral, having been added by Nicholson & Co (Worcester) Ltd/David Briggs and Truro Cathedral, having been added by Mander Organs/David Briggs, as well as on the new nave console of Ripon Cathedral.

Controls
In some organs, a wooden panel called a "kickboard" or "kneeboard" is installed above the pedalboard, between the pedals and the lowest manual keyboard. Expression pedals, coupler controls and toe studs (to activate stops or stop combinations) may be located on or set into the kickboard. Expression pedals are used to open and close shades or shutters that enclose the pipes of a given division. Combination pistons are used to make rapid stop changes from the console on organs with electric stop action. Toe studs are pistons that can be operated by the feet, which change either the pedal stops or the entire organ.

In some organs, a "pedalboard check" mechanism serves as a safety catch, to shut off the pedalboard keys. The mechanism prevents accidental foot contact with the pedalboard from sounding notes in a section written only for the upper manuals.

Repertoire
The works of Dutch composer, organist, and pedagogue  Jan Pieterszoon Sweelinck (1562–1621) contain the earliest example of an independent part for the pedal, rather than a sustained bass drone. His work straddled the end of the Renaissance and beginning of the Baroque eras, and he helped establish the north German organ tradition.

Dieterich Buxtehude (1637–1707), who was the most renowned composer of his time, was famous for his "...virtuosity and innovation at the pedal board." The young Johann Sebastian Bach was influenced by Buxtehude, who used the pedal board "as a full-fledged keyboard and devot[ed] virtuoso passages to it." J.S. Bach used the pedal to perform the melody in works such as his setting of the Christmas hymn, In Dulci Jubilo, in which the main theme in the tenor voice is played in the pedal on a higher-pitched stop. Bach also wrote compositions that use the pedal for dramatic virtuoso displays of scales and figurated passage-work in preludes, toccatas, fantasias and fugues.

There are a small number of organ compositions that are written solely for the pedal keyboard. English organist and composer George Thalben-Ball (1896–1987) wrote a piece entitled “Variations on a Theme by Paganini” for pedal keyboard. Based on Paganini's “Caprice No. 24”, a virtuoso work for solo violin, it includes pedal glissandi, leaps from one end of the pedalboard to the other, and four-note chords.

Firmin Swinnen (1885–1972) was a Belgian organist who became famous in the US in the 1920s for his theater organ improvisations during silent films. Swinnen wrote a pedal cadenza for an arrangement of Widor's Fifth Symphony. The cadenza was published separately by The American Organist. The publisher promoted the cadenza it as the "most daring, the most musical Pedal Cadenza obtainable"; this praise is corroborated by reviewers who were at the performance, who remarked at the complex footwork required by the work. The symphony was performed 29 times during the week of its premiere, to "...literally screaming audiences...who had never seen such a sight as an organist up on a lift [platform] in the spotlight playing with his feet alone".

After injuring his left arm in 2008, the principal organist for the Tabernacle Choir at Temple Square (Richard Elliott) prepared an arrangement of “Go Tell It On the Mountain” which begins with an entire verse played solely on the pedalboard to accommodate his then-injured arm. As his arm healed he added additional verses with the most demanding notes played with his right hand. The video of his unusual performance has garnered millions of views on YouTube.

Although the pedalboard is most frequently used for the bass part, composers from the 17th century to the present have often used it for higher parts as well. In his serene Le Banquet Céleste Olivier Messiaen places the tune, registered for 4′ flute (and higher mutation ranks), in the pedals.

From the early 20th century, composers have increasingly demanded an advanced pedal technique at the organ. Performers display their virtuosity in such works as Wilhelm Middelschulte's Perpetuum mobile, Leo Sowerby's Pageant (1931), and Jeanne Demessieux's Six études, Op. 5 (1944), which recall the dramatic organ pedal solos of the Baroque era.

Pedal harpsichord and clavichord
Pedal keyboards were developed for the clavichord and harpsichords during the Baroque era so that organists could practise the pedal parts of their organ repertoire when they had no-one available to work the bellows for a church organ or, in the wintertime, to avoid having to practice on a church organ in an unheated church. Johann Sebastian Bach owned a pedal harpsichord and his organ trio sonatas BWV 525–530, Passacaglia and Fugue in C minor BWV 582, Toccata and Fugue in D minor BWV 565, and other works sound well when played on the instrument.

Pedal piano
The pedal piano (or pedalier piano) is a kind of piano that includes a pedalboard

There are two types of pedal piano: Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart owned a fortepiano with independent pedals, built for him in 1785. Robert Schumann had an upright pedal piano with 29 notes. In the 21st century, pedal pianos, the Doppio Borgato are made in the Borgato workshop in Italy. The bass pedalboard has 37 notes, A0 to A3 (rather than the standard 30 or 32 on an organ).
 * A pedal board integrated with a manual piano instrument, using the same strings and mechanism as the manual keyboard
 * An independent, pedal played piano with its own mechanics and strings, placed below a regular piano

Carillon
Some large carillon systems for playing church bells include a pedalboard for the lowest-pitched bells. Carillon pedal keys activate a pull-down coupler that visibly moves the keys of the manual clavier and heavy clappers for the largest bells. These keys resemble the "button keys" of early organs, and are played by the player's toes. Because this non-legato technique involves no sliding, shoes with leather soles are not required.

Jazz organ
After jazz organist Jimmy Smith popularized the Hammond organ in jazz in the 1950s, many jazz pianists "... who thought that getting organ-ized would be a snap ..." realized that the Hammond "... B-3 required not only a strong left hand, but studied coordination on the pedals to create the strong and solid "jazz bass" feel." Barbara Dennerlein combines advanced pedalboard techniques with agile playing on the manuals. Organists who play the bassline on the lower manual may do short taps on the bass pedals – often on the tonic of a tune's key and in the lowest register of the pedalboard – to simulate the low, resonant sound of a plucked upright bass string.

In popular music, pedaling style may be more varied and idiosyncratic, in part because jazz or pop organists may be self-taught. Also, pedaling styles may differ due to the design of electromechanical organs and spinet organs, many of which have shorter pedalboards designed to play primarily with the left foot, so that the right foot can control a volume (swell) pedal.

Rock and fusion
In the 1970s, some progressive rock groups such as Yes, Pink Floyd, Genesis, Atomic Rooster and Rush used standalone Moog Taurus bass pedalboard synths, which were nicknamed "bass pedals" (despite the fact that the Taurus could play in a wide range, from bass to treble range). The Taurus generated an analog synth bass tone for amplification by a bass amp. Other groups, such as Led Zeppelin and Van Der Graaf Generator used the bass pedals of the Hammond organ in place of a bass guitar for several of their recordings and for live performances.

Other users included metal and hard rock bands such as Yngwie Malmsteen, Styx, and Francis Buchholz of the Scorpions, and Justin Harris of Menomena. Ex-Genesis guitarist Steve Hackett had a set mounted waist high, which his brother, John Hackett, played with his hands for the intro of Clocks – The Angel Of Mons from the album Spectral Mornings. Adam Jones of Tool uses the Moog Taurus along with an Access Virus B synth to trigger live effects. The keyboardist for the rock group Emerson, Lake & Palmer took this idea to its logical conclusion by performing all of the first movement, and part of the second of The Three Fates on the organ of Royal Festival Hall in London. As well, some pop groups (e.g., The Police, Muse, U2) and fusion bands have used bass pedalboards to produce sounds in the bass range. They are most commonly used by keyboard players as an adjunct to keyboards, but can be played in combination with other instruments (e.g., by the bass guitar or electric guitar player), or by themselves.

Standalone pedalboards usually have a 13-note range and short pedals, which limits the types of basslines to fairly simple passages. A group's bass guitarist or electric guitarist playing the pedalboard from a standing position can only use one foot at a time, which further limits what they can play. The BASYN analog bass synthesizer is a two-VCO analog synthesizer with a 13-note "button board"—with momentary push-button switches in place of pedals. Another variant used in rock bands is a bass pedalboard laid out as a tabulature representation of part of the four strings of an electric bass guitar.

MIDI and synthesizer pedalboards
In the 1990s, standalone electronic MIDI controller pedalboards became widely available. Unlike the Moog Taurus pedalboards, MIDI pedalboards do not produce tones by themselves, but control a MIDI-compatible electronic keyboard or MIDI sequencer. In jazz organ trios, a keyboardist using this type of pedalboard usually connects it to a MIDI-compatible electronic Hammond organ-style keyboard. On modern electronic synthesizers such as the Yamaha Electone, the pedals are not limited to traditional bass notes but may instead produce many different sounds, including high-register tones. While MIDI pedalboards are typically used for musical sounds, since they use MIDI, technically the footpedals could be used to trigger lights or other electronic elements of a show.

MIDI pedalboards offer a range of features. Some MIDI pedalboards contain velocity-sensitive triggers, which produce MIDI velocity information for musical dynamics. MIDI pedalboards such as the 13-note Roland PK-5 include a row of MIDI toe switches above the pedal keyboard, so the performer can select preset tones or MIDI channels or change the octave. Larger 25-note Roland pedalboards also include an expression pedal for controlling the volume or other parameters.

In the 2000s, controller designer Keith McMillen developed a 13-note velocity-sensitive pedalboard, the 12 Step foot controller, a MIDI controller with a USB output that can be connected to a MIDI-equipped synthesizer or sound module. McMillen's pedalboard differs from other pedalboards in that it senses a variety of types of velocity and pressure, which the user can program to cause different effects on the synthesizer patch. McMillen's pedalboard can be programmed so that pressing an individual pedal triggers chords (up to five simultaneous notes), which a one person band could use to provide accompaniment for live shows.

The Roland PK-9 and the Hammond XPK-200 are 20-note pedalboards that sound from low C to a high G. The Nord PedalKeys is a 27-note pedalboard, going from a low C to a high D. As compared with a 25-note pedalboard, the PedalKeys adds a high C# and a high D.

Some MIDI pedalboards are designed for the church pipe organ market, which means that they use AGO specifications such as a 32-note range. Most pipe organ-style MIDI pedalboards are too unwieldy for transportation, so they are typically installed under the upper manuals. However, a German company makes a MIDI pedalboard with a hinge in the middle and wheels on the underside for easy transport. Since AGO-specification MIDI pedalboards are often priced in between US$1000 and US$3000, some amateur home organists make DIY MIDI pedalboards by retrofitting an old pedalboard with MIDI. Due to the popularity of theater organs and Hammond organs during the 1950s and 1960s, many organ parts are on the market—including pedalboards (often with less than 32 notes, such as 20 or 25 notes) that cost under US$300. After the pedalboard is cleaned up and glass reed switches are repaired or replaced, the pedal contacts are soldered into a keyboard matrix circuit-equipped MIDI encoder, which then connects to any MIDI device to produce the sound of an organ or other instrument.

title: Pedal keyboard


text: User talk:192.167.204.6

title: User talk:192.167.204.6


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Boris II of Bulgaria

Boris II (Борисъ В҃; Борис II; c. 931 – 977) was emperor (tsar) of Bulgaria from 969 to 977 (in Byzantine captivity from 971).

Boris II was the eldest surviving son of Emperor Peter I of Bulgaria and Maria (renamed Eirene) Lekapena, a granddaughter of Emperor Romanos I Lekapenos of Byzantium. Boris had been born by 931, when he had visited Constantinople together with his mother.

Nothing else is known of Boris II's life until 968, when he went to Constantinople again to negotiate a peace settlement with Emperor Nikephoros II Phokas, and apparently to serve as an honorary hostage. This arrangement was intended to put an end to the conflict between Bulgaria and Byzantium, who would now join forces against Prince Sviatoslav I of Kiev, whom the Byzantine emperor had pitted against the Bulgarians. In 969 a new Kievan invasion defeated the Bulgarians again and Peter I abdicated to become a monk. In circumstances that are not entirely clear, Boris II was allowed to return to Bulgaria and sit on his father's throne. (The later Byzantine chronicle of John Skylitzes confounds this with a later event, in which Boris and his brother escaped Constantinople after the so-called rebellion of the Kometopouloi in Macedonia.) Boris II was unable to stem the Kievan advance, and found himself forced to accept Sviatoslav of Kiev as his ally and puppet-master, turning against the Byzantines. A Kievan campaign into Byzantine Thrace was defeated at the Battle of Arkadioupolis in 970, and the new Byzantine Emperor John I Tzimiskes advanced northwards. Failing to secure the defense of the Balkan passes, Sviatoslav allowed the Byzantines to penetrate into Moesia and lay siege to the Bulgarian capital Preslav. Although Bulgarians and Ruses joined in defending the city, the Byzantines managed to set afire the wooden structures and roofs by missiles, and took the fortress. Boris II now became a captive of John I Tzimiskes, who continued to pursue the Kievan Army, besieging Sviatoslav in Drăstăr (Silistra), while claiming to act as Boris's ally and protector, and treating the Bulgarian monarch with due respect. After Sviatoslav had come to terms and set out for Kiev, the Byzantine emperor returned to Constantinople in triumph. Far from liberating Bulgaria as he had claimed, John brought along Boris II and his family, together with the contents of the Bulgarian imperial treasury in 971. In a public ceremony in Constantinople, Boris II was ritually divested of his imperial insignia and was given the Byzantine court title of magistros as compensation. The Bulgarian lands in Thrace and lower Moesia now became part of the Byzantine Empire and were placed under Byzantine governors.

Although the ceremony in 971 had been intended as a symbolic termination of the Bulgarian empire, the Byzantines were unable to assert their control over the western provinces of Bulgaria. These remained under the rule of their own governors, and especially of a noble family led by four brothers called the Kometopouloi (i.e., "the sons of the Count"), named David, Moses, Aron, and Samuel. The movement was regarded as a "revolt" by the Byzantine emperor, but it apparently saw itself as a sort of regency for the captive Boris II. As they began to raid neighboring territories under Byzantine rule, the Byzantine government resorted to a stratagem intended to compromise the leadership of this "revolt". This involved allowing Boris II and his brother Roman to escape from their honorary captivity at the Byzantine court, in the hope that their arrival in Bulgaria would cause a division between the Kometopouloi and other Bulgarian leaders. As Boris II and Roman entered the region under Bulgarian control in 977, Boris II dismounted and went ahead of his brother. Mistaken for a Byzantine notable due to his attire, Boris was shot in the chest by a deaf and mute border patrol. Roman managed to identify himself to the other guards and was duly accepted as emperor.

Family
By his marriage to an unknown woman, Boris II had several children, as the Byzantine historian Kedrenus refers to Emperor John I Tzimisces finding "cum coniuge et liberis Borises Bulgarorum rex" among the Russian prisoners when he invaded Bulgaria. His children may include:
 * (possibly) Maria, wife of Tsar Ivan Vladislav of Bulgaria; this descent has been proposed by Christian Settipani based on prosopographical and onomastic elements which appear to link Maria to the Krum dynasty.
 * An unnamed daughter, engaged to the Byzantine Emperor Basil II in 968
 * An unnamed daughter, engaged to the Byzantine Emperor Constantine VIII in 968

title: Boris II of Bulgaria


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Howletts Wild Animal Park

Howletts Wild Animal Park (formerly known as Howletts Zoo) in the parish of Bekesbourne, near Canterbury in Kent, was established as a private zoo in 1957 by John Aspinall. In 1962, the House known as Howletts was being restored. A small cottage was inhabited by an employee. The animal collection was opened to the public in 1975. To give more room for the animals another estate at Port Lympne near Hythe in Kent was purchased in 1973, and opened to the public as Port Lympne Zoo in 1976.

The collection is known for being unorthodox, for the encouragement of close personal relationships between staff and animals, and for the breeding of rare and endangered species. Steve Irwin visited the park in 2004 and described the zoo's gorillas as "the finest in the world".

Since 1984, both parks have been owned by the John Aspinall Foundation, a charity. Following his death, John Aspinall was buried in front of the Howletts House and a memorial was built next to the grave near the bison. A later extension to Howletts was an open-topped enclosure for black and white colobus, just behind the entrance.

Animal collection
The park is most famous for having some of the largest family groups of western lowland gorillas in the world. It is also home to the largest breeding herd of African elephants in the United Kingdom and has one of the largest breeding groups of lion-tailed macaques in the world.

Some of the animals in its collection include:
 * African bush elephant
 * African wild dog
 * Amur leopard
 * Bat-Eared Fox
 * Black-and-white ruffed lemur
 * Black lemur
 * Brazilian tapir
 * Cape buffalo
 * Capybara
 * Celebes crested macaque'
 * Chital
 * Clouded leopard
 * Crowned lemur
 * De Brazza's monkey
 * Dhole
 * Dusky leaf monkey
 * Eastern black-and-white colobus monkey
 * Eastern black rhinoceros
 * Eastern bongo
 * Eurasian wolf
 * European bison
 * Fishing cat
 * François' langur
 * Gelada
 * Giant anteater
 * Greater kudu
 * Iberian wolf
 * Javan langur
 * Lion
 * Lion-tailed macaque
 * Margay
 * Nilgai
 * Pallas's cat
 * Red-bellied lemur
 * Red river hog
 * Ring-tailed lemur
 * Serval
 * Siamang
 * Silvery gibbon
 * Snow leopard
 * Sumatran tiger
 * Waterbuck
 * Western lowland gorilla
 * White-naped mangabey

Charity events
The charity that runs Howletts and Port Lympne Wild Animal Park, the John Aspinall Foundation, also runs animal conservation programmes. It has had recent success in releasing a black rhino into the wild and has previously released other black rhinos and gorillas.

Television
Howletts and Port Lympne have featured on the CBBC television programme Roar. This shows the two parks, the life of the animals and how the keepers look after them. The first series was filmed in 2006 and, as of March 2009, there have been four series in total.

Howletts House
Originally called Owletts, in the parish of Bekesbourne, the present house containing 30 rooms was built for Isaac Baugh in 1787 and replaced a previous house which had been the seat of the Isaac family until the reign of Queen Elizabeth I, later of the Hales family for several generations. It passed into the ownership of the Gipps family in 1816. It has been a Grade II* listed building and on the National Heritage List for England since January 1967. The house is presently let by the Aspinall Foundation to Damian Aspinall

title: Howletts Wild Animal Park


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Port Lympne Wild Animal Park

Port Lympne Hotel & Reserve near the town of Hythe in Kent, England is set in 600 acre and incorporates the historic Port Lympne Mansion, and landscaped gardens designed by architect Sir Herbert Baker, for Sir Philip Sassoon.

The estate with an Edwardian mansion near Lympne was purchased in 1973 by John Aspinall; the intent was to solve lack of space at the nearby Howletts Wild Animal Park. It was opened to the public in 1976. Since 1984 the animal parks have been owned by a charity (The John Aspinall Foundation, currently led by Damian Aspinall). The collection is known for being unorthodox, for the encouragement of close personal relationships between staff and animals, and for their breeding of rare and endangered species. The park now includes tigers, lions, leopards, gorillas, bears, giraffes and the UK's largest herd of black rhinos. The facility also plans to release some of the animals into the wild.

Royalty and many other famous people have stayed at the mansion at the centre of the park. The rooms are lavishly decorated and the landscaped gardens have views of Romney Marsh. Other accommodations are also provided in the Park, some in Lion Lodge, Tiger Lodge, Bear Lodge (glamping), Rhino Lodge, Treehouse Hotel, The Bubble, Hogdeer Creek, Giraffe Cottage, Giraffe Lodge (glamping), Pinewood (glamping), Wolf Lodge and Forest Hideaway. The latest accommodation options are Lion Lodge and the 20-bedroom Giraffe Hall.

The Dinosaur Forest
Opened in 2016 to coincide with the park's 40th birthday, the Dinosaur Forest spans three acres of ancient woodland, and features over 100 life sized and anatomically correct models. Rangers discuss the animal kingdom of millions of years ago. Visitors are invited to dig for fossils and try the "create your own dinosaur" activity.

Animal collection
Port Lympne houses many rare and endangered species and the largest breeding herd of black rhinos in the UK. There are small cats, monkeys, tapirs, lions, painted dogs and many more, some of which are on the circular walk. The zoo has an 'African Experience' safari trail where visitors are transported on specially modified vehicles around the park to view giraffe, zebra, antelope and wildebeest.

In 2000, a 27-year-old keeper was killed whilst working in the stall of a female Indian elephant called La Petite.

In 2015, the Park moved its herd of Asian elephants following numerous deaths amongst them related to a persistent outbreak of a strain of herpes virus found in captive elephant populations. In 2005, after many years of stillbirths, two infant mortalities, and several premature adult fatalities, the first surviving mother-reared calf, Sittang, succumbed to the virus. This incident occurred one month after an adult female produced a stillborn calf and also perished. Port Lympne's remaining calf, May Tagu, who was born in April 2005, was transferred to Antwerp Zoo following the spate of deaths, along with her mother and one other cow. The remaining adults were moved to Terra Natura in Benidorm, Spain, where many other former Port Lympne elephants reside. This move has allowed the park to focus on its breeding African elephants. Three cows have been moved from Howletts Wild Animal Park, followed soon after by a bull named Kruger from Knowsley Safari Park. Howletts is home to the UK's largest herd of African elephants. In 2022 Port Lympne became the only zoo in Europe to house 3 species of rhino including the Black Rhino, White Rhino and Indian Rhino.

Introducing captive animals into the wild
According to a U.S. report, Damian Aspinall had purchased about a million acres in Africa and turned the area into a park in an attempt to protect gorillas whose numbers have been declining due to the loss of habitat and poaching. The Foundation's website however, clarifies this: "The Aspinall Foundation is working with the governments of the Congo-Brazzaville and the neighbouring state of Gabon to protect around one million acres within the unique savannah ecosystem of the Batéké Plateau. ... We have reintroduced over 60 gorillas back into the wild, including 22 who travelled from our Parks in Kent". In a 2016 interview, Aspinall added that "we've reintroduced eight black rhinos into the wild" presumably, all born in Kent.

A BBC report in 2014 stated that the Foundation managed two gorilla rescue and rehabilitation projects in Gabon and Congo, respectively. A subsequent report stated that five of ten of the gorillas released in 2014 had been found dead soon after, possibly due to attacks by other gorillas.

Tara Stoinski of the Dian Fossey Gorilla Fund made this comment on the television program 60 Minutes (aired 15 March 2015): "I think that humans have a very romantic notion of what the wild is like, and the wild is not a place where it is safe, and animals get to roam free and make choices". She wonders about the value of sending zoo-born animals to Africa and believes that it would be wiser for Aspinall to use his funds to save gorillas already in the wild.

In a 2016 interview, Aspinall blamed one gorilla that the Foundation had released for killing the five others. He also complained about the negative publicity about the event. "What about the 60 we released that survived? There's no glory if you get it right. We get no press, no publicity - but boy, if anything goes wrong, they jump on you." The Park has also introduced other animals into the wild. However, a black rhino (called Zambezi), that was born and raised at the Park, died while being flown to Tanzania in June 2019. The rhino was part of a plan to repopulate the Serengeti.

In 2022, the Aspinall Foundation announced that 13 elephants, born in captivity, would be returned to Africa, for release in the wilds of Kenya. Some experts questioned the wisdom of this strategy, citing issues such as the stress caused by "a hazardous journey", low temperatures at night in Africa, as well as "unfamiliar surroundings, foraging for food, predators and illness". Some concern was also expressed about water quality and the risk of conflict with the human population. The Foundation replied with a statement that it "has a 30-year history of successful rewilding projects around the globe".

Animal enclosures
The park is split into two sections; one allows visitors to walk around (or use golf buggies) to view animals in enclosures, such as primates and carnivores like big cats. The other is a safari park toured in open-sided trucks, divided into South American, Asian and African safari sections. Nearly 90 different species of animals are kept at the 600 acre Park.

Palace of the Apes
Palace of the Apes is the world's largest gorillarium, housing a large breeding troop. In late 2018, the Park announced the death of Britain's oldest gorilla, Babydoll, who died at age 57. At the time, a news report stated that Damian Aspinall, "whose father John created the Aspinall's casino empire, has dedicated his life to gorilla conservation".
 * Western lowland gorilla
 * Black-and-white ruffed lemur
 * Black howler monkey
 * De Brazza's monkey
 * Drill
 * Dusky leaf monkey
 * Greater bamboo lemur
 * Silvery gibbon
 * Tufted capuchin
 * Western lesser bamboo lemur

Africa

 * Rothschild's giraffe
 * Chapman's zebra
 * Eastern black rhinoceros
 * Defassa waterbuckPort Lympne (57).JPG
 * Guinea baboon
 * African wild dog
 * Barbary lion
 * Roan antelope
 * Common ostrich
 * Blesbok
 * Blue wildebeest
 * Lechwe
 * Common eland
 * Red river hog
 * Eastern black-and-white colobus
 * Meerkat
 * Serval
 * Southern White Rhino

Asia

 * Mishmi takin
 * Indian hog deer
 * Axis deer
 * Water buffalo
 * Bactrian camel
 * Blackbuck
 * Barasingha
 * Père David's deer
 * Przewalski's horse
 * Sambar deer
 * Malayan tapir
 * Siberian tiger
 * Binturong
 * Fishing cat
 * Pallas's cat
 * Red panda
 * Rusty-spotted cat
 * Indian rhinoceros

South America

 * Spectacled bear
 * Capybara
 * Bush dog
 * Greater rhea
 * South American coati
 * South American tapir
 * Vicuña
 * Margay

Discovery Zone
The park has a small exhibition area called the Discovery Zone, home to a variety of smaller species, including meerkats, pygmy marmosets, Madagascar hissing cockroaches, plumed basilisks, false water cobras, Australian green tree frogs, green tree pythons and several species of tortoise and tarantula.

Other animals

 * Eurasian brown bear
 * European bison
 * Northern lynx
 * Red-necked wallaby

On television
The BBC children's television series Roar was filmed at both Port Lympne and Howletts Wild Animal Park, and was broadcast on BBC Two and the CBBC channel. The programmes went behind the scenes at the two parks, following the keepers as they tended to the animals.

title: Port Lympne Wild Animal Park


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Dip bar

A dip bar is a piece of fitness equipment that consists of a U-shaped bar, usually about 25 mm in diameter, which surrounds the user's body at the waist. It is designed for the performance of, and named after, the dip exercise.

In addition to this exercise, much like the trap bar can be used for deadlifts, a dip bar has other potential uses. It can, for example, be used to do handstand pushups, or the forearms can lie on it to be used as a (probably less comfortable) captain's chair for doing things such as knee raises. When dip bars have clearance under the handles, they also allow the exerciser to do things like hip abduction leg raises, to work muscles like the gluteus medius.

Dip bars that are high enough can also be used via having the hands below the bar instead of on top of them, using the finger flexors to hang on. They can be used to hold the very top motion of a pull-up (generally they are not high enough to allow significant range of motion in this movement, even if the knees are bent or pulled to the chest) as well as to perform supine rows.

title: Dip bar


text:
Horseshoe crab

Horseshoe crabs are marine and brackish water arthropods of the family Limulidae and are the only surviving xiphosurans. Despite their name, they are not true crabs or crustaceans. Rather, they are chelicerates. This makes them more closely related to arachnids like spiders, ticks, and scorpions.

The body of a horseshoe crab is divided into three main parts: the cephalothorax, abdomen, and telson. The largest of these, the cephalothorax, houses the majority of the animal's eyes, limbs, and internal organs. It's also where the animal gets its name, as its shape somewhat resembles that of a horseshoe.

Horseshoe crabs primarily live on the bottom of shallow coastal waters, but can swim if needed. These animals are occasionally used as fishing bait, but they are also eaten in some parts of Asia. More commonly, horseshoe crabs are caught for their blood, something valuable to the medical industry. This use comes from the Limulus amebocyte lysate, a chemical in their blood used to detect bacterial endotoxins.

In recent years, these animals have experienced a population decline. This is mainly due to coastal habitat destruction and overharvesting.

Phylogeny and Evolution
The fossil record of xiphosurans extends all back to the Ordovician, or around 445 million years ago. For modern horseshoe crabs, their earliest appearance was approximately 250 million years ago during the Early Triassic. As their bodies have barely changed between then and the present, extant forms have been described as "living fossils".

Horseshoe crabs resemble crustaceans but belong to a separate subphylum of the arthropods, Chelicerata. Horseshoe crabs are closely related to the extinct eurypterids (sea scorpions), which include some of the largest arthropods to have ever existed, and the two may be sister groups. The enigmatic chasmataspidids are also thought to be closely related to the horseshoe crabs.

The radiation of horseshoe crabs occurred rapidly and resulted in 88 known lineages, of which only 4 remain. The Atlantic species is sister to the three Asian species, the latter of which are likely the result of two divergences relatively close in time. The last common ancestor of the four extant species is estimated to have lived about 135 million years ago in the Cretaceous.

The Limulidae are the only extant family of the order Xiphosura and contains all four living species of horseshoe crabs:

 * Carcinoscorpius rotundicauda, the mangrove horseshoe crab, found in South and Southeast Asia
 * Limulus polyphemus, the Atlantic or American horseshoe crab, found along the Atlantic coast of the United States and the Southeast Gulf of Mexico
 * Tachypleus gigas, the Indo-Pacific, Indonesian, Indian or southern horseshoe crab, found in South and Southeast Asia
 * Tachypleus tridentatus, the Chinese, Japanese or tri-spine horseshoe crab, found in Southeast and East Asia

Genera
After Bicknell et al. 2021 and Lamsdell et al. 2020

 * Incertae sedis
 * †Albalimulus? Bicknell & Pates, 2019 Ballagan Formation, Scotland, Early Carboniferous (Tournaisian) (Considered Xiphosura incertae sedis by Lamsdell, 2020 )
 * †Casterolimulus Holland, Erickson & O'Brien, 1975 Late Cretaceous (Maastrichtian) Fox Hills Formation, North Dakota, USA (Inconsistently placed in this family)
 * †Heterolimulus gadeai Vıa & Villalta, 1966 Alcover Limestone Formation, Spain, Middle Triassic (Ladinian)
 * †Limulitella Størmer, 1952 Middle-Upper Triassic, France, Germany, Tunisia, Russia
 * †Sloveniolimulus Bicknell et al., 2019 Strelovec Formation, Slovenia Middle Triassic (Anisian)
 * †Tarracolimulus Romero & Vıa Boada, 1977 Alcover Limestone Formation, Spain, Middle Triassic (Ladinian)
 * †Victalimulus Riek & Gill, 1971 Lower Cretaceous (Aptian) Korumburra Group, NSW, Australia
 * †Yunnanolimulus Zhang et al., 2009 Middle Triassic (Anisian), Guanling Formation, Yunnan, China
 * †Mesolimulus Middle Triassic-Late Cretaceous England, Spain, Siberia, Germany, Morocco
 * †Ostenolimulus Lamsdell et al. 2021 Early Jurassic (Sinemurian) Moltrasio Limestone, Italy
 * †Volanalimulus Lamsdell, 2020 Early Triassic, Madagascar.
 * Subfamily Limulinae Leach, 1819
 * †Crenatolimulus Feldmann et al., 2011 Upper Jurassic (upper Tithonian) Kcynia Formation, Poland. Lower Cretaceous (Albian) Glen Rose Formation, Texas, USA
 * Limulus O. F. Müller, 1785 Pierre Shale, United States, Late Cretaceous (Maastrichtian), Atlantic North America, Recent
 * Subfamily Tachypleinae Pocock, 1902
 * Carcinoscorpius Pocock, 1902, Asia, Recent
 * Tachypleus Leach, 1819 Upper Cretaceous (Cenomanian) Haqel and Hjoula Konservat-Lagerstatten, Lebanon, Upper Eocene Domsen Sands, Germany, Asia, Recent

Phylogeny
The horseshoe crab's position within Chelicerata is complicated, though most morphological analyses have placed them outside Arachnida. This assumption was challenged when a genetics-based phylogeny found horseshoe crabs to be the sister group to the ricinuleids, thereby making them an arachnid. Nonetheless, a more recent paper has again placed horseshoe crabs as separate from the arachnids. This new study utilized both new and more complete sequencing data while also sampling a larger number of taxa.

Below is a cladogram showing the internal relationships of Limulidae (modern horseshoe crabs) based on morphology. It contains both extant and extinct members.

Adaptation to Freshwater
According a phylogeny from 2015, now-extinct xiphosurans traveled to freshwater at least five times throughout history. This same transition happened twice in the horseshoe crabs Victalimulus and Limulitella, with both inhabiting environments such as swamps and rivers. In contrast, all extant species are predominantly marine (though mangrove horseshoe crabs can survive in brackish water).

Morphological Stasis
As generalists, horseshoe crabs can have a broad diet and live in diverse habitats, meaning they are more likely to survive and produce viable offspring in more places. Horseshoe crabs also have an incredibly efficient immune system, and can also be successful in areas with high concentrations of bacteria. Amoebocytes in the bloodstream attack bacterial cells, and in doing so act as coagulants around the foreign body, preventing them from multiplying. This trait is an adaptation to their often bacteria-rich environment. Their ability to succeed in many environments limits selective forces, as there are few, if any, mutations that would result in more beneficial alleles that would make horseshoe crabs more suited for survival.

In the Atlantic horseshoe crab, microRNA’s exist on 7 loci, comparatively high to the 2 loci in spiders and scorpions, meaning horseshoe crabs have comparatively high rates of gene regulation, which could contribute to their morphological status. Additionally, several other gene clusters are present in at least 6, and often 7 loci.

Whole Genome Duplication
The common ancestor to Arachnids underwent a whole genome duplication event, which was likely followed by another duplication event in the common ancestor to the 4 extant species of horseshoe crabs about 135 million years ago, and evidence points to two additional events having occurred since then. However, many of these ancient genes have likely undergone either neo-functionalization or sub-functionalization as a result of functional divergence, meaning their expression is not the same as it was following the WGD event, as seen in other chelicerate lineages.

Evidence from Genomic Sequencing

 * The genome assembly of two species of horseshoe crabs, C. rotundicauda and T. tridentatus, suggests a genome size of 1.72 Gb for both species. The relatively large size of these genomes is believed to be another result of multiple rounds of whole genome duplication. In C. rotundicauda, the number of Hox genes is 43, which mainly exist on five Hox clusters. There are 36 hox genes on 3 clusters in T. tridentatus. Both species contain two ParaHox clusters. The L. polyphemus similarly contains 4 hox clusters. The evidence of at least 3 hox clusters in these three species indicates at least two rounds of whole genome duplication.

 * Homeobox genes are present in more than four copies. Furthermore, most chromosomes in C. rotinducauda exhibit synteny with between 4 and 8 chromosomes, also indicating that at least two, and likely 3 rounds of whole genome duplication occurred in the common ancestor of the 4 extant species between 135 and 500 million years ago.

 * Many of the ancient genes present due to past whole genome duplication events have experienced ongoing mutations, and as a result, have become pseudogenes, and lost their ability to code for proteins. Evidence for this phenomenon was found in a population of C. Rotundica in Hong Kong, in which 9/10 individuals sequenced exhibited deletion of the paralog of the Unpg-A1 gene, indicating an ongoing mutative process of pseudogenization in C. rotundicauda.

Sexual Size Dimorphism
Several hypotheses have been proposed as possible mechanisms for the size difference between male and female horseshoe crabs. The sexual size dimorphism of horseshoe crabs that results in a larger average size in females than males is likely a result of the amalgamation of many different aspects of these hypotheses and more:

 * 1) Horseshoe crabs exhibit self-similar size preferences when choosing a mate. Inverse relationships in which the male is larger than the female are rare. The maintenance of size difference in mating partners is likely in part a result of the stability of this self-similar preference and dimorphism.
 * 2) Mature females undergo an additional year of maturation and an additional molt to males, a contributing factor in their larger average size to mature males.
 * 3) Larger female horseshoe crabs can house more eggs within their bodies, and therefore pass on more genetic material than smaller females during each mating cycle.
 * 4) Satellite males found occupying the ideal mating position were found to be on average in better condition than those in other mating positions, indicating a significant relationship between reproductive success and the male’s condition, as satellite males account for nearly 40% of fertilization.
 * 5) There is no evidence of assortative mating, indicating sexual selection is likely not the main factor in this sexual size dimorphism. Rather than favoring size, selection favors the ability to switch to satellite behavior, as individuals like these can contribute more genetic material to the next population, which will increase the number of individuals with the ability to engage in both types of mating behaviors.

General Body Plan
Like all arthropods, horseshoe crabs have segmented bodies with jointed limbs, which are covered by a protective cuticle made of chitin. They have heads composed of several segments, which eventually fuse as an embryo.

Horseshoe crabs are chelicerates, meaning their bodies are composed of two main parts (tagma): the cephalothorax and the opisthosoma. The first tagma, the cephalothorax or prosoma, is a fusion of the head and thorax. This tagma is also covered by a large, semicircular, carapace that acts like a shield around the animal's body. It's shaped like the hoof of a horse, giving this animal its common name. In addition to the two main tagmata, the horseshoe crab also possesses a long tail-like section known as the telson.

In total, horseshoe crabs have 6 pairs of appendages on their cephalothorax. The first of these are the chelicerae, which give chelicerates their name. In horseshoe crabs, these look like tiny pincers in front of the mouth. Behind the chelicerae are the pedipalps, which are primarily used as legs. In the final molt of males, the ends of the pedipalps are modified into specialized, grasping claws used in mating. Following the pedipalps are three pairs of walking legs and a set of pusher legs for moving through soft sediment. Each of these pusher legs is biramous or divided into two separate branches. The branch closest to the front bears a flat end that looks like a leaf. This end is called the flabellum. The branch towards the back is far longer and looks similar to a walking leg. However, rather than ending in just a claw, the back branch has four leaf-like ends that are arranged like a petal. The final segment of the cephalothorax was originally part of the abdomen but fused in the embryo. On it are two flap-like appendages known as chilaria. The opisthosoma or abdomen of a horseshoe crab is composed of several fused segments. Similar to a trilobite, the abdomen is made up of three lobes: a medial lobe in the middle, and a pleural lobe on either side. Attached to the perimeter of each pleural lobe is a flat, serrated structure known as the flange. The flange on either side is connected by the telson embayment, which itself is attached to the medial lobe. Along the line where these lobes meet are six sets of indentations known as apodeme. Each of these serve as a muscle attachment point for the animal's twelve movable spines.

On the underside of the abdomen are several biramous limbs. The branches closest to the outside are flat and broad, while the ones on the inside are more narrow. Closest to the front is a plate-like structure made of two fused appendages. This is the genital operculum and is where horseshoe crabs keep their reproductive organs. Following the operculum are five pairs of book gills. While mainly used for breathing, horseshoe crabs can also use their book gills to swim. At the end of a horseshoe crab's abdomen is a long, tail-like spine known as a telson. It's highly mobile and serves a variety of functions. If severed from the body, lost legs or the telson may slowly regenerate, and cracks in the body shell can heal.

Central Nervous System
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Eyes
Horseshoe crabs have two compound lateral eyes, each composed of about 1,000 ommatidia, plus a pair of median eyes that are able to detect both visible light and ultraviolet light, a single parietal eye, and a pair of rudimentary lateral eyes on the top. The latter becomes functional just before the embryo hatches. Also, a pair of ventral eyes is located near the mouth, as well as a cluster of photoreceptors on the telson. Having relatively poor eyesight, the animals have the largest rods and cones of any known animal, about 100 times the size of humans', and their eyes are a million times more sensitive to light at night than during the day.

Other Senses
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Circulation and Respiration
Behind its legs, the horseshoe crab has book gills, which exchange respiratory gases. As in other arthropods, a true endoskeleton is absent, but the body does have an endoskeletal structure made up of cartilaginous plates that support the book gills.

Feeding, Digestion, and Excretion
Horseshoe crabs use their chelicerae—a pair of small appendages—for moving food into the mouth. The mouth is located in the center of the legs, whose bases are referred to as gnathobases, and have the same function as jaws and help grind up food.

Locomotion
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Distribution and Habitat
In the modern day, horseshoe crabs have a relatively limited distribution. The three Asian species mainly occur in South and Southeast Asia along the Bay of Bengal and the coasts of Indonesia. A notable exception is the tri-spine horseshoe crab, whose range extends northward to the coasts of China, Taiwan, and Southern Japan. The American species lives from the coast of Nova Scotia to the northern Gulf of Mexico, with another population residing around the Yucatán Peninsula.

Extant horseshoe crabs generally live in salt water, though one species, the mangrove horseshoe crab (Carcinoscorpius) is often found in more brackish environments.

Diet
Horseshoe crabs are more often found on the ocean floor searching for worms and molluscs, which are their main food. They may also feed on crustaceans and even small fish. Foraging usually takes place at night. Gravel and sand particles are ingested to further grind up food in a gizzard before passing it into the stomach.

Growth and Development
Females are about 20–30% larger than males. The smallest species is C. rotundicauda and the largest is T. tridentatus. On average, males of C. rotundicauda are about 30 cm long, including a tail (telson) that is about 15 cm, and their carapace (prosoma) is about 15 cm wide. Some southern populations (in the Yucatán Peninsula) of L. polyphemus are somewhat smaller, but otherwise this species is larger.

In the largest species, T. tridentatus, females can reach as much as 79.5 cm long, including their tail, and up to 4 kg in weight. This is only about 10-20 cm longer than the largest females of L. polyphemus and T. gigas, but roughly twice the weight.

The juveniles grow about 33% larger with every molt until reaching adult size. Atlantic horseshoe crabs molt in late July.

Reproduction
During the breeding season (spring and summer in the Northeast U.S.; year-round in warmer locations or when the full moon rises), horseshoe crabs migrate to shallow coastal waters. There they spawn on beaches and salt marshes. The smaller male horseshoe crab clings to the back or opisthosoma of the larger female using specialized front claws and fertilizes the eggs as they are laid in the sand. Additional males called "satellite males" which are not attached to the female may surround the pair and have some success in fertilizing eggs. Young female horseshoe crabs can be identified by the lack of mating scars.

The female can lay between 60,000 and 120,000 eggs in batches of a few thousand at a time. The eggs may be inseminated within 20 to 30 minutes. In L. polyphemus, the eggs take about two weeks to hatch; shore birds eat many of them before they hatch. The larvae molt six times during the first year and annually after the first 3 or 4 years.

Natural breeding of horseshoe crabs in captivity has proven to be difficult. Some evidence indicates that mating takes place only in the presence of the sand or mud in which the horseshoe crab's eggs were hatched; it is not known with certainty what is in the sand that the crabs can sense or how they sense it. Artificial insemination and induced spawning have been done on a relatively large scale in captivity, and eggs and juveniles collected from the wild are often raised to adulthood in captivity.

In order to preserve and ensure the continuous supply of the horseshoe crab, a breeding center was built in Johor, Malaysia where the crabs are bred and released back into the ocean in the thousands once every two years. It is estimated to take around 12 years before they are suitable for consumption.

Consumption
While not having much meat, horseshoe crabs are valued as a delicacy in many parts of East and Southeast Asia. The meat is white, has a rubbery texture similar to lobster, and possesses a slightly salty aftertaste. Horseshoe crab can be eaten both raw and cooked, but must be properly prepared to prevent food poisoning. Furthermore, only certain species can be eaten. There have been numerous reports of poisonings after consuming mangrove horseshoe crabs (Carcinoscorpius rotundicauda) as its meat contains tetrodotoxin.

Horseshoe crab is commonly prepared by grilling or stewing, but the meat can also be pickled in vinegar or stir-fried with veggies. Many recipes involve the use of various spices, herbs, and chilies give the dish more flavor.

In addition to the meat, horseshoe crabs are also valued for their eggs. Much like the meat, only the eggs of specific species can be eaten. Much like its meat, the eggs of mangrove horseshoe crabs also contain tetrodotoxin.

Use in Fisheries
Horseshoe crabs are used as bait to fish for eels (mostly in the United States), whelk, or conch. Nearly 1 million (1,000,000) crabs a year are harvested for bait in the United States, dwarfing the biomedical mortality. However, fishing with horseshoe crab was banned indefinitely in New Jersey in 2008 with a moratorium on harvesting to protect the red knot, a shorebird which eats the crab's eggs. A moratorium was restricted to male crabs in Delaware, and a permanent moratorium is in effect in South Carolina.

A low horseshoe crab population in the Delaware Bay is hypothesized to endanger the future of the red knot. Red knots, long-distance migratory shorebirds, feed on the protein-rich eggs during their stopovers on the beaches of New Jersey and Delaware. An effort is ongoing to develop adaptive-management plans to regulate horseshoe crab harvests in the bay in a way that protects migrating shorebirds.

Use in Medicine
Horseshoe crabs use hemocyanin to carry oxygen through their blood. Their blood contains amebocytes, which play a similar role to the white blood cells of vertebrates in defending the organism against pathogens. Amebocytes from the blood of Limulus polyphemus are used to make Limulus amebocyte lysate (LAL), which is used for the detection of bacterial endotoxins in medical applications. There is a high demand for the blood, the harvest of which involves collecting and bleeding the animals, and then releasing them back into the sea. Most of the animals survive the process; mortality is correlated with both the amount of blood extracted from an individual animal, and the stress experienced during handling and transportation. Estimates of mortality rates following blood harvesting vary from 3–15% to 10–30%. Approximately 500,000 Limulus are harvested annually for this purpose. Declining horseshoe crab populations on the East Coast of the United States endanger certain bird species which feed upon their eggs.

Bleeding may also prevent female horseshoe crabs from being able to spawn or decrease the number of eggs they are able to lay. Up to 30% of an individual's blood is removed, according to the biomedical industry, although NPR reported that it "can deplete them of more than half their volume of blue blood." The horseshoe crabs spend between one and three days away from the ocean before being returned. As long as the gills stay moist, they can survive on land for four days. Some scientists are skeptical that certain companies return their horseshoe crabs to the ocean at all, instead suspecting them of selling the horseshoe crabs as fishing bait.

The harvesting of horseshoe crab blood in the pharmaceutical industry is in decline. In 1986, Kyushu University researchers discovered that the same test could be achieved by using isolated Limulus clotting factor C (rFC), an enzyme found in LAL, as by using LAL itself. Jeak Ling Ding, a National University of Singapore researcher, patented a process for manufacturing rFC; on 8 May 2003, synthetic isolated rFC made via her patented process became available for the first time. Industry at first took little interest in the new product, however, as it was patent-encumbered, not yet approved by regulators, and sold by a single manufacturer, Lonza Group. In 2013, however, Hyglos GmbH also began manufacturing its own rFC product. This, combined with the acceptance of rFC by European regulators, the comparable cost between LAL and rFC, and support from Eli Lilly and Company, which has committed to use rFC in lieu of LAL, is projected to all but end the practice of blood harvesting from horseshoe crabs.

In December 2019, a report of the US Senate which encouraged the Food and Drug Administration to "establish processes for evaluating alternative pyrogenicity tests and report back [to the Senate] on steps taken to increase their use" was released; PETA backed the report.

In June 2020, it was reported that U.S. Pharmacopeia had declined to give rFC equal standing with horseshoe crab blood. Without the approval for the classification as an industry standard testing material, U.S. companies will have to overcome the scrutiny of showing that rFC is safe and effective for their desired uses, which may serve as a deterrent for usage of the horseshoe crab blood substitute.

Vaccine research and development during the COVID-19 pandemic has added additional "strain on the American horseshoe crab."

In 2023, the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service halted the harvesting of horseshoe crabs in the Cape Romain National Wildlife Refuge, South Carolina, from March 15 to July 15 to aid their reproduction. This decision was influenced by the importance of horseshoe crab eggs as a food source for migratory birds and the ongoing use of horseshoe crabs for bait and their blood in medical products. The ban supports the conservation goals of the refuge, spanning 66,000 acres (26,700 hectares) of marshes, beaches, and islands near Charleston.

Conservation Status
Development along shorelines is dangerous to horseshoe crab spawning, limiting available space and degrading habitat. Bulkheads can block access to intertidal spawning regions as well.

The population of Indo-Pacific horseshoe crabs (Tachypleus. gigas) in both Malaysia and Indonesia has decreased dramatically since 2010. This is primarily due to overharvesting, as horseshoe crabs are considered a delicacy in countries like Thailand. The individuals most likely to be targeted are gravid females, as they can be sold for both their meat and eggs. This method of harvesting has led to an unbalanced sex ratio in the wild, something that also contributes to the area's declining population.

Because of the destruction of habitat for shoreline development, use in fishing, plastic pollution, status as a culinary delicacy, and use in research and medicine, the horseshoe crab is facing both endangered and extinct statuses. One species, the tri-spine horseshoe crab (Tachypleus tridentatus), has already been declared extirpated from Taiwan. Facing a greater than 90% population decrease in T. tridentatus juveniles, it is suspected that Hong Kong will be the next to declare tri-spine horseshoe crabs as extirpated from the area. This species is listed as endangered on the IUCN Red List, specifically because of the overexploitation and loss of critical habitat that's lead to its steep decline.

title: Horseshoe crab


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Irene Baker

Edith Irene Bailey Baker (November 17, 1901 – April 2, 1994) was an American politician and a United States Representative from Tennessee. She was the widow of Howard Baker Sr. and the stepmother of Howard Baker Jr.

Biography
Baker was born in Sevierville, Tennessee, on November 17, 1901, and attended public schools in Sevierville and Maryville.

Career
Baker served as Deputy County Court Clerk of Sevier County from 1918 to 1922 and as Deputy Clerk and Master of Chancery Court from 1922 to 1924.

After her first husband's death, Baker went to work for the Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA). On September 15, 1935, she married Howard Baker Sr., who was a widower with two children. The couple raised Baker's two children from his first marriage, Howard H. Baker Jr. and Mary Elizabeth Baker, as well as a daughter of their own, Beverly Irene Baker. She served on the Republican National Committee from 1960 to 1964.

When her husband died suddenly in office on January 7, 1964, Baker ran as a Republican in the special election to fill the remainder of his term, defeating Democrat Willard Yarbrough, a Knoxville journalist. As a candidate for the seat, she promised to serve only as a caretaker who would not seek further election; and she fulfilled that promise, and served from March 10, 1964, to January 3, 1965. While in Congress, she served on the House Committee on Government Operations and advocated for a balanced federal budget. She also championed coal mining interests, the TVA, U.S. Atomic Energy Commission programs in Oak Ridge, Tennessee, and cost of living increases in Social Security pensions. As one of ten Republicans from the South, she voted against the Civil Rights Act.

After leaving Congress in 1965, Baker became Director of Public Welfare in Knoxville, Tennessee, a position she held until 1971.

Death
Baker died in Loudon, Tennessee on April 2, 1994 (age 92 years, 136 days). She is interred at Sherwood Memorial Gardens, in Loudon, Tennessee.

title: Irene Baker


text: User talk:12.47.223.8

title: User talk:12.47.223.8