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Bagnor

Bagnor is a village close to the town of Newbury in the English county of Berkshire and situated on the banks of the River Lambourn. At the 2011 census the population was included in the civil parish of Speen. It is best known as the home of the Watermill Theatre.

Geography
Bagnor is located in West Berkshire. It is near the villages of Speen, Donnington, Boxford, and Winterbourne, as well as the hamlet of Honey Bottom. Donnington Castle, a significant site in the history of the First English Civil War, lies less than a mile to the east.

History
Bagnor was recorded in the Domesday Book as Bagenore.

"Humphrey the Chamberlain holds Bagenore from the King. Wulfeva held it freehold from King Edward. Then it answered for 4 hides; now 1 hide. Land for 3 ploughs: In hardship 1 (plough) 3 villagers and 3 smallholders with 2 ploughs. 1 slave: a water mill at 20s meadow 22 acres: woodland at 4 pigs".

The Blackbird public house has stood in the village since the 17th century.

Bagnor Manor
Bagnor Manor is a country house standing near the centre of the village. The house in its current form dates from the 17th century. At the time of Domesday Book, the manor house and its estate had been held for the Crown. Ownership was later transferred to Henry de Bagenore, who sold the property to Poughley Priory and convent in 1232. The transfer was agreed in return for a yearly payment of 8 marks, food and clothing for Henry's two sons, and an agreement that the Prior would find a suitor for his youngest daughter, Celestria.

The priory was dissolved in c.1524 and its lands seized by Henry VIII. The manor house was granted to Wolsey College, later Christ Church, Oxford in 1531. Bagnor Manor was later transferred to the Dean and Chapter of Westminster in return for lands in St. James's Park. They built the present Grade II listed building in the 17th century, but the estate did not pass into private ownership until 1871, when it was purchased by the wealthy Grove family from Donnington. Until 2007 it was home to the art collector and property developer Peter Palumbo, who installed many artworks in the house and grounds. It is now a private residence.

Local government
Bagnor forms part of the civil parish of Speen, which is itself part of the district administered by the unitary authority of West Berkshire.

Watermill Theatre
The Watermill Theatre is a privately owned repertory theatre that has operated since 1967. It is a converted watermill with gardens beside the River Lambourn, and seats 220 people. It retains many of its original architectural features including the waterwheel, which can be viewed through a glass screen on entering the auditorium. Many successful actors have begun their careers at the Watermill Theatre, most notably Sean Bean, Bill Nighy and David Suchet. It is one of only five theatres to have been awarded a National Touring remit by Arts Council England, and previous productions have subsequently moved to Broadway and the West End.

Rack Marsh
Rack Marsh is a small local nature reserve in the village which is managed by BBOWT. As part of the Kennet and Lambourn floodplain it is designated as a Site of Special Scientific Interest (SSSI). It was the scene of protests during the construction of the Newbury bypass which passes to the east of the village. This was partly due to the presence on the reserve of the rare Desmoulin's whorl snail.

Notable residents
A number of notable individuals have lived in the village or its immediate surroundings. They include:
 * Jill Fraser MBE, theatre owner and director, who was artistic director of the Watermill Theatre from 1981 to 2006.
 * Lord Hanson, industrialist, who lived on the outskirts of the village.
 * Jack Hargreaves, television presenter and author, who bought and converted Brook House on the Winterbourne in 1948, moving on to Lymington in 1960.
 * Sir Michael Hordern, actor best known for his performances of Shakespeare, and as the voice of Paddington Bear in the eponymous BBC television series.
 * George Melly, jazz musician and writer
 * Peter Palumbo, property developer and art collector, who lived in Bagnor Manor.

title: Bagnor


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Hiunchuli

Hiunchuli (हिउँचुली) is a peak situated in the Annapurna massif of the Gandaki Province in north-central Nepal. The mountain is an extension of the Annapurna South. Between this peak and the Machapuchare is a narrow section of the Modi Khola valley that constitutes the sole access to the Annapurna Sanctuary.

Hiunchuli was first climbed in October 1971 by an expedition led by the U.S. Peace Corps volunteer Craig Anderson. The mountain is classified as a trekking peak by the Nepal Mountaineering Association (NMA), but it is considered one of the more difficult trekking peaks to climb due to route finding difficulties and dangers from rock fall and seracs. A climbing permit from the NMA costs US$350 for a team of up to four members.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Hiunchuli


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The Hand That Rocks the Cradle (film)

The Hand That Rocks the Cradle is a 1992 American psychological thriller film directed by Curtis Hanson, and starring Annabella Sciorra, Rebecca De Mornay, Matt McCoy, Ernie Hudson, and Julianne Moore. Its plot follows the pregnant wife of a Seattle obstetrician who kills himself after he is accused of sexual misconduct by his patients. The shock leads the wife to miscarry, after which she poses as a nanny for one of her husband's accusers, and slowly begins to infiltrate the family. The title is taken from an 1865 poem by William Ross Wallace and there are several nods to the comic opera The Pirates of Penzance.

The Hand That Rocks the Cradle was released on January 10, 1992, and grossed approximately $140 million worldwide against a budget of $11.9 million, becoming one of the year's most profitable films. In the American home video market, it became the top rental in July 1992, and was the 7th most rented film of 1992 in the United States. The film was remade into a Hindi film by the name Khal-Naaikaa in 1993.

Plot
In Seattle, housewife Claire Bartel is happily married and pregnant with her second child. At a routine check-up, she is sexually molested by her new obstetrician, Dr. Victor Mott. Traumatized, she tells her husband Michael, who encourages her to report Dr. Mott to the state medical board. Her accusation prompts four more women to come forward about Dr. Mott assaulting them, and multiple charges are prepared against him. Dr. Mott kills himself to avoid being arrested. Lawyers tell Dr. Mott's pregnant widow that her husband's assets have been frozen because of the lawsuits. They also reveal that he voided his life insurance contract by committing suicide, and she will lose her luxurious home. Overcome with stress, Mrs. Mott goes into pre-term labor, loses her baby, and undergoes an emergency hysterectomy. While recovering, she sees a news story identifying Claire as the first woman who came forward with the allegations against her husband.

Six months later, Claire has given birth to a boy, Joey, and has built her own personal greenhouse. She and Michael have also hired an intellectually disabled handyman named Solomon to help with repairs and improvements around their home; Solomon also bonds with their young daughter Emma. Looking for a nanny, Claire unknowingly hires Mrs. Mott, who is going under the alias "Peyton Flanders". Mrs. Mott wages a campaign to undermine Claire in her household, seeking revenge against Claire for reporting her husband in spite of his behavior, as her husband was her only chance to have children. She frequently breastfeeds Joey in secret; this causes him to stop taking Claire's milk. Mrs. Mott tries to turn Claire's daughter Emma against her and secretly destroys Michael's office proposal. One day, Solomon discovers Mrs. Mott breastfeeding Joey. To prevent him from exposing her, Mrs. Mott suggests to Claire that Solomon might be molesting Emma. Mrs. Mott plants a pair of Emma's underwear in Solomon's toolbox, leading Claire to fire him, to Emma's disappointment and causing her to distance herself from her mother as Mrs. Mott had planned. Unbeknownst to the family except for Emma, Solomon keeps his watchful eyes over them. Knowing that Claire's close friend Marlene had been Michael's ex-girlfriend before he married Claire, Mrs. Mott suggests to Michael that he arrange a surprise birthday party for Claire, leading Marlene and Michael to meet in secret. Claire vocally accuses Michael of having an affair with Marlene, only to find the party-goers, including a hurt and humiliated Marlene, waiting in the next room.

A now wary Claire begins to suspect "Peyton's" hand in all of these incidents and suggests to Michael that they should take a family vacation without "Peyton". Mrs. Mott overhears this and boobytraps the greenhouse for Claire. Claire doesn’t go into the greenhouse immediately, but goes into town to pick up some seedlings first. Marlene, who is a real estate agent, discovers Mrs. Mott's identity after the Mott's home is listed for sale. When she confronts "Peyton" about her real identity and asks for Claire, Mrs. Mott tricks her into going into the greenhouse, where she springs the boobytrap and is killed by the falling glass ceiling. Knowing that Claire suffers from asthma, Mrs. Mott empties all of her inhalers. When Claire returns and finds Marlene's bloodied body, she has an asthma attack and is briefly hospitalized. Michael is left distraught over Marlene's death and his wife's condition; Mrs. Mott attempts to seduce him, but he rejects her. When Claire returns from the hospital, she visits Marlene's office and finally uncovers the truth about Mrs. Mott after visiting the Motts' house and meeting the real estate agent. She returns home and punches Mrs. Mott in the face whilst revealing the truth to Michael. They kick her out, and Michael tells Claire to get the kids so they can head to a hotel for safety.

Mrs. Mott breaks into the house and hits Michael with a shovel in the basement, knocking him down the stairs and breaking his legs. She then attempts to fulfill her true goal: taking the kids for herself, but after seeing Mrs. Mott assault Claire, Emma outsmarts Mrs. Mott and locks her in the nursery, declaring that Mrs. Mott will never be her mother. Mrs. Mott escapes and finds Solomon in the attic, aiding the kids' escape. She attempts to kill Claire, but stops after Claire appears to be having another asthma attack, prompting Mrs. Mott to mock her. As she tries to take Joey, Claire gets up, having faked her asthma attack, and viciously attacks a stunned Mrs. Mott, and Solomon distracts her long enough for Claire to push her out of the window, fatally impaling her on the picket fence. Touched at how Solomon risked his life to protect her family, Claire welcomes him back, and they all leave the attic to help Michael as the police and paramedics arrive.

Production
The Hand That Rocks the Cradle originated as Amanda Silver's film school thesis.

In August 1990, it was reported Interscope Communications was preparing the film for Hollywood Pictures. By October 1990 Curtis Hanson was on board to direct. Filming began on April 15, 1991, after being rescheduled from February 22. The film shoot was delayed due to the casting of the female leads. The setting and location was originally meant to be in Atlanta, Georgia, but was filmed in Tacoma and Seattle in Washington.

Filming locations
Filming locations were Issaquah, Washington; Seattle, Washington (Mott's residence at 2502 37th Ave W in Seattle); and the Bartels' residence at 808 N. Yakima Ave. Tacoma, Washington.

Box office
The Hand That Rocks the Cradle opened on January 10, 1992, and grossed $7.7 million in its opening weekend, bringing Hook down to #2 at the US box office from its four-week stay at #1. The film lasted at #1 for four consecutive weeks, then was upended by Medicine Man, which was also released by Hollywood Pictures. By the end of its run, the film earned a total of $88 million in the United States and Canada and $52 million internationally, for a worldwide total of $140 million.

Critical response
On Rotten Tomatoes the film has an approval rating of 66% based on 53 reviews. The consensus summarizes: "Thanks largely to Rebecca De Mornay's delightfully villainous turn in the central role, The Hand That Rocks the Cradle is an entertaining -- albeit rather silly -- domestic thriller." On Metacritic the film has a score of 64% based on reviews from 26 critics. Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "A−" on an A+ to F scale.

Gene Siskel stated that he "had trouble accepting the premise of this picture because of the casual way in which the nanny is hired in an early scene by the mother," citing that the premise is unrealistic. However, he gave praise to Julianne Moore's character, saying, "much more believable, is the supporting character of the mother's best friend" and that "the friend is a terrific character, it's too bad she doesn't have more scenes in the picture." He mentioned that his "biggest objection to The Hand That Rocks the Cradle is to its scenes with the children in jeopardy or psychic pain." Siskel finally remarked that "there are some fun thrills in The Hand that Rocks the Cradle to be sure, but I found a lot of it distasteful, too." Roger Ebert had a higher opinion of the film, stating that he "found this film worked" and that "It touches on a fear and that's why it appeals to us." Ebert praised De Mornay's performance in the film, saying, "she does, I think, a very good job, a very, very sound job of being the villainess in this film and I think it's an effective performance" and that he found the scenes of the children "very interesting because I saw them as a portrait of the evil of that woman."

Vincent Canby of The New York Times said of the film that "The Hand That Rocks the Cradle is meant to scare audiences more or less in the way that the patrons of the early nickelodeons were frightened when they saw the image of a train rushing at them. Audiences aren't asked to think, only to react" and that "The Hand That Rocks the Cradle proves again that not thinking isn't especially easy even today. Though Mr. Hanson is a slick movie maker, he is not an especially persuasive one here. Don't be gulled by those who would compare The Hand That Rocks the Cradle to Fatal Attraction, which features three strong characters who, in one way or another, are ready to answer for their actions." He added that "Mr. Hanson creates the occasionally effective shock effect to satisfy those who want to squeal in mock fright. More often the devices he uses are such tired tricks as the crosscutting between two sets of simultaneous, often innocent, actions to create the illusion of suspense that can't be sustained." Rebecca Hawkes of Telegraph gave the film a rating a 3 stars out of 5 and said that "It’s a tense, viscerally unsettling moment, that helps make the film into something more than just a fun, formulaic thriller", while Sue Heal of The Radio Times rated the film 4 stars out of 5, stating that "This is pure unbridled hokum, of course, but extremely effective until the last 30 minutes, when the plot rapidly self-destructs."

Washington Post reviewer Rita Kempley criticized the movie, arguing that it is anti-feminist.

In 2006, the film was included in Bravo's special 30 Even Scarier Movie Moments, placing at #24.

Accolades
At the 19th Saturn Awards it was nominated for Best Horror Film, Best Actress (Rebecca De Mornay), and Best Supporting Actress (Julianne Moore). At the 1992 MTV Movie Awards Rebecca De Mornay's performance won the award for Best Villain and was nominated for Best Female Performance.

Home media
The Hand That Rocks the Cradle was released on VHS on July 8, 1992, on DVD on December 8, 1998 with the original theatrical trailer as the sole special feature. On September 4, 2012 Disney/Buena Vista released the film on Blu-ray disc with the same theatrical trailer as the previous releases. The film was presented in its original widescreen aspect ratio, approximately 1.85:1.

Remake
The film was remade as Khal-Naaikaa, an Indian film which was released on 6 August 1993.

Attempted remake
In 2014, it was announced Supernatural writer Daniel Loflin was set to executive produce and write an adaptation for the film alongside Ted Field, a producer on the original film. The remake was reportedly in development at ABC Family, but it did not move forward.

title: The Hand That Rocks the Cradle (film)


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Portugal during World War I

The Kingdom of Portugal had been allied with England since 1373, and thus the Republic of Portugal was an ally of the United Kingdom. However, Portugal remained neutral from the start of World War I in 1914 until early 1916. However, in that year and a half there were many hostile engagements between Germany and Portugal. Portugal wanted to meet British requests for aid and protect its colonies in Africa, causing clashes with German troops in the south of Portuguese Angola, which bordered German South West Africa, in 1914 and 1915 (see German campaign in Angola).

Tensions between Germany and Portugal also arose as a result of German U-boat warfare, which sought to blockade the United Kingdom, at the time the most important market for Portuguese products. Ultimately this led to the confiscation of German ships interned in Portuguese ports in 1916, to which Germany reacted by declaring war on 9 March 1916. In total, from 1916 to 1918, about 91 Portuguese ships were sunk and 5 damaged by German U-boats, causing at least 170 casualties.

About 12,000 Portuguese troops died during World War I, including Africans who served in its armed forces on the colonial front. Civilian deaths by some estimates exceeded 220,000: 82,000 caused by food shortages and 138,000 by the Spanish flu.

1914

 * July: The German and British Empires entered into secret negotiations over a possible dismemberment of Portuguese Angola; in such a case, most of the land would fall into the hands of the Germans. An Angola-Bund ("Angola League" to promote a German takeover) had been founded in 1912.
 * August to September: Skirmishes occurred between German and Portuguese colonial troops in Africa, and the Germans instigated tribal revolts.
 * Maziua raid (24 August): A small German force attacked a Portuguese outpost at Maziua in Portuguese Mozambique, resulting in the first Portuguese casualties of World War I. The German central government accepted full responsibility, and offered an official apology.
 * September: The Portuguese government sent reinforcements to the southern border of Angola. After war broke out, the border between German South West Africa and Angola remained open. The Germans hoped to supply food and possibly even arms through it. However, the Portuguese colonial government was hostile and tried to stop all trade. A few German nationals in Angola were interned.
 * October: 1,600 troops arrive in Portuguese Angola and 1,527 troops arrived in Mozambique from Portugal, transported by British ships.

1915

 * November: 1,527 troops arrived in Mozambique, commanded by Moura Mendes. The second force was tasked with recapturing the Kionga Triangle from the Germans.

1916
When Portugal complied with a British request to confiscate German ships interned in Portuguese ports, Germany reacted by declaring war on Portugal, thus forcing the Portuguese into the war.
 * February 23: Following a British request, the commander of the Portuguese Navy division in Lisbon seized 36 German and Austro-Hungarian ships in Lisbon. On each ship a Portuguese crew was put aboard, and the flag of Portugal was raised. The Prime Minister of Portugal, Afonso Costa, denied that this was an act of war, and the Portuguese Ambassador in Berlin was instructed to assure the German government that Portugal would respect the rights of German shipowners. Portugal stated that it had requisitioned the ships "in the public interest", for the "necessities of the nation's economic situation". Portugal had not confiscated the ships, and they would be converted for "transport and other purposes". An explosive device was discovered in the boiler room of the Norddeutscher Lloyd ship Bülow, which was designed to detonate if the ship were moved. The Portuguese prevented it from being detonated, but her machinery was damaged.
 * February 25: In other Portuguese ports there were another 80 German and Austro-Hungarian ships, adding up to a total tonnage of more than . On 25 February Portugal seized eight German ships in São Vicente, Cape Verde, and announced that it intended to requisition German and Austro-Hungarian ships in other ports in Portugal and in the Portuguese Empire.
 * February 28: a German diplomatic note to Portugal protested that the seizure of the ships violated German treaty rights.
 * March 3: By this date Portugal had seized all German ships in Mormugão in Goa.
 * March 9: Germany declared war on Portugal. The Portuguese government started to organise the participation of its troops on the Western Front. Shortly afterward, Portugal began closing its consulates in the Ottoman Empire. (The Ottomans had no representation in Portugal.)
 * March 15: Austria-Hungary declared war on Portugal.
 * June 9: Finance Minister Afonso Costa took part in an Allied Economic Conference in which the Allies decided that Germany must return the territories of Alsace-Lorraine to France (occupied since 1871) and Kionga in Mozambique to Portugal (occupied since 1894) as a condition for peace.
 * July 15: The British government formally invited Portugal to take part in the military operations of the Allies.
 * July 22: The Portuguese Expeditionary Corps (Corpo Expedicionário Português, CEP), with 30,000 soldiers, was established in Tancos, Portugal, under the command of General Norton de Matos.
 * August 7: The Portuguese Parliament accepted the participation of Portugal in the war, following the invitation of the British government. The Portuguese war effort reached 55,000 infantry soldiers, plus 1,000 artillerymen, to be sent to France, 4,000 soldiers per month, to man 12 km of battlefront. Only the first two divisions reached France. At the same time, Portugal fielded forces in its African colonies: in Mozambique to defend the colony from German colonial forces, and in the south of Angola against native unrest instigated by the Germans.
 * December 3: SMU U-38, captained by Max Valentiner, entered Funchal harbour in Madeira and torpedoed and sank three ships: CS Dacia, SS Kanguroo and Surprise . The commander of the French gunboat Surprise and 34 of her crew (7 Portuguese) were killed in the attack. Dacia, a British cable layer, which had previously undertaken war work off the coast of Casablanca and Dakar, was in the process of diverting the German South American cable into Brest, France. After the attack, the Germans bombarded Funchal for two hours from a range of about 2 nmi. Batteries on Madeira returned fire and eventually force the Germans to withdraw.
 * December 26: The French government asked Portugal to send artillery crews to France to operate 20 to 30 heavy artillery batteries.

1917

 * A few Portuguese troops were sent to the New Forest in Britain, to help with a timber shortage in collaboration with the Canadian Forestry Corps. The stone chimney of their cookhouse is preserved as a monument to them, known as the Portuguese Fireplace.
 * January 3: A convention with Britain regulated Portuguese participation in the Western Front. Portuguese troops of the CEP were to be integrated in the BEF (British Expeditionary Force).
 * January 7: The Independent Heavy Artillery Corps (Corpo de Artilharia Pesada Independente, CAPI) was created to respond to the French request for artillery crews. Under the Portuguese Superior Command, this unit was to operate 25 heavy artillery batteries.
 * February 2: The first Portuguese troops arrived at the port of Brest in Brittany, France.
 * February 23: The second contingent of the CEP leaves for France.
 * April 4: The Portuguese troops arrive at the front. The first Portuguese casualty was Private António Gonçalves Curado, killed in action.
 * May 30: The First Infantry Brigade of the CEP First Division occupied a sector at the battle front.
 * June 4: Germans attacked the sector defended by the First Brigade.
 * June 16: Second Infantry Brigade occupied another sector on the battle front.
 * July 4: SMU U-155 bombarded Ponta Delgada, Azores and killed four people. United States Navy collier USS Orion (AC-11) responded with 3-inch gunfire, causing U-155 to withdraw.
 * July 10: CEP First Division assumed responsibility of its part of the Portuguese sector on the battle front. It was subordinated to the XI Corps of the British Army under the command of General Richard Haking. CEP Third Infantry Brigade occupied a sector on the front.
 * September 23: The Fourth Brigade, known as the Brigade of Minho (Brigada do Minho), part of the Second Division, reached the front.
 * October 17: The first Portuguese CAPI artillery soldiers, representing Portugal's direct support to the French war effort, arrived in France. They were designated by the French as the Corps d'artillerie lourde portugais (CALP).
 * November 5: Portuguese command assumed responsibility for its sector in the front. Until then, it had been under the command of General Henry Horne's British First Army.
 * Late 1917: General Paul von Lettow-Vorbeck's German colonial force entered Mozambique from nearby German East Africa after a series of long-running battles with numerically superior British forces.
 * December 12: two German U-boats, SMU U-156 and SMU U-157 (captained by Max Valentiner), again bombarded Funchal. The attack lasted about 30 minutes, and 40 4.7 in and 5.9 in shells were fired. There were three fatalities and 17 wounded, and a number of houses and Santa Clara Church were hit.
 * December 17: U-156 stopped and scuttled the Portuguese ship Açoriano (a wooden three-masted schooner) southeast of the Azores.
 * December 26: U-157 (captained by Max Valentiner) sank the Portuguese ship Lidia in the Azores.

1918

 * February 17: SM U-157 (captained by Max Valentiner) sank the Portuguese ship Estrella de Bissao off the coast of South Africa.
 * March 16: The Portuguese artillery batteries entered action.
 * March 27: A German offensive prevented Portuguese soldiers from being released from combat. As a third Portuguese Division was never sent to France, the Portuguese Army received no reinforcements at all. Portuguese soldiers had to serve in the battle front for long periods, and were thus among the most exhausted men in the front.
 * April 6: The conditions of the Portuguese soldiers became so difficult that the British finally decided to release them. The CEP was supposed to be reorganised, the First Division going to the rear as a reserve force and the Second Division becoming part of the Eleventh Corps of the British Army, under General Haking's command. Haking visited the Portuguese troops and decided to send the Second Division to the rear from April 9, but it never happened. The Germans attacked the British lines, forcing them to retreat about 60 km. Instead of being released, Portuguese troops had to fight off the German offensive on their sector.
 * April 9: The Battle of La Lys, as it became known in Portugal, or Operation Georgette or the Battle of Estaires to the British, started with a heavy artillery barrage from the Germans, followed by a German offensive with intensive use of poison gas. The German Sixth Army deployed eight divisions (about 100,000 men), supported by intensive artillery fire. Against the force, the Portuguese had 20,000 soldiers and 88 guns. As a result, the Second Division was decimated in the battle. The CEP lost 327 officers and 7,098 soldiers, about 35 percent of its effective fighting capacity. The survivors were sent to the rear, some of the units being integrated into the British Army later on.

During this battle, one of the most courageous acts in Portuguese military history was perpetrated, as Private Aníbal Milhais (also known as "Soldado Milhões" ["A Soldier as good as a million others" in his commanding officer's words]) defended the retreating Allied forces with nothing but his machine gun, allowing them to fall back and regroup. He defeated two German regiments and forced the remaining German forces to go around him. They found it impossible to defeat what they believe to be an heavily armed post. Once he ran out of bullets, he escaped the battlefield. He got lost along the way, and had nothing to eat for three days but the sweet almonds his family had sent him from Portugal. Lost and exhausted, he rescued a British major from drowning in a swamp. The major led him to the Allied camp, and told of Milhais's deeds.
 * July: General Tomás António Garcia Rosado was appointed as the new Commanding Chief of the remaining CEP.
 * July: The German force under General Lettow-Vorbeck captured Namacurra in Portuguese East Africa and seized important arms and supplies. Similar smaller successes against Portuguese outposts had already helped resupply his force.
 * July 4: CEP First Division was subordinated to the British Fifth Army commanded by General William Birdwood.
 * August 25: General Garcia Rosado assumed command of the CEP in France. U-157 sank the Portuguese ship Gloria, 30 mi from Porto Santo Island, Madeira.
 * September 22: U-157 sank the Portuguese ship Gaia near the Azores.
 * October 14: In the action of 14 October 1918, SMU U-139 commanded by Lothar von Arnauld de la Perière sank the Portuguese patrol boat NRP Augusto Castilho commanded by Carvalho Araújo, after several hours of fighting.
 * November 11: Germany accepted the armistice proposed by the Allies. The war ended.

The war caused Portugal 8,145 dead, 13,751 wounded and 12,318 prisoners or missing. At sea, 96 Portuguese ships were sunk (100,193 tons) and 5 Portuguese ships damaged (7,485 tons) by German submarines.

1919

 * January 19: Professor Egas Moniz led he Portuguese delegation at the Peace Conference in Versailles, France. In the Treaty of Versailles, Germany ceded the port of Kionga, associated with German East Africa (now mainland Tanzania), to Portugal. This was the only territory gained by Portugal for taking part in World War I on the side of the victorious Allies.

1921

 * November 19: Charles I, the last emperor of Austria-Hungary, went into exile on the Portuguese island of Madeira, where he remained until his death on April 1, 1922. In 1917 he had secretly tried to enter peace negotiations with France. Although his foreign minister Ottokar Czernin was interested in negotiating only a general peace that would include Germany as well, Charles himself, in negotiations with the French with his brother-in-law Prince Sixtus of Bourbon-Parma, an officer in the Belgian army, as an intermediary, went much farther in suggesting his willingness to make a separate peace. When news of the overture leaked in April 1918, Charles denied involvement until French Prime Minister Georges Clemenceau published letters signed by Charles. That led to Czernin's resignation and forced Austria-Hungary into an even more dependent position with respect to its German ally. Determined to prevent a restoration attempt, the Council of Allied Powers agreed on Madeira as a place of exile for the former emperor because it was isolated in the Atlantic and easily guarded.

title: Portugal during World War I


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John Foster Jr (architect)

 * This is about the architect. For his father, see John Foster, Sr.

John Foster, Junior (1786 – 21 August 1846) was an English architect born and based in Liverpool. In succession to his father, he was Surveyor to the Corporation of Liverpool (1824–1835). His buildings were generally in the Greek Revival style and he mainly worked on public buildings and Anglican churches.

Biography
John Foster Sr. married Ann Dutton on 18 September 1781 in St George's Church, Liverpool. John Foster Jr. is the second of eight sons born to the couple in 1786 in Liverpool. Foster studied under Jeffry Wyatt in Lower Brook Street, London, whose uncle James Wyatt had worked with John Sr. on Liverpool Town Hall.

John Jr. displayed three designs at Royal Academy of Arts, in 1805 a design for a Mausoleum, in 1806 a design for a National Museum and in 1807 a Public Library or National Gallery. During 1810-11 he travelled extensively through southern Europe and the Mediterranean studying classical architecture and accompanied C. R. Cockerell and the German archaeologists Haller and Linckh during their excavation of the temples at Aegina and Bassae. In 1816 John Jr. returned to Liverpool and joined the family building firm. He succeeded his father, John Foster, Sr., as senior surveyor to the Corporation of Liverpool in 1824, and held that post until the Municipal Reform Act of 1834. His own designs included The Oratory, St. John's Market, Liverpool Necropolis (converted into a park in 1914), St James Cemetery, alterations and additions to Knowsley Hall, the grandstand at Aintree Racecourse and the Church of St. Andrew's in Rodney Street, converted in the early 21st century to student accommodation. The second Royal Infirmary and the public baths have both been demolished, as has the enormous, domed Custom House, which suffered extensive fire damage during the Second World War. He is often attributed as the architect for numbers 2–10 Gambier Terrace, Liverpool.

He was living in Hamilton Square, Birkenhead when he died in 1846 and was buried the cemetery, St James, he designed.

title: John Foster Jr (architect)


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Crownhill Fort

Crownhill Fort is a Royal Commission Fort built in the 1860s in Crownhill as part of Lord Palmerston's ring of land defences for Plymouth. Restored by the Landmark Trust, it is now home to several small businesses, museums, exhibitions and a holiday apartment sleeping up to eight people. The Fort is open to the public on the last Friday of each month and hosts tours for local schools and societies at other times.

History of the fort
Crownhill Fort was designed by Captain Edmund Frederick Du Cane as one of Lord Palmerston's last forts and was the largest of the forts of Plymouth's North Eastern defences, whose purpose was to defend the Royal Dockyard at Devonport from the possibility of a French attack, under the leadership of Napoleon III.

Construction began in April 1863, with Crownhill Fort being at the cutting edge of fortress design, although it does conform to the standard polygonal design of its contemporaries. It was built 400 metres in front of the defensive line, now incorporated into the east-west Crownhill Road, in an exposed position on a natural outcrop. Crownhill Fort is designed for all round defence, with each of its seven sides having massive ramparts and being surrounded by a deep ditch. All sides were also protected by gunfire, with the fort having around 350 built-in rifle loopholes. It was designed for an armament of 32 guns on the ramparts and 6 mortars sited in two mortar pits to the south west and north west of the Parade Ground. A year later, in 1864, Russian commander General Todleben was shown the building works, and he complimented them.

In 1866, after a strike, George Baker, the building contractor, went bankrupt and so the work was finished by the Royal Engineers who would become Crownhill Fort's first occupants. The total cost of the construction was £76,409; a large sum at the time, but much less costly than other Palmerston forts.

In 1881, the Director of Artillery and Stores recommended that two forts, Fort Widley in Portsmouth and Crownhill Fort, be armed with complete peacetime armaments. None of the original armament survives but The Landmark Trust has reinstated several artillery pieces similar to those that would have occupied Forts of this kind.

Due to continual advancement in weaponry and warfare many Victorian forts were abandoned by the army. Crownhill Fort remained an MOD site until 1986 and was instead used by many different infantry regiments as HQ Plymouth Garrison.

In the First World War, Crownhill Fort was used as a recruitment and transport centre for troops being sent to the fronts in Turkey and Africa. It was then used as a de-mobilisation depot before becoming a base for the newly created Royal Signals Corps.

The last time Crownhill Fort was armed was during the Second World War, when anti-aircraft guns were positioned in the fort. Following the war, in the 1950s, it had a Gun Operations Room built on the parade ground, incorporating part of the Officers barrack. It then continued as a home for the 59 Independent Commando Squadron Royal Engineers until 1983, despatching 647 troops and 1,897 tonnes of war material during the Falklands War. The fort was purchased 3 years later by the Landmark Trust who have restored Crownhill Fort as the best preserved example of Palmerston's forts. In completing this task, Landmark Trust have received much assistance from grant aid courtesy of the European Committee, English Heritage and the Heritage Lottery Fund.

Structure of Crownhill Fort
The basic shape of Crownhill Fort is a heptagon, incorporating many advanced Victorian fort design ideas.

The ditch
The fort is surrounded by a dry ditch hewn from the bedrock and flanked by caponiers. 200 000 tonnes of material had to be moved to create the ditch, which is 30 ft deep and 30 ft wide.

The caponiers
Crownhill Fort has six three-storey caponiers. The first floor was for infantrymen, the second was for gun casements each housing Smooth-Bore Breech-Loading guns and the third connects with the Chemin de Ronde, the parapeted walkway circling the fort. The north caponier is a full caponier because it points in two directions. The other five caponiers are demi-caponiers because they face in one direction only.

Crownhill Fort's guns
Crownhill Fort is famous for its collection of artillery. The cannon are maintained in working order and are fired on event days to recreate the sounds and atmosphere of a working fortress. In total, the fort has emplacements for 17 guns on its ramparts (including 5 Haxo casements and 2 Moncrieff pits) and 15 in its caponiers. Some of the guns that can be found at Crownhill Fort include:
 * a replica Moncrieff Counterweight Disappearing Gun, one of only two working examples – the carriage uses a unique counterweight system to rise above the parapet to fire and then descend in a controlled manner, powered by the recoil.
 * two 13-inch Mortars, on loan from the Royal Armouries, which were designed to fire 200-pound explosive shells. It is believed that they were used in the Crimean War, against Russia
 * two 32 Pounder smooth-bore breech-loading guns from the 1880s, designed to fire case shot
 * four replica 32-pounder smooth-bore breech-loading guns dating from 1997
 * two replica Armstrong 7-inch rifled breechloaders. These guns were first issued to the Navy in 1858, but were found to be not powerful enough, and so were sent instead to be mounted on the ramparts of land fortifications, such as Crownhill Fort.
 * two muzzle-loading 32-pounder guns, which were rescued from Tregantle Fort in Cornwall, where they were being used as bollards.
 * a muzzle loading 2-pound cannon, from the 1790s
 * a carronade made by the foundry Bailey, Pegg and Co Ltd, from Staffordshire that points towards the countermining gallery.

The Fort today
Today Crownhill Fort is home to several small businesses and a holiday apartment. The Fort is open to the public on the last Friday of each month from January to November and by appointment for schools and groups at most other times. Visitors can see museum displays, watch demonstrations of Victorian firepower and take guided tours in the labyrinth of underground rooms and passages.

In the past few years The Landmark Trust has been able to carry out various improvement works at the Fort.
 * In 2010 a large number of mature trees were felled on the rampart and extracted by helicopter. Left unchecked these trees would have damaged the structures under the rampart.
 * 2014 saw the end of a three-year project to clear self-seeded saplings on the counterscarp walls. This project has seen logging horses employed to allow the timber to be extracted and processed.
 * Work to clear the Victorian Storm Drains to help alleviate flooding on the lower decks of the structure was completed in 2017.
 * In 2018 work was undertaken outside the Fort to restore several concrete fence posts added in the 1920s and replace their wiring.
 * Work on the Royal Artillery Store is due to begin in September 2018 to bring this derelict building back in to use as a workshop.

title: Crownhill Fort


text: Category:United States Environmental Protection Agency images


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User:Torti

I'm Chris From Ryerson In ECE 4th yr Its fun however, I'm a bit exhausted Well, I won't stick around too long, because off I go!!!!!

title: User:Torti


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Category:Librettists

Librettists are writers of lyrics of larger scale vocal compositions, generally with a plot or other drama-like features, mostly written wholly or partially in verse, e.g.:
 * Operas, including subgenres such as Operettas
 * Musicals
 * Oratorios
 * Passions

title: Category:Librettists


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Talk:REAL Women of Canada

Untitled
A POV issue... Using the intials that the group REAL women uses in a way makes you define them as real women in an ordinary sense and not a political group with political views. If you say NDP or EGALE people know you are talking political groups....it seems to me that using R.E.A.L. women is the best way of dealing with this....anyone?--Marcie 19:13, 3 Oct 2004 (UTC)

 * Hmmm... I usually go by how the group calls itself, except if it's very misleading. I think the capitalization shows that it's an acronym... but if you want to change it go ahead.  I don't have a strong opinion.  moink 01:22, 6 Oct 2004 (UTC)

Social conservative
The organization's website addresses only social issues, and not economic ones, therefore it is appropriate to describe it as "social conservative". If User:Michaelm or anyone else wants to change that description to "conservative", evidence must be provided. Please stop the unsubstantiated edits that create unnecessary work for those of us trying to build Wikipedia. Do your research before making changes. Thank you. Kevintoronto 17:21, 19 Feb 2005 (UTC)

REAL Women of Canada is a Canadian conservative lobby group with social and economic issues. that whay its not just social conservative.

Under the heading 'Career Choices for Women', economic policies of the organization include:

1. A homemaker's tax credit and child tax credits extended to cover low to middle income families so as to permit some flexibility of choice for women;

2. Taxes should be reduced for single-income families which currently pay much higher rates than two-income families because the latter are allowed to file separate returns. Alternately, single income families should be allowed to split the family income so as to enable the husband and wife to file separate returns.

These are both economic policies that work towards supporting the organization's goals for women and what their perception of family is. But clearly economic conservatism is not the reason for the organization's existence. What is required for this article is to label the organization for what it advocates the most, which is social conservatism. Please see my additions about their economic policies that support social conservatism. Kurieeto 18:04, Feb 20, 2005 (UTC)

A couple of instances of the word "economic" on their web page does not make them fiscal or economic conservatives. "We believe that social and economic problems and solutions for women today should be resolved by taking into account their impact on the family and society as a whole." They are talking about the economic problems (i.e., financial) of women, not about the economy. What are their stands on the size of government? Privatization of public services? Taxation of corporations? Free trade? Deregulation? Environmental issues? Their website doesn't get into these issues at all - at least, not that I can find. Even if from time to time they delve into these issues, it is clear that their focus is the social and economic position of women, so, as Kurieeto says, "social conservative" is a more useful description. They spend their time fighting same-sex marriage, abortion and publicly-funded day care, not trying to get tax cuts for the rich, or fighting environmental regulations. Kevintoronto 14:38, 23 Feb 2005 (UTC)

Did REAL Women back the Conservatives at the last Canadian federal election? If so, could that be categorised as implicit support for fiscal conservatism? User Calibanu 11:22, 11 April 2006 ---

I believe I read somewhere that the majority of REAL Women's membership is male. Anyone have a figure? - Montrealais 03:52, 25 Mar 2005 (UTC)

This tends to have been an occupational hazard of alleged antifeminist 'womens' organisations. In Australia, "Women Who Want to be Women" had to change its name to "Endeavour Forum" for exactly that reason, and in New Zealand, "Women for Life" became the "Family Education Network" until it finally shut down in December 2004. Has REAL 'Women' discussed the issue of changing its name anywhere? If so, you might want to look for it. Incidentally, does it have a Quebecois branch? User Calibanu 11.20, 11 April 2006

Pro-family
Pro-family is a neutral term which appropriately describes this organization. Social conservative is an umbrella term which encompasses more than the source intended to impart. Lionel (talk) 05:32, 26 May 2011 (UTC)
 * No, it's not neutral and it doesn't appropriately describe an organization that campaigns for laws denying legal recognition to families it doesn't like. If you think "social conservative" is too broad, would you like to suggest a neutral term that conveys a more specific meaning? It can be in more words (ie. "anti-feminist and anti-gay" encompasses both headings). Alternately, at its first occurrence, it doesn't actually need to be present at all since the following clause conveys the same message (so it would read "REAL formed as an anti-feminist counterweight...") The second occurrence, now that I take another look, is from a survey prior to the founding of REAL, so my substitution of "this" won't do. However, for the same reason, the sentence isn't particularly relevant and can be removed in its entirety, with the paragraph then beginning "There has been a great discrepancy..." I'll implement those, for now. Roscelese (talk ⋅ contribs) 05:48, 26 May 2011 (UTC)

 * The description "pro-family" is hardly a "neutral term". It's a neologism designed to capture the semantics of discourse for its creators/users and make it harder for anyone to oppose their views. Implicit in the term is the notion that no decent person could oppose "pro-family" ideology: Doing so would be "anti-family"!

 * There's a single phrase that public discourse has rather grudgingly allowed to be captured in this way and that rightly describes this group's agenda. It's family values, and if you insist on having any sort of description that includes the word "family", that would be it. If you do include this likewise POV phrase, "family values" then it has to be wikilinked and either:

 * (1) coupled with the group's reprehension of all but the traditional nuclear family, or
 * (2) coupled with a wikilinked description of to its POV counterpart, familialism.

 * Whatever you all decide, you can't use Wikipedia to promulgate a neologistic synonym for "family values". –  OhioStandard  (talk) 18:08, 26 May 2011 (UTC)

 * Update: Per my just-completed edit the lead now describes the group as a "socially conservative family values lobby group". I'd be opposed to the removal of "socially conservative" without the addtion of points (1) or (2) that I identified above. –  OhioStandard  (talk) 18:22, 26 May 2011 (UTC)

POV issues
Problems with POV against the group in the history section. I'm doubtful about the accuracy of some of these inaccessible sources, such as the source for the Schime quote, but in a more general sense, we need to organize information about the group's official positions and activities in a reasonable fashion that doesn't mix in comments from individuals in a synthy way. We also need to avoid POV synthesis in elaborating on the impact of these positions; I'm not arguing that we need to include a list of positions as though we simply copied it from their website, but saying they are opposed to the Charter of Rights and Freedoms is somewhat suspect. –Roscelese (talk ⋅ contribs) 23:22, 29 April 2013 (UTC)

title: Talk:REAL Women of Canada


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Odrysian kingdom

The Odrysian kingdom (Ancient Greek: Βασίλειον Ὀδρυσῶν) was an ancient Thracian state that thrived between the early 5th century BC and the early 3rd / late 1st century BC. Located in present-day Bulgaria, southeastern Romania (Northern Dobruja), northern Greece and European Turkey, it was a tribal amalgam dominated by the Odrysians that was the first large political entity to develop in the eastern Balkans.

The Odrysian kingdom was founded by king Teres I, exploiting the collapse of the Persian presence in Europe due to the failed invasion of Greece in 480–79. Teres and his son Sitalces pursued a policy of expansion, making the kingdom one of the most powerful of its time. Throughout much of its early history it remained an ally of Athens and even joined the Peloponnesian War on its side. By 400 BC the state showed first signs of fatigue, although the skilled Cotys I initiated a brief renaissance that lasted until his murder in 360 BC.

Afterwards the kingdom disintegrated: southern and central Thrace were divided among three Odrysian kings, while the northeast came under the dominion of the kingdom of the Getae. The three Odrysian kingdoms were eventually conquered by the rising kingdom of Macedon under Philip II in 340 BC. A much smaller Odrysian state was revived in around 330 BC by Seuthes III, who founded a new capital named Seuthopolis that functioned until the second quarter of the 3rd century BC. After that there is little conclusive evidence for the persistence of an Odrysian state, with the exception of a dubious Odrysian king fighting in the Third Macedonian War named Cotys. The Odrysian heartland was eventually annexed by the Sapaean kingdom in the late 1st century BC, which was converted into a Roman province of Thracia in 45-46 AD.

Thrace and its early history
Since the ancient Thracians lacked an indigenous writing tradition, the most important sources for the reconstruction of their history are archaeological remains, coins as well as accounts of ancient Greek historians. Said historians considered the Thracians to be a numerous people and their country, Thrace, to be of barely comprehensible size, so large that Andron of Halicarnassus (4th century BC) thought of it as a continent of its own. While the boundaries of Thrace fluctuated throughout history, Thrace can be divided in a northern and a southern half, which were also culturally different. The border between the two halves has been identified as the Haemus Mountains or the Danube slightly further north. Southern Thrace covered the fertile valley between the Haemus and the Rhodopes, the Strandzha and the shores of the Propontis and the Aegean and Black Seas. The western boundary was marked by the Strymon and the upper Morava. Northern Thrace was defined by the Danube, the Carpathians and the adjacent western tip of the Pontic–Caspian steppe, thus enclosing parts of the territory now comprising modern Romania, Moldova, Serbia and Ukraine. Thrace also extended into what is now northwestern Turkey both west and east (Bithynia, Mysia) of the Propontis.

Thracians had already settled in the 2nd millennium BCE, and were featured in the epics of Homer. Occasional references to them appear in the following centuries, although it was not until the 5th century when Greek literature developed an interest in discussing non-Greeks more extensively. In the 7th and 6th centuries, much of the Thracian coast was settled by Greek colonists who founded numerous towns, like Thasos, Byzantion or Odessos. The political history of the Thracian tribes of this age is virtually unknown, although it is recorded that in the late 6th century, Athenian settlers interacted with a "king of Thrace" (and possible predecessor of the Odrysian kings?) residing north of the Chersonese peninsula. The absence of imported artefacts confirms that inland Thrace north of the Rhodopes remained largely isolated from the Aegean trade until the late 6th century.

Persian Thrace
In around 513 BC, an army of the mighty Persian dynasty of the Achaemenids crossed the Bosphorus, after already having subdued the Thracians of Bithynia thirty years earlier. King Darius I's goal was a punitive expedition against the Scythians at the northern shores of the Black Sea. Most eastern Thracian tribes submitted peacefully, except of the Getae, who were defeated. More expeditions under the generals Megabazus and Mardonius as well as king Xerxes I followed, even though they only managed to secure the Aegean coast.

It seems most likely that the Achaemenids did not establish a satrapy (provincial administration) in Thrace, even though the historian Herodotus claimed that the subdued regions had to pay taxes. As a matter of fact, there is no evidence for important administrative centers. Instead, Persian authority was merely exercised through a couple of garrisoned forts, most importantly those of Doriskos and Eion. Hence, the vast majority of Thrace remained unaffected by the Persian presence. After the failed invasion of Greece in 480-79, the Persian foothold in Europe collapsed. By around 450, Persian authority in Europe, including Thrace, had vanished entirely.

Early tribal kingdom
Although the Persian presence in Thrace was short-lived, it probably stimulated trade and first state formations among the Thracians. Mintings of Thracian coins started around 500 and may be an indicator for a variety of early tribal kingdoms. It has been suggested that the Odrysian kingdom might have had its origins in this period, even though the name of the Odrysians is notably absent from the numismatic evidence. The Odrysians eventually stepped into the light of history in the aftermath of the Persian failure in Greece, when they were mentioned by Herodotus, but without any further details. The Odrysians had their core territory in the valleys of the Hebros river and its tributaries Tonzos and Arda. Like other Thracian polities, the Odrysian tribal kingdom attempted to fill the vacuum left by the Persian retreat.

Expansion under Teres I
The first known Odrysian king was the expansionist Teres I, who is claimed by Thucydides to have been the first Odrysian king altogether. Writing in the late 5th century BC, he wrote that Teres "was the first powerful king of the Odrysae" and that he "was the first founder of the great Odrysian empire, which he extended over a large part of Thrace, although many of the Thracian tribes are still independent." Said independent tribes consisted of Thracians living along parts of the Aegean coast and in parts of the Rhodope mountains and as well as the powerful Triballi around the Haemus.

Teres most likely came to dominate central Thrace soon after 480 BC. Building his realm on a privileged warrior aristocracy, he and his son Sitalces expanded the realm from the Danube in the north to the outskirts of Abdera at the Aegean Sea. He also expanded to eastern Thrace, although he suffered a setback at the hands of the Thynoi. In the north-east, he cemented the position of his realm by allying himself with the kingdom of Scythia under king Ariapeithes, who married Teres' daughter. In conclusion, the Odrysians were the first to supersede the Thracian tribal system and establish a large state in the eastern Balkans.

Around the middle of the 5th century, when Sitalces had not yet succeeded his father, the Odrysians intervened in a Scythian civil war, seemingly on the side of the dethroned king Scylas against Octamasadas, who was a son of Ariapeithes and Teres' sister. When the two armies met at the Danube, however, Sitalces simply agreed to hand over Scylas (who was killed on the spot) for an unnamed brother of his who resided among the Scythians. Another important event may have happened further east, in the Bosporan Kingdom, when a Thracian named Spartokos seized power in around 438. It is not unlikely that he was of Odrysian descent and that his takeover was instigated by the Odrysian royal house, although this must remain speculation.

The early Odrysian elite in archaeology

Archaeological evidence confirms that by the middle of the 5th century BC, a new and powerful elite had emerged that accumulated a wealth of precious artifacts of both local and regional origin. Burial practices were changing after the Persian withdrawal and a new type of elite burial emerged in central Thrace in the form of tombs with ashlar masonry, sometimes with stone sarcophagi. The tomb of Rouets from the late 5th century even contained traces of wall paintings. The earliest of these new elite tombs can be found in the necropolis of Duvanli, with the oldest tombs dating to the mid-5th century. Their inventory is exceptional not only by contemporary Thracian, but even Mediterranean standards. According to the archaeologist Tonkova they contained "splendid sets of head and body ornaments, consisting of numerous hoop or boat-shaped earrings, pendants for earrings, a necklace, a torque, bracelets, finger-rings, chains with pendants and fibulae, and pectorals." Most Thracian elite tombs have been identified as warrior burials as they contained weapons and gold pectorals. Two burials from Svetitsa (second half of the 5th century BC) and Dalakova (early 4th century BC) also contained finely crafted and rather impressive gold funeral masks.

Sitalces and his alliance with Athens

Teres, who is claimed to have lived 92 years, had died by the outbreak of the Peloponnesian war in 431. His successor was his son Sitalces, whose reign is mostly known thanks to the account of Thucydides. Before the war he is known to have campaigned against the Paeonians in the west, subjugating some of the tribes living along the upper reaches of the Strymon. Now, his influence extended over much of Bulgaria, Greek and Turkish Thrace and also parts of southeastern Romania: from the Strymon and Iskar rivers in the west to the Black Sea and the Propontis in the east as well as the Haemus and the mouth of the Danube (which was ruled by the tributary Getae) in the north. According to Thucydides, the Odrysian state was "very powerful, and in revenue and general prosperity exceeded all the nations of Europe which lie between the Ionian Sea and the Euxine [Black Sea]."

In the south, much of coastal Thrace had passed under the rule of Athens, making them direct neighbours of the Odrysians. The Athenians had already taken some interest in the Thracian interior before 431, but it was in said year when they concluded an alliance with Sitalces against Perdiccas II of Macedon in the west. This pact was cemented by a dynastic marriage, as Sitalces would marry the sister of the Athenian ambassador, Nymphodoros of Abdera. Sitalces' son Sadokos was sent to Athens and was granted the Athenian citizenship. Sitalces, apparently an experienced leader with political acumen, would prove his commitment to the alliance in the next year, when he arrested a Peloponnesian embassy that tried to persuade him to join the Spartan side and handed it over to Athens.

At the turn of the year 428, Sitalces raised a massive, multi-ethnic army to march against Macedon and insurgents on the Chalcidice peninsula. His army consisted of a variety of Thracians (some, like those of the Rhodopes, were independent, but joined nonetheless), Getae and some Paeonians. While Sitalces managed to subjugate some of the Thracian tribes of the lower Strymon, his invasion of eastern Macedon and the Chalkidiki was less successful, as his opponents avoided open combat and simply hid behind their walls. The Odrysian army had not the means to storm them, plus winter was approaching and food supplies were running out. Furthermore, the Athenian force that was promised to them never arrived, perhaps because Athens feared the might of the unleashed Thracian kingdom. After failed negotiations with Perdiccas II, Sitalces retreated back home. Thus, after only 30 days the Odrysian invasion had come to an end.

Seuthes I

Sitalces was succeeded in 424 by his nephew Seuthes I after the former was killed while campaigning against the Triballi, who resided north of the western Haemus. Throughout his reign, the Odrysians did not intervene in coastal Thrace, which had now become a contested battlefield between Athens and Sparta. Athens for its part began to make heavy use of Thracian mercenaries acting as light skirmishers, the peltasts. Due to their success the Greeks soon began to raise peltast units of their own. Still, the Athenians eventually lost the Peleponnesian war and, for a few years at least, much of their influence in the northern Aegean. Seuthes I was eventually succeeded by Amadocus I, also known as Medokos, in around 410 or 405 BC.

The civil wars between Amadocus I and Seuthes II

By the turn of the 4th century the Odrysian kingdom showed its tendency towards fragmentation. Two rulers are known by 405: Amadocus I and Seuthes II. The historian Diodorus Siculus even called both of them "kings of the Thracians", although this is most likely a misunderstanding: by 405 Seuthes II still considered Amadocus I as his suzerein. Amadocus was the son of the previous king Seuthes I, while Seuthes II was the son of a Thracian chieftain named Maisades. Maisades was a descendant of king Teres, making Seuthes II and Amadocus I distant relatives. There was also an autonomous Odrysian prince in the western hinterlands of Byzantium named Teres.

Initially raised at the court of Amadocus, Seuthes was sent to eastern Thrace several years before 405. By 405 he had managed to consolidate his position over a realm stretching from Apollonia Pontica over the Strandzha to parts of the northern Propontis coast. In 400 BC he hired Greek mercenaries under Xenophon to expand his dominion at the cost of Teres and other rebels, forcing them to reacknowledge the authority of Amadocus. Due to lacking funds they left his service already after two months. Seuthes II eventually rose against Amadocus, although little is known about this insurrection. In 389 the Athenian general Thrasybulus mediated between the two parties, resulting in Seuthes II, whom Xenophon called "ruler of the coast region", recognizing Amadocus' authority again.

Amadocus, who had defied Seuthes' insurrection probably due to his own popularity, died soon after 389. His successor was Hebryzelmis, about whom very little is known, but who, like Amadocus, sought the good will of Athens. Seuthes II on the other hand allied with Sparta. An Athenian inscription from the year 386/5 confirms that Hebryzelmis sent a delegation to Athens to legitimize his rule and/or gain an ally against Seuthes. However, the Athenians had little interest in another war in the region and thus limited themselves to kind words. Meanwhile, Seuthes had risen yet again against the crown. This second war went badly, as he seemingly lost all of his domains before reconquering them thanks to a mercenary army led by Iphicrates. Iphicrates subsequently married the daughter of Seuthes' son, Cotys I.

Renaissance under Cotys I

Cotys I succeeded Seuthes II in 383. The historian Michael Zahrnt described Cotys as "the right man to strengthen the run-down Odrysian realm, vigorous, and an artful diplomat [...]." Indeed, it was under him that the kingdom reached its greatest might and became a considerable political factor in the nascent Hellenistic world. He was also the only Odrysian king whose character was excessively discussed by ancient scholars, although primarily in a rather unfavourable way. While virtually nothing is known about the early years of his rule it is clear that he, together with his son-in-law Iphicrates, managed to conquer the domains of the deceased Hebryzelmis, thus uniting the Odrysian realm under his rule. In 375 he faced an invasion of the Triballi, who devastated the western parts of the realm while marching towards Abdera at the coast.

Cotys eventually set his eyes on the strategic Chersonese and the Hellespont, challenging the Athenian hegemony in the region. The Athenians were more than ready to fight for the control of the Hellespont, as it was vital for Athens' grain supply from the northern Black Sea region. An early invasion in 367 failed, but in 363/2 Cotys was more successful and repeatedly defeated several Athenian generals. Thus, the Chersonese and the Hellespont had come under direct Odrysian rule. This achievement, however, proved shortlived: much to Athens relief, Cotys I was eventually murdered in 360/59.

The three kingdoms

The death of Cotys, almost contemporary to the coronation of the talented Philip II of Macedon, marked the beginning of the kingdom's downfall. The Odrysian state was divided among three competing kings: Cersebleptes, the son of Cotys, ruled the eastern parts beyond the lower Hebros and Tonzos; Amadocus II, perhaps a son of Amadocus I, ruled central Thrace between Maroneia and the Meritsa; Berisades controlled the western part from Maroneia in the east to the Styrmon in the west.

Cersebleptes was the most ambitious of the three. He continued his father's war against Athens for the Chersonese, while also striving to reunite the Odrysian kingdom. His attempts proved futile, for Amadocus II and Berisades, who received support from Athens, resisted his attacks. In 357 he was forced to accept a peace treaty that sealed the division of the Odrysian state. An inscription from Athens describes said treaty. First, Cersebleptes had to cease his hostilities in the Cheresonese. Second, all three kings and Athens agreed to share their tributes received from the Greek colonies along the Aegean and the Hellespont. Third, the kings promised to enter an alliance with Athens and both sides had to provide each other with military support if tributary Greek colonies revolted. Cersebleptes, however, soon quit that treaty and continued his war in the Chersonese.

Conquest by Philip II

As early as 359, the year of his coronation, Philip II of Macedon I contacted a "Thracian king" to persuade him to not harbour a Macedonian pretender to the throne. This king is probably to be identified with the western Odrysian king Berisades. A year later he unified Macedon and subjugated the Paeonians to the northeast. In these early years he did not bother much with Thrace yet, as he regarded the infighting Odrysian kingdoms as no threat for his rule. A first push into the kingdom of Berisades and his successor Cetriporis occurred in 357/6, when he conquered Amphipolis and Crenides. The latter was made into a garrison town called Philippi that was to serve as a launch pad for future invasions into the interior. Cetriporis allied himself with the kings of Paeonia and Illyria, but Philip II defeated them one by one. Cetriporis was allowed to keep his kingdom, at least for a few more years.

Cersebleptes continued his attempts to unite the Odrysian kingdoms: in 353/4 he and Philip discussed the invasion of the kingdom of Amadocus II and the Athenian domains in Thrace, while around a year later he marched against the kingdom of Cetriporis. Meanwhile, Athens feared a possible alliance between Philip and Cersebleptes and decided to make an example by conquering the town of Sestos and eradicating its population. Intimidated, Cersebleptes renounced his claims on much of the Chersonese and allied with Athens. This was unacceptable for Philip, who allied with Amadocus II and marched against Cersebleptes. After besieging him in his residence in Heraion Teichos in 351, he forced the Thracian king to surrender and took his son as a hostage. Around this time, Philip also abolished Cetriporis' kingdom and deposed Amadocus II in favour of Teres II.

After these events, the Thracian front remained peaceful until 347 or early 346, when the Athenians again attempted to strengthen their presence in Thrace, which they probably did at the request of Cersebleptes. Macedon expelled the Athenian garrisons and defeated the Odrysians, preventing yet again a Thraco-Athenian alliance against him. As a result of this campaign Philip also put the Aeagean coast as far east as Acontisma (not the banks of the Nestos river as often assumed) under direct Macedonian administration.

A few years later Cersebleptes allied with Teres II and invaded the Chersonese, which was now under Macedon's protection. After asking the Persian king Artaxerxes III to cut the support of the Ionian towns for Cersebleptes, Philip finally felt confident enough to begin his most ambitious project so far: the conquest of inland Thrace in the form of a large campaign that would last from 342 to 340. Few details are known about this campaign. It seems to have started in May or June, when Philip's army penetrated the interior by marching upstream the Hebrus river. The Odrysians resisted valiantly and confronted the Macedonians in many battles. Philip faced several setbacks and even seems to have lost at least one battle. By the spring of 341, fighting was still raging and Philip was forced to call in reinforcements. Although detailed evidence is lacking he finally managed to improve his situation and defeated Cersebleptes and Teres at some point between the second half of 341 and the first half of 340.

Rise of the Getic kingdom
The Getae, a northern Thracian people located between the northeastern foothills of the Haemus range and the lower Danube and the Black Sea, had been part of the Odrysian realm since Teres I, even though it is not clear how tightly they were actually incorporated into the state. When and how the Getae became independent is not discussed in the available sources. Perhaps they became independent during the rule of Cotys I or after his death in 360. Rich funeral treasures from the second half of the 4th century, like those of Agighiol, Peretu or Borovo, attest to the increasing wealth of the Getic elite. Several artefacts seem to have originated in the Odrysian kingdom and may well have been prestige gifts.

By the middle of the 4th century there existed a Getic kingdom that was to thrive for a century. The Getic capital was Helis, which has been identified with the archaeological site of Sboryanovo, which was founded in the 330s or early 320s and housed around 10.000 inhabitants. It seems that the Getae also became active in Muntenia north of the Danube, a region that would come to constitute a part of the "Dacia" of imperial Roman historiography. The first Getic king to appear in the sources was Cothelas, who married his daughter Meda to Philip II, thus concluding an alliance between the two states. This probably happened during or shortly after Philip's conquest of the Odrysians. The kingdom survived two wars with Lysimachus and the Celtic invasion in around 280, but eventually disintegrated a few decades later. Helis/Sboryanovo was completely destroyed by an earthquake in the middle of the 3rd century.

Macedonian Thrace

The conquest of the Odrysian kingdoms doubled the size of the domains ruled by Philip II, even though inland Thrace was not transformed into a Macedonian province, but was put under the loose control of a Strategos. Local Thracian rulers who seemed trustworthy were allowed to rule on Macedonian behalf, granted that they would pay a tithe and provide troops. Such troops, generally called "Thracians" or "Odrysians", participated in the Macedonian conquest of Persia under Philip's successor Alexander the Great and were probably commanded by Odrysian noblemen. Philip founded several towns in Thrace to ease Macedonian rule, most prominently Cabyle and Philippopolis. The situation south of the Haemus remained largely stable for the next few years, albeit even here, Macedon never managed to impose its rule over all Thracian tribes. Macedon's rule was precarious and a potential Odrysian upstarter could count on the support of much of the disgruntled population.

Seuthes III and the Odrysian revival
With Alexander's absence in Asia, the Strategoi of Thrace engaged in rebellions and failed expeditions against the Getae, greatly unsettling the country in the process. At the end of the 330s or in the mid-320s (the dating is not entirely clear), a certain Seuthes, later known as Seuthes III, instigated a Thracian rebellion. He seems to have been an Odrysian and may have been associated with the royal house of Cersebleptes, although his social background must remain speculation.

After Alexander's death in 323, one of his bodyguards named Lysimachus was appointed as the satrap of Thrace. Soon after his arrival he faced off with Seuthes, who had rallied much of Thrace around his banner. Seuthes' goal seems to have been the revival of an independent Odrysian state. A battle ensued between him and Lysimachus, which Lysimachus barely and by no means decisively won. Both sides prepared for a second conflict, but the primary source for this event, Diodorus Siculus, provides no details on its outcome.

In any case, both parties eventually reached a settlement, restricting Seuthes to the interior and Lysimachus to the coastal regions of the Aegean and Black Sea. There is no evidence for Lysimachus vassalizing Seuthes. Thrace north of the Rhodopes probably remained outside of Lysimachus' reach, as he may have regarded its pacification not worth the money and manpower. In 313 Seuthes allied with revolting Greek towns on the western shore of the Black Sea, but Lysimachus defeated this alliance. It is possible that to guarantee the peace between the two opponents, Seuthes married a daughter of Lysimachus named Berenice. Afterwards, there is no evidence for another confrontation between the two.

Seuthes was keen to establish a Hellenistic kingdom, although he avoided to label himself as king on his coins. Probably after the death of Alexander in 323, Seuthes founded a town at the Tonzos river, near modern Kazanlak. He named it after himself: Seuthopolis. The town was primarily based on contemporary Macedonian foundations and showed heavy Greek influences. Seuthopolis probably acted as the capital of Seuthes' kingdom. The size and power of this kingdom should not be overestimated, as its influence was most likely limited to the hinterland of Seuthopolis, in particular the valley between the Rhodopes in the south to the Haemus in the north and the Syrmus in the west to the upper Tonzos in the east. Thus, his realm only covered the northwestern fringes of the former Odrysian empire. Seuthes also only issued bronze coins, which were insufficient to challenge the Macedonian economic hegemony and its royal mintings in more precious metals.

Fall of Seuthopolis

It is unknown when Seuthes III died, with estimations ranging from the end of the 4th century to the 280s. Coins minted in his name include overstruck coins of Cassander (died 297) and Lysimachus (died 281), implying that his coins were produced until the early years of the 3rd century BC. Seuthes was symbolically buried in the tumulus of Golyama Kosmatka, without his actual corpse. It may well be that he had been killed in battle, perhaps fighting against Lysimachus or with him as an ally.

A long inscription from Seuthopolis attests to the decline of the fortunes of the town and the trouble in Seuthes' household. It mentions the wife of Seuthes, Berenice, and their four (probably underage) sons Hebryzelmis, Teres, Satocos and Satalas. The document was issued in the name of Berenice and includes the phrase "when Seuthes was in good health", which implies that by the time of writing, he was either dead or dying and that Berenice had taken the rule. The inscription describes negotiations between Berenice and Spartokos, the ruler of Cabyle, a town once founded by Philip II. Indeed, Cabyle had not remained a Macedonian fort for long, but began to mint coins and developed into a city-state with considerable influence. Spartokos is known from several coins minted after 281 where he is addressed as king (basileus).

Although not mentioned in the Seuthopolis inscription and known only from a few coins and an inscription in a grave from Kazanlak, Seuthes seemed to have another son named Roigos, who eventually became king. The fate of Seuthes' dynasty remains enigmatic. Other Thracian monarchs recorded in sources from the 3rd century, like Cotys or Scostocus, can not be proved to have been Odrysian, even if they are often labelled as such by modern authors.

The end of Seuthopolis is a matter of debate, but it is clear that the town was destroyed still in the first half of the 3rd century. According to some scholars it was conquered by the Celts in the 270s. The Celts were ravaging much of the Balkan Peninsula since the early 270s and also led numerous incursions into Thrace. In c. 278 and led by Comontorius, they eventually founded a kingdom in eastern Thrace centered around Tylis. A newer theory proposes the destruction of the town in the 250s, based on a revamped dating of pottery, numismatic evidence and the presence of several Celtic artefacts. The archaeological evidence also shows the employment of siege artillery, which is unlikely to have been utilized by Celts. It may therefore be that Seuthopolis was not destroyed by the Celts, but by the Seleucid king Antiochus II, who campaigned in the Thracian interior in around 252.

The Odrysians after 250 BC
Most modern historians believe that the Odrysian kingdom continued to exist throughout the Hellenistic and the early Imperial period, when it became a Roman vassal state. However, the evidence for this assumption is in fact very slim. Throughout the remainder of the 3rd century, Thrace remained fragmented into various political entities. In the interior ruled various badly known Thracian dynasts. In the east was the kingdom of Tylis, a Celtic-dominated predator state which existence was based on blackmailing tribute and that was eventually destroyed by a Thracian revolt or attack soon after 220. In the southeast and based at the town of Lysimachia, the Seleucids established themselves under Antiochus II (r. 261–246), who relied on allied Thracian dynasts to expand his influence deep into the interior. After his death in 246 the Seleucid presence was replaced by that of the Ptolemies, who established a satrapy in coastal Thrace. An Odrysian kingdom, however, is not described in the sources.

In the last years of the 3rd century, Macedonia under king Philip V began a renewed expansion to the east, exploiting the weakness of the Ptolemies after the death of Ptolemy IV. While Philip's initial focus was on coastal Thrace, he also led a campaign into the interior. Temporarily losing his Thracian holdings after the end of the Second Macedonian War in 197, he reconquered most of them a decade later, while again campaigning in the Thracian interior. In 184 or 183 he pushed into the plains of the upper Hebros, defeated the Odrysians and other local tribes and conquered Philipopolis, although the Odrysians reconquered the town soon afterwards. It may be noteworthy that no Odrysian king is mentioned. While in 181, Philip was still climbing the Haemus in northern Thrace, his Thracian empire collapsed with his death two years later.

Between 171 and 168, Philip's heir Perseus engaged the Roman Republic in the Third Macedonian War. Perseus' most trusted ally in this war was the Thracian king Cotys, whom the historian Polybius calls an Odrysian. He fought in the battles of Callinicus and Pydna, but eventually became a Roman ally after the war. Perhaps he is identical with the Cotys mentioned by the historian Strabo. However, his Odrysian background has been doubted, as the account of Polybius, the only remaining source (minus Livy, who relied on Polybius), called him an Odrysian only once, while also calling the Getic king Dromichaetes an Odrysian. It may thus be likely that Polybius used "Odrysian" as a synonym for "Thracian". Furthermore, after the war Cotys was described as being active in the hinterland of Abdera at the Aegean coast, implying that he was rather a Sapaean king, who are known to have resided in the Rhodopes. His identity must remain uncertain. It is a fact, however, that Cotys was the last king in the sources to be explicitly labelled an "Odrysian". There is also no evidence that Odrysians had any affiliations with the royal houses of the Sapaeans and Asti of the 1st century BC.

By the middle of the 1st century BC, the Romans dominated coastal Thrace, while the most important Thracian tribes were the Sapaeans and the Asti. The Romans decided not to implement an administration in the Thracian interior, but instead relied on indirect influence via a large, Hellenized client kingdom resembling the Odrysian kingdom of old. Probably soon after the Battle of Actium in 31 BC, the Romans abolished the Asti dynasty and established the Sapaeans in Bizye, the capital of the former. The Sapaeans of Bizye created a large kingdom loyal to Rome and even expanded into the interior. Little is known about how the Sapaeans administered this region, although they made Philippopolis a royal residence. In 21 AD king Rhoemetalces II took refuge in Philippopolis when he was confronted with a rebellion, among them Odrysians. While the historian Tacitus described them as powerful, their uprising failed due to their bad coordination. The Romans eventually dissolved the Sapaean kingdom in 45/6 and turned it into the province of Thracia.

Kingship and the nature of Odrysian rule

Although covering almost a third of the entire Balkan peninsula at its peak, the Odrysian kingdom is unlikely to have had state-like institutions before the reign of Seuthes III. In general, the Odrysian kingship was heavily influenced by the Persian court, while also bearing many similarities to the one practiced in Macedon. Unlike in the contemporary Greek city-states, the Odrysian kings needed to legitimize their rule by military prowess, religion and gifts. The royal gift exchange, a practice originally adopted from the Persian court, was especially important for legitimation. Thucydides noted that the total tribute of 400 talents of gold and silver generated under king Seuthes I was distributed among Seuthes as well as the "chief men and nobles of the Odrysae". Several inscribed silver vessels mention king Cotys I and Cersebleptes and were most likely gifts or tribute. While the king received valuable gifts like gold, silver, textiles or horses, he was also expected to distribute gifts like artefacts, women or land to earn the loyalty and achieve the expansion of his military retinue. Such systems are inevitably unstable, royal authority would always remain rather fluid.

Due to the fragmentary nature of the remaining sources, the royal court and the administration of the kingdom must remain largely obscure. It can be assumed that, as in early Macedon, the Odrysian kings formed the heart of the realm and controlled the policy and the minting of coins, appointed loyal deputies and commanded the troops on the battlefield. The realm was essentially the king's estate. Below the king was an elite of horse warriors and administrators deriving not only from the royal court, but also from rival tribes. Thucydides called said local rulers paradynasteuontes, meaning "those who share power". A similar elite class loyal only to the king, the hetairoi, could also be found in Macedon. The Odrysian kingdom appears to have been rather decentralized, consisting of many different regional elites vying for power. Their rule over their subjects, who lived in scattered hamlets, was very loose and exercised mainly through raiding and demanding tribute.

There is no evidence that the early Odrysian kings had a fixed capital. Instead, they probably maintained a mobile court, moving throughout the kingdom and residing in fortified residences. These small fortified places, which the Greeks called, were the backbones of the Thracian aristocracy in a society that did not build towns or cities. This changed somewhat in the late 4th century, when Seuthes III founded Seuthopolis, marking the establishment of early state-like institutions which were probably inspired by those of Hellenistic Macedon. Seuthopolis' size always remained quite small, housing not more than 1.000 inhabitants. It is very likely that it was the home of the kingdom's aristocracy, while the common population continued to live outside the city walls, still practicing the agro-pastoral subsistence economy of old.

Army

When Sitalces' army invaded Macedon he supposedly fielded an army numbering 150.000 men, which is likely an inflated number. Around 100 years later, when Seuthes III confronted Lysimachus, the numbers had shrunk to 28.000 men. A considerable part of these armies were horsemen. Of Sitalces' army, every third warrior was a horseman, who were provided by the Odrysians and the Getae, while the army of Seuthes III had 8.000 riders, probably all Odrysians. The majority of Sitalces' infantry was described as being of rather low quality and was certainly composed of ill-organized levies. It therefore appears that warfare remained a heroic pursuit worthy only of the aristocracy, while military training for the commoners was considered unfitting. Despite this, the Thracian infantry made a great impression on the Greeks, who hired them as mercenaries. Meanwhile, the Odrysian kings made use of Greek mercenary commanders like Xenophon or Iphicrates, while Greek towns inside Thrace were defended by the colonists themselves.

Initially, the Odrysian army was divided into light infantry and light cavalry. The infantry used bows, slings, spears, swords, axes and light crescent-shaped shields called pelte, giving these warriors their name: "peltasts". Round and oval shields were, however, also utilized. A weapon primarily found in the western and central Rhodoes was the Rhomphaia. Except of slings, the cavalry used the same weapons as the infantry. In the later 5th century the Thracian cavalry began to adopt armour. The employed helmets were of the Chalcidian, Phrygian / Thracian and Corinthian types, of which the Chalcidian type seems to have been the most popular. The earliest torso armour was a type of primitive muscle cuirass of cylindrical form that had long fallen out of use elsewhere. Leather and linen armour was also worn. In the 4th century scale armour became popular, while greaves were also adopted at that time. Finally, there is also evidence that the Thracians employed siege artillery, in particular catapults.

Culture

Odrysian crafts and metalworking were largely a product of Persian influence. Thracians as Dacians and Illyrians all decorated themselves with status-enhancing tattoos. Thracian warfare was affected also by Celts and the Triballi had adopted Celtic equipment. Thracian clothing is regarded for its quality and texture and was made up of hemp, flax or wool. Their clothing resembled that of the Scythians including jackets with coloured edges, pointed shoes and the Getai tribe were so similar to the Scythians that they were often confused with them. The nobility and some soldiers wore caps. There was a mutual influence between the Greeks and the Thracians. Greek customs and fashions contributed to the recasting of east Balkan society. Among the nobility Greek fashions in dress, ornament and military equipment were popular. Unlike the Greeks, the Thracians often wore trousers. Thracian kings were influenced by Hellenization. Greek as a lingua franca had been spoken at least by some members of the royal household in the fifth century BC and became the language of administrators; the Greek alphabet was adopted as the new Thracian script.

Archaeology
Residences and temples of the Odrysian kingdom have been found, particularly around Starosel in the Sredna Gora mountains. Archaeologists have uncovered the northeastern wall of the Thracian kings' residence, 13 m in length and preserved up to 2 m in height. They also found the names of Cleobulus and Anaxandros, Philip II of Macedon's generals who led the assault on the Odrysian kingdom.

List of Odrysian kings
The list below includes the known Odrysian kings of Thrace, but much of it is conjectural, based on incomplete sources, and the varying interpretation of ongoing numismatic and archaeological discoveries. Various other Thracian kings (some of them possibly non-Odrysian) are included as well. Odrysian kings, though called Kings of Thrace, never exercised sovereignty over all of Thrace. Control varied according to tribal relationships. Odrysian kings (names are presented in Greek or Latin forms):
 * Teres I, son of ? Odryses, (480 /450–430 BC )
 * Sparatocus, son of Teres I (c. 465?-by 431 BC)
 * Sitalces, son of Teres I (by 431–424 BC)
 * Seuthes I, son of Sparatocus (424–396 BC)
 * Maesades, father of Seuthes II, local ruler in eastern Thrace
 * Teres II, local ruler in eastern Thrace
 * Metocus (= ? Amadocus I), son of ? Sitalces
 * Amadocus I, son of ? Metocus (unless identical to him ) or of Sitalces (410–390 BC)
 * Seuthes II, son of Maesades, descendant of Teres I, king in southern districts (405–391 BC)
 * Hebryzelmis, son or brother of ? Seuthes I (390–384 BC)
 * Cotys I, son of ? Seuthes I or Seuthes II (384–359 BC)
 * Cersobleptes, son of Cotys I, king in eastern Thrace (359-341 BC)
 * Berisades, rival of Cersobleptes, king in western Thrace in Strimos (359–352 BC)
 * Amadocus II, rival of Cersobleptes, king in central Thrace in Chersonese & Maroneia (359–351 BC)
 * Cetriporis, son of Berisades, king in western Thrace in Strimos (358–347 BC)
 * Teres III, son of ? Amadocus II, king in central Thrace in Chersonese & Maroneia (351–342 BC)
 * Seuthes III, rebel against Macedonian rule (by 324–after 312)
 * Roigos, son of Seuthes (III?) (early 3rd century BC ?)
 * The survival of a specifically "Odrysian" state beyond the early 3rd century BC is considered debatable.
 * Cotys IV, son of Seuthes V (by 171-after 166 BC), last king described explicitly as Odrysian in the sources.

Odrysian Kings: a possible family tree

 * Seuthes II maybe father of Cotys I
 * Teres II/ΙΙΙ maybe father of Seuthes III
 * Cersoblepres maybe father of Seuthes III
 * Roigos, son of Seuthes III, maybe king Roigos, son of Seuthes IV
 * Raizdos maybe identical to Roigos

title: Odrysian kingdom


text:
Peter Vermes

Peter Joseph Vermes (born November 21, 1966) is an American professional soccer coach and former player. He is currently the head coach of Sporting Kansas City in Major League Soccer.

Entering the 2023 MLS season, Vermes is currently the longest-tenured head coach in MLS and has won four major trophies as a manager, the second most of all active coaches in MLS.

As a player, Vermes spent several seasons playing in Hungary, the Netherlands, before establishing himself as a defender in Major League Soccer, playing for MetroStars, Colorado Rapids and the Kansas City Wizards. Vermes was also a regular member of the United States national team throughout the 1990s, and represented his country at the 1988 Summer Olympics, the 1990 FIFA World Cup and the 1991 CONCACAF Gold Cup.

On April 4, 2013, Vermes was elected to the National Soccer Hall of Fame.

Youth and college
Vermes was born in Willingboro, New Jersey. He grew up in Delran Township, New Jersey and played high school soccer at Delran High School. He graduated in 1984, having scored 109 goals. In 1999, he was named by The Star-Ledger as one of the top ten New Jersey high school soccer players of the 1980s.

Vermes played his first year in college on the men's soccer team at Loyola College in Maryland under head coach Bill Sento. Vermes then transferred and played three years of college soccer at Rutgers University, from 1985 to 1987. In his final season, Vermes scored 21 goals and 10 assists for the team, finishing a first-team All-American, as well as runner-up for the National Player of the Year Award. During that season, Vermes led Rutgers to their first victory in the NCAA Tournament in 26 years, scoring the winning goal in a contest against Seton Hall University.

Professional
After graduating, Vermes went to Europe, where he played with Rába ETO FC of Hungary in 1989 and Volendam of the Dutch Eredivisie in 1990. In May 1991, Vermes returned to the United States and played three games, scoring a single goal against the Tampa Bay Rowdies of the American Professional Soccer League. He then moved to Spain where he played for Spanish Second Division club Figueres from 1991 to 1995.

Like many American players, Vermes returned to the United States to join the recently founded domestic league Major League Soccer. In January 1995, he signed with the new league that would not begin league play until 1996. Therefore, MLS loaned Vermes to the New York Fever of the USISL where he played 25 games, scoring 16 goals in the 1995 season. In 1996, Vermes was drafted by the New York/New Jersey MetroStars in the third round of the MLS Inaugural Draft (29th overall) and captained the team in its first season. Although he played the most minutes of any MetroStar that year, the MetroStars traded Vermes on February 3, 1997, to the Colorado Rapids for Kerry Zavagnin. Vermes would play three years for the Rapids before being traded again, this time to the Kansas City Wizards with Matt McKeon for Scott Vermillion and a player allocation.

With the Wizards, Vermes helped the Wizards finish the season first in the league with a 16–7–9 record, having allowed only 29 goals in 32 games, and eventually winning the MLS Cup. Vermes was recognized as the MLS Defender of the Year, while his teammate Tony Meola won both the MLS Goalkeeper of the Year and MLS MVP awards. Vermes played two more seasons with the Wizards, struggling with injuries but playing every game he was healthy for, before announcing his retirement at the end of the 2002 season.

International
Vermes received his first cap May 14, 1988, against Colombia, and would in all receive 66 caps for the team, playing in the 1988 Olympics, the 1990 World Cup and the 1991 CONCACAF Gold Cup. In the 1990 World Cup, he nearly bagged a goal against Italy with a shot against Italian goalkeeper Walter Zenga. After seeing his playing time wane with the team in late 1993 and early 1994, Vermes was one of the final cuts from the 1994 U.S. World Cup team. He later said he thought that his outspoken comments had doomed him politically. A forward early in his career, his performance in defense in MLS led to his comeback to the National team in that position after years of absence, but he was cut again from the U.S. roster in January 1998.

Vermes was named the 1988 U.S. Soccer Athlete of the Year and U.S. Olympic Player of the Year.

In 1989, he scored six goals for the U.S. Futsal team, which took third place, at the FIFA Futsal World Championship in Rotterdam, the Netherlands. He ended his futsal career with 11 caps and 7 goals.

Kansas City
Vermes was appointed as the technical Director for the Kansas City Wizards of Major League Soccer in November 2006.

He was named interim coach of the Wizards on August 4, 2009, one day after predecessor Curt Onalfo was fired by the team. The team was in sixth place in the MLS Eastern Conference with a 5–6–7 record. Vermes would lead to the Wizards to a 3–7–2 record down the stretch. Following the season, the Wizards removed the interim tag from his title.

In 2012, Vermes won his first piece of silverware as a head coach, leading the renamed Sporting Kansas City (changed from the Kansas City Wizards in 2010) to a penalty shootout win over three-time defending champions Seattle Sounders FC to win the 2012 Lamar Hunt U.S. Open Cup. The following year, Vermes led the club to the MLS Cup, where they beat Real Salt Lake, also in a penalty shoot-out. This makes him the only person to ever win the MLS Cup as both a player and a coach with the same team.

Vermes won his third trophy as Sporting KC coach when his side won the 2015 Lamar Hunt U.S. Open Cup by defeating the Philadelphia Union on penalties at Talen Energy Stadium. Two years later, Vermes added the 2017 Lamar Hunt U.S. Open Cup to his trophy haul when Sporting KC beat the New York Red Bulls 2–1 at Children's Mercy Park.

On August 4, 2018, Vermes coached his 302nd regular-season match – a 1–0 victory over the Houston Dynamo – becoming the all-time leader in games coached with one club in MLS history.

On October 3, 2020, Vermes won his 150th regular-season match, with a 2–1 victory over the Houston Dynamo, becoming only the 5th coach in MLS history to do so.

In February 2023, Vermes signed a five-year extension with Sporting Kansas City through the 2028 MLS season.

Other coaching and activities
Vermes worked as a broadcaster for the San Jose Earthquakes. Vermes serves as the technical Director of Coaching for the Blue Valley Soccer Club in Overland Park, Kansas, and was an assistant coach for the U.S. Under-20 National Team.

Personal life
Vermes's parents immigrated to the United States from Hungary as refugees during the 1956 revolution. His father, Michael, was a professional footballer for Budapest Honvéd FC and operated an indoor soccer training center in New Jersey after immigrating. Peter has two brothers and one sister.

Peter married his wife Susan, who he met in high school, in 1990. The couple have two children.

Vermes was arrested for a suspected DUI on August 24, 2010, by police in Gardner, Kansas. He accepted one year of probation and the charge was dropped. The incident was mocked by Philadelphia Union supporters during a match in September 2010, with the Sons of Ben singing the entire folk song "99 Bottles of Beer" during the team's match against Kansas City.

Player

 * Kansas City Wizards
 * MLS Cup: 2000
 * Supporters' Shield: 2000

 * United States
 * CONCACAF Gold Cup: 1991

Coach

 * Sporting Kansas City
 * MLS Cup: 2013
 * U.S. Open Cup: 2012, 2015, 2017

Individual

 * National Soccer Hall of Fame Inductee: 2013
 * U.S. Soccer Athlete of the Year: 1988
 * MLS Defender of the Year Award: 2000
 * MLS All-Star: 2000
 * MLS Best XI: 2000
 * MLS Sporting Executive of the Year: 2019

title: Peter Vermes