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Paul Aurelian

Paul Aurelian (known in Breton as Paol Aorelian or Saint Pol de Léon and in Latin as Paulinus Aurelianus) was a 6th-century Welshman who became first bishop of the See of Léon and one of the seven founder saints of Brittany. He allegedly died in 575, rumoured to have lived to the age of 140, after having been assisted in his labors by three successive coadjutors. This suggests that several Pauls have been conflated. Gilbert Hunter Doble thought that he might have been Saint Paulinus of Wales.

Family
According to his hagiographic Life, completed in 884 by a Breton monk named Wrmonoc of Landévennec Abbey, Paul was the son of a Welsh chieftain named Perphirius/Porphyrius ("clad in purple"), from Penychen in Glamorgan. He was later given three saintly sister-martyrs; Juthwara, Sidwell and Wulvela.

It was also suggested that he may have been related to Ambrosius Aurelianus, both of them possibly active in Brittany at some points of their lives. Occurring at a time of Saxon raids on the British Isles, it supports the idea of an organized migration of the local Brythonic population under the rules of leaders belonging to the clergy and to the local nobility.

In the Life of Cadoc the princely founder of Llancarfan is reckoned the son of Gwynllyw, eponymous founder of the cantref of Gwynllwg and the son of Glywys. Medieval sources give Gwynllyw a brother, called "Pawl", who is chief of neighbouring Penychen.

Career
Paul first was a pupil of Saint Illtud at Llantwit Major. Later, he studied on Caldey Island with Samson of Dol and Gildas.

He went to Brittany, establishing monasteries in Finistère on the northwest coast of Brittany, at Lampaul on the island of Ushant (French Ouessant), on the island of Batz and at Ocsimor, now the city of Saint-Pol-de-Léon, where he is said to have founded a monastery in an abandoned fort. He was consecrated bishop at Ocsimor under the authority of Childebert, King of the Franks.

Paul was a vegetarian. One account says he died on the island of Batz. He was first buried at Saint-Pol-de-Léon, but his relics were later transferred to Fleury Abbey.

He was succeeded as bishop by his companion, Saint Joavan. Paul's bell is kept at Saint-Pol. His feast day is 12 March.

Paulinus of Wales
G. H. Doble thought Saint Paul Aurelian might be the same as Saint Paulinus of Wales, revered in Carmarthenshire, southwest Wales as a hermit and teacher at a place usually identified as Whitland. Hywel David Emanuel considered the identification of Paul Aurelian with the Carmarthenshire Paulinus as doubtful.

In Rhigyfarch's Life of S. David (chapter x), Saint David is stated to have completed his education under S. Paulinus (Paulens), who is described as a "scribe, a disciple of S. Germanus the bishop". When Paulinus became blind, David is said to have miraculously restored his sight.

Paulinus of Wales founded churches and chapels around Llandovery. He is said to have taught Saint Teilo and to have nominated David to speak at the Synod of Llanddewi Brefi (in around 545). Claims of having founded the church at Paul are dubious.

A 6th century inscribed stone found at Caeo in Carmarthenshire, now in the Carmarthen Museum, appears to honour him as "preserver of the faith, constant lover of his country, champion of righteousness". His feast day is 23 November.

title: Paul Aurelian


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2003 in Iraq

The following lists events in the year 2003 in Iraq.

Incumbents

 * President – Saddam Hussein (until 9 April)
 * Prime Minister – Saddam Hussein (until 9 April)
 * Vice President – Taha Muhie-eldin Marouf (until May)
 * Vice President – Taha Yassin Ramadan (until May)

Transitional government:
 * Head of State –
 * Government Administrator – Jay Montgomery Garner (9 April–6 May) Paul Bremer
 * Head of Government –
 * Mohammad Bahr al-Ulloum, President of the Governing Council of Iraq (13 July – 31 July)
 * Ibrahim al-Jaafari, President of the Governing Council of Iraq (1 August – 31 August)
 * Ahmed Chalabi, President of the Governing Council of Iraq (1 September – 30 September)
 * Ayad Allawi, President of the Governing Council of Iraq (1 October – 31 October)
 * Jalal Talabani, President of the Governing Council of Iraq (1 November – 30 November)
 * Abdul Aziz al-Hakim, President of the Governing Council of Iraq (1 December – 31 December)

Events

 * The Abu Gharib prison torture scandal took place in 2003 and 2004.

January

 * January 3 – United Nations arms inspectors from UNMOVIC have established a base of operations in Mosul, 375 kilometers or 200 miles north of Baghdad, to speed the inspection process.
 * January 7 – French President Jacques Chirac, in a New Year's message to French forces, stated that French forces should be prepare to be activated if the United Nations decides on military action in Iraq.
 * January 9 – UN Chief Weapons Inspector Hans Blix and International Atomic Energy Agency head Mohammed El Baradei give a report to the United Nations Security Council. They say that progress on the search for weapons of mass destruction in Iraq is "inching forward" but that a more "pro-active" stance is required from the Iraqi government.
 * January 16 – UN weapons inspectors in Iraq stated that they found empty rocket warheads, designed to carry chemical warfare agents, at the Ukhaider Ammunition Storage Area.
 * January 18 – A mass mobilization pulls together global protests against the Iraq war in cities around the world, including Tokyo, Moscow, Paris, London, Montreal, Ottawa, Toronto, Cologne, Bonn, Göteborg, Istanbul, and Cairo. NION and ANSWER hold protests in Washington, D.C., and San Francisco, California.
 * January 20 – As part of the plan to invade Iraq, British defence secretary Geoff Hoon announces that 26,000 British troops and equipment including 120 tanks will be sent to Kuwait, joining the 5,000 troops already on their way there.
 * January 23 – 350 Australian troops begin their journey towards Iraq, joining the US and UK troops already assembled there. Prime Minister John Howard said that "pre-positioning troops increased the likelihood of (the crisis) being resolved peacefully". Around 150 people protested as the troop ship left Sydney, some shouting "Go yourself!" to Mr. Howard.
 * January 27 – Speaking to the United Nations Security Council, Iraqi Foreign Minister Naji Sabri said that the United States and its allies are "unjustifably aggressive" and that Iraq is complying fully with requests made by the UN weapons inspectors. Speaking to the same forum, Hans Blix, the chief inspector, later said that Iraq had not been fully co-operative with the United Nations inspection teams.
 * January 30 – Facing worldwide criticism and against the wishes of the majorities of their own electorates, leaders of Britain, Spain, Italy, Portugal, Hungary, Poland, Denmark, and the Czech Republic release a statement, the letter of the eight, demonstrating support for the United States' plans for an invasion of Iraq.

February

 * February 5 – At the United Nations US Secretary of State Colin Powell presents the US government's case against the Saddam Hussein government of Iraq, as part of the diplomatic side of the U.S. plan to invade Iraq. The presentation includes tape recordings, satellite photographs and other intelligence data, and aims to prove WMD production, evasion of weapons inspections and a link to Al-Qaeda.
 * February 7 - The chief United Nations arms inspector Hans Blix said Iraq appeared to be making fresh efforts to cooperate with U.N. teams hunting weapons of mass destruction, as Washington said the "momentum is building" for war with Iraq.
 * February 8 – Sections of a 'dodgy dossier' issued by the UK government, which purported to present the latest British intelligence about Iraq, and which had been cited by Tony Blair and Colin Powell as evidence for the need for war, were criticized as plagiarisms. They had been copied without permission from a number of sources including Jane's Intelligence Review and a 12-year-old doctoral thesis of a Californian student that had been published in the US journal Middle East Review of International Affairs. Some sentences were copied word-for-word, and spelling mistakes had been reproduced from the original articles. Downing Street responded by saying that the government had never claimed exclusive authorship and that the information was accurate.
 * February 9 – 13% of the 3,300 reservists called by the British Government in preparation for a possible war in Iraq have attempted to avoid being drafted.
 * February 10 – France and Belgium broke the NATO procedure of silent approval concerning the timing of protective measures for Turkey in case of a possible war with Iraq. Germany said it supports this veto. The procedure was put into operation on February 6 by secretary general George Robertson. In response Turkey called upon Article 4 of the NATO Treaty, which stipulates that member states must deliberate when asked to do so by another member state if it feels threatened.
 * February 12 – An audio tape attributed to Osama bin Laden is released by al Jazeera television. It recounts the battle of Tora Bora and urges Muslims to fight the United States and to overthrow the Iraq regime of Saddam Hussein.
 * February 13 – Pre-Iraq invasion
 * Austria bars US military units involved in the attack on Iraq from entering into or flying over its territories without a United Nations mandate to attack Iraq.
 * United States military officials anonymously confirm to the Washington Post that two Special Forces units have been operating on the ground inside Iraq for over a month, making preliminary preparations for a large-scale invasion.
 * A United Nations panel reports that Iraq's al-Samoud 2 missiles have a range of 180 km (above the 150 km limit allowed by the UN), splitting opinion over whether they breach UNSCR 1441.
 * February 14 – Pre-Iraq invasion
 * A very large demonstration was held in Melbourne to protest against the Australian government's support for the US's policy on Iraq. Organisers estimated that 200,000 people came out on to the streets, while some news sources put the number at "up to 150,000".
 * UNMOVIC chief weapons inspectors Hans Blix and Mohamed ElBaradei presented a report to the United Nations Security Council. They stated that the Iraqis had been co-operating well with the inspectors and that no weapons of mass destruction had been found, but that the Saddam Hussein regime had still to account for many banned weapons believed to have been in his arsenal. Blix also expressed doubts about some of the conclusions in Colin Powell's Security Council presentation of February 5, and specifically questioned the significance of some of the photographic evidence that Mr Powell had presented.
 * Tariq Aziz of Iraq met with Pope John Paul II.
 * February 15 – More than six million people protest in over 600 cities worldwide, the largest war protest to take place before the war occurred.
 * February 16 – A missile larger than allowed by UN sanction rules has been found in Iraq.
 * February 24 – General Colin Powell states at a meeting in Beijing that "It is time to take action. The evidence is clear ... We are reaching that point where serious consequences must flow." His speech appears to imply that military action is likely to follow within three weeks, based on previous Pentagon briefings.
 * February 25 – Pre-Iraq invasion
 * The United States, Britain and Spain present to the UN Security Council a much-anticipated second resolution stating that Iraq "has failed to take the final opportunity" to disarm, but does not include deadlines or an explicit threat of military force. Meanwhile, France, Germany, and Russia offer a counter-proposal calling for peaceful disarmament through further inspections. Sometime reporter Jeff Gannon, actual name James Guckert, signs in at the White House for the first time, according to Secret Service White House access logs obtained through FOIA by Representatives John Conyers (D-MI) and Louise Slaughter (D-NY).
 * Both major parties of Kurdistan, an autonomous region in Northern Iraq, vow to fight Turkish troops if they enter Kurdistan to capture Mosul or interfere in Kurdish self-rule. Between them the two parties can mobilize up to 80,000 guerillas – most likely no match for the modern Turkish army, but a severe blow to the unity of U.S. allies on the Northern front expected in the U.S. plan to invade Iraq.
 * February 26 – Pre-Iraq invasion
 * United Nations chief weapons inspector Hans Blix said there is no evidence that Iraq has any weapons of mass destruction.
 * U.S. President George W. Bush talks publicly about his vision of a post-invasion democracy in Iraq. Bush says it will be "an example" to other nations in Arabia.
 * The House of Commons saw the largest rebellion by MPs from any governing party in Britain for at least 100 years. 122 MPs from the ruling Labour party were among 199 from all parties who voted to add the phrase "[This House] finds the case for military action against Iraq as yet unproven" to a government motion. The motion itself endorsed UN Security Council Resolution 1441 and supported "... the Government's continuing efforts in the UN to disarm Iraq of its weapons of mass destruction."
 * Saddam Hussein, in an interview with Dan Rather, rules out exile as an option. He calls for dialogue with United States president George W. Bush, and suggests that the two should engage in a televised debate.
 * February 27 – Pre-Iraq invasion
 * Spanish Prime Minister José María Aznar personally asks United States President George W. Bush to silence Secretary of Defense Donald Rumsfeld, indicating that Rumsfeld's numerous public remarks on European countries' Iraq policies are generally viewed as inflammatory and overwhelmingly counterproductive within the European diplomatic community. Aznar indicated a preference for Secretary of State Colin Powell.
 * Regarding the disarmament of Iraq, the chief weapons inspector Hans Blix, says "The results in terms of disarmament have been very limited so far."
 * Elie Wiesel, Nobel Peace Prize winner and Holocaust survivor, announced his support to the United States and United Kingdom campaign against Iraq.
 * February 28 – Pre-Iraq invasion
 * Iraq begins the process of destroying Al Samoud two missiles on March 1. Hans Blix, U.N. chief weapons inspector said "It is a very significant piece of real disarmament". However, the spokesman of the White House, Ari Fleischer declared that the Iraq commitment to destroy these missiles is a fraud that President George W. Bush had predicted, and indicated that the United States wanted a total and complete disarmament of Iraq. He also repeated that if the United Nations did not act to disarm Baghdad, the United States would lead a coalition of voluntary countries to disarm Saddam Hussein.
 * Canada's Prime Minister Jean Chrétien indicates that he believes that regime change is a dangerous goal for an invasion of Iraq, and that disarmament only should be the goal of international pressure.
 * It is reported that, citing "national interest" as a reason, the British government under Margaret Thatcher contributed approximately £1bn of taxpayer money to Iraq under Saddam Hussein in the 1980s. Most of this money went into military infrastructure built by British companies such as GEC-Marconi.

March

 * March 1 – Pre-Iraq invasion
 * The United Arab Emirates calls for Iraqi president Saddam Hussein to step down to avoid war. The sentiment is later echoed by Bahrain and Kuwait.
 * The Turkish speaker of Parliament voids the vote accepting U.S. troops involved in the planned invasion of Iraq into Turkey on constitutional grounds. 264 votes for and 250 against accepting 62,000 US military personnel do not constitute the necessary majority under the Turkish constitution, due to 19 abstentions.
 * Under U.N. supervision, Iraq begins destroying four of its Al Samoud missiles.
 * March 2 – Iraq destroys six more Al-Samoud 2 missiles, bringing the total destroyed to 10 out of an estimated 100 missiles ordered eliminated by the U.N. The U.S. continues to dismiss Iraq's actions as "part of its game of deception." Iraq indicates that it may halt destruction of the missiles if the U.S. indicates it will go to war anyway.
 * March 3 – Under intense American pressure, Turkey indicates that its Parliament will consider a second vote on whether to allow U.S. troops to use Turkish bases for a military attack on Iraq.
 * March 5 – Pre-Iraq invasion
 * The foreign ministers of France, Germany and Russia indicate that they will oppose any UN Security Council proposals that would authorize war with Iraq.
 * UK newspaper The Times reports that the United Nations had secretly drawn up a plan to establish a post-war government in Iraq. Although no consensus had been reached among UN Security Council members in regard to military action, the document indicated that UN leaders may now consider war all but inevitable.
 * Meeting of the Organisation of the Islamic Conference in Qatar fails to produce a statement opposing war in Iraq.
 * Saudi Arabia deploys 3,300 troops to Kuwait in preparation for a potential Iraq conflict.
 * Students protest and go on strike in a number of countries around the world.
 * Crossgates Mall in Guilderland, New York, dropped charges of trespassing against a man who had been arrested for refusing to remove his "Give Peace a Chance" T-shirt. The change of heart occurred after over 100 anti-war demonstrators marched through the mall and threatened to stay until the mall backed down.
 * March 7 – Pre-Iraq invasion
 * Hans Blix reports to the UN Security Council citing Iraq's increased but qualified cooperation.
 * Revising the draft resolution put forth by the United States, United Kingdom and Spain a week ago, Britain proposes setting March 17 as the date for Iraq to voluntarily disarm or face the prospect of war.
 * The Nikkei benchmark hit a 20-year low record as war in Iraq appears closer, alleged stock manipulation by Nikko Salomon Smith Barney came to light, North Korea is preparing to test fire a mid-range missile, and a new political scandal in the party of Prime Minister Junichiro Koizumi came to light.
 * March 8 – Pre-Iraq invasion
 * Kuwaiti workers have been instructed to make 35 holes in the fence between Iraq and Kuwait, and that the Kuwaiti army is positioning tanks at these openings. The Pakistan Daily Times reported that UNIKOM had found armed US Marines in the demilitarized zone along the fence last month. CBC reported that 230 UN support workers have been ordered out of the demilitarized zone.
 * The Japanese government expressed support for a revised draft resolution submitted jointly by the United States, United Kingdom and Spain to the United Nations Security Council that sets March 17 as the deadline for Iraq. Japanese media opinion polls taken last week indicate that 84% of Japanese people oppose an Iraq war.
 * March 9 – Pre-Iraq invasion
 * In an interview on BBC Radio 4, Clare Short, a member of Tony Blair's cabinet, describes his stance on Iraq as "deeply reckless", and says she would resign if he committed the UK to war without an unambiguous mandate from the United Nations.
 * ArabNews reports that Saddam Hussein demanded that the UN Security Council lift the "embargo against Iraq", denounce the United States and the United Kingdom as "liars", strip Israel of weapons of mass destruction and force Israel to withdraw from "Palestine and occupied Arab land".
 * Albania says it will send troops to join any war against Iraq, largely a symbolic measure thanking the United States and NATO for intervening in Kosovo in the 1999 Kosovo War.
 * March 10 – Pre-Iraq invasion
 * The White House press secretary, paraphrasing the President, stated "If the United Nations fails to act, that means the United Nations will not be the international body that disarms Saddam Hussein. Another international body will disarm Saddam Hussein."
 * Kofi Annan, Secretary General of the United Nations, stated "If the US and others were to go outside the [Security] Council and take military action it would not be in conformity with the [UN] Charter".
 * French president Jacques Chirac declares that France will veto a UN resolution sponsored by Spain, the United Kingdom, and the United States. The resolution would authorise use of force against Iraq unless that country proves it disarmament by March 17.
 * Russian Foreign Minister Igor Ivanov announced that Russia would veto a UN resolution by the US and the UK authorising the use of force against Iraq.
 * U.S. diplomat John Brown, who joined the State Department in 1981, resigned. He said that the Bush administration's Iraq policy was fomenting a massive rise in anti-US sentiment around the world and he could not support it.
 * March 11 – Pre-Iraq invasion
 * Iraqi fighters threaten two U.S. U-2 surveillance planes, flying missions for U.N. weapons inspectors, forcing them to abort their mission and return to base. Iraqi officials described the incident as a "technical mistake" by the U.N. inspectors. Ewen Buchanan, spokesman for UNMOVIC, said that Iraqi officials had been notified about the flight beforehand
 * According to Arab media, Saddam Hussein opens terrorist training camps in Iraq for Arab volunteers willing to carry out suicide bombings against U.S. forces if a U.S.-led attack took place.
 * March 12 – British prime minister Tony Blair proposes an amendment to the possible 18th U.N. resolution, which would call for Iraq to meet certain benchmarks to prove that it was disarming. The amendment is immediately rejected by France, who promises to veto any new resolution.
 * March 14 – Pre-Iraq invasion
 * U.S. Representative James P. Moran, Democrat from Virginia, is forced out of a party leadership post after furor over his remarks that were interpreted as saying that American Jews are responsible for a possible war with Iraq.
 * Key documents presented as evidence that the US should invade Iraq are revealed as forgeries. The documents stated that Niger was selling 500 tons of uranium to Iraq. One, dated 2000, was on stationery from the military government of the 1980s and referred to a foreign minister who had not been in power for 14 years; another bore a signature of the president of Niger that was an obvious fake. Iraq's supposed acquisition of African uranium was a feature in Colin Powell's speech to the UN Security Council in February and in George W. Bush's State of the Union Address. Senator John Rockefeller asked the FBI to investigate the origin of the documents. Rockefeller expressed concern that the forgeries "may be part of a larger deception campaign aimed at manipulating public opinion and foreign policy regarding Iraq."
 * March 15 – A round of protests against the Iraq War takes place in cities across the world.
 * March 16 – Pre-Iraq invasion
 * The leaders of the United States, Britain, Portugal, and Spain meet at a summit in the Azores Islands. U.S. President Bush calls Monday, March 17, the "moment of Truth", meaning that the "coalition of the willing" would make its final effort to extract a resolution from the U.N. Security Council that would give Iraq an ultimatum to disarm immediately or to be disarmed by force.
 * Largest co-ordinated worldwide vigil as part of the global protests against war on Iraq.
 * March 17 – Pre-Iraq invasion
 * President Bush gives the final ultimatum to Saddam Hussein. His conditions are that Saddam and his sons must leave Iraq in 48 hours.
 * Kofi Annan, Secretary General of the United Nations, orders all UN personnel to leave Iraq.
 * Peter Goldsmith, Attorney General of the UK set out the legal justification for an invasion of Iraq. Robin Cook, Leader of the British House of Commons, resigned from the UK cabinet over the plan to invade Iraq. The UK and the US have withdrawn a proposed UN Security Council resolution on Iraq. The United States advised UNMOVIC and the International Atomic Energy Agency to withdraw all weapon inspectors out of Iraq. Japanese prime minister Junichiro Koizumi said that he supports the U.S., U.K., and Spain for ending diplomatic efforts against Iraq. He also indicates no further UN resolution is necessary to invade Iraq.
 * March 18 – Pre-Iraq invasion
 * U.S. Secretary of State Colin Powell says that thirty nations have joined with the United States in a "coalition of the willing" to remove Saddam Hussein from power, with another 15 quietly promising their support.
 * Naji Sabri, the Iraqi foreign minister, calls U.S. President George W. Bush "a war criminal", "tyrant", "despot" and "idiot". He also claims that evacuation of UNIKOM from the demilitarized zone violates the UN resolution of 1991.
 * Approximately US$1 billion is stolen from the Central Bank of Iraq, just hours after the United States began bombing Baghdad.
 * The United Kingdom Parliament votes in to grant Parliamentary Approval for the invasion of Iraq.
 * March 19 – President Bush orders the invasion of Iraq. General Tommy Franks is supreme commander in the area. Bombs begin dropping on military targets in Baghdad. Jørn Siljeholm, a weapons inspector recently in Iraq, accuses the U.S. of lying about evidence for weapons of mass destruction.
 * March 20 – Land troops from United States, United Kingdom, Australia, and Poland invade Iraq.
 * March 21 – The United States and the United Kingdom begin their shock and awe campaign with a massive air strike on military targets in Baghdad using cruise missiles fired from US Navy warships, Royal Navy submarines and B-52 bombers; and laser guided missiles fired by Stealth Bombers.
 * March 26 – 2003 invasion of Iraq
 * UN Secretary General Kofi Annan says that American and allied troops in Iraq must be used to provide humanitarian aid to Iraqis whilst the security situation is so unstable.
 * At least 14 people are killed in Baghdad after a missile hits a marketplace.
 * Al Jazeera television broadcasts images of two dead soldiers and two prisoners of war, whom it says are British.
 * 954 paratroopers of the US Army's 173rd Airborne made a combat jump into the Bashur Drop Zone as part of Operation Iraqi Freedom.
 * March 28 – During the Coalition invasion of Iraq, two A-10 Thunderbolts from the USAF 190th Fighter Squadron fired on and destroyed two armored vehicles from the United Kingdom's D-Squadron, killing one British soldier, and injuring five others.

April

 * April 8 – three journalists in Baghdad were killed by a US tank
 * April 9 – Baghdad is formally secured by U.S. forces.
 * April 10 – Kurdish forces capture Kirkuk.
 * April 15 –
 * U.S. forces seize control of most of Tikrit.
 * U.S. forces capture Abu Abbas in Baghdad.
 * April 21 – retired Lt Gen Jay Garner becomes the civil leader of Iraq when the Office for Reconstruction and Humanitarian Assistance (ORHA) is formed and he is placed as the administrator with three deputies, including Tim Cross.
 * April 23 – U.S. forces arrive in Fallujah.
 * April 28 – A group of 200 protestors defy the U.S. imposed curfew in Fallujah and organize a protest. During the protest soldiers occupying a schoolhouse claim to have been fired upon, and kill 15 in returning fire. No U.S. casualties were reported.

May

 * May 1 –
 * U.S. President Bush announces an end to major combat operations.
 * Secretary of Defense Donald Rumsfeld arrives in Baghdad and greets Jay Garner.
 * May 12 – Paul Bremer arrives in Iraq as the head of the newly formed Coalition Provisional Authority (CPA) and replaces General Jay Garner as the civil leader of Iraq.
 * May 15 – Operation Planet X captures 260 suspected fugitives near Tikrit. 230 are later released. Some high-level fugitives are captured from the raid.
 * May 22 – Reports of high uranium concentration in Afghan urine in 2003 fueled speculation that the coalition used depleted uranium weapons in Afghanistan. However, further research in 2005 showed the isotope ratios to be more consistent with a natural (not depleted) uranium source.

June

 * June 24 – 6 British Royal Military Police soldiers are killed by a mob in Majar al-Kabir in Southern Iraq.

July

 * July 2 – President Bush declared that U.S. troops would remain in Iraq in spite of the attacks.
 * July 6 – Joseph C. Wilson IV, reveals in the New York Times' editorial page that the Iraqi's yellow cake excuse is "bunk".
 * July 7 – General John Abizaid replaces General Tommy Franks as CENTCOM commander.
 * July 22 – Paul Bremer appoints a special Iraq interim governing council from prominent Iraqis from different areas of Iraq.
 * July 22 – Members of the 101st Airborne kill Uday and Qusay Hussein during a three-hour firefight in Mosul, Iraq.

August

 * August 7 – Jordanian embassy bombing in Baghdad.
 * August 19 – A truck bomb attack on the UN kills Sérgio Vieira de Mello and 21 others. This leads to the UN leaving Iraq due to security concerns.
 * August 29 – The Shi'ite Imam Ali Mosque was hit by a suicide car bomber assassinating the head of one of Iraq's largest Shi'ite parties who had led prayers there and killing between 85 and 125 others.

September

 * September 20 – Aquila al-Hashimi, a member of the Iraq Interim Governing Council is shot in the abdomen. She dies five days later.

October
As part of the CPA plan of "De-Ba'athification" Americans briefly paid many Iraqi soldiers who Saddam failed to compensate with wages around the time of the U.S. lead invasion. On October 5, 2003, those payments abruptly came to an end when cash ran out ahead of the announced timetable for such payouts. Many soldiers of the Iraq Army still had yet to receive their wages either from the Iraqi government or the Coalition. Now jobless and without an income a crowd of appx 20,000 people, largely former soldiers and Ba'ath party members gathered at the pay sites location on Damascus Street in Baghdad and began a demonstration that quickly developed into a full-scale riot. A notable uptick in "insurgency" attacks against coalition forces followed soon thereafter.

 * October 27 – 2003 Baghdad bombings

November

 * November 12 – In Nasiriyah, at least 23 people, among them the first Italian casualties of the 2003 Iraq war are killed in a suicide bomb attack on an Italian police base.
 * November 26
 * UK foreign minister Jack Straw pays a brief, surprise visit to Iraq.
 * Abed Hamed Mowhoush, Iraqi General, tortured to death by the USA Army personnel while in prison.
 * November 27 – President Bush drops by for a surprise Thanksgiving dinner with soldiers in Baghdad with Condoleezza Rice.

December

 * December 9 – Japan promises 1,000 troops to help with the reconstruction effort.
 * December 13 – Saddam Hussein is captured by members of the 4th infantry division, 1st brigade. He was hiding in a spider hole in Ad Dawr, near Tikrit, his hometown. Saddam was captured in a hole below a two-room mud shack. When he was captured only a Styrofoam square and a rug were between Saddam and U.S. forces.  Major General Raymond Odierno commented, “he was caught like a rat.”
 * "I am Saddam Hussein. I am the president of Iraq. I want to negotiate." – Saddam Hussein, upon surrendering.
 * "President Bush sends his regards." – Response from American soldiers accepting Saddam's surrender.
 * "Ladies and gentlemen, we got him." – Paul Bremer, announcing the capture at a press conference.

 * December 27 – 2003 Karbala bombings

Notable deaths

 * March 22 – Terry Lloyd, 50, ITN reporter killed in southern Iraq
 * April 6 – Lance Corporal Ian Malone, Dublin-born soldier in the Irish Guards regiment of the British Army, killed in Iraq
 * July 22 – Uday Hussein, Mosul
 * July 22 – Qusay Hussein, Mosul
 * August 19 – Sérgio Vieira de Mello, Brazilians United Nations diplomat
 * September 25 – Aquila al-Hashimi, Iraq Interim Governing Council member
 * December 26, 2003, Sgt. Michael Miholikis (United States National Guard)

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: 2003 in Iraq


text:
Hydrogen embrittlement

Hydrogen embrittlement (HE), also known as hydrogen-assisted cracking or hydrogen-induced cracking (HIC), is a reduction in the ductility of a metal due to absorbed hydrogen. Hydrogen atoms are small and can permeate solid metals. Once absorbed, hydrogen lowers the stress required for cracks in the metal to initiate and propagate, resulting in embrittlement. Hydrogen embrittlement occurs in steels, as well as in iron, nickel, titanium, cobalt, and their alloys. Copper, aluminium, and stainless steels are less susceptible to hydrogen embrittlement.

The essential facts about the nature of hydrogen embrittlement have been known since the 19th century. Hydrogen embrittlement is maximised at around room temperature in steels, and most metals are relatively immune to hydrogen embrittlement at temperatures above 150 °C. Hydrogen embrittlement requires the presence of both atomic ("diffusible") hydrogen and a mechanical stress to induce crack growth, although that stress may be applied or residual. Hydrogen embrittlement increases at lower strain rates. In general, higher-strength steels are more susceptible to hydrogen embrittlement than mid-strength steels.

Metals can be exposed to hydrogen from two types of sources: gaseous hydrogen and hydrogen chemically generated at the metal surface. Gaseous hydrogen is molecular hydrogen and does not cause embrittlement though it can cause hot hydrogen attack (see below). It is the atomic hydrogen from chemical attack which causes embrittlement because the atomic hydrogen dissolves quickly into the metal at room temperature. Gaseous hydrogen is found in pressure vessels and pipelines. Electrochemical sources of hydrogen include acids (as may be encountered during pickling, etching, or cleaning), corrosion (typically due to aqueous corrosion or cathodic protection), and electroplating. Hydrogen can be introduced into the metal during manufacturing by the presence of moisture during welding or while the metal is molten. The most common causes of failure in practice are poorly-controlled electroplating or damp welding rods.

Hydrogen embrittlement as a term can be used to refer specifically to the embrittlement that occurs in steels and similar metals at relatively low hydrogen concentrations, or it can be used to encompass all embrittling effects that hydrogen has on metals. These broader embrittling effects include hydride formation, which occurs in titanium and vanadium but not in steels, and hydrogen-induced blistering, which only occurs at high hydrogen concentrations and does not require the presence of stress. However, hydrogen embrittlement is almost always distinguished from high temperature hydrogen attack (HTHA), which occurs in steels at temperatures above 204 °C and involves the formation of methane pockets. The mechanisms (there are many) by which hydrogen causes embrittlement in steels are not comprehensively understood and continue to be explored and studied.

Mechanisms
Hydrogen embrittlement is a complex process involving a number of distinct contributing micro-mechanisms, not all of which need to be present. The mechanisms include the formation of brittle hydrides, the creation of voids that can lead to high-pressure bubbles, enhanced decohesion at internal surfaces and localised plasticity at crack tips that assist in the propagation of cracks. There is a great variety of mechanisms that have been proposed and investigated as to the cause of brittleness once diffusible hydrogen has been dissolved into the metal. In recent years, it has become widely accepted that HE is a complex, material and environmental dependent process, so that no single mechanism applies exclusively.

 * Internal pressure: At high hydrogen concentrations, absorbed hydrogen species recombine in voids to form hydrogen molecules (H2), creating pressure from within the metal. This pressure can increase to levels where cracks form, commonly designated hydrogen-induced cracking (HIC), as well as blisters forming on the specimen surface, designated hydrogen-induced blistering. These effects can reduce ductility and tensile strength.
 * Hydrogen enhanced localised plasticity (HELP): Hydrogen increases the nucleation and movement of dislocations at a crack tip. HELP results in crack propagation by localised ductile failure at the crack tip with less deformation occurring in the surrounding material, which gives a brittle appearance to the fracture.
 * Hydrogen decreased dislocation emission: Molecular dynamics simulations reveal a ductile-to-brittle transition caused by the suppression of dislocation emission at the crack tip by dissolved hydrogen. This prevents the crack tip rounding-off, so the sharp crack then leads to brittle-cleavage failure.
 * Hydrogen enhanced decohesion (HEDE): Interstitial hydrogen lowers the stress required for metal atoms to fracture apart. HEDE can only occur when the local concentration of hydrogen is high, such as due to the increased hydrogen solubility in the tensile stress field at a crack tip, at stress concentrators, or in the tension field of edge dislocations.
 * Metal hydride formation: The formation of brittle hydrides with the parent material allows cracks to propagate in a brittle fashion. This is particularly a problem with vanadium alloys, but most structural alloys do not easily form hydrides.
 * Phase transformations: Hydrogen can induce phase transformations in some materials, and the new phase may be less ductile.

Material susceptibility
Hydrogen embrittles a variety of metals including steel, aluminium (at high temperatures only ), and titanium. Austempered iron is also susceptible, though austempered steel (and possibly other austempered metals) displays increased resistance to hydrogen embrittlement. NASA has reviewed which metals are susceptible to embrittlement and which only prone to hot hydrogen attack: nickel alloys, austenitic stainless steels, aluminium and alloys, copper (including alloys, e.g. beryllium copper). Sandia has also produced a comprehensive guide.

Steels
Steel with an ultimate tensile strength of less than 1000 MPa (~145,000 psi) or hardness of less than HRC 32 on the Hardness Rockwell Scale is not generally considered susceptible to hydrogen embrittlement. As an example of severe hydrogen embrittlement, the elongation at failure of 17-4PH precipitation hardened stainless steel was measured to drop from 17% to only 1.7% when smooth specimens were exposed to high-pressure hydrogen

As the strength of steels increases, the fracture toughness decreases, so the likelihood that hydrogen embrittlement will lead to fracture increases. In high-strength steels, anything above a hardness of HRC 32 may be susceptible to early hydrogen cracking after plating processes that introduce hydrogen. They may also experience long-term failures any time from weeks to decades after being placed in service due to accumulation of hydrogen over time from cathodic protection and other sources. Numerous failures have been reported in the hardness range from HRC 32-36 and more above; therefore, parts in this range should be checked during quality control to ensure they are not susceptible.

Testing the fracture toughness of hydrogen-charged, embrittled specimens is complicated by the need to keep charged specimens very cold, in liquid nitrogen, to prevent the hydrogen diffusing away.

Copper
Copper alloys which contain oxygen can be embrittled if exposed to hot hydrogen. The hydrogen diffuses through the copper and reacts with inclusions of, forming 2 metallic Cu atoms and  (water), which then forms pressurized bubbles at the grain boundaries. This process can cause the grains to literally be forced away from each other, and is known as steam embrittlement (because steam is directly produced inside the copper crystal lattice, not because exposure of copper to external steam causes the problem).

Vanadium, nickel, and titanium
Alloys of vanadium, nickel, and titanium have a high hydrogen solubility, and can therefore absorb significant amounts of hydrogen. This can lead to hydride formation, resulting in irregular volume expansion and reduced ductility (because metallic hydrides are fragile ceramic materials). This is a particular issue when looking for non-palladium-based alloys for use in hydrogen separation membranes.

Fatigue
While most failures in practice have been through fast failure, there is experimental evidence that hydrogen also affects the fatigue properties of steels. This is entirely expected given the nature of the embrittlement mechanisms proposed for fast fracture. In general hydrogen embrittlement has a strong effect on high-stress, low-cycle fatigue and very little effect on high-cycle fatigue.

Environmental embrittlement
Hydrogen embrittlement is a volume effect: it affects the volume of the material. Environmental embrittlement is a surface effect where molecules from the atmosphere surrounding the material under test are adsorbed onto the fresh crack surface. This is most clearly seen from fatigue measurements where the measured crack growth rates can be an order of magnitude higher in hydrogen than in air. That this effect is due to adsorption, which saturates when the crack surface is completely covered, is understood from the weak dependence of the effect on the pressure of hydrogen.

Environmental embrittlement is also observed to reduce fracture toughness in fast fracture tests, but the severity is much reduced compared with the same effect in fatigue

Hydrogen embrittlement is the effect where a previously embrittled material has low fracture toughness whatever atmosphere it is tested in. Environmental embrittlement is the effect when the low fracture toughness is only observed when the testing happens in that atmosphere.

Sources of hydrogen
During manufacture, hydrogen can be dissolved into the component by processes such as phosphating, pickling, electroplating, casting, carbonizing, surface cleaning, electrochemical machining, welding, hot roll forming, and heat treatments.

During service use, hydrogen can be dissolved into the metal from wet corrosion or through misapplication of protection measures such as cathodic protection. In one case of failure during construction of the San Francisco–Oakland Bay Bridge galvanized (i.e. zinc-plated) rods were left wet for 5 years before being tensioned. The reaction of the zinc with water introduced hydrogen into the steel.

A common case of embrittlement during manufacture is poor arc welding practice, in which hydrogen is released from moisture, such as in the coating of welding electrodes or from damp welding rods. To avoid atomic hydrogen formation in the high temperature plasma of the arc, welding rods have to be perfectly dried in an oven at the appropriate temperature and duration before use. Another way to minimize the formation of hydrogen is to use special low-hydrogen electrodes for welding high-strength steels.

Apart from arc welding, the most common problems are from chemical or electrochemical processes which, by reduction of hydrogen ions or water, generate hydrogen atoms at the surface, which rapidly dissolve in the metal. One of these chemical reactions involves hydrogen sulfide in sulfide stress cracking (SSC), a significant problem for the oil and gas industries.

After a manufacturing process or treatment which may cause hydrogen ingress, the component should be baked to remove or immobilize the hydrogen.

Prevention
Hydrogen embrittlement can be prevented through several methods, all of which are centered on minimizing contact between the metal and hydrogen, particularly during fabrication and the electrolysis of water. Embrittling procedures such as acid pickling should be avoided, as should increased contact with elements such as sulfur and phosphate.

If the metal has not yet started to crack, hydrogen embrittlement can be reversed by removing the hydrogen source and causing the hydrogen within the metal to diffuse out through heat treatment. This de-embrittlement process, known as low hydrogen annealing or "baking", is used to overcome the weaknesses of methods such as electroplating which introduce hydrogen to the metal, but is not always entirely effective because a sufficient time and temperature must be reached. Tests such as ASTM F1624 can be used to rapidly identify the minimum baking time (by testing using design of experiments, a relatively low number of samples can be used to pinpoint this value). Then the same test can be used as a quality control check to evaluate if baking was sufficient on a per-batch basis. In the case of welding, often pre-heating and post-heating the metal is applied to allow the hydrogen to diffuse out before it can cause any damage. This is specifically done with high-strength steels and low alloy steels such as the chromium/molybdenum/vanadium alloys. Due to the time needed to re-combine hydrogen atoms into the hydrogen molecules, hydrogen cracking due to welding can occur over 24 hours after the welding operation is completed.

Another way of preventing this problem is through materials selection. This will build an inherent resistance to this process and reduce the need of post processing or constant monitoring for failure. Certain metals or alloys are highly susceptible to this issue, so choosing a material that is minimally affected while retaining the desired properties would also provide an optimal solution. Much research has been done to catalog the compatibility of certain metals with hydrogen. Tests such as ASTM F1624 can also be used to rank alloys and coatings during materials selection to ensure (for instance) that the threshold of cracking is below the threshold for hydrogen-assisted stress corrosion cracking. Similar tests can also be used during quality control to more effectively qualify materials being produced in a rapid and comparable manner.

Surface Coatings
Coatings act as a barrier between the metal substrate and the surrounding environment, hindering the ingress of hydrogen atoms. These coatings can be applied through various techniques such as electroplating, chemical conversion coatings, or organic coatings. The choice of coating depends on factors such as the type of metal, the operating environment, and the specific requirements of the application.

Electroplating is a commonly used method to deposit a protective layer onto the metal surface. This process involves immersing the metal substrate into an electrolyte solution containing metal ions. By applying an electric current, the metal ions are reduced and form a metallic coating on the substrate. Electroplating can provide an excellent protective layer that enhances corrosion resistance and reduces the susceptibility to hydrogen embrittlement.

Chemical conversion coatings are another effective method for surface protection. These coatings are typically formed through chemical reactions between the metal substrate and a chemical solution. The conversion coating chemically reacts with the metal surface, resulting in a thin, tightly adhering protective layer. Examples of conversion coatings include chromate, phosphate, and oxide coatings. These coatings not only provide a barrier against hydrogen diffusion but also enhance the corrosion resistance of the metal.

Organic coatings, such as paints or polymer coatings, offer additional protection against hydrogen embrittlement. These coatings form a physical barrier between the metal surface and the environment. They provide excellent adhesion, flexibility, and resistance to environmental factors. Organic coatings can be applied through various methods, including spray coating, dip coating, or powder coating. They can be formulated with additives to further enhance their resistance to hydrogen ingress.

Thermally sprayed coatings offer several advantages in the context of hydrogen embrittlement prevention. The coating materials used in this process are often composed of materials with excellent resistance to hydrogen diffusion, such as ceramics or cermet alloys. These materials have a low permeability to hydrogen, creating a robust barrier against hydrogen ingress into the metal substrate.

Testing
Most analytical methods for hydrogen embrittlement involve evaluating the effects of (1) internal hydrogen from production and/or (2) external sources of hydrogen such as cathodic protection. For steels, it is important to test specimens in the lab that are at least as hard (or harder) than the final parts will be. Ideally, specimens should be made of the final material or the nearest possible representative, as fabrication can have a profound impact on resistance to hydrogen-assisted cracking.

There are numerous ASTM standards for testing for hydrogen embrittlement:

 * ASTM B577 is the Standard Test Methods for Detection of Cuprous Oxide (Hydrogen Embrittlement Susceptibility) in Copper. The test focuses on hydrogen embrittlement of copper alloys, including a metallographic evaluation (method A), testing in a hydrogen charged chamber followed by metallography (method B), and method C is the same as B but includes a bend test.
 * ASTM B839 is the Standard Test Method for Residual Embrittlement in Metallic Coated, Externally Threaded Articles, Fasteners, and Rod-Inclined Wedge Method.
 * ASTM F519 is the Standard Test Method for Mechanical Hydrogen Embrittlement Evaluation of Plating/Coating Processes and Service Environments. There are 7 different samples designs and the two most commons tests are (1) the rapid test, the Rising step load testing (RSL) method per ASTM F1624 and (2) the sustained load test, which takes 200 hours. The sustained load test is still included in many legacy standards, but the RSL method is increasingly being adopted due to speed, repeatability, and the quantitative nature of the test. The RSL method provides an accurate ranking of the effect of hydrogen from both internal and external sources.
 * ASTM F1459 is the Standard Test Method for Determination of the Susceptibility of Metallic Materials to Hydrogen Gas Embrittlement (HGE) Test. The test uses a diaphragm loaded with a differential pressure.
 * ASTM G142 is the Standard Test Method for Determination of Susceptibility of Metals to Embrittlement in Hydrogen Containing Environments at High Pressure, High Temperature, or Both. The test uses a cylindrical tensile specimen tested into an enclosure pressurized with hydrogen or helium.
 * ASTM F1624 is the Standard Test Method for Measurement of Hydrogen Embrittlement Threshold in Steel by the Incremental Step Loading Technique. The test uses the incremental step loading (ISL) or Rising step load testing (RSL) method for quantitatively testing for the Hydrogen Embrittlement threshold stress for the onset of Hydrogen-Induced Cracking due to platings and coatings from Internal Hydrogen Embrittlement (IHE) and Environmental Hydrogen Embrittlement (EHE). F1624 provides a rapid, quantitative measure of the effects of hydrogen both from internal sources and external sources (which is accomplished by applying a selected voltage in an electrochemical cell). The F1624 test is performed by comparing a standard fast-fracture tensile strength to the fracture strength from a Rising step load testing practice where the load is held for hour(s) at each step. In many cases it can be performed in 30 hours or less.
 * ASTM F1940 is the Standard Test Method for Process Control Verification to Prevent Hydrogen Embrittlement in Plated or Coated Fasteners. While the title now explicitly includes the word fasteners, F1940 was not originally intended for these purposes. F1940 is based on the F1624 method and is similar to F519 but with different root radius and stress concentration factors. When specimens exhibit a threshold cracking of 75% of the net fracture strength, the plating bath is considered to be 'non-embrittling'.

There are many other related standards for hydrogen embrittlement:
 * NACE TM0284-2003 (NACE International) Resistance to Hydrogen-Induced Cracking
 * ISO 11114-4:2005 (ISO)Test methods for selecting metallic materials resistant to hydrogen embrittlement.
 * Standard Test Method for Mechanical Hydrogen Embrittlement Evaluation of Plating/Coating Processes and Service Environments

Notable failures from hydrogen embrittlement

 * In 2013, six months prior to opening, the East Span of the Oakland Bay Bridge failed during testing. Catastrophic failures occurred in shear bolts in the span, after only two weeks of service, with the failure attributed to embrittlement (see details above).
 * In the City of London, 122 Leadenhall Street, generally known as 'the Cheesegrater', suffered from hydrogen embrittlement in steel bolts, with three bolts failing in 2014 and 2015. Most of the 3,000 bolts were replaced at a cost of £6m.

title: Hydrogen embrittlement


text:
Talk:Chinchorro mummification

I wikied much of the article and added the picture. I also, however, moved it to the new, more encyclopedic title. Really great article, though. I suspect you should write an article on the Chinchorro themselves. Good job --TheGrza 06:41, Oct 13, 2004 (UTC)

title: Talk:Chinchorro mummification


text: File:Ta bu shi da yu grid example.JPG

title: File:Ta bu shi da yu grid example.JPG


text:
Luz Long

Carl Ludwig "Luz" Long (27 April 1913 – 14 July 1943) was a German Olympic long jumper, notable for winning the silver medal in the event at the 1936 Summer Olympics in Berlin and for his friendship with Jesse Owens, who went on to win the gold medal for the long jump. Luz Long won the German long jump championship six times: in 1933, 1934, 1936, 1937, 1938, and 1939.

Long was killed while serving in the German Army during World War II.

Early life
Long studied law at the University of Leipzig, where in 1936 he joined the Leipziger Sport Club. After graduating, he practiced as a lawyer in Hamburg while continuing his interest in sport.

1936 Olympic Games
The 21-year-old, 1.84-metre-tall (6'½") Long had finished third in the 1934 European Championships in Athletics with 7.25 metres (23'9½"). By the summer of 1936, Long held the European record in the long jump and was eager to compete for the first time against Jesse Owens, the American world-record holder. The long jump on 4 August was Long's first event against Owens, and Long met his expectations by setting an Olympic record during the preliminary round. In contrast, Owens fouled on his first two jumps. Knowing that he needed to reach at least 7.15 metres (about 23 feet 5½ inches) on his third jump in order to advance to the finals in the afternoon, Owens sat on the field, dejected.

In the 1964 documentary Jesse Owens Returns to Berlin, Owens relates a story that Long came over to offer advice before Owens's third jump. According to the story, Long said that Owens should jump from a few inches before the takeoff board. This would reduce the measured distance but avoid the risk of another fault; the theory was that Owens would still clear the required distance even with the handicap of jumping early. However, this conversation is apocryphal; Grantland Rice was watching Owens the entirety of the qualifying round and did not see him speak to Long. Tom Ecker relates that he asked Owens about the story in 1965 and Owens admitted that it was not true, but just a good story. On his third qualifying jump, Owens was calm and jumped with at least four inches (10 centimeters) to spare, easily qualifying for the finals. In the finals competition later that day, the jumpers exceeded the old Olympic record five times.

Owens went on to become Olympic champion in the long jump with 8.06 metres (26'5¼") while besting Long's own record of 7.87 metres (25'9¾"). Long won the silver medal for second place and was the first to congratulate Owens: they posed together for photos and walked arm-in-arm to the dressing room. Owens said, "It took a lot of courage for him to befriend me in front of Hitler... I would melt down all the medals and cups I have and they wouldn't be a plating on the twenty-four karat friendship that I felt for Luz Long at that moment". Long's competition with Owens is recorded in Leni Riefenstahl's documentary Olympia – Fest der Völker.

Two days later, Long finished 10th in the triple jump. He went on to finish third in the 1938 European Championships in Athletics long jump with 7.56 metres (24'9½").

World War II
Luz Long served in the Wehrmacht during World War II, having the rank of Obergefreiter. During the Allied invasion of Sicily in Italy, Long was wounded on 10 July 1943, in the battle for the Biscari-Santo Pietro airfield, and died four days later in a British military hospital. He was buried in the war cemetery of Motta Sant'Anastasia in Sicily.

There is an urban myth that Long sent a letter to Owens from the battlefield, requesting that Owens visit Long's son if Long were to die. Long is supposed to have asked Owens to explain to the boy how life was before people were divided by the war. Such a letter has never been seen by the families of Owens or Long, nor would it be likely that Long could send a letter to the United States while in the German military. Additionally, the letter is often reported as having come from North Africa, a theatre that Long did not serve in.

After the war, Owens travelled to Germany to meet Kai-Heinrich Long. Long is seen with Owens in the documentary Jesse Owens Returns To Berlin, where he is in conversation with Owens in the Berlin Olympic Stadium.

Memorials
Roads near sports facilities in Long's home town of Leipzig, and in the Munich Olympia Park of 1972, are named after him. His medal, photos, and documents were donated to the Sportmuseum Leipzig.

In popular culture
In the film The Jesse Owens Story (1984), he is portrayed by Kai Wulff.

In the film Race (2016), he is played by David Kross.

title: Luz Long


text:
Cadillac Commercial Chassis

The Cadillac Commercial Chassis is a chassis that was built by the Cadillac division of General Motors. Produced from 1931 to 1979, the Commercial Chassis was constructed as an incomplete vehicle intended for use by coachbuilders for final assembly and fitment of bodywork. Produced on the D platform (exclusive to Cadillac) throughout its entire production, the Commercial Chassis was initially derived from the Series 355, shifting to the Series 75 from 1936 onward. Since 1960 they had a longer wheelbase by 16 cm.

Coinciding with a change in design regulations and the downsizing of Cadillac sedans, the Commercial Chassis was phased out as a distinct product line. The professional car basis would be continued by the Series 75 and successor flagship Cadillac sedans to current production.

Design overview
The Cadillac Commercial Chassis is a variant of the GM D-body specifically developed for professional car use; most applications included funeral coaches (hearses), ambulances, and combination cars. In contrast to the Cadillac 75 (a factory-built limousine), the Commercial Chassis was designed with a heavier-duty frame; to improve access to the rear cargo area, the rear frame rails were positioned lower than a standard D-body.

Produced by Cadillac as an "incomplete vehicle", the rolling chassis was fitted with no bodywork aft of the dashboard. While fitted with all road controls and front body trim (and air conditioning, if specified), all bodywork from the dashboard rearward was completed by coachbuilders using the chassis as a basis for a completed vehicle; to aid body fabrication, front door shells and rear quarter panels were shipped to the coachbuilders (separate from the chassis).

Before World War II, the Commercial Chassis used the longest wheelbase of any GM sedan-based vehicle, ranging up to 165 inches in 1940. During the 1950s and 1960s, the chassis used a 156-inch wheelbase, with the 1971-1976 chassis reaching a 157.5-inch length. The powertrain was shared with the Series 75 through its entire production.

Discontinuation
In the early 1970s, federal design regulations forced a shift of the donor chassis from commercial car chassis to cutaway van chassis (and light trucks). Along with wider and taller interiors, design requirements for ambulance bodies effectively forced a change from a wagon-type body to a modular box. While construction of funeral coaches remained unaffected, a low demand for new vehicles coincided with their long service life.

For 1977, Cadillac downsized its full-size sedan lines, including the D-body chassis; the Series 75 became offered solely as a limousine; the Commercial Chassis followed suit in downsizing. The professional car industry underwent a period of struggle, as multiple firms either closed their doors or were reorganized (such as Superior, Miller-Meteor and Hess & Eisenhardt). The final ambulances of the D-body Commercial Chassis were built in 1979.

Following the discontinuation of the Cadillac Commercial chassis, the construction of coachbuilt professional cars has remained the same; a rolling chassis is bodied aft of the dashboard. On an official basis, Cadillac has produced "incomplete"-bodied versions of several of its unibody-chassis product lines, including the DeVille, DTS, XTS, and CT6. Additionally, the Cadillac Escalade ESV (based on the Chevrolet Suburban) is used for funeral-coach applications. With the closure of the Oshawa assembly plant and subsequent demise of the Cadillac XTS platform, Cadillac is using the XT5 and XT6 SUV chassis for hearses, starting in 2020.

Legacy
The Cadillac Commercial Chassis is perhaps most famous as the basis for the Ecto-1 in the 1984 film Ghostbusters and its sequels, Ghostbusters II (1989), Ghostbusters: Afterlife (2021), Ghostbusters: Frozen Empire (2024).

title: Cadillac Commercial Chassis


text:
Talk:Joseph Massino

Recent additions
This article looks like it's beyond being a stub now, eh? Krupo 06:43, Oct 13, 2004 (UTC)

LINKS
Does it really need to have a link to things like hand?? Kinda a bit overboard on the links. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 24.28.229.74 (talk • contribs)

 * The Feds should have juiced the bastard! —Preceding unsigned comment added by 68.112.242.121 (talk • contribs)

The first Italian American mobster to be executed?
[Quote] "a first for a mob boss and for an Italian member of American organized crime. However, that was not to be."

Is it just me reading it wrong. Massino would not have been the first Italian or Italian American in organized crime to be executed would he? Take Louis Capone the Murder, Inc. hitman for example, and Frank Abbandando. --Alexbonaro 13:22, 22 April 2006 (UTC)
 * ...or the Black Handers such as Rosario Borgio or Rocco Racco. MadMax 10:16, 1 January 2007 (UTC)

Confusing!?!?
In October of 2004, the FBI began to dig up bodies at an infamous mob graveyard in Queens known as "The Hole". They were looking for the bodies of three capos killed in a Bonanno civil war in the 70's. They also hoped to find the bodies of Gotti victims, including John Favara, who killed John Gotti's son in a terrible accident, as well as Tommy DeSimone, who was murdered for killing a Gotti crew member (as depicted in the film 'Goodfellas'), Alphonse Indelicato (the father of Anthony Indelicato who Dominick "Sonny Black" Napolitano requested Donnie Brasco kill in the movie of the same name), Giaconne and Trinchera, as well as Dominick "Sonny Black" Napolitano who was killed following the Donnie Brasco trial (as featured in the film), and who had killed Tommy DeSimone (as depicted in the film 'Goodfellas'), Indelicato (featured in Donnie Brasco), Giaconne and Trinchera. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 24.182.147.30 (talk • contribs)

 * Does that mean that Dominick "Sonny Black" Napolitano killed Tommy Desimone???? User:Dmattt 20:57, 4 December 2006 (UTC)

 * The answer to that is the person who wrote it was saying these were "Gotti victims" (most of which weren't unless you count the killers among the buriers), and that Tommy DeSimone was killed by Gotti's people, which the story is he was. So it was just a bad paragraph, badly worded and some of the things mentioned it that I noted below are outlandish.

 * Giaconne and Trinchera, as well as 'Dominick "Sonny Black" Napolitano who was killed following the Donnie Brasco trial (as featured in the film),''

How can they hope to find the bodies of Giaccone, Trinchera, and Napolitano when they had already found all three bodies two decades earlier. Giaccone and Trinchera were found in the same lot back in 1981 not long after the murders and Napolitano was found in a bodybag on Staten Island in 1982. Where did this information come from? Pluto or Mars? By the way, in an above paragraph above that ludicrous paragraph it had already said, correctly, that Napolitano had been found with his hands cut off years earlier. I think somebody vandalised that quoted paragraph above that began with "In October of 2004, the FBI began to dig up bodies . . . ."

Also--a small note--Massino didn't tell Vitale, "John set this thing of ours back a hundred years." He actually said, "John set us back one hundred years." Somebody threw in "this thing of ours" to make it sound more official, I suppose. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 24.182.147.30 (talk • contribs)

 * In response to above: Giaccone and Trinchera were NOT found back in 1981 shortly after the murders. Indelicato was, and while the other two were buried in the same lot near his corpse, they were not discovered until information provided by Joseph Massino in 2004 led to the FBI re-excavating the site. This is documented in a number of sources, Anthony DeStefano's "The Last Don" being the most recent. Dugrad 09:17, 21 December 2006 (UTC)

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text:
Aero Adventure Aventura

The Aero Adventure Aventura is a family of ultralight amphibians marketed as a kit aircraft by Aero Adventure of DeLand, Florida. The aircraft was designed by Bob Bailey in 1995.

The aircraft are high-wing flying boats of pusher configuration available in both single and two-seat models. Its design heritage stretches back to the Advanced Aeromarine Buccaneer amphibian ultralights.

Design
Introduced in 1995, the single-seat Aventura has repositionable main landing gear, down for runways and up for landing on water. The steerable tail wheel is retractable in concert with the repositioning of the main gear. There is no water rudder. The wing is an aluminium frame covered with pre-sewn Dacron envelopes. The hull is constructed from fibreglass and the wingtip floats are polyethylene. The remainder of the structure is anodized aluminium tubing, bolted together. Controls are conventional three-axis, with full span ailerons and no flaps. The company claims that the fast-build kit can be constructed in 90 hours.

The two-seat Aventura II was introduced in 1996 and is similar to the single seater, but with a wider cabin and hull for two occupants in side-by-side configuration. The two-seater also features flaps to reduce landing speeds. The company claims 130 hours to build the two-seater from the kit.

Variants

 * Aventura UL
 * Single seater optimised for the US FAR 103 Ultralight Vehicle category, with an empty weight of 328 lb. Engines include the original 28 hp Rotax 277 in early models and the 40 hp Rotax 447 currently. 90 had been completed and flown by the end of 2011.

 * Aventura HP
 * Single seater intended to be registered as an amateur-built aircraft. Standard engines are the 50 hp Rotax 503 64 hp Rotax 582. 42 had been completed and flown by the end of 2011.

 * Aventura Sport
 * Two-seater marketed as the simplest and lightest model in the line-up. Standard engine is the 64 hp Rotax 582. 215 had been completed and flown by the end of 2011.

 * Aventura II
 * Two-seater with some options included as standard features. Standard engine is the 100 hp four-stroke Rotax 912ULS.

 * Aventura XLR
 * Limited edition two-seater with many extras as standard features, including a new style engine cowling, custom graphics package, redesigned instrument panel including GPS, vertical speed indicator and a mode-C transponder, electric landing gear retraction, gear indicator lights, differential hydraulic brakes, carpeting and a headliner. The standard engine is the 100 hp four-stroke Rotax 912ULS.

 * Aventura AVZ
 * Model with top-of-the-line equipment as standard.

title: Aero Adventure Aventura


text:
Robertsonian translocation

Robertsonian translocation (ROB) is a chromosomal abnormality where the entire long arms of two different chromosomes become fused to each other. It is the most common form of chromosomal translocation in humans, affecting 1 out of every 1,000 babies born. It does not usually cause medical problems, though some people may produce gametes with an incorrect number of chromosomes, resulting in a risk of miscarriage. In rare cases this translocation results in Down syndrome and Patau syndrome. Robertsonian translocations result in a reduction in the number of chromosomes. A Robertsonian evolutionary fusion, which may have occurred in the common ancestor of humans and other great apes, is the reason humans have 46 chromosomes while all other primates have 48. Detailed DNA studies of chimpanzee, orangutan, gorilla and bonobo apes has determined that where human chromosome 2 is present in our DNA in all four great apes this is split into two separate chromosomes typically numbered 2a and 2b. Similarly, the fact that horses have 64 chromosomes and donkeys 62, and that they can still have common, albeit usually infertile, offspring, may be due to a Robertsonian evolutionary fusion at some point in the descent of today's donkeys from their common ancestor.

Mechanism
Centromere_Placement.svg chromosome pairs (number  in the image), where the short arms are fairly short but not very short.

A: Short arm (p arm)

B: Centromere

C: Long arm (q arm)

D: Sister chromatids ]]

All chromosomes in animals have a long arm (known as q) and a short arm (known as p), separated by a region called the centromere. Robertsonian translocations can only occur between chromosomes which have the centromere very close to one end. This means these chromosomes have a long arm which is particularly long, and a short arm which is particularly short. These are known as acrocentric chromosomes. Humans have five of these acrocentric chromosomes: 13, 14, 15, 21 and 22. When these chromosomes break at their centromeres, the two resulting long arms may fuse. The result is a single, large chromosome with a metacentric centromere. This form of rearrangement is a Robertsonian translocation.

This type of translocation may involve homologous (paired) or non-homologous chromosomes. Owing to the acrocentric nature of the chromosomes involved, the long arms of these chromosomes contain the majority of genetic material contained on the original chromosomes. The short arms also join to form a smaller reciprocal product, which typically contains only nonessential genes also present elsewhere in the genome, and is usually lost within a few cell divisions. This type of translocation is cytologically visible, and can reduce chromosome number (in humans, from 23 to 22). However, the smaller chromosome carries so few essential genes that its loss is usually clinically insignificant.

Consequences
In humans, when a Robertsonian translocation joins the long arm of chromosome 21 with the long arm of chromosomes 14 or 15, the heterozygous carrier is phenotypically normal because there are two copies of all major chromosome arms and hence two copies of all essential genes. However, the progeny of this carrier may inherit an unbalanced trisomy 21, causing Down syndrome.

A Robertsonian translocation in balanced form results in no excess or deficit of genetic material and causes no health difficulties. In unbalanced forms, Robertsonian translocations cause chromosomal deletions or addition and result in syndromes of multiple malformations, including trisomy 13 (Patau syndrome) and trisomy 21 (Down syndrome). The most frequent forms of Robertsonian translocations are between chromosomes 13 and 14, 14 and 21, and 14 and 15.

A Robertsonian translocation results when the long arms of two acrocentric chromosomes fuse at the centromere and the two short arms are lost. If, for example, the long arms of chromosomes 13 and 14 fuse, no significant genetic material is lost—and the person is completely normal in spite of the translocation. Common Robertsonian translocations are confined to the acrocentric chromosomes 13, 14, 15, 21 and 22, because the short arms of these chromosomes encode for rRNA which is present in multiple copies.

Most people with Robertsonian translocations have only 45 chromosomes in each of their cells, yet all essential genetic material is present, and they appear normal. Their children, however, may either be normal, carry the fusion chromosome (depending which chromosome is represented in the gamete), or they may inherit a missing or extra long arm of an acrocentric chromosome (phenotype affected). Genetic counseling and genetic testing is offered to families that may be carriers of chromosomal translocations.

Rarely, the same translocation may be present homozygously if heterozygous parents with the same Robertsonian translocation have children. The result may be viable offspring with 44 chromosomes. Outside of humans, Przewalski's horse has 66 chromosomes, while both of domesticated horses and the tarpan have 64 chromosomes and donkeys have 62; it is thought that the difference is due to a Robertsonian translocation.

Nomenclature
The International System for Human Cytogenomic Nomenclature (ISCN) is an international standard for human chromosome nomenclature, which includes band names, symbols and abbreviated terms used in the description of human chromosome and chromosome abnormalities. Abbreviations include rob for Robertsonian translocations. For example, rob(21;21)(q10;q10) causes Down syndrome.

Name
Robertsonian translocations are named after the American zoologist and cytogeneticist William Rees Brebner Robertson (1881–1941) who first described a Robertsonian translocation in grasshoppers in 1916. They are also called whole-arm translocations or centric-fusion translocations.

title: Robertsonian translocation


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User:Infocidal/Fix These Pages

Here is where I will put those pages that I find that need to fixed, but I have no time. My own little stub page.

 * FieldTurf
 * Henry Eustace McCulloch
 * Raspadura -- see Rapadura for variant spelling
 * Toon
 * RMS Lusitania
 * Norm Coleman

title: User:Infocidal/Fix These Pages


text: Category:World War II Bulgarian bombers

title: Category:World War II Bulgarian bombers


text:
6L6

6L6 is the designator for a beam power tube introduced by Radio Corporation of America in April 1936 and marketed for application as a power amplifier for audio frequencies. The 6L6 is a beam tetrode that utilizes formation of a low potential space charge region between the anode and screen grid to return anode secondary emission electrons to the anode and offers significant performance improvements over power pentodes. The 6L6 was the first successful beam power tube marketed. In the 21st century, variants of the 6L6 are manufactured and used in some high fidelity audio amplifiers and musical instrument amplifiers.

History
In the UK, three engineers at EMI (Isaac Shoenberg, Cabot Bull and Sidney Rodda) had developed and filed patents in 1933 and 1934 on an output tetrode that utilized novel electrode structures to form electron beams to create a dense space charge region between the anode and screen grid to return anode secondary electrons to the anode. The new tube offered improved performance compared to a similar power pentode and was introduced at the Physical and Optical Societies' Exhibition in January 1935 as the Marconi N40. Around one thousand of the N40 output tetrodes were produced, but MOV (Marconi-Osram Valve) company, under the joint ownership of EMI and GEC, considered the design too difficult to manufacture due to the need for good alignment of the grid wires. As MOV had a design-share agreement with RCA of America, the design was passed to that company.

The metal tube technology utilized for the 6L6 had been developed by General Electric and introduced in April 1935, with RCA manufacturing the metal envelope tubes for GE at that time. Some of the advantages of metal tube construction over glass envelope tubes were smaller size, ruggedness, electromagnetic shielding and smaller interelectrode capacitance. The 6L6 incorporated an octal base, which had been introduced with the GE metal tubes. The 6L6 was rated for 3.5 watts screen power dissipation and 24 watts combined plate and screen dissipation. The 6L6 and variants of it became popular for use in public address amplifiers, musical instrument amplifiers, radio frequency applications and audio stages of radio transmitters. The 6L6 family has had one of the longest active lifetimes of any electronic component, more than 80 years. As of 2021, variants of the 6L6 are manufactured in Russia, China, and Slovakia.

Variations
The voltage and power ratings of the 6L6 series were gradually pushed upwards by such features as thicker plates, grids of larger diameter wire, grid cooling fins, ultra-black plate coatings and low loss materials for the base. Variants of the 6L6 included the 6L6G, 6L6GX, 6L6GA, 6L6GAY, 6L6GB, 5932/6L6WGA and the 6L6GC. All variants after the original 6L6 utilized glass envelopes. A "W" in the descriptor identified the tube as designed to withstand greater vibration and impact. A "Y" in the descriptor indicated that the insulating material of the base was Micanol.

Application
The high transconductance and high plate resistance of the 6L6 requires circuit design that incorporates topologies and components that smooth out the frequency response, suppress voltage transients and prevent spurious oscillation.

Improved substitute

 * 5881

Similar tubes

 * 6P3S (6П3С)
 * 6P3S-E (6П3С-E)
 * 7027a

title: 6L6


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Chapter (books)

A chapter (capitula in Latin; sommaires in French) is any of the main thematic divisions within a writing of relative length, such as a book of prose, poetry, or law. A book with chapters (not to be confused with the chapter book) may have multiple chapters that respectively comprise discrete topics or themes. In each case, chapters can be numbered, titled, or both. An example of a chapter that has become well known is "Down the Rabbit-Hole", which is the first chapter from Alice's Adventures in Wonderland.

History of chapter titles
Many ancient books had neither word divisions nor chapter divisions. In ancient Greek texts, some manuscripts began to add summaries and make them into tables of contents with numbers, but the titles did not appear in the text, only their numbers. Some time in the fifth century CE, the practice of dividing books into chapters began. Jerome (d. 420) is said to use the term capitulum to refer to numbered chapter headings and index capitulorum to refer to tables of contents. Augustine did not divide his major works into chapters, but in the early sixth century Eugippius did. Medieval manuscripts often had no titles, only numbers in the text and a few words, often in red, following the number.

Chapter structure
Many novels of great length have chapters. Non-fiction books, especially those used for reference, almost always have chapters for ease of navigation. In these works, chapters are often subdivided into sections. Larger works with a lot of chapters often group them in several 'parts' as the main subdivision of the book.

The chapters of reference works are almost always listed in a table of contents. Novels sometimes use a table of contents, but not always. If chapters are used they are normally numbered sequentially; they may also have titles, and in a few cases an epigraph or prefatory quotation. In older novels it was a common practice to summarise the content of each chapter in the table of contents and/or in the beginning of the chapter.

Unusual numbering schemes
In works of fiction, authors sometimes number their chapters eccentrically, often as a metafictional statement. For example:
 * Seiobo There Below by László Krasznahorkai has chapters numbered according to the Fibonacci sequence.
 * The Curious Incident of the Dog in the Night-Time by Mark Haddon only has chapters which are prime numbers.
 * At Swim-Two-Birds by Flann O'Brien has only one chapter: the first page is titled Chapter 1, but there are no further chapter divisions.
 * God, A Users' Guide by Seán Moncrieff is chaptered backwards (i.e., the first chapter is chapter 20 and the last is chapter 1). The novel The Running Man by Stephen King also uses a similar chapter numbering scheme.
 * Every novel in the series A Series of Unfortunate Events by Lemony Snicket has thirteen chapters, except the final instalment (The End), which has a fourteenth chapter formatted as its own novel.
 * Mammoth by John Varley has the chapters ordered chronologically from the point of view of a non-time-traveler, but, as most of the characters travel through time, this leads to the chapters defying the conventional order.
 * Ulysses by James Joyce has its 18 chapters labelled as episodes, with 3 books split between them.

Book-like
In ancient civilizations, books were often in the form of papyrus or parchment scrolls, which contained about the same amount of text as a typical chapter in a modern book. This is the reason chapters in recent reproductions and translations of works of these periods are often presented as "Book 1", "Book 2" etc.

In the early printed era, long works were often published in multiple volumes, such as the Victorian triple decker novel, each divided into numerous chapters. Modern omnibus reprints will often retain the volume divisions. In some cases the chapters will be numbered consecutively all the way through, such that "Book 2" might begin with "Chapter 9", but in other cases the numbering might reset after each part (i.e., "Book 2, Chapter 1"). Even though the practice of dividing novels into separate volumes is rare in modern publishing, many authors still structure their works into "Books" or "Parts" and then subdivide them into chapters. A notable example of this is The Lord of the Rings which consists of six "books", each with a recognizable part of the story, although it is usually published in three volumes.

Literature

 * Nicholas Dames: The Chapter: A Segmented History from Antiquity to the Twenty-First Century. Princeton University Press 2023.

title: Chapter (books)


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Talk:German World War II fortresses

discussed
We've discussed the Festung Warschau title, but there were actually two other fortresses that deserve the name Warsaw Fortress much more: the Cytadela (which is a fortress as such) and the line of forts surrounding the city (Fort Mokotowski, Fort Czerniaków, Fort Wola and so on). We could of course make the Fortress Warsaw a disambig and place there links to something like German Fortress Warsaw, Polish Fortress Warsaw and Russian Fortress Warsaw, but that sounds bizarre and nobody refers to them as such. [[User:Halibutt|Halibutt]] 06:52, Oct 13, 2004 (UTC)

Article title
Hmmm...somehow this article's title sounds less than elegant. I propose moving it to "German late-war strongholds" or "German strongholds at the end of WW2" or something similar if nobody objects. -- Ferkelparade π 12:11, 16 Nov 2004 (UTC)
 * Alright, since nobody voiced any objections for almost a month, I will now move the article to "German strongholds at the end of WW2" -- Ferkelparade π 13:27, 13 Dec 2004 (UTC)

Stalingrad
Stalingrad was not a late war stronghold and should be removed from this article. Andries 13:36, 13 Dec 2004 (UTC)

 * Not really, the title simply needs to be changed. When I created this article, I wanted to describe the phenomenon of German "no-step-back" policies during WWII, not just during the later stages of it. Apparently we couldn't come up with a better title, but all in all Stalingrad belongs here - after all it was the first "city-fortress" to be declared as such. [[User:Halibutt|Halibutt]] 20:31, Dec 13, 2004 (UTC)

 * In that case, why not simply call it "German strongholds in WW2" ? The scope of the article would get much larger, but tat wouldn't necessarily be a bad thing...I changed the title earlier today since "German end of WW2 strongholds" seemed to imply something like "over there to the left side is the German end of the strongholds, and there to the right you can see the Russian end". Or something similar. Ahem. :) -- Ferkelparade π 20:44, 13 Dec 2004 (UTC)

 * I oppose such a broad title for this article. The Festung strategy was a deliberate, desperate but flawed strategy that Hitler made at the end of war and opposed by most generals of the Wehrmacht. The Stalingrad cauldron that was created by an unexpected Soviet offensive was not really part of this strategy that developed late in the war. Read e.g Anthony Beevor's book Battle of Berlin. Andries 20:50, 13 Dec 2004 (UTC)

 * I've read it and I actually liked it. Which doesn't change much nor does it explain anything. For me the "end of WWII" started with Stalingrad. Not because of the losses or the first major defeat of the Germans in the east, but because of the influence of Hitler on the command of the Wehrmacht. It was the first example of his "strategical genius" being turned into actual orders on such a scale and the very idea behind the creation of the Stalingrad pocket was the same as behind creation of the "festungen" in Breslau, Courland, Warsaw, Koenigsberg or any other place from the list. Also, the outcome was similar. Anyway, the sentence you erased was absolutely acceptable since it only stated simple facts:

 * 1) Stalingrad was declared a festung
 * 2) It fell
 * 3) The fall of Stalingrad is seen as a major turning point in the war.

 * I will reinstate the erased sentence and simply move the article to German WWII strongholds. How about that? [[User:Halibutt|Halibutt]] 23:11, Dec 13, 2004 (UTC)

 * Halibutt, Stalingrad was declared a Festung after it had been encircled, as a propaganda trick. It was not a real strategy that was planned in advance, like Breslau. That is a major difference. I continue to disagree with changing the title to the expand the subject. Andries 00:07, 14 Dec 2004 (UTC)

 * Indeed, but the fact remains that the city was declared a festung, after the troops there were ordered not to withdraw a single step back and that the German propaganda underlined the heroism and importance of such senseless defence of completely unimportant pockets. And that's basically it.
 * Nobody here is arguing that other festungen had some military significance while Stalingrad had none. In fact, it was all about propaganda - which acted the same in the case of Stalingrad, Breslau or any other such surrounded pocket of resistance. The idea was started with Stalingrad, and later developed and eventually led to creation of several "well-prepared" festungen. However, there were also lots of un-prepared festungen created as well. The military part of the concept was a matter of secondary importance. [[User:Halibutt|Halibutt]] 00:38, Dec 14, 2004 (UTC)

 * Halibutt, well I do not mind so much as long as the differences between the stongholds and encirclements are made clear to the readers. E.g. the context of Stalingrad, Courland, and Breslau were very different. Andries 18:00, 14 Dec 2004 (UTC)

Vote for Deletion or renaming for confining
Stalingrad and Breslau have nothing in common in military strategy and phase of the war. I do not think that this article has merit unless it confines itself to a certain type of strongholds i.e the ones in Pommern and Eastern Germany in 1945. Otherwise I think I will rais a VfD for this article. Andries 22:41, 29 July 2005 (UTC)

Crete
I have added a Crete entry. Feel free to correct it - I'm not sure what the besiegers were (the Royal Navy and the Hellenic Army)?--Adûnâi (talk) 20:43, 30 April 2020 (UTC)

Festung Norwegen and Alpenfestung
Does Festung Norwegen qualify? It did not see any fight. And what's about the Alpine Fortress?--Adûnâi (talk) 20:53, 30 April 2020 (UTC)

Glogau
Had Glogau ever been designated as a Festung?--Adûnâi (talk) 12:27, 3 August 2020 (UTC)

"Strongholds"
This word does not seem like the right one. German Wiki uses Fester Platz and English sources tend to use "fortress". Srnec (talk) 03:47, 27 January 2021 (UTC)

"The fate of the fortress areas varied"
No, it didn't, their fate was the same everywhere: they were all evacuated and/or dismantled. How and when that happened varied, many only after the end of the war. This has been present since 2004, but I think what the OP may have meant, was the path to that same end varied. This should be made clearer. Mathglot (talk) 21:06, 15 July 2023 (UTC)

 * It explains very clearly in the following sentences what it means by "The fate of tbe fortress areas varied". 2A01:B340:62:DB99:A292:A23A:C504:CD11 (talk) 20:52, 23 April 2024 (UTC)

title: Talk:German World War II fortresses


text:
User:Pink18

Todo:

Amende Honorable: not explained. http://www.lectlaw.com/def/a189.htm

Diving topics: give an overview of diving limits.

Dove tailing: not explained.

Flint: explantation on the process creating flint.

title: User:Pink18


text:
Talk:Étueffont

I moved here the information that Etueffort lies in Rougemont-le-Château, which needs to be better explained for English speakers. The departement is Belfort, according to the official French websites. Wetman 06:54, 13 Oct 2004 (UTC)

title: Talk:Étueffont


text: Category:Elections in Laos

title: Category:Elections in Laos


text:
Talk:Mike Scioscia

Deletion debate
For an October 2004 deletion debate over this article see Votes for deletion/Mike Scioscia

Edits during VfD
Wierd. Apparently edits do display while an article is still up for possible deletion. I wonder why. BeakerK44 06:55, 13 Oct 2004 (UTC)

 * It's so that the article can be salvaged (if possible). DS 03:28, 14 Oct 2004 (UTC)

Player Info
There should be some info of the great moments he had while a player. There is one missing, and I cannot seem to find it anywhere, where Scioscia hits a pitch that was thrown outside for an intentional walk. I don't know how many players have done this, but I imagine very few, if any.Miniedit (talk) 04:44, 7 July 2008 (UTC)

Info needs to added regarding his playing days. While he is now a good coach his playing days should not be overlooked. --Dysepsion 21:22, 20 August 2005 (UTC)

Also he was a student at OLPH School in Morton PA —Preceding unsigned comment added by 65.78.37.21 (talk) 01:58, 6 May 2008 (UTC)

title: Talk:Mike Scioscia


text: Category:World War II Polish bombers

title: Category:World War II Polish bombers


text: Category:Lossless compression algorithms


text:
Alson Weber

Alson Menno Weber (November 7, 1910 – December 29, 2005) was a Canadian volleyball player. He played for the Kitchener-Waterloo Y.M.C.A. Volleyball Team from 1932 to 1946. The K-W YMCA team won the Ontario Senior Open Championship every year from 1932-1946, the Eastern Canadian Championship all three times that it was held in that period, and also many International Tournaments which involved Ontario and New York State teams.

In 1939 the K-W YMCA team competed at the United States National Championships. They were defeated by the Houston, Texas team, which went on to win the US national championship.

Weber's teammates included Carl Dunke, Jim McLeod, Delton Kropf, Henry Enns, Arthur Youngman, Lloyd Current and Morton Devitt. Alson Weber is honoured in the Waterloo County, Ontario and Canadian Sports Hall of Fame. The K-W YMCA team is also honoured in the Waterloo County Hall of Fame.

Weber spent the better part of his life in Waterloo, Ontario. He was predeceased by his wife, Lorraine Weber (Snyder) in 1988. He has three sons, John, Jim, and Ross.

title: Alson Weber


text:
Yelkouan shearwater

The yelkouan shearwater, Levantine shearwater or Mediterranean shearwater (Puffinus yelkouan) is a medium-sized shearwater in the seabird family Procellariidae. It was formerly treated as a subspecies of the Manx shearwater (Puffinus puffinus).

Taxonomy
The yelkouan shearwater was formally described in 1827 by the Italian naturalist Giuseppe Acerbi from specimens collected in the Bosphorus, Turkey. He placed the shearwater in the genus Procellaria and coined the binomial name Procellaria yelkouan. The yelkouan shearwater is now placed in the genus Puffinus was introduced by the French zoologist Mathurin Jacques Brisson in 1760. The genus name Puffinus is Neo-Latin based on the English "puffin". The specific yelkouan is the Turkish word "wind chaser" for a shearwater. The yelkouan shearwater is considered to be monotypic: no subspecies are recognised.

It was formerly considered a subspecies of the Manx shearwater. After the first split, it was the nominate subspecies of the so-called "Mediterranean shearwater" for nearly ten more years; it is considered a monotypic species now, as the Balearic form mauretanicus has been separated as the Balearic shearwater.

A molecular phylogenetic study published in 2021 found very little genetic difference between the yelkouan shearwater and the Balearic shearwater (Puffinus mauretanicus). The authors of the study suggested that these two taxa might be better considered as subspecies of the same species.

The yelkouan shearwater appears to belong to a group of Mediterranean and adjacent Atlantic shearwaters which includes the Balearic shearwater and one to three prehistorically extinct taxa, Hole's and possibly also lava shearwater as well as an undescribed population of uncertain distinctness from Menorca. The two living Mediterranean lineages had probably separated before the end of the Pliocene (c. 2 million years ago), as indicated by molecular differences and the putative direct ancestor of the Balearic shearwater, the Ibizan fossil Puffinus nestori from the Late Pliocene or Early Pleistocene.

Description
The yelkouan shearwaters is 30 – in length and has a wingspan of 70 - 84 cm. It has the typically "shearing" flight of the genus, dipping from side to side on stiff wings with few wingbeats, the wingtips almost touching the water. This bird looks like a flying cross, with its wing held at right angles to the body, and it changes from very dark brown to white as the dark upperparts and paler undersides are alternately exposed as it travels low over the sea.

It is silent at sea, but at night the breeding colonies are alive with raucous cackling calls, higher pitched and more drawn out than the Manx shearwater's.

The yelkouan shearwater has a more contrasted appearance than the Balearic shearwater with which its winter range overlaps, since the latter species is brown above and dirty white below. It is very similar to the black-and-white Manx shearwater of the Atlantic, and stray birds out of their usual range are very difficult to identify with certainty.

Also, at least one mixed breeding colony of the yelkouan and the Balearic shearwaters exists on Menorca. A study of these birds recommended that a combination of morphological characteristics and DNA sequence data should be required at least for scientific purposes to assign individual birds to either species.

Distribution and habitat
Yelkouan shearwaters breed on islands and coastal cliffs in the eastern and central Mediterranean. Most winter in that sea, but small numbers enter the Atlantic in late summer.

Behaviour and ecology
This species nests in burrows which are only visited at night to avoid predation by large gulls.

This is a gregarious species, which can be seen in large numbers from boats or headlands, especially in autumn. The yelkouan shearwater feeds on fish and molluscs. It follows fishing ships when offal is being thrown.

Status and conservation
It is under some threat from the development of holiday resorts near its breeding sites, and also from animals such as rats and cats. On Le Levant Island, one of its major breeding locations, cats kill thousands of birds each year and it is estimated that this may lead to local extinction in several decades.

The study of the Menorcan colony concluded that at least in these westernmost birds, genetic variation was extremely low, suggesting that the yelkouan shearwater may have suffered a marked population decline historically and thus, while not threatened judging from its absolute numbers, it could be vulnerable to adverse effects of inbreeding.

It was formerly classified as a species of least concern by the IUCN. But new research has shown it to be rarer than it was believed. Consequently, it was uplisted to near threatened status in 2008 and vulnerable in 2012.

title: Yelkouan shearwater


text: Category:Lossy compression algorithms

title: Category:Lossy compression algorithms