text:
Châtillon-sur-Seine

Châtillon-sur-Seine is a commune of the Côte-d'Or department, eastern France. The Musée du Pays Châtillonnais is housed in old abbey of Notre-Dame de Châtillon, within the town, known for its collection of pre-Roman and Roman relics (especially the famous Vix Grave).

History
Some ruins on an eminence above the town mark the site of a château of the dukes of Burgundy. Nearby stands the church of St Vorles of the 10th century, but with many additions of later date; it contains a sculptured Holy Sepulchre of the 16th century and a number of frescoes. In a fine park stands a modern château built by Marshal Marmont, duke of Ragusa, born at Châtillon in 1774. It was burnt in 1871, and subsequently rebuilt.

Châtillon anciently consisted of two parts, Chaumont, belonging to the duchy of Burgundy, and Bourg, ruled by the bishop of Langres; it did not coalesce into one town until the end of the 16th century. It was taken by the English in 1360 and by Louis XI in 1475, during his struggle with Charles the Bold. Châtillon was one of the first cities to adhere to the League, but suffered severely from the oppression of its garrisons and governors, and in 1595 made voluntary submission to Henry IV. It is associated with the abortive conference of 1814 between the representatives of Napoleon and the Allies.

During World War II the German garrison were forced to withdraw after a successful operation by the Special Air Service operating in the nearby forest in late August 1944.

Climate
Châtillon-sur-Seine has an oceanic climate (Köppen climate classification Cfb). The average annual temperature in Châtillon-sur-Seine is 10.4 C. The average annual rainfall is 864.1 mm with May as the wettest month. The temperatures are highest on average in July, at around 18.9 C, and lowest in January, at around 2.7 C. The highest temperature ever recorded in Châtillon-sur-Seine was 42.1 C on 25 July 2019; the coldest temperature ever recorded was -22.4 C on 9 January 1985.

Personalities
Châtillon-sur-Seine was the birthplace of:
 * Auguste Marmont, duke of Ragusa (1774 –1852), Marshal of France
 * Anne Nicole Voullemier (1796-1886), painter and lithographer
 * Désiré Nisard (1806–1888), author and critic
 * Louis Paul Cailletet (1832–1913), physicist and inventor
 * Alice Prin (Kiki de Montparnasse) (1901–1953), nightclub singer, actress, model, partner and muse of Man Ray, and painter
 * Damien Saez (1977), singer and songwriter.

title: Châtillon-sur-Seine


text: Category:Estonian scientists

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Category:Estonian scientists


text:
User:IceKarma/monobook.css

/*** *** *** *** ***  REMINDER! *** *** *** *** *** ***  You really want to be editing your vector.css instead. *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** ***/

/* * Personal style preferences */

/* hide siteNotice */ div#siteNotice { display: none; }

body { background: #f9f9f9; font-family: "Arial Unicode MS", Arial, Meiryo, sans-serif; }

background: none !important; padding-right: 0; }
 * 1) bodyContent a[href^="http://en.wikipedia.org"] {

font-family: "Andale Mono", Courier, monospace; }
 * 1) bodyContent pre {

textarea[name="wpTextbox1"] { font-family: "Andale Mono", Courier, monospace; }

/* stuff for 'show changes' */ td.diff-deletedline { background-color: #ffeeee; }

td.diff-addedline { background-color: #eeffee; }

td.diff-deletedline span.diffchange { background-color: #ffffbb; color: black; font-weight: bold; }

td.diff-addedline span.diffchange { background-color: #ffffbb; color: black; font-weight: bold; }

/* * Rounded corners for FireFox */

/* make a few corners round, only supported by moz/firefox/other gecko browsers for now */ -moz-border-radius-topleft: 1em; -moz-border-radius-topright: 1em; } -moz-border-radius-topleft: 1em; -moz-border-radius-bottomleft: 1em; } div.pBody { -moz-border-radius-topright: 1em; -moz-border-radius-bottomright: 1em; }
 * 1) p-cactions ul li, #p-cactions ul li a {
 * 1) content {

/* same following the css3 draft specs, any browsers supporting this? */ border-radius-topleft: 1em; border-radius-topright: 1em; } border-radius-topleft: 1em; border-radius-bottomleft: 1em; } div.pBody { border-radius-topright: 1em; border-radius-bottomright: 1em; }
 * 1) p-cactions ul li, #p-cactions ul li a {
 * 1) content {

title: User:IceKarma/monobook.css


text: Category:Estonian people by occupation

title: Category:Estonian people by occupation


text: Category:French surgeons

title: Category:French surgeons


text:
Category:French naturalists

 *   — of natural history, the study and research of organisms − including flora, fauna, & fungi − in their environments & natural habitats.

title: Category:French naturalists


text:
Category:Cephalopods

A cephalopod is any member of the biological order Cephalopoda, the group that contains all squid, octopuses, and cuttlefish. This category covers articles about cephalopods as individual species or groups.

title: Category:Cephalopods


text:
Talk:Memory metal

I reckon the redirect should be the other way around - Memory Metal is not the proper term, but Shape memory alloy is, and gets over 4 times as many Google hits. Anyone disagree, or shall I go ahead and make the change? Average Earthman 12:28, 15 Oct 2004 (UTC)

 * I agree with you. JimQ 21:18, 17 Oct 2004 (UTC)
 * Do it! Do it!
 * Nobody has disagreed in nearly two months, so I've been bold and done it. Average Earthman 11:02, 9 Dec 2004 (UTC)

title: Talk:Memory metal


text:
Lahore Ahmadiyya Movement

The Lahore Ahmadiyya Movement for the Propagation of Islam, is a separatist group within the Ahmadiyya movement that formed in 1914 as a result of ideological and administrative differences following the demise of Hakim Nur-ud-Din, the first Caliph after Mirza Ghulam Ahmad. Members of the Lahore Ahmadiyya movement are referred to by the majority group as ghayr mubāyi'īn ("non-initiates"; "those outside of allegiance" to the caliph) and are also known colloquially as Lahori Ahmadis.

Adherents of the Lahore Ahmadiyya movement believe Ghulam Ahmad to be a Mujaddid (reformer) and also affirm his status as the promised Messiah and Mahdi, but diverge from the main Ahmadiyya position in understanding his prophetic status to be of a Sufistic or mystical rather than theologically technical nature. Moreover, adherents of the Lahore Ahmadiyya movement do not profess allegiance to the Ahmadiyya Caliphate and are administered, instead, by a body of people called the Anjuman (Council), headed by an Amīr (President).

According to estimates from the Immigration and Refugee Board of Canada and author Simon Ross Valentine, there are between 5,000 and 10,000 Lahori Ahmadis in Pakistan and as many as 30,000 worldwide, thereby representing less than 0.2% of the total Ahmadiyya population. Similar to the 'Qadiani' Ahmadis, the 'Lahori' Ahmadis hold annual conferences or conventions called jalsas where community updates, aims, topics of interest, and challenges are discussed and emphasized to help direct policy-planning goals and initiatives for the respective groups or jamaats.

History
Soon after the death in 1914 of Hakim Nur-ud-Din, Ghulam Ahmad's first successor, Bashir-ud-Din Mahmud Ahmad, Ghulam Ahmad's son, was chosen in Qadian at the age of 25 to lead the movement as his second successor. However, a group, which included some of the movement's senior figures, led by Maulana Muhammad Ali, opposed his succession and refrained from pledging their allegiance to him, eventually leaving Qadian and relocating to Lahore. Muhammad Ali and his supporters' differences with Mahmud Ahmad centred mainly upon the nature of Ghulam Ahmad's prophethood—and consequentially the status of Muslims who did not accept him— as well as the form the leadership should take within the movement, viz. the relative authority of the successor (or khalīfa) and the Central Ahmadiyya Council (Anjuman). Although a clash of personalities between the dissenters and Mahmud Ahmad has also been postulated owing to the latter's relative youth, inexperience and poor academic background. The disputes surrounding these, and other related issues, eventually led to a veritable secession and the formation of the Lahore Ahmadiyya Movement.

Adopting a position more congruent with the mainstream of Sunni Islam regarding the issues of dispute, Muhammad Ali led the Lahore Ahmadiyya Movement as Amīr (President) from 1914 until his death in 1951. Since then it has been led by four Amīrs, the current being Abdul Karim Saeed Pasha. Relative to the Ahmadiyya Muslim Community, some mainstream Muslim opinion towards the Lahore Ahmadiyya Movement and its literature has been more accepting, with some Orthodox Sunni scholars considering the members of the Lahore Ahmadiyya Movement as Muslims. Notwithstanding, the group was subsumed within Pakistan's anti-Ahmadi laws declaring Ahmadis to be non-Muslims and prohibiting them from any public expression of the Islamic faith.

On prophethood
Ahmadis universally concur in the belief that Ghulam Ahmad was both the promised Mahdi and Messiah foretold by Muhammad to appear in the end times, and that his prophetic qualities were neither independent nor separable from those of Muhammad. What this entailed theologically, however, became an issue of contention within the early Ahmadiyya movement. Muhammad Ali held that the type of prophecy described by Ghulam Ahmad in reference to himself did not make him a prophet in the technical sense of the word as used in Islamic terminology, amounted to nothing more than sainthood (walāya) and that Islamic mystics preceding Ghulam Ahmad had similarly described experiences of prophecy within Islam in the context of their relationship with Muhammad. Unlike the majority Muslim belief which expects the physical return of Jesus, the Lahore Ahmadiyya affirm the absolute cessation of prophethood, and believe that no prophet can appear after Muhammad, neither a past one like Jesus, nor a new one.

In contrast, Mahmud Ahmad posited that Ghulam Ahmad's messianic claim and role were qualitatively distinct to the claims of the saints preceding him in Islam and that his prophetic status, though completely subservient to Muhammad, being a mere reflection of his own prophethood and not legislating anything new, still made him technically a prophet irrespective of the type of prophethood or the adjectives added to qualify it. Accordingly, the Ahmadiyya Muslim Community believes that prophecy gifted as a result of perfect obedience and self-effacement in devotion to Muhammad does not infringe upon the finality of his prophetic mission, though it affirms the advent of only one such promised end-times prophetic figure (Ghulam Ahmad) as having appeared in accordance with scriptural prophecies. Such a prophetic status, though not independent, is nonetheless technically classed as prophethood in as much as it involves an individual who is given knowledge of the hidden, predicts future events and is called a prophet by Allah.

On other Muslims
A closely linked point of contention surrounded the status of Muslims who did not accept Ghulam Ahmad's claim. Muhammad Ali and his supporters, rejecting indiscriminate pronouncements of disbelief (Kufr) concerning them, drew a distinction between those who were neutral in the controversy and those who actively rejected and opposed Ghulam Ahmad, or pronounced him an infidel. The former could not in any sense be termed disbelievers (kafirs) while the latter were guilty only of rejecting a particular commandment of the Islamic faith—namely that pertaining to belief in the promised Messiah—which would render them fasiqun (those who depart from the right path) in distinction to disbelief in a basic element of the faith which would have excluded them from the Muslim community (Ummah). Muhammad Ali repudiated the idea of declaring the entire Muslim community as disbelievers, a term which, according to him, could not apply to non-Ahmadi Muslims indiscriminately, something which he accused Mahmud Ahmad of doing.

Affirming a different typology of disbelief, i.e. that which subsists outside of Islam in contrast to that which does not entail exclusion from it, although Mahmud Ahmad held that Muslims who did not accept Ghulam Ahmad technically fell into the category of disbelief, and that rejection of him ultimately amounted to rejection of Muhammad, he utilised the broad connotations and usages of the Arabic word Kafir to stress that his use of the term in reference to such Muslims did not carry its demotic meaning, but rather meant to signify doctrinal deviancy and to express that only Ahmadis were true Muslims. For him, since such Muslims as had not accepted one appointed by God (ma'mur minallah) within Islam were neither deniers of God nor Muhammad, they were still part of the Muslim community and were Muslims only in the sense that they belonged to the Ummah of Muhammad and as such were entitled to be treated as members of Muslim society (mu'ashira), which, according to him, was different from saying that they are Muslims and not kafirs. He held, therefore, that non-Ahmadi Muslims were to be classified as disbelievers albeit within the remit of Islam and not in the sense that they had a religion other than Islam; and, further, that the movement passed no judgement as to their fate in the hereafter and never proactively expressed this opinion of them. Although he refused demands from outside the movement to accept that the term Kafir did not apply to non-Ahmadi Muslims, Mahmud Ahmad did maintain that such Muslims were not deemed to be outside the pale of Islam.

On succession
Towards the end of 1905, Mirza Ghulam Ahmad published a short treatise anticipating his own death entitled Al-Wasiyyat (or The Will) in which he established the Sadr Anjuman Ahmadiyya (Central Ahmadiyya Council), an executive body set up to administer the movement and to collect and distribute funds to support the propagation of Islam. Ghulam Ahmad presided over the Council himself until his death in 1908. After his death, Hakim Nur-ud-Din was unanimously chosen to succeed him and presided over the Council's appointed president. Muhammad Ali and his supporters held that Ghulam Ahmad, in The Will, had designated the Council as a consultative institution to be his successor. Viewing as autocratic the idea of one individual wielding absolute authority within the Community and demanding total obedience from it, they repudiated the idea of a khilāfah (caliphate) within the movement, preferring what they saw as a more democratic system established by Ghulam Ahmad himself and, accordingly, vested the Community's authority in the Council as an administrative body. No individual had the power to revoke the decisions reached by the majority of the Council that would remain paramount and binding, something which they believed was in keeping with Ghulam Ahmad's instructions for the movement's administration after his death. Further, according to them, since leadership of the movement was no longer divinely appointed after Ghulam Ahmad's death, the obligation to pledge allegiance to his successor had also lapsed and had become a voluntary act.

As opposed to the foregoing approach, Mahmud Ahmad, who assumed the movement's leadership as the second successor the day after Nur-ud-Din's death, held that Ghulam Ahmad had envisioned a system of divinely ordained caliphate to succeed him, similar to that believed to have commenced following the death of Muhammad, under whose authority the Council was to operate. Accordingly, he favoured centralised, singular authority through the system of caliphate which, in his view, was religiously indispensable and to which the Community's allegiance was necessary. Ghulam Ahmad's successors, according to him, continued to be divinely ordained and commanded obedience from the Community. This, he contended, was clearly indicated in The Will as well as Ghulam Ahmad's other works and was an arrangement which, according to him, had existed throughout the period of Nur-ud-Din's leadership who not only spoke of himself as the khalīfat al-masīh  (caliph; lit. successor of the Messiah) but declared that he had attained this office by divine appointment rather than community choice. The Ahmadiyya Muslim Community, accordingly, vests its religious and organisational authority in the caliph as Ghulam Ahmad's divinely chosen successor.

Europe

 * Great Britain
 * In 1913, a mission station was established by the Ahmadiyya movement in Woking (near London) and the Shah Jahan Mosque management aligned itself with the Lahore Ahmadiyya Movement from 1914 until the 1960s, although it operated on a non-sectarian basis. The Qur'an was translated into English by Maulana Muhammad Ali.

 * Germany
 * The Berlin Mosque was built in 1924/27.
 * An Arabic-German edition of the Qur'an was published in 1939.
 * There were about 60 adherents to the Lahore Ahmadiyya movement in Germany in 2001.

 * Netherlands
 * Small communities in the Netherlands are located in Amsterdam, The Hague, Rotterdam and Utrecht.

North America

 * Canada
 * The Ontario Ahmadiyya Anjuman Isha'at Islam Lahore (OAAIIL) operates the TorYork Mosque in North York. It was in incorporated in TorYork Industrial Park on November 01, 1991. Apart from being organized and supported by local congregants, members, and their families in the Greater Toronto Area (GTA), the center, while operating as an independent and autonomous community, receives explicit support from a larger body based in Trinidad and Tobago. Maulāna Mustapha Kemal Hydal (M.K. Hydal) is the primary spiritual advisor for both bodies. While the Islamic Sunrise has been the key newsletter published by the former body, many of the English-language books for the 'propagation of Islam' present at the TorYork Mosque are those published by their counterparts in the United States of America (i.e. Ohio) and, to a lesser extent, the United Kingdom and elsewhere.

 * Trinidad and Tobago
 * There are 5 mosques that follow the principles taught by The Ahmadiyya Anjuman Ishaat-i-Islam Lahore in Trinidad and Tobago.

 * United States of America
 * There are at least three hubs for the Lahore Ahmadi Movement in the USA. One is registered in Dublin, Ohio. A second is based in Hollis, New York. The third location is in Newark, California. The Ahmadiyya Anjuman Ishaat Islam Lahore Inc. (USA) in Columbus, Ohio is notable for their publication and propagation activities.

Asia

 * Indonesia
 * The Lahore Ahmadiyya movement, also known as Gerakan Ahmadiyyah Indonesia (GAI) in Indonesia, had 708 members In the 1980s.

 * Pakistan
 * There are estimated to be between 5,000 and 10,000 Lahori Ahmadis in Pakistan. The international administrative headquarters of the Lahore Ahmadiyya Movement are situated in the city of Lahore where the group originated.

Demographics
Reliable statistics on the worldwide Lahore Ahmadiyya movement do not exist. However, sources do suggest that in comparison to the Ahmadiyya Muslim Community, the Lahore Ahmadiyya population is relatively very small. In particular, it is estimated that there may be between 5,000 and 10,000 Lahori Ahmadis in Pakistan and possibly up to 30,000 worldwide, thereby representing less than 0.2% of the worldwide Ahmadiyya population.

Leaders (Amīrs)

 * Maulana Muhammad Ali (1874 – 13 October 1951), (Ameer 1914 – 1951)
 * Maulana Sadr-ud-Din (c. 1880 – 15 November 1981), (Ameer 1951 – 1981)
 * Dr. Saeed Ahmad Khan (1900 – 15 November 1996), (Ameer 1981 – 1996)
 * Dr. Asghar Hameed (1919 – 14 October 2002), (Ameer 1996 – 2002)
 * Dr. Abdul Karim Saeed Pasha (Current Amīr)

title: Lahore Ahmadiyya Movement


text:
Talk:Kamo, Niigata

Maori word
The following information was previously in the Kamo, Niigata article:

Kamo (Maori word) is a small town just north of (or some would argue a suburb of) Whangarei, a city of about 50,000 in Northland, New Zealand. It is also famous for having the northern-most located traffic lights in New Zealand.

Since it deals with New Zealand, I removed it from the Japan article and archived it. Perhaps this information will be useful for someone who knows about Kamo in New Zealand when originating a separate article. Fg2 12:28, Oct 15, 2004 (UTC)

 * Very useful indeed. I was surprised to find several New Zealand pages linking to a city in Japan. You will note that the former redirect page is now a disambiguation page! [[User:Grutness|Grutness talk [[Image:Grutness.jpg|30px|]]]] 07:49, 2 Dec 2004 (UTC)

title: Talk:Kamo, Niigata


text: Category:French marine biologists

title: Category:French marine biologists


text: Category:Marine biologists

title: Category:Marine biologists


text:
Kolín

Kolín (Kolin, Neu Kolin) is a town in the Central Bohemian Region of the Czech Republic. It has about 33,000 inhabitants. The historic town centre is well preserved and is protected by law as an urban monument reservation.

Administrative parts
Kolín is made up of the town parts of Kolín I–VI and the villages of Sendražice, Šťáralka, Štítary and Zibohlavy.

Etymology
The name Kolín probably comes from the Old Czech verb koliti, i.e. "to hammer poles", and is related to the location of Starý Kolín in the often flooded area at the confluence of the Klejnárka and Elbe rivers. The soil in the vicinity of the confluence was strengthened with the help of wooden poles.

Geography
Kolín is located about 47 km east of Prague. It lies in a fertile landscape of the Central Elbe Table lowland. The Elbe River flows through the town. In the eastern part of the municipal territory is Sandberk, an artificial lake created by flooding a sandstone quarry.

History
Ptolemy's world map of the 2nd century mentions Budorgis in the area of today's Kolín.

Kolín was founded by King Ottokar II in the 13th century by relocation, when Starý Kolín ("Old Kolín") was threatened by floods and the king decided to move the settlement. The first written mention of Kolín is from 1261, when it was mentioned that Přelouč obtained town privileges, just like Kolín and Kouřim have. It lay on a trade route Prague–Český Brod–Čáslav–Moravia.

Jewish people settled in Kolín in the 14th century. In 1437–1438, a castle was founded in Kolín. It was built on the ruins of a burned down monastery. During the Thirty Years' War, it was damaged, and in the 17th century, it was rebuilt as a brewery. In 1911, the castle burned down and its Renaissance look disappeared.

The 1757 Battle of Kolín was fought during the Seven Years' War, and in 1944 a refinery in Kolín was bombed during the Oil Campaign of World War II. Zyklon B for the Nazi concentration camps was produced there.

Economy
In Kolín is the smaller part of Kolín-Ovčáry Industrial Zone, known mostly for the factory of the automobile manufacturing company Toyota Motor Manufacturing. As of 2020, TMM employed 2,400 people. It is the most important employer in the region.

Kolín is home to the packaging and paper manufacturer, OTK company.

Transport
Kolín is connected with Prague by the I/12 road. The I/38 road (the section from Kutná Hora to Nymburk) also passes through the town.

Kolín is a railway junction. The Kolín railway station is located on the major lines Prague–Olomouc and Prague–Brno, which further continue to Slovakia, Hungary and Poland. It also lies on the intraregional lines Prague–Havlíčkův Brod and Ústí nad Labem–Kolín.

Sights
The historical centre of the town, formed by the Karlovo Square and surrounding streets, has many Gothic and Baroque buildings. The most important monument is the Church of Saint Bartholomew, protected as a national cultural monument. It has an early Gothic core from the second half of the 13th century. In the mid-14th century, it was rebuilt by the architect Peter Parler. A separate bell tower was built next to the church at the end of the 15th century. In 1878–1910, the Gothic appearance of the church was restored by Josef Mocker.

A notable landmark of the town square is the town hall. Originally a Gothic house from the 15th century, it was rebuilt in the Neo-Renaissance style in 1887.

In Kolín is the original Jewish ghetto with a synagogue from 1696. It is the second oldest and most valuable synagogue in Bohemia. The Jewish cemetery is one of the oldest and largest Jewish cemeteries in Bohemia. It was established in the first half of the 15th century.

Notable people

 * Jakub Krčín (1535–1604), pond and dam constructer
 * Jean-Gaspard Deburau (1796–1846), Czech–French actor and mime
 * Vincenc Morstadt (1802–1875), painter and illustrator
 * František Kmoch (1848–1912), composer and conductor; worked and died here
 * Julius Petschek (1856–1932), industrialist
 * Josef Svatopluk Machar (1864–1942), poet
 * Václav Radimský (1867–1946), painter
 * Terezie Brzková (1875–1966), actress
 * Robert Saudek (1880–1935), graphologist and writer
 * Otokar Fischer (1883–1938), playwright, translator and poet
 * Josef Sudek (1896–1976), photographer
 * Václav Morávek (1904–1942), soldier and war hero
 * Ludmila Dvořáková (1923–2015), operatic soprano
 * Frank Daniel (1926–1996), Czech-American screenwriter and film director
 * Jan Kubíček (1927–2013), constructivist painter and sculptor
 * Jiří Balcar (1929–1968), graphic artist, painter and illustrator
 * Luboš Dobrovský (1932–2020), politician and journalist
 * Eva Randová (born 1936), operatic mezzo-soprano
 * Miloš Zeman (born 1944), former president of the Czech Republic
 * Jan Novák (born 1953), Czech-American novelist and playwright
 * Jarda Svoboda (born 1966), musician
 * Bohdan Ulihrach (born 1975), tennis player
 * Petr Čáslava (born 1979), ice hockey player
 * Barbora Poláková (born 1983), actress and singer

Twin towns – sister cities
Kolín is twinned with:
 * Dietikon, Switzerland
 * 🇮🇹 Duino-Aurisina, Italy
 * 🇭🇺 Érd, Hungary
 * 🇩🇪 Kamenz, Germany
 * 🇵🇱 Lubań, Poland
 * 🇸🇰 Rimavská Sobota, Slovakia

title: Kolín


text: Category:French biologists

title: Category:French biologists


text:
Robin Hood Line

The Robin Hood Line is a railway line running from Nottingham to Worksop, Nottinghamshire, in England. The stations between Shirebrook and Whitwell (inclusive) are in the county of Derbyshire.

Passenger services are operated by East Midlands Railway. The line in its present form opened to passengers in stages between 1993 and 1998. Following the Beeching cuts of the 1960s, the line had been freight-only. The cuts had left Mansfield as one of the largest towns in Britain without a railway station.

History
The majority of the current Robin Hood Line re-uses the former Midland Railway (MR) route from Nottingham to Worksop. However, due to rationalisation leading to track removal in order to save the costs of maintaining the tunnel north of Annesley, the through route was severed in the 1970s.

Northwards from Nottingham, the freight-only line remained intact as far as Newstead, where it had served the now closed Newstead Colliery.

Southwards from Worksop, the line followed the old MR route as far as Sutton-in-Ashfield. Between Sutton-in-Ashfield and Kirkby-in-Ashfield, the line was diverted in 1972 to take the former Great Northern Railway (GNR) route through the area. This allowed British Rail to sell land right in the centre of Kirkby-in-Ashfield whilst keeping a freight route through the town. After crossing the town on the GNR route, the line re-joined the old MR route to Pye Bridge, near Ironville but the connection between Kirkby-in-Ashfield and Newstead was closed and the tunnel filled in.

When plans for the Robin Hood Line were drawn up, it was vital in the interest of keeping costs down to make as much use of the existing infrastructure as possible so, rather than trying to buy back the land to rebuild the line through the centre of Kirkby-in-Ashfield, the existing GNR diversion was kept and a new single track stretch of railway built to re-create the missing link between Kirkby-in-Ashfield and Newstead.

North of Newstead, at Annesley, both the Great Central Railway (GCR) and the Midland Railway had driven tunnels through the picturesque Robin Hood Hills but, since both lines closed, both tunnels had been filled in. The GCR's tunnel had been at a lower level than the MR's and so was much longer. It therefore proved cheaper to re-excavate the MR's tunnel, which was found to be in excellent condition. The new service from Nottingham to Newstead opened in 1993, although Bulwell station opened only in 1994. It was extended to Mansfield Woodhouse in 1995, with Kirkby-in-Ashfield station opening in 1996. The through passenger route from Nottingham to Worksop opened in 1998.

In 2004, the section between Bulwell and Hucknall has been converted from double track to single track to allow space for the new Nottingham Express Transit tramway; this follows the route as far north as Hucknall and opened in March 2004.

Service
As of March 2020, the Robin Hood Line operates a Monday to Saturday service between 05:40 and 22:20. During the day, trains run at half-hourly intervals between Nottingham and Mansfield Woodhouse, with one service an hour continuing to Worksop, and the full journey taking 67 minutes.

A Sunday service began on 7 December 2008, with ten trains running between Nottingham and Mansfield Woodhouse between 09:15 and 22:30. Four of those continued to Worksop. The Sunday service was funded by Derbyshire County Council and Nottinghamshire County Council. An understanding was made with the Department for Transport that, if the patronage reached an agreed threshold after two years, it would consider taking over the service and incorporate it within the East Midlands Trains franchise. However, this service was not a commercial success north of Mansfield Woodhouse, and Nottinghamshire County Council decided to reduce its funding and prioritise running a reduced Sunday service from 22 May 2011. The service runs eight times each Sunday between Nottingham and Mansfield Woodhouse and return.

Proposed extension
Just north of Shirebrook station is a junction with a freight branch line that was used for coal traffic to High Marnham power station via Warsop, Edwinstowe and Ollerton. Following closure of the power station the line is disused but has been kept open and fully maintained as a test track for driver training. In mid-2009 Nottinghamshire County Council commissioned a feasibility study to consider a plan to extend the Robin Hood Line along this route by extending the current hourly service between Nottingham and Mansfield Woodhouse to Ollerton, calling at Shirebrook, Warsop and Edwinstowe (for Center Parcs Sherwood Forest holiday resort). Nottinghamshire CC have remained keen on the idea, and met with the rail minister Claire Perry in March 2016 to press for the scheme to be adopted. The new line would be about 6 mi long, but as much of it is used for driver training, only about 2 mi of new track would be required, and the infrastructure is still in good condition. A report produced for Nottingham CC in February 2016 suggested that the likely costs of reinstatement, including the rebuilding of the three stations, would be between £18.9M and £24.5M, with signalling accounting for more than half of that figure. Operating costs were estimated to be some £1.6M per year, with revenue from fares expected to be a little over half of that, and the rest to be found from subsidies. A condition of the awarding of a new East Midlands franchise for operating the line in 2019 was that the operator was required to produce a business case for the extension to Ollerton.

There are also plans to reinstate passenger trains over the freight-only line from Kirkby-in-Ashfield to the closed Pye Bridge railway station on the Erewash Valley line. The line, which has been named the Maid Marian line, has been championed by Ashfield District Council, as it would greatly improve access to the proposed Toton HS2 station for residents in the area. In February 2020, they commissioned a public consultation on the idea, and in November 2020 submitted a bid for the second round of the government's Restoring Your Railway fund, to cover the cost of a feasibility study. The project was one of fifteen schemes which were successful in obtaining such funding.

title: Robin Hood Line


text: Category:Swedish naturalists

title: Category:Swedish naturalists


text: Category:Swedish biologists

title: Category:Swedish biologists


text:
Talk:Satanic Verses

For deletion
I want to suggest this page for deletion, no verse does it praise these false gods, but it condemns them one verse below:

They are not but [mere] names you have named them - you and your forefathers - for which Allāh has sent down no authority. They follow not except assumption and what [their] souls desire, and there has already come to them from their Lord guidance. (Surah 53:23)

So please, i find this offensive and I am sure other muslims do too. Some1 {talk} 19:27, 22 February 2023 (UTC)

More about it here. Some1 {talk} 19:29, 22 February 2023 (UTC)

 * If someone finds this article offensive, the easiest thing to do is to not read the article. There are over 6 million articles here, try reading something else. Wikipedia is not censored, so any content that may hurt anyone's feelings will not be deleted for that sole basis. —CX Zoom[he/him] (let's talk • {C•X}) 11:01, 26 February 2023 (UTC)
 * not censured even if proven to be a blasphemy? - Some1 {talk} 09:08, 2 April 2023 (UTC)
 * Yes. —CX Zoom[he/him] (let's talk • {C•X}) 09:13, 2 April 2023 (UTC)
 * There is no way under the sun, the moon, and the stars that this article about a highly notable topic will be deleted. So, do not continue wasting your time on a ridiculous errand. Cullen328 (talk) 09:18, 2 April 2023 (UTC)

Nedochan
@NEDOCHAN, The version you are pushing clearly misrepresents what Welch said. He did not say "the story in its present form is certainly a later, exegetical fabrication". Instead he said, "It is possible that this story is another example of historical telescoping, i.e. that a situation that was known by Muhammad's contemporaries to have lasted for a long period of time later came to be encapsulated in a story that restricts his acceptance of intercession through these goddesses to a brief period of time and places the responsibility for this departure from a strict monotheism on Satan. This interpretation is completely consistent with what is said above regarding Muhammad's gradual "emergence as a religious reformer" and with evidence from the Kur’an that a strict monotheism arose in stages over an extended period of time during Muhammad's Meccan years." Kaalakaa (talk) 11:13, 9 May 2023 (UTC)

 * Please refer yourself to a check user. If you are not a sockpuppet of the editor whose edits you're reinstating, I will happily engage further.NEDOCHAN (talk) 11:59, 9 May 2023 (UTC)
 * I don't see what that has to do this, but if you have any suspicions about me the burden of proof is on you, please go through the procedure yourself. If you have no proof then I believe what you're doing is classified as a personal attack. Kaalakaa (talk) 04:50, 10 May 2023 (UTC)

Czello
Hi, @Czello. I’ve explained just above that the content in the edit you reinstated does not match its source. I've invited @NEDOCHAN to discuss the matter but he seemed to reject the invitation and asked for something unreasonable as you can see above. Could you in place of him explain why the edit you reinstated is more correct? Kaalakaa (talk) 07:46, 10 May 2023 (UTC)

 * Actually I incorrectly assumed the conversation between yourself and NEDOCHAN were still ongoing. If NEDOCHAN believes there's a sockpuppetry issue then they should open an WP:SPI case; otherwise I have no further comment on the sources. — Czello (music) 08:12, 10 May 2023 (UTC)
 * Thank you for your understanding, @Czello. In that case, could you please reinstate my edit? I noticed a misrepresentation of the source in the article, so I corrected it. But it seems that NEDOCHAN doesn't like the corrections I made, and he keeps reverting them and is unwilling to engage in a discussion. To my knowledge, isn't that considered disruptive editing? Kaalakaa (talk) 08:23, 10 May 2023 (UTC)
 * I will do an SPI in due course, I was just hoping I wouldn't have to waste time. NEDOCHAN (talk) 08:34, 10 May 2023 (UTC)
 * I've self-reverted, neither out of support for your edits, but nor in opposition. NEDOCHAN's upcoming SPI should determine next steps. — Czello (music) 08:37, 10 May 2023 (UTC)
 * Thank you. Kaalakaa (talk) 08:40, 10 May 2023 (UTC)
 * Hi Czello. I have asked for an SPI here. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Sockpuppet_investigations/Whodatttt NEDOCHAN (talk) 09:47, 10 May 2023 (UTC)

Translation error
"Have you thought of al-Lāt and al-'Uzzá? And about the third deity, Manāt?" –Quran 53:19–20

The exact translation of this section from Arabic is 'Have you seen the God al-Lat and Al-uzza and the third one Manat.' the very contention is in the usage of the word 'God' which is often altered to 'the idols of', or other words to diminish the original narratological interpretation of text in it's direct and ordinary meaning. 2001:8003:2961:AD00:50FD:2CD8:8930:2A5B (talk) 23:40, 29 September 2023 (UTC)

Content removed from introduction
Hey @Kaalakaa, I see that you removed a significant chunk of the introduction. While I agree that there are problems with how the information is phrased (and sourced), in my opinion it is quite problematic to basically exclude the modern Islamic view of the subject matter from the introduction. If you exclude any work from contemporary Muslim scholars as failing WP:SOURCE because they are Muslim, I think we lose an entire side of a very much alive debate on such a controversial topic, and that is detrimental to this article in particular. Choucas Bleu (T·C) 16:13, 15 March 2024 (UTC)

 * Dear @Choucas Bleu, WP:SOURCE is one of our policies, and it requires us to:
 * What is meant by "independent" here according to WP:IIS is:
 * For example, apologetic writings by Aum Shinrikyo followers about their founder or the history of their religion clearly do not meet these criteria. And the same should apply to other religions as well. 🙂 —  Kaalakaa  (talk)  15:54, 16 March 2024 (UTC)
 * I have reread some of the guidelines/policies and thought about it, and I now agree that it was right to remove this content from the introduction specifically. I suppose in the future if people feel like adding more about modern Islamic interpretations they can do it in the already existing section of the article (and source it better than what was removed for sure). Choucas Bleu  (T·C) 16:53, 16 March 2024 (UTC)
 * For example, apologetic writings by Aum Shinrikyo followers about their founder or the history of their religion clearly do not meet these criteria. And the same should apply to other religions as well. 🙂 —  Kaalakaa  (talk)  15:54, 16 March 2024 (UTC)
 * I have reread some of the guidelines/policies and thought about it, and I now agree that it was right to remove this content from the introduction specifically. I suppose in the future if people feel like adding more about modern Islamic interpretations they can do it in the already existing section of the article (and source it better than what was removed for sure). Choucas Bleu  (T·C) 16:53, 16 March 2024 (UTC)

Mention the Shia perspective on this
You only mention Sunni opinions and Orientalist opinions. Mention the Shia opinion, which is that these narrations promoting the Gharaniq story were an Umayyad conspiracy to destroy the reputation of the Holy Prophet Muhammad. The Shia also believe that the Gharaniq story's chains of narrators dtart with unreliable sources who were agents of the Umayyad dynasty. The article as it is today mentions the argument that the Muslims wouldn't slander their own prophet, and it mentions that what Muslims would have thought of as slabder may have changed over time, but it doesn't take into account the theory that the Muslims intentionally slandered their own Holy Prophet, which is the Shia theory. 37.237.197.21 (talk) 11:37, 3 June 2024 (UTC)

 * Hello, if you wish to see something be covered in the article, please feel free to include such things yourself, provided they are verifiable and backed up by reliable sources. Choucas Bleu  (T·C) 21:26, 18 June 2024 (UTC)

I would like to hear about this too. As it stands, Mohammed is supposed to have given a false revelation. A true prophet is held by the Jewish and Christian scriptures to be 100% accurate.

How do Moslems deal with the 100% rule? Obviously, they think Mohammed is a real prophet, so what is the explanation, outside Shia Islam? 2601:647:6680:4450:CC2F:9F8C:CD54:3053 (talk) 05:19, 18 June 2024 (UTC)

 * Hello, please remember that Wikipedia is not a forum, and that this talk page's only purpose is to discuss how to improve its associated article. Thank you, Choucas Bleu  (T·C) 21:29, 18 June 2024 (UTC)

title: Talk:Satanic Verses


text:
Zola 7

Bonginkosi Dlamini (born 24 April 1977), popularly known as Zola 7, is a South African kwaito musician, actor, writer, TV presenter, and poet. Dlamini began his career as an actor, achieving national recognition for the television series, "Yizo Yizo". He also starred in the Academy Award winning film Tsotsi in 2005, for which he also wrote the musical score.

Zola is a respected philanthropist. Through his show "Zola 7", which aired on SABC1, he has assisted numerous individuals in achieving their personal and social development goals. Notable among his initiatives is the establishment of libraries for their communities.

Biography and early life
Bonginkosi Dlamini was born on 24 April 1977 and grew up in Zola, a township of Soweto. His artist name is based on his hometown. Dlamini's father, believed to be part of the Mchunu clan, abandoned the family, leaving his mother to care for him and his older brother and sister when they were young. In 2023 Zola was homeless and Royal AM owner gave him 100 thousand Rand.

Actor
Zola 7 became well known for his role as the notorious gangster Papa Action in the second season of the television series Yizo Yizo. The character was already popular from the first season, where it had been portrayed by another performer. Zola 7 resembled the previous actor, and his performance only increased the popularity of the role. He also performed the score and played a role in the Academy Award-winning film Tsotsi (2005), and the movie Drum (2004). Zola 7 also has a prominent role in the documentary [https://www.worldcat.org/title/sharp-sharp-the-kwaito-story/oclc/697114679 ''SHARP! SHARP! : the Kwaito story'' (2003)] directed by Aryan Kaganof. In 2015 and 2016 Zola 7 had minor roles in the television series Isibaya, as well as Zabalaza.

Zola 7
Zola 7 was a television show presented by Zola airing from 2002 to 2010 on SABC1. Each episode focused on a young person, who with support from Zola realised his or her dream.

Utatakho
Utatakho was a television programme produced by Connect TV in 2015 which aired on Mzansi Magic and was presented by Zola. In each episode Zola helped participants to find or reconnect with their biological fathers. Zola accompanied participating sons to meetings with their fathers and facilitated conversation. Additionally, a professional counsellor was present to mediate. Having been to child court over the custody for his own children, Zola can relate to the show's content on a personal level.

Hope with Zola
Hope with Zola is a docu-reality show on Moja Love. The programme started in October 2018 and is hosted by Zola. Each episode is 30 minutes and focuses on the alleviation of social problems like youth unemployment, housing shortage or insufficient community libraries. Unlike his former show, Zola 7, which focused on individuals, Hope with Zola addresses communities and aimes specifically for sustainable development.

Music
Bonginkosi Dlamini has enjoyed success as a Kwaito musician. Lance Stehr of Ghetto Ruff records has referred to Zola as "the second biggest brand in the country next to Nelson Mandela." Zola not only performs but also writes and produces some of his own music, signing to the independent label Ghetto Ruff records. Zola is also the owner of the music company Guluva Entertainment.

Originally, Zola was not a fan of Kwaito music, because it "had no message." He has taken upon himself to change this, viewing himself as a role model. "I want to inspire a guy from the ghetto so he can stop hanging around in the corner begging and try to get some life." In the song "Mdlwembe", which literally means problem child, he expresses his feelings about the neighborhood he grew up in. He talks about the horrible quality of life of the township, particularly the extreme level crime and violence. "Beware of the Zola boys; we do crime for money" demonstrates Zola's past and also the perpetual anguish of life in a ghetto. Today, Zola works on behalf of younger performers, helping them to be integrated into the music industry. He is a pioneer in social action and benefit projects in South Africa.

Kwaito is branded as apolitical, and often associated with the advancement of personal wealth, glamorized gangster lifestyle, and frivolous consumption themes found in much of Jamaican Dancehall and Rap. The genre is associated with a new political freedom gain since the end of apartheid in South Africa and less political strife. The form of the Kwaito produced by Zola is in that case an anomaly in that it is very much politically charged and contains a social message.

Zola raps in isiZulu with a high usage of Tsotsitaal. The latter is the vernacular slang in South Africa. This infusion of colloquial dialect with a national language allows for better interaction between the artists and the community South Africans in lower socio-economic classes who live in the townships and speak Tsotsitaal can relate to Kwaito music differently from Cape Town hip hop or US hip hop because of the lyrics. Additionally many of his songs describe situations of life in the townships, particularly Soweto.

On 7 July 2007 Zola performed at the South African leg of Live Earth.

Radio
Dlamini is part of the newly launched Massiv Metro, an online station pioneered by DJ Sbu.

Television

 * Yizo Yizo (season 2)
 * Zola 7
 * Rolling with Zola
 * Zabalaza (season 3)
 * aYeYe (season 1)
 * Isibaya (seasons 3 and 4)
 * iNkaba (season 1)
 * Utatakho (season 1)
 * Zaziwa (season 1)

Films

 * Drum (2004)
 * Tsotsi (2005)

Discography

 * Umdlwembe (2000)
 * Khokhovula (2002)
 * Bhambatha (2004)
 * Ibutho (2005)
 * Tsotsi (soundtrack of the 2005 motion picture)
 * Impepho (2009)
 * Unyezi (2011)
 * Intathakusa (2014)

Awards
He has four South African Music Awards - SAMA He also received three Metro FM Awards 2001
 * Artist of the Year - 2002
 * Best Soundtrack - Yizo Yizo
 * Best Music Video - Ghetto Scandalous
 * Best Kwaito Album - Umdlwembe
 * Song of the Year - Ghetto Scandalous
 * Best Album of the Year - Umdlwembe
 * Best Kwaito Album - Umdlwembe

title: Zola 7


text:
Neckartailfingen

Neckartailfingen is a municipality in Germany, located approximately 20 km south of Stuttgart. It is located on the river Neckar.

History
Neckartailfingen was first mentioned in 1090 in the Hirsau codex (Codex Hirsaugiensis) as Tagelvingen. Built by order of the Hirsau abbey, the town's landmark church—the Romanesque Martinskirche—was probably completed in the year 1111. In 1536, the town became Protestant, together with the office Nürtingen and received in 1541 the first village school of the former district Nürtingen.

In the Thirty Years' War Neckartailfingen was destroyed after the Battle of Nördlingen (1634) by the infamous dragoons of colonel Walter Butler of Roscrea. Only after a few years the fugitive inhabitants returned and slowly re-built their village again.

Traffic
Neckartailfingen has always been an important transit point. At the time of the stagecoaches Neckartailfingen was an important station for changing horses. Till 1976, the Deutsche Bundesbahn maintained a station at the Plochingen-Tübingen railway, which was about two kilometers away from the place.

In 1995, the bypass of the Bundesstraße 297 was completed. This road runs between the municipality and the Neckar in a tunnel.

The public transport is operated by the Verkehrs- und Tarifverbund Stuttgart. There are the bus lines 188 (to Nürtingen) and 190 (to Aichtal). The line 75 (to Bernshausen or Stuttgart-Degerloch stops just on the outskirts.

Education
Neckartailfingen has with the Liebenau school a primary school. In addition, there are three kindergartens in the place. A music school is for the pupils from the village and the surrounding areas.

The soprano Lore Wissmann was born in the place.

title: Neckartailfingen


text: Category:Dutch biologists

title: Category:Dutch biologists


text:
User:Mikez/monobook.css

@import url(http://sv.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Användare:Mike/monobook.css&action=raw&ctype=text/css);

 * 1) p-search         { border: 1px solid grey; position: absolute; top: 12em; }
 * 2) p-tb             { border: 1px solid grey; position: relative; top: 4em; }
 * 3) p-lang           { border: 1px solid grey; position: relative; top: 4em; }
 * 4) p-navigation     { border: 1px solid grey; position: relative; top: 4.2em; }

text-decoration: none; }  text-decoration: none; }  text-decoration: none; }
 * 1) p-navigation a:hover {
 * 1) p-tb a:hover {
 * 1) p-lang a:hover {

title: User:Mikez/monobook.css


text:
Talk:Black drop effect

Untitled
I don't want an edit war. But check out apostrophe and indeed the following quote from the from the apostrophe protection society:

 * 1) They are used to denote a missing letter or letters, for example:
 * 2) I can't instead of I cannot
 * 3) I don't instead of I do not
 * 4) it's instead of it is
 * 5) They are used to denote possession, for example:
 * 6) the dog's bone
 * 7) the company's logo
 * 8) Jones's bakery (but Joneses' bakery if owned by more than one Jones)

and indeed the following quote from the Oxford English Dictionary

The sign (') used to indicate the omission of a letter or letters, as in o'er, thro', can't; and as a sign of the modern English genitive or possessive case, as in boy's, boys', men's, conscience', Moses'. In the latter case, it originally marked merely the omission of e in writing, as in fox's, James's, and was equally common in the nominative plural, esp. of proper names and foreign words (as folio's = folioes); it was gradually disused in the latter, and extended to all possessives, even where e had not been previously written, as in man's, children's, conscience' sake. This was not yet established in 1725.

(quote from sense 2 of apostrophe)

If you have better authority than the above, I'd love to hear it!

 * To quote wiki's own Apostrophe (mark):

 * If a name already ends with an s, the extra s is sometimes dropped: Jesus' parables. This is more common in U.S. usage and with classical names (Eros' statue, Herodotus' book). Additionally, many contemporary names that end with -es (a -z sound) will see the extra s dropped by some writers: Charles' car, though most style guides advocate Charles's car. Some authors also extend the rule to words ending in -x or -z.

 * So both are right, although purists and classicists prefer dropping the extra s after an ending s. It just looks better written "Venus'" than "Venus's".

 * Urhixidur 19:44, 2004 Oct 15 (UTC)

Hi again

this looks like a transatlantic difference (cf tomato vs tomato ;-) which just cannot admit a "correct" solution. There is, of course, no such thing as a definitively correct answer; a straightforward vote would result in greengrocers' punctuation becoming the defacto standard.

I just can't help inferring that there must be more than one Venus when I see "Venus' appearance" or similar...OTOH, maybe planets are a well-established group of exceptions along with Euripedes, Bayes, goodness, and (perhaps) United States.

best wishes

Robinh 21:42, 16 Oct 2004 (UTC)

Due to the Earth's turbulent atmosphere ???
Why appearance of Venus respectively it's shadow is changed only near the edge of the Sun and why only at one side. 84.169.210.197 09:46, 20 March 2007 (UTC)

Optical effect?
The explanation that "it is now thought by many to be an optical effect" doesn't seem to add much value. Anything that can be seen at all is in some sense an "optical effect". Does it mean "optical illusion"? Some sort of aberration in the optics of telescopes? Or what? Matt 00:10, 12 December 2007 (UTC).

"Limb" of the Sun
Maybe it's a British term, but I have no idea what the "Limb" of the sun is. The edge? Can anyone elucidate for me? 3lb33 (talk) 15:11, 8 February 2012 (UTC)

Never mind, I found the answer on Wiktionary. Apparently it's a term specific to astronomy--abbreviated from limbus, the Latin word for border. 3lb33 (talk) 15:19, 8 February 2012 (UTC)

File:Silhouette of Venus 1769.jpg
Please see where I am asking about an image that was removed from this article. Johnuniq (talk) 07:48, 24 July 2012 (UTC)

Suitable images?
Wikimedia received a communication offering some images related to the transit of Venus.

I see that the article has some fine images already. I do not know if the images being offered would be useful additions to the article.

The images can be found here

If they are suitable, I can take care of the processing of the permission statement, and can upload them as well.-- SPhilbrick (Talk)  14:33, 26 April 2013 (UTC)

External links modified
Hello fellow Wikipedians,

I have just modified 1 one external link on Black drop effect. Please take a moment to review my edit. If you have any questions, or need the bot to ignore the links, or the page altogether, please visit this simple FaQ for additional information. I made the following changes:
 * Added archive https://web.archive.org/web/20101218112451/http://www.transitofvenus.org:80/history/black-drop to http://www.transitofvenus.org/history/black-drop

When you have finished reviewing my changes, please set the checked parameter below to true or failed to let others know (documentation at ).

Cheers.— InternetArchiveBot  (Report bug) 19:08, 3 November 2016 (UTC)

title: Talk:Black drop effect


text: Category:1511 births

title: Category:1511 births


text: Category:1511 deaths

title: Category:1511 deaths


text: Category:Chilean biologists

title: Category:Chilean biologists


text:
Burn the Maps

Burn The Maps is the fifth studio album by The Frames, released in Ireland on Plateau Records on 17 September 2004 and worldwide on ANTI- Records on 8 February 2005.

This was their first studio album to go to #1 in the Irish Album Charts. The songs "Fake", "Finally" & "Sideways Down" became their highest charting hits, reaching 4, 6, and 10 respectively.

Track listing

 * 1) "Happy"
 * 2) "Finally"
 * 3) "Dream Awake"
 * 4) "A Caution to the Birds"
 * 5) "Trying"
 * 6) "Fake"
 * 7) "Sideways Down"
 * 8) "Underglass"
 * 9) "Ship Caught in the Bay"
 * 10) "Keepsake"
 * 11) "Suffer in Silence"
 * 12) "Locusts"

The song "Dream Awake" was featured in the NBC drama series Life at the end of series premiere and "Finally" is featured at the end of episode 11 of the first season, "Fill It Up".

title: Burn the Maps


text: Category:Chilean people by occupation

title: Category:Chilean people by occupation


text: Category:Chilean people

title: Category:Chilean people


text: Category:Chilean philosophers

title: Category:Chilean philosophers


text: Category:Chilean scientists

title: Category:Chilean scientists


text:
Emperor Taizong of Song

Zhao Jiong (20 November 939 – 8 May 997), known as Zhao Guangyi from 960 to 977 and Zhao Kuangyi before 960, also known by his temple name as the Emperor Taizong of Song, was the second emperor of the Song dynasty of China. He reigned from 976 to his death in 997. He was a younger brother of his predecessor Emperor Taizu, and the father of his successor Emperor Zhenzong.

Why Emperor Taizong succeeded his brother rather than Emperor Taizu's grown sons (Zhao Dezhao and Zhao Defang, who both died in their twenties during his reign) is not entirely understood by later historians. According to official history, his succession was confirmed by Emperor Taizu on their mother Empress Dowager Du's deathbed as a result of her instruction. A popular story dating back from at least the 11th century suggests that Emperor Taizong murdered his brother in the dim candlelight when the sound of an axe was allegedly heard. Whatever the truth, Zhao Guangyi had been prefect of the Song capital Kaifeng since 961 where he gradually consolidated power. He was the only living prince during Emperor Taizu's reign (as Prince of Jin) and placed above all grand councilors in regular audiences.

In the first three years of his reign, he intimidated the Qingyuan warlord Chen Hongjin and Wuyue king Qian Chu into submission and easily conquered the Northern Han, thus reunifying China proper for the first time in 72 years. However, subsequent irredentist wars to conquer former Tang dynasty territories from the Liao dynasty in the north and the Early Lê dynasty in the southeast proved disastrous: after the failures in the Battle of Gaoliang River and the Battle of Bạch Đằng, the Sixteen Prefectures and Northern Vietnam (at least in their entirety) would remain beyond Han control until the Ming dynasty in the 14th century.

Emperor Taizong is remembered as a hardworking and diligent emperor. He paid great attention to the welfare of his people and made the Song Empire more prosperous. He adopted the centralization policies of the Later Zhou, which include increasing agricultural production, broadening the imperial examination system, compiling encyclopaedias, expanding the civil service and further limiting the power of jiedushis.

All subsequent emperors of the Northern Song were his descendants, as well as the first emperor of the Southern Song. However, from Emperor Xiaozong onwards, subsequent emperors were descendants of his brother, Emperor Taizu. This largely stemmed from the Jingkang Incident, whereby most of Emperor Taizong's descendants were abducted by the Jin dynasty, forcing Emperor Gaozong to seek a successor among Taizu's descendants, as Gaozong's only son had died young.

Early life
Emperor Taizong was born in 939 in Kaifeng. After his brother Emperor Taizu took the throne, he was appointed prefect of Kaifeng. He was the Prince of Jin in his brother's reign.

Succeeding the throne and suspected fratricide
Emperor Taizong succeeded the throne in 976 after the death of his elder brother, Emperor Taizu, who was 49 and had no recorded illness. It is rather unusual in Chinese history for a brother rather than the son to succeed the throne, so the event fueled popular belief that foul play was involved.

According to official history, Empress Dowager Du before her death in 961 asked the 34-year-old Emperor Taizu to promise that his brother would succeed him so as to ensure the continuation of the Song dynasty. She reportedly asked Emperor Taizu, "Do you know why you came to power? It was because Later Zhou had a seven-year-old emperor!" The so-called "Golden Shelf Promise" (金匱誓書) was also allegedly recorded and sealed, by secretary Zhao Pu and reopened after Emperor Taizong's succession to prove the latter's legitimacy.

Emperor Taizu's eldest son, Zhao Dezhao, was already 25 years old in 976, certainly old enough to handle an emperor's duties. Also suspicious is that Zhao Pu, banished in 973 by Emperor Taizu for allegations of corruption, returned to the capital in 976 and was made the chancellor in 977.

Wen Ying, a Buddhist monk who lived in the era of Emperor Taizong's grandson, Emperor Renzong, wrote an account about the last night of Emperor Taizu. According to this account, he was dining and drinking with Emperor Taizong, then still the "Prince of Kaifeng", beside some candles. Palace eunuchs and maids standing in a distance saw that Emperor Taizong's shadow on the window moved a lot and appeared antsy. It was getting late and several inches of snow have fallen on the inside of the hall. Then they heard an axe chopping the snow, with Emperor Taizu saying, "Do it right! Do it right!" Soon enough Emperor Taizu was heard snoring. Several hours later, he was pronounced dead by his brother, who spent the night in his palace. This legend has been referred to as "sound of the axe in the shadow of the flickering candle" (斧声烛影) and proved to be popular to this day.

Modern historians were unable to find any concrete evidence suggesting murder; however they generally accept that the "Golden Shelf Promise" was fraud fabricated by Emperor Taizong and Zhao Pu.

Also worth mentioning is the suicide of Zhao Dezhao, Emperor Taizu's eldest son, three years after his father's death. During Emperor Taizong's first campaign against the Khitan-led Liao dynasty, Zhao Dezhao was leading an army when rumours spread that Emperor Taizong had disappeared, and that Zhao Dezhao should be the new emperor. Upon hearing that, Emperor Taizong did not award the troops when they returned. When Zhao Dezhao asked him, Emperor Taizong barked back, "You do that when you become the new emperor!" According to this account, Zhao Dezhao immediately went to his palace and killed himself and when Taizong heard about the suicide, he was very sad and hugged the corpse crying.

Emperor Taizu's second son, Zhao Defang, died in 981 from an unidentified illness. Just 22, he was unusually young. Emperor Taizong was very sad and visited Defang's grave and cancelled meetings for 5 days. During the same year, Emperors Taizong and Taizu's younger brother, Zhao Tingmei (previously known as Zhao Guangmei and Zhao Kuangmei), was also stripped of his title "Prince of Qi" and sent to the Western Capital. He died three years later. Moreover, when Emperor Taizu's widow Empress Song died, her body was not buried with her late husband and not given the recognition according to tradition.

After Emperor Taizong's ascension to the throne, there were persistent doubts as to the legitimacy of the succession, and a popular prophecy arose that Taizu's descendants will rightfully return to the throne one day (太祖之後當再有天下). This prophecy proved true when Taizu's seventh-generation descendant Xiaozong became emperor after the capture of most of Taizong's line by the Jurchens during the Jingkang incident and Gaozong, the first emperor of the Southern Song dynasty, whose own son Zhao Fu died young, lacked an heir.

Conquering Northern Han
Emperor Taizong personally led the campaign against Northern Han in 979 and ordered the flooding of enemy cities by releasing the Fen River. The Northern Han ruler Liu Jiyuan was forced to surrender, thus ending all the kingdoms and dynasties in the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period.

First campaign against the Liao dynasty
Having conquered Northern Han in 979, Emperor Taizong took advantage of the momentum and launched another military campaign against the Khitan-led Liao dynasty. In May 979, Emperor Taizong embarked on his campaign from Taiyuan and took Zhuo and Yi Prefectures easily. He besieged Yanjing (present-day Beijing) after the success. However, the siege failed when the Liao defending general Yelü Xuegu defended the fortress firmly.

Concurrently, Liao reinforcements led by Yelü Xiuge arrived from the Gaoliang River region, west of Yanjing. Emperor Taizong ordered his army to attack the reinforcements. Initially, he received reports that the Liao army was suffering heavy casualties. He ordered a full assault on the Liao army as he thought that the whole battle was under his control. Just then, Yelü Xiuge and Yelü Xiezhen's armies attacked from two sides. Yelü Xiuge concentrated on attacking Emperor Taizong's main camp. Emperor Taizong was shocked and evacuated from the battlefield. During the evacuation, the Song army was divided and obliterated by the Liao cavalry.

Amidst the onslaught, Emperor Taizong fled towards Yi Prefecture and arrived there safely with his generals protecting him. He sustained an injury from an arrow and was unable to ride on his horse and had to travel by carriage back to Ding Prefecture. Emperor Taizong ordered a retreat after that. The Song army was without a commander as Emperor Taizong was separated from his troops. The troops suggested that Emperor Taizu's eldest son, Zhao Dezhao (Emperor Taizong's nephew), be the new emperor. Emperor Taizong's suspicions were raised when he heard that and eventually he ordered Zhao Dezhao to commit suicide.

The Battle of Gaoliang River was significant as it was one of the major contributing factors to the Song dynasty's decision to adopt a defensive stance. The early Song army suffered its first major defeat in battle. Meanwhile, Emperor Taizong was also troubled by the possibility that Zhao Dezhao would launch a coup. After the battle, Emperor Taizong personally inspected and focused more on the development and strengthening of his military forces. He ignored his subjects' advice and regarded state affairs as of lower importance. He also limited the power and control that the imperial family and military officers had over the army.

Second campaign against the Liao dynasty
After the death of Emperor Jingzong of Liao in 982, the 12-year-old Emperor Shengzong of Liao ascended to the throne of the Liao Dynasty. As Emperor Shengzong was too young to rule the kingdom, Empress Dowager Xiao became the regent. Emperor Taizong decided to launch the second campaign against Liao in 986, following the advice of his subjects.

During this time, Zhao Yuanzuo, Taizong's oldest son became insane after the death of his uncle, Zhao Tingmei, and that he was not invited to the Double Night Daylight Feast which ultimately caused Yuanzuo to burn down the palace. As a result, Taizong, under the pressure of his censors demoted Yuanzuo to commoner status and exiled him. This, was changed when 100 officials rejected Yuanzuo's exile and pressured Taizong to let Yuanzuo remain in the palace. Three officials who had responsibility for Yuanzuo asked to be punished by Taizong in which Taizong said "This son, even I have been unable to reform through my teaching. How could you guide him?" in response.

In 983, the practice of officials tutoring imperial princes began under his reign. One notable case was Emperor Taizong's son Zhao Yuanjie and his tutor Yao Tan (935–1003) in which Yao constantly berated the young prince for being idle and lazy causing resentment from the prince. Yao attempted to complain to Taizong who said "Yuanjie is literate and enjoys learning; that should be sufficient to make him a worthy prince. If when young he is immoderate, then it is necessary to have entreaties to rein in his ridicule. But if you slander him without good reason, how is that going to help him?" However, Yuanjie under peer pressure from his friends feigned illness and began neglecting his duties. Concerned, Taizong checked the Prince's progress daily. He summoned Yuanjie's wet nurse after the Prince still was "ill" for a month with the wet nurse stating "The Prince is basically not sick; it's just that with Yao Tan checking up on him, he can seldom follow his inclinations, and thus has become sick." This enraged Emperor Taizong ordering her to be caned.

Emperor Taizong remained in Bianjing and directed the war there without personally entering the battlefield. He split the army into three sections – East, Central and West. The East Army was led by Cao Bin, the Central Army by Tian Zhongjin and the West Army by Pan Mei and Yang Ye. All the three armies would attack Yanjing from three sides and capture it. The campaign was termed as the Yongxi Northern Campaign as it took place in the third year of the Yongxi era of Emperor Taizong's reign.

The three armies scored some victories initially but they became more divided later as they acted individually without cooperation. Cao Bin took the risk by attacking without the support of the other two armies. He succeeded in taking Zhuo Prefecture but the lack of food supplies forced him to retreat. As there was miscommunication between the three armies, the East Army attacked Zhuo Prefecture again. However, this time, Empress Dowager Xiao and Yelü Xiuge each led an army to support Zhuo Prefecture. The East Army was inflicted with a crushing defeat and almost completely destroyed.

Emperor Taizong was aware that the failure of the East Army would affect the entire campaign and he ordered a retreat. He ordered the East Army to return, the Central Army to guard Ding Prefecture and the West Army to guard four prefectures near the border. Following the defeat of the East Army, the Liao army led by Yelü Xiezhen attacked them as they retreated. The West Army led by Pan Mei met Yelü Xiezhen's army at Dai Prefecture and faced another defeat at the hands of the Liao army. The two commanders of the West Army started to argue about retreating. Yang Ye proposed that they should retreat since the East and Central Armies had already lost the advantage following their defeats. However, the other generals on Pan Mei's side began to doubt Yang's loyalty to Song as Yang Ye used to serve Northern Han. Yang Ye led an army to face the Liao troops but they were trapped and Yang committed suicide eventually. Pan Mei was supposed to arrive with reinforcements to support Yang but he failed to do so.

Emperor Taizong ordered another retreat following the Song armies' defeats by Yelü Xiuge and Yelü Xiezhen. The failure of the second campaign was attributed to the miscommunication between the three armies and their failures to operate together. Besides, Emperor Taizong had also restricted the decisions of his generals as he had arbitrarily planned the whole campaign against Liao and his generals had to adhere to his orders strictly. These failures led to internal rebellions which were crushed swiftly.

In 988, the Liao armies led by Empress Dowager Xiao attacked the Song border again. Emperor Taizong did not order a counter-attack and merely instructed the troops to defend firmly.

Later reign after 988
Emperor Taizong felt that he could not surpass his brother (Emperor Taizu) in terms of military conquests and achievements and decided to focus more on developing his dynasty internally and establish his legacy. He implemented a series of economic and literary reforms which were better than his brother's. He also initiated many construction projects and inducted new systems absent in Emperor Taizu's reign.

Emperor Taizong died in 997 after reigning for 21 years at the age of 57. He was succeeded by his third son, who became Emperor Zhenzong.

Family
Consorts and Issue:
 * Empress Shude, of the Yin clan (淑德皇后 尹氏)
 *  unnamed daughter
 * Empress Yide, of the Fu clan (懿德皇后 符氏; 941–975)
 * Empress Mingde, of the Li clan (明德皇后 李氏; 960–1004)
 * Unnamed son
 * Empress Yuande, of the Li clan (元德皇后 李氏; 943–977)
 * Zhao Yuanzuo, Prince Hangongxian (漢恭憲王 趙元佐; 965–1027), first son
 * Zhao Heng, Zhenzong (真宗 趙恆; 968–1022), third son
 * Unnamed daughter
 * Unnamed daughter
 * Noble Consort Sun, of the Sun clan (貴妃孫氏)
 * Worthy Consort, of the Gao clan (贤妃 高氏)
 * Virtuous Consort, of the Zhu clan (德妃 朱氏, d. 1035), personal name Chonghui (冲惠)
 * Able Consort, of the Shao clan (賢妃 邵氏, d. 1016), personal name Zhaoming (昭明)
 * Noble Consort, of the Zang clan (貴妃 臧氏)
 * Zhao Yuancheng, Prince Chugonghui (楚恭惠王 趙元偁; 981–1014), seventh son
 * Princess Hejing (和靖帝姬; d. 1033), fourth daughter
 * Married Chai Zongqing (柴宗慶; 982–1044) in 1002
 * Princess Ciming (慈明帝姬; d. 1024), personal name Qingyu (清裕), sixth daughter
 * Noble Consort, of the Fang clan (貴妃 方氏; d. 1022)
 * Princess Xianmu (獻穆帝姬; 988–1051), ninth daughter
 * Married Li Zunxu (李遵勗; 988–1038) in 1008
 * Virtuous Consort, of the Wang clan (德妃 王氏)
 * Zhao Yuanyan, Prince Zhougongsu (週恭肅王 趙元儼; 986–1044), eighth son
 * Shuyi, of the Li clan (淑儀 李氏)
 * Shuyi, of the Wu clan (淑儀吳氏)
 * Unknown
 * Zhao Yuanxi, Crown Prince Zhaocheng (昭成皇太子 趙元僖; 966–992), second son
 * Zhao Yuanfen, Prince Shanggongjing (商恭靖王 趙元份; 969–1005), fourth son
 * Zhao Yuanjie, Prince Yuewenhui (越文惠王 趙元杰; 972–1003), fifth son
 * Zhao Yuanwo, Prince Zhengongyi (鎮恭懿王 趙元偓; 977–1018), sixth son
 * Zhao Yuanyi, Prince Chong (崇王 趙元億), ninth son
 * Princess Heqing (和慶帝姬)
 * Princess Yinghui (英惠帝姬; d. 990), second daughter
 * Married Wu Yuanyi (吳元扆; 962–1011) in 984
 * Princess Chunmei (純美帝姬; d. 983), third daughter
 * Princess Yishun (懿順帝姬; d. 1004), fifth daughter
 * Married Wang Yiyong (王貽永; 986–1056) in 1003

title: Emperor Taizong of Song


text:
Norris Dam

Norris Dam is a hydroelectric and flood control structure located on the Clinch River in Anderson County and Campbell County, Tennessee, United States. The dam was the first major project for the Tennessee Valley Authority, which had been created in 1933 to bring economic development to the region and control the rampant flooding that had long plagued the Tennessee Valley. The dam was named in honor of Nebraska Senator George Norris (1861–1944), a longtime supporter of government-owned utilities in general, and supporter of TVA in particular. The infrastructure project was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 2016.

Norris Dam is a straight concrete gravity-type dam. The dam is 1860 feet (570 m) long and 265 feet (81 m) high. Norris Lake, the largest reservoir on a tributary of the Tennessee River, has 33,840 acres (137 km2) of water surface and 809 miles (1302 km) of shoreline. The dam has a maximum generating capacity of 126 megawatts.

Location
The Clinch River flows southwestward for 300 mi from its headwaters in Virginia through the rugged, sparsely populated hills of northeastern Tennessee before emptying into the Tennessee River near Kingston. Norris Dam is located at just over 79 mi upstream from the mouth of the Clinch, immediately downstream from the river's confluence with Cove Creek, which joins the river from the northwest. The reservoir includes parts of Anderson, Campbell, Union, Claiborne, and Grainger counties. Norris Reservoir spans a 73 mi stretch of the Clinch from the dam to River Ridge at the Claiborne-Grainger county line. The reservoir also covers the lower 56 mi of the Powell River, which empties into the Clinch 10 mi upstream from Norris Dam. The dam's tailwaters are part of Melton Hill Lake, which stretches for 56 mi along the Clinch from Norris to Melton Hill Dam.

Norris Freeway, a section of U.S. Highway 441 widened in the 1930s to aid in dam construction, crosses the top of Norris Dam and connects the area to Interstate 75 at Rocky Top, Tennessee to the west and Knoxville, Tennessee to the south. Along with the reservation maintained by TVA for the operation of Norris Dam, most of the lower Norris Reservoir is surrounded by conservation lands, including Norris Dam State Park adjacent to the reservation, the Cove Creek Wildlife Management Area across the lake to the north, and the Chuck Swan State Forest, which protects a largely undeveloped area a few miles upstream.

Background and construction
As early as 1911, the present site of Norris Dam—initially called the "Cove Creek site"—was identified as a prime location for a sizeable dam. Several government and private entities believed that a dam in the upper Tennessee Valley, working in conjunction with dams at Muscle Shoals, Alabama, could provide badly needed flood control to East Tennessee and help keep the Tennessee River consistently navigable year-round. In the early 1920s, several entities—including the Tennessee Electric Power Company (TEPCo), the Knoxville Power & Light Company, and Union Carbide— applied for permits to build a dam at the Cove Creek site, although all were eventually withdrawn or rejected. Part of the opposition was from Senator Norris, who advocated a government-sponsored dam at the site, arguing that a private entity would be almost wholly concerned with power generation rather than flood control and coordination with projects elsewhere in the valley. Norris proposed constructing a network of dams throughout the valley to help regulate its outflow into the lower Mississippi River. Throughout the late 1920s, the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers made several proposals to build a dam at the site, but all were rejected by Congress or vetoed by President Calvin Coolidge.

The Tennessee Valley Authority was formed in 1933 as part of President Franklin D. Roosevelt's New Deal legislation. The act authorizing TVA's establishment (signed on May 18, 1933) authorized TVA to immediately begin construction on a dam at the Cove Creek site. On July 30, TVA renamed the Cove Creek project for Senator Norris and began preparations for the dam's construction. As the agency lacked any engineering or dam construction experience, it relied heavily on the Army Corps' original design, and received ample consulting from the U.S. Bureau of Reclamation. Hungarian-American architect Roland Wank (1898–1970) revised the initial plans from Bureau of Reclamation engineers, and gave the poured-concrete Norris Dam a modernist style, which was controversial and advanced for the era of construction, but the result would eventually succeed in elevating Roland Wank to the position of Chief Architect for TVA from 1933 through 1944. Construction began on October 1, 1933.

The building of Norris Dam and its accompanying reservoir required the purchase of over 152000 acre of land. 2,841 families and 5,226 graves were relocated. The community of Loyston, located about 20 mi upstream from the dam site, was entirely inundated. Approximately one-third of Caryville, at the head of the reservoir's Cove Creek embayment, was flooded and a number of structures in the town had to be moved. Several smaller 30 ft earthen dams were built along reservoir tributaries to house fish hatcheries. As the project called for the construction of recreational areas along the lakeshore, TVA built two supplemental dams—Caryville Dam and Big Ridge Dam—to impound Cove Lake and Big Ridge Lake, respectively, and ensure these small lakes would remain filled year-round. The Civilian Conservation Corps built recreational facilities and aided in the removal of various structures. The town of Norris, Tennessee was initially built as a planned community to house the workers involved in the construction of this dam.

Norris Dam was completed and the gates closed on March 4, 1936, constructed at a cost of $36 million (equivalent to $ in ). The dam's first generator went online on July 28, 1936. Although Norris was the first dam built by TVA, it is not the oldest dam owned and operated by the agency. TVA subsequently purchased the assets of the former Tennessee Electric Power Company, including some dams which had been built before Norris Dam.

The building of Norris Dam and the changes it brought to the region inspired films, books, stage plays, and songs. Folk songs from the construction period express enthusiasm for the benefits that the dam project brought to the region. Notable visitors to the dam included President Franklin D. Roosevelt and First Lady Eleanor Roosevelt, French philosopher Jean-Paul Sartre, journalist Ernie Pyle, Swiss architect Le Corbusier, track star Jesse Owens, and Indian Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru. In 1941, the dam was the subject of a photography exhibit at the Museum of Modern Art in New York.

Legacy
The project's intent of providing aid to residents of the Clinch and Powell watershed has been argued by scholars and historians, specifically regarding the TVA's acquisition of roughly 150,000 acres of farmland, and the displacement of an estimated 3,000 families and 5,300 graves. Many of the dead buried in cemeteries that were to be flooded by the dam reservoir were disinterred and reburied in four "re-interment cemeteries" established by the TVA: Baker's Forge Memorial Cemetery, Cumberland View Cemetery, Big Barren Memorial Cemetery, and New Loyston Memorial Cemetery.

Union County, the most negatively impacted county of the Norris Project, would encounter the inundation of the unincorporated town of Loyston and other scarce communities of the Big Valley region of Union County. The town of Big Barren and the settlement of Baker's Forge were also inundated. After the project's completion, the Big Valley region of Union County, promised its electrification by the project's end, would not receive electricity until the late 1940s and early 1950s. Some of the displaced in the aftermath of the Norris Project would commit suicide, unable to bear the stress of the loss of their lifestyles.

title: Norris Dam


text: Category:Italian biologists

title: Category:Italian biologists


text:
Magnon

A magnon is a quasiparticle, a collective excitation of the spin structure of an electron in a crystal lattice. In the equivalent wave picture of quantum mechanics, a magnon can be viewed as a quantized spin wave. Magnons carry a fixed amount of energy and lattice momentum, and are spin-1, indicating they obey boson behavior.

Brief history
The concept of a magnon was introduced in 1930 by Felix Bloch in order to explain the reduction of the spontaneous magnetization in a ferromagnet. At absolute zero temperature (0 K), a Heisenberg ferromagnet reaches the state of lowest energy (so-called ground state), in which all of the atomic spins (and hence magnetic moments) point in the same direction. As the temperature increases, more and more spins deviate randomly from the alignment, increasing the internal energy and reducing the net magnetization. If one views the perfectly magnetized state at zero temperature as the vacuum state of the ferromagnet, the low-temperature state with a few misaligned spins can be viewed as a gas of quasiparticles, in this case magnons. Each magnon reduces the total spin along the direction of magnetization by one unit of $$\hbar$$ (reduced Planck's constant) and the magnetization by $$\gamma\hbar$$, where $$\gamma$$ is the gyromagnetic ratio. This leads to Bloch's law for the temperature dependence of spontaneous magnetization:

$$M(T) = M_0 \left[1 - \left(\frac{T}{T_c}\right)^{3/2}\right]$$

where $$T_c$$ is the (material dependent) critical temperature, and $$M_0$$ is the magnitude of the spontaneous magnetization.

The quantitative theory of magnons, quantized spin waves, was developed further by Theodore Holstein and Henry Primakoff, and then by Freeman Dyson. Using the second quantization formalism they showed that magnons behave as weakly interacting quasiparticles obeying Bose–Einstein statistics (bosons). A comprehensive treatment can be found in the solid state textbook by Charles Kittel or the early review article by Van Kranendonk and Van Vleck.

Direct experimental detection of magnons by inelastic neutron scattering in ferrite was achieved in 1957 by Bertram Brockhouse. Since then magnons have been detected in ferromagnets, ferrimagnets, and antiferromagnets.

The fact that magnons obey the Bose–Einstein statistics was confirmed by the light scattering experiments done during the 1960s through the 1980s. Classical theory predicts equal intensity of Stokes and anti-Stokes lines. However, the scattering showed that if the magnon energy is comparable to or smaller than the thermal energy, or $$\hbar \omega < k_B T$$, then the Stokes line becomes more intense, as follows from Bose–Einstein statistics. Bose–Einstein condensation of magnons was proven in an antiferromagnet at low temperatures by Nikuni et al. and in a ferrimagnet by Demokritov et al. at room temperature. In 2015 Uchida et al. reported the generation of spin currents by surface plasmon resonance.

Paramagnons
Paramagnons are magnons in magnetic materials which are in their high temperature, disordered (paramagnetic) phase. For low enough temperatures, the local atomic magnetic moments (spins) in ferromagnetic or anti-ferromagnetic compounds will become ordered. Small oscillations of the moments around their natural direction will propagate as waves (magnons). At temperatures higher than the critical temperature, long range order is lost, but spins will still align locally in patches, allowing for spin waves to propagate for short distances. These waves are known as a paramagnon, and undergo diffusive (instead of ballistic or long range) transport.

The concept was first proposed based on the spin fluctuations in transition metals, by Berk and Schrieffer and Doniach and Engelsberg, to explain additional repulsion between electrons in some metals, which reduces the critical temperature for superconductivity.

Properties
Magnon behavior can be studied with a variety of scattering techniques. Magnons behave as a Bose gas with no chemical potential. Microwave pumping can be used to excite spin waves and create additional non-equilibrium magnons which thermalize into phonons. At a critical density, a condensate is formed, which appears as the emission of monochromatic microwaves. This microwave source can be tuned with an applied magnetic field.

title: Magnon


text:
Young's Literal Translation

Young's Literal Translation (YLT) is a translation of the Bible into English, published in 1862. The translation was made by Robert Young, compiler of Young's Analytical Concordance to the Bible and Concise Critical Comments on the New Testament. Young used the Textus Receptus (TR) and the Masoretic Text (MT) as the basis for his translation. He wrote in the preface to the first edition, "It has been no part of the Translator's plan to attempt to form a New Hebrew or Greek Text—he has therefore somewhat rigidly adhered to the received ones." Young produced a "Revised Version" of his translation in 1887, but he stuck with the Received Text. He wrote in the preface to the Revised Edition, "The Greek Text followed is that generally recognized as the 'Received Text,' not because it is thought perfect, but because the department of Translation is quite distinct from that of textual criticism, and few are qualified for both. If the original text be altered by a translator, (except he give his reasons for and against each emendation,) the reader is left in uncertainty whether the translation given is to be considered as that of the old or of the new reading." A new Revised Edition was released ten years after Robert Young's death on October 14, 1888. The 1898 version was based on the TR, easily confirmed by the word "bathe" in Revelation 1:5 and the word "again" in Revelation 20:5. The "Publishers' Note to the Third Edition" explains, "The work has been subjected to a fresh revision, making no alteration on the principles on which the Translation proceeds, but endeavouring to make it as nearly perfect in point of accuracy on its present lines as possible." A major revision of Young's Literal Translation in contemporary English, called the Literal Standard Version, was released in 2020.

Translation philosophy
The Literal Translation is, as the name implies, a very literal translation of the original Hebrew and Greek texts. The Preface to the Second Edition states:

"If a translation gives a present tense when the original gives a past, or a past when it has a present; a perfect for a future, or a future for a perfect; an a for a the, or a the for an a; an imperative for a subjunctive, or a subjunctive for an imperative; a verb for a noun, or a noun for a verb, it is clear that verbal inspiration is as much overlooked as if it had no existence. THE WORD OF GOD IS MADE VOID BY THE TRADITIONS OF MEN. [Emphases in original.]"

Therefore, Young used the present tense in many places in which other translations use the past tense, particularly in narratives. For example, the YLT version of Genesis begins as follows:

Young's Literal Translation in the 1898 edition also consistently renders the Hebrew tetragrammaton (divine name) throughout the Old Testament as "Jehovah", instead of the traditional practice of representing the tetragrammaton in English as "" in small capitals, but editions prior to 1898 do say "" in small capitals.

Assessment
Young's translation is closer to the Hebrew than the better-known versions of this passage in English. The Revised Standard Version (RSV), which is based on Biblia Hebraica Stuttgartensia, for example, treats verses 1–3 in this way:

Young's usage of English present tense rather than past tense has been supported by scholars ranging from the medieval Jewish rabbi Rashi (who advised, "[If] you are going to interpret [this passage] in its plain sense, interpret it thus: At the beginning of the creation of heaven and earth, when the earth was (or the earth being) unformed and void [...] God said, 'Let there be light.) to Richard Elliott Friedman in his translation of the Pentateuch in The Bible with Sources Revealed (2002).

The translation is not perfectly literal. It renders one passage as "And on the first of the Sabbaths" while it translates another as "And on the first of the week" even though the two phrases are identical in the Greek texts. To quote the preface, "Every effort has been made to secure a comparative degree of uniformity in rendering the original words and phrases. Thus, for example, the Hebrew verb nathan, which is rendered by the King James' translators in different ways... has been restricted and reduced to, and so with many others. It is the Translator's ever-growing conviction, that even this smaller number may be reduced still further." David Dewey, in A User's Guide to Bible Translations, mentions that Young's "method of translating Hebrew tenses makes his Old Testament in places virtually unreadable."

Eternity or age
Another important feature of YLT is its treatment of the Hebrew word עוֹלָם (olam) and the Greek word αἰών (aiṓn). These two words have basically the same meaning, and YLT translates them and their derivatives as "age" or "age-enduring". Other English versions most often translate them to indicate eternality (eternal, everlasting, forever, etc.). However, there are notable exceptions to this in all major translations, such as: "I am with you always, to the end of the age" (NRSV), the word "age" being a translation of aiṓn. Rendering aiṓn to indicate eternality in this verse would result in the contradictory phrase "end of eternity", so the question arises whether it should ever be so. Proponents of universal reconciliation point out that this has significant implications for soteriology and the problem of hell. However, "age" and "age-enduring" imply indeterminacy which may be either timeless and atemporal or pertaining to an indefinite period of time, the former (but not the latter) meaning having been acquired by the words "eternity" and "eternal".

While it has been argued that "eternity" and "eternal" also have other meanings including "endless period of time" and "endless in time" respectively, this is rarely the case in late antique texts, where the word aidiois would be used to designate endless duration.

Compare the following passages, quoted from YLT with words corresponding to "age" or "age-enduring" emphasised:

title: Young's Literal Translation