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Tippy Martinez

Felix Anthony "Tippy" Martinez (born May 31, 1950) is an American former professional baseball left-handed pitcher. He pitched 14 seasons in Major League Baseball (MLB) between 1974 and 1988, primarily as a relief pitcher. The majority of his career (1976–1986) was spent as a member of the Baltimore Orioles, where he was a member of 1983 World Series championship team.

Career
Martinez was drafted by the Washington Senators in the 35th round of the 1969 amateur draft, but did not sign with the team. He began his MLB career with the New York Yankees in 1974 after signing as a free agent.

He was acquired along with Rick Dempsey, Scott McGregor, Rudy May and Dave Pagan by the Orioles for Ken Holtzman, Doyle Alexander, Elrod Hendricks, Grant Jackson and Jimmy Freeman at the trade deadline on June 15, 1976. He, Dempsey and McGregor became part of a nucleus that kept the Orioles as perennial contender for the next decade, culminating with the 1983 World Series championship.

Three pickoffs against Toronto
A notable Martinez achievement during the 1983 season was picking off Barry Bonnell, Dave Collins and Willie Upshaw at first base in a single frame of a ten-inning 7–4 win over the Toronto Blue Jays at Memorial Stadium on August 24. The Orioles, having replaced both their starting catcher and his backup while rallying to tie the game in the ninth inning, entered the tenth with reserve infielder Lenn Sakata in the game at catcher. Three consecutive Blue Jays hitters reached first base and each one, thinking it would be easy to steal a base on Sakata, took a big lead. Martinez picked off all three baserunners, then became the winning pitcher when the Orioles won the game on Sakata's home run in the bottom of the tenth.

1983 playoffs
He was on the mound when the Orioles clinched the division title in a 5–1 victory over the Brewers at Milwaukee County Stadium on September 25 and the pennant in Game 4 of the American League Championship Series, earning a save and a win respectively.

A grassroots fan club was created for Tippy Martinez near the bullpen in left field of Memorial Stadium in 1980, called "Tippy's Tweeters". Fans blew on an official Oriole Tweeter every time Martinez entered a game as a reliever, and when he struck out the side.

Martinez finished his MLB career with the Minnesota Twins in 1988. He posted a lifetime win–loss record of 55–42 with an ERA of 3.45. He also recorded 115 saves.

In December 2006, Martinez became the pitching coach of the York Revolution of the Atlantic League of Professional Baseball.

title: Tippy Martinez


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Pete McCloskey

Paul Norton "Pete" McCloskey Jr. (September 29, 1927 – May 8, 2024) was an American politician who represented San Mateo County, California, as a Republican in the U.S. House of Representatives from 1967 to 1983.

Born in Loma Linda, California, McCloskey pursued a legal career in Palo Alto, California, after graduating from Stanford Law School. He served in the Korean War as a member of the United States Marine Corps. For his service, he was awarded the Navy Cross and the Silver Star. He won election to the House of Representatives in 1967, defeating Shirley Temple in the Republican primary. He co-authored the 1973 Endangered Species Act. He unsuccessfully challenged President Richard Nixon in the 1972 Republican primaries on an anti-Vietnam War platform and was the first member of Congress to publicly call for President Nixon's resignation after the Saturday Night Massacre.

McCloskey continually won re-election until 1982, when he unsuccessfully sought the Republican nomination to represent California in the United States Senate. The nomination was won by Pete Wilson, who went on to defeat Jerry Brown in the general election. During the 1988 Republican presidential primaries, McCloskey helped end Pat Robertson's campaign by revealing that Robertson's claims of serving in combat were false. In 1989, McCloskey co-founded the Council for the National Interest, a non-profit, non-partisan organization that works for "Middle East policies that serve the American national interest." He strongly opposed the Iraq War and supported Democrat John Kerry in the 2004 presidential election. In 2006, he made an unsuccessful run for Congress against Republican Richard Pombo. He endorsed Democrat Jerry McNerney in the general election and became a Democrat himself shortly thereafter.

Early life
Pete McCloskey's great-grandfather was orphaned in the Great Irish Famine and came to California in 1853 at the age of 16. He and his son, McCloskey's grandfather, were farmers in Merced County. The family were lifelong Republicans.

McCloskey was born on September 29, 1927, in Loma Linda, California, the son of Mary Vera (McNabb) and Paul Norton McCloskey. He attended public schools in South Pasadena and San Marino. He was inducted into South Pasadena High School Hall of Fame for the sport of baseball. He attended Occidental College and California Institute of Technology under the U.S. Navy's V-5 Pilot Program. He graduated from Stanford University in 1950 and Stanford University Law School in 1953.

Military service
McCloskey voluntarily served in the U.S. Navy from 1945 to 1947, the U.S. Marine Corps from 1950 to 1952, the U.S. Marine Corps Reserve from 1952 to 1960 and the Ready Reserve from 1960 to 1967. He retired from the Marine Corps Reserve in 1974, having attained the rank of colonel. He was awarded the Navy Cross and Silver Star decorations for heroism in combat and two Purple Hearts as a Marine during the Korean War. He then volunteered for the Vietnam War before eventually turning against it. In 1992, he wrote his fourth book, The Taking of Hill 610, describing some of his exploits in Korea.

Political career
McCloskey served as a Deputy District Attorney for Alameda County, California, from 1953 to 1954 and practiced law in Palo Alto, California, from 1955 to 1967, cofounding the firm McCloskey, Wilson & Mosher, a forerunner to the firm that eventually became Wilson Sonsini Goodrich & Rosati. He was a lecturer on legal ethics at Santa Clara University and Stanford Law School from 1964 to 1967.

He was elected as a Republican to the 90th Congress, by special election, to fill the vacancy caused by the death of United States Representative J. Arthur Younger, after defeating Shirley Temple in the primary. He was reelected to the seven succeeding Congresses, serving from December 12, 1967, to January 3, 1983. In a 1981 interview, he stated that he thought he "was the first Republican elected opposing the war" despite the fact that his "constituency, two to one, favored the war in 1967."

McCloskey was the first member of Congress to publicly call for the impeachment of President Nixon after the Watergate scandal and the Saturday Night Massacre. He was also the first lawmaker to call for a repeal of the Gulf of Tonkin Resolution that had allowed for the War in Vietnam. He chose, in early 1975, to see for himself the effects of US bombing in Cambodia, stating afterwards that his country had committed "greater evil than we have done to any country in the world, and wholly without reason, except for our benefit to fight against the Vietnamese."

In the 1972 Republican Party presidential primaries McCloskey campaigned on a pro-peace/anti-Vietnam War platform and obtained 19.7 percent of the vote against incumbent President Richard M. Nixon in the New Hampshire primary. At the New Mexico Republican Party state convention Rep. Manuel Lujan Jr. cast a decisive vote that resulted in McCloskey being awarded a national convention delegate. Consequently, at the Republican National Convention in Miami Beach, Florida, Rep. McCloskey received one vote (out of 1,348) from a New Mexico delegate; all other votes cast went to Nixon. In 2016, McCloskey published a tribute to Lujan titled An Honest Public Servant.

In January 1980, McCloskey was one of six members of an official bipartisan delegation of the House of Representatives appointed by Speaker Tip O'Neill to visit Lebanon, Syria, and Israel. In Beirut the delegation met with Palestine Liberation Organization chairman Yasir Arafat with a plan to conclude the trip with a meeting with Prime Minister Menachem Begin and other Israeli leaders in Jerusalem.

In June 1981, in a speech to retired United States military officers, McCloskey said: "'We've got to overcome the tendency of the Jewish community in America to control the actions of Congress and force the President and the Congress not to be evenhanded' in the Middle East." In a press conference later the same day Mr. McCloskey criticized Menachem Begin for lobbying the Rev. Jerry Falwell for support for the June 7, 1981, Israeli airstrike on an unfinished Iraqi nuclear reactor and added, "We have to respect the views of our Jewish citizens, but not be controlled by them." McCloskey later defended his remarks saying "There is a strong Jewish lobby ... I do not understand why the Jewish community should resent it being labeled as such. They are a very effective lobby." However, he also predicted that criticism by B'nai B'rith officials in California would harm his prospects of winning the 1982 Republican Senate primary there.

Shortly after Israel's passage of the Golan Heights Law on December 14, 1981, McCloskey denounced the move as an "aggressive and imperialistic action" and urged his Congressional colleagues to block a $2.2 billion foreign aid package to Israel unless the action was rescinded. He said the "annexation of the Golan Heights was another step which could eventually drag the U.S. into a nuclear war."

In 1982, McCloskey was an unsuccessful Republican candidate for nomination to the United States Senate. The California Republican Senatorial primary that year was a contentious battle among the major candidates in the 12-person GOP field, featuring mainly Reps. McCloskey, Bob Dornan, Barry Goldwater Jr. (son of Arizona Senator and 1964 Republican presidential nominee Barry Goldwater), Maureen Reagan (daughter of then-President Ronald Reagan), San Diego Mayor Pete Wilson, former Rep. John G. Schmitz, and Los Angeles Chamber of Commerce president Ted Bruinsma. Wilson was the eventual victor and went on to defeat the Democratic candidate, then-Governor Jerry Brown, in the general election.

According to Paul Findley, McCloskey was hounded by the Anti-Defamation League, both during his political career and when he retired to private practice as a lawyer, for his outspoken views on Israel's attitude to Palestinians and on the Israel lobby.

2006 run for Congress
On January 23, 2006, McCloskey announced at a press conference in Lodi, California, that he would return to the political arena by running against seven-term incumbent Republican Richard Pombo in the Republican Party for California's 11th congressional district. Earlier in the year, he formed a group called the "Revolt of the Elders" to recruit a viable primary candidate to run against Pombo. McCloskey's aging campaign bus sported the slogan "Restore Ethics to Congress." McCloskey said, "Congressmen are like diapers. You need to change them often, and for the same reason." McCloskey was endorsed in the Republican Party primary by the San Francisco Chronicle and the Los Angeles Times. In the June 6, 2006, primary, McCloskey was defeated by Pombo, receiving 32 percent of the vote.

On July 24, 2006, McCloskey endorsed Jerry McNerney, a Democrat who defeated Pombo in the 2006 midterm elections. McCloskey spent most of Election Night at McNerney's victory party. The Sierra Club recognized McCloskey for helping to unseat Pombo with their 2006 Edgar Wayburn Award.

IHR/Holocaust controversy
During the 2006 primary campaign there was controversy over what McCloskey allegedly said about the Holocaust during his keynote address, titled "The Machinations of the Anti-Defamation League", to the May 2000 Institute for Historical Review conference. According to the San Jose Mercury News, McCloskey said at the time, "I don't know whether you are right or wrong about the Holocaust," and he referred to the "so-called Holocaust". McCloskey replied "that he has never questioned the existence of the Holocaust, and the 2000 quote referred to a debate over the number of people killed." McCloskey said in an interview with the Contra Costa Times on January 18, 2006, that the IHR transcript of his speech had been inaccurate.

Journalist Mark Hertsgaard of The Nation, in response to criticism of McCloskey following an article about the candidate's 2006 campaign, stated that a videotape he had viewed of McCloskey's speech to the IHR did not contain the "right or wrong" wording present in the transcript. According to Hertsgaard, McCloskey "told the delegates, 'I may not agree with you about everything I've heard today,' before he reiterated a core point of his speech—that the right for anyone to question what is said about the past is basic to freedom of thought in America." Hertsgaard also denied Rafael Medoff's claim that McCloskey praised the "'courage' of Holocaust deniers in Europe."

On Israel-Palestinian issues
In 1984, McCloskey was invited to return to Stanford University as a visiting lecturer. The director of Hillel at Stanford characterized McCloskey's appointment as "a slap in the face of the Jewish community". Members of the student government also tried to pressure McCloskey to remove an article by former US diplomat George Ball from his course syllabus and "add materials reflecting pro-AIPAC views." Following a "faculty review" McCloskey's student opponents were censured for " 'serious abridgments' of academic freedom" and Stanford's Provost offered McCloskey a formal apology.

In 1986, McCloskey engaged in a debate about Israel-Palestinian issues with Jewish Defense League founder, Rabbi Meir Kahane. According to a disputed transcript of an event fourteen years later, McCloskey stated that two thousand people attended the 1986 debate which took place in San Francisco. The event was eventually turned into a short film titled, "Why Terrorism?" produced by Mark Green.

McCloskey and former Rep. Paul Findley (R-III.) helped arrange a June 8, 1991, White House ceremony during which forty-two surviving crew members of the USS Liberty, an intelligence ship attacked by Israeli forces in 1967, were belatedly presented the Presidential Unit Citation awarded, but never presented, to the ship's crew by President Johnson in 1968. The ceremony took place on the 24th anniversary of the incident, which killed thirty-four Americans, and was attended by White House Chief of Staff John Sununu and National Security Adviser Brent Scowcroft. The Anti-Defamation League (ADL) expressed concerns about whether the event was held "to give a stamp of approval to those seeking to malign Israel". The ADL singled out the participation of McCloskey and Findley as "staunch critics of Israel" and "expressed concern with their involvement 'and the sanction given by the White House of such rhetoric.' " In 1982, he was approached by a former Israeli senior lead pilot who admitted that he had recognized the Liberty as an American naval vessel during the attack, but was told to ignore the U.S. flag and continue his attack. Upon refusing to do so and returning to base, he was arrested. McCloskey remained a committed supporter of the "USS Liberty Veterans Association." He was planning to release a book in support of Liberty survivors titled The Most Infamous Order Ever Given: The Betrayal of the USS Liberty, which would have had many supporting documents in it.

Pat Robertson presidential campaign controversy
McCloskey contradicted Pat Robertson's statements about Korean War service and so put an end to Robertson's 1988 Presidential run. Robertson first claimed that he was a "combat veteran" back in 1981, which aroused the ire of McCloskey, who had been shipped to Korea along with Robertson as second lieutenants as part as the 5th Replacement Draft to bolster the First Marine Division, which had suffered great losses at the Battle of the Chosin Reservoir. McCloskey and Robertson were part of a contingent of 71 Marine officers and 1,900 enlisted men shipped to Korea aboard the USS General J. C. Breckinridge to serve as replacements.

When Robertson began claiming again that he was a combat veteran during the 1988 Republican primaries, McCloskey wrote a public letter to U.S. Representative Andrew Jacobs Jr., also a Marine veteran of the Korean War, in which McCloskey said that Robertson was actually spared combat duty when his powerful father, U.S. Senator A. Willis Robertson of Virginia, intervened on his behalf, and that Robertson had actually boasted that his father would keep him out of combat. Robertson, a college friend, and four other second lieutenants were shipped to Japan, detailed to a training mission for Marines coming out of Korea. Of the remaining Marine officers, half were killed or wounded in combat.

Robertson sued McCloskey and another accuser for libel and demanded damages of $35 million, but research underwritten by McCloskey that cost him $400,000 proved that his revelations had been true. Rather than being a combat veteran, Robertson had been shipped to Japan right off the USS Breckinridge, then spent most of his time when returned to Korea and was posted at the safe harbor of the Division Headquarters. Robertson served as the Division "liquor officer", responsible for keeping the officers' clubs supplied with alcohol, which meant he kept traveling back to Japan. It was claimed that Robertson sexually harassed a Korean woman at one of his clubs and worried about getting gonorrhea. Documentary evidence uncovered by McCloskey revealed that his father, Senator Robertson, thanked Marine Commandant Robinson for getting his son out of combat. By the time of the libel trial, which was scheduled for Super Tuesday, many other Marine officers were prepared to testify that Robertson had avoided combat duty. The day before the trial, Robertson dropped the libel suit. On Super Tuesday, he was punished at the polls. He later paid McCloskey's court costs.

McCloskey wrote a book about his Korean War experiences, The Taking of Hill 610.

Council of the National Interest
In 1989, McCloskey co-founded the Council for the National Interest along with former Congressman Paul Findley. It is a 501 (c)4 non-profit, non-partisan organization that works for "Middle East policies that serve the American national interest." He taught political science at Santa Clara University in the early 1980s. For many years, he practiced law in Redwood City, California and resided in Woodside, California.

Iraq War
An opponent of the Iraq War, McCloskey broke party ranks in 2004 to endorse John Kerry in his bid to unseat George W. Bush as President of the United States.

Change of political affiliation
In the spring of 2007, McCloskey announced that he had changed his party affiliation to the Democratic Party. In an email and letter to the Tracy Press, McCloskey stressed that the "new brand of Republicanism" had finally led him to abandon the party that he had joined in 1948. He followed this up with an op-ed column in which he explained that "Disagreement [with party leadership] turned into disgust" and "I finally concluded that it was fraud for me to remain a member of this modern Republican Party", although it was a "decision not easily taken."

In the 2020 United States presidential election, McCloskey was nominated to be a member of the Democratic slate of electors for the state of California. As Democrat Joe Biden won the state's popular vote, McCloskey became one of California's 55 members of the Electoral College. He cast his presidential vote for Biden and vice-presidential vote for California Senator Kamala Harris on December 14, 2020.

Political positions
McCloskey favored abortion rights and supported stem cell research as well as Oregon's assisted suicide law. He was a co-chair of the first Earth Day in 1970.

Personal life and death
McCloskey's first marriage was to Caroline Wadsworth in 1949, and they had four children, Nancy, Peter, John, and Kathleen, before divorcing. He later married Helen V. Hooper.

On May 8, 2024, McCloskey died at his home in Winters, California, due to complications of kidney and congestive heart failure. He was 96.

Films

 * Earth Days (2009) (Self)
 * The Most Dangerous Man in America: Daniel Ellsberg and the Pentagon Papers (2009) (Self)
 * Pete McCloskey: Leading from the Front: The Story of a True Political Maverick (2010) (Self)
 * GrowthBusters (2011) (Self)
 * Last Days in Vietnam (2014) (Self)

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Pete McCloskey


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Millman

Millman is a surname. Notable people with the surname include:

 * Dan Millman (born 1946), American author and lecturer
 * Dick Millman, American chief executive
 * Michael Millman (1939–2014), American criminal defense lawyer
 * Jacob Millman (1911–1991), electronics engineer
 * John Millman (born 1989), Australian tennis player
 * Peter Millman (1906–1990), Canadian astronomer

title: Millman


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San Francisco de Macorís

San Francisco de Macorís is a city in the Dominican Republic located in the northeast portion of the island, in the Cibao region. It is the capital of the Duarte Province and the sixth most populated city in the country. The name San Francisco de Macorís comes from a combination of the name of Saint Francis, patron saint of the Franciscan Order (a religious organization from Italy that had come to this territory during colonization) and the territory's old name, which is Macorix.

The city is known as the Land of Cacao ("Tierra del Cacao"). The area produces large quantities of organic cocoa, making the Dominican Republic the world's 10th largest producer of cocoa beans.

History
A city was founded near San Francisco de Macorís in 1497. After La Vega was founded, Cotuí was later established in 1505 in a place rich in gold. For centuries what is now San Francisco de Macorís and the Duarte Province were rural outskirts of La Vega and Cotuí respectively. By the beginning of the 18th century, foreign investment from Europeans created a market for the production of cocoa, allowing the locals to gain a new source of income apart from livestock. It was the cocoa market that allowed the community around the Santa Ana monastery to become San Francisco de Macorís. However, it was not until the 1760s that the province gained a monopoly on the cocoa industry and managing to become a town for European travelers to stop by. The Villa of Santa Ana of San Francisco de Macorís, also previously called Hato Grande, was named this until it was owned by Francisco Ravelo Polanco, Provincial Mayor of the Santa Hermandad of Santiago de los Caballeros, and tradition later points to Juan de Alvarado and the families Tejada and De Jesus as the owners of the land and donors of the territorial area for the purpose of its foundation in 1778.

In 1795, the Treaty of Basel was ratified, ceding to France the Spanish territory of Hispaniola. France took over the Spanish side in 1801, and under its administration San Francisco de Macorís became a parish with self-government. The official minutes of the city date back to 1811. On October 2, 1896, Ulises Heureaux reorganized the city of San Francisco de Macorís under the Provincial District "Pacificador" (Peacemaker). At that time it was assigned as common to Cantonal Position of Matanzas, Section Monte Abajo, Villa Riva, Canton Castillo, among others.

District Pacificador's name lasted until July 26, 1926, when the Dominican Congress changed its name to Duarte Province, presently used.

On 20 May 1963 the city council approved the renaming of the main streets of San Francisco de Macorís at the request of the Foundation Heroes of Constanza, Maimon and Estero Hondo.

Geography
The city of San Francisco de Macorís is located in the North Region of the Dominican Republic (Cibao Region) between the Septentrional Mountain Range at the north and the Cibao Valley at the southern part. San Francisco de Macorís has hills to the north which provide a great view of the city during evening hours. The Jaya River is prominent on the western part of town.

Relief
The relief of Duarte Province ranges from 17 to 942 m above sea level, reaching its highest elevation at "Loma Quita Espuela". This name allegedly comes from the time when the Spaniards were exploring the island, since the hill was too steep to ride their horses, they had to dismount and remove their spurs and undertake the ascent on foot. There are two main geologic regions: the north slope of the Cordillera Septentrional and the rough topography of the Delta del Yuna.

On the southern slope of the Cibao Valley in the Yuna Subregion (Easter Cibao), we will find alluvial fans, in combination with deposit hollows, hill areas and platforms, and also alluvial soils into the channels of the flows of the rivers Camú and Yuna.

Two faults go through the Duarte Province from east to west. This tectonic deformations are the Septentrional fault, that touches the towns of Arenoso, Castillo and San Francisco de Macorís and the Cibao fault passing through the towns of Las Guaranas, Castillo, Villa Riva Pimentel. The Septentrional fault is located in the northern part of the province while the Cibao fault is located in the southern part of it.

Geomorphology
The Yuna River Delta is part of the Cibao Valley, and most of these areas are located a few metres above sea level and therefore wetlands abound. Its main rivers are the Great Yuna and Caño Estero, which are the natural drainage of these lands in the province of Maria Trinidad Sanchez. The area consists mainly of swamps with silt and clay, and also large areas of peat deposits. By the rivers are alluvial deposits.

The Eastern Cibao Valley (also part of the Cibao Valle) is divided into the provinces of Santiago, Espaillat, Sánchez Ramírez, Sánchez and Duarte, the latter having a higher percentage (about 50%). All cities in this province are rooted in this valley except the city of Arenoso. The floodplains of the Yuna River system occupy a narrow strip on the south side of the valley and there is also a narrow chain of hills, probably middle Miocene limestones, adjacent to the north mountain range. For this province the valley also has marine lacustrine deposits of clay, basically of two kinds: a limestone and other non-calcareous.

The Haitises consist of a karst platform, which is composed of hard limestone from the Oligocene-Miocene. The highest elevations are generally 200 to 250 mtall. The Payabo River crosses the region by a narrow channel filled with alluvial deposits.

The Northern Range is a mountain range of sedimentary rocks and highly faulted and folded fobáceas. In this province the Northern Range reaches heights of 942 m (Quita Espuela); near San Francisco de Macorís the ridge height is slightly below 300 m. It presents some mudstone, limestone and Miocene and Eocene oligocénicos. To the south of Gaspar Hernandez and reaching the Nagua River there is a very complex area with rugged hills of limestone, and tuff, probably with other volcanic and metamorphic rocks, mainly of Upper Cretaceous.

Hydrography
There are many rivers and streams in the Duarte Province, the most important ones being the Camú River, the Yuna River and their tributaries (Jaya, Cuaba, Nigua, Payabo, among others). The Yuna River and Camú River constitute important sources of water, both for drinking and for irrigation.

Physiography and environment
Environmental pollution in Duarte Province is the product of several elements, such as the poor state of latrines, untreated sewage, overflow of streams, indiscriminate use of agrochemicals, backwaters and installation of pigsties on the banks of rivers, and waste from some factories in the province that is thrown into rivers.

Soil erosion from deforestation also affects the environment of the Duarte Province. Similarly, the smoke from factories and from burning trash, specifically in the municipality of San Francisco de Macorís, is affecting its inhabitants.

Climate
Temperatures fluctuate between 17 and 32 C, with cooler temperatures affected by rainfall. It is largely an isolated paradise since much of the territory is unaffected by hurricanes or extremely hot weather. Occasional floods can occur due to a rainy season which manifests itself mostly during the month of May.

Places of interest

 * Estadio Julian Javier
 * Casa del Morris Quezada
 * Parque Duarte
 * Catedral de Santa ana

The municipal building

The city hall of San Francisco de Macorís is the headquarters of the city council and city mayor.

Santa Ana Cathedral
The Santa Ana Cathedral is a mixture of Gothic and modern architecture. It covers a complete city block, bound on the north by Santa Ana Street, on the south by Colon Street, on the west by Papi Olivier Street and on the east by Restauracion Street. The Santa Ana Cathedral is the headquarters of Obispo de la Diócesis de San Francisco and home to the humanist Monseñor Jesús María de Jesús Moya.

Communications
San Francisco de Macorís has several radio stations and publications. Its longest-running newspaper is El Jaya, which was founded on November 20, 1985. Its director and founder is the journalist Adriano Cruz Marte.

Notable residents

 * José Rafael Molina Ureña, 44th President of the Republic, 1965
 * Francisco Garcia, basketball player for the Sacramento Kings
 * Julián Javier, baseball player
 * Stan Javier, baseball player
 * Eladio Romero Santos, music producer and singer
 * Marino Vinicio Castillo, lawyer
 * Hilma Contreras, writer
 * Jackeline Estevez, singer
 * Victor Martinez, professional bodybuilder
 * Don Miguelo, singer and writer
 * Richard Ureña, baseball player
 * Hanser Alberto, professional baseball player who most recently played for the Chicago White Sox
 * Luis Kalaf, composer, musician
 * Elio Rojas, world champion boxer
 * Joel Almonó, priest, director of the Grace Episcopal Church in Lawrence, Massachusetts
 * Marco Luciano, baseball player
 * Johan Rojas, professional baseball player

title: San Francisco de Macorís


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Cullen, Moray

Cullen (Inbhir Cuilinn) is a village and former royal burgh in Moray but historically in Banffshire, Scotland, on the North Sea coast 20 mi east of Elgin. The village had a population of 1,327 in 2001. Cullen is noticeably busier in summer than winter due to the number of holiday homes owned. The organs of the wife of Robert the Bruce are said to have been buried in its old kirk (church) after her death in Cullen Castle. Robert the Bruce made an annual payment to the village in gratitude for the treatment of his wife's body and its return south for burial. In 2000, the recent non-payment of this sum by the government was challenged and settled to the village's favour.

The village is noted for Cullen skink (a traditional soup made from smoked haddock, milk, potato and onion); and for its former railway bridges, two of which are now part of the national cycle network. These bridges were required to be built, at considerable cost, due to resistance to the railway line being routed any closer to Cullen House. The most westerly (and by far the longest) viaduct is highly photogenic, and often features in tourist guides and Scottish calendars. Near Cullen is the peak Bin Hill, visible from some distance, such as from Longman Hill.

History
Cullen has a long history, remarkably well-documented thanks to the survival of a number of sources. These are summarised in two key books: the Annals of Cullen by W Crammond (1904) and the Church Annals of Cullen by W Robertson (1938). The first deals primarily with the civil governance and the latter with church governance up to the disruption. Cullen received royal burgh status between 1153 and 1214 AD during the reigns of Malcolm IV and William I. It is also known to have received a charter in 1455 AD from James II. The burgh was abolished in 1975 by the Local Government (Scotland) Act 1973.

Writing in around 139–161, Ptolemy in his Geography mentions the River Celnius in the North East of Scotland. Both William Forbes Skene and George Chalmers identified the Celnius with Cullen Burn. The first mention of Cullen in Scottish history was in 962 when King Indulf was killed by the Norwegians (and/or Danes) at the mouth of the river Cullen and referred to as the Battle of the Bauds. "Atween Coedlich and the sea, There lies Kings' sons three." Legend has it that within the vicinity, a Scots, a Danish and a Norwegian King are buried, marked by the three isolated rocks within Cullen Bay and named the "Three Kings". However, it is possible that these rocks derive their name from the similarity of the name Cullen with Culane (Cologne) as in the medieval mystery play "The Three Kings of Culane".

The church was founded as a chapel by King Robert the Bruce.

The organs of the wife of King Robert the Bruce are said to have been buried in its old kirk (church) after her death in the area; the King then made an annual payment to the village in gratitude for the treatment of his wife's body and its return south for burial. This payment was stopped after a 1975 reform of Scottish local government. In 2000, the non-payment of this sum was challenged and settled to the village's favour.

Robert Burns stayed overnight at what was then the old town of Cullen in 1787 during his tour of the Highlands. Travelling from the west to the east he remarked that up to this point, "the country is sadly poor and unimproved". The old town of Cullen was demolished in 1822 and its remains are next to Cullen House. It was under James Ogilvy, 7th Earl of Findlater that plans were first mooted for moving the town, but it was not until his successor Ludovick Ogilvy-Grant, 5th Earl of Seafield that the plans were enacted. The town was moved 1/2 mi away both to modernise (the houses of the old town flooded from water running down off the raised road when it rained heavily) and to provide the Earl with greater privacy. The new town was planned by George MacWilliam, and built between 1820 and 1822.

The central market cross in the town square originally stood in the old town. During the building of the new town it was temporarily erected at the top of the ancient fort structure that guards the entrance to the Cullen Burn (stream), known as the Castle Hill. This resulted in the present layout of the village, a generous cross shape of two major streets, Seafield Street and Grant Street, with a central town square and "the Seatown" sandwiched on the false beach between the mouth of the Cullen Burn and the harbour. In the previous layout the town was spread along a road above and parallel to the Cullen Burn, running between the Castle Hill and Cullen House, the Seatown being at the mouth of the Burn where boats used to be pulled up onto the beach. The most prominent building in the new town is Cullen Town Hall which was completed in 1823.

The fishing industry developed quickly in the 1880s and the harbour was crammed with large sailing fishing boats, these giving way to steam drifters at the start of the 20th century. The industry became centralised on larger harbours, the boats became larger diesel-engined designs that required non-tidal access. The site of Cullen railway station was redeveloped after the station closed in 1968.

The main part of Cullen House dates from 1543. An east wing was added in 1711, and there were alterations by David Bryce in 1858. The House and estate buildings were converted into 14 dwellings in 1983 by Kit Martin. Prior to the use of Cullen House by the Earls of Seafield, the castle of Findlater, now a ruin, on a rocky coastal outcrop approximately 2 mi to the east, was the Earl's seat.

Features
The village now has a population of 1,327. Cullen is noticeably busier in summer than winter due to the number of holiday homes owned. The village has an impressive beach and golf course, and the Crannoch wood which offers good views of the area. The 1086 ft Bin Hill or Bin of Cullen is a nearby hill with an associated footpath.

Cullen was the setting for Doris Davidson's romantic novel The Three Kings, named after the three rocks at the east end of Cullen beach. The local writer Simon Farquhar set his first two plays, Candy Floss Kisses and Elevenses with Twiggy, in the village and they were produced by BBC Radio 4. Samuel Johnson had less passion for Cullen. According to James Boswell, writing in The Journal of a Tour to the Hebrides, the pair considered that Cullen had "a comfortable appearance, though but a very small town, and the houses mostly poor buildings". Dr Johnson was also "disgusted by the sight of" the "dried haddocks broiled" that they were served for breakfast there and refused to eat them. Of course, given the general views aired so freely by Dr Johnson, this is mild indeed.

title: Cullen, Moray


text:
Scrooge (1970 film)

Scrooge is a 1970 musical film adaptation of Charles Dickens' 1843 story A Christmas Carol. It was filmed in London between January and May 1970 and directed by Ronald Neame, and starred Albert Finney as Ebenezer Scrooge. The film's score was composed by Leslie Bricusse and arranged and conducted by Ian Fraser.

The film was a follow-up to another Dickens musical adaptation, 1968's award-winning Oliver!. Both films were shot by Oswald Morris and many of the sets at Shepperton Studios were reused for Scrooge. The posters for Scrooge included the tagline, "What the dickens have they done to Scrooge?", designed to head off any criticism of an all-singing, all-dancing old skinflint. Finney won the Golden Globe Award for Best Actor in a Musical/Comedy in 1971, and the film received four Academy Award nominations, including for Best Original Song (for "Thank You Very Much").

Plot
On Christmas Eve 1860, in London, Ebenezer Scrooge, a mean-spirited, stingy, sour money-lender does not share the merriment of Christmas. He declines his nephew Harry's invitation for Christmas dinner and reluctantly gives his loyal employee Bob Cratchit Christmas Day off. Cratchit meets up with his ill son Tiny Tim and daughter Kathy to go shopping and return to the rest of the family at home to prepare for the holiday ("Christmas Children"). As Scrooge leaves his office, he declines two gentlemen's offer to collect money for charity and visits some of his clients, including Tom Jenkins ("I Hate People"). He is accosted and mocked by street urchins ("Father Christmas"). Returning home, Scrooge encounters the ghost of his seven-year-dead business partner Jacob Marley, who warns him to repent his miserly ways or he will be condemned in the afterlife as he was, carrying a heavy chain forged by his own selfishness and greed ("See the Phantoms"). Before leaving, Marley informs him that three spirits will visit him tonight.

At one o'clock, Scrooge is visited by the Victorian Ghost of Christmas Past, who takes him back in time to his childhood and early adult life. They visit his lonely school days, where he is ultimately taken back home by his beloved sister, and then his time as an employee under Mr. Fezziwig. At a Christmas party held by Fezziwig ("December the 25th"), Scrooge falls in love with Fezziwig's daughter, Isabel ("Happiness"). However, the spirit shows Scrooge how Isabel left him when he chose money over her ("You..."). He asks the spirit to remove him as he finds himself back in his bed.

At two o'clock, Scrooge is visited by the Ghost of Christmas Present, a jolly giant who teaches him the joys and wonder of Christmas Day ("I Like Life"). Scrooge and the spirit visit Bob's house to observe the family's Christmas dinner, while Scrooge shows interest in the ill Tim ("The Beautiful Day"). The spirit hints that Tiny Tim might die. They next visit Harry's Christmas party, where Harry defends his uncle from his guests' snide remarks, hoping to know a better side to him and to raise Cratchit's wages. Scrooge observes the party and games. Before the spirit vanishes, he returns Scrooge home and cautions him to make the most out of his short life. Scrooge again finds himself back in his bed.

At three o'clock, Scrooge is visited by the Ghost of Christmas Yet to Come, a silent, cloaked figure who shows him the future Christmas 1861, with the citizens rejoicing at the death of Scrooge ("Thank You Very Much"), who is unaware of the reason they are celebrating, having his back turned when they start parading his coffin. The spirit points Scrooge to Bob's house, and he sees the Crachit family in mourning and that Tiny Tim and Bob are absent. Enquiring for clarification, Scrooge is taken to a cemetery, where he sees Bob mourning at Tim's grave. When Bob leaves, the ghost then points out Scrooge's own grave. A horrified Scrooge promises to change his ways as the grave opens and the spirit reveals its Grim Reaper-esque skull and fingers, causing the startled Ebenezer to fall through his grave into the caverns of Hell. There, Marley shows him to his frigid, ice-bound "office", where he will be "the only man in Hell who's chilly" to serve as Lucifer's personal clerk for his treatment of Bob Cratchit. Scrooge is adorned with a large chain made from his lifetime of past sins by four masked demons and strains against the chains, crying out for mercy, before he wakes up in his bedroom.

Despite having lost his nightcap in Hell, a gleeful Scrooge vows to make amends ("I'll Begin Again"). Finding it's Christmas Day, he decides to bring happiness to the citizens of London and goes on a shopping spree, buying food and presents, with the help of children. He runs into Harry and his wife and also gives them some presents to make up for missing his time with them, then gladly accepts their invitation to Christmas dinner. Dressed as "Father Christmas", Scrooge then delivers a giant turkey, presents and toys to the Cratchits and, upon making his identity known, promises to double Bob's salary and that they will work to find the best doctors to make Tim better. Scrooge then frees Tom and his clients from their debts and tells the charity gentlemen he earlier spurned that he will donate a sizable amount of money ("Thank You Very Much (Reprise)"). Scrooge returns home, acknowledging Marley for helping him get a second chance at life, and goes inside to prepare for dinner with his family.

Cast

 * Albert Finney as Ebenezer Scrooge
 * Alec Guinness as Jacob Marley
 * Edith Evans as the Ghost of Christmas Past
 * Kenneth More as the Ghost of Christmas Present
 * Paddy Stone as the Ghost of Christmas Yet to Come
 * David Collings as Bob Cratchit
 * Frances Cuka as Mrs. Cratchit
 * Richard Beaumont as "Tiny Tim" Cratchit
 * Karen Scargill as Kathy Cratchit
 * Michael Medwin as Harry, Scrooge's nephew
 * Mary Peach as Harry's wife
 * Gordon Jackson as Tom, Harry's friend
 * Anton Rodgers as Tom Jenkins, one of Scrooge's debtors
 * Laurence Naismith as Mr. Fezziwig
 * Kay Walsh as Mrs. Fezziwig
 * Suzanne Neve as Isabel Fezziwig
 * Derek Francis as a charity gentleman
 * Roy Kinnear as a charity gentleman
 * Geoffrey Bayldon as Pringle, the toyshop owner
 * Molly Weir as a woman debtor
 * Helena Gloag as a woman debtor
 * Reg Lever as Miller, the puppeteer
 * Keith Marsh as a well-wisher
 * Marianne Stone as a party guest

Soundtrack listing

 * 1) "Overture" (removed from current Blu-ray release)
 * 2) "A Christmas Carol" – Chorus
 * 3) "Christmas Children" – David Collings, Richard Beaumont, & Karen Scargill
 * 4) "I Hate People" – Albert Finney
 * 5) "Father Christmas" – Urchins
 * 6) "See the Phantoms" – Alec Guinness
 * 7) "December the 25th" – Laurence Naismith, Kay Walsh & Ensemble
 * 8) "Happiness" – Suzanne Neve
 * 9) "A Christmas Carol (Reprise)" – Chorus
 * 10) "You...You" – Albert Finney
 * 11) "I Like Life" – Kenneth More & Albert Finney
 * 12) "The Beautiful Day" – Richard Beaumont
 * 13) "Happiness (Reprise)" – Suzanne Neve & Albert Finney
 * 14) "Thank You Very Much" – Anton Rodgers & Ensemble
 * 15) "I'll Begin Again" – Albert Finney
 * 16) "I Like Life (Reprise)" – Albert Finney
 * 17) Finale: "Father Christmas (Reprise)" / "Thank You Very Much (Reprise)" – All
 * 18) "Exit Music" (not included on LP)

A soundtrack album containing all of the songs from the film was issued on Columbia Records in 1970. The album peaked at No. 29 on Billboard's Best Bets For Christmas album chart on December 19, 1970. Due to legal complications, however, the soundtrack has never been re-released in the CD format. The current Paramount Blu-ray release of the film has removed the Overture (which is intact on all VHS and DVD releases).

Title sequence
The film features an opening title sequence of numerous hand-painted backgrounds and overlays by British illustrator Ronald Searle. Art of the Title described it, saying, "As is often the case with Searle’s illustrations, the forms jump and squiggle into shape, the strokes loose and sprightly. In each scene, swaths of colour and life pour out, white snowflakes dotting the brush strokes." The illustrations later appeared in the book Scrooge by Elaine Donaldson, published in 1970 by Cinema Center Films.

Production
Filmed in London and on location in Buckinghamshire between January and May 1970, the film sets at Shepperton Studios included fully reconstructed Victorian streets. Finney was in his mid-thirties and wore makeup to look older and was able to draw effectively upon his theatrical training and incorporate various vocal inflections and physical mannerisms as the old miser.

Box office
Scrooge opened on two screens in Los Angeles and Chicago, grossing $36,000 in its opening week. The release expanded two weeks later, including an opening at Radio City Music Hall in New York City, and moved up to second place at the US box office behind Lovers and Other Strangers. The following week it became number one but again fell to second place behind Lovers and Other Strangers for one week before returning to number one for two weeks before Christmas. In its sixth week at Radio City Music Hall it grossed $375,095 for the week, which Variety believed to be the biggest ever single week gross for a theatre worldwide surpassing the record set the previous Christmas by A Boy Named Charlie Brown. Over the course of its initial theatrical release, the film earned $3 million in distributor rentals in the United States and Canada.

Critical reception
Gene Siskel of The Chicago Tribune awarded the film three-and-a-half stars out of four, praising Finney's "masterful performance". Arthur D. Murphy, reviewing for Variety, called Scrooge "a most delightful film in every way" and praised Finney as "remarkable", and also complimented Bricusse's "unobtrusive complementary music and lyrics; and Ronald Neame's delicately controlled direction which conveys, but does not force, all the inherent warmth, humor and sentimentality." Charles Champlin of the Los Angeles Times applauded Scrooge as a "lovely movie, one of the few genuinely family-wide attractions of the whole year, calculated to please equally all those who have loved the Dickens work forever, and all those enviable youngsters who are about to discover it for the first time."

Roger Ebert of the Chicago Sun-Times gave the film three stars out of four, feeling it "works very nicely on its intended level and the kids sitting near me seemed to be having a good time." However, he was critical of Bricusse's songs, writing that they "fall so far below the level of good musical comedy that you wish Albert Finney would stop singing them, until you realize he isn't really singing." Reviewing for the New York Daily News, Ann Guarino wrote Scrooge was "bright with humor and moves along at a lively pace in 19th Century settings." She further praised the cast as "excellent," but described Bricusse's songs as being "pleasant, but unfortunately forgettable with the exception of 'Thank You Very Much'". Vincent Canby of The New York Times called Finney's performance "absurd, sentimental, pretty, never quite as funny as it intends to be, but quite acceptable, if only as a seasonal ritual." Overall, Canby felt the adaptation was "surprisingly faithful", and he complemented Ronald Neame for directing "the movie with all of the delicacy possible after a small story has been turned into a comparatively large, conventional musical. The settings—London streets and interiors, circa 1860 (updated from the original 1843)—are very attractive, somewhat spruced-up variations on the original John Leech illustrations."

Pauline Kael, writing in The New Yorker, found Scrooge to be an "innocuous musical version of A Christmas Carol, starring Albert Finney looking glum. The Leslie Bricusse music is so forgettable that your mind flushes it away while you're hearing it." Jay Cocks of Time magazine derided Finney's performance as "drastically disappointing. [He] grumbles and hobbles through his part, employing mannerism instead of nuance." Cocks was also critical of Bricusse's songs, and summarized the film as "a high-budget holiday spectacular, a musical extracted from Dickens' A Christmas Carol that turns out to be a curdled cup of holiday cheer [...] First frame to last, Scrooge is a mechanical movie made with indifference to every quality but the box office receipts."

Author Fred Guida called it one of the most underrated adaptions of the book.

Accolades
The film was nominated for best original song score, and "Thank You Very Much" for best original song, though it failed to win in either category. It also received nominations, but no oscars, for art direction/set decoration and costume design.

Stage adaptation
In 1992, a stage musical adapted from the film, featuring Bricusse's songs and starring Anthony Newley, was mounted in the UK under the title Scrooge: The Musical. "I Hate People" was re-written as "I Hate Christmas", and a cast recording was released.

The show was revived in 2003 on a tour of the UK by British song and dance man Tommy Steele, and he reprised the role at the London Palladium in 2004, making him the performer to have done the most shows at the Palladium. In 2007, Shane Ritchie played the part at the Manchester Palace. The musical was revived at London Palladium in October 2012 with Steele again playing the title role in a run that lasted until 5 January 2013.

The stage adaptation was mounted in Melbourne, Australia, in 1993, starring Keith Michell, Max Gillies, Tony Taylor, William Zappa, Dale Burridge, Emma Raciti, Ross Hannaford, Paul Cheyne, and Glenda Walsh.

Animated version
In December 2022, following a limited theatrical release in the United States that began on November 18, an animated remake of the film, titled Scrooge: A Christmas Carol, was released by Netflix. Produced by Timeless Films (the team behind the Monster Family films) and written and directed by Stephen Donnelly, the remake incorporates many of Leslie Bricusse's songs from the 1970 film, but has a newly-written book. The remake features the vocal talents of Luke Evans as Scrooge, Johnny Flynn as Bob Cratchit, Fra Fee as Harry, Giles Terera as Tom, Olivia Colman as the Ghost of Christmas Past, James Cosmo as Fezziwig, Jessie Buckley as Isabel, Trevor Dion Nicholas as the Ghost of Christmas Present, and Jonathan Pryce as Jacob Marley.

title: Scrooge (1970 film)


text:
Trevi nel Lazio

Trevi nel Lazio is a town and comune (municipality) in the province of Frosinone in the Italian region of Lazio in the upper valley of the Aniene river. It is 17 km by road northeast of Fiuggi and 23 km by road southeast of Subiaco, the nearest larger towns.

History
The town first makes its appearance as Treba, a place of the Aequi, and later was called Treba Augusta to help distinguish it from Trebiae (Trevi in Umbria). The town was a bishopric from 499 to 1060; in the 15th century, it was sacked by Alfonso V of Aragon.

In August 2011 the Italian government had made plans to merge the village with neighbouring Filettino, in order to cut administrative costs, but they were interrupted by the protestations of the mayor of Filettino, Luca Sellari, who announced his village would become its own independent principality, in order to preserve its identity.

Main sights
An old arch within the territory of the comune is said to be Roman, and some remains of the ancient acropolis have survived, but otherwise Trevi's monuments are medieval or later:
 * collegiate church of S. Maria Assunta
 * oratory of S. Pietro (not dedicated to the apostle Peter, but to a local hermit)
 * oratory of S. Maria del Riposo, with 15th‑century frescoes.

title: Trevi nel Lazio


text:
Tromino

A tromino or triomino is a polyomino of size 3, that is, a polygon in the plane made of three equal-sized squares connected edge-to-edge.

Symmetry and enumeration
When rotations and reflections are not considered to be distinct shapes, there are only two different free trominoes: "I" and "L" (the "L" shape is also called "V").

Since both free trominoes have reflection symmetry, they are also the only two one-sided trominoes (trominoes with reflections considered distinct). When rotations are also considered distinct, there are six fixed trominoes: two I and four L shapes. They can be obtained by rotating the above forms by 90°, 180° and 270°.

Rep-tiling and Golomb's tromino theorem
Both types of tromino can be dissected into n2 smaller trominos of the same type, for any integer n > 1. That is, they are rep-tiles. Continuing this dissection recursively leads to a tiling of the plane, which in many cases is an aperiodic tiling. In this context, the L-tromino is called a chair, and its tiling by recursive subdivision into four smaller L-trominos is called the chair tiling.

Motivated by the mutilated chessboard problem, Solomon W. Golomb used this tiling as the basis for what has become known as Golomb's tromino theorem: if any square is removed from a 2n × 2n chessboard, the remaining board can be completely covered with L-trominoes. To prove this by mathematical induction, partition the board into a quarter-board of size 2n−1 × 2n−1 that contains the removed square, and a large tromino formed by the other three quarter-boards. The tromino can be recursively dissected into unit trominoes, and a dissection of the quarter-board with one square removed follows by the induction hypothesis. In contrast, when a chessboard of this size has one square removed, it is not always possible to cover the remaining squares by I-trominoes.

Previous and next orders

 * Domino
 * Tetromino

title: Tromino


text:
Commandant

Commandant ( or ; ) is a title often given to the officer in charge of a military (or other uniformed service) training establishment or academy. This usage is common in English-speaking nations. In some countries it may be a military or police rank. It is also often used to refer to the commander of a military prison or prison camp (including concentration camps and prisoner of war camps).

Bangladesh
In Bangladesh Armed Forces commandant is not any rank. It is an appointment. The commandant serves as the head of any military training institutes or unit.

Canada
Commandant is the normal Canadian French-language term for the commanding officer of a mid-sized unit, such as a regiment or battalion, within the Canadian Forces. In smaller units, the commander is usually known in French as the officier commandant.

Conversely, in Canadian English, the word commandant is used exclusively for the commanding officers of military units that provide oversight and/or services to a resident population (such as a military school or college, a long-term health care facility or a detention facility.

France
In the French Army and French Air Force, the term commandant is used as a rank equivalent to major (NATO rank code OF-3). However, in the French Navy commandant is the style, but not the rank, of the senior officers, specifically capitaine de corvette, capitaine de frégate and capitaine de vaisseau.

Germany
In the German language, a military Kommandant is the commanding officer of a military installation (e.g. a fortress), vehicle, aircraft (the pilot is not always Kommandant, if another crew member has a higher rank) or vessel (e.g. U-Boot-Kommandant). In contrast to the governor, the fortress commandant of the Imperial German Army or the Wehrmacht never had higher but only lower jurisdiction. When subordinate to a governor, his duties were limited to garrison duty. Subordinate to him was the Platzmajor.

In the navy of the Bundeswehr, commandants, including former commandants, wear the special commandant badge. When the commandant is active, it is worn on the right side of the chest above the breast pocket. Former commandants wear it on the left breast under the name tag.

In Baden-Württemberg, Bavaria, Austria, Switzerland and South Tyrol, the head of the volunteer fire brigade is called the Kommandant. As such, he leads the fire brigade and is responsible for the training and deployment of his local fire brigade. In his own local area, he leads the operations management of all fire brigades as long as this is not taken over by the higher-level operations management.

India
In the Indian Armed Forces, 'Commandant' is not a rank but an appointment. Commandant is the title of the heads of the Training establishments. Examples include:
 * Commandant of the National Defence Academy
 * Commandant of the Indian Military Academy
 * Commandant of the National Defence College
 * Commandant of Indian Naval Academy

In the Indian Army, the Commanding Officer of an armoured regiment or a Mechanized infantry regiment (Mechanised Infantry Regiment, Brigade of The Guards) is known as the Commandant.

Commandant is a rank in the Central Armed Police Forces of India. It is equivalent to the rank of Colonel/Captain/Group Captain. In the Indian Coast Guard, ranks of Commandant and Commandant (Junior grade) exist. While Commandant is equivalent to Colonel/Captain/Group Captain, Commandant (Junior grade) is equivalent to Lieutenant Colonel/Commander/Wing Commander.

In the State Armed Police Forces, a Commandant serves as the head of an armed police battalion. The rank of Commandant is equivalent to that of a Superintendent of Police (SP).

Ireland
In the Irish Army, commandant (Comdt; ceannfort) is the equivalent of major in other armies. Irish Army commandants can sometimes be referred to as major if serving overseas under the umbrella of the United Nations or the European Union to alleviate misunderstanding.

Kenya Defence Forces
In the Kenya Defence Forces Commandant is an appointment. Commandant is the title of the head of the training institutions. Examples include:

 * Commandant of the Recruits Training School
 * Commandant of the Kenya Military Academy
 * Commandant of the National Defence College
 * Commandant of the Defence Staff College
 * Commandant of School of Infantry

National Police Service
In the National Police Service, the title of Commandant is reserved for commanders of large training institutions  or commanders of large independent units. As with the Army, the post of a commander of a medium size unit is referred to as the Commanding Officer (CO) while the smallest is Officer Commanding (OC).

Example:

 * Commandant of the General Service Unit (GSU)
 * Commandant National Police College Embakasi A Campus
 * Commandant Rapid Deployment
 * Commandant Kenya Airports Police Unit

Philippines
In the Philippines, a Commandant is an appointment and not a rank but once selected, the appointee is promoted to the highest rank on the service. Commandants are appointed by the President of the Philippines either after the incumbent retires or as a replacement after dismissal.

There are currently two Commandant appointments that exist in the Philippines namely:

 * Commandant of the Philippine Marine Corps; and
 * Commandant of the Philippine Coast Guard

The Commandant of the Philippine Marine Corps will be promoted to the rank of Major General (Two-star Rank) once appointed while the Commandant of the Philippine Coast Guard will be promoted to the rank of an Admiral (Four-star Rank).

South Africa
In South Africa, Commandant was the title of the commanding officer of a commando (militia) unit in the 19th and early 20th centuries.

During the First World War, was used as a title by officers commanding Defence Rifle Association units, also known as Burgher commandos. The commandos were militia units raised in emergencies and constituted the third line of defence after the Permanent Force and the part-time Active Citizen Force regiments. The commandant rank was equivalent to major or lieutenant-colonel, depending on the size of the commando.

From 1950 to 1994 commandant (rank) was the rank equivalent of lieutenant colonel. and commander of a battalion. The rank was used by both the Army and the Air Force. The naval equivalent was commander (kommandeur). The rank was not used by the South African Police, who continued with lieutenant colonel [luitenant-kolonel].

The rank insignia for a Commandant (Kommandant) was initially a crown over a five-pointed star. In 1957 the crown was replaced by a pentagonal castle device based on the floor plan of the Castle of Good Hope in Cape Town, South Africa's oldest military building. In 1994, the rank of Commandant / Kommandant reverted to lieutenant colonel.

From 1968 to 1970, a related rank,, existed in the commando forces.

Recently, use of the term has followed the standard practice, i.e. the commanding officer of a training institute.

New Zealand
In the New Zealand Defence Force, the term commandant is used for the senior officer (or commander) of garrisoned units that do not deploy and are not operational. This typically includes learning institutes such as the New Zealand Defence College, the New Zealand Cadet Force, and (formerly) the Command and Staff College. The title could also be used for other non-deploying units such as the Services Corrective Establishment in Burnham, or depot-level engineering units.

The equivalent term for operational units is 'commander', such as commander of the Joint Force Headquarters New Zealand.

Under the 2010 creation of the Training and Education Directorate, an additional position of commandant was established for the Training Institute to complement the commandant of the Defence College.

Singapore
In the National Police Cadet Corps (NPCC), the position of Commandant is given to a Singapore Police Force officer who heads NPCC. The Commandant is aided by his Assistant Commandants, who are NPCC officers. As NPCC units around Singapore are divided into 20 "areas", each area is headed by an Area Commandant who is an NPCC officer. This Area Commandant is also usually an Officer from one of the units in the area that he/she is taking charge of.

Sri Lanka
In Sri Lanka, the Commandant of the Volunteer Force is the head of the Sri Lanka Army Volunteer Force. Commandant is also the title used for the commanding officer (one-star rank) of military academies - Sri Lanka Military Academy, Naval and Maritime Academy and Air Force Academy - and the commanding officer (two-star rank) of the Defence Services Command and Staff College. It is also the title of the de facto vice-chancellor of the General Sir John Kotelawala Defence University, usually an officer of two-star rank.

Colonel-commandant is an honorary post in corps of the army and the Sri Lanka National Guard, similar to that of Colonel of the Regiment found in infantry regiments. The post of centre commandant is the commanding officer of a corps or regiment. Commandant is the head of the Special Task Force of the Sri Lanka Police.

United Kingdom
In the British Armed Forces, a commandant is usually the commanding officer of a training establishment, such as the Royal Military Academy Sandhurst or the Royal Air Force College Cranwell. In early 19th century  England, the term commandant was used  interchangeably with commandment - i.e., a person could act as  a Commandment of the Justices -  an officer-in-charge.

Colonel-commandant was an appointment which existed in the British Army between 1922 and 1928, and in the Royal Marines from 1755 to some time after World War II. It replaced brigadier-general in the army, and was itself replaced by brigadier in both the army and the Marines. The colonel-commandant is also the ceremonial head of some Army corps and this position is usually held by a senior general.

Commandant was also the appointment, equivalent to commodore, held by the director of the Women's Royal Naval Service between 1951 and 1993.

In the Army Cadet Force, a colonel is customarily the most senior commissioned officer in charge of an ACF county. This rank is thus known as the commandant and their second-in-command (2IC) is the deputy commandant, who has the rank of lieutenant colonel.

In the Royal Air Force Air Cadets, the officer in charge of the organisation is given the title Commandant Air Cadets and holds the position for two years.

Formerly, commandant was the usual title for the head of the Special Constabulary within a police force. In some forces, the title was chief commandant, with subordinate divisional or sub-divisional commandants. The standard title for this position is now chief officer.

In the Voluntary Aid Organisation in World War I, the chief officer of a military hospital or voluntary aid detachment (VAD), whether male or female, held the title of commandant.

United States
In the United States, "commandant" is an appointment, not a rank, and the following three appointments currently exist:
 * Commandant of the Marine Corps
 * Commandant of the Coast Guard
 * Commandant of the Operations (Ships)

Formerly, admirals were appointed as commandants of naval districts.

The commandant is the second most senior officer (after the superintendent) of United States Service academies, such as United States Military Academy, United States Naval Academy, and the United States Air Force Academy, equivalent to the dean of students at a civilian college. Commandant is also the title of the commanding officer of many units of the United States Army Training and Doctrine Command, including the non-commissioned officer academies, whose commandants are typically command sergeants major.

Commandant is also the title of the ranking officer in charge of each War college of the United States military, and is responsible for the administration, academic progress and success of the civilians and military officers assigned to the college. The commandant is a model for all personnel, a military academy graduate of impeccable character and bearing who has demonstrated accomplishment in both academic excellence and active military service in the field. They include the Naval War College, the USAF Air War College, the Army War College, the Marine Corps War College and the National War College.

Commandant is the duty title for the commanding officer of the US Air Force Test Pilot School.

Commandant is also the duty title of the senior enlisted leader of a Professional Military Education (PME) academy, such as the Airman Leadership School, Non-Commissioned Officer Academy, and Senior Non-Commissioned Officer Academy.

The title may also be used for the commander of a unit headquarters, who is usually responsible for administrative matters such as billeting and is called the headquarters commandant; this may also be a duty assigned to a staff officer in large headquarters.

title: Commandant


text:
Senatorial courtesy

Senatorial courtesy is a long-standing, unwritten, unofficial, and nonbinding constitutional convention in the U.S. describing the tendency of U.S. senators to support a Senate colleague opposing the appointment to federal office of a nominee from that senator's state. The practice is motivated by a general sense of collegiality among senators and the assumption that a Senate colleague will have the best first-hand knowledge of the personal character and qualifications of a nominee from the senator's own state. It is also viewed as an "important source of political patronage" for U.S. senators.

Procedure
This custom generally affords each senator some role in the process of nomination and confirmation of federal office holders, conditional on a matching political party affiliation between the president and the senator. Where each is of the same political party, the president will consult the senator prior to submitting a nomination for any federal posting geographically tied to that senator's state. Such consultation can help the president avoid a politically costly and embarrassing rejection of the nominee.

This consultation can be one of soliciting the senator for recommendations regarding whom the president should nominate, whereby the senator can reward political supporters from their state who are qualified for the position, or of quietly seeking the senator's advance approval or rejection of a nominee the president already has in mind for the vacancy prior to making that nomination. As United States Attorney General Robert F. Kennedy described the practice, "Basically, it's senatorial appointment with the advice and consent of the president."

While not afforded the advisory role given to senators of the president's party, the blue slip policy of the Senate Judiciary Committee guarantees that even senators of the opposition party receive at least a consultative role regarding appointments of federal district and appellate court judges, U.S. attorneys, and federal marshals whose jurisdictions are geographically tied to the senator's state.

History
The precedent that developed into senatorial courtesy began with the nomination by President George Washington of Benjamin Fishbourn to the post of naval officer for the port of Savannah, Georgia. Given the infancy of the U.S. federal government and the need to populate the executive offices, the Senate had previously given prompt consent to the president's nominations. But when the Senate debated Fishbourn's nomination, both senators from Georgia objected, with Senator James Gunn rising to speak against the nomination—likely because of his own personal animosities toward the nominee. Consequently, the Senate deferred to the Senator from Georgia and rejected the nomination.

Senatorial courtesy generally does not apply in the appointment of justices of the Supreme Court of the United States. However, that has not prevented some U.S. senators from using the custom to successfully block Supreme Court nominees from their state. During the second administration of President Grover Cleveland, the death of Associate Justice Samuel Blatchford ignited a political fight between Cleveland and Senator David B. Hill of New York. Cleveland nominated in turn William B. Hornblower and Wheeler Hazard Peckham to fill the vacancy, only to have Hill block each nominee—both Hornblower and Peckham had previously opposed Hill's political machine in New York. In addition to the custom, the Senate afforded Hill great deference since the vacant bench seat had been held by appointees from New York since the Jefferson administration. Cleveland then leveraged a separate Senate custom—the custom of "all but automatic approval of senatorial colleagues" —to sidestep Hill's opposition by nominating Edward Douglass White, then an incumbent U.S. senator from Louisiana.

title: Senatorial courtesy


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Biorthogonal system

In mathematics, a biorthogonal system is a pair of indexed families of vectors $$\tilde v_i \text{ in } E \text{ and } \tilde u_i \text{ in } F$$ such that $$\left\langle\tilde v_i, \tilde u_j\right\rangle = \delta_{i,j},$$ where $$E$$ and $$F$$ form a pair of topological vector spaces that are in duality, $$\langle \,\cdot, \cdot\, \rangle$$ is a bilinear mapping and $$\delta_{i,j}$$ is the Kronecker delta.

An example is the pair of sets of respectively left and right eigenvectors of a matrix, indexed by eigenvalue, if the eigenvalues are distinct.

A biorthogonal system in which $$E = F$$ and $$\tilde v_i = \tilde u_i$$ is an orthonormal system.

Projection
Related to a biorthogonal system is the projection $$P := \sum_{i \in I} \tilde u_i \otimes \tilde v_i,$$ where $$(u \otimes v) (x) := u \langle v, x \rangle;$$ its image is the linear span of $$\left\{\tilde u_i: i \in I\right\},$$ and the kernel is $$\left\{\left\langle \tilde v_i, \cdot \right\rangle = 0 : i \in I\right\}.$$

Construction
Given a possibly non-orthogonal set of vectors $$\mathbf{u} = \left(u_i\right)$$ and $$\mathbf{v} = \left(v_i\right)$$ the projection related is $$P = \sum_{i,j} u_i \left(\langle\mathbf{v}, \mathbf{u}\rangle^{-1}\right)_{j,i} \otimes v_j,$$ where $$ \langle\mathbf{v},\mathbf{u}\rangle $$ is the matrix with entries $$\left(\langle\mathbf{v}, \mathbf{u}\rangle\right)_{i,j} = \left\langle v_i, u_j\right\rangle.$$
 * $$\tilde u_i := (I - P) u_i,$$ and $$\tilde v_i := (I - P)^* v_i$$ then is a biorthogonal system.

title: Biorthogonal system


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Orzivecchi

Orzivecchi (Brescian: I Urs Vècc) is a town and comune in the province of Brescia, in Lombardy.

title: Orzivecchi


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Trespass to chattels

Trespass to chattels is a tort whereby the infringing party has intentionally (or, in Australia, negligently) interfered with another person's lawful possession of a chattel (movable personal property). The interference can be any physical contact with the chattel in a quantifiable way, or any dispossession of the chattel (whether by taking it, destroying it, or barring the owner's access to it). As opposed to the greater wrong of conversion, trespass to chattels is argued to be actionable per se.

The origin of the concept comes from the original writ of trespass de bonis asportatis. As in most other forms of trespass, remedy can only be obtained once it is proven that there was direct interference regardless of damage being done, and the infringing party has failed to disprove either negligence or intent.

In some common-law countries, such as the United States and Canada, a remedy for trespass to chattels can only be obtained if the direct interference was sufficiently substantial to amount to dispossession, or alternatively where there had been an injury proximately related to the chattel. (See Restatement (Second) of Torts, 1965.)

United States law
The Restatement of Torts, Second § 217 defines trespass to chattels as "intentionally… dispossessing another of the chattel, or using or intermeddling with a chattel in the possession of another." Harm to personal property or diminution of its quality, condition or value as a result of a defendant's use can also result in liability under § 218(b) of the Restatement.

Certain specific circumstances may lend themselves to liability for the action. The Restatement (Second) of Torts § 218 states further that:

One who commits a trespass to a chattel is subject to liability to the possessor of the chattel if, but only if, he dispossesses the other of the chattel, or the chattel is impaired as to its condition, quality, or value, or the possessor is deprived of the use of the chattel for a substantial time, or bodily harm is caused to the possessor, or harm is caused to some person or thing in which the possessor has a legally protected interest.

The trespass to chattels cause of action, frequently asserted in recent years against Internet advertisers and email spammers, is often included in complaints against spyware companies. These electronic messaging cases, and their progeny, which have cropped up over the last decade, will typically turn on the situations described in (b) or (d), and, as detailed below, the question of harm caused is a big issue.

In sum, the basic elements of a claim of trespass to chattels are: 1) the lack of the plaintiff's consent to the trespass, 2) interference or intermeddling with possessory interest, and 3) the intentionality of the defendant's actions. Actual damage is not necessarily a required element of a trespass to chattels claim.

Features of the claim

 * Lack of consent
 * A vendor can attempt to dispute a trespass claim on the grounds that the user consented to the terms of the contract. Even if consent was given for certain access, a user may still have a valid trespass to chattels complaint if the vendor has exceeded the contractual terms, if the contract is found to misrepresent the actual functioning of the product, or if the consent has been withdrawn. A vendor can be held liable for "any use exceeding the consent" given.

 * Actual harm
 * The precise criteria for ascertaining actual harm varies among states. In California, for instance, an electronic message can be deemed a trespass where the message interferes with the target computer's operation, as long as a plaintiff can demonstrate either actual hardware damage or actual impaired functioning. But the general concept of requiring impaired computer functioning has been adopted consistently and in showing impaired computer functioning, courts have usually emphasized system unavailability.

 * Intent
 * In clarifying the meaning of intent in the context of a trespass to chattels claim, The Second Restatement of Torts states that "intention is present when an act is done for the purpose of using or otherwise intermeddling with a chattel or with knowledge that such an intermeddling will, to a substantial certainty, result from the act," and that, furthermore, "[i]t is not necessary that the actor should know or have reason to know that such intermeddling is a violation of the possessory rights of another."

Damages from a trespass claim are limited to the actual harm sustained by the plaintiff (which can include economic loss consequent on the trespass - e.g. loss of profit on a damaged chattel). In cases of dispossession, the plaintiff is always entitled to damages if they can prove the dispossession occurred, even if no quantifiable harm can be proven.

A related tort is conversion, which involves an exercise of control over another's chattel justifying restitution of the chattel's full value. Some actions constitute trespass and conversion; in these cases, a plaintiff must choose which claim to make based on what amount of damages they seek to recover.

In the electronic age
The common law tort of trespass to chattels has been invoked in the modern context of electronic communications to combat the proliferation of unsolicited bulk email, commonly known as spam. In addition, several companies have successfully used the tort to block certain people, usually competitors, from accessing their servers. Though courts initially endorsed a broad application of this legal theory in the electronic context, more recently other jurists have narrowed its scope. As trespass to chattels is extended further to computer networks, some fear that plaintiffs are using this cause of action to quash fair competition and to deter the exercise of free speech; consequently, critics call for the limitation of the tort to instances where the plaintiff can demonstrate actual damages.

Rules
The trespass to chattels tort punishes anyone who substantially interferes with the use of another's personal property, or chattels. Plaintiffs must show that the offender had intentional physical contact with the chattel and that the contact caused some substantial interference or damage. The courts that imported this common law doctrine into the digital world reasoned that electrical signals traveling across networks and through proprietary servers may constitute the contact necessary to support a trespass claim. Applying this common law action to computer networks, plaintiffs must first prove that they received some type of electronic communication (typically bulk e-mail or spam) that the defendant intentionally sent to interfere with the plaintiff's interest in his or her property and second that this communication caused a quantifiable harm to their tangible property, such as impaired functioning of the computer, network or server.

Early applications of trespass to chattels to computer networks
In the late 1990s, when the World Wide Web was in its infancy, courts were more receptive to extending the trespass to chattels tort to the electronic context. In CompuServe Inc. v. Cyber Promotions, Inc., a 1997 case that was the first to extend the trespass theory to computer networks, a federal district court held that a marketing company's mass mailing of a high volume of unsolicited advertisement emails to CompuServe subscribers constituted an actionable trespass to chattels. CompuServe customers repeatedly received unwanted advertisements from Cyber Promotions, a company that specialized in sending marketing email in bulk. Cyber Promotions also modified its equipment and falsified other information to circumvent CompuServe's anti-spam measures. Due to the high volume of email, CompuServe claimed damage to its servers as well as money lost dealing with customer complaints and dissatisfaction. CompuServe also extended its damages claim to its subscribers who spent time deleting unwanted email. The court held that Cyber Promotions's intentional use of CompuServe's proprietary server was an actionable trespass to chattels and granted a preliminary injunction enjoining the spammer from sending unsolicited advertisements to any email address maintained by CompuServe. Cyber Promotions' persistence in sending email to CompuServe's servers after receiving notification that CompuServe no longer consented to the use weighed heavily in favor of a finding of trespass.

A trio of 1998 cases in the Eastern District of Virginia involving America Online more firmly established the use of the trespass to chattels tort as a spam-fighting tool. In America Online, Inc. v. IMS, the court held that the owner of a marketing company committed trespass to chattels against an Internet service provider's (ISP) computer network by sending 60 million unauthorized email advertisements to the ISP's subscribers after being notified that the spam was unauthorized. The court found that the defendant, intentionally and without authorization, caused contact with the plaintiff's computer network by sending the bulk email messages. Such contact injured the plaintiff's business goodwill and diminished the functioning of its computer network.

Similarly, in America Online, Inc. v. LCGM, Inc., a company engaging in pornographic website advertising sent a deluge of spam to AOL's customers, and, in so doing, also forged the AOL domain name in an effort to trick customers into opening the emails. The court once again held that a website operators' transmission of unsolicited bulk emails to customers of an ISP, using the provider's computers and computer network, constituted trespass to chattels.

In America Online, Inc. v. Prime Data Systems, Inc., the defendants sent millions of spam emails to AOL subscribers advertising computer software programs designed to facilitate bulk emailing by allowing users to harvest email addresses from the plaintiff's member directories, chat rooms, and electronic bulletin boards. The defendants also used technology designed to avoid AOL's spam filtering mechanisms. The defendants frequently used false and deceptive "headers" in email messages to make it appear as if AOL had sent the messages. The increased demand on AOL's servers resulting from the spam caused substantial delays of up to 24 hours in the delivery of all email to AOL members, forcing AOL to temporarily stop accepting any new messages. As the spam problem grew worse, AOL had to purchase millions of dollars worth of additional equipment to increase the capacity of its servers to handle the volume of email. The court held that this activity constituted a trespass to chattels and awarded injunctive relief, reasonable attorneys' fees and costs, as well as damages.

Beyond spam: screen scraping and data harvesting
Since the early spam cases, courts have extended the electronic trespass to chattels theory even further to encompass screen-scraping and other data "harvesting." Screen-scraping is the practice of taking information from another website, generally through the use of search agent software, and "harvesting" the data for one's own commercial use. For example, travel websites frequently use this tactic to offer a host of options and prices gleaned from various airlines' sites. Because the courts have entertained such litigation, some companies have specifically banned the conduct in their terms and conditions statements.

In eBay v. Bidder's Edge (2000), eBay successfully used the trespass to chattels tort to prevent Bidder's Edge from employing spiders to cull information about its auctions to display on its own website. Although Bidder's Edge's robots only consumed a small percentage of eBay's computer resources, the court noted that the plaintiff need not demonstrate current substantial interference as conduct which constituted a use of another's property is enough to sustain a trespass to chattels claim. In light of this, the court found that eBay had demonstrated a sufficient likelihood of future injury to warrant granting a permanent injunction: "If the court were to hold otherwise, it would likely encourage other auction aggregators to crawl the eBay site, potentially to the point of denying effective access to eBay's customers."

Register.com, Inc. v. Verio, Inc. (2000) is a further example of this temporary trend in which plaintiffs did not have to demonstrate any real interference. Register.com, a domain name registry service, sued competitor Verio for using Register.com's proprietary WHOIS look-up service to find potential leads among its customer base. The court found that, by continuing to access Register.com's online customer database after being told to stop, Verio was trespassing on Register.com's WHOIS server. Register.com had specifically withdrawn its consent to Verio's use of search robots to review Register.com's customer list. The court held that Verio caused harm to Register.com's files through the use of these search robots and that the searches improperly taxed Register.com's server capacity.

These holdings gave the court license to expand the applicability of trespass to chattels to computer networks even further. In Oyster Software v. Forms Processing (2001), the Northern District of California determined that a plaintiff need not demonstrate any physical interference with a server at all to sustain a trespass to chattels claim and consequently denied the defendant's motion for summary judgment, even though there was no evidence of damage to the plaintiff's computer system. Although Oyster conceded that there was no evidence that the defendant's activities had interfered in any way with the functioning of Oyster's computer system, the court nonetheless denied FPI's motion for summary judgment. According to the court, following the decision in eBay, plaintiffs only need to demonstrate that the defendant's actions "amounted to a 'use' of Plaintiff's computer," and the court determined that copying the metatags amounted to a use.

These cases indicate that, at least in California, a plaintiff did not have to demonstrate any kind of actual interference with the computer system to successfully claim trespass to chattels.

The backlash against the tort's expansion
However, some courts subsequently limited tort claims for electronic trespasses, in that a complaining party may be unable to recover for lack of real harm if the party did not suffer any tangible damage to their property.

The Supreme Court of California reversed the trend exemplified by Oyster in the seminal case Intel Corp. v. Hamidi (2003), reaffirming the need for a demonstration either of actual interference with the physical functionality of the computer system or of the likelihood that this would happen in the future. Although Intel conceded that Hamidi's emails caused neither physical damage nor any disruption to their computer system, they alleged that the economic productivity lost due to the disruption caused by the emails could sustain a trespass claim. The Supreme Court of California disagreed, holding that the tort does not extend to claims in which the electronic communication involved "neither damages the recipient computer system nor impairs its function." In reaching this conclusion, the court criticized the understanding of eBay advanced in Oyster, explaining that previous cases in which courts have found trespass to chattels in the electronic setting have involved either "actual or threatened interference with the computers' function." To that effect, the court in Oyster misconstrued the holding in eBay; trespass requires more than use a use--it requires an actual or threatened interference with the physical functionality of the system.

Although the vast majority of states have yet to determine the applicability of the trespass to chattels theory, the courts that have addressed the issue have applied Intel and required that the plaintiff demonstrate damage to the computer system. A supreme court in New York in School of Visual Arts v. Kuprewicz denied the defendant's motion to dismiss for failure to state a claim on the trespass to chattels claim because the plaintiff had alleged actual damage to the functionality of the computer system, which Intel requires; the defendant had sent enough e-mails that it reduced the computer system's functionality and drained the hard drive's memory. The Fourth Circuit in Omega World Travel, Inc. v. Mummagraphics, Inc. also followed Intel, although this resulted in granting a motion for summary judgment for the defendant because the plaintiff did not allege any actual damage on its computer system. The court clarified that Oklahoma courts have yet to recognize the validity of a trespass to chattels claim based on an electronic intrusion to a computer system, but if it were to recognize it, the plaintiff would need to allege more than nominal damages, which in this case it had not.

Cautions on expanding the tort in the electronic context
Although a number of commentators have expressed enthusiasm over the increasing "propertization" of intellectual property (that is to say, the increased application of real property doctrines to intangible property) and the extension of the trespass to chattels doctrine to computer networks, a number of detractors have expressed concern over the ramifications of extending the theory to protect electronic communications that do not actually damage the computer systems in question but only cause nominal damage due to their content. Primarily, these critics worry that extending trespass to chattels in this fashion would stifle free speech on the internet because any unwelcome email might constitute a trespass and may subject the sender not only to civil liability under the trespass theory but to criminal liability as well. This would presumably reduce people's willingness to communicate freely on the Internet and curtail the Internet's ability to function as an open, democratic forum. Particularly in situations where the electronic communication is an email that contains speech that is of importance to the public and the communications do not hamper the functionality of the recipient's computer system, First Amendment free speech protections ought to outweigh the property right in the unharmed computer system. Similarly, critics have also expressed concerns that plaintiffs have employed the doctrine to stifle legitimate competition. For example, the screen-scraping cases indicate that courts might interpret trespass to chattels in such a way that allows major corporations to prevent price comparison sites from employing harmless bots to aggregate information that users want in a readily accessible format since it might encourage consumers to look elsewhere.

Critics of the theory's extension to computer networks also note greater theoretical problems with the applicability of a real property theory to intellectual property. In order to explain why real property theories might extend to the Internet, proponents equate "cyberspace" with real land, arguing that owners of computer servers should have the same right of inviolability as owners of land receive to promote greater efficiency in transactions. However, even if some aspects of cyberspace resemble real space, detractors contend that cyberspace is not like real land at all because "the 'placeness' of cyberspace is a matter of ongoing social construction." Furthermore, even if granting property rights might help to avoid problems of inefficiency and under-cultivation in the context of real property, critics note that nothing suggests that the same principles would also be effective in the context of computer networks—especially because the problem of under-cultivation does not tend to occur online.

title: Trespass to chattels


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Dalbeattie

Dalbeattie (, Dawbeattie, Dail Bheithe meaning 'haugh of the birch', or Dail Bhàite 'drowned haugh' (i.e. liable to flood) is a town in the historical county of Kirkcudbrightshire in Dumfries and Galloway, Scotland. Dalbeattie is in a wooded valley on the Urr Water 4 mi east of Castle Douglas and 12 mi south west of Dumfries. The town is famed for its granite industry and for being the home town of William McMaster Murdoch, the First Officer of the RMS Titanic.

Etymology
Dalbeattie is a Gaelic name, recorded in 1469 as Dalbaty. The first element of the name is Gaelic dail 'water-meadow, haugh'. There are two possible interpretations for the second element. The most common is Gaelic beithich, genitive singular of beitheach 'abounding in or relating to birch trees', derived from beith 'birch'. Dalbeattie would thus mean 'haugh of the birch'. The second interpretation takes -beattie to be bhàite (from bàite) 'drowned', meaning 'liable to flooding'. W. J. Watson offers this derivation for Dalbate in Middleby.

Dalbeattie is popularly interpreted as 'birch valley' or 'birch vale', which is adopted in the names of local businesses such as Birch Valley Dental Clinic and Birchvale Theatre. The interpretation of the first element as 'vale' or 'valley' may be due to confusion with the word dale. The association with 'valley' goes back to at least 1955, when the Third Statistical Account records that the 'accepted derivation' is Celtic, meaning 'the valley of the birches'.

History
The formal beginnings of Dalbeattie originate in 1781 when George Maxwell of Munches and Alexander Copeland of Kingsgrange (or Colliston) decided to encourage the development of the town by feuing their property. The Maxwells owned the land on the north side of the burn and the Copelands owned the land on the south side. They also established a soup kitchen for local workers.

The building of the bridge over the River Urr at Craignair in 1797 and the rapid expansion of the granite industry in Dalbeattie attracted more people to settle in the town.

Governance
The town is under the management of Dumfries and Galloway council and is located in the Abbey ward. The town is in the Westminster constituency of Dumfries and Galloway and currently represent by Alister Jack. In the Scottish Parliament the town is within the Galloway and Upper Nithsdale constituency and the South of Scotland region and was represented by Alex Fergusson.

Geography
Dalbeattie is situated in the Urr valley of which most of the east side is covered by forest. The River Urr flows from the north southwards to the Solway Firth and passes by the west side of the town. The town has an abundance of distinctive grey granite.

Granite quarrying

Formerly granite quarrying was an important part of the Dalbeattie economy. The most prominent of which is the characteristic Craignair quarry which is clearly visible to the west of the town. Dalbeattie Granite works was established in 1820 and was situated in Craignair Street, following a direct route from Craignair quarry.

Many of the workers emigrated to other parts of the world in order to find work, a number emigrated to the United States to work at a sister quarry in Westerly, Rhode Island. Granite exported from Dalbeattie went into the Mersey Docks in Liverpool, the Thames Embankment in London, various British lighthouses, even as far as the lighthouse at the southern tip of Ceylon (Sri Lanka).

Landmarks

 * The war memorial in Colliston Park was unveiled in September 1921, attended by Mr William Duncan. It commemorates those that died in World War I and, with additions, those that died in World War II. The memorial is a simplified version of the Mercat Cross in Edinburgh made of Dalbeattie granite, topped with the lion rampant of Galloway by Pilkington Jackson. The designers were W S Macgeorge and E.A. Hornel.
 * The fountain on the junction of Mill Street and High Street was built in 1887 by D.H. & J. Newall to celebrate the Golden Jubilee of Queen Victoria.
 * The single arch Buittle Bridge, or Craignair Bridge, that crosses the Urr Water is a Category A Listed building. It was completed in 1797 and replaced an earlier 2-arch bridge upstream which was destroyed by flooding shortly after it was built. The bridge is notable for having an unusually wide span for a single arch construction.
 * Dalbeattie Town Hall was completed in 1862.

Transport
The town is accessible by roads from Dumfries, Castle Douglas, and is on the Solway coastal road. A regular bus service based in Dumfries travels through Dalbeattie and Castle Douglas to the west of the region and back. The town also acts as a minor hub for bus routes across the Solway coast. The town previously had access to the rail network; however, Dalbeattie railway station was removed in the 1960s as the line was deemed unprofitable.

Museums and galleries
Dalbeattie has a museum devoted to the history of the town and surrounding area. There is also a small art gallery, the Nail Factory, which hosts temporary exhibitions, usually of work by local artists.

Notable people

 * Bishop Andrew Carruthers, (1770-1852) was a priest and horticulturist.
 * Murray Grierson is a retired rally driver who won the Scottish Rally Championship.
 * Alister Jack (born 7 July 1963) is a Scottish politician serving as Secretary of State for Scotland since 2019.
 * John Keats and his friend Charles Armitage Brown stayed at an inn here on their walking tour of Scotland in 1818.
 * John Maxwell (1905-1962) artist born in the town.
 * Peter Maxwell, Lord Maxwell (1919–1994) was a 20th-century Scottish lawyer who served as a Senator of the College of Justice.
 * Jimmy McKinnell was a professional footballer who played for Dumfries club Queen of the South F.C. and Blackburn Rovers.
 * William McMaster Murdoch was born and raised in Dalbeattie. He served as First Officer of the RMS Titanic and died when the ship sank on its maiden voyage in 1912.
 * Ian Simpson a retired motorcycle racer who won the 1994 British Superbike Championship as well as 3 Isle of Man TT and 5 North West 200 races.
 * Jim Steel had a successful career as a footballer playing in England's lower divisions with Oldham Athletic, Wigan Athletic, Wrexham A.F.C., Port Vale and Tranmere Rovers.
 * Archbishop John Menzies Strain (1770-1852) in the town for twenty-three years before becoming the first Archbishop of St. Andrews and Edinburgh in 1878.
 * Andrew Swann (1878- unknown) professional footballer
 * Fr George Thompson (1928-2016) parish priest, 1993-2005 of St Peter's, teacher and former MP for Galloway.

title: Dalbeattie