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Thomas Guthrie

Thomas Guthrie FRSE (12 July 1803 – 24 February 1873) was a Scottish divine and philanthropist, born at Brechin in Angus (at that time also called Forfarshire). He was one of the most popular preachers of his day in Scotland, and was associated with many forms of philanthropy—especially temperance and Ragged Schools, of which he was a founder.

Life
He was born on 12 July 1803 the son of David Guthrie, a banker, and later Provost of Brechin. Thomas grew to a height of six foot and three inches.

Guthrie studied at Edinburgh University for both surgery and anatomy (under Dr Robert Knox) but then concentrated on Theology. He was licensed to preach in the Church of Scotland from 1825, but having established a reputation as an evangelical he had difficulty securing a parish and instead spent two years studying medicine and science in Paris. Following his return from Paris and a period of varied employment, including as a bank manager, he was eventually offered the living of Arbirlot in Angus by the Hon William Maule in 1830. Guthrie served as Minister of Arbirlot for eight years, and while there where he adopted a dramatic style of preaching suited to his rural congregation. As well as his training for the Ministry, his medical knowledge and experience was called upon in particular during an outbreak of cholera in the parish.

In 1837 Guthrie was called to the second charge of Old Greyfriars Church, Edinburgh, alongside first charge minister Rev John Sym. Edinburgh Town Council discontinued the second charge at Old Greyfriars in October 1840 and instead created a new parish called St John's. A new church was built on Victoria Street to serve this role with Guthrie as its first minister.

Guthrie left the Church of Scotland in the Disruption of 1843 and many of his congregation followed him. They worshipped for 2 years in the Methodist Hall in Nicholson Square before moving into the purpose-built Free St John's, Johnston Terrace (now St Columba's Free Church) in 1845. Possessed of a commanding presence and voice, and a remarkably effective and picturesque style of oratory, he became perhaps the most popular preacher of his day in Scotland, and was associated with many forms of philanthropy, especially temperance and ragged schools, of which he was a founder; he first publicizing the idea in his "Plea for Ragged Schools" in 1847. His hard work as a proponent and founder of the Ragged Schools movement led him to be quoted by Samuel Smiles in his Self Help. The first ragged school was soon opened on Castle Hill, Edinburgh.

He was one of the leaders of the Free Church of Scotland, and raised over £116,000 for the Manse Fund for its ministers. Guthrie expressed serious concern that the Manse Fund would stretch the generosity of Free Church people to the limit but his fears were unfounded. After Guthrie had toured 13 Synods and 58 Presbyteries in less than a year, he was able to announce to the General Assembly of June 1846 that £116,370 had been raised. It is unlikely that anyone else could have achieved what he did in such a short space of time. His energy and oratory enabled the Manse Fund to smash its original target. Numerous ministers and their families owed a huge debt of gratitude to Guthrie for providing the resources to build manses so that the gospel could continue to prosper not just in the Highlands but across the whole of Scotland. Along with his Ragged Schools the Manse Fund was one of Guthrie's greatest legacies. With the one he showed mercy to helpless children and with the other he fought oppression by raising funds for manses.

He was made Moderator of the General Assembly of the Free Church of Scotland in 1862. He was succeeded in 1863 by Rev Roderick McLeod. Other roles included manager of Edinburgh Royal Infirmary, work for the Blind Asylum and work at the Night Refuge. In 1847 the degree of D.D. was conferred on him by the University of Edinburgh.

Dr Guthrie's most enduring legacy was the Ragged Schools which had a unique curriculum; education, regular meals, clothes, "industrial training" and Christian instruction. Most of the ragged children who attended the schools did not remain overnight but were in school for 12 hours in the summer and 11 hours in the winter. The day started at 8 am with the rather painful sounding 'ablutions' and the children were dismissed at 7:15 pm after supper. Guthrie describes the daily routine; "in the morning they are to break their fast on a diet of the plainest fare, – then march from their meal to their books; in the afternoon they are again to be provided with a dinner of the cheapest kind, – then back again to school; from which after supper, they return not to the walls of an hospital, but to their own homes. There, carrying with them a holy lesson, they may prove Christian missionaries to those dwellings of darkness and sin" Thomas Guthrie, Seed-Time and Harvest of Ragged Schools,.

The unique curriculum of Ragged Schools was done in an environment of discipline and structure although there is never a sense that the schools were harsh or austere. Guthrie was no great fan of corporal punishment and instead encouraged staff to win over children with kindness; "these Arabs of the city are wild as those of the desert, and must be broken into three habits, – those of discipline, learning and industry, not to speak of cleanliness. To accomplish this, our trust is in the almost omnipotent power of Christian kindness.  Hard words and harder blows are thrown away here.  With these alas they are too familiar at home, and have learned to be as indifferent to them as the smith's dog to the shower of sparks" Thomas Guthrie, Seed-Time and Harvest of Ragged Schools,. While Guthrie's management of the Ragged Schools was never sectarian or denominational he never compromised on Christian education. Perhaps one of his best quotes about the Ragged Schools sums up this view; "the Bible, the whole Bible, and nothing but the Bible; the Bible without note or comment – without the authoritative interpretation of priest or presbyter – as the foundation of all its religious teaching, and of its religious teaching to all". It was, however, through objections to the religious part of the curriculum that those who differed from Guthrie on the issue later founded the United Industrial School, giving combined secular and separate religious instruction.

Guthrie himself saw the Ragged Schools as his most enduring legacy; "I never engaged in a cause, as a man and a Christian minister that I believe on my death-bed I will look back on with more pleasure or gratitude to God, than that he led me to work for Ragged Schools. I have the satisfaction, when I lay my head upon my pillow, of always finding one soft part of it: and that is, that God has made me an instrument in His hand of saving many a poor creature from a life of misery and crime" Thomas Guthrie and Sons, Autobiography and Memoirs (London, 1896, p 496). Guthrie’s legacy of Ragged Schools did more than almost any social philanthropist in history to change the nation of Scotland. Amongst Guthrie’s last words he was overheard to say "a brand plucked from the burning!" His legacy was that through his vision and love for his Saviour, the Ragged School movement was established which in turn plucked thousands of little brands from a life of poverty and crime, and brought them to know the ultimate friend of sinners.

As well as Ragged Schools Guthrie was also well known for his work as a temperance campaigner, although he did not become a total abstainer himself until the age of 38. While he was always against drunkenness it was an experience while over in Ireland that turned him away from drink altogether. While travelling with a ministerial friend in 1841 they stopped at a small county inn on a terrible cold night. Seeking some warmth and comfort they ordered some ‘toddies’ (whiskey and hot water). Out of kindness they called in their driver and offered him the same hospitality. Guthrie was stunned when this staunch, but uneducated and uncultured, Roman Catholic explained that he was a teetotaller and would not touch a drop of alcohol. From that day forward Guthrie resolved to abstain from alcohol and became one of the leaders of the temperance movement.

The determination with which Guthrie pursued the temperance cause was all the more remarkable when we understand how unusual this position was in the first half of the 19th century. In his autobiography he reckons that when he was at Edinburgh University there was not a single student who was an abstainer. Perhaps even more remarkably Guthrie was unaware of any minister in the Church of Scotland who was a teetotaller. Undeterred by this, Guthrie established the Free Church Temperance Society along with Horatius Bonar and William Chalmers Burns. When the ‘Scottish Association for the Suppression of Drunkenness’ was formed in 1850 they turned to Guthrie to write their first booklet entitled ‘A Plea on behalf of Drunkards and against Drunkenness’. Other booklets followed and Guthrie was instrumental in bringing about the Licensing (Scotland) Act 1853 or the ‘Forbes Mackenzie Act’, as it is better known. This Act forced public houses to close at 10.00 pm on weekdays and all day on Sundays. Even today it is still illegal to buy alcohol after 10.00 pm in shops, although this is not so in Public Houses.

Guthrie’s work on total abstinence reached its climax with preaching a series of sermons on Luke 19 v 41 and their publication under the title, 'The City, Its Sins and Sorrows’ in 1857. The stories of the impact that these sermons had around the world are many and varied but space allows us to mention only one of them. One of Guthrie’s later biographers, Oliphant Smeaton, recounts meeting a wealthy Scot while visiting Australia. This man, while resident in Scotland, had lived a dissolute lifestyle but one day found himself wandering in to St John’s Free Church. Listening to the powerful oratory of Guthrie as he preached on Christ weeping over Jerusalem, the man left affected but unchanged. All week he tried to kill his conscience through plunging headlong into drunkenness.

The following Sunday he was drawn back to hear Guthrie again despite being under the influence of drink. The great orator did not disappoint. Toward the end of his sermon he leaned his huge frame over the pulpit and said with great feeling: "There are few families among us so happy as not to have had some one near and dear to them either in imminent peril hanging over the precipice, or the slave of intemperance altogether sold under sin." The hearer could contain his emotions no longer and left a broken man. The following day he sought out Dr Guthrie and was dealt with "fatherly kindness." He continues: "when he had knelt with me at the throne of grace, and offered up a prayer, the like of which I never heard before or since, he bade me farewell, inviting me to return and see him: but I never did so". Within weeks the man was on a ship to Australia where he became a wealthy businessman and generous contributor to charity work.

Among his writings are The Gospel in Ezekiel (1855) and Plea for Ragged Schools (1847), and The City, its Sins and Sorrows (1857), "Christ and the Inheritance of the Saints" (1858), "The Way to Life", Speaking to the Heart", the "Life of Robert Flockhart", "Man and the Gospel" (1865), "The Angels Song" (1865), "The Parables" (1866), "Our Fathers Business" (1867), "Out of Harness" (1867), "Early Piety" (1869), "Studies of Character" (1868–70) and "Sundays Abroad" (1871), "The Sunday Magazine"

 * Born at Brechin, Forfarshire. Minister successively of Arbirlot and of Old Greyfriars and St John's parish churches and of Free St John's Church in this city.

Thomas Guthrie died at St Leonards-on-Sea in Sussex in 1873 and was buried in The Grange Cemetery, Edinburgh. His grave is in a commanding position, terminating the main central avenue at its southern end. His will left his copy of the National Covenant to the Free Church.

His wife, Anne Burns (1810–1899), daughter of Rev James Burns of Brechin, is buried with him.

Memorials

Tributes in memory of him include the following:
 * A statue of him, in Portland stone, stands on Princes Street in Edinburgh, facing Castle Street. It was executed by the sculptor F. W. Pomeroy, and erected in 1910. Reading - An eloquent preacher of the gospel. Founder of the Edinburgh Original Ragged Industrial Schools, and by tongue and pen, the apostle of the movement elsewhere. One of the earliest temperance reformers. A friend of the poor and of the oppressed.
 * A plaque on the south wall of St. Giles Cathedral, executed by Pilkington Jackson
 * A plaque in the former Thomas Guthrie School in Liberton (now converted to flats and named "Smiddy Wynd")
 * A memorial in Brechin Cathedral (to him, and to his wife)
 * A sandstone bust is incorporated into the front wall of a house (now Creag Dhubh guesthouse) in Inveraray commemorating his stay in the house during the summer if 1866

Family and Descendants
He was married to Anne Burns, daughter of Rev James Burns, minister of Brechin Cathedral.

Thomas Guthrie was father of Lord Guthrie and great-grandfather of Tyrone Guthrie (1900–1971), a theatre director in Britain, Canada and Ireland and John Guthrie Ward (1909-1991), a diplomat who became British Ambassador to Argentina (1957-1961) and Italy (1962-1966).

title: Thomas Guthrie


text: Talk:Puddle Dive

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title: Talk:Puddle Dive


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Fordson

Fordson was a brand name of tractors and trucks. It was used on a range of mass-produced general-purpose tractors manufactured by Henry Ford & Son Inc from 1917 to 1920, by Ford Motor Company (U.S.) and Ford Motor Company Ltd (U.K.) from 1920 to 1928, and by Ford Motor Company Ltd (U.K.) alone from 1929 to 1964. The latter (Ford of Britain) also later built trucks and vans under the Fordson brand.

After 1964, the Fordson name was dropped and all Ford tractors were simply badged as Fords in both the UK and the US.

Production years

Between 1917 and 1922, the Fordson was for tractors somewhat like the Ford Model T was for automobiles—it captured the public's imagination and widely popularized the machine, with a reliable design, a low price affordable for workers and farmers, a widespread dealership network, and a production capacity for large numbers. Just as the Ford Model T helped the public to appreciate how soon cars and trucks might replace most horses in transport, the Fordson helped people to appreciate how soon tractors might replace most horses in farming (advancing the mechanization of agriculture). As with cars, Ford never had the market to itself, but it dominated the market for tractors, from roughly 1917–1925, and again from 1946 to 1953. Ford was the only automotive firm to sell cars, trucks, and tractors simultaneously from 1917 to 1928.

For a decade between 1928 and 1939, Ford of the U.S. left the tractor business. During that decade, Ford of Britain continued to build Ford and develop new variants, which it exported widely. In 1939 Ford of the U.S. reentered the tractor market with an all-new model, this time with the Ford brand. Ford of Britain continued to use the Fordson brand until 1964.

Fordson production took place in the U.S. (1917–1928); Cork, Ireland (1919–1923 and 1928–1933); and at Dagenham, Essex, England (1933–1964). Tens of thousands of Fordsons, most from the U.S. and some from Ireland, were exported to the Soviet Union from 1920 to 1927. Soviet Fordson clones were also built at Leningrad (now Saint Petersburg) from 1924 and at Stalingrad (now Volgograd) from 1930.

Ford experimental tractor development, 1907-1916

Henry Ford grew up in an extended family of farmers in Wayne County a few miles from Detroit, Michigan in the late 19th century. At the time, farm work was extremely arduous, because, on the typical farm, virtually nothing could get done without manual labor or animal labor as the motive power. As his interest in automobiles grew, he also expressed a desire to "lift the burden of farming from flesh and blood and place it on steel and motors." In the early 20th century, he began to build experimental tractors from automobile components. Four years after founding the Ford Motor Company in 1903, Ford finished his first experimental tractor in 1907 on Woodward Avenue in Detroit, referring to it as the "Automobile Plow". Approximately 600 gasoline-powered tractors were in use on American farms in 1908. Fordson tractor design was headed by Eugene Farkas and József Galamb, who had previously been involved in the design of the legendary Ford Model T.

Traction engines had been around for a while, but they were large, heavy, expensive machines suited to prairie grain farming more than to small family farms in other regions. In the early 1910s, North America and Europe were hungry for small, inexpensive tractors, and many people seized on the Model T as a platform with which to create them. The idea of an auto-like tractor, made using auto-like parts and methods or by conversion from autos, was ripe. American engineer, inventor, and businessman Henry Ford built experimental tractors from automobile components during the early 20th century and launched a prototype known as the Model B in August 1915. Further prototypes, with a dedicated tractor design, followed in 1916. With World War I raging in Europe, the first regular-production Henry Ford & Son tractors were exported to the U.K. in 1917 to expand British agriculture. In 1918, exports continued, the tractors began to be labeled as Fordsons, and U.S. domestic sales began. Sales boomed in 1918 and 1919.

Henry Ford experimented with auto-plows and heavier tractors. In August 1915, at a plowing demonstration in Fremont, Nebraska, he introduced a newly designed tractor known as the Model B. It used a 16 hp, two-cylinder, horizontally opposed engine, a spur gear transmission and three wheels - two front drivers and one rear steerer. The Model B was never produced but did gain enough publicity to let the world know Ford was interested in developing a tractor.

Knowing there was a demand for a Ford-built tractor, a group of entrepreneurs in Minneapolis organized The Ford Tractor Company, paying a company clerk surnamed Ford for the use of his name, to get sales and attention from the confusion of this "Ford" company with the well-known Ford Motor Company. The company built and sold some tractors, but anticipated a settlement with Henry Ford for permission to use their already-trademarked name. However, Ford thwarted them by using another name.

Fordson origins, Model F, and Model N

The prototypes of the new Henry Ford & Son tractor, which would later be called the Fordson, were completed in 1916. World War I was raging in Europe, and the United Kingdom, a net importer of food, was desperate for tractors in its attempt to expand its agriculture enough to feed Britain despite the great shipping disruption of the war. In 1917, the British Ministry of Munitions selected the Fordson for both importation from the U.S. and domestic U.K. production. It was thought that domestic U.K. production was preferable because so much Atlantic shipping was being sunk that exporting tractors from the U.S. would be counterproductive, as many would be lost at sea. This was soon modified to exclude the London area because of concerns about its vulnerability to German attacks. Henry Ford decided to build the tractor at Cork, Ireland (which at the time was still part of the U.K.), partly because he wanted to bring jobs to, and foster industriousness in, southern Ireland. But the Cork plant did not begin production until 1919 after the war had ended. As events turned out, thousands of tractors were exported from the U.S. in 1917 and 1918.

The tractor used a 20 hp, inline four-cylinder engine. The engine was similar to the Ford Model T engine in many respects. Like many engines of its day, it was multifuel-capable; it was usually tuned for gasoline or kerosene, but alcohol could also be burned. (Tractor vaporizing oil [TVO] existed in 1920 but was not yet widely used. It entered broader use in the 1930s and 1940s.) Like many other multifuel machines, the Fordson started on gasoline from a small auxiliary tank (just a few quarts/litres) and then switched over to the main fuel tank once warmed up sufficiently (no more than 5 minutes ). To handle the kerosene (or, rarely, TVO), the intake system had a vaporizer downstream of the carburetor. The mixture coming from the carburetor was intentionally rich, and the vaporizer heated it and mixed it with more air to lean it out to the final ratio before entering the inlet manifold. The intake system also had a water bath air cleaner to filter the dust out of the air inhaled by the engine (an invention that did not originate at Ford but that was still rather novel in 1917). Air cleaning is critical to engine lifespan, even for road vehicles and most especially for farming and construction vehicles (which work in environments where dirt is frequently stirred up into the air). The Fordson carburetor and air cleaner were designed by Holley. In later decades, the water bath would be replaced with an oil bath for better filtering performance.

The ignition system was similar to that of the Model T, with a flywheel-mounted low-tension magneto and trembler coils. The ignition timing was manually advanced or retarded with the spark advance lever mounted near the steering column, which rotated the timer. The cooling was by thermosiphon. (In later decades, a high-tension magneto and a water pump would be added.) The transmission was a three-speed spur gear (the three forward speeds ranged from approximately 2$1⁄4$ to 6$1⁄4$ mph ). A worm drive reduction set and a differential made up the rear. The design of the rear was patented for its ease of manufacture and service. Brakes were not provided on early Fordsons, as high-ratio worm sets generally transmitted rotation in one direction only, from the worm element to the gear element, because of the high power loss through friction. To stop the tractor, the driver depressed the clutch.

Ford engineer Eugene Farkas successfully made the engine block, oil pan, transmission, and rear axle stressed members constituting the frame. By eliminating the need for a heavy separate frame, costs were reduced and manufacturing was simplified. Ford held a patent on a unit-frame tractor. The rear wheels were fabricated steel, spoked and cleated. The earliest ones were 12-spoke; a 14-spoke version followed. Several models of the front wheel were used, including 10-spoked fabricated steel and 5-spoke cast iron. Industrial models also used other wheels designed for specific tasks, including aftermarket wheels.

In 1916 and 1917, the name "Fordson" was not yet used as the tractor's make or model name, nor was "Model F". During this period, terms such as "the [real/genuine] Ford tractor" or "the Henry Ford tractor", as well as "the MOM tractor" (because almost all output was going to the British Ministry of Munitions), were used. "The Ford Tractor Company" had already been registered on March 15, 1915, by W. Baer Ewing and Paul W. Ford. In early 1918, the name "Fordson" was trademarked, and within a few months, it was being marked on the tractors. Published sources vary somewhat on the origin of the name. All agree that the name reflects the contemporary name of the tractor company, "Henry Ford & Son", and its obvious eponyms: Henry and Edsel. Some claim that the company had been using the cable address "Fordson" for several years, which would mean even before the company was officially incorporated in July 1917. Another implies that February 1918 marked the first use of "Fordson" in a cablegram. Regardless, by April 1918 the name "Fordson" was established as the brand, and its eponyms were obvious. In that month, U.S. sales began under County War Board distribution rules. The Model F designation (for essentially the same model, with improvements) began in 1919. Sales boomed in 1918 and 1919.

There was nothing about the Fordson's design or farming capabilities that was a "first-ever" among tractors (Ford's version of a unit frame was novel for tractors, but that didn't give it special farming advantages). But it was the first tractor that combined all of the following factors: it was small, lightweight, mass-produced, and affordable; it had a large distribution network (dealers nearby in many locales); and it had a widely trusted brand (via Ford). Such factors made it possible for the average farmer to own a tractor for the first time. Thus Henry Ford and colleagues had done again, for the tractor, what they had recently done for the automobile with the Ford Model T. Ford incorporated his private company, Henry Ford and Son Inc, to mass-produce the tractor on July 27, 1917. The Fordson tractor went into mass production in 1917 and debuted for sale on October 8, 1917, for US$750.

At a hurriedly built factory in Dearborn, Michigan, he used the same assembly line techniques he used to mass-produce the Ford Model T. It took thirty hours and forty minutes to convert the raw materials into the 4,000 parts used for the tractor assembly. At this time, the Fordson sold for US$750; each cost $567.14 to manufacture (including labor, materials and overhead), leaving a profit of $182.86. Soon Dearborn was sending knock-down kits to final assembly plants in various U.S. states, including New Jersey, Iowa, and Missouri. The core of Fordson production later moved to the new Ford River Rouge Complex.

The Fordson succeeded in being cheaper to maintain than horses, as the Ford Model T had previously done. A government test concluded that farmers spent $.95 per acre plowing with a Fordson compared to feeding eight horses for a year and paying two drivers, which cost $1.46 per acre.

Despite several early design flaws and reliability issues such as engine failure and unbearable heat, the Fordson established a firm foothold on U.S. farms, with more than 70% market share in earlier years. By mid-1918, more than 6,000 Fordson tractors were in use in Britain, Canada, and the United States.

In the U.S., Ford established a policy in 1919 to loan Fordson tractors to educational institutions with vocational training programs. Agricultural colleges could use a Fordson for six months and then exchange it for a new one. Under this arrangement, forty-two tractors were loaned to such universities as Cornell, Idaho, Michigan, Maryland and Prairie View State Normal in Texas. Others went to the orphanage at Nacoochee Institute in Georgia, the Berry School at Rome, Georgia, and Camp Dix at Hutchinson, Kansas.

Annual production reached 36,781 in 1921 and 99,101 in 1926. By 1925, Ford had built its 500,000th Fordson tractor. Ford was the only automotive firm to sell cars, trucks, and tractors simultaneously from 1917 to 1928, during which time 552,799 Fordson tractors were built.

Operation

Like the Model T car, a Fordson tractor that was relatively new and well maintained would start easily in warm weather. Under such conditions, often a single crank pull would start it. However, in cold weather, starting could be difficult, especially once the machines were 10, 20, or 30 years old and worn out. In cold weather, the oil congealed on the cylinder walls and the clutch plates. The engine had to be hand cranked repeatedly with great effort. Strong men took turns cranking between intervals when individual ignition coils were adjusted. Sometimes farmers would build a fire under the tractor to warm up the crankcase and gearboxes to make it crank easier. The tractor, when in use, was fueled by kerosene, but gasoline was required to start it.

The Fordson could pull discs and plows that would require at least four mules to pull, and it could work all day long, provided the radiator was continually filled, the fuel replenished, and the water in the air filter tank changed. The carburetor air was filtered by bubbling it through a water tank. On dry days, the mud would build up in the water tank after a few of hours of operation. The mud would then have to be flushed out and the tank refilled.

Reliability and roll-overs

The Fordson Model F was not without flaws it shared with other brands. These problems included practical limits to traction, especially under muddy, snowy, or icy conditions, and the habit of rearing over backward if the plow encountered an obstruction. Many people complained that the traction would be better if the tractor were heavier, although Henry Ford always countered that merely adding weight was not a smart way to maximize traction.

Ford began shipping Fordson tractors to Ford Motor Company Limited in Britain in 1917 to meet an order from the British government for 5,000. Between the time the order was accepted and when production started, Ford overhauled the design to solve several problems. The car-type radiator was enlarged to 11 usgal capacity to cure overheating problems. The additional weight also helped hold the front down. In early Fordsons, the drive worm was located at the top under the driver's seat. During heavy operation, the heat became unbearable to the operator. The drive worm was relocated to solve this problem and also allowed larger rear wheels which improved traction. Several changes were also made to simplify manufacture. The Fordson used the Model T coil magneto system; and water and oil pumps were eliminated in favor of the simpler thermosiphon cooling and splash lubrication.

Despite design and assembly improvements, Ford's still required a high level of maintenance. A farmer near Atlanta in 1921 listed the cost of his Fordson repairs for the year as $1,246. He recorded problems in his diary, noting difficulty starting the engine, a broken wheel, engine failure, and the rear end bursting throughout January, totaling costs of $1,301 for 620 hours of work. A Colorado farmer telephoned his dealer three times a day to complain about his Fordson.

The most dangerous problem occurred when a towed implement became immovable: the stoppage of the implement would cause a reaction through the transmission that would flip the tractor over backward, sometimes killing the driver. This condition was caused by the low-geared worm drive, lightweight, and short length so there was an insufficient downward load to counter the reaction torque. The cause is sometimes said to have been introduced when the drive worm was relocated below the main drive pinion on the differential. However, the problem already existed, but was made worse by the higher differential position, which was accompanied by larger rear wheels, which required more torque to give the same drawbar force. One Indiana farmer believed the Fordson to be so dangerous that it should have been banned by law.

The Eastern Implement Dealer claimed that Fordsons killed 36 drivers in 1918. Pipp's Weekly further claimed that Fordsons had killed 136 men up to August 1922. Ford spokesmen maintained the accidents resulted from inexperienced drivers, saying any tractor could be dangerous if improperly handled. Satisfied customers praised the Fordson, saying it made farm work easier and performed ideally in orchards and truck farms.

Importation and production in Ireland, England, and the Soviet Union

As described earlier, because the Fordson was born in 1916, its production site choices and export/import were shaped by the Allied war effort for World War I. Almost all of the first tractors went to the U.K. in 1917. In 1918 and 1919, sales spread to Canada and the U.S., and U.K. production began in pre-independence Ireland.

Ford signed a contract for a large consignment of Fordson tractors to the Soviet Union in 1919, which soon became the largest customer of the company. From 1921 until 1927, the Soviet Union imported over 25,000 Fordsons. These inexpensive and robust tractors became the major enticement for Soviet peasants towards collectivization and were often seen on Soviet posters and paintings during the era, such as in The First Tractor. As also happened with Ford cars and trucks imported in the early 1920s, the Soviets immediately began their domestic production of replacement parts and clones. In 1924, the Leningrad plant "Red Putilovite" (Красный Путиловец) started the production of Fordson-Putilovets tractors (Фордзон-путиловец). During the 1920s, the Soviet versions had a reputation for insufficient quality. Much of this was because the metallurgy and heat treatment were wrong. For example, no matter how perfectly one machines a shaft or gear, it will fail early if the hardness is wrong. As Soviet industrialization progressed in the 1930s, the worst of the quality problems were solved.

By mid-1918, more than 6,000 Fordson tractors, all U.S.-built, were in use in Britain, Canada, and the United States. After World War I ended, production began in Cork, Ireland, in parallel with U.S. production. Fordson tractors quickly shaped the U.S. tractor market and held over 70% of the market in earlier years.

Henry Ford had a power struggle with Ford Motor Company's shareholders (including the Dodge Brothers, Horace and John Dodge) that culminated in 1919. He resigned from Ford Motor Company with the threat (fully realizable) to treat Henry Ford & Son Inc as his new enterprise for all of his future cars, trucks, and tractors (he would begin with all-new designs), which would turn Ford Motor Company into a mere badly led competitor, destroying its stock's value. This maneuver worked; Henry Ford bought out all the minority shareholders of Ford Motor Company in 1919, and then consolidated ownership in the Ford family: fifty-five percent in his name, forty-two percent in son Edsel's name and the remaining three percent in wife Clara's name. He merged Henry Ford & Son into the Ford Motor Company in 1920.

Annual production reached 36,781 in 1921. The Fordson had established a firm foothold on U.S. farms.

In February 1922, after-sales had suffered from the depression of 1920–1921 and with stiffer competition from International Harvester, John Deere, J.I. Case, Allis-Chalmers, and others, Ford decided to reduce the price of the Model F from $625 to $395. This sparked a price war in the tractor industry known as the "tractor wars". To compensate for the lower price, Ford had to cut costs and strive for larger-volume production.

Meanwhile, in Ireland, the Irish War of Independence occurred. Production at Cork never flourished during this first period, although a few thousand tractors a year were built. Ford ended production at Cork in 1922 and shipped the factory's equipment back to the U.S. in 1923. (It would return some years later, as described below.)

By 1925, Ford had built its 500,000th Fordson tractor. Annual production reached 99,101 in 1926. By May 1927, total production figures had reached 650,000.

In February 1928, Ford surprised his U.S. market by ending U.S. Fordson production. Various reasons have been suggested. One was that IHC's Farmall and other competitors had taken away the mystique of the Fordson in the U.S., and Henry Ford was not content to compete in the U.S. tractor market on a mere commodity basis; he wanted decisive competitive edges. Another is that he envisioned moving all production to Ireland and England because Europe, including Russia, was set to become the most important Fordson market. Henry Ford did not elaborate on his reasons.

Ford of England restarted Fordson manufacture at Cork, which involved a lot of work given that the factory had been disassembled in 1923. Ford Ltd bought much of the tooling from Ford of the U.S. From 1930, Fordson tractors were again sold in the United States, via imports from Cork; the Dagenham plant opened in 1933 and took over production from the Cork plant, which was again closed. George and Eber Sherman became the leading importers of English-built Fordsons.

After Cork became the sole production site in 1928, exports to the US were limited to 1,500 a month. This disrupted the business of countless firms, including Ford dealerships and aftermarket equipment makers (which was a large industry both for the Model T and the Fordson). Many of these firms formed a conglomerate called the United Tractor & Equipment Corporation, which arranged a deal with Allis-Chalmers to build a substitute tractor. By 1933, the deal fell apart, as the Great Depression damaged the economy, and dealers and aftermarket builders could also import Cork-built Fordsons and, starting in 1933, Dagenham-built Fordsons. The United tractor became the Allis-Chalmers Model U.

Given Ford's shutdown of U.S. Fordson production, the next big Soviet orders of American tractors via the Amtorg Trading Corporation went to IHC and others.

The Roaring Twenties had certainly been good for the Ford Motor Company. Even though Henry Ford had to deal with the disappointment of learning that the public would not forever adore and demand his original models of car, truck, and tractor (the Model T, Model TT, and Fordson), his new model of car and truck (Model A) was also very successful. Fordson's success continued at Ford Ltd even though it came to an end in the U.S.

Fordson Model N Standard

The Fordson Model N replaced the Fordson Model F. It was an improved variant of the F. Production of the Model N started in Cork in 1927. Production of the Fordson Model N was transferred from Cork to Dagenham in 1933. The Model N featured a 27 HP engine, standard rear fenders (mudguards), a higher voltage ignition system, and optional pneumatic tires. In 1935 power take-off (PTO) was available as an option on the Model N.

The Fordson Model N was probably the most important tractor in the United Kingdom during World War II. The Dagenham plant produced over 136,000 Model N tractors during the war. Ford of the U.S. also exported Model 9N tractors to the U.K. during the war.

1930s experimentation at Dearborn
After U.S. Fordson production ceased in 1928, Irish-built and later English-built Fordsons were imported to the U.S.; Eber Sherman was a principal importer.

The development of new Fordson/Ford tractors in the U.S. remained mostly inactive for about 10 years after the end of U.S. production, although Ford did experiment with several designs during the 1930s. Most of them never left the drawing board, which was intentional; Henry Ford was interested in continuing R&D (and continued paying Ford engineers to work on it), although he wasn't going to put any models into production until all conditions (design, market) were right for commercial success. A Fordson row-crop model, essentially a "Fordson version of the Farmall" with tricycle design and high clearance, was prototyped at Dearborn in 1930-1931 but waited until 1936 to be produced, when Ford Ltd of Britain produced it as the Fordson All-Around. (It was not without precedent, for the aftermarket had presaged it, although not with the high clearance; in 1939, Ford filed a patent for raising and lowering the clearance on the fly. ) The idea of variable front track for row-crop tractors was also considered at Ford during this era. Achieving it via pivoting cantilevered wheel mounts was one of the options, although Ford never put that method into production (it later reached production in the form of the Avery Ro-Trak in 1938). The thought devoted to the topic paid off later, when the Ford 9N achieved it with another, simpler method. Between 1928 and 1932, Henry Ford's attention became consumed mostly by the development and introduction of his company's first V8 engine, which was introduced by Ford on March 31, 1932, and was an immediate success in Ford cars and trucks. Experimental V8-powered tractor prototypes were built, but no production occurred.

By the late 1930s, Henry Ford's enthusiasm for reentering the tractor market was growing, but he still did not have a design or features that could ensure a runaway, market-changing success. His idea for a tractor with one large drive wheel was extensively developed, but the prototypes did not perform well. Various people who worked on it have wondered whether it was just a ruse to mislead Ford's competitors about his real intentions for a coming model, but it seems that he was quite serious about it and was probably disappointed that it did not work out; if it had worked, it would have been a powerful fulfillment of his penchant for simplicity and very low cost.

His 1938 meeting with Harry Ferguson was the turning point that led to the next Ford tractor, the 9N. The Ferguson system—whose hitch we now call the three-point hitch, or three-point linkage (3PL)—gave Ford the kind of new and special feature that he was wishing to find—something to give a groundbreaking competitive advantage to any new Ford tractor entering the market. After the 1939 introduction of this new line of "Ford" tractors made in the U.S. (the Ford N-series tractors), there was very little importation of English Fordson models to the U.S.

E27N

The Fordson E27N Major was an upgrade to the Fordson N and was made in England from March 1945, having the same engine and transmission as the Model N, but in a new casting which allowed for a PTO and a hydraulic lift unit manufactured by either Smiths or Varley. The differential however was of a completely new design. For the first time, Fordson owners could purchase a tractor from the dealer fully equipped with 3PL, PTO, full electrics, and an adjustable-width front axle, allowing the tractor to work row crops. Available in many different versions, such as the crawler conversion made by County, and the half-tracked version by Roadless. From 1948 onwards the Perkins P6(TA) could be ordered fitted from the factory, giving the tractor a 45 hp power unit, and improving on the design that was let down by the under-powered petrol/TVO engine. The E27N was a popular Machine with Australian farmers, setting the way for large sales of the New Major (E1A).

E1A
Post-war shortages delayed the development of an entirely new tractor. In 1952, the "New Major" entered production with a new Ford engine range. The 4D engine was designed and manufactured in the UK at Dagenham and was available as Diesel, Petrol, or Petrol/Kerosene. The tractor had a 6-speed modified version of the E27N transmission. The driver sat significantly lower, which led to the E27N being nicknamed the 'High Major'. In 1958, - the Power Major - was introduced with 51.8 hp and improved transmission and 'live-drive' hydraulics, Then in 1960 the final version, the Super Major came out with a weight transfer system and differential lock. The Super Major was produced until 1964. These tractors were exported to the US - the first since 1939 - badged as Fords.

Dexta
Meanwhile, a smaller new three-cylinder version which was named the Dexta had been launched to compete with the success of the Massey Ferguson 35, of which it shared the basic gearbox and differential casings as well as many other parts. The Dexta and later models MF35 (early models had a Standard 3-cylinder diesel engine) featured the Perkins A3 engine, with a few differences. The engine was at 144 cuin in early Dextas, whereas later machines and Perkins engined MF 35s had the 152 cuin version. The two tractors also had different injector systems and many further differences despite their common platform. The gasoline version of the Dexta had the same Standard engine as the Ferguson TEA and FE 35, one difference being that the starter was relocated to the right side of the Dexta. Unlike the Ferguson, the gasoline Dexta had the same gearbox castings as the diesel version.

Aftermarket accessories and conversions

Like Model T cars and trucks, the Fordson tractor provided the basis for a large and varied aftermarket in accessories and conversions. A pair of articles in a 1922 issue of the Chilton Tractor Journal describes the business environment and gives photographs of many of the attachments and conversions available. As with most other tractors, farmers and construction contractors could buy aftermarket governors, ignition parts, hitches, and drawbars; but with the Fordson especially, one could buy a crawler tractor, road grader, or self-propelled combine built by an aftermarket firm that used the Fordson essentially as a platform. For example, the original Gleaner self-propelled combines were built by attaching the combine to a Fordson. At least 3 companies offered crawler conversions, and others offered enlarged cleats, including the "overgrown tire chain" type that had led to crawler development not long before. Several companies converted Fordsons to road graders; the Wehr (video) is well remembered. The first tricycle cultivator version of the Fordson was available as an aftermarket conversion by the Moline Implement Company as early as 1920 or 1921, which was 3 to 4 years before the Farmall was introduced, a full decade before Dearborn prototyped the Fordson All-Around,  and a full decade and a half before Ford Ltd produced that model. It lacked those tractors' high clearance but was otherwise prescient.

An economically significant concept is illustrated by kits such as the Dearborn Tractor Control. Its attachments let the person riding the towed implement control the tractor from the implement seat. Such a setup was offered for Fordson by at least 3 aftermarket suppliers. It was reminiscent of earlier mechanized efforts such as the Detroit Tractor, Moline Universal, and Allis-Chalmers Model 6-12 in that it represented the most literal kind of horse replacement (in some suppliers' cases, even retaining the reins as the control method). But besides providing mere comfort and familiarity for farmers accustomed to working with horses, it also neutralized an economic disadvantage of the tractors of the era. With horses, one person could control both the motive power and the implement, but with a tractor, two were required, because the tractor required a driver and the implement, in many cases, required an operator. Most implements of the era were legacy horse-drawn equipment (a fact that Harry Ferguson had to battle in trying to sell his system of tractor-specific implements during the 1920s and 1930s). Setups such as these cut back the man-hour requirement to match that of the horse—while the tractor's high power and lack of daily, year-round feeding ("eats only when it works") continued to beat the horse economically otherwise. The two-person requirement was often not a problem on farms that had large families; a son or daughter was usually available for duty. But the farm help problem was felt keenly on many other farms, especially during the world wars. Technological advancement eventually made it standard for one person to control both the tractor and implement, via the growing suite of hydraulic and electrical controls, especially after World War II.

In 1926 a corporation called Snow-Motors Inc demonstrated a Fordson Model F converted into a snowmobile, which they dubbed the Snow-Motor. The tractor used bullet-shaped screws instead of wheels or continuous track units to move across the snow. They were used (unsuccessfully) by Richard Byrd's first Antarctic Expedition.

Rail conversions
To displace both horses and steam from remote logging railways (bush trams), several enterprising inventors took the Fordson tractor and made modifications to allow them to run on rails. Extra bogies (wheel sets) were added behind and in front of some versions and acted as log bogies, whilst increasing traction on the light rail lines, without increasing weight. Dunedin company Trails Ltd used the Fordson F as a base, adding a reverser, so the tractor could operate either way at the same speeds, and a powered bogie to act as a powered log bogie. Wellington company Nattrass advanced this design, and both companies' sales spelled the end of horse-operated bush trams in New Zealand. Nattrass also enjoyed sales in Australia. The last locomotive built by A & G Price, a noted steam and diesel locomotive builder was completed in 1970 and used a Fordson Major E1 as a base.

Other Ford tractors
In the United States Ford reentered the tractor business in 1938 with the Ford N-series tractors. In 1953 this series was replaced by the Ford NAA tractors.

Starting around 1961, the U.S. tractor operations and the Ford Ltd U.K. tractor operations, which had been substantially independent although always in close communication, were reorganized into closer integration. After 1964, all tractors made by the Ford companies worldwide carried the Ford brand. In 1986, Ford expanded its tractor business when it purchased the Sperry-New Holland skid-steer loader and hay baler, hay tools and implement company from Sperry Corporation and formed Ford-New Holland which bought out Versatile tractors in 1988. In 1991 Ford sold its tractor division to Fiat with the agreement that they must stop using the Ford name by 2000. In 1999, Fiat removed all Ford identification from their blue tractors and renamed them "New Holland" tractors.

Tractor models

 * Fordson Model F
 * Fordson Model N
 * Fordson All-Around (also called Fordson Row Crop)
 * Fordson Major E27N
 * Fordson New Major
 * Fordson Dexta
 * Fordson Power Major
 * Fordson Super Major (called the Ford 5000 in U.S.)
 * Fordson Super Dexta (called the Ford 2000 Diesel in U.S.)

Trucks
The first heavy-duty 2-ton truck ever built by Fordson was introduced in 1926. While there are many similarities between the Ford Model T and the Fordson, there are also distinct differences. The truck included front-end gears and suspensions similar to the Model T, however, the rear suspension was, according to Ford, the most unique feature in that it consisted of two cantilever springs with feather-edge axles. The engine was unique in that it was positioned under the cab and was far back in the chassis, so the truck had a snub-nose appearance.

There was only one 1926 Fordson truck to ever be delivered to a customer and it was listed for sale on Mecum Auctions in 2019.

title: Fordson


text:
Alfred Matthew Hubbard

Alfred Matthew Hubbard (July 24, 1901 – August 31, 1982), was an early proponent for the drug LSD during the 1950s. He is reputed to have been the "Johnny Appleseed of LSD" and the first person to emphasize LSD's potential as a visionary or transcendental drug.

Career
In 1920, Hubbard was publicized in West Coast newspapers as having developed a free energy motor, though a Popular Science article published in 1928 referred to it as a hoax. In 1929, he received for a radioactive "Internal Combustion Engine Spark Plug" device, which was manufactured sparingly by at least one U.S. company. It used an electrode doped with polonium 210, a radioactive isotope with a half-life of 138 days. The supposed "ionizing effect" of polonium 210 upon the combustion gases in the spark gap was purported to "improve engine efficiency".

Motion was said to be among Hubbard's passions. His identity as "Captain" came from his Master of Sea Vessels certification and a stint in the US Merchant Marine.

According to some accounts, Hubbard worked at various times for the Canadian Special Services, the United States Justice Department, the United States Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, Firearms, and Explosives and the Office of Strategic Services, or OSS (predecessor of the US Central Intelligence Agency).

As Hubbard told the story to Willis Harman (and Harman told it to Todd Brendan Fahey, a reporter for High Times), he was hiking in Washington State when an angel appeared to him in a clearing. "She told Al that something tremendously important to the future of mankind would be coming soon, and he could play a role in it if he wanted to. But he hasn't the faintest clue what he was supposed to be looking for."

Having read in a scientific journal about the then-obscure drug LSD-25, Hubbard felt this was something that he was destined to learn more about and to be involved with. Hubbard found a researcher who was conducting reported experiments on LSD with rats. He was able to obtain some LSD for himself. He believed in its utility for opening the human mind to deeper, broader vistas.

The confident and connected Al Hubbard invited Dr. Humphry Osmond to join him for lunch at the Vancouver Yacht Club. Osmond and his colleagues were using the drug, as well as the similar substance, mescaline, in psychiatric research and treatment at Weyburn, Saskatchewan. Osmond later recalled that the Yacht Club "was a very dignified place, and I was rather awed by it. [Hubbard] was a powerfully-built man...with a broad face and a firm hand-grip. He was also very genial, an excellent host." "Captain Hubbard" was interested in acquiring some mescaline, which was then still legal, and Dr. Osmond supplied him with some.

By the time Timothy Leary and his colleagues were experimenting with psychedelic drugs in the psychology department of Harvard in the early 1960s, Hubbard had obtained a supply of Sandoz LSD. Hubbard went there to meet Leary and wanted to swap some LSD for some psilocybin, the synthesized constituent of magic mushrooms identified, and then produced, by Switzerland's Sandoz Laboratories.

The Central Intelligence Agency grew out of the post-World War II OSS, which was reputed to be one of Hubbard's employers. Under the auspices of MK-ULTRA, the CIA regularly dosed its agents and associates with powerful hallucinogens as a preemptive measure against what was alleged to be the Soviets' own chemical technology, sometimes with disastrous results. It is possible that Hubbard had some links with the CIA, but Humphry Osmond doubts that Hubbard would have been associated with a project like MK-ULTRA, "not particularly on humanitarian grounds, but on the grounds that it was bad technique."

"I was convinced that he was the man to bring LSD to planet Earth," remarked Myron Stolaroff, who was assistant to the president of long-range planning at electronics company Ampex Corporation when he met the Captain. Stolaroff learned of Hubbard through a mentor, philosopher Gerald Heard, a friend and spiritual mentor to Aldous Huxley.

According to Todd Brendan Fahey, Hubbard introduced more than 6,000 people to LSD, including scientists, politicians, intelligence officials, diplomats, and church figures.

title: Alfred Matthew Hubbard


text:
John Hales (theologian)

John Hales (19 April 1584 – 19 May 1656) was an English cleric, theologian and writer. An eminent if modest and critic, his posthumous works earned him the title of the "Ever-memorable".

Early life
He was born in St. James' parish, Bath, on 19 April 1584. His father, John Hales, had an estate at Highchurch, near Bath, and was steward to the Horner family. After passing through the Bath grammar school, Hales went on 16 April 1597 as a scholar of Corpus Christi College, Oxford and graduated B.A. on 9 July 1603. He came to the notice of Sir Henry Savile, and was elected as a fellow of Merton College in 1605. He took orders; shone as a preacher, though not for his voice; and graduated M. A. on 20 June 1609. At Merton he distinguished himself as lecturer in Greek; he is said by Clarendon to have been largely responsible for Savile's edition of Chrysostom (1610–13). In 1612 he became public lecturer on Greek to the university. Next year he delivered (29 March) a funeral oration on Sir Thomas Bodley. Soon after (24 May) he was admitted fellow of Eton College, of which Savile was Provost. He was Regius Professor of Greek in 1615.

Synod of Dort
In 1616 Hales went to the Netherlands as chaplain to the ambassador, Sir Dudley Carleton. Carleton sent him in 1618 to the Synod of Dort, as observer, and he remained there from 13 November till the following February. Then Walter Balcanquhall took over for him. Anthony Farindon states (as on Hales's own authority) that Hales departed from Calvinism when Simon Episcopius pressed the verse St. John iii. 16 to support his own doctrine. According to Hales's own letter (19 January 1619) it was Matthias Martinius of Bremen, who took a middle position, who employed this text. It is not clear that Hales became an Arminian, but in any case he came away less sectarian, and he was impressed by the debate on schism, which he reported on 1 December 1618.

Later life
Hales then refused all offers of ecclesiastical preferment, choosing instead a scholarly retirement in a Fellowship of Eton College, of which his friends Sir Henry Savile and Sir Henry Wotton were successively Provost. He lived much among his books, visiting London only once a year, although he was possibly there more frequently during the period (1633–43) of Lucius Cary's connection with London.

In 1642, he was ejected from his stall as canon of Windsor by the parliamentary committee. He was not immediately turned out of his fellowship at Eton, but by 1644 both armies had battened onto the college rents. Hales hid himself for nine weeks in a private lodging in Eton, living on brown bread and beer at a cost of sixpence a week. On his refusal to take the engagement of 16 April 1649 he was formally dispossessed of his fellowship. Penwarden, who was put into his place, offered to share, but he declined. He went to Richings Lodge, near Colnbrook, Buckinghamshire, the residence of Anne Salter, second wife to Sir William Salter and sister to Brian Duppa, as tutor to her son William. To this house Henry King also retreated, with some members of his family, and they lived a sort of a collegiate life, with Hales acting as chaplain. After the order against harbouring malignants, he left Mrs. Salter against her wish, and lodged in Eton, selling his library.

Hales died at Eton on 19 May 1656.

Biographers
His life was to have been written by Farindon; but Farindon died before the issue of the Golden Remains, to which his contribution is a letter to Garthwait the publisher. It is said that John Pearson was asked to take up Farindon's task; but he contented himself by prefixing to the Remains a few pages of eulogy. Farindon's materials passed to William Fulman, who likewise failed to write the memoir. Use has been made of Fulman's papers by John Walker and Chalmers.

John Aubrey, probably incorrectly, attributed to Hales the title "the first Socinian in England", an epithet he had earlier, equally incorrectly, previously given to Lucius Cary, 2nd Viscount Falkland.

Works
His reports to Carleton are included in his Golden Remains; an additional letter (11–22 December 1618) is given in Carleton's Letters (1757), and is in the 1765 edition of Hales's Works.

Main works
On the appearance (in 1628 and 1633) of two anonymous eirenic and Socinian tracts, he was commonly but inaccurately accredited with their authorship. Hales wrote little for publication. His works are:
 * Oratio Funebris habita in Collegio Mertonensi . . . quo die . . . Thomse Bodleio funus ducebatur, &c., Oxford, 1613.
 * A Sermon . . . concerning the Abuses of the obscure places of Holy Scripture, &c., Oxford, 1617.
 * The sermon Of Dealing with Erring Christians, preached at St. Paul's Cross, seems also to have been printed, at Farindon's instigation.
 * The sermon Of Duels, preached at the Hague, is said to have been printed, though Farindon implies the contrary.

Other works
Other pieces, published during his lifetime, but apparently without his authority, were:
 * The Way towards the Finding of a Decision of the Chief Controversie now debated concerning Church Government, &c., 1641, anon.
 * A Tract concerning Schisme and Schismatiques, ... by a learned and judicious divine, &c., 1642; two London editions, same year, also one at Oxford, with animadversions.
 * Of the Blasphemie against the Holy Ghost, &c., 1646, anon.

Posthumous

 * Golden Remains of the Ever Memorable Mr. John Hales, &c., 1659; 2nd edit., with additions, 1673; 3rd edit.
 * Sermons preached at Eton, &c.
 * Several Tracts, &c., 1677; 2nd edit., 1716, with addition of the letter to Laud.

The ''Works. . . now first collected'', &c., were edited by Sir David Dalrymple, Lord Hailes, and printed at Glasgow by Foulis, 1765, in 3 vols.

Note:The eirenic tract on Schism and Schismatiques may have been written about 1636. Hales describes it as 'a letter,' and 'for the use of a private friend,' probably William Chillingworth, then working on his Religion of Protestants (1637). Those two works, with the Discourse of Infallibility (1645) of Lucius Cary, 2nd Viscount Falkland, have been identified as key texts of the Great Tew Circle to which Hales belonged.

It was circulated in manuscript, and a copy fell into the hands of William Laud. Hearing that the paper had given offence to the archbishop, Hales wrote, and Laud interviewed him. Des Maizeaux mentions the story that Hales assisted Laud in the second edition (1639) of his Conference with John Percy. Laud made him one of his chaplains, and obtained for him a canonry at Windsor, into which he was installed on 27 June 1639.

title: John Hales (theologian)


text:
Basil Hall

Basil Hall (31 December 1788 – 11 September 1844) was a British naval officer from Scotland, a traveller, and an author. He was the second son of Sir James Hall, 4th Baronet, an eminent man of science.

Early life
Although his family home was at Dunglass, Haddingtonshire (now East Lothian), Basil Hall was born in George Square, Edinburgh, at his aunt's house. He was educated at the Royal High School and joined the Royal Navy in 1802, being commissioned a Lieutenant in 1808, and later rising to the rank of captain.

Hall served aboard many vessels involved in exploration and scientific and diplomatic missions. From the beginning of his naval career he had been encouraged by his father to keep a journal, which later became the source for a series of books and publications describing his travels.

Service in the Napoleonic Wars
While serving aboard HMS Endymion (1797), Hall witnessed Sir John Moore being carried dying from the Battle of Corunna. It was also aboard the Endymion that Hall met William Howe De Lancey, who later married Hall's sister Magdalene. De Lancey was struck by a cannonball at the Battle of Waterloo, and it was for her brother that Magdalene wrote A Week at Waterloo in 1815, a poignant narrative describing how she nursed him in his final days.

In 1810 he voyaged to Rockall aboard the Endymion and in 1811 was part of the first landing party there. His hazardous exploits in returning with this party were described in Fragments of Voyages and Travels.

Publication on the geology of the Cape of Good Hope
In 1813, Hall published along with Professor John Playfair a description of the granitic intrusions within the sedimentary sandstone structures that he saw in the Platteklip Gorge near the Table Mountain in the Cape of Good Hope. The phenomenon was re-examined at another location called as the Green Point Contact by Charles Darwin in 1836.

Travels to Java, China, Korea, and the Ryukyu Islands
Hall explored Java in 1813 and as a part of a diplomatic mission to China under Lord Amherst in 1816 undertook surveys of the west coast of Korea and the outlying Ryukyu Islands. This resulted in his book Account of a Voyage of Discovery to the West Coast of Corea and the Great Loo-Choo Island in the Japan Sea (1818), which was one of the first descriptions of Korea by a European.

Description of an 1815 shipwreck
Hall's journals also provide one of the few accounts of the wreck of the Arniston in 1815, which gave its name to the seaside town of Arniston, South Africa. As a captain, he was very critical of the fact that this ship did not have a marine chronometer with which to calculate longitude, and attributed the great loss of life directly to this false economy.

Interviewing Napoleon
In 1817 he also took the opportunity to interview Napoleon (who had been an acquaintance of his father) on St. Helena.

Travels to Chile, Peru, and Mexico
Hall took command of HMS Conway (1814) in May 1820 and in August he sailed her to the west coast of South America. He returned to England in spring 1823 and Conway was paid off. His journals of this period became the book, Extracts from a Journal Written on the Coasts of Chile, Peru and Mexico (1823).

Marriage
Following his retirement from the navy in 1823, Hall was married on 1 March 1825 to Margaret Congalton (d. 1876), the youngest daughter of Sir John Hunter, Consul-General in Spain by his spouse Elizabeth Barbara, sister to Sir William Arbuthnot, 1st Baronet. Hall and Congalton also had daughter, Eliza, who married Admiral William Charles Chamberlain.

Travels to South Carolina and Georgia
In 1826, when Sir Walter Scott was sunk in depression following his wife's death and financial ruin, it was Hall who organised a trip to Naples for Scott, managing to persuade the government to place a ship at his disposal. In 1828 he was elected into the National Academy of Design as an Honorary Academician. Also that year, Hall and his wife embarked on a two-year tour of North America. In 1828, part of their route saw them travel over land from Charleston, South Carolina, then along the Savannah River by canoe from the ferry landing. They stayed at City Hotel in Savannah, Georgia, a city that Hall found "showy". He "liked the view of the city from the river, the plentiful trees, but did not approve of the wide streets that afforded so little shade".

Publications about his travels
In 1829 Hall published Travels in North America, which caused some offence due to his criticisms of American society. His best-known work was The Fragments of Voyages and Travels (9 volumes, 1831–1840), originally released as three yearly series of eight volumes each. He also contributed to the Encyclopædia Britannica and wrote scientific papers on subjects as varied as trade winds, the geology of Table Mountain and a comet he observed in Chile.

Travels to Styria and influence on Carmilla
In 1834, Hall apparently accepted an invitation from Jane Cranstoun, the Countess of Purgstall, to visit her estates in Styria, which she bequeathed two years later to the eminent historian and Orientalist, Joseph von Hammer-Purgstall. The result was Schloss Hainfeld; or, a Winter in Lower Styria, a Gothic travel account, which may have inspired Sheridan Le Fanu's Carmilla.

Detention and death in a hospital
Suffering from mental illness, Hall was detained in the Royal Hospital Haslar in Portsmouth, where he died in 1844, aged 55.

title: Basil Hall


text:
Hiram Paulding

Hiram Paulding (December 11, 1797 – October 20, 1878) was a rear admiral in the United States Navy, who served from the War of 1812 until after the Civil War.

Naval career
The son of John Paulding, Paulding was born in Cortlandt, New York. He was appointed Midshipman on September 1, 1811. During the War of 1812, he served on Lakes Ontario and Champlain, commanding the second division from USS Ticonderoga (1814) during the Battle of Lake Champlain. After the war he served in USS Constellation (1797), off the Algerian coast, and in USS Independence (1814), the brig USS Prometheus (1814), and USS Macedonian (1810).

On his return from service in Macedonian with the Pacific Squadron (1818–1821), he spent a year's leave at Capt. Alden Partridge’s Military Academy (later Norwich University), Norwich, Vermont. In the ensuing years of the decade he served in USS Sea Gull (1818) on the West Indies station, and in USS United States (1797) on the Pacific station. While serving on the USS United States (1797) Paulding was chosen to carry Commodore Hull's dispatches from Callao, Peru, to the mountain headquarters of General Simon Bolivar in the Andes; Paulding's journey of 1,500 miles on horseback was later recorded in his book, Bolivar in His War Camp. The following year he volunteered to serve under John "Roaring Jack" Percival in the USS Dolphin (1821) as that vessel pursued mutineers of the whaler Globe, then returned to United States. In 1830 he rejoined Constellation to serve as 1st Lieutenant, as she cruised the Mediterranean for two years, and in 1834 assumed command of the schooner USS Shark (1821) for another Mediterranean tour. Appointed to command the sloop-of-war USS Levant (1837) in 1838, he made a cruise in the West Indies and in 1841 became Executive Officer of the New York Navy Yard.

In 1844, Paulding was promoted to captain, and in 1845 he assumed command of USS Vincennes (1826) for a three-year East Indian cruise and took command of that station with the departure of Commodore James Biddle for the United States. Between 1848 and 1852 he commanded USS St. Lawrence (1848) in the Baltic, North, and Mediterranean Seas, then assumed command of the Washington Navy Yard.

Promoted to commodore, Paulding took command of the Home Squadron followed aboard the flagship USS Wabash (1855). The squadron was instrumental in foiling the expedition against Nicaragua underway by the American William Walker, who had dreamed of uniting the nations of Central America into a vast military empire led by himself. Through insurrection, Walker became president of Nicaragua in 1856 when Costa Rica declared war to him. After his surrender to an allied Central American army and his return to the United States, Walker attempted for a military comeback when he was captured in 1857 by a landing of Home Squadron Marines. Stateside controversy over the questionable legality of seizing American nationals in foreign, neutral lands prompted President James Buchanan to relieve Paulding of his command, forcing him into retirement.

In 1861, Paulding was appointed by President Abraham Lincoln to assist in building up a wartime fleet. He then took over the New York Navy Yard. Paulding was assigned to evacuate ships from the Norfolk Naval Shipyard, which the Confederates planned to seize, in April 1861. Paulding found that Charles Stewart McCauley, commander of the navy yard, had ordered destruction of the ships. Paulding had to complete the work of burning and scuttling the largest number of the ships. He was able to remove the USS Cumberland, towed by the USS Pawnee. The USS Merrimack (1855) was burned to the waterline, but it was refitted latter as the CSS Virginia. In August 1861, Paulding was named by Secretary of the Navy Gideon Welles to the Ironclad Board, responsible for approving designs for and construction of ironclad warships. The result was the construction of USS New Ironsides, USS Galena (1862) and (most famously) USS Monitor.

After the war Paulding served as governor of the Naval Asylum at Philadelphia and as post-admiral at Boston. Paulding died at Huntington, Long Island, New York, 20 October 1878. He published a Journal of a Cruise Among the Islands of the Pacific (1831).

Namesake
The destroyer USS Paulding (DD-22) was named in honor of Rear Admiral Paulding.

title: Hiram Paulding


text:
Anna Maria Hall

Anna Maria Hall (6 January 1800 – 30 January 1881) was an Irish novelist who often published as "Mrs. S. C. Hall". She married Samuel Carter Hall, a writer on art, who described her in Retrospect of a Long Life, from 1815 to 1883. She was born Anna Maria Fielding in Dublin, but left Ireland for England at the age of 15.

Life
Hall was born in Dublin on 6 January 1800. She lived with her mother, a widow named Sarah Elizabeth Fielding, and stepfather, George Carr of Graigie, Wexford, until 1815. The daughter came to England with her mother in 1815. Anna Maria was educated in part by Frances Arabella Rowden, who was not only a poet, but, according to Mary Mitford, "had a knack of making poetesses of her pupils" This ties Anna Maria to other of Rowden's pupils such as Rosina Doyle Wheeler, later Rosina Bulwer Lytton; Caroline Posonby, later Lady Caroline Lamb; the poet Letitia Elizabeth Landon ("L.E.L."); and Emma Roberts, the travel writer.

On 20 September 1824, she married Samuel Carter Hall. Her mother lived with them in London until she died.

Mrs Hall's first recorded contribution to literature is an Irish sketch called "Master Ben", which appeared in The Spirit and Manners of the Age, January 1829, pp. 35–41 et seq. Other tales followed. Eventually they were collected into a volume entitled Sketches of Irish Character, 1829, and henceforth she became an author by profession. Next year she issued a little volume for children, Chronicles of a School-Room, consisting of a series of simple tales.

In 1831, Hall published a second series of 'Sketches of Irish Character' fully equal to the first, which was well received. The first of her nine novels, The Buccaneer, 1832, is a story of the time of the Protectorate, and Oliver Cromwell is among the characters. To the New Monthly Magazine, which her husband was editing, she contributed Lights and Shadows of Irish Life, articles which were republished in three volumes in 1838. The principal tale in this collection, "The Groves of Blarney", was dramatised with considerable success by the author, with the object of supplying a character for Tyrone Power, and ran for a whole season at the Adelphi in 1838. Hall also wrote The French Refugee, produced at the St. James's Theatre in 1836, where it ran 90 nights, and for the same theatre Mabel's Curse, in which John Pritt Harley played the leading part. Another of her dramas, of which she had neglected to keep a copy, was Who's Who? which was in the possession of Tyrone Power when he was lost in the SS President in April 1841. In 1840, she issued what has been called the best of her novels, Marian, or a Young Maid's Fortunes, in which her knowledge of Irish character is again displayed in a style equal to anything written by Maria Edgeworth. Her next work was a series of Stories of the Irish Peasantry, contributed to Chambers's Edinburgh Journal, and afterwards published in a collected form. In 1840 she aided her husband in a book chiefly composed by him, Ireland, its Scenery, Characters, &c. She edited the St. James's Magazine in 1862–63. In The Art Journal, edited by her husband, she brought out "Pilgrimages to English Shrines" in 1849, and here the most beautiful of all her books, Midsummer Eve, a Fairy Tale of Love, was serialized. One of her last works, Boons and Blessings, 1875, dedicated to the Earl of Shaftesbury, is a collection of temperance tales, illustrated by the best artists. Hall's sketches of her native land bear a closer resemblance to the tales of Mary Russell Mitford than to the Irish stories of John Banim or Gerald Griffin. They contain fine rural descriptions, and are animated by a healthy tone of moral feeling and a vein of delicate humour. Her books were never popular in Ireland, as she saw in each party much to praise and much to blame, so that she failed to please either the Orangemen or the Roman Catholics. On 10 December 1868, she was granted a civil list pension of £100 a year. She was instrumental in founding the Hospital for Consumption at Brompton (now the Royal Brompton Hospital), the Governesses' Institute (presumably the School Mistresses and Governesses’ Benevolent Institution), the Home for Decayed Gentlewomen (see Elizabeth Finn Care formerly the Distressed Gentlefolks' Aid Association), and the Nightingale Fund (used to set up what is now the Florence Nightingale Faculty of Nursing and Midwifery). Her benevolence was of the most practical nature; she worked for the temperance cause, for women's rights, and for the friendless and fallen. She was a friend to street musicians, and a thorough believer in spiritualism; but this belief did not prevent her from remaining a devout Christian.

She kept the 50th anniversary of her wedding day on 20 September 1874. She died at Devon Lodge, East Moulsey, 30 January 1881, and was buried in Addlestone churchyard, 5 February.

Works
Other works were The Buccaneer, Can Wrong Be Right? and many sketches in the Art Journal, of which her husband Samuel Carter Hall was editor, and Sharpe's London Magazine. With her husband she also collaborated on a work entitled Ireland: Its Scenery, Character, etc. (1841–43).

title: Anna Maria Hall


text:
Fitz-Greene Halleck

Fitz-Greene Halleck (July 8, 1790 – November 19, 1867) was an American poet and member of the Knickerbocker Group. Born and raised in Guilford, Connecticut, he went to New York City at the age of 20, and lived and worked there for nearly four decades. He was sometimes called "the American Byron". His poetry was popular and widely read but later fell out of favor. It has been studied since the late twentieth century for its homosexual themes and insights into nineteenth-century society.

In 1832, Halleck, a cultural celebrity, started working as personal secretary and adviser to the philanthropist John Jacob Astor, who appointed him as one of the original trustees of the Astor Library. Given an annuity by Astor's estate, in 1849 Halleck retired to Guilford, where he lived with his sister Marie Halleck for the remainder of his life.

Early life
Fitz-Greene Halleck was born on July 8, 1790, in Guilford, Connecticut, in a house at the corner of Whitfield and Water Streets. He had an older sister Marie, and his father owned a store in the town. At the age of two, the young Halleck experienced hearing loss when two soldiers fired off their guns next to his left ear; he was partially deaf for the remainder of his life. As a boy, Halleck attended the Academy on Guilford Green, whose schoolmaster was then Samuel Johnson, Junior, the compiler of A School Dictionary, the first dictionary both compiled and published in the United States. Halleck was a favorite of Johnson, who gave him a copy of Thomas Campbell's first book of poems, The Pleasures of Hope, which was Halleck's first personal book. He left school at 15 to work in his family's shop in Guilford.

Early career
In May 1811, the 20-year-old Halleck moved to New York City to find work. After a month of searching, he had all but given up and made plans to move to Richmond, Virginia, but he was hired by a banker named Jacob Barker. He worked for Barker for the next 20 years.

Halleck began to write with his friend Joseph Rodman Drake. In 1819 they wrote and published the anonymous Croaker Papers, which were satires of New York society. These 35 poems were published individually in the New York Evening Post and National Advertiser over several months. An unauthorized collection was published in 1819 with 24 selections. They published the poems under the pseudonyms Croaker; Croaker, Jr.; and Croaker and Co., taken from a character in Oliver Goldsmith's The Good‐Natured Man. The "Croakers" were perhaps the first popular literary satire of New York, and New York society was thrilled to be the subject of erudite derision.

That year, Halleck wrote his longest poem Fanny, a satire on the literature, fashions, and politics of the time. It was modeled on Lord Byron's Beppo and Don Juan. Published anonymously in December 1819, Fanny proved so popular that soon the initial 50 cent-edition was fetching up to $10. Two years later, its continuing popularity inspired Halleck to append an additional 50 stanzas.

Both Halleck and Drake became associated with the New York writers known as the Knickerbocker Group, led by William Cullen Bryant, James Fenimore Cooper and Washington Irving, pioneers in their fields. Drake advised Halleck to pursue becoming a nationally known poet and to sit on "Appalachia's brow." He thought contemplating the immense power of American nature would inspire his friend's imagination. A medical student, Drake died in 1820 of consumption (tuberculosis) at age 25. Halleck commemorated his friend in "The Death of Joseph Rodman Drake" (1820), which begins, "Green be the turf above thee".

Sarah Eckford Drake, the student's young widow, was left with their daughter. She showed interest in having Halleck as her second husband. His satires included her as a figure, and in one he referred to her as a witch. She died young in 1828. Halleck never married.

In 1822, Halleck visited Europe and Great Britain, which influenced his poetry. "Alnwick Castle" was written that year and refers to a stately home in Northumberland. His long poem Marco Bozzaris (1825) was dedicated to the heroic Greek freedom fighter against the Turks, showing the continuing influence of Byron's example. In 1827 Halleck published a collection, Alnwick Castle, with Other Poems, but after that his writing decreased.

Professional and later life
By 1830 Halleck had become a kind of celebrity for his poetry, sometimes called the American Byron. In 1832, Halleck was hired as the private secretary to John Jacob Astor. The wealthy fur trader merchant turned philanthropist later appointed him as one of the original trustees of the Astor Library (the basis of the New York Public Library). Halleck also served as Astor's cultural tutor, advising him on pieces of art to purchase.

During this period, Halleck was widely read and was part of New York literary society. As one of the younger members of the Knickerbocker Group, he published with them and met associated visiting writers, such as Charles Dickens. His satires were thought to challenge the era's "sacred institutions" and Halleck was known for his wit and charm.

At Astor's death, the immensely wealthy—and tightfisted—man left Halleck an annuity in his will: of only $200 annually. His son William increased the amount to $1,500.

In 1841 he was elected into the National Academy of Design as an Honorary Academician.

In 1849 Halleck retired to his hometown of Guilford. There he lived with his unmarried sister Marie Halleck for the remainder of his life. In April 1860, a lingering illness made Halleck give instructions for his funeral and burial, but he recovered. He often turned down requests for public appearances in his later years, and he complained about being pestered by "frequent appeals for letters to hard-hearted editors". When people named children after him, Halleck seemed annoyed rather than honored. He wrote, "I am favored by affectionate fathers with epistles announcing that their eldest-born has been named after me, a calamity that costs me a letter of profound gratefulness". Halleck's last major poem, "Young America", was published in 1867 in the New York Ledger.

On November 19, 1867, around 11:00 at night, he called out to his sister, "Marie, hand me my pantaloons, if you please." He died without making another sound before she could turn around. He is buried at Alderbrook Cemetery in Guilford.

Sexuality
Halleck never married. His biographer Hallock believes that he was homosexual. He found that Halleck was enamored at the age of 19 with a young Cuban named Carlos Menie, to whom he dedicated a few of his early poems. Hallock suggests that Halleck was in love with his friend Joseph Rodman Drake. James Grant Wilson noted how the poet described serving as best man at Drake's wedding: "[Drake] has married, and, as his wife's father is rich, I imagine he will write no more. He was poor, as poets, of course, always are, and offered himself a sacrifice at the shrine of Hymen to shun the 'pains and penalties' of poverty. I officiated as groomsman, though much against my will. His wife was good natured, and loves him to distraction. He is perhaps the handsomest man in New York, — a face like an angel, a form like an Apollo; and, as I well knew that his person was the true index of his mind, I felt myself during the ceremony as committing a crime in aiding and assisting such a sacrifice." Hallock described the poet Halleck's last major work, "Young America", as both "a jaded critique of marriage and a pederastic boy-worship reminiscent of classical homosexuality."

In his will Halleck asked for Drake's body and family to be exhumed and reburied with him. In 1903, plans were set to move the bodies of Drake, his wife, daughter, sister, and nephew to Halleck's plot in Guilford.

Critical response
In the mid to late 19th century, Halleck was regarded as one of America's leading poets and had a wide general readership; he was dubbed "the American Byron". Among his most well-known poems was "Marco Bozzaris", which Halleck noted was "puffed in a thousand (more or less) magazines and newspapers" in the United States, England, Scotland, and Ireland. Charles Dickens spoke fondly of the "accomplished writer" in a January 1868 letter to William Makepeace Thackeray (as recounted in Thackeray in the United States). It is not clear whether Dickens admired Halleck's poetic skills or his wit and charm, which was often lauded by his contemporaries. Abraham Lincoln was known to occasionally read Halleck's poetry aloud to friends in the White House.

The American writer and critic Edgar Allan Poe reviewed Halleck's poetry collection Alnwick Castle. Regarding Halleck's poem "Fanny", he said, "to uncultivated ears... [it is] endurable, but to the practiced versifier it is little less than torture." In the September 1843 issue of Graham's Magazine, Poe wrote that Halleck "has nearly abandoned the Muses, much to the regret of his friends and to the neglect of his reputation." However, Poe also wrote, "No name in the American poetical world is more firmly established than that of Fitz-Greene Halleck."

Halleck had several years in which he did not produce any literary works. After his death, poet William Cullen Bryant addressed the New York Historical Society on February 2, 1869, and spoke about this blank period in Halleck's career. He ultimately concluded: "Whatever the reason that Halleck ceased so early to write, let us congratulate ourselves that he wrote at all."

Since the later 20th century, Halleck's poetry has been studied for its homosexual themes, and for what it reveals about the social world of the nineteenth century.

Legacy

 * In 1869, the collected Poetical Writings and a traditional Life and Letters, both edited and written by James Grant Wilson, were published.
 * Also in 1869, a granite monument was erected to Halleck in Guilford, the first to memorialize an American poet. The writer Bayard Taylor spoke at the commemoration. Taylor wrote America's first homosexual novel, Joseph and His Friend (1870), believed to be a fictional account of the relationship between Halleck and Drake.
 * In 1877 the memorial statue of Halleck was erected in New York's Central Park; Halleck is the only American writer on the Literary Walk. It was dedicated by President Rutherford B. Hayes, with 10,000 people attending.  After that, requirements for memorial statues in the park became more stringent.
 * In 2006 the Fitz-Greene Halleck Society was founded to raise awareness of him and his work.

Works

 * Croaker Papers (1819), complete edition, 1860
 * Marco Bozzaris (1825)
 * Alnwick Castle, with Other Poems (1827)

title: Fitz-Greene Halleck


text:
User talk:Andrewsmith1986

Welcome
Hello, and welcome to Wikipedia. Thank you for your contributions. I hope you like the place and decide to stay. Here are a few good links for newcomers: I hope you enjoy editing here and being a Wikipedian! By the way, you can sign your name on Talk and vote pages using three tildes, like this: ~ ~ ~. Four tildes (~ ~ ) produces your name and the current date. If you have any questions, see the help pages, add a question to the village pump or ask me on my Talk page. Again, welcome!
 * How to edit a page; Editing tutorial; Picture tutorial
 * How to write a great article; Naming conventions; Manual of Style

Whosyourjudas (talk) 04:01, 18 Oct 2004 (UTC)

Hi. Please do not add silly or vanity edits or links. Serious contributions are welcome. -- Infrogmation 04:04, 18 Oct 2004 (UTC)

title: User talk:Andrewsmith1986


text:
Elizabeth Hamilton (writer)

Elizabeth Hamilton (1756 or 1758 – 23 July 1816) was a Scottish essayist, poet, satirist and novelist, who in both her prose and fiction entered into the French-revolutionary era controversy in Britain over the education and rights of women.

Early life
Hamilton was most likely born on 25 July 1756, though the date is often given as 1758. She was born in Belfast, the third and youngest child of Charles Hamilton (d.1759), a Scottish merchant, and his wife Katherine Mackay (d.1767).

In Belfast, Hamilton's parents were on familiar terms with the town's prominent "New Light" Presbyterian families and with their Scottish Enlightenment social and political ideas. Her later thoughts on child education were greatly influenced by David Manson's co-educational English Grammar School, which her older sister Katherine attended with other children from this progressive milieu. Manson advertised the school's capacity to teach children to read and understand the English language "without the discipline of the rod by intermingling pleasurable and healthful exercise with their instruction".

In 1762, after the death of her father, her mother sent Hamilton to live with her paternal aunt, Mrs Marshall who lived near Stirling. In 1772, she lived at Ingram's Crook near Bannockburn.

Career
Hamilton's first literary efforts were directed in supporting her brother Charles in his orientalist and linguistic studies. After his death in 1792 she continued to publish orientalist scholarship, as well as historical, educationalist and theoretical works.

Hamilton maintained Belfast connections. She established a particularly close friendship with Martha McTier (sister of William Drennan, the founder of the United Irishmen), who pioneered schooling for poor girls. In 1793 she visited McTier in Belfast approving of her pedagogic efforts. "My little girls", boasted McTier, "do not gabble over the testament only, nor read with that difficulty which prevents pleasure in it... I keep up my number and four of them can read Fox and Pitt".

In 1796 she published Translation of the Letters of the Hindoo Rajah. The two volume work in the tradition of Montesquieu and Goldsmith, follows the adventures in England of an Indian prince. His encounters with slave owners, capricious aristocrats, sceptical philosophers and belligerent women leads to his progressive disillusionment with English culture.

In 1800 Hamilton produced Memoirs of Modern Philosophers. The novel was a response to the Revolution Controversy of the 1790s, a discussion of “revolutionary ideas about a broader franchise, primogeniture, meritocracy, marriage and divorce”. Conservative loyalists such as Hannah More argued that “there is a different bent of understanding in the sexes” while those their detractors denounced as "Jacobins", such as Wollstonecraft insisted that “there is no sex in the soul or mind” and that women were limited only by their inadequate education. In Memoirs, Hamilton occupies a middle ground, urging greater educational opportunity for women but within the bounds of a consciously Christian, middle-class morality that emphasises women's responsibility for the domestic sphere.

Hamilton's most important pedagogical works followed: Letters on Education (1801), Letters on the Elementary Principles of Education (1801), Letters addressed to the Daughter of a Nobleman, on the Formation of Religious and Moral Principle (1806), and Hints addressed to the Patrons and Directors of Schools (1815).

In 1808, Hamilton wrote The Cottagers of Glenburnie (1808), a celebrated tale of Scottish manners and mores which cast a critical eye on hardships and inequities endured by women in domestic life. It also occasioned a lengthy discourse on child education. The fictional Mr Gourley and Mrs Mason direct the teacher William Morrison's efforts to reorganise his school on a spare-the-rod monitorial system emphasising accountability and self-government. Mrs Gourley cites David Manson's account of "what he calls his play school", and in a footnote Hamilton further acknowledges Manson. His "extraordinary talents", she suggests, were exercised in Belfast "in too limited a sphere" to attract the attention they deserved.

Hamilton spent much of her later life in Edinburgh. She died in Harrogate, England after a short illness.

title: Elizabeth Hamilton (writer)


text:
Orthodoxy (book)

Orthodoxy is a 1908 book by G. K. Chesterton which he described as a "spiritual autobiography". It has become a classic of Christian apologetics.

Chesterton considered this book a companion to his other work, Heretics, which was a collection of essays aimed at refuting prevalent secular views of his time and defending the Christian orthodoxy. Orthodoxy was written expressly in response to G. S. Street's criticism of Heretics. In it, Chesterton states that "[Street] was not going to bother about his theology until I had really stated mine". In the preface, Chesterton states the purpose is to "attempt an explanation, not of whether the Christian faith can be believed, but of how he personally has come to believe it." In Orthodoxy, Chesterton presents an original view of Christian religion. He sees it as the answer to natural human needs – the "answer to a riddle" in his own words – and not simply as an arbitrary truth received from somewhere outside the boundaries of human experience.

Summary
The book chronicles Chesterton's personal journey to adopting a Christian worldview. Rather than rationalizing alleged paradoxes, Orthodoxy instead embraces them as evidence for the worldview's validity. The first chapter establishes the view that human needs innately conflict, and, along with Chapter 8, "The Romance of Orthodoxy", it explains Chesterton's belief that the Christian worldview is most effective in both explaining and satisfying those disparate needs.

History
Chesterton began writing the book in response to Street's 1905 challenge, titled "Mr. Chesterton", and it was first published in 1908. The book was written when Chesterton was an Anglican. He converted to Catholicism 14 years later. Chesterton chose the title, Orthodoxy, to focus on the plainness of the Apostles' Creed, though he admitted the general sound of the title was "a thinnish sort of thing". Chesterton's choice to focus on the Apostles' Creed made Orthodoxy 's apologetic appealing to Christians from various denominational backgrounds.

Popular reception
Orthodoxy was influential in the conversion of Theodore Maynard to Roman Catholicism, as well as in the ordination of Canon Bernard Iddings Bell. In the magazine The Atlantic, critic James Parker recommends the book thus: "If you've got an afternoon, read his masterpiece of Christian apologetics Orthodoxy: ontological basics retailed with a blissful, zooming frivolity, Thomas Aquinas meets Eddie Van Halen."

title: Orthodoxy (book)


text:
Herbrand–Ribet theorem

In mathematics, the Herbrand–Ribet theorem is a result on the class group of certain number fields. It is a strengthening of Ernst Kummer's theorem to the effect that the prime p divides the class number of the cyclotomic field of p-th roots of unity if and only if p divides the numerator of the n-th Bernoulli number Bn for some n, 0 < n < p − 1. The Herbrand–Ribet theorem specifies what, in particular, it means when p divides such an Bn.

Statement
The Galois group Δ of the cyclotomic field of pth roots of unity for an odd prime p, Q(ζ) with ζp = 1, consists of the p − 1 group elements σa, where $$\sigma_a(\zeta) = \zeta^a$$. As a consequence of Fermat's little theorem, in the ring of p-adic integers $$\mathbb{Z}_p$$ we have p − 1 roots of unity, each of which is congruent mod p to some number in the range 1 to p − 1; we can therefore define a Dirichlet character ω (the Teichmüller character) with values in $$\mathbb{Z}_p$$ by requiring that for n relatively prime to p, ω(n) be congruent to n modulo p. The p part of the class group is a $$\mathbb{Z}_p$$-module (since it is p-primary), hence a module over the group ring $$\mathbb{Z}_p[\Delta]$$. We now define idempotent elements of the group ring for each n from 1 to p − 1, as

 * $$\epsilon_n = \frac{1}{p-1}\sum_{a=1}^{p-1} \omega(a)^n \sigma_a^{-1}.$$

It is easy to see that $$\sum\epsilon_n = 1 $$ and $$ \epsilon_i\epsilon_j = \delta_{ij}\epsilon_i $$ where $$ \delta_{ij} $$ is the Kronecker delta. This allows us to break up the p part of the ideal class group G of Q(ζ) by means of the idempotents; if G is the p-primary part of the ideal class group, then, letting Gn = εn(G), we have $$ G = \oplus G_n $$.

The Herbrand–Ribet theorem states that for odd n, Gn is nontrivial if and only if p divides the Bernoulli number Bp−n.

The theorem makes no assertion about even values of n, but there is no known p for which Gn is nontrivial for any even n: triviality for all p would be a consequence of Vandiver's conjecture.

Proofs
The part saying p divides Bp−n if Gn is not trivial is due to Jacques Herbrand. The converse, that if p divides Bp−n then Gn is not trivial is due to Kenneth Ribet, and is considerably more difficult. By class field theory, this can only be true if there is an unramified extension of the field of pth roots of unity by a cyclic extension of degree p which behaves in the specified way under the action of Σ; Ribet proves this by actually constructing such an extension using methods in the theory of modular forms. A more elementary proof of Ribet's converse to Herbrand's theorem, a consequence of the theory of Euler systems, can be found in Washington's book.

Generalizations
Ribet's methods were developed further by Barry Mazur and Andrew Wiles in order to prove the main conjecture of Iwasawa theory, a corollary of which is a strengthening of the Herbrand–Ribet theorem: the power of p dividing Bp−n is exactly the power of p dividing the order of Gn.

title: Herbrand–Ribet theorem