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Battle of Marais des Cygnes

The Battle of Marais des Cygnes  took place on October 25, 1864, in Linn County, Kansas, during Price's Missouri Campaign during the American Civil War. It is also known as the Battle of Trading Post. In late 1864, Confederate Major-General Sterling Price invaded the state of Missouri with a cavalry force, attempting to draw Union troops away from the primary theaters of fighting further east. After several victories early in the campaign, Price's Confederate troops were defeated at the Battle of Westport on October 23 near Kansas City, Missouri. The Confederates then withdrew into Kansas, camping along the banks of the Marais des Cygnes River on the night of October 24. Union cavalry pursuers under Brigadier General John B. Sanborn skirmished with Price's rearguard that night, but disengaged without participating in heavy combat.

Overnight, Sanborn's troops were reinforced by cavalry under Lieutenant Colonel Frederick W. Benteen, bringing the total Union strength to 3,500. The battle began early the next morning as Sanborn drove Major General John S. Marmaduke's Confederate rearguard from its position north of the river. Union troops captured cannons, prisoners, and wagons during this stage of the fighting. Marmaduke attempted to make a stand at the river crossing, but his position was outflanked by a Union cavalry regiment, forcing him to abandon it. A rearguard action by Confederate Brigadier General John B. Clark Jr.'s 1,200-man brigade bought Price more time to retreat and disengage. Some of Price's men were still caught near Mine Creek later that morning and were badly beaten in the Battle of Mine Creek. That evening, the Battle of Marmiton River became the day's third action, after which Price burned his supply train so it no longer slowed the retreat. After another defeat at the Second Battle of Newtonia on October 28, Price's column retreated to Texas through Arkansas and the Indian Territory. Only 3,500 of the 12,000 men Price had brought into Missouri remained in his force.

Background
When the American Civil War began in 1861, the state of Missouri was a slave state, but did not secede because the state was politically divided. Governor Claiborne Fox Jackson and the Missouri State Guard (MSG) supported secession and the Confederate States of America, while Brigadier General Nathaniel Lyon and the portion of the Union Army under his command supported the United States and opposed secession. Under Major General Sterling Price, the MSG defeated Union armies at the battles of Wilson's Creek and Lexington in 1861, but by the end of the year, Price and the MSG were restricted to the southwestern portion of the state due to the arrival of Union reinforcements. Meanwhile, Jackson and a portion of the state legislature voted to secede and join the Confederate States of America, while another element voted to reject secession, essentially giving the state two governments. In March 1862, a Confederate defeat at the Battle of Pea Ridge in Arkansas gave the Union control of Missouri. For the rest of the year, and through 1863, Confederate activity in the state was largely restricted to guerrilla warfare and raids.

By the beginning of September 1864, events in the eastern United States, especially the Confederate defeat in the Atlanta campaign, gave incumbent president Abraham Lincoln, who supported continuing the war, an edge in the 1864 United States presidential election over George B. McClellan, who promoted ending the war. At this point, the Confederacy had very little chance of winning the war. Meanwhile, in the Trans-Mississippi Theater, the Confederates had defeated Union attackers in the Red River campaign in Louisiana in March through May. As events east of the Mississippi River turned against the Confederates, General Edmund Kirby Smith, commander of the Confederate Trans-Mississippi Department, was ordered to transfer the infantry under his command to the fighting in the Eastern and Western Theaters. This proved to be impossible, as the Union Navy controlled the Mississippi River, preventing a large-scale crossing.

Despite having limited resources for an offensive, Smith decided that an attack designed to divert Union troops from the principal theaters of combat would have the same effect as the proposed transfer of troops. Price and the new Confederate Governor of Missouri Thomas Caute Reynolds suggested that an invasion of Missouri would be an effective offensive; Smith approved the plan and appointed Price to command the campaign. Many of the Union troops previously defending Missouri had been transferred out of the state, leaving the Missouri State Militia as the state's primary defensive force. Price expected that the offensive would create a popular uprising against Union control of Missouri, divert Union troops away from principal theaters of combat, and aid McClellan's chance of defeating Lincoln. Price's column entered the state on September 19. This force was formally known as the Army of Missouri and contained three divisions, which were commanded by Major Generals James F. Fagan and John S. Marmaduke and Brigadier General Joseph O. Shelby. The Confederates had 13,000 cavalrymen and 14 small-bore cannons.

Prelude
By September 24, Price's column had reached Fredericktown, where he learned that the town of Pilot Knob and the St. Louis & Iron Mountain Railroad were held by Union forces under the command of Brigadier General Thomas Ewing Jr. Price had no interest in allowing an enemy force to operate in the rear of his army while he advanced to St. Louis, so he sent Marmaduke and Fagan's divisions to Pilot Knob; Shelby and his men operated north of the town. On September 26, Ewing's command fought off Fagan's division at Arcadia before withdrawing to the defenses of Fort Davidson. The next day, Price moved against the fort and offered Ewing surrender terms; the latter refused, as he was afraid of being executed for his unpopular issuance of General Order No. 11 the previous year. Holding out, the Union defenders repulsed multiple assaults, before slipping out of the fort at 03:00 on September 28. The Confederates suffered at least 800 casualties during the engagement and their morale decreased, leading Price to abandon the attempt against St. Louis.

After abandoning the St. Louis thrust, Price's army headed for Jefferson City, although the Confederates were slowed by bringing along a large supply train. On October 7, the Confederates approached Jefferson City, which was held by about 7,000 men mostly inexperienced militia  commanded by Brigadier General Egbert Brown. Faulty Confederate intelligence placed the Union strength at 15,000, and Price, fearing another defeat like Pilot Knob, decided not to attack the city, and began moving his army toward Boonville the next day. Boonville was in the pro-Confederate region of Little Dixie, and Price was able to recruit new soldiers. Estimates of the number of new recruits vary between writers: the historian Charles D. Collins states 1,200 men; Christopher Phillips, writing for the Kansas City Public Library, provides 2,000 men; and the historian Kyle Sinisi states that a minimum of 2,500 men joined the Confederates in the region. Price, needing weapons, authorized two raids away from his main body of troops: Brigadier General John B. Clark Jr. and 1,800 men were sent to Glasgow, and Brigadier General M. Jeff Thompson led Shelby's Iron Brigade to Sedalia. Both raids were successful. Price's army next fought a series of engagements as it moved westwards towards Kansas City, Missouri, culminating in the Battle of Westport on October 23. At Westport, the Confederates were soundly defeated by the commands of Major Generals James G. Blunt and Alfred Pleasonton. Shelby's men provided the Confederates with a rearguard, and the Army of Missouri retreated southwards.

The Confederates still had a large supply train with them, slowing the retreat. By the evening of October 24, the Army of Missouri had entered Kansas; Confederate soldiers looted and burned as they went. That night, Price camped near Trading Post in Linn County, with the camp split into two segments by the Marais des Cygnes River. Price believed that the Union pursuers would attempt to swing around his flank and block his path of retreat and was not expecting a significant Union force to attack the Trading Post position. Meanwhile, the Union pursuers were at West Point, Missouri. Blunt suggested an ambitious flanking movement, but was overruled by Major General Samuel R. Curtis, commander of the Department of Kansas. The plan would have involved only using a token force to attack the Confederate position at the Marais des Cygnes and slipping most of the rest of the Union army around the Confederate flank to attack Price's army in the morning. Both the flanking movement and crossing a river at night posed risks, and Blunt's plan did not consider the fact that the terrain south of the Marais des Cygnes was not conducive to rapid movement. It also assumed that the Confederates would remain stationary. Instead, Curtis ordered Pleasonton to make a frontal attack against Price. Pleasonton, who was heavily fatigued, gave temporary control of his division to Brigadier General John B. Sanborn.

Sanborn moved against Price with a cavalry force at Trading Post late on the night of the 24th. His line, which consisted of the 4th Iowa Cavalry Regiment and three companies of the 2nd Colorado Cavalry Regiment on the right and the 6th and 8th Missouri State Militia Cavalry Regiments on the left, made contact with Fagan's Confederates, who were now serving as the Confederate rearguard. A brief friendly fire incident involving the 4th Iowa Cavalry and the 2nd Colorado Cavalry ensued due to the Iowans being unaware of the presence of the Colorado unit in their front, as well as some light skirmishing with Fagan's forces. Sanborn was unsure of the Confederates' strength, but thought it might be as many as 10,000 men. With his men fatigued and operating in a thunderstorm, he withdrew most of his line, except for the 6th Missouri State Militia Cavalry, which continued skirmishing throughout the night. Fagan informed Price of the action, and the Confederates began retreating about midnight.

Battle
At around 01:00 the next morning, Curtis was informed that Sanborn had disengaged. Wishing to continue to press Price, he ordered Sanborn to attack at daybreak. Curtis had some of his staff officers assist Sanborn, who had been at least partially stymied by lack of staff assistance. An artillery battery was deployed at this time. Around 02:00, Fagan and Shelby withdrew their troops, and Marmaduke aligned his division to serve as a rearguard; it was over 2,000-strong. Marmaduke withdrew his main force south of the river, but left a skirmish line on a pair of mounds that were 140 feet tall. During the night, part of the 2nd Colorado Cavalry broke through the Confederate skirmish line before withdrawing again. A Missouri State Militia unit and the 4th Iowa Cavalry also advanced under cover of darkness. During the night, Sanborn was reinforced by elements of Lieutenant Colonel Frederick W. Benteen's cavalry brigade. One of Benteen's regiments was detached to guard a river crossing to the north to prevent a Confederate flanking attack. At 04:00, Sanborn's artillery, six 3-inch ordnance rifles, opened fire on the Confederate line.

At daybreak, the 4th Iowa Cavalry on the Union right attacked, using the broken ground as cover. Union artillery fired on the mounds, but despite aiming at a 15° elevation, overshot the elevated Confederate positions. Some of the misses struck the Confederate camp, accelerating its evacuation. Confederate marksmanship at that portion of the line was very poor, and the Iowans easily took the position, which consisted of one of the mounds. The 6th and 8th Missouri State Militia Cavalry Regiments attacked on the other end of the line. Again, the fire from the Confederate defenders was ineffective. Both sides were hampered by the rough terrain. The Confederate commander facing the two militia cavalry regiments feared being isolated from Marmaduke's main body on the other side of the river, so the mound was abandoned. The retreat was not detected until after the position had been completely abandoned. The historian Kyle Sinisi wrote that casualties during this stage of the fighting "appear to have been almost nonexistent". With Confederate resistance north of the river broken, Sanborn deployed the 3rd Iowa Cavalry Regiment and the 10th Missouri Cavalry Regiment, as well as the 2nd Arkansas Cavalry Regiment, to exploit the breakthrough.

The 2nd Arkansas Cavalry spearheaded the pursuit. Union forces captured 100 Confederate soldiers, as well as two cannons and some wagons, north of the river, including around the Trading Post settlement. Large quantities of equipment, personal effects, and partially cooked food were found left in the camp, including the partially butchered carcasses of livestock. Marmaduke had positioned men and three cannons from Hynson's Texas Battery just south of the river crossing, and these Union troops were temporarily halted, as there were not enough Union soldiers on the field to challenge the Confederate line directly. The river crossing was obstructed with two downed trees and some men from Colonel Thomas R. Freeman's command. Sanborn ordered the 7th Provisional Enrolled Missouri Militia to cross the river upstream from the Confederate position, successfully outflanking the Confederate line and opening a path across the river. As the 7th Provisional Enrolled Missouri Militia cleared the approach from the flank, the 2nd Arkansas also drove across the river. A tributary of the Marais des Cygnes, named Big Sugar Creek, presented another challenge to the crossing. An alternate crossing of the Marais des Cygnes bypassed this roadblock, but Sanborn was not aware of its existence.

Serving as a rearguard, Clark aligned his brigade in the path of the Union advance. This line was spotted by Sanborn's men after they forced their way through some forest growth around the river. Sanborn drew up a line with two Provisional Enrolled Missouri Militia units thrown out as skirmishers, and the 2nd Arkansas Cavalry, 2nd Colorado Cavalry, and two additional militia units forming his main line. Confused as to what to do, Sanborn left to personally find Curtis for orders and left Colonel John E. Phelps, commander of the 2nd Arkansas Cavalry, in charge in his absence. Phelps's orders were not to attack unless reinforced, but he assaulted Clark's line with 200 men from his own unit and the two Missouri State Militia commands anyway. The attack was initially successful, but halted and was repulsed. Curtis and Pleasonton had joined Sanborn by this point, and observed the 2nd Arkansas' repulse. They attempted to bring more troops to Phelps' support, but Price's wagons had cut up the roads during their retreat, making maneuvers difficult.

By 09:00, Pleasonton, who had regained command of his division from Sanborn, formed a line with the cavalry brigades commanded by Sanborn, Benteen, and Colonel John F. Philips. A small unit of Union artillery also joined the line. Sanborn's command outflanked the right of Clark's line and forced the Confederates to withdraw; another Confederate cannon was captured when Hynson's battery abandoned it during the retreat. Clark's brigade formed a new line containing around 1,200 men, but the weight of the 3,500 Union troopers now present was too much for the Confederates. After Philips's troops threatened his left, Clark ordered a retreat from the field around 10:00. Colonel Colton Greene and his 3rd Missouri Cavalry Regiment provided a rearguard for the Confederates.

Aftermath
Later that morning, Philips and Benteen's troops encountered some of Price's men at the crossing of Mine Creek. The Union troops quickly attacked, and the ensuing Battle of Mine Creek became one of the largest battles between mounted cavalry during the war. The Confederates suffered a serious defeat, as several cannons and about 600 men, including Marmaduke, were captured. Shelby's division served as a rearguard, fighting the Battle of Marmiton River that evening. By the end of October 25, Price's army was so shattered and demoralized that the historian Albert E. Castel described it as essentially an armed mob. That night, Price burned most of his wagon train near Deerfield, Missouri so that it was no longer an encumbrance. By October 28, the Confederates had reached Newtonia, Missouri, where they were defeated by the commands of Blunt and Sanborn in the Second Battle of Newtonia. Price's army began to disintegrate, and the Confederates retreated first into Arkansas and then into the Indian Territory and Texas. Price's Raid, the last major offensive in the Trans-Mississippi Theater, was a failure. By December, Price only had 3,500 men left in an army that had begun the campaign with 12,000.

Legacy
Over 937 acres of the battlefield are preserved by government agencies: 150 acres by the Kansas Department of Fish and Wildlife, and 787.25 acres by the United States Fish and Wildlife Service; the land under the control of the latter agency is within Marais des Cygnes National Wildlife Refuge. , 92 percent of the battlefield retains historical integrity; of this, only 19 percent is included in the wildlife refuge. Since the land is preserved as a wildlife site instead of a historic site, the only public interpretation of the battle is some signage and trails present at a rest stop maintained by the Kansas Department of Transportation. U.S. Route 69 and Kansas State Highway 52 run through the northern portion of the battlefield, although the landscape is generally free from major development. , the site of the battle is not listed on the National Register of Historic Places, although a 2010 survey performed by the American Battlefield Protection Program determined that it is likely eligible for listing.

title: Battle of Marais des Cygnes


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File:James Taylor - Dad Loves His Work.jpg

Summary
Cover of the James Taylor album Dad Loves His Work.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/


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Chris Wingert

Chris Wingert (born June 16, 1982) is an American professional soccer player for New York Cosmos B in the National Premier Soccer League. He spent fourteen seasons of his professional career in Major League Soccer (MLS) with the Columbus Crew (2004–2005), Colorado Rapids (2006–2007), Real Salt Lake (2007–2014, 2016–2017) and New York City FC (2015–2016). He was a starting defender with Real Salt Lake's MLS Cup Championship team in 2009.

College
Wingert attended St. John the Baptist Diocesan High School and played college soccer for St. John's University, where he was the 2003 Hermann Trophy winner as that year's best collegiate player.

During his college years Wingert also played with the Brooklyn Knights in the USL Premier Development League.

Professional
The Columbus Crew drafted Wingert in the second round (twelfth overall) in the 2004 MLS SuperDraft. Despite his collegiate success, MLS teams were skeptical about his ability to adapt to the faster and more physical professional game. Nevertheless, Wingert managed to earn a spot on a very good Crew team and was a versatile member of the squad for two years. While in Columbus, he played as both a defender and a defensive midfielder. On January 20, 2006, the Crew traded Wingert to Colorado Rapids for a fourth-round pick in the 2007 MLS SuperDraft.

On July 13, 2007, Real Salt Lake acquired Wingert from Colorado for a first-round pick in the 2008 MLS Supplemental Draft and a second-round pick in the 2009 supplemental draft.

After eight years with Salt Lake, Wingert was selected in the tenth round of the 2014 MLS Expansion Draft by expansion club New York City FC. The club also selected fellow Salt Lake teammate Ned Grabavoy.

Wingert was waived by New York City on January 30, 2016. Three days later, on February 2, he was claimed off of waivers by Real Salt Lake, starting his second stint with the club. He announced his retirement as a professional soccer player on February 19, 2018.

International
Wingert made his first international appearance for the United States against Sweden on January 24, 2009.

Personal
Wingert is the son of Norm Wingert who played for the Philadelphia Atoms in the North American Soccer League.

Real Salt Lake

 * Major League Soccer MLS Cup (1): 2009
 * Major League Soccer Eastern Conference Championship (1): 2009
 * Major League Soccer Western Conference Championship (1): 2013

title: Chris Wingert


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Little Red School House

The Little Red School House and Elisabeth Irwin High School, also referred to as LREI, is a school in Manhattan, New York City. It was founded by Elisabeth Irwin in 1921 as the Little Red School House and is one of the city's first progressive schools. Created as a joint public-private educational experiment, the school tested principles of progressive education that had been advocated since the turn of the 20th century by John Dewey. The founders postulated that the lessons of progressive education could be applied successfully in the crowded, ethnically diverse public schools of the nation's largest city.

History
The school was founded in 1921 as a joint private-public educational experiment by reformer Elisabeth Irwin, and was well known as a testing ground for new concepts in education.

In 1932, after the onset of the Great Depression caused the Public Education Association to withdraw the funding that had allowed the school to exist within the New York City public school system, William O'Shea, the superintendent of schools – who had previously tried to close down the program because of its progressive ideas – announced that the school would be eliminated because of a budgetary crisis. Parents raised sufficient funds to pay for salaries, but O'Shea refused to accept the money, and the school was forced to turn to private funding. It moved to a building on Bleecker Street provided at no cost by the First Presbyterian Church and began a new life as an independent school.

The Little Red School House consists of a lower school, a middle school, and a high school. In the 1940s the Little Red School House's high-school students decided they wanted their school to be named after its founder, Elisabeth Irwin, making the full title of the institution The Little Red School House and Elisabeth Irwin High School.

Buildings
The Little Red School House and Elisabeth Irwin High School occupy two separate buildings, with a third space housing athletic facilities.

The middle-and-lower-school building is located at 272 Avenue of the Americas (Sixth Avenue) at Bleecker Street, while Elisabeth Irwin High School is at 40 Charlton Street between Sixth Avenue and Varick Street. In June 2008, LREI announced the acquisition of additional space with the purchase of 42 Charlton Street, directly next door. The new townhouse was to be renovated and connected to the existing building. A separate building, the Thompson Street Gym, houses facilities for physical education and athletics. In November 2018, the school announced that it had purchased 15 Van Dam Street, directly behind the Charlton Street campus. The building contains the Soho Playhouse, and formerly housed the Huron Club, a social club frequented by members of the Democratic Party.

College placement
In 2017, graduates attended New York University, Boston University, California Institute of the Arts, Duke University, Princeton University, and many more. In 2015, graduates from Elisabeth Irwin High School attended Bennington College, Bard College, Skidmore College, Ithaca College, Northwestern University, Pitzer College, Sarah Lawrence College the University of Delaware and Vassar College, along with 38 other colleges and universities. In 2013, graduates attended Bard College, Kenyon College, Bennington College, Brown University, Cornell University, Sarah Lawrence College and the University of Colorado at Boulder, along with 22 other institutions, and in 2012, Bennington College, Hampshire College, Kenyon College, Skidmore College, and Wesleyan University, as well as 28 other schools.

Sports
LREI's sports teams include soccer (boys, girls and MS co-ed), volleyball (HS girls, MS co-ed), cross-country track (co-ed), basketball (Varsity, boys and girls and JV boys), spring track (co-ed), tennis (co-ed), softball (girls), baseball (boys), golf (co-ed), swimming (co-ed), fencing (co-ed). The school and team colors are red and white.

Directors and leaders
Directors
 * Elisabeth Irwin (1921–1942)
 * Randolph B. Smith (1943–1966)
 * F. Coit Johnson II (1966-1975)
 * Andrew McLaren (1988–2004)
 * Philip Kassen (2004–present)

Current staff
 * Director: Philip Kassen
 * Director of Learning & Innovation: Mark Silberberg
 * High School Principal: Allison Isabell and Margaret Paul
 * Middle School Principal: Nathan Sokol-Margolis
 * Lower School Principal: Faith Hunter

Notable alumni

 * Elliott Abrams, diplomat, lawyer, political scientist
 * Peter Berg, actor, film director, producer, writer
 * Kathy Boudin, radical, public health expert
 * Emory Cohen, actor
 * Angela Davis, political activist
 * Dominic DiGesu, musician
 * Robert De Niro, actor
 * Eric R. Dinallo, Superintendent of Insurance, New York State
 * Eric Eisner, lawyer and philanthropist, former president of The Geffen Company
 * Em Green, musician
 * Nicolas "Nico" Heller, documentary film director, social media personality
 * Foster Hudson, musician
 * Elle King, singer
 * Peter Knobler, author
 * Michael and Robert Meeropol, sons of Ethel and Julius Rosenberg
 * Victor Navasky, professor, Columbia School of Journalism; editor, publisher emeritus, The Nation
 * Zac Posen, fashion designer
 * Ronald Radosh
 * Doug Rauch, musician
 * Harris Rosen, philanthropist and entrepreneur, president and chief operating officer, Rosen Hotels & Resorts
 * Toshi Seeger, filmmaker and environmental activist
 * Dan Shor, actor
 * Paul Solman, journalist
 * Mary Travers, singer, member of folk group Peter, Paul and Mary
 * Benjamin Drake Wright, psychometrician
 * Edward Irving Wortis, author
 * Daniel Menaker, editor and father of Chapo Trap House host, Will Menaker

Affiliations
The Little Red School House's companion school from 1944 to 1971 was the Downtown Community School (DCS) on the Lower East Side, whose alumni include the writers Peter Manso, Ann Lauterbach, Peter Knobler and Richard Kostelanetz. Its director from 1951 to 1970 was educator and folklorist Norman Studer.

Affiliated organizations
 * National Association of Independent Schools
 * New York State Association of Independent Schools
 * New York Interschool

title: Little Red School House


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Garibaldi Volcanic Belt

The Garibaldi Volcanic Belt is a northwest–southeast trending volcanic chain in the Pacific Ranges of the Coast Mountains that extends from Watts Point in the south to the Ha-Iltzuk Icefield in the north. This chain of volcanoes is located in southwestern British Columbia, Canada. It forms the northernmost segment of the Cascade Volcanic Arc, which includes Mount St. Helens and Mount Baker. Most volcanoes of the Garibaldi chain are dormant stratovolcanoes and subglacial volcanoes that have been eroded by glacial ice. Less common volcanic landforms include cinder cones, volcanic plugs, lava domes and calderas. These diverse formations were created by different styles of volcanic activity, including Peléan and Plinian eruptions.

Eruptions along the length of the chain have created at least three major volcanic zones. The first began in the Powder Mountain Icefield 4.0 million years ago. Mount Cayley began its formation during this period. Multiple eruptions from 2.2 million to 2,350 years ago created the Mount Meager massif, and eruptions 1.3 million to 9,300 years ago formed Mount Garibaldi and other volcanoes in the Garibaldi Lake area. These major volcanic zones lie in three echelon segments, referred to as the northern, central, and southern segments. Each segment contains one of the three major volcanic zones. Apart from these large volcanic zones, two large poorly studied volcanic complexes lie at the northern end of the Pacific Ranges, namely Silverthrone Caldera and Franklin Glacier Complex. They are considered to be part of the Garibaldi Volcanic Belt, but their tectonic relationships to other volcanoes in the Garibaldi chain are unclear because of minimal studies.

Background
Prior to Garibaldi Belt formation, a number of older, but related volcanic belts were constructed along the Southern Coast of British Columbia. This includes the east–west trending Alert Bay Volcanic Belt on northern Vancouver Island and the Pemberton Volcanic Belt along the coastal mainland. The Pemberton Belt began its formation when the former Farallon Plate was subducting under the British Columbia Coast 29 million years ago during the Oligocene epoch. At this time, the north-central portion of the Farallon Plate was just starting to subduct under the U.S. state of California, splitting it into northern and southern sections. Between 18 and five million years ago during the Miocene period, the northern remnant of the Farallon Plate fractured into two tectonic plates, known as the Gorda and Juan de Fuca plates. After this breakup, subduction of the Juan de Fuca Plate might have been coincident with the northern end of Vancouver Island eight million years ago during the late Miocene period. This is when the Alert Bay Belt became active. A brief interval of plate motion adjustment about 3.5 million years ago may have triggered the generation of basaltic magma along the descending plate edge. This eruptive period postdates the formation of the Garibaldi Belt and evidence for more recent volcanism in the Alert Bay Belt has not been found, indicating that volcanism in the Alert Bay Belt is likely extinct.

Bedrock under the Garibaldi chain consists of granitic and dioritic rocks of the Coast Plutonic Complex, which makes up much of the Coast Mountains. This is a large batholith complex that was formed when the Farallon and Kula plates were subducting along the western margin of the North American Plate during the Jurassic and Tertiary periods. It lies on island arc remnants, oceanic plateaus and clustered continental margins that were added along the western margin of North America between the Triassic and Cretaceous periods.

Formation

The Garibaldi Belt has formed in response to ongoing subduction of the Juan de Fuca Plate under the North American Plate at the Cascadia subduction zone along the British Columbia Coast. This is a 1094 km long fault zone running 80 km off the Pacific Northwest from Northern California to southwestern British Columbia. The plates move at a relative rate of over 10 mm per year at a somewhat oblique angle to the subduction zone. Because of the very large fault area, the Cascadia subduction zone can produce large earthquakes of magnitude 7.0 or greater. The interface between the Juan de Fuca and North American plates remains locked for periods of roughly 500 years. During these periods, stress builds up on the interface between the plates and causes uplift of the North American margin. When the plate finally slips, the 500 years of stored energy are released in a mega-earthquake.

Unlike most subduction zones worldwide, there is no deep oceanic trench present in the bathymetry of the continental margin in Cascadia. This is because the mouth of the Columbia River empties directly into the subduction zone and deposits silt at the bottom of the Pacific Ocean to bury the oceanic trench. Massive floods from prehistoric Glacial Lake Missoula during the Late Pleistocene also deposited massive amounts of sediment into the trench. However, in common with other subduction zones, the outer margin is slowly being compressed, similar to a giant spring. When the stored energy is suddenly released by slippage across the fault at irregular intervals, the Cascadia subduction zone can create very large earthquakes, such as the magnitude 9.0 Cascadia earthquake on January 26, 1700. However, earthquakes along the Cascadia subduction zone are fewer than expected and there is evidence of a decline in volcanic activity over the past few million years. The probable explanation lies in the rate of convergence between the Juan de Fuca and North American plates. These two tectonic plates currently converge 3 cm to 4 cm per year. This is only about half the rate of convergence of seven million years ago.

Scientists have estimated that there have been at least 13 significant earthquakes along the Cascadia subduction zone in the past 6,000 years. The most recent, the 1700 Cascadia earthquake, was recorded in the oral traditions of the First Nations people on Vancouver Island. It caused considerable tremors and a massive tsunami that traveled across the Pacific Ocean. The significant shaking associated with this earthquake demolished houses of the Cowichan Tribes on Vancouver Island and caused several landslides. Shaking due to this earthquake made it too difficult for the Cowichan people to stand, and the tremors were so lengthy that they were sickened. The tsunami created by the earthquake ultimately devastated a winter village at Pachena Bay, killing all the people that lived there. The 1700 Cascadia earthquake caused near-shore subsidence, submerging marshes and forests on the coast that were later buried under more recent debris.

Many thousand years of dormancy are expected between large explosive eruptions of volcanoes in the Garibaldi Belt. A possible explanation for the lower rates of volcanism in the Garibaldi chain is that the associated terrain is being compressed in contrast to the more southern portions of the Cascade Arc. In continental rift zones, magma is able to push its way up through the Earth's crust rapidly along faults, providing less chance for differentiation. This is likely the case south of Mount Hood to the California border and east-southeast of the massive Newberry shield volcano adjacent to the Cascade Range in central Oregon because the Brothers Fault Zone lies in this region. This rift zone might explain the massive amounts of basaltic lava in this part of the central Cascade Arc. A low convergence rate in a compressional setting with massive stationary bodies of magma under the surface could explain the low volume and differentiated magmas throughout the Garibaldi Volcanic Belt. In 1958, Canadian volcanologist Bill Mathews proposed there could be a connection between regional glaciation of the North American continent during glacial periods and higher rates of volcanic activity during regional glacial unload of the continent. However, this is hard to predict due to the infrequent geological record in this region. But there is specific data, including the temporal grouping of eruptions synglacially or just postglacial within the Garibaldi Belt, that suggests this could be probable.

Glaciovolcanism
Dominating the Garibaldi chain are volcanoes and other volcanic formations that formed during periods of intense glaciation. This includes flow-dominated tuyas, subglacial lava domes and ice-marginal lava flows. Flow-dominated tuyas differ from the typical basaltic tuyas throughout British Columbia in that they are composed of piles of flat-lying lava flows and lack hyaloclastite and pillow lava. They are interpreted to have formed as a result of magma intruding into and melting a vertical hole through adjacent glacial ice that eventually breached the surface of the glacier. As this magma ascends, it ponds and spreads into horizontal layers. Lava domes that were formed mainly during subglacial activity comprise steep flanks made of intense columnar joints and volcanic glass. Ice-marginal lava flows form when lava erupts from a subaerial vent and ponds against glacial ice. The Barrier, a lava dam impounding Garibaldi Lake in the southern segment, is the best represented ice-marginal lava flow in the Garibaldi Belt.

Flow-dominated tuyas and the absence of subglacial fragmental deposits are two uncommon glaciovolcanic features in the Garibaldi chain. This is due to their different lava compositions and decline of direct lava-water contact during volcanic activity. The lava composition of these volcanic edifies changes their structure because eruption temperatures are lower than those associated with basaltic activity and lava containing silica increases thickness and glass differentiation temperatures. As a result, subglacial volcanoes that erupt silicic content melt less qualities of ice and are not as likely to contain water close to the volcanic vent. This forms volcanoes with structures that display their relationship with the regional glaciation. The surrounding landscape also changes the flow of meltwater, favouring lava to pond within valleys dominated by glacial ice. And if the edifice is eroded, it could change the prominence of fragmental glaciovolcanic deposits as well.

Southern segment

On the eastern side of Howe Sound lies the southernmost zone of volcanic activity in the Garibaldi chain. This zone, known as the Watts Point volcanic centre, is a small outcrop of volcanic rock that is a portion of a subglacial volcano. The outcrop covers an area of about 0.2 km2 and an eruptive volume of roughly 0.02 km3. The location is heavily forested and the BC Rail mainline passes through the lower portion of the outcrop about 40 m above sea level. It represents a feature in the Squamish volcanic field.

Mount Garibaldi, one of the larger volcanoes in the southern Garibaldi Belt with a volume of 6.5 km3, is composed of dacite lavas that were erupted in the past 300,000 years. It was constructed when volcanic material erupted onto a portion of the Cordilleran Ice Sheet during the Pleistocene period. This created the unique asymmetrical shape of the mountain. Successive landslides on Garibaldi's flanks occurred after glacial ice of the Cordilleran Ice Sheet retreated. Subsequent volcanism about 9,300 years ago produced a 15 km long dacite lava flow from Opal Cone on Garibaldi's southeastern flank. This is unusually long for a dacite flow, which commonly travel only short distances from a volcanic vent due to their high viscosity. The Opal Cone lava flow represents the most recent volcanic feature at Mount Garibaldi.

On the western shore of Garibaldi Lake, Mount Price represents a stratovolcano with an elevation of 2050 m. It was constructed during three periods of activity. The first phase 1.2 million years ago formed a hornblende andesite stratovolcano on the drift-covered floor of a circular basin. After this stratovolcano was constructed, volcanism moved to the west where a series of andesite-dacite lava flows and pyroclastic flows were extruded during a period of Peléan activity 300,000 years ago. This created the 2050 m high cone of Mount Price, which was later buried under glacial ice. Before Mount Price was overridden by glacial ice, volcanic activity took place on its northern flank where a satellite vent is present. Renewed activity took place at Clinker Peak on the western flank of Mount Price 9,000 years ago. This produced the Rubble Creek and Clinker Ridge andesite lava flows that extend 6 km to the northwest and southwest. After these flows traveled 6 km, they were dammed against glacial ice to form an ice-marginal lava flow more than 250 m thick known as The Barrier.

Cinder Cone on the north shore of Garibaldi Lake is a cinder cone partly engulfed by the Helmet Glacier. It consists of volcanic ash, lapilli and dispersed ropy and lava bomb segments that bring the cone's prominence to 500 m. Its minimal degree of erosion indicates that it might have erupted in the past 1,000 years. A series of basaltic andesite flows were erupted from Cinder Cone about 11,000 years ago that traveled into a deep north trending U-shaped valley on the eastern flank of The Black Tusk. Subsequent volcanism produced another sequence of basaltic lava flows 4,000 years ago that flowed in the same glacial valley.

The Black Tusk, a black pinnacle of volcanic rock on the northwestern shore of Garibaldi Lake, is the glacially eroded remnant of a much larger volcano that formed during two periods of volcanic activity. The first between 1.1 and 1.3 million years ago erupted hornblende andesite lava flows and tuffs. These volcanics compose mountain ridges southwest, southeast and northwest of the prime volcanic structure. Subsequent erosion demolished the newly formed volcano. This ultimately exposed the roots of the cone, which currently form the rugged edifice of The Black Tusk. After the cone was eroded, a series of hypersthene andesite lava flows were erupted between 0.17 and 0.21 million years ago. These end at adjacent ice-marginal lava flows that form 100 m cliffs. This eruptive phase also produced a lava dome that comprises the current 2316 m high pinnacle. Consequently, the regional Late Pleistocene ice sheet carved a deep north-trending U-shaped valley into the eastern flank of the second-stage cone. Here, subsequent lava flows from Cinder Cone filled the valley.

Central segment

Immediately southeast of Mount Cayley lies Mount Fee, an extensively eroded volcano containing a north–south trending ridge. It is one of the older volcanic features in the central Garibaldi chain. Its volcanics are undated, but its large amount of dissection and evidence of glacial ice overriding the volcano indicates that it formed more than 75,000 years ago before the Wisconsinan Glaciation. Therefore, volcanism at Mount Fee does not display evidence of interaction with glacial ice. The remaining product from Fee's earliest volcanic activity is a minor portion of pyroclastic rock. This is evidence of explosive volcanism from Fee's eruptive history, as well as its first volcanic event. The second volcanic event produced a sequence of lavas and breccias on the eastern flank of the main ridge. These volcanics were likely placed when a sequence of lava flows and broken lava fragments erupted from a volcanic vent and moved down the flanks during the construction of a large volcano. Following extensive dissection, renewed volcanism produced a viscous series of lava flows forming its narrow, flat-topped, steep-sided northern limit and the northern end of the main ridge. The conduit for which these lava flows originated from was likely vertical in structure and intruded through older volcanics deposited during Fee's earlier volcanic events. This volcanic event was also followed by a period of erosion, and likely one or more glacial periods. Extensive erosion following the last volcanic event at Mount Fee has created the rugged north–south trending ridge that currently forms a prominent landmark.

Ember Ridge, a volcanic mountain ridge between Tricouni Peak and Mount Fee, consists of at least eight lava domes composed of andesite. They were likely formed between 25,000 and 10,000 years ago when lava erupted beneath glacial ice of the Fraser Glaciation. Their current structures are comparable to their original forms due to the minimal degree of erosion. As a result, the domes display the shaps and columnar joints typical of subglacial volcanoes. The random shaps of the Ember Ridge domes are the result of erupted lava taking advantage of former ice pockets, eruptions taking place on uneven surfaces, subsidence of the domes during volcanic activity to create rubble and separation of older columnar units during more recent eruptions. The northern dome, known as Ember Ridge North, covers the summit and eastern flank of a mountain ridge. It comprises at least one lava flow that reaches a thickness of 100 m, as well as the thinnest columnar units in the Mount Cayley volcanic field. The small size of the columnar joints indicates that the erupted lava was cooled immediately and are mainly located on the dome's summit. Ember Ridge Northeast, the smallest subglacial dome of Ember Ridge, comprises one lava flow that has a thickness no more than 40 m. Ember Ridge Northwest, the most roughly circular subglacial dome, comprises at least one lava flow. Ember Ridge Southeast is the most complex of the Ember Ridge domes, consisting of a series of lava flows with a thickness of 60 m. It is also the only Ember Ridge dome that contains large amounts of rubble. Ember Ridge Southwest comprises at least one lava flow that reaches a thickness of 80 m. It is the only subglacial dome of Ember Ridge that contains hyaloclastite. Ember Ridge West comprises only one lava flow that reaches a thickness of 60 m.

To the northwest, Mount Cayley constitutes the largest and most persistent volcano in the central Garibaldi Belt. It is a highly eroded stratovolcano composed of dacite and rhyodacite lava that was deposited during three phases of volcanic activity. The first eruptive phase started about four million years ago with the eruption of dacite lava flows and pyroclastic rock. This resulted in the creation of Mount Cayley itself. Subsequent volcanism during this volcanic phase constructed a significant lava dome. This acts like a volcanic plug and composes the lava spines that currently form pinnacles on Cayley's rugged summit. After Mount Cayley was constructed, lava flows, tephra and welded dacite rubble were erupted. This second phase of activity 2.7 ± 0.7 million years ago resulted in the creation of the Vulcan's Thumb, a craggy volcanic ridge on the southern flank of Mount Cayley. Lengthy dissection from an extended period of erosion demolished much of the original stratovolcano. Volcanic activity after this prolonged period of erosion produced thick dacite lava flows from parasitic vents 300,000 years ago that extended into the Turbid and Shovelnose Creek valleys near the Squamish River. This subsequently created two minor parasitic lava domes 200,000 years ago. These three volcanic events are in contrast to several others around Cayley in that they do not show signs of interaction with glacial ice.

Pali Dome, an eroded volcano north of Mount Cayley, consists of two geological units. Pail Dome East is composed of a mass of andesite lava flows and small amounts of pyroclastic material. It lies on the eastern portion of the large glacial icefield that covers much of the Mount Cayley volcanic field. Much of the lava flows form gentle topography at high elevations but terminate in finely jointed vertical cliffs at low elevations. The first volcanic activity likely occurred about 25,000 years ago, but it could also be significantly older. The most recent volcanic activity produced a series of lava flows that were erupted when the vent area was not covered by glacial ice. However, the flows show evidence of interaction with glacial ice in their lower units. This indicates that the lavas were erupted about 10,000 years ago during the waning stages of the Fraser Glaciation. The ice-marginal lava flows reach thicknesses of up to 100 m. Pali Dome West consists of at least three andesite lava flows and small amounts of pyroclastic material; its vent is presently buried under glacial ice. At least three eruptions have occurred at Pali Dome East. The age of the first volcanic eruption is unknown, but it could have occurred in the past 10,000 years. The second eruption produced a lava flow that was erupted when the vent area was not buried under glacial ice. However, the flow does show evidence of interaction with glacial ice at its lower unit. This indicates that the lavas were erupted during the waning stages of the Fraser Glaciation. The third and most recent eruption produced another lava flow that was largely erupted above glacial ice, but was probably constrained on its northern margin by a small glacier. Unlike the lava flow that was erupted during the second eruption, this lava flow was not impounded by glacial ice at its lower unit. This suggests that it erupted less than 10,000 years ago when the regional Fraser Glaciation retreated.

Cauldron Dome, a subglacial volcano north of Mount Cayley, lies west of the massive glacier covering much the region. Like Pali Dome, it is composed of two geological units. Upper Cauldron Dome is a flat-topped, oval-shaped pile of at least five andesite lava flows that resembles a tuya. The five andesite flows are columnar jointed and were likely extruded through glacial ice. The latest volcanic activity might have occurred between 10,000 and 25,000 years ago when this area was still influenced by glacial ice of the Fraser Glaciation. Lower Cauldron Dome, the youngest unit comprising the entire Cauldron Dome subglacial volcano, consists of a flat-topped, steep-sided pile of andesite lava flows 1800 m long and a maximum thickness of 220 m. These volcanics were extruded about 10,000 years ago during the waning stages of the Fraser Glaciation from a vent adjacent to upper Cauldron Dome that is currently buried under glacial ice.

Lying at the northern portion of the Mount Cayley volcanic field is a subglacial volcano named Slag Hill. At least two geologic units compose the edifice. Slag Hill proper consists of andesite lava flows and small amounts of pyroclastic rock. Lying on the western portion of Slag Hill is a lava flow that likely erupted less than 10,000 years ago due to the lack of features indicating volcano-ice interactions. The Slag Hill flow-dominated tuya 900 m northeast of Slag Hill proper consists of a flat-topped, steep-sided pile of andesite. It protrudes through remnants of volcanic material erupted from the Slag Hill proper, but it represents a separate volcanic vent due to its geographical appearance. This small subglacial volcano possibly formed between 25,000 and 10,000 years ago throughout the waning stages of the Fraser Glaciation.

Ring Mountain, a flow-dominated tuya lying at the northern portion of the Mount Cayley volcanic field, consists of a pile of at least five andesite lava flows lying on a mountain ridge. Its steep-sided flanks reach heights of 500 m and are composed of volcanic rubble. This makes it impossible to measure its exact base elevation or how many lava flows constitute the edifice. With a summit elevation of 2192 m, Ring Mountain had its last volcanic activity between 25,000 and 10,000 years ago when the Fraser Glaciation was close to its maximum. Northwest of Ring Mountain lies a minor andesite lava flow. Its chemistry is somewhat unlike other andesite flows comprising Ring Mountain, but it probably erupted from a volcanic vent adjacent to or at Ring Mountain. The part of it that lies higher in elevation contains some features that indicate lava-ice interactions, while the lower-elevation portion of it does not. Therefore, this minor lava flow was likely extruded after Ring Mountain formed but when glacial ice covered a broader area than it does currently, and that the lava flow extends beyond the region in which glacial ice existed at that time.

Northern segment
The Mount Meager massif is the most voluminous composite volcano in the Garibaldi chain and British Columbia, as well as the most recent to erupt. It has a volume of 20 km3 and consists of an eroded stratovolcano, ranging in composition from andesite to rhyodacite. Several dissected lava domes and volcanic plugs are present on its glaciated summit, as well as a clearly defined volcanic crater with a lava dome placed within it. At least eight volcanic vents compose the complex and have been the sources for volcanic activity throughout massif's 2.2 million year history. A well-documented history of volcanism is present at the Mount Meager massif, with its most recent eruption about 2,350 years ago that was similar in character to the 1980 eruption of Mount St. Helens and the continuous eruption of Soufrière Hills on the island of Montserrat. This is the largest recorded Holocene explosive eruption in Canada, originating from a volcanic vent on the northeastern flank of Plinth Peak. It was Plinian in nature, sending an eruption column at least 20 km high into the stratosphere. As prevailing winds carried ash of the column eastwards, it deposited across British Columbia and Alberta. Subsequent pyroclastic flows were sent down the flanks of Plinth Peak for 7 km and were later succeeded by the eruption of a lava flow that demolished many times. This created thick agglutinated rubble that successfully blocked the adjacent Lillooet River to form a lake. Subsequently, the breccia dam collapsed to produce a catastrophic flood that deposited house-sized boulders more than 1 km downstream. After the flood took place, a small dacite lava flow was erupted that later solidified to form a series of well-preserved columnar joints. This is the last phase of the 2350 BP eruption, and subsequent stream erosion has cut through this lava flow to form a waterfall.

A group of small volcanoes on the upper Bridge River, known as the Bridge River Cones, includes stratovolcanoes, volcanic plugs and lava flows. These volcanoes are unlike others throughout the Garibaldi Volcanic Belt in that they are mainly composed of volcanic rocks with mafic compositions, including alkaline basalt and hawaiite. The different magma compositions might be related to a smaller degree of partial melting in the Earth's mantle or a descending plate edge effect. The oldest volcano in the group, known as Sham Hill, is a 60 m high volcanic plug with a potassium-argon date of one million years. It is about 300 m wide and its uncovered glaciated surface is strewn with glacial erratics. Its massive level rock columns were constructed inside the main volcanic vent of a stratovolcano that has since been reduced by erosion. To the southeast, the Salal Glacier volcanic complex was constructed between 970,000 and 590,000 years ago. It consists of subaerial tephra and thin lava flow deposits that are surrounded by 100 m thick ice-ponded lava flows. These ice-marginal lava flows were created when lava ponded against glacial ice in the nearby valleys before the Wisconsin Glaciation. North of the Salal Glacier complex lies a small basaltic stratovolcano named Tuber Hill. It began to form about 600,000 years ago when adjacent valleys were filled by glacial ice. When lava flows were erupted from Tuber Hill, they interacted with the valley-filling glaciers on its southern flank and produced a glacial meltwater lake. Here, more than 150 m of stacked hyaloclastite, lahars and lacustrine tuff were deposited. A series of pillow lavas were also deposited during this eruptive period. The most recent volcanic activity in the Bridge River volcanic field produced a series of basaltic lava flows in the regional valleys that overlie till of the last glacial period. The age of these valley-filling lava flows is unknown but the presence of unconsolidated glacial till under the flows suggests that they are less than 1,500 years old.

To the northwest, the Franklin Glacier Complex is a set of volcanic bedrock that encompasses an area 20 km long and 6 km wide. It has an elevation of over 2000 m and is largely destroyed by erosion. A series of dikes and subvolcanic intrusions compose the complex, a few of which seem to represent vents for the overlying sequence of volcanic deposits. Volcanics include dacite breccia and small remnants of hornblende andesite lava flows associated with tuffs that reach 450 m thick. The complex is poorly known due to minimal studies, but potassium-argon dates obtained from some of the subvolcanic intrusions indicate that Franklin formed during two volcanic events, each separated by about five million years of dormancy. The first event occurred between six and eight million years ago when volcanic activity in the Garibaldi Belt had not moved to its current location, but was becoming more aerially restricted within a large band to the east and west. During this period, volcanic activity in the Garibaldi Belt and other portions of the northern Cascade Arc took place mainly at the Franklin Glacier Complex and in the Intermontane Belt further east. When the Garibaldi Belt moved to its current location five million years ago, another volcanic event occurred at the Franklin complex. This final and most recent volcanic event occurred between two and three million years ago, about a million years after Mount Cayley to the south began its formation.

Silverthrone Caldera is the largest and best-preserved of the two caldera complexes in the northern Garibaldi chain, the other being the Franklin Glacier Complex 55 km to the east-southeast. The caldera has a diameter of 20 km and contains breccia, lava flows and lava domes. Like Franklin to the east-southeast, the geology of Silverthrone is poorly known due to minimal studies. The region surrounding the Silverthrone complex is significantly jagged due to the mountainous terrain of the Coast Mountains. Near vertical flanks extend from near sea level to more than 3000 m in elevation. Silverthrone is significantly younger than the Franklin Glacier Complex to the east-southeast and its volcanics likely have ages comparable to other volcanics throughout the Garibaldi chain. The oldest volcanics at the Silverthrone Caldera complex are composed of volcanic breccias, some of which became fused together by intense volcanic heat from when the deposits were first erupted. After these volcanics were deposited, a series of dacite, andesite and rhyolite lava flows were erupted upon volcanic breccia from the first volcanic phase. These eroded lava flows in total are 900 m thick. Volcanics in the lower portion of this series of lava flows give a potassium-argon date of 750,000 years while volcanics slightly above the lava flows are 400,000 years old. The most recent volcanic activity produced a series of andesite and basaltic andesite lava flows down Pashleth Creek and the Machmell and Kingcome river valleys. The lava flow extending from near Pashleth Creek to down the Machmell River valley is over 25 km in length. Its small amount of erosion indicates that it could be 1,000 years old or younger.

Geothermal and seismic activity
At least four volcanoes have had seismic activity since 1985, including Mount Garibaldi (three events), Mount Cayley (four events), Mount Meager massif (seventeen events) and the Silverthrone Caldera (two events). Seismic data suggest that these volcanoes still contain active magma chambers, indicating that some Garibaldi Belt volcanoes are likely active, with significant potential hazards. The seismic activity corresponds with some of Canada's recently formed volcanoes and with persistent volcanoes that have had major explosive activity throughout their history, such as Mount Garibaldi and the Mount Cayley and Mount Meager massifs.

A series of hot springs adjacent to the Lillooet River valley, such as the Harrison, Sloquet, Clear Creek and Skookumchuck springs, are not known to occur near areas with recent volcanic activity. Instead, many are located close to 16–26 million year old intrusions that are interpreted to be the roots of heavily eroded volcanoes. These volcanoes formed part of the Cascade Volcanic Arc during the Miocene period and their intrusive roots extend from the Fraser Valley in the south to Salal Creek in the north. The relationship of these hot springs to the Garibaldi Belt is not clear. However, a few hot springs are known to exist in areas that have experienced relatively recent volcanic activity. About five hot springs exist in valleys near Mount Cayley and two small groups of hot springs are present at the Mount Meager massif. The springs at Meager massif might be evidence of a shallow magma chamber beneath the surface. No hot springs are known to exist at Mount Garibaldi like those found at Mount Meager and Mount Cayley, although there is evidence of abnormal high heat flow at the adjacent Table Meadows and other locations. Abnormal warm water adjacent to Britannia Beach could be geothermal activity linked to the Watts Point volcanic zone.

Human occupation
People have used resources in and around the Garibaldi Volcanic Belt for centuries. Obsidian was collected by the Squamish Nation for making knives, chisels, adzes and other sharp tools in pre-contact times. This material appears in sites dated 10,000 years old up to protohistoric time periods. The source for this material is found in upper parts of the mountainous terrain that surround Mount Garibaldi. At Opal Cone, lava of the Ring Creek flow was normally heated to cook food because its pumice-like texture is able to maintain heat. It also did not break after it was used for a long period of time.

A large pumice outcrop adjacent to the Mount Meager massif has been mined several times in the past, and extends more than 2000 m in length and 1000 m in width with a thickness of about 300 m. The deposit was first hired by J. MacIsaac, who died in the late 1970s. In the mid-1970s the second hirer, W.H. Willes, investigated and mined the pumice. It was crushed, removed then stored close to the village of Pemberton. Later, the bridge that was used to access the pumice deposit was washed out. Mining operations resumed in 1988 when the deposit was staked by L.B. Bustin. In 1990, the pumice outcrop was bought by D.R. Carefoot from the owners B. Chore and M. Beaupre. In a program from 1991 to 1992, workers evaluated the deposit for its properties as a construction material, absorber of oil and stonewash. About 7500 m3 of pumice was mined in 1998 by the Great Pacific Pumice Incorporation.

The hot springs associated with Meager and Cayley have made these two volcanoes targets for geothermal explorations. At Mount Cayley, temperatures of 50 C to more than 100 C have been measured in shallow boreholes on its southwestern flank. Further north, geothermal exploration at the Mount Meager massif has been undertaken by BC Hydro since the late 1970s. Bottom hole temperatures have been calculated at an average of 220 C to 240 C, with 275 C being the highest recorded temperature. This indicates that the area around Meager is a major geothermal site. The geothermal power is expected to run throughout Western Canada and the likelihood of it extending into the western United States is probable.

Early impressions
The belt of volcanoes has been the subject of myths and legends by First Nations. To the Squamish Nation, Mount Garibaldi is called Nch'kay. In their language it means "Dirty Place". This name of the mountain refers to the volcanic rubble in the area. This mountain, like others located in the area, is considered sacred as it plays an important part of their history. In their oral history, they passed down a story of the flood covering the land. During this time, only two mountains peaked over the water, and Garibaldi was one of them. It was here that the remaining survivors of the flood latched their canoes to the peak and waited for the waters to subside. The Black Tusk on the northwestern end of Garibaldi Lake and Mount Cayley northwest of Mount Garibaldi are called ta k 'ta k mu'yin tl'a in7in'axa7en in the Squamish language, which means "Landing Place of the Thunderbird". The Thunderbird is a legendary creature in North American indigenous peoples' history and culture. The rocks that make up The Black Tusk and Mount Cayley were said to have been burnt black by the Thunderbird's lightning.

Protection and monitoring
A number of volcanic features in the Garibaldi Belt are protected by provincial parks. Garibaldi Provincial Park at the southern end of the chain was established in 1927 to protect the abundant geological history, glaciated mountains and other natural resources in the region. It was named after the 2678 m stratovolcano Mount Garibaldi, which in turn was named after the Italian military and political leader Giuseppe Garibaldi in 1860. To the northwest, Brandywine Falls Provincial Park protects Brandywine Falls, a 70 m high waterfall composed of at least four basaltic lava flows with columnar joints. Its name origin is unclear, but it may have originated from two surveyors named Jack Nelson and Bob Mollison.

Like other volcanic zones in Canada, the Garibaldi Volcanic Belt is not monitored closely enough by the Geological Survey of Canada to ascertain how active its magma system is. This is partly because several volcanoes in the chain are located in remote regions and no major eruptions have occurred in Canada in the past few hundred years. As a result, volcano monitoring is less important than dealing with other natural processes, including tsunamis, earthquakes and landslides. However, with the existence of earthquakes, further volcanism is expected and would probably have considerable effects, particularly in a region like southwestern British Columbia where the Garibaldi volcanoes are located in a highly populated area.

Volcanic hazards
The volcanoes comprising the Garibaldi chain are adjacent to the highly populated southwest portion of British Columbia. Unlike the central Cascade Arc, renewed volcanic activity in the Garibaldi Belt at a single feeder to create stratovolcanoes is not typical. Instead, volcanic activity results in the formation of volcanic fields. Of the entire Cascade Arc, the Garibaldi chain has the lowest rate of volcanic activity. In the past two million years, the volume of erupted material in the Garibaldi Belt has been less than 10% of that in the U.S. states of California and Oregon and about 20% of that within the U.S. state of Washington. As a result, the risk of eruptions throughout this part of the Cascade Arc is minor. Individual volcanoes and volcanic fields remain quiet for a long period of time and certain vents may never erupt again. However, considerable volcanic activity has taken place in the geologically recent past, most notably the explosive eruption that occurred at the Mount Meager massif 2,350 years ago.

Jack Souther, a leading authority on geothermal resources and volcanism in the Canadian Cordillera has stated, "at present the volcanoes of the Garibaldi Belt are quiet, presumed dead but still not completely cold. But the flare-up of Meager Mountain 2,500 years ago raises the question, 'Could it happen again?' Was the explosive eruption of Meager Mountain the last gasp of the Garibaldi Volcanic Belt or only the most recent event in its on-going life? The short answer is nobody really knows for sure ... So just in case I sometimes do a quick check of the old hot-spots when I get off the Peak Chair ..." Recent seismic imaging from Geological Survey of Canada employees supported lithoprobe studies in the region of Mount Cayley in which scientists found a large reflector interpreted to be a pool of molten rock roughly 15 km below the surface. The existence of hot springs at the Mount Meager massif and Mount Cayley indicates that magmatic heat is still present beneath or near these volcanoes. This long history of volcanic activity along a still active plate boundary indicates that volcanic eruptions in the Garibaldi Belt have not ended and risks for future eruptions remain.

Tephra
The largest threat from volcanoes in the Garibaldi chain would likely be due to tephra released during explosive eruptions. Mount Meager massif in particular poses a major long-distance threat to communities throughout southern British Columbia and Alberta because of its explosive history. It is estimated that over 200 eruptions have occurred throughout the entire Cascade Volcanic Arc in the past 12,000 years, many of them in the United States. Many eruptions in the western United States have sent large amounts of tephra in southern British Columbia. However, all major cities in southwestern British Columbia with populations more than 100,000 are located west of the Garibaldi Volcanic Belt and prevailing winds travel eastwards. Therefore, these communities are less likely to have large amounts of tephra. In the Lower Mainland, a 10 cm thick layer of volcanic ash can deposit once every 10,000 years and 1 cm once every 1,000 years. More minor amounts of volcanic ash can be expected more commonly. During Mount St. Helens' eruption in 1980, 1 mm of tephra was deposited from southeastern British Columbia to Manitoba.

Even though all major cities in southwestern British Columbia are located west of the Garibaldi chain, future eruptions from Mount Garibaldi are expected to have significant impacts on the adjacent townships of Squamish and Whistler. An eruption column released during Peléan activity would discharge large amounts of tephra that would endanger aircraft. Tephra may also melt the large sheets of glacial ice east of Garibaldi and cause floods. This could later endanger water supplies from Pitt Lake and fisheries on the Pitt River. An explosive eruption and the associated tephra may also create temporary or longer-term water supply difficulties for Vancouver and most of southern British Columbia. The water reservoir for the Greater Vancouver drainage area is south of Mount Garibaldi.

Landslides and lahars
Several landslides and lahars have occurred throughout the Garibaldi Belt. At the Mount Meager massif, considerable landslides have occurred from Pylon Peak and Devastator Peak in the past 10,000 years that have reached more than 10 km downstream in the Lillooet River valley. At least two significant landslides from the southern flank of Pylon Peak 8,700 and 4,400 years ago dumped volcanic debris into the adjacent valley of Meager Creek. More recently, a large landslide from Devastation Glacier buried and killed a group of four geologists on July 22, 1975. The estimated volume of this landslide is 13000000 m3. A considerable landslide as large as Meager's largest throughout the Holocene would likely produce a lahar that would devastate most of the growth in the Lillooet River valley. If such an event would occur without it being identified by authorities who would send out a public warning, it would kill hundreds or even thousands of residents. Because of this, computer programs would be able to identify the approaching information and activate an automatic notice when a large lahar is identified. A similar system for identifying such lahars exists at Mount Rainier in the U.S. state of Washington.

Large landslides from Mount Cayley have occurred on its western flank, including a major debris avalanche about 4,800 years ago that dumped an areal extent of 8 km2 of volcanic material into the adjacent valley bottom. This blocked the Squamish River for a long period of time. Although there are no known eruptions from the massif in the past 10,000 years, it is associated with a group of hot springs. Evans (1990) has indicated that a number of landslides and debris flows at Mount Cayley in the past 10,000 years might have been caused by volcanic activity. Since the 4,800 BP landslide, a number of more minor landslides have occurred at it. In 1968 and 1983, a series of landslides took place that caused considerable damage to logging roads and forest stands, but did not result in any casualties.

Lava flows
The threat from lava flows in the Garibaldi Belt is minor unless an eruption takes place in winter or under or adjacent to areas of glacial ice, such as ice fields. When lava flows over large areas of snow, it creates meltwater. This can produce lahars that could flow further than the associated lavas. If water were to enter a volcanic vent that is erupting basaltic lava, it may create a massive explosive eruption. These explosions are generally more extreme than those during normal basaltic eruptions. Therefore, the existence of water, snow, or glacial ice at a volcanic vent would increase the risk of an eruption having a large impact on the surrounding region. Subglacial eruptions have also caused catastrophic glacial outburst floods.

title: Garibaldi Volcanic Belt


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Neurulation

Neurulation refers to the folding process in vertebrate embryos, which includes the transformation of the neural plate into the neural tube. The embryo at this stage is termed the neurula.

The process begins when the notochord induces the formation of the central nervous system (CNS) by signaling the ectoderm germ layer above it to form the thick and flat neural plate. The neural plate folds in upon itself to form the neural tube, which will later differentiate into the spinal cord and the brain, eventually forming the central nervous system. Computer simulations found that cell wedging and differential proliferation are sufficient for mammalian neurulation.

Different portions of the neural tube form by two different processes, called primary and secondary neurulation, in different species.
 * In primary neurulation, the neural plate creases inward until the edges come in contact and fuse.
 * In secondary neurulation, the tube forms by hollowing out of the interior of a solid precursor.

Primary neural induction
The concept of induction originated in work by Pandor in 1817. The first experiments proving induction were attributed by Viktor Hamburger to independent discoveries of both Hans Spemann of Germany in 1901 and Warren Lewis of the USA in 1904. It was Hans Spemann who first popularized the term “primary neural induction” in reference to the first differentiation of ectoderm into neural tissue during neurulation. It was called "primary" because it was thought to be the first induction event in embryogenesis. The Nobel prize-winning experiment was done by his student Hilda Mangold. Ectoderm from the region of the dorsal lip of the blastopore of a developing salamander embryo was transplanted into another embryo and this "organizer" tissue “induced” the formation of a full secondary axis changing surrounding tissue in the original embryo from ectodermal to neural tissue. The tissue from the donor embryo was therefore referred to as the inducer because it induced the change. While the organizer is the dorsal lip of the blastopore, this is not one set of cells, but rather is a constantly changing group of cells that migrate over the dorsal lip of the blastopore by forming apically constricted bottle cells. At any given time during gastrulation there will be different cells that make up the organizer.

Subsequent work on inducers by scientists over the 20th century demonstrated that not only could the dorsal lip of the blastopore act as an inducer but so could a huge number of other seemingly unrelated items. This began when boiled ectoderm was found to still be able to induce by Johannes Holtfreter. Items as diverse as low pH, cyclic AMP, even floor dust could act as inducers leading to considerable consternation. Even tissue which could not induce when living could induce when boiled. Other items such as lard, wax, banana peels and coagulated frog’s blood did not induce. The hunt for a chemically based inducer molecule was taken up by developmental molecular biologists and a vast literature of items shown to have inducer abilities continued to grow. More recently, the inducer molecule has been attributed to genes and in 1995, there was a call for all the genes involved in primary neural induction and all their interactions to be catalogued in an effort to determine “the molecular nature of Spemann’s organizer”. Several other proteins and growth factors have also been invoked as inducers including soluble growth factors such as bone morphogenetic protein, and a requirement for “inhibitory signals” such as noggin and follistatin.

Even before the term induction was popularized, several authors, beginning with Hans Driesch in 1894, suggested that primary neural induction might be mechanical in nature. A mechanochemical-based model for primary neural induction was proposed in 1985 by G.W. Brodland and R. Gordon. An actual physical wave of contraction has been shown to originate from the precise location of the Spemann organizer which then traverses the presumptive neural epithelium and a full working model of how primary neural inductions was proposed in 2006. There has long been a general reluctance in the field to consider the possibility that primary neural induction might be initiated by mechanical effects. A full explanation for primary neural induction remains yet to be found.

Shape change
As neurulation proceeds after induction, the cells of the neural plate become high-columnar and can be identified through microscopy as different from the surrounding presumptive epithelial ectoderm (epiblastic endoderm in amniotes). The cells move laterally and away from the central axis and change into a truncated pyramid shape. This pyramid shape is achieved through tubulin and actin in the apical portion of the cell which constricts as they move. The variation in cell shapes is partially determined by the location of the nucleus within the cell, causing bulging in areas of the cells forcing the height and shape of the cell to change. This process is known as apical constriction. The result is a flattening of the differentiating neural plate which is particularly obvious in salamanders when the previously round gastrula becomes a rounded ball with a flat top. See Neural plate.

Folding
The process of the flat neural plate folding into the cylindrical neural tube is termed primary neurulation. As a result of the cellular shape changes, the neural plate forms the medial hinge point (MHP). The expanding epidermis puts pressure on the MHP and causes the neural plate to fold resulting in neural folds and the creation of the neural groove. The neural folds form dorsolateral hinge points (DLHP) and pressure on this hinge cause the neural folds to meet and fuse at the midline. The fusion requires the regulation of cell adhesion molecules. The neural plate switches from E-cadherin expression to N-cadherin and N-CAM expression to recognize each other as the same tissue and close the tube. This change in expression stops the binding of the neural tube to the epidermis.

The notochord plays an integral role in the development of the neural tube. Prior to neurulation, during the migration of epiblastic endoderm cells towards the hypoblastic endoderm, the notochordal process opens into an arch termed the notochordal plate and attaches overlying neuroepithelium of the neural plate. The notochordal plate then serves as an anchor for the neural plate and pushes the two edges of the plate upwards while keeping the middle section anchored. Some of the notochodral cells become incorporated into the center section neural plate to later form the floor plate of the neural tube. The notochord plate separates and forms the solid notochord.

The folding of the neural tube to form an actual tube does not occur all at once. Instead, it begins approximately at the level of the fourth somite at Carnegie stage 9 (around embryonic day 20 in humans). The lateral edges of the neural plate touch in the midline and join together. This continues both cranially (toward the head) and caudally (toward the tail). The openings that are formed at the cranial and caudal regions are termed the cranial and caudal neuropores. In human embryos, the cranial neuropore closes approximately on day 24 and the caudal neuropore on day 28. Failure of the cranial (superior) and caudal (inferior) neuropore closure results in conditions called anencephaly and spina bifida, respectively. Additionally, failure of the neural tube to close throughout the length of the body results in a condition called rachischisis.

Patterning

According to the French Flag model where stages of development are directed by gene product gradients, several genes are considered important for inducing patterns in the open neural plate, especially for the development of neurogenic placodes. These placodes first become evident histologically in the open neural plate. After sonic hedgehog (SHH) signalling from the notochord induces its formation, the floor plate of the incipient neural tube also secretes SHH. After closure, the neural tube forms a basal or floor plate and a roof or alar plate in response to the combined effects of SHH and factors including BMP4 secreted by the roof plate. The basal plate forms most of the ventral portion of the nervous system, including the motor portion of the spinal cord and brain stem; the alar plate forms the dorsal portions, devoted mostly to sensory processing.

The dorsal epidermis expresses BMP4 and BMP7. The roof plate of the neural tube responds to those signals by expressing more BMP4 and other transforming growth factor beta (TGF-β) signals to form a dorsal/ventral gradient among the neural tube. The notochord expresses SHH. The floor plate responds to SHH by producing its own SHH and forming a gradient. These gradients allow for the differential expression of transcription factors.

Complexities of the model
Neural tube closure is not entirely understood. Closure of the neural tube varies by species. In mammals, closure occurs by meeting at multiple points which then close up and down. In birds, neural tube closure begins at one point of the midbrain and moves anteriorly and posteriorly.

Secondary neurulation
Primary neurulation develops into secondary neurulation when the caudal neuropore undergoes final closure. The cavity of the spinal cord extends into the neural cord. In secondary neurulation, the neural ectoderm and some cells from the endoderm form the medullary cord. The medullary cord condenses, separates and then forms cavities. These cavities then merge to form a single tube. Secondary neurulation occurs in the posterior section of most animals but it is better expressed in birds. Tubes from both primary and secondary neurulation eventually connect at around the sixth week of development.

In humans, the mechanisms of secondary neurulation plays an important role given its impact on the proper formation of the human posterior spinal cord. Errors at any point in the process can yield problems. For example, retained medullary cord occurs due to a partial or complete arrest of secondary neurulation that creates a non-functional portion on the vestigial end.

Early brain development
The anterior portion of the neural tube forms the three main parts of the brain: the forebrain (prosencephalon), midbrain (mesencephalon), and the hindbrain (rhombencephalon). These structures initially appear just after neural tube closure as bulges called brain vesicles in a pattern specified by anterior-posterior patterning genes, including Hox genes, other transcription factors such as Emx, Otx, and Pax genes, and secreted signaling factors such as fibroblast growth factors (FGFs) and Wnts. These brain vesicles further divide into subregions. The prosencephalon gives rise to the telencephalon and diencephalon, and the rhombencephalon generates the metencephalon and myelencephalon. The hindbrain, which is the evolutionarily most ancient part of the chordate brain, also divides into different segments called rhombomeres. The rhombomeres generate many of the most essential neural circuits needed for life, including those that control respiration and heart rate, and produce most of the cranial nerves. Neural crest cells form ganglia above each rhombomere. The early neural tube is primarily composed of the germinal neuroepithelium, later called the ventricular zone, which contains primary neural stem cells called radial glial cells and serves as the main source of neurons produced during brain development through the process of neurogenesis.

Non-neural ectoderm tissue
Paraxial mesoderm surrounding the notochord at the sides will develop into the somites (future muscles, bones, and contributes to the formation of limbs of the vertebrate ).

Neural crest cells
Masses of tissue called the neural crest that are located at the very edges of the lateral plates of the folding neural tube separate from the neural tube and migrate to become a variety of different but important cells.

Neural crest cells will migrate through the embryo and will give rise to several cell populations, including pigment cells and the cells of the peripheral nervous system.

Neural tube defects
Failure of neurulation, especially failure of closure of the neural tube are among the most common and disabling birth defects in humans, occurring in roughly 1 in every 500 live births. Failure of the rostral end of the neural tube to close results in anencephaly, or lack of brain development, and is most often fatal. Failure of the caudal end of the neural tube to close causes a condition known as spina bifida, in which the spinal cord fails to close.

title: Neurulation


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Battle of Mine Creek

The Battle of Mine Creek, also known as the Battle of Little Osage, was fought on October 25, 1864, in Linn County, Kansas, as part of Price's Missouri Campaign during the American Civil War. Major-General Sterling Price had begun an expedition in September 1864 to restore Confederate control of Missouri. After being defeated at Westport near Kansas City on October 23, Price's army began to retreat south through Kansas. Early on October 25, Price's army was defeated at the Marais des Cygnes. After Marais des Cygnes, the Confederates fell back, but were stalled at the crossing of Mine Creek while a wagon train attempted to cross.

Union cavalry commanded by Colonel John F. Philips and Lieutenant Colonel Frederick W. Benteen caught up to Price's army while it was stalled at the creek crossing. Confederate cavalry commanded by Major General James F. Fagan and Brigadier General John S. Marmaduke attempted to defend against the Union assault, but were soundly defeated. Many Confederate soldiers were captured, including Marmaduke. Later on the 25th, Price was again defeated at the Battle of Marmiton River. After Marmiton River, Price destroyed many of his wagons. On October 28, the Union defeated Price again at the Second Battle of Newtonia, and the shattered Confederate army reached Texas in December. The site of the battle was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1973 as the Battle of Mine Creek Site, and the Kansas Historical Society created the Mine Creek Battlefield State Historic Site in 1974. Mine Creek is considered to be one of the largest battles between mounted cavalry during the war.

Background
During the American Civil War, in the fall of 1864, Major General Sterling Price led an expedition into Missouri hoping to capture that state for the Confederacy and affect the 1864 United States Presidential Election. Price formed an army consisting of three divisions (commanded by Major General James F. Fagan and Brigadier Generals John S. Marmaduke and Joseph O. Shelby) and left Arkansas for Missouri in September. On September 26, Price's army found and assaulted a Union force near Pilot Knob. Price's army was repulsed in the ensuing Battle of Fort Davidson, although the Union garrison retreated after the battle. The Confederates then moved north towards the Missouri River and captured a small Union force at the Battle of Glasgow on October 15 and began moving towards Kansas City.

Union columns commanded by Major Generals Samuel R. Curtis and Alfred Pleasonton began pursuing Price, who won another victory at the Second Battle of Lexington on October 19. A delaying action at the Battle of Little Blue River (October 21) allowed Union forces to catch up with Price. After smaller clashes at the battles of Second Independence (October 22) and the Big Blue River (October 22 and 23), Curtis and Pleasonton decisively defeated Price's army at the Battle of Westport on October 23.

The Confederates began retreating through Kansas, and early on October 25, Price's army was defeated in a small action near the Marais des Cygnes River. Price's army was slowed during the retreat by a large supply train, which halted at the ford at Mine Creek. Union cavalry caught up to the stalled Confederates during the late morning on the 25th.

Union
The Union forces pursuing Price's column were all organized into the Army of the Border, commanded by Curtis. Curtis' army contained two divisions. The first was commanded by Major General James G. Blunt and consisted of four brigades, commanded by Colonels Charles R. Jennison, Thomas Moonlight, Charles W. Blair, and James H. Ford. The division was almost entirely cavalry, and contained militia units, especially in Blair's brigade. Blunt's men were from Kansas, Wisconsin, and the Colorado Territory. Curtis' second division was commanded by Pleasonton, and also contained four brigades. Pleasonton's brigades were commanded by Colonel John F. Philips, Brigadier Generals John McNeil and John B. Sanborn, and Lieutenant Colonel Frederick W. Benteen. Like Blunt's division, Pleasonton's division was primarily cavalry and contained a substantial militia element. Pleasonton's units were from Missouri, Kansas, Illinois, Iowa, and Indiana.

Confederate
Price had divided his force into three divisions, commanded by Marmaduke, Shelby, and Fagan. Fagan's division contained four brigades, commanded by Brigadier General William L. Cabell and Colonels William F. Slemons, Archibald S. Dobbins, and Thomas H. McCray. Several miscellaneous units were assigned to Fagan's division, but not placed in any brigade. Fagan's units were from Arkansas and Missouri. Marmaduke's division consisted of two brigades, commanded by Brigadier General John Bullock Clark Jr. and Colonel Thomas R. Freeman. Marmaduke's men were from Missouri, Arkansas, and Texas. Shelby's division contained three brigades, commanded by militia officer M. Jeff Thompson and Colonels Sidney D. Jackman and Charles H. Tyler. The men of Shelby's division were from Arkansas and Missouri. Price's army consisted almost entirely of cavalry.

Battle
Despite the skirmish near the Marais des Cygnes, Price did not believe his force was in substantial danger, and sent Shelby's division towards Fort Scott to make an attempting at capturing the post. Marmaduke and Fagan remained with some of the wagon train near the crossing of Mine Creek, north of the Little Osage River. The crossing of Mine Creek was not easily navigated, and a pileup soon formed. The Confederates decided to make a stand north of the creek in an attempt to protect the wagons. Fagan and Marmaduke formed an 800 yd-long line, with Fagan on the left and Marmaduke on the right. Four cannons were positioned in the center of the line, and two more were posted on each flank. The Confederate line was defended by an estimated 7,000 men.

Some of the leading Union troops caught up with the Confederate column. However, Blunt's division was lagging, and would not arrive in time for the battle. Philips' brigade reached the field first, and a long-range fight began. The Confederates used their artillery; Philips' force lacked artillery, and was forced to be contented with long-range fire from repeating rifles. Cabell entertained the thought of attacking Philips with his brigade of Confederates, but decided against a charge due to the disorganization of the Confederate line and the arrival of Benteen's Union brigade. Combined, Philips' and Benteen's brigades numbered about 2,500 to 2,600 men. Despite being outnumbered, the Union commanders decided to attack the Confederate line. One of the driving factors behind the decision to attack was Benteen's belief that the Confederates had made an error in the emplacement of their artillery. The Confederate cannons were placed close to the front line, and would only have the chance to fire one or two rounds before a cavalry charge could reach them.

The Union charge was made while the cavalrymen were still mounted; the Confederate forces were also on horseback. The Union attack faltered during the middle of the charge, when both the 10th Missouri Cavalry of Benteen's brigade and Philips' brigade stopped the attack before reaching the Confederate line. The 10th Missouri had met heavy small arms fire from the Confederate lines stopped under the fire, and Philips halted his brigade to keep in line with Benteen. This left the Union cavalrymen stationary and vulnerable to a potential Confederate counterattack. The Confederates were too disorganized to attempt a counterattack and the 4th Iowa Cavalry of Benteen's brigade broke the impasse by renewing the attack. The 3rd Iowa Cavalry followed the 4th Iowa, and eventually the whole of Benteen's brigade rejoined the charge. Benteen's force aimed for the center of Marmaduke's side of the Confederate line, and Philips' brigade headed towards Fagan's left flank once the unit resumed forward progress.

Once Benteen and Philips reached the main Confederate line, the position did not hold long. The Union troopers' repeating rifles gave them a firepower advantage over the Confederates, who were mostly armed with single-shot weapons. Clark's Confederate brigade became engaged in a melee, and quickly fell back. Marmaduke's other brigade, Freeman's, contained mainly newly recruited men and fell back before the Union charge completely reached their line. After Clark and Freeman fell back, the position of Cabell's Confederate brigade became exposed, and it too retreated. Soon, almost the entire Confederate line was in retreat towards the crossing of Mine Creek. Unable to cross the creek, many of the Confederates soldiers were captured. One of the prisoners was Marmaduke himself. The Confederate general was captured by Private James Dunlavy of the 3rd Iowa. As a reward for capturing Marmaduke, Dunlavy was given military leave for the remainder of his time of service. Dunlavy later received the Medal of Honor for "[g]allantry in capturing Gen. Marmaduke". Cabell was also made a prisoner, and the Union troops captured either eight or ten cannons.

Philips' and Benteen's brigades crossed the ford and continuing pursuing the Confederates. Confusion began to overtake the field, partially because many of the Confederates were wearing captured Union uniforms. Fagan attempted to rally his forces into a line capable of halting the Union pursuit, but the attempt failed. Pleasonton and Curtis arrived on the field late in the fighting, and the battle ended when Pleasonton ordered Benteen and Philips to stop the pursuit.

Aftermath
Confederate casualties are estimated to have numbered around 1,200. Union losses were around 100 to 110. Shelby's division returned in time to provide a rear guard for the defeated Confederates. Price's surviving wagons would again be delayed late on the 25th, this time at the crossing of the Marmaton River. After a short fight at the Battle of Marmiton River, Price decided to destroy all of the wagons that did not contain essential military supplies. The retreating Confederates were again defeated at the Second Battle of Newtonia on October 28. After the defeat at Newtonia, Price's army began to fall to pieces, and was pursued by Curtis' army all the way to the Arkansas River. By December, the shattered remainder of Price's army reached Texas, with the campaign having ended in a decisive defeat. The defeat of Price's expedition marked the last major Confederate operation in the Trans-Mississippi Theater. Mine Creek gained the distinction of being one the largest battles between mounted cavalry in the war.

Legacy
The site of the battle was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1973 as the Battle of Mine Creek Site. At the time of the listing, the site was considered to be in "good" condition, although the prairie has been converted into cultivated agricultural land, a pond has been constructed, and the number of trees on the site has increased. The Kansas Historical Society has also preserved the site as Mine Creek Battlefield State Historic Site; the site was officially founded in 1974. Marked trails are present at the site, allowing visitors to view the significant features of the battlefield. A visitor's center has also been constructed.

As of 2019, the American Battlefield Trust and its partners have acquired and preserved 326 acres of the battlefield.

On November 15, 2004, the History Channel released a documentary about the battle titled "Mine Creek: The Lost Battle of the Civil War".

title: Battle of Mine Creek


text:
Wikipedia:Articles for deletion/OPTIMAES

OPTIMAES
VfD'ed all the way in march. No discussion that I can find. Most likely for non-notability. -Vina 03:02, 3 Oct 2004 (UTC)
 * Delete. Wile E. Heresiarch 18:09, 3 Oct 2004 (UTC)
 * Delete - Indeed non-notable. ClockworkTroll 20:19, 3 Oct 2004 (UTC)
 * Delete. Concur with above. jni 07:45, 4 Oct 2004 (UTC)
 * Delete. Wikipedia is not a web guide.   — Gwalla | Talk 17:20, 4 Oct 2004 (UTC)
 * Delete. Advertisement. --Improv 21:31, 4 Oct 2004 (UTC)
 * Delete. Ropers 23:01, 6 Oct 2004 (UTC)


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File:James Taylor - That's Why I'm Here.jpg

Summary
Cover of the James Taylor album That's Why I'm Here.