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UK rap

UK rap, also known as British hip hop or UK hip hop, is a genre of music, and a culture that covers a variety of styles of hip hop music made in the United Kingdom. It is generally classified as one of a number of styles of R&B/Hip-Hop. British hip hop can also be referred to as Brit-hop, a term coined and popularised mainly by British Vogue magazine and the BBC. British hip hop was originally influenced by the dub/toasting introduced to the United Kingdom by Jamaican migrants in the 1950s–70s, who eventually developed uniquely influenced rapping (or speed-toasting) in order to match the rhythm of the ever-increasing pace and aggression of Jamaican-influenced dub in the UK. Toasting and soundsystem cultures were also influential in genres outside of hip hop that still included rapping – such as grime, jungle, and UK garage.

In 2003, The Times described British hip hop's broad-ranging approach:

"...'UK hip-hop' is a broad sonic church, encompassing anything made in Britain by musicians informed or inspired by hip-hop's possibilities, whose music is a response to the same stimuli that gave birth to rap in New York in the mid-Seventies."

Origins
As in the US, British hip hop emerged as a scene from graffiti and breakdancing, and then through to DJing and rapping live at parties and club nights, with its supporters predominantly listening to and influenced by US hip hop. Unlike in the US, the British hip hop scene was cross-racial from the beginning, as diverse ethnic groups in Britain tend not to live in segregated areas, even in areas with a high percentage of non-white individuals. Such places allow youth to share culture with one another, including musical genres such as hip hop.

Cross pollination through migrating West Indians helped develop a community interested in the music. The integration of sound systems represent a distinct British Caribbean influence. Sound systems allowed for powerful syncopated bass runs and the ability to bring this sound to other venues creating a club culture. There were, however, British tunes starting to appear. There are an abundance of records that are often credited with being the first British hip hop release, "Christmas Rapping" by Dizzy Heights (Polydor, 1982), is often credited as such, as well as the slightly later released "London Bridge" by Newtrament (Jive Records, 1983). Dizzy Heights was the first MC to be signed to a major label. Two singles from 1980 precede both of these however, namely Allen & Blewitt's novelty record "Chip Shop Wrapping", released in 1980, a parody of The Sugarhill Gang's "Rapper's Delight", and Bo Kool's "Money (No Love)". The instrumental for "Money (No Love)" was produced by Funk Masters member Tony Williams, and would turn out to be an influential release in its own right, going on to inspire DJ's from New York to employ influences from dub music.

In Scotland, actor and stand-up comedian Johnny Beattie released "The Glasgow Rap" in 1983, receiving some chart success at the time. He later claimed to be "Scotland's first rap star".

There were also early pop records which dabbled with rap – such as Adam and the Ants' "Ant Rap" (CBS, 1981) and Wham!'s "Wham Rap! (Enjoy What You Do)" (Inner Vision, 1982) — but these are often considered pop appropriations of US rap. Punk band the Clash had earlier dabbled with rap on the single "The Magnificent Seven" from their album Sandinista! (CBS, 1980), and a later single "This Is Radio Clash" (1981). Even earlier than this, in 1979, Ian Dury and the Blockheads released "Reasons to Be Cheerful (Part 3)", another record with influences from hip hop.

Then Sex Pistols manager Malcolm McLaren's "Buffalo Gals" (Charisma, 1982), featuring the New York hip hop group World's Famous Supreme Team, was the breakthrough hit that introduced the genre to the United Kingdom — McLaren's Duck Rock album as a whole experimented with many musical styles from around the world. "Buffalo Gals" and another track from the album, "World's Famous" which also featured the group, used techniques which have been established in hip hop in the United States, such as sampling and scratching. McLaren even included a song referencing the 'Double Dutch' dance that was popular among breakdancing crews in New York at the time.

Over the next few years, more UK hip hop and electro music was released: Street Sounds Electro UK (Street Sounds, 1984), which was produced by Greg Wilson and featured an early appearance from MC Kermit, who later went on to form the Wilson produced Ruthless Rap Assassins; The Rapologists' "Kids Rap/Party Rap" (Billy Boy, 1984) and Grandmaster Richie Rich's "Don't Be Flash" (Spin Offs, 1985). Releases were still few and far between, and the scene remained predominantly underground.

Although record labels began to take note of the underground scene throughout the 1980s and 1990s, radio play and publicity were still a difficulty in helping the fledgling scene to grow, and the scene only managed to survive through word of mouth and the patronage of pirate radio stations around the country. Mainstream radio did play British hip hop on occasion, supported by such well-known DJs as Dave Pearce, Tim Westwood, Steve Barker and John Peel.

British hip hop in the 1980s was not just confined to music and break-dancing, but also involved the spread of New York City-style graffiti – another integral element of US hip hop culture — to London and other UK inner-city areas, both on walls and trains. The most direct influence was, however, on graffiti painted in London Underground trains. Teenagers from inner London and other European cities who were into electro-hip hop and had family and other links to New York City had by the mid-1980s taken up some of the traditions of subway graffiti and exported them home, although legendary New York writers like Brim, Bio, and Futura had themselves played a significant role in establishing such links when they visited London in the early-to-mid-1980s and 'put up pieces' on or near the west London end of the Metropolitan Line. Almost as significantly, just when subway graffiti was on the decline in New York City, some British teenagers who had spent time with family in Queens and the Bronx returned to London with a "mission" to Americanise the London Underground through painting New York City-style graffiti on trains. These small groups of London 'train writers' adopted many of the styles and lifestyles of their New York City forebears, painting graffiti train pieces and in general 'bombing' the system, but favouring only a few selected underground lines seen as most suitable for train graffiti. Although on a substantially smaller scale than what had existed in New York City, graffiti on London Underground trains became seen as enough of a problem by the mid-1980s to provoke the British Transport Police to establish its own graffiti squad modelled directly on and in consultation with that of the New York City MTA. At the same time, graffiti art on London Underground trains generated some interest in the media and arts, leading to several art galleries putting on exhibitions of some of the art work (on canvas) of a few London train writers as well as TV documentaries on London hip hop culture like the BBC's Bad Meaning Good, which included a section featuring interviews with London train writers and a few examples of their pieces.

While many early rappers from the UK, such as Derek B, imitated the styles and accents of their US heroes, there were many who realised that to merely transpose US forms would rob UK hip-hop of the ability to speak for a disenfranchised British constituency in the way that US hip-hop so successfully spoke to, and for, its audience. Attempts were made by UK rappers to develop styles more obviously rooted in British linguistic practices — Rodney P of the London Posse deliberately chose a London accent – although many succeeded only in adopting a slurred hybrid that located the rap "somewhere in the middle of the Atlantic Ocean".

Development: Late 1980s–early 1990s
The first record label devoted to releasing UK hip hop acts was founded in 1986. Simon Harris' Music of Life label was home to rapper Derek B, the first UK rapper to achieve chart success. He even collaborated with Public Enemy on his album Bullet from a Gun and was the first British rapper to appear on Top of the Pops.

Building on Derek B's success, Music of Life went on to sign groups such as Hijack, the Demon Boyz, Hardnoise (later Son of Noise) and MC Duke. Their Hard as Hell series mixed homegrown talent like Thrashpack and the She Rockers with US artists such as Professor Griff. Music of Life was swiftly followed by other labels such as Mango Records and Kold Sweat. Another successful British hip-hop artist that emerged from Music of Life was Asher D, whose Jamaican origins showed through in his vocal style. In 1988, in collaboration with Daddy Freddy, Asher D released one of the first hip-hop dancehall fusion albums, Ragamuffin Hip-Hop. Moving away from its US roots, British hip hop started to develop its own sounds: acts like Hijack, II Tone Committee, Hardnoise, and Silver Bullet developed a fast and hardcore style (often referred to as Britcore ), while many other acts took influences from elsewhere. Britcore acts were amongst the first to receive wide-spread attention across continental Europe. Caveman and Outlaw Posse developed a jazz influenced style, whilst MC Mell'O' mixed jazz and hardcore. London Posse, Black Radical Mk II and DJ Ruf Cut And Tuf C were more influenced by reggae and disco whilst the Wee Papa Girl Rappers, Cookie Crew and Monie Love achieved chart success with more radio-friendly hip hop. However, despite the chart success of some British-born hip hop artists – for example Monie Love, Slick Rick, Young MC and MF Doom, who all moved to the US – the majority of the scene was still underground and small scale.

Kinetic Effect joined the scene in the early 1980s and was part of rap outfit 2 the Top as D-Koy; later, in 1991, he teamed with Insane Macbeth to record "Borderin' Insanity" (released in 1993) and in 1995, he recorded "Man Bites Dog"/"The Effect of Fear" Their song "The Rhythm I Give 'Em" made the UK Top 10 Hip Hop chart.

In 1987, Positive Beat Records came out of the hotbed of early UK hip hop, Ladbroke Grove in London with two releases. The label followed up the single "It's Getting Rough" by Rocky X and D-D Dance with the Various Artists' Known 2 Be Down album. This featured Sir Drew (of KREW and Newtrament), MC Flex, She Rockers, Rapski and more of West London's finest rap talents.

Other notable labels at the time included Liberty Grooves in Tooting, South London. The label itself started in late 1989 with the first release in 1990 by Whirlwind D & Johnny F of Solid n Mind. Other artists included Gutter Snypes, True Style and DJ Noize. Liberty Grooves was also a shop and many notable artists such as MC Mell O and Braintax would perform there.

In 1988, Rapski released "The Connection" on 12". The track was taken from Known 2 Be Down and was an early example of mixing hip hop and reggae in a (London) style. More was to come in the early 1990s in the form of MC Reason (a.k.a. Voice of Reason) with "Symbolise"/"HouseQuake" and Jonie D with "Which Base"/"Ride On" which was performed live on ITV in 1991.

A mindset began to develop – typified by the Gunshot tune "No Sell Out" (1991), or Son of Noise's "Poor But Hardcore" (1992) — that distrusted successful artists who did not utilise the hardcore style most associated with the scene. Silver Bullet's chart success was applauded due to an uncompromisingly rapid delivery, whereas Derek B and Rebel MC were scorned when their more pop influenced styles earned them success. Such artists were often branded "sell outs". As the scene grew, it became less common for British rappers to imitate US accents (those who did were often ridiculed) and British rap became more assured of its identity.

Hip Hop Connection — the first major British hip hop magazine – was founded in 1989 and by the early 1990s the British hip hop scene seemed to be thriving. Not only was there a firm base of rappers in London such as Blade, Black Radical Mk II, Overlord X and Bushkiller (including Sirus) — but many distinct scenes developed nationally.

Birmingham and the West Midlands gave rise to Credit to the Nation, whose MC Fusion would espouse conscious anti-racist, sexist and homophobic lyrics. The band would also find some brief mainstream success with their indie rock crossover sound. Leeds spawned Braintax and Breaking the Illusion (who together founded Low Life Records) as well as Nightmares on Wax. Greater Manchester gave birth to the Ruthless Rap Assassins, Krispy 3 (later Krispy), the Kaliphz, Jeep Beat Collective and MC Tunes.

Bristol's scene has a long history going right back to the early 1980s where links were made with outfits from New York. The Fearless Four came over in 1984 along with graffiti legends the Tats Cru and Rock Steady Crew. Bristol (specifically the St. Pauls area) produced The Wild Bunch (later better known as Massive Attack), Nellee Hooper who went on to produce for Soul II Soul. The city later became the home of trip hop with artists like Tricky and Portishead.

Caveman signed to a major label — Profile Records, the label home of Run–D.M.C. — and Kold Sweat came into their own, discovering groups like SL Troopers, Dynametrix, Unanimous Decision and Katch 22, whose "Diary of a Blackman" was banned by Radio 1 for using a sound clip from the National Front.

In 1991, Hijack released The Horns of Jericho (Rhyme Syndicate Records, 1991) on Ice-T's recently formed Rhyme Syndicate label. The first single, "The Badman Is Robbin'", was a top 40 hit and they went on sell more than 30,000 albums.

British hip hop was affected by the record industry clamping down on sampling, beginning to charge for the use of samples and prosecuting those who used them without permission. Larger US acts could afford to license samples and still turn a profit for their labels, a luxury not available to many smaller UK artists. One such victim of this was Milton Keynes group the Criminal Minds. Their first two releases, the 1990 mini-album Guilty as Charged and a 1991 EP Tales from the Wasteland were bogged down by potential sample clearance problems and thus were only ever made available in small numbers. As breakbeat hardcore music started to become very popular in the UK in the early 1990s, the Criminal Minds turned their attention to making this type of music instead.

The UK hip hop boom never achieved its predicted commercial success. Hijack's The Horns of Jericho was never released in the US, while record companies dropped artists, citing poor sales and lack of interest. Mango Records closed down, and the British public began to turn their affections to jungle, a fusion of breakbeat hardcore, hip hop and reggae. Other acts and styles developed from the hip hop scene, resulting in new genres to describe them – for example Massive Attack with trip hop, or Galliano, Us3 and Urban Species with acid jazz.

In the period between 1992 and 1995, the only groups to make much impact were Gunshot and the Brotherhood. Gunshot's 1992 album Patriot Games was a landmark with tracks such as "Mind of a Razor" and "World War 3" becoming British hardcore classics. Formed in the '80s, the Brotherhood released their first record, simply called Brotherhood EP, as a white label in 1991. They went on to release Wayz of the Wize in 1992, then Untitled 93 and XXIII in 1993, and Hip Hop N' Rap in 1994, all on the Bite It! label. None of the records sold in huge numbers but they managed to gain airplay on the Tim Westwood show and DJ 279's show on Choice FM, gaining them a solid following across the UK. Bite It! also released tracks from artists such as Pauly Ryan and the Scientists of Sound.

New generation: Late 1990s–early 2000s
Following an initial flurry of interest from major record labels in the 1980s, by the early 1990s the scene had moved underground after record companies pulled back. In the mid-1990s hip hop in the UK started to experiment and diversify – often mutating into diverse genres entirely, such as trip hop and began making inroads into the US market.

As the old rappers left the scene, a new generation, raised on hip hop and electronica, was coming of age: The Herbaliser released Remedies (Ninja Tune, 1995), Mr. Scruff released the "Frolic EP Pt 1" (Pleasure Music, 1995), Mark B released "Any More Questions?" (Jazz Fudge, 1995) and DJ Skitz released "Where My Mind Is At/Blessed Be The Manor" (Ronin Records, 1996) featuring a young rapper called Roots Manuva on guest vocals who had previously released the single "Next Type of Motion" (Sound of Money, 1995).

Record labels that attempted to merge British hip hop style and sensibilities with modern dance music began to emerge, like Mark Rae's Grand Central (home to Aim, Rae & Christian, and Fingathing, among others) or DJ Vadim's Jazz Fudge. Increasingly, these artists managed to avoid the issues surrounding sampling by making music themselves (bands such as the Stereo MCs began playing instruments and sampling their own tunes) or searching out more obscure records where a most cost effective licensing deal could be arranged.

British hip hop began to go through a renaissance, its style shifting from the hardcore template of its youth and moving into more melodic territory.

The Brotherhood managed to broker a major deal with Virgin Records in 1995. Continuing their relationship with Trevor Jackson as their producer, they released 3 singles 'Alphabetical Response', 'One Shot', 'Punk Funk' and their album Elementalz, all in 1996. Their work was met with critical acclaim and they toured solidly with American artists including Cypress Hill, The Roots and WuTang, but big record sales seemed to be very elusive and they parted ways with Virgin in 1998.

In late 1996, Will Ashon started up his new Ninja Tune backed label Big Dada and planned a roster of performers. Bandit of Birmingham's MSI/Asylum crew informed Will of Juice Aleem that he was contemplating who could truly represent the ethos of the new label. Ashon was impressed with the demo and agreed to have Aleem on board. The results of this were the first release of the now famous record label: in 1997 Juice featured on Big Dada record label's first ever release[2], "Misanthropic", under the pseudonym "Alpha Prhyme", a collaboration between himself and Luke Vibert.

In 1998, Mark B and Blade released "Hitmen for Hire EP", which featured guest appearances from Lewis Parker and Mr Thing (of the Scratch Perverts). The EP was a success, and led to the successful 2001 album The Unknown, which despite never charting in the UK top 75, was still a top 100 success and an even bigger success within its genre. Also, the album spawned the 2001 top 40 single "Ya Don't See the Signs", which was a remix by Feeder frontman Grant Nicholas, after the title track was a top 75 hit and Blade with Mark B supported Feeder. The same year, Bristol's Hombré label released the "2012 EP" from Aspects, a benchmark release within the movement. Roots Manuva, Blak Twang, Mud Family, Ti2bs, Task Force, Phi Life Cypher, MSI & Asylum, Jeep Beat Collective and Ty all came to the public's attention, while veteran acts Rodney P, Mike J, and MC Mell'O' returned to the scene.

Underground to mainstream: 2000s to 2010s
A new generation of artists emerged following the turn of the century, including Jehst, Skinnyman, Nicky Spesh, Foreign Beggars and Usmaan. At the same time, a new style of electronic music emerged in the early 2000s, derivative of UK garage and jungle, with influences from dancehall, drum and bass and hip hop; this new genre was dubbed "grime" (sometimes called eskibeat or sublow) and effectively superseded UK hip hop in both popularity and the mainstream conscious. Grime is generally considered to be distinct from hip-hop due to its roots primarily being genres such as UK garage and jungle. In 2001, Roots Manuva claimed that British hip hop "is more healthy" than American hip-hop, and is more about making the music than is it about exploiting wealth or hitting it rich. Success followed The Streets' 2002 album Original Pirate Material, and he became one of the first of the new breed of British hip hop artists to gain respectable sales, though his verbal style resulted in him being shunned by many artists in the scene. Such success has caused a surge in media exposure of other British hip hop acts. Welsh rap group Goldie Lookin Chain also achieved chart success with their tongue-in-cheek take on hip-hop. Key records such as Skinnyman's Council Estate of Mind, and Klashnekoff's The Sagas Of... were released, cementing the reputations of the artists and opening up the floor for new artists to emerge. Labels Low Life Records, run by prominent political rapper Braintax, and Young N' Restless started and became the starting point for many. At the same time, just as garage was losing momentum, grime was creating interest. Wiley's Treddin' on Thin Ice was a cornerstone of the genre, and one-time friend Dizzee Rascal won a Mercury Music Prize for his debut Boy in da Corner. From then on, grime artists were the only MC's for interested record labels, and UK Hip-Hop's momentum dried up.A new generation of young socially conscious hip-hop musicians emerged as a counter to the grime scene that many in the UK Hip Hop scene perceived as commercial. These rappers strived to bring attention to both positivity and lyricism as well as the injustices of war, gentrification and racism, following in the tradition of conscious rappers such as Nas, Mos Def and Talib Kweli. Amongst this new generation included artists such as Klashnekoff, Akala, Lowkey and the Poisonous Poets.

The mid-2000s saw the emergence of road rap, a genre that took influences from American gangsta rap and focused on crime, gang, or violent themes. Road rap was pioneered by artists and groups such as PDC and Giggs' SN1 crew.

By the late 2000s, grime music had entered into a period of stagnation. This led to an emergence of acts that, while influenced by or initially started out making grime, were moving into a more commercialised, hip-hop influenced form of music. Artists from this new wave included N-Dubz, Tinchy Stryder, Tinie Tempah, and Chipmunk (later known as Chip) who emerged in the late 2000s to great commercial success. Tinchy Stryder scored two number ones with songs "Number 1" and "Never Leave You" and became the best-selling British solo artist of 2009. The following year continued the success of the previous, with acts like Professor Green and Tinie Tempah breaking through to even bigger commercial success and also critical appreciation. The debut album from Tinie Tempah called Disc-Overy went to number one in the UK Albums Chart and was certified platinum on 1 March 2011. He also won a Brit Award for his number one single "Pass Out". Rapper Plan B found success with his 2010 Hip Hop and Soul fusion album The Defamation of Strickland Banks, followed by the soundtrack album Ill Manors in 2012, both of which peaked at number 1 in the UK Albums Chart. In 2014, Scottish alternative hip-hop trio Young Fathers won the Mercury Music Prize for their album Dead. The album entered the UK chart at 35 after they won the award. Riz Ahmed, also known as Riz MC, was featured in the song "Immigrants (We Get the Job Done)" in The Hamilton Mixtape, which topped the Billboard 200 chart in 2016. At the 2017 MTV Video Music Awards (VMAs), "Immigrants" won the award for Best Fight Against the System.

2010 and onwards
The early 2010s saw the emergence of UK afrobeats, led by artists such as Mista Silva, Kwamz, Fuse ODG, and Timbo. Around the same time, artists such as Sneakbo and Timbo were incorporating melodic rap and Caribbean influences into their music. The foundation set by these artists would later be a major influence on Afroswing, a genre that emerged around 2014 derivative of UK afrobeats while carrying influences from grime, dancehall, hip hop, and R&B.

UK drill  is a subgenre of drill music and road rap that originated in the South London district of Brixton from 2012 onwards. Borrowing heavily from the style of Chicago drill music, UK drill artists often rap about violent and hedonistic criminal lifestyles. Typically, those who create this style of music are affiliated with gangs or come from socioeconomically-deprived neighbourhoods where crime is a way of life for many. UK drill music is closely related to road rap, a British style of gangsta rap that became popular in the years prior to the existence of drill. Musically, UK drill often exhibits violent language and provocative lyrics.

The early 2010s also saw the emergence of an underground UK hip hop scene emulating the earlier wave of 2000s rappers such as Jehst, Task Force, King Kashmere, MysDiggi and Skinnyman. With complex lyrics and rhyme schemes and '90s New York boom bap influenced production, High Focus Records was instrumental in bringing this sound to a wider audience. The label was founded in 2010 by London rapper Fliptrix and key members of the larger High Focus crew have included The Four Owls, Dirty Dike, Ocean Wisdom, Jam Baxter and Dabbla.

Artists from the label have managed to build a sizeable following despite remaining underground, having performed to crowds of 25,000+ across Europe, played the famous Reading and Leeds festivals in the UK and seen many tracks reaching multiple millions of views on YouTube. In 2015, The Four Owls collaborated with highly respected US producer DJ Premier for their track Think Twice. BRIT Award winning singer-songwriter Rag'n'Bone Man also released two albums on the label in 2011 and 2014 – "Put That Soul on Me" (a collaboration with Dirty Dike) and "Dog n Bone" with Four Owls member and rapper/producer Leaf Dog. These albums are what eventually led to his signing with major label Columbia Records, however Rag'n'Bone Man has continued to feature on High Focus records releases such as the track "Mask" from Jam Baxter's album Touching Scenes in 2019.

Blah Records is also highly influential. The label was founded by Lee Scott (rapper) and Molotov in 2006 and currently managed and owned by Lee Scott and Salar. Key members of the Blah family include Lee Scott, Salar, Black Josh, Milkavelli, Jam Baxter and Cult of The Damned.

The mid-2010s saw the emergence of Abstract Orchestra, a British hip hop Orchestra that "explore the shared territory between jazz and hip hop by taking modern classics such as Madvillain and J Dilla’s back catalogue and filtering them through classic arrangement techniques." The group is influenced by the style of hip hip associated with Detroit in the US and have recorded with Illa J and Slum Village. They perform with UK MC's Micall Parknsun, Joker Starr and Yungun.

By 2014, grime music was also experiencing a resurgence. While hip hop did not immediately benefit from this, the rise of grime has been credited for re-opening the doors for competing genres such as hip hop and afroswing that were also on the rise. Acts that would rise within the hip hop scene within the following years include Dave, Kojey Radical, Slowthai, Little Simz, and Loyle Carner. Dave released a "Blackbox freestyle" in 2015 which helped him rise to prominence. The following year, Dave was noticed by Canadian rapper Drake, who later featured on a remix of his song "Wanna Know". Stormzy, an artist that came up out of the grime scene, released his debut album, Gang Signs & Prayer, on 24 February 2017. The album was a mixture of grime, hip-hop, and R&B, and was the first 'grime' album to reach number one on the UK Albums Chart. In February 2018, Gang Signs & Prayer won British Album of the Year at the 2018 Brit Awards. He has reached number one on the UK Singles Chart a total of two times; firstly as part of "Artists for Grenfell" on 23 June 2017 with song "Bridge Over Troubled Water", and secondly with his own solo single "Vossi Bop", which debuted at number-one upon its entry, ahead of "Me!" by Taylor Swift featuring Brendon Urie by some 500 combined sales.

Skepta, who also emerged from the grime scene, began collaborating with American hip hop group ASAP Mob. He featured with ASAP Rocky on the song "Praise the Lord (Da Shine)", the second single from his third studio album Testing on 26 June 2018. It was the third collaboration between both artists, following Skepta's appearance on Cozy Tapes Vol. 1: Friends and ASAP Rocky's appearance on Skepta's Vicious EP in 2017, which also featured ASAP Nast, Lil B, and Section Boys. The song was successful in a number of countries, peaking at number 45 on the Billboard Hot 100 and number 18 on the UK Singles Chart. It was later certified Platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA) and gold by the British Phonographic Industry (BPI). Skepta also collaborated with American rapper Playboi Carti on the single "Lean 4 Real" from his debut studio album Die Lit, also released in 2018.

In 2017, Dave did a freestyle on American radio station Power 106 Los Angeles which has accumulated over 1,000,000 views on YouTube. In 2018, Dave achieved his first UK number-one hit with "Funky Friday" which featured British rapper Fredo. Dave's debut album, Psychodrama (2019), debuted at number one on the UK Albums Chart and became the most-streamed first-week British rap album in the UK with a total of 23.6 million streams. The album was highly acclaimed and won Dave a Mercury Prize.

Slowthai released his debut studio album, Nothing Great About Britain, in 2019. The album was nominated for the Mercury Prize. He performed at the 2019 Mercury Prize ceremony, where he controversially held a fake severed head of British Prime Minister Boris Johnson on stage. Little Simz also released Grey Area in 2019 to much acclaim.

Road rap
Road rap (also known as British gangsta rap) is a genre of music pioneered in South London, primarily in Brixton and Peckham. The genre was pioneered by groups such as PDC, SMS, SN1, North Star, MashTown and U.S.G. and artists such as Giggs and K Koke and later Nines and Sneakbo. The genre came to the fore as a backlash against the perceived commercialisation of grime in the mid-late 2000s in London. The genre came to prominence around 2007 with the rise of Giggs. Road rap retained the explicit depictions of violence and British gang culture found in some early grime music and combines it with a musical style more similar to American gangsta rap than the sound system influenced music of grime, dubstep, UK garage, jungle, reggae, and dub.

Gangs played a large part in the genre, with gangs such as the Peckham Boys (with its various sets such as SN1, PYG, and OPB), based in Peckham and GAS Gang, based in Brixton, with members becoming notable in the road rap scene during the 2000s.

The road rap scene centres around mixtape releases and YouTube videos with some of the genres more popular acts getting mainstream recognition. The genre has been criticised for the relentless nihilism and violence in its lyrics as well as its links to gangs and gun crime with many rappers serving prison sentences. In keeping with grime, road rap has suffered from pre-emptive policing with Giggs claiming that the Metropolitan Police have set out to deny him the opportunity to make a living from music having banned him from touring. In 2011, Stigs was served the first ever gang injunction that banned him from rapping about anything that may encourage violence.

In the early 2010s, the American genre drill began to emerge in the UK, pushed by groups such as 150, 67, and Section Boyz. UK drill has been referred to as subgenre of road rap due to the influence it's had on the genre. Road rap also went on to influence afroswing, which emerged in the mid-2010s.

Trap scene
In several interviews, M Huncho has described his more tone-down, melodic style and moderately humbler approach when it comes to lyrics as his own derivative take on UK trap music, in a genre he has personally dubbed "Trap Wave". Wolverhampton artist Scarlxrd implements an energetic aesthetic and tone with explosively brazen screaming vocals, and dark yet reflectively intense and meaningful lyricism in an essentially self-pioneered style known as "trap-metal" or "ragecore"; a fusion of trap music and screaming vocals. Scarlxrd has cited some of his main inspirations and influences as including the likes of Eminem, Bring Me the Horizon, Limp Bizkit, DMX, Slipknot, Travis Scott and Linkin Park, among others.

Backlash against commercialisation
Since grime's post-millennial boom period coincided with UK hip-hop's, the eagerly anticipated commercial breakout of the latter did not happen. Instead, acts such as Tinchy Stryder, Tinie Tempah, N-Dubz and Chip were signed to major labels and their traditional sound tweaked to fit a pop sensibility. However the lineage of these, and many UK rappers, is unquestionably grime rather than UK hip-hop.

There is a common belief within the underground hip hop community that true hip hop is music relevant primarily to the disenfranchised listeners, rather than the mass market. Because of the belief that mainstream acts are paid large sums of money by the major labels to make music tailored to the current mass market, these artists often face a backlash and accusations of 'selling out' from the underground community.

Media
The growth of British hip hop was given a boost when in 2002, the BBC launched a digital radio station 1Xtra devoted to "new black music" including hip hop, R&B, soul, UK garage, dancehall, grime and drum and bass, however 1Xtra does not play exclusively British hip hop. The cable and satellite channel, Channel AKA (formerly Channel U, now known as Now 70s) also had the profile of British hip hop and grime. YouTube was also a very important outlet for upcoming and significant artists. Channels include Link Up TV, GRM Daily, SB.TV, Pressplay Media and Mixtape Madness.

Women
Women have contributed to hip hop's evolution in Britain from the beginning. Female British rappers include Alesha Dixon, Baby Blue, Estelle, Lady Leshurr, Lady Sovereign, Little Simz, M.I.A., Monie Love, Nadia Rose, Shystie, NoLay, Stefflon Don, Mercury prize winners Ms. Dynamite and Speech Debelle and music producer Mizz Beats. Other British female rappers have included Cookie Crew, She Rockers, Wee Papa Girl Rappers, C-Mone and Envy.

Neneh Cherry, born in Stockholm, moved to England when she was 14 years old, and contributed to early British hip hop. Raw Like Sushi (1989) was solely produced by British producers and was a massive hit in both the UK and US. Cherry continues to produce and release music today.

Women in hip hop often confront a large amount of sexist stereotyping; however some female British rappers such as Lady Sovereign and M.I.A. have achieved success both in the UK and US. Artists such as Ms Dynamite, M.I.A. and Speech Debelle have also become known for political and social commentary in their music. Singer, songwriter and rapper Estelle said of the difficult position of female rappers: "I think they get a tough ride because some of them don't see themselves above and beyond the bullshit and no one's really given them that break."

title: UK rap


text:
Talk:Purebred

Untitled
Um...okay...so we've added cats...do we need to give equal time to horses et. al.?

Should this become a disambig. page and the dog portion moved to a new page, or should the cat portion be expanded here?

Quill 08:11, 27 Sep 2004 (UTC)

Generic terms
Purebred is a very Generic (and confusing) term. It is usually found in conjucntion with cats and dogs, however, it is so generic that perhaps a dsambig page should be made and info directed to Pedigreed Dog, Pedigreed Cat, and whatever the best term for horses is...(i don't know I don't do horses). There is a request for Pedigee (dog) and I made Pedigree (cat) but as a note of semantics, a pedigree is a pedigree and the more appropriate page title is probably Pedigreed Dog and Pedigreed Cat.

Pschemp 13:48, 27 Sep 2004 (UTC)
 * Yes, I would bet money that fanciers of other animals that 'show' use the terms 'purebred' and 'pedigree' as well, so we'll have to do something. Quill 23:03, 27 Sep 2004 (UTC)

 * I'd like to see this be an article that discusses the concept of purebred in general terms and includes sections addressing purebred in some specific instances, such as in dogs and cats. I don't know that, at the moment, we need separate articles.  Elf | Talk 01:20, 28 Sep 2004 (UTC)
 * Sigh. Elf proven to be right...again....Just noticed that there was pedigree (dog) and pedigree (cat) saying the exact same thing.  Two years on, there's not enough for two separate articles.  I've created pedigree (animal) and it does not mess up any article that links to pedigree (dog).  Having trouble with the REDIRECT, though--Elf, can you check and fix?  Thanks.  Quill 04:25, 6 June 2006 (UTC)

 * just wondering if people are really just going to search on the word purebred. I think it is more likely that they would look for purebred dog, pedigreed dog, purebred cat etc...so if it remains one page it is going to need a lot of redirects to be useful. Pschemp 01:29, 28 Sep 2004 (UTC)

 * I think redirects in this case are fine. I'm not completely convinced that there's enough here to warrant a completely separate article for dogs that can't (or shouldn't) be covered under dog breed.  IMHO. Maybe should be the same for cat breed.  Elf | Talk 01:37, 28 Sep 2004 (UTC)

Antonym
"Random bred" is suggested as an antonym by the Monks of New Skete. Many wikipedia articles seem to use the phrase already, for both cats and dogs. Elijah 18:14, 2004 Nov 22 (UTC)
 * Yup, this one should also probably be noted here and in mixed-breed dog and other places. Elf | Talk 23:04, 22 Nov 2004 (UTC)

Dubious
I've flagged these examples of former, now invalid subspecies names as : I can find no evidence these weren't just made up for this article. Try this Google search, which uses text from this article to eliminate re-published WP content in the search results: "'F. catus anura' -wikipedia -'some of these cat breeds are'" No meaningful results at all, just a single page of useless results like chat forums and other junk. Spelling it out as "Felis catus anura" produces more results, but not of any better quality - mostly discussion boards and endlessly reposted "articles" with no sources.
 * F. catus anura - the Manx
 * F. catus siamensis - the Siamese
 * F. catus cartusenensis - the Chartreux
 * F. catus angorensis - the Turkish Angora

I have a sneaking suspicion that this is simply hoax material, and that it appears anywhere at all only because Wikpedia said it and others have run with it. There are other signs this is fake. For one thing, "cartusenensis" should probably be "cartusiensis" and "angorensis" should be "ancyrensis"; these names appear to have been just made up by someone with little background in Latin, as a joke. And -ensis names in binomial nomenclature indicate actual places of wild-stock origin, which does not apply in the case of the Chartreux, the connections of which to the Chartreuse region are only legendary. Similarly, "siamensis" wouldn't be used, since Latin had no name for Thailand, and the New Latin used for binomials would use a latinization of the modern name, thus probably taiensis.

If someone can't provide a source, I'm going to delete that whole mess as nonsense. — SMcCandlish  Talk⇒ ʕ(Õلō)ˀ  Contribs. 20:03, 18 November 2011 (UTC)

 * It was added in this edit.(found via wikiblame) You can ask the user where he got the info. I don't think he is a hoaxer. --Dodo bird (talk) 22:28, 18 November 2011 (UTC)

 * I have no issues with deletion, but in defense of whoever added it, there was once a thing amongst other animal purebred breeds to claim certain older breeds with roots in antiquity to be separate subspecies, I know of it with horses. So just because it has been disproven by modern science doesn't mean it was a hoax, just something that has been debunked, sort of like the geocentric theory of the solar system.  That said, I have no objection if you toss it.   Montanabw (talk) 22:49, 18 November 2011 (UTC)

dubious?
I flagged the following statement as dubious after noticing that it contradicts the previous paragraph (preceding section), as well as the opening. After following up, everything I came across pointed to 'pedigree' needing written documentation, while finding no consensus on a purebred needing it. I don't know anything about the subject, but after reading two consecutive paragraphs that were seemingly contradictory, I thought I'd point it out. I'd appreciate any advice regarding my edit. Especially whether the use of dubious was correct. Or if I completely misunderstood the content.

 * (Statement, 13:00, March 29, 2014)

 * "A purebred dog is a dog of a modern breed of dog, with written documentation showing the individual purebred dog's descent from its breeds' foundation stock[dubious]."

 * (Preceding paragraph, 13:00, March 29, 2014)

 * Sometimes the word purebred is used synonymously with pedigreed, but purebred refers to the animal having a known ancestry, and pedigree refers to the written record of breeding. Not all purebred animals have their lineage in written form. For example, until the 20th century, the Bedouin people of the Arabian peninsula only recorded the ancestry of their Arabian horses via an oral tradition, supported by the swearing of religiously based oaths as to the asil or "pure" breeding of the animal. Conversely, some animals may have a recorded pedigree or even a registry, but not be considered "purebred". Today the modern Anglo-Arabian horse, a cross of Thoroughbred and Arabian bloodlines, is considered such a case

 * (Opening paragraph, 13:00, March 29, 2014)

 * Purebreds, also called purebreeds, are cultivated varieties or cultivars of an animal species, achieved through the process of selective breeding. When the lineage of a purebred animal is recorded, that animal is said to be pedigreed.

Chinchilla513 (talk) 18:06, 30 July 2014 (UTC)

 * How does the 'statement' contradict the 'preceding paragraph' and the 'opening paragraph'? Hyacinth (talk) 00:14, 5 October 2018 (UTC)

Merging from True-breeding organism
TBH, I don't see why this topic is different from https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/True_breeding_organism — Preceding unsigned comment added by Rebelpino (talk • contribs) 16:30, 8 September 2016 (UTC)
 * It's not a different topic. "True-breeding organism" is a WP:OR exercise in trying to generalize from artificial selection of domesticants, to natural biology. It should just be redirected to Purebred, unless anything in it is worth merging in first (it has a citation that might be usable here since this article is short on plant-related material, plus a dictionary definition that might be helpful for disambiguating, but is otherwise unsourced). It's confusing the general biological topic of homozygosity with selective purebreeding. Other terms should also redirect here, like breed true, breeding true, true breeding, etc.  I'm not sure about true to type; need to see whether that is used in multiple ways.  Anyway, I fixed the missing hyphen in the title of that stub, and put a merge tag on it.  — SMcCandlish ☺ ☏ ¢ ≽ʌⱷ҅ᴥⱷʌ≼  01:10, 12 September 2016 (UTC)

I see a difference in this. Purebread is usually referred to animal breeds, whereas this one is trying to take a broader approach including the breeding of plants, even though this part is not explicitly mentioned. It is missing. But should be added. Hopefully by some organic true-to-type or true-to-seed breeders. 94.217.173.27 (talk) 14:31, 22 January 2018 (UTC)
 * Oppose merge; breeding true is an important concept in plant biology, particularly for the propagation of apples and other fruit trees. I've adding something on these to the True-breeding organism page.Klbrain (talk) 14:15, 27 April 2018 (UTC)
 * Whether the concept is important isn't in question; the rationale for having two articles on the same concept is.  — SMcCandlish ☏ ¢ 😼  03:15, 24 June 2018 (UTC)

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One could include honeybees bees in list
Hi, one area worth a mention is honeybees. Bees are a biologically complex organisms for humans to breed and establish a pedigree owing to their sex determination system, but the Buckfast bee is one well known breed of bee. Honeybees would shine a light on the concept more generally. 124.169.136.60 (talk) 12:41, 12 August 2022 (UTC)

What is a full-blooded American?
What is a full-blooded American 173.249.128.34 (talk) 08:24, 15 October 2022 (UTC)

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Talk:Purebred


text:
Air defense anti-tank system

The Oerlikon/Martin Marietta air defense anti-tank system (US designation MIM-146 ADATS) is a dual-purpose short range surface-to-air and anti-tank missile system based on the M113A2 vehicle. The ADATS missile is a laser-guided supersonic missile with a range of 10 kilometers (6.2 miles), with an electro-optical sensor with TV and forward looking infrared (FLIR). The carrying vehicle also has a search radar with an effective range of over 25 kilometers (16 miles).

The first firing of an ADATS missile occurred in June 1981. Canada was the launch customer for the system with 36 units on the M113 chassis ordered for the Canadian Army in 1986. The system was further developed and produced at a new facility in Québec. The US Army also selected ADATS installed on the M2 Bradley chassis but by the time it was ready for service the ending of the Cold War led the US Army to cancel its orders, after Oerlikon invested over CHF 1 billion in the project. A small number of vehicles, many of them the developmental prototypes, entered service with the Canadian Army.

History
The ADATS was trialed or proposed on a variety of different platforms to suit the needs of the user for the defense of mobile field formations or fixed sites such as airfields. Besides the M113A2 tracked vehicle chosen by Canada, the ADATS was also installed on the M2 Bradley chassis for the US Army and the Swiss MOWAG Shark 8x8 vehicle, and proposed for the British Warrior MICV chassis. A shelter-mounted version either with on-mount radar for autonomous use, or without radar for coordination with a central fire control center could be mounted on a 4x4 or 6x6 military truck or installed in fixed locations. This version was purchased by Thailand. A version mounted on the four-wheel trailer used for the Oerlikon Contraves Skyguard fire control system and without radar, probably intended for integration with Skyguard and Oerlikon GDF 35 mm guns, was also proposed.

There was also a proposed naval version called "Sea Sprint", using the standard eight-missile turret without the radar, proposed for the close-in anti-air and anti-missile self-defense role.

Oerlikon also suggested a dedicated anti-tank system without the radar, including a version mounted on a long articulating arm that could be elevated high above the vehicle to clear trees or terrain while the launch vehicle remained hidden.

Canada
The ADATS entered service with the Canadian Army (in 1989 ) as a mobile, M113-based system.

The first systems were deployed as part of Canada's NATO contribution in West-Germany. Thirty-six systems were delivered by 1994. The cost of the system was initially $650 million. Over the life of the project, total cost reached $1.1 billion.

After their return from Germany, Canadian ADATS systems were only operationally deployed once: In June 2002, they were used to defend the airspace of the G8 summit held in Kananaskis, Alberta. Canadian ADATS were never operationally deployed in Bosnia or Afghanistan. As of 31 March 2011, the ADATS has been withdrawn from Canadian service with no planned replacement announced.

Canadian acquisition of the ADATS system was marred by a scandal relating to the purchase of the land where assembly of the system was to take place. The property had been bought and sold several times over a short period of time and its price inflated before it was sold to Oerlikon. It led to the resignation of Minister of State for Transport André Bissonnette who had been directly involved in the land deal, and several criminal accusations.

US Army evaluation
The ADATS cropped up from an extensive competition during which it was selected by the U.S. Army for the forward area air-defense (FAAD) program under the designation MIM-146 for the missile. The US Army planned to purchase 387 systems. Test results indicated that the system did not perform well in inclement weather. Ultimately the FAAD contract was cancelled in the early 1990s after the end of the Cold War.

Thailand
The Royal Thai Air Force acquired one static shelter-based system from Oerlikon Canada, linked to a Skyguard fire control system.

Greece
In the late 1990s, Canada offered their surplus ADATS systems to the Greek military as part of a low-level air defense program. The offer was considered but not accepted. Greece eventually purchased the Russian Tor missile system.

Modernization program
In September 2005, the Canadian government and the Canadian Forces announced a modernization program, transforming the ADATS and associated command, control and communications systems into a multi-mission effects vehicle (MMEV). The MMEV was to retain and enhance ADATS anti-aircraft and anti-armor capability (85% or better engagement success rate) to meet new threats, provide indirect fire support to ground troops, and would be mounted on an LAV III wheeled armoured vehicle. It was to be fitted with a 3D radar, non-line-of-sight missile (using unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) to gather required intelligence and target location at a range of 8 km or more) and low-cost precision kill (LCPK) missile (fireable on direct shot at a >8 km range), based on a 2.75-inch rocket and advanced battle management command and control communication computer and information (BMC41), including link 11/16, to provide intelligence, surveillance, target acquisition, and reconnaissance (ISTAR). In July 2006, Canadian Forces land staff recommended the cancellation of the MMEV project. The program was cancelled in November 2006.

The ADATS was withdrawn from Canadian service in 2012.

Missile specifications

 * Length: 2.05 m
 * Diameter: 152 mm
 * Launch weight: approx. 51 kg
 * Speed: > Mach 3
 * Range: 10 km
 * Ceiling: 7,000 m
 * Warhead: 12.5 kg high explosive (HE) fragmentation/shaped charge, impact and proximity fuze
 * Penetration: 900 mm rolled homogeneous armour (RHA)
 * Guidance: Digitally coded laser beam-riding

title: Air defense anti-tank system


text:
Frank Lentini

Francesco "Frank" Lentini  (May 18, 1889 − September 21, 1966) was an Italian-American sideshow performer who toured with numerous circuses. Born with a conjoined twin, Lentini had three legs.

Early life
Lentini was born at 8 Gintoli Street, Rosolini, Sicily, on May 18, 1889. Delivered by midwife Maria Alberino, he was the fifth of 12 children (seven sisters and five brothers) in his family. Disgraced initially, his parents gave him into the care of his aunt, the wife of his uncle Corrado Falco. At four months old he was sent to be examined by a specialist in Naples. By age five he was playing with other children and was able to straighten his third leg, but could not use it to walk. He became known for having three legs, four feet, and two sets of genitals.

Lentini was born with a parasitic twin. The twin was attached to his body at the base of his spine and consisted of a pelvic bone, a rudimentary set of male genitalia, and a full-sized leg extending from the right side of his hip, with a small foot protruding from its knee.

Sideshow career
He was exhibited in numerous cities, including London, in 1897. When he was eight, Magnano, who ran a travelling puppet show, brought him to Middletown and Lentini's family moved to the United States. Lentini then entered the sideshow business as The Great Lentini, joining the Ringling Brothers Circus. He gained US citizenship at the age of 30. His career spanned over 40 years and he worked with every major circus and sideshow, including Barnum and Bailey and Buffalo Bill's Wild West Show. Lentini was so respected among his peers that he was often called "The King".

In his youth, Lentini used his third leg to kick a football across the stage—hence his show name, the Three-Legged Football Player.

Lentini's normal legs were slightly different in length: one was 99 centimeters and the other 97 centimeters. The third leg was only 91 centimeters and ended in a clubfoot. As an adult, his primary legs remained of different lengths while his extra leg was several centimeters shorter. He complained that, even with three legs, he still did not have a pair. In 1907 he married Theresa Murray, three years younger than him, and they had four children: Giuseppina (Josephine), Natale (Ned), Francesco (Frank) Junior, and Giacomo (James). When Frank and Theresa separated around 1935, he began a new life with Helen Shupe, with whom he lived until his death. Lentini died of lung failure in Jackson, Tennessee, on September 21, 1966, at the age of 77.

Legacy
Jonathan Redavid portrayed him in the 2017 film The Greatest Showman.

Frank Lentini is featured on the back cover of Seattle-based rock band Alice in Chains' self-titled 1995 album.

title: Frank Lentini


text:
Cecil Jacobson

Cecil Byran Jacobson (October 2, 1936 – March 5, 2021 ) was an American former fertility doctor who used his own sperm to impregnate his patients without informing them.

Jacobson was born in Salt Lake City, Utah. A graduate of Brown University, he became a researcher at George Washington University, but had no specialist training in infertility medicine.

Baboon impregnation
In the 1960s, Jacobson, who was Chief of the Reproductive Genetics Unit at George Washington University Medical School, claimed that he had impregnated a male baboon; he had supposedly implanted his sperm into a female baboon’s abdominal cavity. He claimed that he had terminated the pregnancy after four months, but never published his results in scientific publications.

False pregnancies
In the 1980s, Jacobson operated a reproductive genetics center in Fairfax County, Virginia. He specialized in treating women who had difficulty getting pregnant, or problems carrying a pregnancy to term. One form of treatment was to inject patients, before and after conception, with the hormone hCG (commonly used as a parenteral fertility medication and a hormone normally released during pregnancy), and patients who had been unable to conceive with other treatments reported success under Jacobson's care.

The pregnancies progressed normally through the early stages: standard pregnancy tests were positive and patients' bodies began to undergo changes associated with pregnancy. Jacobson performed ultrasounds, identifying a fetus in the grainy image. Around the third month, Jacobson would report that the fetus had died. In fact, these patients were never pregnant, and the bodily changes were a reaction to the hCG. The pregnancy tests were inevitably false positives because the tests determined pregnancy by the presence of hCG. During Jacobson's criminal trial, experts examined the ultrasound photographs, and reported that the purported "fetuses" were actually nearby organs or fecal matter.

Nevertheless, other patients were successful in becoming pregnant and having children. While some patients were uncomfortable with Jacobson's manner, and began to distrust him, other patients gave him credit for successful treatment.

Paternity
In 1989, suspicious former patients tipped off a local television station, which investigated and reported on the false pregnancies. Jacobson was sued by numerous patients. Federal prosecutors charged Jacobson with perjury (for false testimony during the civil proceedings) and mail and wire fraud (for the use of the letters and the telephone system as part of his fraudulent practice).

During the course of the criminal investigation, another type of fraud came to light. For a variety of reasons, some patients had arranged to be artificially inseminated with sperm provided by screened, anonymous donors arranged by Jacobson. In order to preserve the anonymity of the donors, Jacobson explained, he identified them in records using code numbers; only Jacobson was to know their true identities. Investigators found no evidence that any donor program actually existed. Some of Jacobson's patients who had conceived through donor insemination agreed to genetic testing. At least seven instances were identified in which Jacobson was the biological father of the patients' children, including one patient who was supposed to have been inseminated with sperm provided by her husband. DNA tests linked Jacobson to at least 15 such children, and it has been suspected that he fathered as many as 75 children by impregnating patients with his own sperm.

Defense
Jacobson vigorously denied wrongdoing. He offered these explanations: With regard to the "false pregnancy" cases, he had believed that the women had actually been pregnant, and continued to maintain that some of them really were pregnant. He was well aware that injected hCG could trigger a false positive on a pregnancy test, but thought that the dosages he administered were too low to have that effect. If he misread the ultrasound results, that was an honest error. As for the donor insemination, Jacobson maintained that he had in fact relied on anonymous donors as claimed. He acknowledged using his own sperm on some occasions, when donors failed to show up when needed, and a patient was about to miss a window of opportunity to become pregnant. He could not account for the incident in which his own sperm was used in place of the patient's husband's, other than to suggest cross-contamination in the laboratory.

Sentence
In 1992, Jacobson was convicted of 52 counts of mail fraud, wire fraud, and perjury. He was sentenced to five years in prison and had his medical license revoked. Jacobson appealed his convictions and sentence, but they were upheld by the court of appeals. He later moved to Provo, Utah, where he was involved in agricultural research.

"Awards"
He was awarded the Ig Nobel Prize for Biology in 1992, which cited him as "Dr. Cecil Jacobson, relentlessly generous sperm donor, and prolific patriarch of sperm banking, for devising a simple, single-handed method of quality control."

In the media

 * Elements of the case were echoed in the 2021 Hulu film False Positive.
 * A book was written about the case, Babymaker: Fertility, Fraud and the Fall of Doctor Cecil Jacobson (1993), Rick Nelson, ISBN 0-553-56162-6
 * The story was made into a 1994 TV film: The Babymaker: The Dr. Cecil Jacobson Story
 * The case formed the basis of a Season 5 episode of Law & Order, "Seed"
 * Elements of the case were echoed in Season 4 episode of Fringe, "A Better Human Being"
 * Elements of the case were echoed in Season 1 episode of Awake, "The Little Guy"
 * Elements of the case were echoed in Season 1 episode of Reaper, "Coming to Grips"
 * The case was discussed in the Harvard University's course 'Justice' by Michael Sandel
 * An SNL skit with John Goodman starring as Cecil Jacobson was performed, where Jacobson was sentenced by the courts to star in a sitcom with the 75 children he fathered.

title: Cecil Jacobson


text:
Victoria Park, Sydney

Victoria Park is a 9 ha urban park situated on the corner of Parramatta Road and City Road, Camperdown, in the City of Sydney, New South Wales, Australia. The park is located adjacent to The University of Sydney and the Broadway Shopping Centre.

Proclaimed as a park in 1870, Victoria Park, together with The University of Sydney and its associated University Colleges were listed on the New South Wales State Heritage Register on 31 August 2018. The park and features including Gardener's Lodge and its interior, the park's entry gates and piers, and the park layout, paths and plantings were listed on the City of Sydney local government heritage list on 14 December 2012.

History
Victoria Park was originally part of Grose Farm, which in 1853 was designated as the site for the University of Sydney. In 1865 an area at the intersection of City Road and Parramatta Road was granted to the university for the building of a formal entrance to the university.

The park was designed in the picturesque style by Charles Moore, director of the Royal Botanic Garden. Moore used James Jones (born 1839) who became Overseer of the Domains in Sydney from 1884, whose post involved planning and supervising all outside work required by the NSW Government in the city suburbs and country. This included all garden requirements of the Government Architect (railways, police, hospitals, schools) in addition to layout out several municipal parks. A grand entrance avenue, aligned with the central tower of the university's main quadrangle building, was built connecting this entrance area with the university. The remainder of the former farm between the entrance area and the university proper was proclaimed Victoria Park in 1870.

In the late 1880s, two lodges (one of which survives while the other was demolished in 1940) and a set of ornate gates, designed by Colonial Architect James Barnet, were built at the start of the entrance avenue on the corner of City Road and Parramatta Road.

By the end of the 19th century, the main point of access to the university switched to the entrance further west on Parramatta Road, opposite Derwent Road. Between 1910 and 1940 an area roughly east of the line of Eastern Avenue, which had been part of Victoria Park, became part of the University's grounds; and gradually severed the historical vista along the entrance avenue, and the entrance avenue itself disappeared. In 1911 management of Victoria Park given to Sydney City Council, works included; park planning, further plantings, establishment of a children's playground, extension of the bowling club and the introduction of park lighting. In 1927 the avenue through Victoria Park was formally reduced to a right of way. During the 1930s extensive remodelling of Victoria Park were completed including the lake, lawns, pathways, plantings, filling in of small pond (near current swimming pool), removal of iron railing surrounding the Park and creation of fence between the park and the University. Between 1924 and 1946 the University exchanged 7.75 acre of lake and main drive with the Sydney City Council for 9 acre of Victoria Park in the Eastern Avenue area.

In 1955 the Victoria Park Swimming Pool (named in honour of King George VI) opened. The pool was the first in-ground public swimming pool in Sydney. The Victoria Park lake was reduced and the bridge that carried the avenue over the lake was demolished in 1955. The eastern gates were moved to the university's main City Road entrance via Eastern Avenue. During the 1960s the Victoria Park Lawn Bowls club house was replaced, dominating the City Road section of the park. In 1961 the University Site Development plans were presented with formation of functional precincts, landscaping with pedestrian precedence over vehicles. In 1964 Victoria Park lake re-named Lake Northam, in honour of Bill Northam.

In the 1970s Victoria Park plantings modified and flower beds reduced. In the 1990s South Sydney Council rebuilt a pedestrian path along the old entrance avenue, with a bridge rebuilt over the lake (Lake Northam). The historical vista was restored after a series of initiatives around the turn of the 21st century. In the 1990s the South Sydney City Council restored the main avenue in Victoria Park as a pedestrian path with a bridge over an enlarged Lake Northam and new garden beds. In 1992 a Draft Plan of Management for Victoria Park was created; and revised the following year. In 1998 the Victoria Park Lawn Bowls clubhouse was removed and the following year, the lawn bowls greens removed and returfed. In 2002 the University undertook works to extend the vista along that path, including the construction of a set of steps leading from Victoria Park into the University. In 2007, at the same time as reconfiguring Eastern Avenue, the original entrance gates were restored to the City Road end of the entrance avenue. In 2010 Victoria Park playground upgrade was completed; and in 2012 the Gardener's Lodge restored and refurbished as cafe. In 2017 Victoria Park works including new paths, lighting, seating, signage, recreation space and refurbishing of Lake Northam commenced.

Description
Proclaimed on 16 July 1870, Victoria Park is of historical significance as a significant Victorian era park in Sydney and its part in the early history of Camperdown. It is also significant for its close association with The University of Sydney. The park retains substantial components, including fabric, spaces, layout and Victorian character of its formative 19th century planning and design.

The park contains an in-ground public swimming pool, built in 1953 and named in honour of King George VI who died the previous year. Originally it consisted of a main pool, wading pool, and male and female changing rooms. Later a children's playground and kiosk were added. A lake, initially named Horse Pond, was formed in the 1930s after a stormwater channel to Blackwattle Bay was closed. A representational bronze sculpture of the yacht Barrenjoey was installed on the island in the centre of the lake to commemorate the gold medal for yachting won by Bill Northam, an alderman on Sydney City Council, at the 1964 Olympic Games At the same time the lake was renamed as Lake Northam in his honour. In the 1990s the lake was enlarged and a bridge, demolished in 1955, reinstated as part of the restoration of the University entrance avenue vista.

A totem pole near the southern corner of the park was "presented to the people of Sydney in the name of the government and people of Canada on the occasion of National Timber Week, 1964". The pole was carved by Simon Charlie, a Quamichan man from Vancouver Island, British Columbia.

The Gardener's Lodge adjacent to City Road was used as a toilet block for a long time, and eventually restored and now used as a café. The Lodge and the sandstone gates nearby originally guarded the eastern edge of the University grounds.

Heritage listing
The University of Sydney, University Colleges and Victoria Park is of state historical significance as a vestige of Governor Phillip's original 1000 acre "Kanguroo Ground" Crown reserve of 1790 and for its connection to the 18th century British government's approach to colonialism and its concept of "terra nullius" as the foundation for dispossession of Aboriginal land in the immediate area of Sydney.

The cultural landscape is of state heritage significance for its ability to demonstrate activities of the colonial era (1792-1855) associated with Grose Farm, convict stockade, and female orphan school.

The University of Sydney and Victoria Park as connected landscapes have tangible links to Charles Moore, Director of the Royal Botanic Gardens (1848-1896) and subsequent designers using prevalent 19th century theories of landscape design, plant material and horticultural techniques. Victoria Park is a significant Victorian-era park dedicated in 1870. The park retains substantial components of its formative 19th-century planning and design, including the grand avenue linking City Road and the remaining original gate lodge to the tower of the Main Building of the University. The provision of sport and leisure facilities across the site have contributing significantly to the retention of open space and green buffers between the built forms of the campus, and are important to the people of Sydney and NSW.

The University of Sydney, University Colleges and Victoria Park has been a major landmark of Sydney and NSW since its inception. It holds substantial social values and associations, and is held in high esteem for a range of affiliated communities and groups as an iconic place of historic, academic, cultural, sporting, recreational and social pursuits and events.

The intactness of the groupings of buildings and landscapes across the history of the development of the site represents a microcosm of the development of architectural design, town planning and landscape design in New South Wales and Australia.

Victoria Park was listed on the New South Wales State Heritage Register on 31 August 2018 having satisfied the following criteria.

The place is important in demonstrating the course, or pattern, of cultural or natural history in New South Wales.

The University of Sydney, University Colleges and Victoria Park is of state significance for its historical connection that dates back to the foundation of the colony. The site encompasses a portion of the original 1000 acre "Kanguroo Ground" reserved by Governor Arthur Phillip in August 1790. Inclusive of timbered land, prominent ridges, and valleys with fresh water sources, this tract of land was designated for church (400 acres), Crown (400 acres) and school (200 acres) usage. The site is a vestige of the latter two areas. The later leasing of the part of this land to military officers (Grose Farm) and its use for agistment, agricultural experimentation, farming education, a stockade for convicts and establishment of a female orphan school provides an understanding of the cultural history of the local area.

The site is of state heritage significance for its continuity of provision of sporting and leisure facilities to the people of Sydney and NSW. Sport also has been an important factor in University student life and in the use of the University grounds. The sporting facilities at the University contributed significantly to the retention of open space and green buffers between the built forms of the campus.

The site has held socially and nationally significant sporting events such as horse racing (pre and post university), rugby football (oldest club in Australia), cricket, tennis and hockey (including inter-state and international matches) and Sydney's first in-ground public pool (King George VI, Victoria Park). Victoria Park has been a place of continuous children's play & leisure activities for over 130 years, with a playground being a feature of the Park since 1912.

The place has a strong or special association with a person, or group of persons, of importance of cultural or natural history of New South Wales's history.

The University of Sydney, University Colleges and Victoria Park has state significance for its association with a large number of notable people who were involved in the development and expansion of the University, its lands, the buildings, landscape and grounds. These include the initial land owners, those responsible for and involved in the initial establishment of the University as an institution, and the architects and designers who have designed and constructed the principal buildings and landscapes throughout each campus and developed the master plans for the place.

In regard to the University of Sydney as an historic cultural landscape, there are a number of people who were involved in the initial establishment and subsequent development of the University and so have strong associations with the place. These include the following people, together with their association or contribution:
 * Governor Arthur Phillipreserved part of "Kanguroo Ground" for future church, Crown and school usage; 1790
 * Lieutenant Governor Francis Groseoriginal leaseholder; 1792
 * Edmund Blacket (former NSW Colonial Architect)First architect for the University of Sydney and responsible for the core buildings the Quadrangle Building; 1854-1862
 * Charles MooreFirst Director of the Royal Botanic Gardens - responsible for the design of the plantings in Victoria Park and University Place in front of Quadrangle; 1880
 * Walter Liberty Vernon (NSW Government Architect)architect for the University of Sydney and responsible for the first whole of site plan for the place
 * George McRae (NSW Government Architect)architect for the University, developed a plan for the whole of the place; 1914, resulting in the formalising and development of Science Road
 * Walter Burley GriffinArchitect who developed a whole of site plan for the University focussing on landscape and visual and planning axes; 1915.

The place is important in demonstrating aesthetic characteristics and/or a high degree of creative or technical achievement in New South Wales.

The University of Sydney, University Colleges and Victoria Park is of state significance for a number of fine examples of architecture and landscape design. These aesthetic values relate to:
 * The University of Sydney and Victoria Park as connected landscapes, with planted features, including individual specimen trees, avenues of mature trees, open lawns, designed gardens and courtyards. The open spaces and roadways contribute to the aesthetic significance of the place and significant axial views. Across the site there are landscapes and gardens which demonstrate Picturesque (1850s-1890s), Arts and Crafts (1890s-1917) and Georgian Revival/Mediterranean (1915-1940s) aesthetic characteristics;
 * Victoria Park for its landmark location on the intersection of two major thoroughfares (Parramatta Road and City Road), as an "Approach Reserve" to the University of Sydney and its visual relationship to the University of Sydney. The Park retains substantial components of its formative 19th century "picturesque" planning and design including fabric, spaces, layout, its Victorian character and importantly, the grand avenue linking City Road and the remaining original gate lodge to the tower of the Main Building of the University;
 * The sporting facilities at the University and Colleges contributing significantly to the retention of open space and green buffers between the built forms of the campus. They are traditional open spaces that are readily associated with university and college life, and they form a strong element of the traditional campus form; and
 * Site features such as the boundary treatments, gateways, artworks (sculptures) and memorials that individually and together contribute to the overall aesthetic and historic character of the University as a whole.

The place has a strong or special association with a particular community or cultural group in New South Wales for social, cultural or spiritual reasons.

The University of Sydney, University Colleges and Victoria Park has substantial social values at state level for a range of affiliated communities and groups. These values are attached to the whole of the University, each of the colleges, campuses and individual faculties, Victoria Park, as well as smaller precincts, vistas, buildings and features in the grounds. These values may be associated with experiences and memories that these places may hold and include:
 * Association as a major place for sporting groups and events;
 * The Park's sense of place, as a landmark major open space within inner-Sydney, a passive recreation area, and for the active use of the Victoria Park Swimming Pool;
 * The swimming pool as a focus of over 60 years of water-based recreational activity within the Park for the local and broader community;
 * The Park being used for major events and gatherings including an unofficial Aboriginal tent embassy (2000-2004), the Yabun Festival of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander cultures held annually on 26 January, and the annual Sydney Gay and Lesbian Mardi Gras Fair Day; and
 * Over 130 years of children using Victoria Park as a place of play.

The place has potential to yield information that will contribute to an understanding of the cultural or natural history of New South Wales.

The cultural landscape is of state heritage significance for its ability to demonstrate activities of the colonial era (1792-1855) associated with Grose Farm, convict stockade and orphan school. The potential for significant archaeological evidence of the post-European settlement period relates to the pre-university land use of Grose Farm, and the early development of the University and Park.

The place possesses uncommon, rare or endangered aspects of the cultural or natural history of New South Wales.

The University of Sydney, University Colleges and Victoria Park contain a number of buildings and landscapes that are rare or unique and of state significance. These include:

 * The long axis and grand triple avenue (of which major remnants remain) linking City Road to Edmund Blacket's Main Building tower being a rare example of a Blacket landscape design;
 * Victoria Park as a contemporarily planned setting for a major 19th century university campus, being a reserve associated from its beginnings with the first university in Australia;
 * Landscape and planted features from the early 1880s of individual specimen trees and avenues of mature trees, including rare plantings in cultivation in Sydney (e.g. Combretum erythrophyllum, Ficus superba var., Muelleri and, possibly, Ficus macrophylla subsp. columnaris and Quercus acutissima);
 * Botanical collections such as camellia plantings by E. G. Waterhouse and rare cultural landscape groupings of significant trees;
 * The intactness of the groupings of buildings across the history of the development of the site (i.e few have been demolished); and
 * All the above and others, that individually and together contribute to the overall unique and historic character of the site as a whole.

The place is important in demonstrating the principal characteristics of a class of cultural or natural places/environments in New South Wales.

The University of Sydney, University Colleges and Victoria Park is of state significance as an item that demonstrates principal characteristics of a class of NSWs cultural place or environment as the site:

 * Is one of the finest examples of connected landscapes in NSW with a continuous history from pre-colonial times to today. The University grounds are inextricably linked to Victoria Park and reflect Governor Phillip's designated land reserve (1789) for school, Crown and church purposes, with an allowance for the "formation of a park and garden in connection therewith". The developed landscapes having retained the topography and much of the original landform. The site retains elements of the early colonial Grose Farm, the establishment of the University and the colonial landscaping;
 * Demonstrates the aspirations of colonial Sydney to shape its own society, polity and ideals, which ultimately led to the establishment of the University of Sydney and University Colleges by Acts of Parliament in 1850 and 1854 respectively. The University is a tangible representation of the early development of NSW and the development of the state and nation. It represents an important part of the development of NSW and Australia into the country that we see today. It is a significant example of the influence of government-funded education. The distribution of the University colleges around the periphery (separating the teaching buildings from the residential), stressed the communal nature of the University as a whole;
 * Represents a microcosm of the development of architectural design, town planning and landscape design in New South Wales and Australia;
 * Has been a major landmark of Sydney and NSW since its inception and reflects a fulfilment of Governor Phillip's designated land reserve (1789) for school, Crown and church purposes, with an allowance for the "formation of a park and garden in connection therewith". Prominence of the University was created with the placement of Edmund Blacket's Main Quadrangle Building on the crest of Petersham Ridge, with sweeping views up to it from the main artery leaving the city, Parramatta Road. The positioning of the building was a conscious statement of the importance of the University. Victoria Park is unique within NSW as a contemporarily planned setting for a major 19th century university campus. Overall, many features of this large site retain their integrity from the date of their establishment. Such features include the alignment of the site boundaries and their treatments, the internal layout of many of the roads, the configuration of buildings and gardens and the uses of the buildings and precincts; and
 * Is held in high esteem by the local community, local council, students, graduates, academics, staff, benefactors and sporting club members as an iconic place of historic, academic, cultural, sporting, recreational and social pursuits and events.

title: Victoria Park, Sydney


text:
Abulia

In neurology, abulia, or aboulia (from βουλή, meaning "will"), refers to a lack of will or initiative and can be seen as a disorder of diminished motivation (DDM). Abulia falls in the middle of the spectrum of diminished motivation, with apathy being less extreme and akinetic mutism being more extreme than abulia. The condition was originally considered to be a disorder of the will, and aboulic individuals are unable to act or make decisions independently; and their condition may range in severity from subtle to overwhelming. In the case of akinetic mutism, many patients describe that as soon as they "will" or attempt a movement, a "counter-will" or "resistance" rises up to meet them.

Symptoms and signs
The clinical condition denoted abulia was first described in 1838; however, since that time, a number of different, some contradictory, definitions have emerged. Abulia has been described as a loss of drive, expression, behavior and speech output, with slowing and prolonged speech latency, and reduction of spontaneous thought content and initiative, being considered more recently as 'a reduction in action emotion and cognition'. The clinical features most commonly associated with abulia are:
 * Difficulty in initiating and sustaining purposeful movements
 * Lack of spontaneous movement
 * Reduced spontaneous speech
 * Increased response-time to queries
 * Passivity
 * Reduced emotional responsiveness and spontaneity
 * Reduced social interactions
 * Reduced interest in usual pastimes

Especially in patients with progressive dementia, it may affect feeding. Patients may continue to chew or hold food in their mouths for hours without swallowing it. The behavior may be most evident after these patients have eaten part of their meals and no longer have strong appetites.

Differentiation from other disorders
Both neurologists and psychiatrists recognize abulia to be a distinct clinical entity, but its status as a syndrome is unclear. Although abulia has been known to clinicians since 1838, it has been subjected to different interpretations – from 'a pure lack of will', in the absence of motor paralysis to, more recently, being considered 'a reduction in action emotion and cognition'. As a result of the changing definition of abulia, there is currently a debate on whether or not abulia is a sign or a symptom of another disease, or its own disease that seems to appear in the presence of other more well-researched diseases, such as Alzheimer's disease.

A 2002 survey of two movement disorder experts, two neuropsychiatrists, and two rehabilitation experts, did not seem to shed any light on the matter of differentiating abulia from other DDMs. The experts used the terms "apathy" and "abulia" interchangeably and debated whether or not abulia was a discrete entity, or just a hazy gray area on a spectrum of more defined disorders. Four of the experts said abulia was a sign and a symptom, and the group was split on whether or not it was a syndrome. Another survey, which consisted of true and false questions about what abulia is distinct from, whether it is a sign, symptom, or syndrome, where lesions are present in cases of abulia, what diseases are commonly associated with abulia, and what current treatments are used for abulia, was sent to 15 neurologists and 10 psychiatrists. Most experts agreed that abulia is clinically distinct from depression, akinetic mutism, and alexithymia. However, only 32% believed abulia was different from apathy, while 44% said they were not different, and 24% were unsure. Yet again, there was disagreement about whether or not abulia is a sign, symptom, or syndrome.

The study of motivation has been mostly about how stimuli come to acquire significance for animals. Only recently has the study of motivational processes been extended to integrate biological drives and emotional states in the explanation of purposeful behavior in human beings. Considering the number of disorders attributed to a lack of will and motivation, it is essential that abulia and apathy be defined more precisely to avoid confusion.

Causes
Many different causes of abulia have been suggested. While there is some debate about the validity of abulia as a separate disease, experts mostly agree that abulia is the result of frontal lesions and not with cerebellar or brainstem lesions. As a result of more and more evidence showing that the mesolimbic and the mesocortical dopamine system are key to motivation and responsiveness to reward, abulia may be a dopamine-related dysfunction. Abulia may also result from a variety of brain injuries which cause personality change, such as dementing illnesses, trauma, or intracerebral hemorrhage (stroke), especially stroke causing diffuse injury to the right hemisphere.

Damage to the basal ganglia
Injuries to the frontal lobe and/or the basal ganglia can interfere with an individual's ability to initiate speech, movement, and social interaction. Studies have shown that 5-67% of all patients with traumatic brain injuries and 13% of patients with lesions on their basal ganglia experience some form of diminished motivation.

It may complicate rehabilitation when a stroke patient is uninterested in performing tasks like walking despite being capable of doing so. It should be differentiated from apraxia, when a brain injured patient has impairment in comprehending the movements necessary to perform a motor task despite not having any paralysis that prevents performing the task; that condition can also result in lack of initiation of activity.

Damage to the capsular genu
A case study involving two patients with acute confusional state and abulia was conducted to see if these symptoms were the result of an infarct in the capsular genu. Using clinical neuropsychological and MRI evaluations at baseline and one year later showed that the cognitive impairment was still there one year after the stroke. Cognitive and behavioral alterations due to a genu infarct are most likely because the thalamo-cortical projection fibers that originate from the ventral-anterior and medial-dorsal nuclei traverse the internal capsule genu. These tracts are part of a complex system of cortical and subcortical frontal circuits through which the flow of information from the entire cortex takes place before reaching the basal ganglia. Cognitive deterioration could have occurred through the genu infarcts affecting the inferior and anterior thalamic peduncles. In this case study the patients did not show any functional deficits at the follow-up one year after the stroke and were not depressed but did show diminished motivations. This result supports the idea that abulia may exist independently of depression as its own syndrome.

Damage to anterior cingulate circuit
The anterior cingulate circuit consists of the anterior cingulate cortex, also referred to as Brodmann area 24, and its projections to the ventral striatum which includes the ventromedial caudate. The loop continues to connect to the ventral pallidum, which connects to the ventral anterior nucleus of the thalamus. This circuit is essential for the initiation of behavior, motivation and goal orientation, which are the very things missing from a patient with a disorder of diminished motivation. Unilateral injury or injury along any point in the circuit leads to abulia regardless of the side of the injury, but if there is bilateral damage, the patient will exhibit a more extreme case of diminished motivation, akinetic mutism.

Acute caudate vascular lesions
It s well documented that the caudate nucleus is involved in degenerative diseases of the central nervous system such as Huntington disease. In a case study of 32 acute caudate stroke patients, 48% were found to be experiencing abulia. Most of the cases where abulia was present were when the patients had a left caudate infarct that extended into the putamen as seen through a CT or MRI scan.

Diagnosis
Diagnosis for abulia can be quite difficult because it falls between two other disorders of diminished motivation, and one could easily see an extreme case of abulia as akinetic mutism or a lesser case of abulia as apathy and therefore, not treat the patient appropriately. If it were to be confused with apathy, it might lead to attempts to involve the patient with physical rehabilitation or other interventions where a source of strong motivation would be necessary to succeed but would still be absent. The best way to diagnose abulia is through clinical observation of the patient as well as questioning of close relatives and loved ones to give the doctor a frame of reference with which they can compare the patient's new behavior to see if there is in fact a case of diminished motivation. In recent years, imaging studies using a CT or MRI scan have been shown to be quite helpful in localizing brain lesions which have been shown to be one of the main causes of abulia.

Conditions where abulia may be present

 * Normal pressure hydrocephalus
 * Major depressive disorder
 * Persistent depressive disorder
 * Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder
 * Schizophrenia
 * Frontotemporal dementia
 * Parkinson's disease
 * Huntington's disease
 * Pick's disease
 * Progressive supranuclear palsy
 * Traumatic brain injury
 * Stroke

Alzheimer's disease
A lack of motivation has been reported in 25–50% of patients with Alzheimer's disease. While depression is also common in patients with this disease, abulia is not a mere symptom of depressions because more than half of the patients with Alzheimer's disease with abulia do not have depression. Several studies have shown that abulia is most prevalent in cases of severe dementia which may result from reduced metabolic activity in the prefrontal regions of the brain. Patients with Alzheimer's disease and abulia are significantly older than patients with Alzheimer's who do not lack motivation. Going along with that, the prevalence of abulia increased from 14% in patients with a mild case Alzheimer's disease to 61% in patients with a severe case of Alzheimer's disease, which most likely developed over time as the patient got older.

Treatment
Most current treatments for abulia are pharmacological, including the use of antidepressants. However, antidepressant treatment is not always successful and this has opened the door to alternative methods of treatment. The first step to successful treatment of abulia, or any other DDM, is a preliminary evaluation of the patient's general medical condition and fixing the problems that can be fixed easily. This may mean controlling seizures or headaches, arranging physical or cognitive rehabilitation for cognitive and sensorimotor loss, or ensuring optimal hearing, vision, and speech. These elementary steps also increase motivation because improved physical status may enhance functional capacity, drive, and energy and thereby increase the patient's expectation that initiative and effort will be successful.

There are 5 steps to pharmacological treatment:
 * 1) Optimize medical status.
 * 2) Diagnose and treat other conditions more specifically associated with diminished motivation (e.g., apathetic hyperthyroidism, Parkinson's disease).
 * 3) Eliminate or reduce doses of psychotropics and other agents that aggravate motivational loss (e.g., SSRIs, dopamine antagonists).
 * 4) Treat depression efficaciously when both DDM and depression are present.
 * 5) Increase motivation through use of stimulants, dopamine agonists, or other agents such as cholinesterase inhibitors.

title: Abulia


text: Category:Norwegian mathematicians

title: Category:Norwegian mathematicians