text:
Deborah Coyne

Deborah Margaret Ryland Coyne (born February 24, 1955) is a Canadian constitutional lawyer, professor, and author. She is the cousin of journalist Andrew Coyne and actress Susan Coyne, and the niece of former Bank of Canada governor James Elliott Coyne.

Biography
Coyne grew up in Ottawa. She graduated from Queen's University with a degree in economics and history in 1976. She received a Bachelor of Laws degree from Osgoode Hall Law School of York University in 1979 and a Master of Philosophy from University of Oxford in international relations in 1982.

She was an employee in the Prime Minister's Office of John Turner, before spending two years teaching constitutional law at the University of Toronto Law School; she has also worked for the Business Council on National Issues, the Ontario Health Service Appeal and Review Board, and the Immigration and Refugee Board of Canada.

For years, Coyne dated former Prime Minister Pierre Trudeau. Their child, Sarah Elisabeth Coyne, is Trudeau's only daughter, and attended the Wharton School of the University of Pennsylvania. Her second child, Matthew Coyne, is the son of Canadian journalist Michael Valpy. Valpy and Coyne have since divorced.

Deborah Coyne now lives in Toronto.

Opposition to the Meech Lake and Charlottetown Accords
Deborah Coyne took a role in opposing the Meech Lake Accord, a comprehensive package of constitutional amendments designed to gain the province of Quebec's formal acceptance of the Constitution Act, 1982. Coyne was among many prominent Liberals who disagreed with the Accord, including Pierre Elliott Trudeau, Donald Johnston and Jean Chrétien, although the issue split the federal Liberal caucus. She was a founding member of the Canadian Coalition on the Constitution, a grass-roots group that opposed the agreement. From 1989 to 1991, Coyne served as constitutional advisor to Newfoundland Premier Clyde Wells. Among the premiers, Wells was the staunchest opponent of the Meech Lake Constitutional Accord. Following the death of the Accord, partly at the hands of the Newfoundland House of Assembly, she opposed the Charlottetown Accord, a subsequent attempt to amend the Canadian constitution. The Charlottetown agreement was submitted to a national referendum in 1992 and was ultimately rejected by a majority of Canadian voters. Coyne led one of the "No" committees in the campaign and spoke widely against the deal.

Liberal candidate
Until the 2006 federal election was called, she was a member of the Immigration and Refugee Board of Canada. In that election, she ran in the electoral district of Toronto—Danforth as a Liberal Party candidate against New Democratic Party leader Jack Layton. Coyne finished second to Layton with 17,256 votes, or 34.2%.

Coyne was nominated in March 2007 as the Liberal Party of Canada candidate in Toronto Danforth but withdrew later in the year. In 2008, she sought the federal Liberal nomination in the riding of Don Valley West but withdrew in favour of Rob Oliphant.

Liberal leadership campaign
On June 27, 2012, Coyne announced that she would be a candidate for leader of the Liberal Party of Canada, during the Party's 2013 leadership contest, which was won ultimately by Justin Trudeau. Her campaign was managed by blogger Jeff Jedras.

Following the leadership campaign, Coyne made an unsuccessful bid for the Liberal Party of Canada's nomination in Ottawa West—Nepean in 2014.

Move to the Green Party
On February 26, 2015, Green Party of Canada Leader Elizabeth May announced that Coyne had been appointed as a senior policy advisor, noting "Deborah's thoughtful approach to One Canada for all Canadians complements the vision of the Green Party of Canada." Coyne was the Green Party of Canada candidate in the Ottawa riding of Carleton for the 2015 federal election, where she finished fourth with just over 3% of the vote.

Since the 2015 federal election, Coyne has stepped away from partisan politics and no longer holds a membership in any political party.

title: Deborah Coyne


text:
Apocalypso (novel)

Apocalypso is a novel by the British author Robert Rankin.

A crack team of paranormal investigators are dispatched to recover a crashed spaceship from the bottom of the Pacific Ocean.

According to his autobiography, I, Robert, Rankin was unhappy with how he portrayed certain characters within this story. Before releasing the book on his own E-imprint, he edited out numerous jokes which he felt to be unsavory.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Apocalypso (novel)


text:
Wikipedia:Articles for deletion/Desmond Seah

Desmond Seah
Article has no real value apart from to try and scrape some more hits for this guy's website. No useful content. Barneyboo 23:56, 14 Oct 2004 (UTC)
 * Delete, waste of valuable bits.--Ianb 23:59, 14 Oct 2004 (UTC)
 * Delete. Puff piece and bad comedy.--NathanHawking 03:06, 2004 Oct 15 (UTC)
 * Delete. Vanity. utcursch 11:48, Oct 15, 2004 (UTC)
 * Move to User:Outsyder unless an external link to a respectable verifiable source showing this person actually exists is added. anthony (see warning) 16:28, 19 Oct 2004 (UTC)


text:
Talk:Mass number

Chemistry is integral to our lives
when you wonder what the earth,sky or ocean is made of, you are thinking about chemistry. when you wonder a rain puddle dries up, how a car gets energy from gasoline, or how your body gets energy from the food you eat, you are again thinking about chemistry. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 99.181.102.46 (talk) 00:28, 4 April 2009 (UTC)

umm...sayyour not given the mass number of a specific element.only the atomic number is given.so...without the mass number gow do you figure out the no. of neutrons???in other works how do you figure the mass number without them giving it to u. —Preceding unsigned comment added by Shani199310 (talk • contribs) 22:40, 11 May 2009 (UTC)

Carbon-14 decay and the electron
Does it transform two particles to electron, or should the electron be removed: ( have 7 electrons or it should have a charge, and carbon has 6 electrons. 87.59.205.99 (talk) 08:00, 3 February 2012 (UTC)
 * This is a nuclear equation so the C nucleus has charge +6 and the N nucleus has charge +7. However the convention for nuclear equations is to show the charges only as atomic numbers, here the left subscripts 6 and 7. Dirac66 (talk) 14:42, 3 February 2012 (UTC)
 * A propos of this, is
 * - showing the charge on the alpha particle, correct as a nuclear equation, or should it simply be
 * --Keith Edkins ( Talk ) 09:59, 24 January 2024 (UTC)
 * --Keith Edkins ( Talk ) 09:59, 24 January 2024 (UTC)
 * --Keith Edkins ( Talk ) 09:59, 24 January 2024 (UTC)
 * --Keith Edkins ( Talk ) 09:59, 24 January 2024 (UTC)

 * Your second equation is correct. Again the atomic number 2 shows the nuclear charge, without considering external electrons or their absence. (If we did, we would also have to write +92 for the U nucleus and +90 for the Th nucleus. But again these values are already implied by the atomic numbers.) Dirac66 (talk) 13:22, 24 January 2024 (UTC)

Why so complex?
Wikipedia is a "free encyclopedia that anyone can edit". It is available to people all over the world. But why is it so hard to read some pages? I'm a 6th grader, but still, there is just too much technical jargon for this to be helpful for my homework. Can someone please simplify this? -Nathan — Preceding unsigned comment added by 76.24.133.63 (talk) 21:32, 20 November 2013 (UTC)

 * I half "second" this thought. Pre-med, studying for the MCAT here (so pretty good command over most sciences), and I'm mostly hung up on the line " the mass number A is identical with the baryon number B as of the nucleus as of the whole atom or ion." The "as of ... as of" is not a common grammatical construction that makes much sense here, so, akin to Nathan's question/concern above, I'm struggling to make sense of it.
 * Could someone with a better technical command of physics and baryons reword this so the "as of" construction doesn't obscure meaning/clarity?? PolymathGirl (talk) 18:38, 4 June 2017 (UTC)
 * I agree, made too complex. It should describe: A = Z + N. -DePiep (talk) 19:15, 4 June 2017 (UTC)

External links modified (January 2018)
Hello fellow Wikipedians,

I have just modified one external link on Mass number. Please take a moment to review my edit. If you have any questions, or need the bot to ignore the links, or the page altogether, please visit this simple FaQ for additional information. I made the following changes:
 * Added archive https://web.archive.org/web/20080913063710/http://www.fordhamprep.org/gcurran/sho/sho/lessons/lesson35.htm to http://www.fordhamprep.org/gcurran/sho/sho/lessons/lesson35.htm

When you have finished reviewing my changes, you may follow the instructions on the template below to fix any issues with the URLs.

Cheers.— InternetArchiveBot  (Report bug) 00:34, 21 January 2018 (UTC)

Strange grammar
In the first paragraph, the phrase "as of the nucleus as of the whole atom or ion" appears. [Edit by user 2a00:23c4:7c87:4f00:8544:fa0c:4267:b750]

I have reworded this to "of the nucleus (and also of the whole atom or ion)." Dirac66 (talk) 22:16, 3 December 2020 (UTC)

Number of mass
1- Hydrogen ( h) — Preceding unsigned comment added by 103.39.129.211 (talk) 10:29, 17 May 2022 (UTC)

title: Talk:Mass number


text:
Talk:Atomic number

"Atomic Number (Z)"
Why it is Z? or not for example M or P? Thx in advance for answering me. Martin from Poland.
 * I was looking at other sources and I cannot find a reason for any letter to be placed after the atomic number - there is no unit. GotPSP 21:56, 31 January 2007 (UTC)

 * Maybe it is because the German word for number begins with a Z, but I'm just guessing. Itub 08:39, 8 March 2007 (UTC)

 * nope, the german word for number is number, oddly enough. Z could just be the random letter they picked.--Scorpion451 20:24, 16 June 2007 (UTC)
 * German has more than one word for 'number', Nummer is one (two 'm's, no 'b'), and Zahl another. Connoissaur (talk) 11:00, 1 February 2024 (UTC)
 * However the German word for integer is zahlen. See integer which zahlen redirects to. This may be relevant as the atomic number is of course an integer. I concur with the next comment, Z is not a unit, merely a symbol, similarly A and N. I would assume A comes from atom and N comes from neutron. It doesn't hurt to think of it this way if it helps you remember which is which.Puzl bustr (talk) 08:50, 31 October 2009 (UTC)
 * The German word for 'integer' is Ganzzahl. Zahlen with a capital 'Z' means 'numbers' and can therefore be used informally to mean 'integers' (plural); zahlen with a lower-case 'z' means 'to pay' (whereas zählen means 'to count). Connoissaur (talk) 11:04, 1 February 2024 (UTC)

 * Z is not the unit of the atomic number it is the variable that stands for the atomic number, for example: for hydrogen Z=1. "m" is used as the magnetic moment for atomic orbitals and "p" is a type of orbital, since all of these terms are used together when referring to the structure of an atom they must have different symbols. --Whmice (talk) 11:43, 22 March 2008 (UTC)

Suggest 1 possible wiki link and 13 possible backlinks for Atomic number.
An automated Wikipedia link suggester has some possible wiki link suggestions for the Atomic_number article:

 * Can link strict order: ...rities in chemistry, it was noticeable that placing them in strict order of atomic mass resulted in some mismatche...

 * Not appropriate--Patrick 14:14, Dec 1, 2004 (UTC)

Additionally, there are some other articles which may be able to linked to this one (also known as "backlinks"): ... Notes: The article text has not been changed in any way; Some of these suggestions may be wrong, some may be right.
 * In Albert Einstein, can backlink atomic number: ...suring the mass of atomic nuclei and dividing them by their atomic number, both of which are easily measured, one can calculate the b...
 * In August 29, can backlink atomic number: ...1982]] - The synthetic chemical element Meitnerium, atomic number 109, is first synthesized at the [[Gesellschaft für Schweri...
 * In Cahn Ingold Prelog priority rules, can backlink atomic number: ...ity corresponding to its atomic number&mdash;the higher the atomic number, the higher the priority. ...
 * In Gamma ray, can backlink atomic number: ...losion. Compton scattering is relatively independent of the atomic number of the absorbing material. ...
 * In Organic nomenclature, can backlink atomic number: ...) and an amine (NH2). The alcohol has the higher atomic number, and takes priority over the amine. The suffix for an alcoh...
 * In Optical isomerism, can backlink atomic number: ...n of polarized light and the R/S scheme is based on atomic number . One cannot predict the other....
 * In Proton, can backlink atomic number: ...ested that the hydrogen nucleus, which was known to have an atomic number of 1, was an elementary particle. This he named proton, fr...
 * In Radioactive waste, can backlink atomic number: ...active elements -- mostly plutonium. These elements have an atomic number greater than uranium -- thus transuranic...
 * In Valency, can backlink atomic number: ...  List of valencies for the first 103 elements in order of atomic number :...
 * In Decay product, can backlink atomic number: ...ntually to a stable nuclide. For elements above lead in atomic number, this is nearly always an isotope of lead. Lead is gene...
 * In Victoria University of Manchester, can backlink atomic number: ...ritish universities.   * Henry Moseley, who identified atomic number as the nuclear charges. He studied under Rutherford and bri...
 * In Conventional X-ray generator, can backlink atomic number: ...e the electrons to be accelerated
 * 1) a target made of a high atomic number, high melting point metal
 * In Transuranic elements, can backlink atomic number: Chemical element with an atomic number of 93 or more – that is, with a greater number of protons i...

Feedback: I like it, I hate it, Please don't link to — LinkBot 11:31, 1 Dec 2004 (UTC)

 * I've created backlinks for the list suggested above.--andersonpd 13:00, 29 October 2005 (UTC)

Atomicity
Why does this article include a paragraph on atomicity? Should it be expanded into a section that ties in with Z? (And if so, how?) Or would anyone mind if I just deleted it? Querl 02:46, 21 February 2007 (UTC)
 * I had a similar thought when I did a cleanup of the article. The paragraph seems like it belongs in some article, but it wasn't immediately apparant to me which one. It's more closely related to molecules than to atomic number. -- Mainstream Nerd 03:48, 21 February 2007 (UTC)
 * What is a symbol 105.245.171.186 (talk) 15:16, 9 April 2024 (UTC)

Confusing diagram
The diagram that appears at the head of this article is confusing and requires amending: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Atomic_number_depiction.svg Specifically, the text in the upper-right seems to indicate that the superscript number is the "Atomic / mass" number, as if these terms were interchangeable, but they are not. The superscript digit shows the mass number, the subscript digit the atomic number. Connoissaur (talk) 10:55, 1 February 2024 (UTC)

title: Talk:Atomic number


text:
Michael (Franz Ferdinand song)

"Michael" is a song by Scottish indie rock band Franz Ferdinand. It was released as the fourth single from their eponymous debut studio album on 16 August 2004 through Domino Records. The song was notable for its homoerotic lyrics such as "stubble on my sticky lips" and "beautiful boys on a beautiful dancefloor".

"Michael" released in multiple formats, including a 7-inch vinyl, two 12-inch vinyls, and two CDs. The second CD that was released was pulled from stores a day after its release due to chart ineligibility as it had three tracks on it instead of two, which is the allowed number of tracks for the CD2 format. It was later re-released with only two tracks. The song experienced commercial success, peaking at number 17 on the UK Singles Chart, number 39 on the Irish Singles Chart, and number 15 on the Finnish Singles Chart.

Composition and lyrics
Frontman Alex Kapranos stated in an interview to the UK magazine Boyz that the song was written about two friends of his: "It was one night when me and the band were out with friends from Glasgow, and we went to this warehouse dance party thing called Disco X. It was a very debauched night and these two friends got it together in a very sexy way."

Reviewer Alexis Petridis praised the song's "intriguing combination of sly humour and bug-eyed lust, as if the song's central character started camping it up for a laugh and ended up in rather deeper water than he had anticipated...You simply don't get songs like Michael very often in current rock music."

Secret message
The song contains a secret message from 1:35 to 1:39 saying, "She's worried about you, call your mother", if played backwards. According to "franzferdinand.net," bassist Bob Hardy was getting a bit worried about calling his mother back home, so the band added the backwards lyrics in as an homage. Hardy has said that he has no knowledge of the lyrics being there and he thought it was just a positive message to put on the track.

Release
The song was released in the UK on 16 August 2004 as two CD singles and a 7-inch single. Due to a breach of UK chart rules by providing three tracks on the CD2 format instead of two, in what the band described in a press statement as a "silly schoolboy error", sales of the original CD2 format were disqualified. The disc was withdrawn within a day of release, to be replaced by the end of the week by a two-track version, omitting "Tell Her Tonight". This track was released as a free download from Franz Ferdinand and Domino Records' websites from 17 August. Despite this, the single still reached number 17 in the UK and number 39 in Ireland.

Music video
The music video for "Michael" features the band members playing at an underground dance club. A man walks in and studies himself in a mirror, before joining the club. Throughout the video, the occupants are being replayed over and over as like in a short video, and show absolutely no emotion whatsoever, as the band plays. The man dances on the dance floor, but the occupants stare at him with murderous intent, and one sheds a tear, the man realizing that due to him not rewinding over and over, the occupants have found an outcast, or something of a sacrifice. The occupants form a circle around the man, and they tear out the man's arm, which emits a white beam of light, and the occupants stand in a circle as light overtakes them. The final scenes show the bands with multiple limbs. Alex Kapranos has three arms and a double-sided guitar, Nick McCarthy has two heads, Bob Hardy has four arms and two stomachs, and Paul Thomson also has three arms and plays the drum with three sticks.

Alternative version
The song was recorded alternatively in May 2004 in Hamburg, Germany, as a duet, and it was originally intended for release as a single. Without changing the lyrics, the reworked track was meant to take the perspective of a male love interest and female love interest fighting over Michael. Catriona Shaw of the band Queen of Japan provided the female vocals of this version of the track. In the end the band felt that the homoerotic undertones of the song became too diluted, so decided not to use it for the release of the track as a single and stuck with the original album version.

Track listings

 * The re-issue of CD2 omits "Tell Her Tonight".

title: Michael (Franz Ferdinand song)


text:
Crabronidae

The Crabronidae are a large paraphyletic group (nominally a family) of wasps, including nearly all of the species formerly comprising the now-defunct superfamily Sphecoidea. It collectively includes well over 200 genera, containing well over 9000 species. Crabronids were originally a part of the Sphecidae, but the latter name is now restricted to a separate family based on what was once the subfamily Sphecinae. Several of the subfamilies of the Crabronidae are often treated as families in their own right, as is true of the most recent phylogenies (example below).

Phylogeny
This phylogenetic tree is based on Sann et al., 2018, which used phylogenomics to demonstrate that both the bees (Anthophila) and the Sphecidae arose from within the former Crabronidae, which is therefore paraphyletic, and which they suggested should be split into several families; the former family Heterogynaidae nests within the Bembicidae, as here defined. These findings differ in several details from studies published by two other sets of authors in 2017, though all three studies demonstrate a paraphyletic "Crabronidae." Only three of these lineages were not included within Crabronidae in the past: Ampulicidae, Sphecidae, and Anthophila.

Subgroups

 * Subfamily Astatinae (now ranked as a family)
 * Astata, etc.
 * Subfamily Bembicinae (now ranked as a family)
 * Tribe Alyssontini
 * Tribe Bembicini
 * Bembix Fabricius 1775
 * Zyzzyx Pate 1937, etc.
 * Tribe Gorytini
 * Gorytes Latreille, 1804
 * Sphecius, etc.
 * Tribe Heliocausini
 * Tribe Nyssonini
 * Tribe Stizini
 * Subfamily Crabroninae (incl. Eremiaspheciinae and Dinetinae)
 * Aha
 * Crabro
 * Dalara
 * Liris
 * Pison, etc.
 * Subfamily Mellininae (now ranked as a family)
 * Mellinus
 * Xenosphex
 * Subfamily Pemphredoninae (recently split into three families)
 * Microstigmus
 * Lithium
 * Pemphredon, etc.
 * Subfamily Philanthinae (now ranked as a family)
 * Cerceris
 * Philanthus, etc.

title: Crabronidae


text:
Economy of Europe

The economy of Europe comprises about 748 million people in 50 countries.

The difference in wealth across Europe can be seen roughly in the former Cold War divide, with some countries breaching the divide (Greece, Portugal, Slovenia, the Czech Republic, Lithuania, Latvia and Estonia). Whilst most European states have a GDP per capita higher than the world's average and are very highly developed, some European economies, despite their position over the world's average in the Human Development Index, are relatively poor. Europe has total banking assets of more than $50 trillion and its Global assets under management is more than $20 trillion.

The formation of the European Union (EU) and in 1999 the introduction of a unified currency, the Euro, brought participating European countries closer through the convenience of a shared currency. Various European states have increased their economic links through regional integration. The EU is a sui generis political entity, combining the characteristics of both a federation and a confederation. As one entity, the union is one of the largest economies in the world, having influence on regulations in the global economy due to the size of its single market with Iceland, Liechtenstein, Norway, and Switzerland.

Throughout this article "Europe" and derivatives of the word are taken to include selected states whose territory is only partly in Europe, such as Turkey, Azerbaijan and Georgia, and states that are geographically in Asia, bordering Europe and culturally adherent to the continent, such as Armenia and Cyprus.

Europe's largest national economies by nominal GDP over US$1.0 trillion are:
 * Germany ($4.43 trillion),
 * United Kingdom ($3.33 trillion),
 * France ($3.05 trillion),
 * Italy ($2.19 trillion),
 * Russia ($1.86 trillion),
 * Spain ($1.58 trillion)
 * Netherlands ($1.09 trillion)

Of the top 500 largest corporations measured by revenue (Fortune Global 500 in 2010), 184 have their headquarters in Europe. 161 are located in the EU, 15 in Switzerland, 6 in Russia, 1 in Turkey, 1 in Norway.

As noted in 2010 by the Spanish sociologist Manuel Castells, the average standard of living in Western Europe is very high: "The bulk of the population in Western Europe still enjoys the highest living standards in the world, and in the world's history."

Pre–1945: Industrial growth
Prior to World War II, Europe's major financial and industrial states were the United Kingdom, France and Germany. The Industrial Revolution, which began in Britain, spread rapidly across Europe, and before long the entire continent was at a high level of industry. World War I briefly led to the industries of some European states stalling, but in the run-up to World War II Europe recovered well and was competing with the ever-increasing economic might of the United States of America.

However, World War II caused the destruction of most of Europe's industrial centres and much of the continent's infrastructure was laid to waste.

1945–1992: The Cold War era
Following World War II, European governments were in tatters. Many non-Socialist European governments moved to integrate their economies, laying the foundation for what would become the European Union. This meant a huge increase in shared infrastructure and cross-border trade. Whilst these European states rapidly improved their economies, by the 1980s, the state-run economies of the COMECON group were struggling, mainly due to the massive cost of the Cold War. The GDP and the living standards of Central and Eastern European states were lower than in other parts of Europe.

The European Community grew from 6 original members following World War II, to 12 in this period.

Average living standards in Europe rose significantly during the post-war period, as characterised by these findings:

Per capita private consumption (PPSs) in 1980
 * Luxembourg: 5495
 * France: 5395
 * Germany, Federal Republic: 5319
 * Belgium: 5143
 * Denmark: 4802
 * Netherlands: 4792
 * United Kingdom: 4343
 * Italy: 4288
 * Ireland: 3029

Per capita personal disposable income (PPSs) in 1980
 * Belgium: 6202
 * France: 6044
 * Germany, Federal Republic: 5661
 * Netherlands: 5490
 * Italy: 5378
 * Denmark: 4878
 * United Kingdom (UK): 4698

Rise of the European Union
When the 'Eastern Bloc' dissolved around 1992, these states struggled to adapt to free-market systems. There was, however, a huge variation in degrees of success, with Central European states such as the Czech Republic, Hungary, Slovakia, Slovenia and Poland adapting reasonably quickly, whilst states that used to form the USSR such as Russia, Belarus and Ukraine struggled to reform their crumbling infrastructures.

Many developed European countries were quick to develop economic ties with fellow European states, where democracy was reintroduced. After the Revolutions of 1989, states in Central Europe and the Baltic states dealt with change, former Yugoslavian republics descended into war and Russia, Ukraine and Belarus are still struggling with their old systems.

Europe's largest economy, Germany, struggled upon unification in 1991 with former communist German Democratic Republic, or East Germany, influenced by the Soviet Union. The GDR had much of its industrial infrastructure removed during the Cold War, and for many years unified Germany struggled to build infrastructure in the former East Germany up to the level of former West Germany.

Peace did not come to Yugoslavia for a decade, and by 2003, there were still many NATO and EU peacekeeping troops present in Bosnia and Herzegovina, North Macedonia, and Kosovo. War severely hampered economic growth, with only Slovenia making any real progress in the 1990s.

The European economy was affected by the September 11 Attacks in the United States in 2001, with Germany, Switzerland, France, and the United Kingdom being the worst hit. But, in 2002/2003, the economy began to recover from the attacks in US.

The total size of the economy of Europe was by this time dominated by the EU, a union with then 15 of Europe's states as full members. EU membership was seen as something to aspire to, and the EU gave significant support and aid to those Central and Eastern European states willing to work towards achieving economies that met the entry criteria. During this time, 12 of the 15 members of the EU became part of the Eurozone, a currency union launched in 1999, whereby each member uses a shared currency, the euro, which replaced their former national currencies. Three states chose to remain outside the Eurozone and continue with their own currencies, namely Denmark, Sweden and the United Kingdom.

2004–2007: EU expansion
In early 2004, 10 mostly former communist states joined the EU in its biggest ever expansion, enlarging the union to 25 members, with another eight making associated trade agreements. The acceding countries are bound to join the Eurozone and adopt the common currency euro in the future. The process includes the European Exchange Rate Mechanism, of which some of these countries are already part.

Most European economies are in very good shape, and the continental economy reflects this. Conflict and unrest in some of the former Yugoslavia states and in the Caucasus states are hampering economic growth in those states, however.

In response to the massive EU growth, in 2005 the Russian-dominated Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS) created a rival trade bloc to the EU, open to any previous USSR state, (including both the European and Asian states). 12 of the 15 signed up, with the three Baltic states deciding to align themselves with the EU. Despite this, the three Caucasus states have said in the past they would one day consider applying for EU membership, particularly Georgia. This is also true of Ukraine since the Orange Revolution.

2008–2015: Eurozone expansion and European debt crisis
German bonds.webp in 2008 and negative interest rates, 2014-2022

]] [[File:Greek bonds.webp|thumb|300px|Greek bonds

]] Slovenia became the first republic from the former Yugoslavia as well as the first formerly communist nation overall to adopt the EU currency, the euro, in 2007, followed by Malta and Cyprus in 2008, and Slovakia in 2009. In 2011, Estonia became the first republic from the former Soviet Union to adopt the euro, followed by Latvia in 2014, and Lithuania in 2015. In 2013, Croatia became the 28th member of the European Union, and adopted the euro on 1 January 2023.

In 2008, the Global Financial Crisis, triggered by the housing bubble in the United States, caused a significant decline in the GDP of the majority of the European economies, which was a precedent to a far broader and more problematic Eurozone debt crisis, which threatened the collapse of economies in the south, particularly Greece, Italy recently affected by the ongoing political crisis, Portugal and Spain. Having also been hit hard, Ireland exited the crisis in mid-2013. Meanwhile, increased bailouts of the International Monetary Fund and European Central Bank alleviated somehow the situation in the debt-stricken nations, with Central and East European economies led by Germany escaping the worst of the 2010s debt crisis.

By the mid-2010s, 2014–2015, Ireland was recovering at a steady pace having graduated from the bail out programme successfully. The Eurozone as a whole had become more stable, however problems in Greece and slow recovery in Italy and in Iberia (Spain and Portugal) continue in keeping growth in the Euro area to a minimum. Germany continues to lead Europe in stability and growth, while both the UK and Ireland are seeing strong growth of 3–4%. Unemployment in Ireland reducing at the fastest levels in Europe, expected to reach 8% by 2016, down from double that in 2011. The Czech Republic and Germany have constantly the lowest unemployment rate in the EU. Growth outlook in general remains optimistic for Europe in the future. With positive growth expected across the Euro area. Although uncertainty still surrounds Greece and debt payments in the Greek state, at present things appear stable.

European businesses have been in decline against worldwide ones since the crisis. Of the 50 most valuable global firms, only seven were European as of 2015, compared to 17 in 2006. Out of 24 economic sectors, Europe only leads in one - food, which is led by Nestlé from Switzerland. Companies like HSBC, Vodafone, TotalEnergies and BNP Paribas have all also sled in their respective industries against American and Asian competitors. In addition, former technologic heavyweights like Nokia, Ericsson and Alcatel have also declined against evolving American companies in the Silicon Valley.

While the bottom 80% of the European population's income has increased by an estimated 40% on average since 1980, the top 1%'s pre-tax income has more than doubled. Employment in the European Union reached a new high in 2019.

While many social and economic indicators have converged across EU regions, the global financial crisis resulted in a sharp divergence in unemployment rates. Recently, these ranged from less than 2% in Prague to more than 20% in parts of Greece, southern Spain, and southern Italy. Rapid technological change also had an effect on medium-skilled workers resulting in more low-skilled jobs being taken up.

2016–present: Brexit, COVID pandemic and Russian invasion of Ukraine
In 2016, the United Kingdom became the first nation to vote to leave the European Union since its modern iteration in the post-Cold War era, reducing the number of the said bloc's membership down to 27 member states for the time being. U.K.'s exit prolonged the country's ongoing economic recession beyond the COVID pandemic era in the 2020s decade. In 2022, the Russian war on Ukraine prompted both Ukraine and Moldova to be granted immediate candidate status by the European Union for economic and security reasons, with Bosnia and Herzegovina and Georgia following suit by the end of the following year. Croatia recently became the newest member of the Eurozone after officially adopting the euro as its currency in the beginning of 2023, while Finland and Sweden became the newest members of the NATO the following year.

Regional variation
European countries with a long history of trade, a free market system, and a high level of development in the previous century are generally in the north and west of the continent. They tend to be wealthier and more stable than countries congregated in the European East and South, even though the gap is converging, especially in Central and Eastern Europe, due to higher growth rates.

The poorest states are those that just emerged from communism, fascist dictatorships and civil wars, namely those of the former Soviet Union and Yugoslavia, with some exceptions. Former Western Bloc itself presents some living standards and development differences, with the greatest contrast seen between the Nordics (Norway, Denmark, Sweden, Finland) and Greece, Portugal, Spain and Italy.

Below is a map of European countries by gross national income per capita. High income in blue ($12,616 or more, as defined by the World Bank), upper middle income in green ($4,086 – $12,615) and lower middle income ($1,036 – $4,085) in yellow.

The predicted impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on GDP is greatest in Southern Europe, where structural improvements are expected to enhance GDP levels by up to 5% by 2030, with the effect decreasing to 2.5% by 2040. The effect is projected to be a little less than 1% in Western Europe and Northern Europe, with cross-border spillover effects from the rest of Europe accounting for half of the predicted impact.

A survey conducted in 2021 found that many businesses cut back on operations as a result of the COVID-19 epidemic, resulting in a significant decline in revenue and job changes. Due to the pandemic, over 40% of the businesses surveyed had to close temporarily. Sales in the region declined by roughly 25% on average, but there was substantial variation within sub-regions.

One out of every five businesses launched or grew their online business or distribution of products and services, while one out of every four businesses started or increased their remote operations.

The pandemic has also hastened corporate transformation, with over 30% of companies altering or transforming their output as a result of it. Chemical manufacturers and wholesalers were the first to respond, with one in three expanding online business activity, beginning or boosting delivery of products and services, increasing remote employment, and changing manufacturing.

Economic activity decreased by almost 4% in the majority of sub-regions in 2020, which was similar to the global average of 3.2%. However, the variance between nations is prominent. The high infection and mortality rates of the pandemic in countries in the Western Balkans, the Eastern Neighbourhood, and Central and Eastern Europe meant they faced deeper recessions.

European Union
The European Union has the second largest economy in the world, behind that of the United States. Trade within the Union accounts for more than one-third of the world total.

The European Union or EU is a supranational union of European states, the most recent acceding member being Croatia, which became full member on 1 July 2013. It has many functions, the most important being the establishment and maintenance of a common single market, consisting of a customs union, a single currency (adopted by 18 of the member states ), a Common Agricultural Policy and a Common Fisheries Policy. The European Union also undertakes various initiatives to co-ordinate activities of the member states.

The union has evolved over time from a primarily economic union to an increasingly political one. This trend is highlighted by the increasing number of policy areas that fall within EU competence: political power has tended to shift upwards from the Member States to the EU.

European Free Trade Association
The European Free Trade Association (EFTA) was established on 3 May 1960 as an alternative for European states that did not wish to join the European Union, creating a trade bloc with fewer central powers.

The EFTA member states as of 1992 were Austria, Denmark, Finland, Iceland, Liechtenstein, Norway, Sweden and Switzerland. In 2014 only four countries, Iceland, Norway, Switzerland and Liechtenstein, remained members of EFTA, as the other members have gradually left to join the EU.

European Economic Area
The European Economic Area (EEA) came into being on 1 January 1994 following an agreement between the European Free Trade Association (EFTA) and the European Union (EU). It was designed to enable EFTA countries to participate in the European Single Market without having to join the EU.

In a referendum, Switzerland (ever keen on neutrality) chose not to participate in the EEA (although it is linked to the European Union by bilateral agreements similar in content to the EEA agreement), so the current members are the EU states plus Norway, Iceland and Liechtenstein.

A Joint Committee consisting of the non EU members plus the European Commission (representing the EU) has the function of extending relevant EU Law to the non EU members.

Commonwealth of Independent States
The Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS) is a confederation consisting of 9 of the 15 states of the former Soviet Union, (the exceptions being the three Baltic states, Georgia, Turkmenistan, and Ukraine (Turkmenistan and Ukraine are participating states in the CIS)). Although the CIS has few supranational powers, it is more than a purely symbolic organization and possesses co-ordinating powers in the realm of trade, finance, lawmaking and security. It 2012 the Commonwealth of Independent States Free Trade Area was established.

Central European Free Trade Agreement
The Central European Free Trade Agreement (CEFTA) is a trade bloc of: Albania, Bosnia and Herzegovina, North Macedonia, Moldova, Montenegro, Serbia and the United Nations Interim Administration Mission in Kosovo (UNMIK) on behalf of Kosovo.

Agriculture and fishing
Europe's agricultural sector is in general highly developed and also has the lowest percentage of the population working in agriculture of any continent. The process of improving Central Europe's agriculture is ongoing and is helped by the accession of Central European states to the EU. The agricultural sector in Europe is helped by the Common Agricultural Policy (CAP), which provides farmers with a minimal price for their products and subsidizes their exports, which increases competitiveness for their products. This policy is highly controversial as it hampers free trade worldwide (protectionism sparks protectionism from other countries and trade blocs: the concept of trade wars) and is violating the concept of fair trade.

This means because of the protectionist nature of the CAP, agricultural products from developing countries are rendered uncompetitive in both Europe (an important export market for developing countries) and on their home markets (as European agricultural products are dumped on developing countries' markets with help from European agricultural subsidies). This controversy surrounds every system of agricultural subsidies (the United States' policy of subsidizing farmers is also controversial). The CAP is also controversial because 40% of the EU's budget is spent on it, and because of the overproduction caused by it.

The Common Fisheries Policy is surrounded by an extensive system of rules (mainly consisting of quotas) to protect the environment from overfishing. Despite these rules, the cod is becoming increasingly rare in the North Sea resulting in drastic shortages in countries such as Canada and the United Kingdom. Strict fishing rules are the main reason for Norway and Iceland to stay out of the European Union (and out of the Common Fisheries Policy). Price guarantees and subsidizations of fishermen are implemented in the same way as agricultural subsidies are. Bluefin tuna is also a problem. Global stocks of the species are overfished with extinction in the wild a possibility in the near future. This also has the negative effect of threatening their traditional, natural predators.

Manufacturing
Europe has a thriving manufacturing sector, with a large part of the world's industrial production taking place in Europe. Most of the continent's industries are concentrated in the 'Blue Banana' (covering Southern England, the Benelux, western Germany, eastern France, Switzerland, and northern Italy). However, because of the higher wage level and hence production costs, Europe is suffering from deindustrialization and offshoring in the labour-intensive manufacturing sectors. This means that manufacturing has become less important and that jobs are moved to regions with cheaper labour costs (mainly China and Central and Eastern Europe).

Central Europe (Berlin, Saxony, the Czech Republic and Little Poland) was largely industrialised by 1850 but Eastern Europe (European Russia) begun industrialisation between 1890–1900 and intensified it during the communist regime (as the USSR), but it suffered from contraction in the 1990s when the inefficient heavy-industry-based manufacturing sector was crippled after the collapse of communism and the introduction of the market economy.

In the 21st century the manufacturing sector in Central and Eastern Europe picked up because of the accession of ten formerly Communist European states to the EU and their resulting accession to the European Common Market. This caused firms within the European Union to move jobs from their manufacturing sector to Central European countries such as Poland (see above), which sparked both Central and Eastern European industrial growth and employment.

According to Fortune Global 500, 195 of the top 500 companies are headquartered in Europe. The main products in European industry are automobiles, bicycles, rail, machinery, marine, aerospace equipment, food, chemical and pharmaceutical goods, software and electronics.

Investing and banking
Europe has a well-developed financial sector. Many European cities are financial centres with London being the largest. The financial sector of the Eurozone is helped by the introduction of the euro as common currency. This has made it easier for European households and firms to invest in companies and deposit money in banks in other European countries. Exchange rate fluctuations are now non-existent in the Eurozone. The financial sector in Central and Eastern Europe is helped by economic growth in the region, European Regional Development Fund and the commitment of Central and Eastern European governments to achieve high standards.

According to the Global Financial Centres Index,, four European cities rank among the 20 largest financial centres in the world: London (2nd), Zurich (14th), Frankfurt (15th), and Paris (17th).

European banks are amongst the largest and most profitable in the world, such as HSBC, BNP Paribas, Crédit Agricole, Grupo Santander, Société Générale, Barclays, Groupe BPCE, Deutsche Bank, Intesa Sanpaolo, Lloyds Banking Group, ING Group, Crédit Mutuel, UBS and UniCredit.

At the start of the COVID-19 pandemic in the economy, aggregate investment levels fell in the second quarter of 2020. The corporate sector was the most responsible for this reduction. Investment appeared to be increasing in early 2021, coinciding with the relaxation of COVID-19 restrictions.

30% of EU firms reported in the European Investment Bank's Investment Survey 2021 that they adjusted their investment expectations to fit the COVID-19 pandemic. This is reported as more than the US where the positive revision of investment plans was more common, with 25% of firms reporting. 72% of EU enterprises state that the COVID-19 pandemic will have a long-term influence on investment requirements and priorities.

Businesses in Europe received governmental support following the economic crisis. Governments ensured that enterprises had access to financing, with some governments covering labour expenses so that people could remain employed. This initiative targeted enterprises experiencing the greatest revenue loss, and the companies who got assistance were more likely to stick to their investment goals.

Mid-2021, the European Union's gross saving rate was still 18% of gross disposable income, higher above the average of 11-13%, prior to the COVID-19 pandemic.

63% of large firms, 61% of infrastructure firms and 58% of firms in the service sector are the largest share expecting long term effects of COVID-19. Across the European Union, the most commonly mentioned investment barrier is the lack of trained labor. 75% of businesses in transitional regions found this to be problematic. In less developed and non-cohesion regions, it is 79%. Demographics and rising demand for skills that are less common on the market, such as those needed to support digitalization activities, might contribute to the lack of competent workers.

Companies that are located in the countries under the European cohesion policy are less likely to spend money on the types of intangible assets, like R&D or training. Businesses in cohesion regions tend to concentrate their investments more on purchasing real estate, machinery, and other tangible assets. Only 28% of investments are made in intangible activity in areas considered less developed, compared to 35% in transition areas and 39% in more developed areas.

In all regions, bank loans are the most prevalent type of external financing. In less developed regions, they account for 49% of finance, in more developed regions, 58%, and in transitional regions, 69%. Grants make up a larger portion of the financing in less developed areas.

Intangible assets (R&D, software, training, and business processes) were invested in by firms in Central, Eastern and Southeastern Europe countries at a lower rate (24%) in 2022 than the EU average (37%). The proportion of enterprises aiming to prioritize innovation in new goods and services was higher in these regions (27%) than in the EU (24%) and the US (21%).  Manufacturing enterprises (36%) and big firms (31%), in particular, have innovation as an investment priority. Among CESEE enterprises, Slovenia (38%) and the Czech Republic (37%), are the most likely to prioritize innovation.  Over half of businesses (57%) altered their operations in response to COVID-19. The majority (44%), produced new items (26%), while a minority (16%) reduced their supply chain.  39% of EU enterprises created or introduced new goods, processes, or services in the previous fiscal year, compared to 57% of US firms. In both the EU and the US, little more than 12% of enterprises introduced ideas that were novel to the country or the global market.

Europe's level of productive investment has lagged behind that of the United States - by two percentage points of GDP annually since 2010, according to European Commission data. In comparison to 2021, there is a significant increase in the proportion of enterprises citing energy prices as a limitation to investment (87%), particularly those considering it as a substantial obstacle (63%).  The transition to cleaner energy is seen as a danger to investments by 41% of energy-intensive manufacturers in Europe, thus affecting all investment plans. This is compared to 31% of enterprises in non-energy heavy industries.  For future investment plans, European energy-intensive manufacturers and firms are more interested in climate investments than non-energy-intensive enterprises, with 48% now investing and 57% planning to invest.

Productive investment, as of 2023 (excluding housing), has been increasing as a percentage of GDP in Europe. There remains a gap of around 1.5 percentage points in productive investment between Europe and the United States, but this growth has helped Europe keep up with the rate of productive investment growth in the United States to a certain extent. Although Europe is not falling further behind like during the sovereign debt crisis, European firms state narrowing this gap as a priority.

Infrastructure enterprises were somewhat more likely than other firms to invest insufficiently in 2022 according to survey data. The same was true for SMEs (21%) against large businesses (15%). Firms in Lithuania (28%) and Latvia (30%) are the most likely to believe they have invested insufficiently during the previous three years. The proportion of enterprises that believe they have overinvested was largest (but still minor) in Hungary (7%), Bulgaria (7%), and the Czech Republic (6%).

Most companies in Central, Eastern and Southeastern Europe (59%), and the rest of the EU (57%) projected their revenues to be greater in 2022 than they were in 2019. COVID-19 has had a negative impact on 45% of the enterprises in those regions. Almost one-third of those surveyed (13% of total enterprises) did not anticipate a recovery, whereas the vast majority did. Even throughout the pandemic, 41% of enterprises observed an increase in revenue, and the majority of them predicted stronger sales in 2022.

Long-term hurdles to corporate investment continue to be energy prices, uncertainty, and a shortage of skills, with 83%, 78%, and 81% of enterprises citing these concerns as restraints, respectively. EU enterprises were more likely than US firms to cite energy prices as a key impediment. In 2022 - 2023, EU businesses were found increasingly unhappy with the cost of credit as monetary policy tightened and external finance conditions deteriorated. This dissatisfaction is at more than 14% in 2023, compared to 5% in 2022.

In 2023, Austrian enterprises are the most likely to grow stock and inventory, while Romanian firms are the most likely to invest in digital inventory and input tracking. Romania has the largest proportion of importers lowering the proportion of goods/services imported from abroad, as well as the highest proportion of enterprises diversifying or growing the number of countries from which they import. Also in the same year, 80% of EU firms were profitable, which was 2 percentage points higher than the historical average. Firms that achieved profits of at least 10% of their turnover were 8% more likely to increase their investment compared to firms that only broke even. Policy support and financial reserves have played a crucial role in protecting and maintaining corporate investment. Despite the energy crisis that started in 2022, firms were able to meet their investment expectations, thanks to the support and buffers in place.

Credit demand in the Central, Eastern and Southern European regions remained strong in the first six months of 2023, although it has been steadily declining since 2021-22. Fixed investments and retail components, particularly the housing sector, contributed adversely, while credit demand was once again driven by corporate liquidity requirements (particularly for inventories and working capital). In the previous six months, most parent banks in Central, Eastern, and South-Eastern Europe nations have maintained their level of exposure. Major players in Serbia and Romania engaged in some mergers and acquisitions activities. Banks foresee an increase in non-performing loans (NPLs), which would hit the retail and business sectors in virtually all countries (excluding Albania).

According to data from a European survey, big mid-caps account for the greatest percentage of high-growth and very high-growth enterprises, at 7.5% and 3.1%, respectively, followed by SMEs at 6% and 2%. XLs and tiny mid-caps trail somewhat, accounting for 5.2-5.5% and 1.9-2.1% of high- and very-high-growth enterprises, respectively. Manufacturing businesses with big mid-caps and XL firms have the greatest percentage of extremely high-growth firms.

Europe in particular suffers from a lack of funding for more mature scale-up operations. Financing for these operations is six to eight times higher in the United States (in dollars). Corporate investment among EU countries varies significantly due to distinct national factors. The sectoral breakdown of aggregate investment is not yet accessible for all EU members, even for early 2023. In some European nations, real corporate investment increased by 5% or more by early 2023, while in others it remained stagnant or far lower than pre-pandemic levels. In 2023, enterprises with profits of at least 10% of turnover were 8 percentage points more likely to increase investment than enterprises that broke even. A main point in 2023 has been that EU enterprises embraced modern digital technology and were able to close an 11 point deficit with the United States in their usage of those technology.

According to recent intelligence reported by GlobalData, the global Uncrewed Aerial Systems (UAS) market is projected to see a significant increase over the coming decade. An estimated compound annual growth rate of 4.8% is expected, primarily owing to the swift rise in Europe's UAS market. This growth is poised to almost double the UAS market size, from $12.5 billion in 2024 to an impressive $20 billion by 2034. This growth is largely attributed to Europe's rising prominence in the UAS market sector.

Transport
Transport in Europe provides for the movement needs of over 700 million people and associated freight. The political geography of Europe divides the continent into over 50 sovereign states and territories. This fragmentation, along with increased movement of people since the industrial revolution, has led to a high level of cooperation between European countries in developing and maintaining transport networks. Supranational and intergovernmental organisations such as the European Union (EU), Council of Europe and the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe have led to the development of international standards and agreements that allow people and freight to cross the borders of Europe, largely with unique levels of freedom and ease.

Rail transport
Rail networks in Western and Central Europe are often well maintained and well developed, whilst Eastern, Northern and Southern Europe often have less coverage and/or infrastructure problems. Electrified railway networks operate at a plethora of different voltages AC and DC varying from 750 to 25,000 volts, and signalling systems vary from country to country, hindering cross-border traffic. EU rail subsidies amounted to €73 billion in 2005.

Air transport
Despite an extensive road and rail network, most long-distance travel within Europe is by air. A large tourism industry also attracts many visitors to Europe, most of whom arrive into one of Europe's many large international airports. London is the second busiest airport in the world by number of international passengers, only trailing Dubai. The advent of low cost carriers in recent years has led to a large increase in air travel within Europe. Air transportation is now often the cheapest way of travelling between cities. This increase in air travel has led to problems of airspace overcrowding and environmental concerns. The Single European Sky is one initiative aimed at solving these problems.

Global trade relations
The bulk of the EU's external trade is done with China, Mercosur and the United States, Japan, Russia and non-member European states.

EU members are represented by a single official at the WTO.

The EU is involved in a few minor trade disputes. It had a long running dispute with the USA of allegedly unfair subsidies the US government gives to several companies, such as Boeing. The EU has a long running ban prohibiting arms trade with the Chinese. The EU issued a brief accusing Microsoft of predatory and monopolistic practices.

Statistics

 * International organisations in Europe
 * List of European countries by budget revenues
 * List of European countries by budget revenues per capita
 * List of European countries by GDP (nominal)
 * List of European countries by GDP (PPP)
 * List of European countries by GDP (nominal) per capita
 * List of European countries by GDP (PPP) per capita
 * List of European countries by GNI (nominal) per capita
 * List of European countries by GNI (PPP) per capita
 * List of sovereign states in Europe by minimum wage

title: Economy of Europe


text:
Subsistence economy

A subsistence economy is an economy directed to basic subsistence, the provision of food, clothing, shelter rather than to the market.

Definition
"Subsistence" is understood as supporting oneself and family at a minimum level. Basic subsistence is the provision of food, clothing, shelter. A subsistence economy is an economy directed to one's subsistence rather than to the market. Often, the subsistence economy is moneyless and relies on natural resources to provide for basic needs through hunting, gathering, and agriculture. In a subsistence economy, economic surplus is minimal and only used to trade for basic goods, and there is no industrialization. In hunting and gathering societies, resources are often, if not typically underused.

The subsistence system is maintained through sharing, feasting, ritual observance and associated norms. Harvesting is an important indicator of social capital. Subsistence embodies cultural perspectives of relationships to places, people and animals.

History
In human history, before the first cities, all humans lived in a subsistence economy. As urbanization, civilization, and division of labor spread, various societies moved to other economic systems at various times. Some remain relatively unchanged, ranging from uncontacted peoples, to marginalized areas of developing countries, to some cultures that choose to retain a traditional economy.

List of strategies

 * Hunting and gathering techniques, also known as foraging:
 * Artisan fishing — a term which particularly applies to coastal or island ethnic groups using traditional techniques for subsistence fishing.
 * Aboriginal whaling, including the subsistence hunting of the bowhead whale in the Arctic.
 * Agriculture:
 * Subsistence agriculture — agricultural cultivation involving continuous use of arable (crop) land, and is more labor-intensive than horticulture.
 * Horticulture — plant cultivation, based on the use of simple tools.
 * Pastoralism, the raising of grazing animals:
 * Pastoral nomadism — all members of the pastoral society follow the herd throughout the year.
 * Transhumance or agro-pastoralism — part of the society follows the herd, while the other part maintains a home village.
 * Ranch agriculture — non-nomadic pastoralism with a defined territory.
 * Distribution and exchange:
 * Redistribution
 * Reciprocity — exchange between social equals.
 * Potlatching — a widely studied ritual in which sponsors (helped by their entourages) gave away resources and manufactured wealth while generating prestige for themselves.
 * LETS — Local Exchange Trading Systems.
 * A parasitical society, subsisting on the produce of a separate host society:
 * Raiding
 * Conquest
 * Garbage picking, when subsisting in a larger economy

title: Subsistence economy


text:
Special rights

Special rights is a term originally used by conservatives and libertarians to refer to laws granting rights to one or more groups that are not extended to other groups. Ideas of special rights are controversial, as they clash with the principle of equality before the law.

Potential examples of special rights include affirmative action policies or hate crime legislation with regard to ethnic, religious or sexual minorities or state recognition of marriage as a group with different taxation from those who are not married. However, the term has often been extended to include some policies that are only seeking simple equality, such as LGBT rights, and some other civil rights movements.

Concepts of special rights are closely aligned with notions of group rights and identity politics.

Other uses
More recently, social conservatives have used the term to more narrowly refer to measures that extend existing rights for heterosexual couples to gays and lesbians, such as in the case of same sex marriage, or that include sexual orientation as a civil rights minority group.

The term is also used internationally. In German the term Sonderrechte (de), with the same literal meaning, is used in senses like 'privileges', 'special legislations' or 'special exemptions'.

Legal argument
The basis behind the argument of the term is based on whether it should be considered just and legal for a law to treat various parties unequally. For example, in the US Constitution the prohibition on bills of attainder require that laws do not single out a single person or group of persons for specific treatment.

Another example is the equal protection clause in the Fourteenth Amendment. Both sides argue that the other side is or has traditionally been singled out and so the law is either needed or unnecessary.

In some cases, such as those with social implications, the universal definition of rights also often conflict with other, often more regional or local, laws that require certain public standards or behavior based on cultural norms.

Libertarianism on rights and special rights
In The Encyclopedia of Libertarianism, Eric Mack states:

A too-ready acceptance of alleged rights leads to an oppressive list of enforceable obligations. As the list of others' rights grows, each of us is subject to a growing burden made up of the obligations correlative to those rights; correspondingly the ability of rights to be protective of individual choice dissolves. Moreover, as the list of rights grows, so too does the legitimate role of political and legal institutions, and the libertarian case for radically limiting the scope and power of such institutions withers away. Libertarian theories of rights avoid generating an oppressive list of obligations through the employment of two crucial distinctions – the distinction between negative and positive rights and the distinction between general and special rights.

Definition of minorities
Minority rights advocacy groups often contend that such protections confer no special rights, and describe these laws instead as protecting equal rights, due to past conditions or legal privileges for specific groups.

title: Special rights


text: Template:Serie A

title: Template:Serie A