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Viking Age arms and armour

Knowledge about military technology of the Viking Age (late 8th to mid-11th century Europe) is based on relatively sparse archaeological finds, pictorial representations, and to some extent on the accounts in the Norse sagas and laws recorded in the 12th–14th century.

According to custom, all free Norse men were required to own weapons, and permitted to carry them at all times. Indeed, the Hávamál, purported to be sage advice given by Odin, states "Don't leave your weapons lying about behind your back in a field; you never know when you may need all of sudden your spear."

As war was the most prestigious activity in Viking Age Scandinavia, beautifully finished weapons were an important way for a warrior to display his wealth and status. A wealthy Viking would likely have a complete ensemble of a spear, a wooden shield, and either a battle axe or a sword. Battle axes were considered the "normal weapon" for middle class Vikings. Swords were normally reserved for the upper class and nobles. Much poetry was associated with Viking weapons. The richest might have a helmet and mail armour; these are thought to have been limited to the nobility and their professional warriors (retainers). Several layers of thick woollen clothing may have been used by poorer warriors. The average farmer was likely limited to a spear, shield, and perhaps a common axe or large knife (seax). Some would also bring their hunting bows (mostly long bow or flat bow) to use in the opening stages of battle.

Knife (dagger)
Two distinct classes of knives were in use by Vikings. The more common one was a rather plain, single edge knife of normal construction, called a. These are found in most graves, being the only weapon allowed for all, even slaves. Smaller versions served as the everyday utility tool, while longer versions were likely meant for hunting or combat or both. Weapon knives sometimes had ornamental inlays on the blade. The construction was similar to traditional Scandinavian knives. The tang ran through a more or less cylindrical handle, the blade was straight with the edge sweeping upward at the tip to meet the back of the blade in a point. The knife apparently played an important role for all Scandinavians. This is evidenced by the large number of knives found in burial sites of not just the men, but the women and the children too.

The other type was the seax. The type associated with Vikings is the so-called broken-back style seax. It was usually a bit heavier than the regular knife and would serve as a machete- or falchion-like arm. A wealthier man might own a larger seax, some being effectively swords. With the single edge and heavy blade, this somewhat crude weapon would be relatively simple to use and produce, compared to the regular sword. A rather long tang is fitted to many examples, indicating they may have had a longer handle for two-handed use. The smaller knife-like seaxes were likely within the fabrication ability of a common blacksmith.

The Seax was in widespread use among the Migration period Germanic tribes, and is even eponymous of the Saxons. It appears in Scandinavia from the 4th century, and shows a pattern of distribution from the lower Elbe (the Irminones) to Anglo-Saxon England. While its popularity on the continent declines with the end of the Migration period, it remained in the British Isles where it was taken up by the Vikings. The large, sword-like seaxes are primarily found in connection with Viking settlements in England and Ireland, but do not appear very commonly in Scandinavia.

Sword
The Viking Age sword was for single-handed use to be combined with a shield, with a double edged blade length of up to 90 cm. Its shape was still very much based on the Roman spatha with a tight grip, long deep fuller and no pronounced cross-guard. It was not exclusive to the Vikings, but rather was used throughout Europe

Swords were very costly to make, and a sign of high status. They were rarely used and some swords found in graves were probably not sturdy enough for battle or raiding, and instead were likely decorative items. Like Roman spathae, they were worn in leather-bound wooden scabbards suspended from a strap across the right shoulder. Early blades were pattern welded, a technique in which strips of wrought iron and mild steel were twisted and forged together, with the addition of a hardened edge. Later blades of homogeneous steel, imported probably from the Rhineland, many bearing inlaid makers' marks and inscriptions, such as INGELRII or VLFBERHT. Local craftsmen often added their own elaborately decorated hilts, and many swords were given names, such as Leg-biter and Gold-hilt. The sword grip was usually made of an organic material, such as wood, horn, or antler (which does not often survive for archaeological uncovering), and may well have been wound around with textile.

Owning a sword was a matter of high honour. Persons of status might own ornately decorated swords with silver accents and inlays. Most Viking warriors would own a sword as one raid was usually enough to afford a good blade. Most freemen would own a sword with goðar, jarls and sometimes richer freemen owning much more ornately decorated swords. The poor farmers would use an axe or spear instead but after a couple of raids they would then have enough to buy a sword. One sword mentioned in the Laxdæla saga was valued at half a crown, which would correspond to the value of 16 milk-cows. Constructing such weapons was a highly specialized endeavour and many sword-blades were imported from foreign lands, such as the Rhineland. Swords could take up to a month to forge and were of such high value that they were passed on from generation to generation. Often, the older the sword, the more valuable it became.

A distinct class of early single edged swords is known from Eastern Norway at the time. These had the same grips as the double edged swords, and blades of comparable length. The blades varied from long and slim, like the more common two edged swords, to somewhat heavy, giving the weapon a more cleaver-like balance. Confusingly, the same finds are sometimes classified as "sabres" or "seaxes" in English literature.

As mentioned above, a sword was so valued in Norse society that good blades were prized by successive generations of warriors. There is even some evidence from Viking burials for the deliberate and possibly ritual "killing" of swords, which involved the blade being bent so that it was unusable. Because Vikings were often buried with their weapons, the "killing" of swords may have served two functions, namely a ritualistic function in retiring a weapon with a warrior, and a practical one in deterring any grave robbers from disturbing the burial in order to get one of these costly weapons. Indeed, archaeological finds of the bent and brittle pieces of metal sword remains testify to the regular burial of Vikings with weapons, as well as the habitual "killing" of swords.

Axe
The most common hand weapon among Vikings was the axe – swords were more expensive to make and only wealthy warriors could afford them. The prevalence of axes in archaeological sites can likely be attributed to its role as not just a weapon, but also a common tool. This is supported by the large number of grave sites of female Scandinavians containing axes. Several types of larger axes specialized for use in battle evolved, with larger heads and longer shafts, including various types of bearded axes. The larger forms were as long as a man and made to be used with both hands, called the Dane Axe. Some axe heads were inlaid with silver designs. In the later Viking era, there were axe heads with crescent shaped edges measuring up to 45 cm called breiðöx (broadaxe). The double-bitted axes depicted in modern "Viking" art would have been very rare as it used more material and was seen as a waste during hard times, if they existed at all. No surviving examples, authentic artwork or clear descriptions from records support the existence of double-bitted axes used by Vikings. Double-bitted axes were not forged by the Norse. Just about every axe they forged was single headed.

Vikings most commonly carried sturdy axes that could be thrown or swung with head-splitting force. The Mammen Axe is a famous example of such battle-axes, ideally suited for throwing and melee combat.

An axe head was mostly wrought iron, with a steel cutting edge. This made the weapon less expensive than a sword, and was a standard item produced by blacksmiths, historically.

Like most other Scandinavian weaponry, axes were often given names. According to Snorri Sturluson's Prose Edda, axes were often named after she-trolls.

Spear
The spear was the most common weapon of the Scandinavian peasant class. Throwing spears were constantly used by the warrior class; despite popular belief, it was also the principal weapon of the Viking warrior, an apt fit to their formations and tactics. They consisted of metal heads with a blade and a hollow shaft, mounted on wooden shafts of two to three metres in length, and were typically made from ash wood. The spear heads could measure between twenty and sixty centimetres with a tendency towards longer heads in the later Viking Age. Spear heads with wings are called krókspjót (hooked spear) in the sagas. Some larger-headed spears were called höggspjót (chopping spear) and could also be used for cutting. The barbed throwing spears were often less decorated than the ostentatious thrusting spears, as the throwing spears were often lost in battle.

The spear was used both as a throwing weapon and as a thrusting weapon, although there was some specialization in design. Lighter, narrower spearheads were made for throwing; heavier broader ones, for stabbing. Most evidence indicates that they were used in one hand. Limited evidence from a saga indicates that they may have been used with two hands, but not in battle. The head was held in place with a pin, which saga characters occasionally pull out to prevent a foe from re-using the weapon.

Compared with a sword, the spear can be made with inferior steel and far less metal overall. This made the weapon cheaper and probably within the capability of a common blacksmith to produce. Despite this, the spear held great cultural significance to the Viking warrior, as the primary weapon of Odin, the king of the Norse gods and the god of warfare, was the spear Gungnir. The Eyrbyggja saga alludes that a customary start to a battle included throwing a spear right over the enemy army to claim it for Odin. Possibly due to its cultural significance, pattern welded blades are common in spear heads, and the sockets were often decorated with silver inlaid patterns.

Other polearms
A polearm known as the atgeir is mentioned in several sagas of Icelanders and other literature. Atgeir is usually translated as "halberd", akin to a glaive. Gunnar Hámundarson is described in Njáls saga as cutting and impaling foes on his atgeir.

Several weapons (including the kesja and the höggspjót) appearing in the sagas are Viking halberds. No weapon matching their descriptions have been found in graves. These weapons may have been rare, or may not have been part of the funerary customs of the Vikings. A more likely explanation however is that these polearms are descriptions of early medieval weapons that have been added into the sagas; likely because they were written down during the same period.

Sling
The Viking age sling was easy to manufacture, consisting of a rope and sometimes a leather cup to assist with loading, giving many of the lower class access to a formidable weapon. Slingers make effective light infantry due to their lack of heavy equipment and open formation, and the concussive effect of slingstones even through metal armour.

Bows and arrows
The bow and arrow was used for both hunting and warfare. They were made from yew, ash or elm. The draw force of a 10th-century bow may have reached some 90 pounds force (400 N) or more, resulting in an effective range of at least 200 m depending on the weight of the arrow. A yew bow found at Viking Hedeby, which probably was a full-fledged war bow, had a draw force of well over 100 pounds. Replica bows using the original dimensions have been measured to between 100-130 lb draw weight. A unit of length used in the Viking Age called a bow shot corresponded to what was later measured as 227.5 m. Illustrations from the time show bows being pulled back to the chest, rather than to the corner of the mouth or under the chin, as is common today.

Arrowheads were typically made from iron and produced in various shapes and dimensions, according to place of origin. Most arrowheads were fixed onto the arrow shaft by a shouldered tang that was fitted into the end of a shaft of wood. Some heads were also made of wood, bone or antler. Evidence for eagle feather flights has been found with the feathers being bound and glued on. The end of the shaft was flared with shallow self nocks, although some arrows possessed bronze cast nocks. The historical record also indicates that Vikings may have used barbed arrows, but the archaeological evidence for such technology is limited.

The earliest find of these relics were found in Denmark, seemingly belonging to the leading-warrior class based on the graves in which they were found.

Round shields
The shield was the most common means of defence. The sagas specifically mention linden wood for shield construction, although finds from graves show mostly other timbers, such as fir, alder and poplar with steel or iron shield boss. These timbers are not very dense and are light in the hand. They are also not inclined to split, unlike oak. Also, the fibres of the timber bind around blades preventing the blade from cutting any deeper unless a lot more pressure is applied. In conjunction with stronger wood, Vikings often reinforced their shields with leather or, occasionally, iron around the rim. Round shields seem to have varied in size from around 45-120 cm in diameter but 75-90 cm is by far the most common.

The smaller shield sizes came from the pagan period for the Saxons and the larger sizes from the 10th and 11th centuries. Most shields are shown in illuminations as being painted a single colour although some have a design painted onto them; the most common designs are simple crosses or derivations of sun wheels or segments. The few round shields that survived have much more complicated designs painted on them and sometimes very ornate silver and gold work applied around the boss and the strap anchors.

The Gokstad ship has places for shields to be hung on its railing and the Gokstad shields have holes along the rim for fastening some sort of non-metallic rim protection. These were called shield lists and they protected ship crews from waves and the wind. Some Viking shields may have been decorated by simple patterns although some skaldic poems praising shields might indicate more elaborate decoration and archaeological evidence has supported this. In fact, there is a complete subgenre of Skaldic poetry dedicated to shields, known as "shield poems", that describe scenes painted on shields. For example, the late-9th-century skaldic poem, Ragnarsdrápa, describes some shields painted with mythological scenes. Viking shields were also heavily used in formations. The shield wall or skjaldborg was a main formation in which accomplished Viking warriors would create a line of interlocked shields and thrust spears at adversaries. Other notable tactics included the svinfylking "boar battle formation", in which warriors would create a wedge configuration and attempt to burst through the front line of nearby foes.

Kite shields

It has been proposed that the medieval era kite shield favoured by the Normans was introduced to Europe by the Vikings. However, no documentation or remains of kite shields from the Viking period have been located by archaeologists, and the idea has been discarded.

It is commonly admitted that the kite shield originated in the Byzantine Empire, from where it quickly spread to Western Europe, where it was notably used by Franks. Eleventh century Normans most probably ended up using kite shield as result of their close cultural ties with Western Franks, who are also the origin of the Normans' famous nasal helmet, hauberk, and heavy cavalry tactics.

Helmet
The remains of six helmets from the Viking Age are known to exist:

 * the Tjele helmet fragment;
 * two fragments from Gotland;
 * one fragment from Kyiv;
 * the Gjermundbu helmet;
 * the Yarm helmet, found in Yarm, in the North Riding of Yorkshire, England.

Of the four helmet fragments found in Scandinavia, only the remains from Gjermundbu were of use in significant reconstruction.

The Gjermundbu helmet dates to the 10th century. It was excavated on a farm called Gjermundbu in Ringerike in central Norway. Gjermundbu is located in Haugsbygd, a village in northeast of Hønefoss, in Buskerud, Norway. This helmet was made of iron from four plates after the spangenhelm pattern. This helmet has a rounded cap, and there is evidence that it also may have had a mail aventail. It has a "spectacle" guard around the eyes and nose which formed a sort of mask, which suggests a close affinity with the earlier Vendel Period helmets.

The Yarm helmet was discovered in the 1950s by workmen digging pipe trenches in Chapel Yard, Yarm, near the River Tees. Research led by Chris Caple of Durham University, and published in 2020, established that the helmet dates to the 10th century. This helmet is made of iron bands and plates, riveted together, with a simple knop at the top. Below the brow band it has a "spectacle" guard around the eyes and nose forming a sort of mask, which suggests an affinity with earlier Vendel Period helmets. The lower edge of the brow band is pierced with circular holes, where a mail curtain (or aventail) may have been attached.

From runestones and other illustrations, it is known that the Vikings also wore simpler helmets, often caps with a simple noseguard. Research indicates that Vikings may have only rarely used metal helmets. Helmets with metal horns, presumably for ceremonial use, are known from the Nordic Bronze Age, 2,000 years prior to the Viking Age.

Despite popular culture, there is no evidence that Vikings used horned helmets in battle as such horns would be impractical in a melee, but it is possible that horned head dresses were used in ritual contexts. The horned and winged helmets associated with the Vikings in popular mythology were the invention of 19th-century Romanticism. The horned helmet may have been introduced in Richard Wagner's Ring operas (set in Germany): The male chorus wore horned helmets, while the other characters had winged helmets.

Chain mail
Once again, a single fragmented but possibly complete mail shirt has been excavated in Scandinavia, from the same site as the helmet—Gjermundbu in Haugsbygd. Scandinavian Viking Age burial customs seems to not favour burial with helmet or mail armour, in contrast to earlier extensive armour burials in Sweden Valsgärde or possibly only a small amount of Vikings could afford it. Probably worn over thick clothing, a mail shirt protected the wearer from being cut, but offered little protection from blunt trauma and stabbing attacks from a sharp point such as that of a spear. The difficulty of obtaining mail armour resided in the fact that it required thousands of interlinked iron rings, each one of which had to be individually riveted together by hand. As a result, mail was very expensive in early medieval Europe, and would likely have been worn by men of status and wealth.

Hjortspring boat contained several incomplete suits of mail.

The mail worn by Vikings was almost certainly the "four-on-one" type, where four solid (punched or riveted) rings are connected by a single riveted ring. Mail of this type is known as a byrnie from Old Norse brynja. Given scarcity of archeological evidence for Viking armor and the fact that Vikings on a raid tried to avoid pitched battles, it's possible that mail was primarily worn only by the professional warriors going into battle, such as the Great Heathen Army of the mid-9th century in England or at Harald Hardrada's invasion of Northumbria at the Battle of Fulford in 1066, and wealthy nobles.

Lamellar
More than 30 lamellae (individual plates for lamellar armour) were found in Birka, Sweden, in 1877, 1934 and 1998–2000. They were dated to the same approximate period as the Gjermundbu mailshirt (900‒950) and may be evidence that some Vikings wore this armour, which is a series of small iron plates laced together or sewed to a stout fabric or leather cats shirt. There is considerable debate however as to whether the lamellae in question were in the possession of a Scandinavian resident or a foreign mercenary.

Cloth and leather
Quilted cloth (a gambeson) is conjectured as possible options for lower-status Viking warriors, though no reference to such are known from the sagas. Such materials survive poorly in graves, and no archaeological finds have been made. Some runestones depict what appears to be armour which is likely not chain mail. The armour in question may have been the lamellar armour mentioned above, or may not have been armour at all. Several layers of stout linen or hemp canvas would provide a good level of protection, at reasonable expense, as would winter clothing made from thick woollen cloth. Practical experience with maille also suggests an undergarment of some sort would have been worn between the maille and the regular tunic, to protect the latter from dirt and excessive wear, but the descriptions of the effect of axes in the Sagas indicate such garments were lightly padded if at all.

Leather was far pricier during the period than today and thus less affordable for the casual warrior. In the Legendary Saga of St. Olaf, the kingsbane Thorir Hund is said to have worn a tunic made from reindeer fur, enchanted by "Finns" (Sámi), defending him from sword blows. The tunic is described as "magically" enhanced which may indicate that it may not represent a typical example of such a garment. Leather clothing does, however, occasionally turn up in archaeological finds, and would have offered some degree of protection in combat.

All in all, the case for non-metal forms of armour remains inconclusive. It is likely that the average Viking fought whilst wearing ordinary clothing, with the shield as the only form of protection.

Foreign origins of Viking arms and armour
Foreign-made, specifically Frankish, weapons and armour played a special role in Norse society. Norsemen attained them either through trade (an extension of gift-giving in Norse society) or as plunder. Therefore, their possession and display by any individual would signify their station in the social hierarchy and any political allegiances they had. One example of an exchange of weapons between the Franks and the Vikings occurred in 795 when Charlemagne exchanged weapons with the Anglo-Saxon king Offa of Mercia.

Scandinavian affinity towards foreign arms and armour during the Viking Age had an eminently practical aspect. Norse weapon designs were obsolete and sources of iron within Scandinavia were of poor quality. Frankish swords like the VLFBERHT had a higher carbon content (making them more durable) and their design was much more manoeuvrable compared to Scandinavian-produced swords. Although smaller weapons like daggers, knives, and arrowheads could be manufactured in Scandinavia, the best swords and spearheads were undoubtedly imported.

Many of the most important Viking weapons were highly ornate—decorated lavishly with gold and silver. Weapons adorned as such served large religious and social functions. These precious metals were not produced in Scandinavia and they too would have been imported. Once in Scandinavia, the precious metals would have been inlaid in the pommels and blades of weapons creating geometric patterns, depictions of animals, and (later) Christian symbols.

Vikings also used foreign armour. According to Heimskringla, one hundred Vikings appeared "in coats of ring-mail, and in foreign helmets" at the Battle of Nesjar in 1016.

During the mid-9th century, there was an influx of these high-quality weapons into Scandinavia, and Frankish arms became the standard for all Vikings. As Ahmad ibn Fadlan observed in his account of his journey to Russia, every Viking carried a "sword of the Frankish type". The Franks attempted to limit the Vikings' use of weapons and armour produced in Francia—fearing that they would eventually face equally armed opponents. Chapter 10 of the Capitulare Bononiense of 811 made it illegal for any clerical functionary to supply swords or armour to non-Frankish individuals. Laws like this were enacted throughout Francia. Ultimately, in 864, King Charles the Bald of West Francia made the practice punishable by death.

Some scholars have proposed that such laws proved so effective at stemming the flow of Frankish weapons that they initiated the practice of raiding for which Vikings became notorious.

Battles

 * Battle of Hafrsfjord
 * Battle of Hastings
 * Battle of Hjörungavágr
 * Battle of Svolder
 * Battle of Nesjar
 * Battle of Stiklestad
 * Battle of Remich
 * Sack of Santiago de Compostela

Duels

 * Kormáks saga, holmgang of Kormák and Bersi

title: Viking Age arms and armour


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User talk:Rgb9000

Welcome
Hi Rgb9000, and welcome to Wikipedia.

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Above all, make sure you be bold when contributing, and have fun!

– T.P.K. 08:50, 22 Oct 2004 (UTC)

Space Tree on Newgrounds
Hey. You recently edited Space Tree saying it was on Newgrounds. Could you please provide proof for these claims? Thanks. Tobb Done. But why? --R

What can I say? I'm a cynic. But thanks nonetheless. Tobb

image:UH005.gif
Hello Cohesion,

I see that you recently deleted images UH005.gif and other important UH-related images. These were images of the logo and mascot of University of Houston. I missed the argument for their deletion, and was unaware they were on the chopping block. Could you give me a little more background on why logos of a public university were deleted, when every other major university I look up has it's logo and/or seal at the top of the article and mascot in the sports section? Even if it had a tagging problem, it was a logo for a public university and I would rather it had been corrected than deleted. Viewing an archive I see that they were tagged as logos, and should fall under WP:L. I am considering reuploading it myself because I strongly feel that University of Houston should have it's logo,seal, and mascot on it's article page.

Thanks for your time,

--Rgb9000 06:00, 2 January 2007 (UTC)

 * Yes they probably should be re-uploaded. The problem was they didn't supply a source, and I couldn't add that since I didn't know where they came from. I usually will tag them correctly if they are just tagged wrong, but no source is a little harder. Usually it's better to re-upload them from somewhere where you know where they came from rather than guess. I do think they are fine to be tagged with logo though, and are definitely valid under fair use. Sorry for the disruption. :) - cohesion 13:34, 2 January 2007 (UTC)

Proposed deletion of Noop

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Please consider improving the article to address the issues raised. Removing will stop the proposed deletion process, but other deletion processes exist. In particular, the speedy deletion process can result in deletion without discussion, and articles for deletion allows discussion to reach consensus for deletion. Indolering (talk) 19:36, 8 December 2012 (UTC)

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title: User talk:195.172.220.162


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Kōji (Muromachi period)

Kōji (弘治) was a Japanese era name (年号) after Tenbun and before Eiroku. This period spanned the years from October 1555 through February 1558. Reigning emperors were Go-Nara-tennō (後奈良天皇) and Ōgimachi-tennō (正親町天皇).

Change of era

 * 1555 Kōji gannen (弘治元年): The era name was changed to mark an event or a number of events. The old era ended and a new once commenced in Tenbun 24.

The name originates from the following Chinese passage: 「祇承宝命、志弘治体」.

Events of the Kōji era

 * 1555 (Kōji 1, 1st month): A border war began between Mōri Motonari, daimyō of Aki Province, and Sue Harukata, daimyō of Suō Province.
 * 1555 (Kōji 1, 11th month): The Mōri forces surrounded the Sue defenders in the Battle of Itsukushima. When the outcome of the battle became clear, Sue Harutaka committed suicide; and others, including Odomo-no Yoshinaga, followed Harutaka in suicide. This victory, and the subsequent consolidation of the Mōri holdings were owing to Motonari's four sons: Mōri Takamoto, Kikkawa Motoharu, Hoda Motokiyo, and Kobayakawa Takakage.
 * 1555 (Kōji 1): The forces of Takeda Shingen and Uesugi Kenshin met at the confluence of the Saigawa and the Chikumagawa in Shinano Province; and the fighting was known as the Battles of Kawanakajima.
 * 1556 (Kōji 2): The Ōmori silver mine fell into the control of the Mōri clan during a campaign in Iwami Province.
 * September 27, 1557 (Kōji 3, 5th day of the 9th month): Emperor Go-Nara died at age 62.

title: Kōji (Muromachi period)


text:
Harristown

Harristown may refer to:

Australia

 * Harristown, Queensland, a suburb of Toowoomba

Ireland

 * Harristown, Naas South, County Kildare
 * Harristown (Parliament of Ireland constituency), disestablished 1801
 * Harristown (civil parish), West Offaly, County Kildare (in King's County until 1840)

United States

 * Harristown, Illinois, village in Macon County
 * Harristown Township, Macon County, Illinois
 * Harristown, Indiana

title: Harristown


text:
Tenbun

Tenbun (天文), also known as Tenmon, was a Japanese era name (年号) after Kyōroku and before Kōji. This period spanned from July 1532 through October 1555. The reigning emperor was Go-Nara-tennō (後奈良天皇).

Change of era

 * 1532 Tenbun gannen (天文元年): At the request of Ashikaga Yoshiharu, the 12th shōgun of the Muromachi Bakufu, the era name was changed because of various battles. The previous era ended and a new one commenced in Kyōroku 5, on the 29th day of the 7th month.

Events of the Tenbun era

 * 23 September 1532 (Tenbun 1, 24th day of the 8th month): Yamashina Hongan-ji set on fire. Hokke Riot in Kyōto.
 * 29 March 1535 (Tenbun 4, 26th day of the 2nd month): Go-Nara is formally installed as emperor.
 * 7 July 1541 (Tenbun 10, 14th day of the 6th month): Takeda Harunobu (later Takeda Shingen) banishes his father, Takeda Nobutora.
 * 4 September 1542 (Tenbun 11, 25th day of the 8th month): Imagawa Yoshimoto, who was daimyō of Suruga Province, conquered Tōtōmi Province; and from there, he entered Mikawa Province where he battled the daimyō of Owari Province, Oda Nobuhide. The Imagawa forces were defeated by the Oda army.
 * 24 September 1543 (Tenbun 12, 25th day of the 8th month): Portuguese ship drifts ashore at Tanegashima, and the gun is first introduced into Japan.
 * July/August 1544 (Tenbun 13, 7th month): There was flooding in Heian-kyō and nearby areas.
 * 11 January 1546 (Tenbun 15, 20th day of the 12th month): Ashikaga Yoshifushi becomes 13th Shōgun of the Ashikaga shogunate.
 * 1547 (Tenbun 16): Joseon-Japanese "Treaty of Tenbun", trading limited to Joseon port of Pusan and Sō clan commerce limited to 20 ships annually.
 * 28 January 1548 (Tenbun 17, 30th day of the 12th month): Nagao Kagetora (later Uesugi Kenshin) replaces his older brother Nagao Harukage as heir to Echigo Province, with triumphant entry in Kasugayama Castle.
 * 23 March 1549 (Tenbun 18, 24th day of the 2nd month): Princess Nō marries Oda Nobunaga.
 * 27 July 1549 (Tenbun 18, 3rd day of the 7th month): Jesuit Catholic priest Francis Xavier arrives in Japan at Kagoshima
 * 15 December 1549 (Tenbun 18, 27th day of the 11th month): Matsudaira clan of Mikawa Province fall under Imagawa Yoshimoto's rule. Matsudaira Takechiyo (later Tokugawa Ieyasu) departs for Imagawa as a hostage.
 * March/April 1554 (Tenbun 23, 2nd month): Shogun Yoshihusi was changed to Yoshiteru.

title: Tenbun


text:
John Lyon School

John Lyon School (prior to 1965 The Lower School of John Lyon) is an academically selective private co-educational day school for pupils aged 3 to 18 in Harrow on the Hill, Greater London, England.

The school was founded in 1876, by the Governors of Harrow School for the education of local boys, in keeping with the belated wishes of John Lyon, Harrow School's founder. The school is a successor to the 'English Form' established in 1853, to educate local scholars. John Lyon School maintains historic ties with Harrow School, and the two schools are closely partnered being part of the 'Harrow Family of Schools'. Until September 2021, it was a boys' school, becoming a mixed school for new pupils aged 11 and ending its single-sex school status at this time. The school is a member of the Headmasters' and Headmistresses' Conference (HMC). As of 2023, the school charges fees of around £20,000 per year; however, some academic scholarships are available to help reduce this fee.

Until 2020, John Lyon was an 11 to 18 senior independent HMC boys' day school in Harrow-on-the-Hill. In 2020, John Lyon amalgamated with what was then called Quainton Hall Prep, located in central Harrow, to become an all-through School. The School became co-educational and welcomed its first cohort of girls in September 2021. From January 2024, Quainton Hall Preparatory School was rebranded as a constituent part of the John Lyon School.

Structure and curriculum
The governing body of Harrow School retains some control of the John Lyon School; most responsibilities, however, are delegated to a John Lyon board of governors (officially styled Committee of Management). A number of Harrow governors serve on this committee, alongside co-opted governors. Unlike many previous governing bodies in British schools, there is no academic staff involvement in overall school government.

Heads

 * J.E. Williams – September 1879 – July 1898
 * E. Young – September 1898 – July 1910
 * E.H. Butt – December 1910 – April 1926
 * O.A. Le Beau – April 1926 – July 1951
 * R.F. Boyd Campbell – September 1951 – July 1968
 * G.V. Surtees – September 1968 – July 1983
 * D. Dixon – September 1983 – July 1986
 * T.J. Wright – September 1986 – July 2001
 * C. Ray – September 2001 – August 2004
 * D.A. Rimmer (acting head) – September 2004 – Dec 2004
 * K.J. Riley – January 2005 – August 2009
 * K.E. Haynes – August 2009 – August 2023
 * R.K.R Hardy – September 2023 – present

Notable alumni

 * Francis Bennion, jurist
 * Michael Bogdanov (d.2017), theatre director
 * Andrew deMello, scientist and academic
 * Andrew Carwood, conductor and singer, Director of Music, St. Paul's Cathedral, London
 * Alfred Dunhill (d.1959), tobacconist and inventor, progenitor of the Dunhill luxury goods company
 * David Fell, cricketer
 * Alastair Fraser, cricketer and a director of the Middlesex Cricket Board
 * David Gavurin, musician
 * Gary Gibbon, political editor at Channel 4
 * Ben Gill, former footballer
 * Michael Gold, TV documentary producer
 * Roger Griffin, professor of modern history and political theorist at Oxford Brookes University
 * Liam Halligan, broadcaster and economist
 * Johann Hari, journalist
 * Kenneth Hudson, industrial archeologist and museologist
 * Anthony Jeffrey, former Arsenal FC Academy footballer
 * Vladimir V. Kara-Murza, Russian politician and journalist
 * Michael McCarthy, Director of Music, U.S. National Cathedral, Washington, USA
 * Inder Manocha, comedian
 * Sir Peter Marychurch KCMG, former Director of the British signals intelligence agency, GCHQ
 * Alastair Miles, operatic and concert bass
 * Brian Pearce, (d.2008), historian
 * Stephen Pollard, journalist and Editor of The Jewish Chronicle newspaper
 * David Punter, academic and writer
 * Julian Rhind-Tutt, actor
 * Gordon Douglas Rowley, (d. 2019) botanist and writer
 * Raymond Sawkins, novelist, writing as Colin Forbes
 * Michael Shersby (d.1997), former Conservative MP for Uxbridge
 * Victor Silvester (d.1978), former band leader
 * Kabir Toor, former Middlesex cricketer
 * Michael Turner, artist
 * John Wardley, attraction and special effects developer
 * Timothy West, actor
 * Paul Wilkinson (d.2011), academic

Notable staff and governors

 * Ian Blanchett (former cricket coach), Middlesex cricketer
 * Lord Lexden (former governor), official historian of the Conservative Party
 * Angus Fraser (Governor / cricket coach), England International cricketer
 * Owain Arwel Hughes CBE (former Chair of Governors), conductor
 * Albert Alan Owen (former music teacher), composer
 * Chris Peploe (cricket coach), Middlesex cricketer
 * George Weedon (former PE teacher), Olympic gymnast
 * Ian Whybrow (former Head of English), children's author

The Old Lyonian Association represents the school's alumni (Old Lyonians).

title: John Lyon School


text:
Football in Burundi

Football in Burundi has been affected by the civil war that broke out in Burundi. Before that, Burundi football had been doing well. Football is the most popular sport in Burundi.

History
The football club Vital'O reached the final of the most prestigious African competition; Inter FC and reached the semifinals.

Just two nights before the war broke out in Burundi, the national team was in Guinea to play the host in the second leg of the playoffs to qualify for the African Nations Cup. The Burundian youth team reached the semi-final of the African Nations Youth Cup as well as qualifying in the World Youth Championship in Qatar.

In the Homeless World Cup, Burundi won the 2006 INSP Trophy, defeating Argentina in the final.

Saido Berahino is the most famous Burundian footballer.

Women's football
Women's football in Burundi is growing in the country.

title: Football in Burundi


text:
Kyōroku

Kyōroku (享禄) was a Japanese era name (年号) after Daiei and before Tenbun. This era spanned from August 1528 to July 1532. The reigning emperor was Go-Nara-tennō (後奈良天皇).

Change of era

 * 1528 Kyōroku gannen (享禄元年): The era name was changed to mark the enthronement of Emperor Go-Nara. The previous era ended and a new one commenced in Daiei 8, the 20th day of the 8th month.
 * This nengō takes its name from the I Ching: "He who sits on the Imperial Throne enjoys Heaven's Favor (居天位享天禄).

Events of the Kyōroku era

 * 1528 (Kyōroku 1): Fire damaged Yakushi-ji in Nara.
 * 1528 (Kyōroku 1): Former kampaku Konoe Tanye became sadaijin. The former naidaijin, Minamoto-no Mitsikoto, becomes the udaijin. Former dainagon Kiusho Tanemitsi becomes naidaijin.
 * 1529 (Kyōroku 2): Neo-Confucian scholar Wang Yangming died.
 * 1530 (Kyōroku 3, 7th month): The former-kampaku Kiyusho Hisatsune died at the age of 63.
 * 1531 (Kyōroku 4): The Kamakura shogunate office of shugo (governor) is abolished.
 * 1532 (Kyōroku 5): Followers of the Ikko sect were driven out of Kyoto; and they settled in Osaka.

title: Kyōroku


text:
Nakajima Ki-84

The Nakajima Ki-84 Hayate (キ84 疾風) is a single-seat fighter flown by the Imperial Japanese Army Air Service in the last two years of World War II. The Allied reporting name was "Frank"; the Japanese Army designation was Army Type 4 Fighter (四式戦闘機). The Ki-84 is generally considered the best Japanese fighter to operate in large numbers during the conflict. The aircraft boasted high speed and excellent maneuverability with an armament (up to two 30 mm and two 20 mm cannon) that gave it formidable firepower. The Ki-84's performance matched that of any single-engine Allied fighter it faced, and its operational ceiling enabled it to intercept high-flying B-29 Superfortress bombers. Pilots and crews in the field learned to take care with the plane's high-maintenance Nakajima Homare engine and landing gear prone to buckling. The difficulties of Japan's situation late in the war took a toll on the aircraft's field performance as manufacturing defects multiplied, good quality fuel proved difficult to procure, and experienced pilots grew scarce. Nevertheless, a well-maintained Ki-84 was Japan's fastest fighter. A total of 3,514 aircraft were built.

Design and development
Design of the Ki-84 commenced in early 1942 to meet an Imperial Japanese Army Air Service requirement for a replacement to Nakajima's own, earlier Ki-43 fighter, then just entering service. The specification recognized the need to combine the maneuverability of the Ki-43 with performance to match the best western fighters, and heavy firepower. The Ki-84 first flew in March 1943 and deliveries from Nakajima's Ota factory commenced the following month. Although the design was itself solid, growing difficulties in securing skilled pilots, proper fuel and construction materials, and adequate manufacture often prevented the aircraft from reaching its full potential in the field.

The design of the Ki-84 addressed the most common complaints about the popular and highly maneuverable Ki-43: insufficient firepower, poor defensive armor, and lack of climbing speed. The Ki-84 was a cantilever low-wing monoplane of all-metal construction, except for the fabric-covered control surfaces, with conventional landing gear. Armament comprised two fuselage-mounted, synchronized 12.7 mm (.50 in) machine guns — these proved challenging to synchronize properly with the Hayate's four-blade propeller — and two wing-mounted 20 mm cannon, a considerable improvement over the two 12.7 mm (.50 in) machine guns used in the Ki-43 Hayabusa. Defensive armor offered Hayate pilots better protection than the unsealed wing tanks and light-alloy airframe of the Ki-43. In addition, the Ki-84 used a 65 mm (2.56 in) armor-glass canopy, 13 mm (.51 in) of head and back armor, and multiple bulkheads in the fuselage, which protected both the methanol-water tank (used to increase the effectiveness of the supercharger) and the centrally located fuel tank.

It was the Nakajima firm's own-designed 35.8 L displacement, Ha-45 Homare ("Praise" or "Honor") air-cooled eighteen-cylinder radial engine, first accepted for military use in 1941, that gave the Hayate its high speed and prowess in combat. Derived from the Nakajima Homare engines common to many Japanese aircraft, the Hayate used several versions of the Homare engine, including the carbureted model 21 and the fuel-injected model 23 versions of the engine. Most Homare engines used water injection to aid the supercharger in giving the Ki-84 a rated 1,491 kW (2,000 hp) at takeoff. This combination theoretically gave it a climb rate and top speed roughly competitive with the top Allied fighters. Initial Hayate testing at Tachikawa in early summer 1943 saw test pilot Lieutenant Funabashi reach a maximum level airspeed of 624 km/h (387 mph) in the second prototype. In 1946, US Technical Intelligence bench-tested a Homare 45, Model 21 engine and verified the engine's maximum horsepower output using 96 octane AvGas, plus methanol injection.

The complicated Ha-45-21 carbureted engine was a compact design (only 3 cm larger in diameter than the Ki-43's 27.9 L 14-cylinder Nakajima Sakae radial) that required a great deal of care in construction and maintenance and it became increasingly difficult to maintain the type's designed performance as the Allies advanced toward the Japanese homeland. To compound reliability problems, the Allied submarine blockade prevented delivery of crucial components, such as the landing gear. Many landing gear units were compromised by the poor-quality heat treatment of late-war Japanese steel. As a result, many Hayates suffered strut collapses on landing. Further damage was caused by inadequately trained late war pilots, who sometimes found it difficult to transition to the relatively "hot" Ki-84 from the comparatively docile Ki-43, which had a significantly lower landing speed.

Operational service
The first major operational involvement was during the battle of Leyte at the end of 1944, and from that moment until the end of the Pacific war the Ki-84 was deployed wherever the action was intense. The 22nd Sentai re-equipped with production Hayates. Though it lacked sufficient high-altitude performance, it performed well at medium and low levels. Seeing action against the USAAF 14th Air Force, it quickly gained a reputation as a combat aircraft to be reckoned with. Fighter-bomber models also entered service. On April 15, 1945, 11 Hayates attacked US airfields on Okinawa, destroying many aircraft on the ground.

In the final year of the war the Ki-84, the Ki-100 (essentially a radial-engined version of the inline-powered Kawasaki Ki-61) and Kawanishi's N1K2-J were the three Japanese fighters best suited to combat the newer Allied fighters.

Variants

 * Ki-84-a: Prototype.
 * Ki-84-b: Evaluation model.
 * Ki-84-c: Pre-production model.
 * Ki-84-I Ko: Armed with 2 × 12.7 mm Ho-103 machine guns and 2 × 20mm Ho-5 cannons in wings (most widely produced version).
 * Ki-84-I Otsu: Armed with 4 × 20 mm Ho-5 cannon. (Limited production run, may not have equipped a full Sentai)
 * Ki-84-I Hei: Armed with 2 × 20 mm Ho-5 cannon and 2 × 30 mm Ho-155 cannon in wings.
 * Ki-84-I Tei: Night fighter variant of Ki-84 Otsu. Equipped with an additional Ho-5 20 mm cannon (300 shells) placed at 45-degree angle behind the cockpit in Schräge Musik configuration. Rare variant, 2 built.
 * Ki-84-I Ko - Manshu Type: Manufactured in Manchukuo for Manshūkoku Hikōki Seizo KK by Nakajima License.
 * Ki-84-II: Sometimes known as the 'Hayate-Kai', the Ki-84-II had certain duralumin components replaced with ones made of wood and plywood, mainly concerning the rear fuselage, tail unit elements, wing tips, push-pull rods and other, minor components. This model was produced with the designations Ko, Otsu and Hei depending on the armament.
 * Ki-84-III: A planned conversion of the Ki-84 into a high-attitude interceptor after development of the Ki-87 prototype was delayed. Replaced the Homare engine with a 2450 hp Nakajima Ha-44 12 Ru air cooled radial engine with a turbo-supercharger mounted under the fuselage. The airframe remained unchanged, aside from the engine mountings to support the larger diameter engine. The airplane did not progress beyond the design stage.
 * Ki-84 Sa Go: Oxygen injection system replacing the traditional water-methanol injection system to improve high attitude performance. No prototypes were built.
 * Ki-84-N: 1st high-altitude interceptor variant of the Ki-84, with a 2500 hp Nakajima Ha-219 air cooled radial engine and with wing area increased to 249.19 square feet. The Ki-84-N production model was assigned to the Kitai 'Ki-117'. Neither aircraft left the design stage before the war's end.
 * Ki-84-P: 2nd high-altitude interceptor variant of the Ki-84, with a 2500 hp Nakajima Ha-219 air cooled radial engine and with wing area increased to 263.4 square feet. Cancelled in favor of further development of the Ki-84-R, which was proving to be a less ambitious project.
 * Ki-84-R: 3rd high-altitude interceptor variant of the Ki-84, with a 2000 hp Nakajima Ha-45-44 with a mechanically driven two-stage three-speed supercharger. The prototype was 80% completed at war's end.
 * Ki-106: Prototype, constructed mainly out of wood. 3 Built.
 * Ki-113: Based on the Ki-84 Otsu, with certain steel components on different areas of the aircraft. The project was an attempt to sustain light alloys, which were becoming very scarce later in the war. It employed steel sheet skinning and the cockpit section, ribs, and bulkheads were made of carbon steel.
 * Ki-116: Evaluation model, equipped with a Mitsubishi Ha-112-II (Ha-33-62), 1,120 kW (1,500 hp). 1 Built.
 * Ki-117: Production designation of the Ki-84N.

Production
Not included:
 * Pre-production started with two prototypes completed in March and April 1943.
 * A further 94 Ki-84-I Ko's were assembled at Mansyu Hikoki Seizo K.K. aircraft plant in Harbin.

Operators
Wartime
 * undefined
 * Imperial Japanese Army Air Service

Post-war
 * People's Liberation Army Air Force operated captured aircraft from 1945 until the 1950s.
 * Chinese Nationalist Air Force held some Ki-84 in reserve in case American aid was cut.
 * 🇮🇩 Indonesia
 * Indonesian Air Force - In 1945, Indonesian People's Security Force (IPSF) (Indonesian pro-independence guerrillas) captured a small number of aircraft at numerous Japanese air bases, including Bugis Air Base in Malang (repatriated 18 September 1945). Most aircraft were destroyed in military conflicts between the Netherlands and the newly proclaimed Republic of Indonesia during the Indonesian National Revolution of 1945–1949.
 * 🇰🇷 South Korea
 * Republic of Korea Air Force: Leftover From Japanese in 1945 use by South Korean Airforce in 1949
 * 🇰🇷 South Korea
 * Republic of Korea Air Force: Leftover From Japanese in 1945 use by South Korean Airforce in 1949

Surviving aircraft
After the war a number of aircraft were tested by the allied forces, two at the Allied Technical Air Intelligence Unit - South-West Pacific Area (ATAIU-SWPA) as S10 and S17 and a further two in the United States as FE-301 and FE-302 (Later T2-301 and T2-302).

One example captured at Clark Field during 1945, serial number 1446, was transported aboard the USS Long Island aircraft carrier to the United States. In 1952 it was sold off as surplus to Edward Maloney, owner of the Ontario Air Museum (Planes of Fame Air Museum) and restored to flying condition before being returned to Japan for display at the Arashiyama Museum in Kyoto in 1973. With unsupervised access allowed to the aircraft, parts were stolen from the Ki-84, and coupled with the years of neglect it could no longer fly. Following the museum's closure in 1991, the aircraft was transferred to the Tokko Heiwa Kinen-kan Museum, Kagoshima Prefecture, where it still is displayed to this day. It is the only surviving Ki-84.

title: Nakajima Ki-84


text:
Daiei (era)

Daiei (大永), also known as Taiei or Dai-ei, was a Japanese era name (年号) after Eishō and before Kyōroku. This period spanned the years from August 1521 through August 1528. The reigning emperors were Go-Kashiwabara-tennō (後柏原天皇) and Go-Nara-tennō (後奈良天皇).

Change of era

 * 1521 Daiei gannen (大永元年): The era name was changed because of the calamities of war and natural disasters. The previous era ended and a new one commenced in Eishō 18, on the 23rd day of the 8th month.

Events of the Daiei era

 * January 24, 1525 (Daiei 5, 1st day of the 1st month): All ceremonies in the court were suspended because of the lack of funds to support them.
 * April 29, 1525 (Daiei 5, 7th day of the 4th month): Go-Kashiwabara died at the age of 63 years. He had reigned 26 years; that is, his reign lasted 3 years in the nengō Bunki, 17 years in the nengō Eishō, and 6 years in the nengo Daiei. The emperor was found dead in his archives.
 * May 25, 1526 (Daiei 6, 14th day of the 4th month): Imagawa Ujichika, Shugo of Suruga Province establishes 33-article Imagawa Family Code (Imagawa Kana List).
 * 1526 (Daiei 6, 4th month): Go-Nara was proclaimed emperor upon the death of his father, Emperor Go-Kashiwabara. He began his reign at age 31.
 * 1526 (Daiei 6, 7th month): An army from Awa province marched towards Miyako. Hosokawa Takakuni attacked these forces at the Karsouragawa River, but his forces were unsuccessful. Fusokawa Takakage came to the aid of Takakuni, and their combined forces were successful in stopping the advancing army.
 * 1526 (Daiei 6, 12th month): Shōgun Ashikaga Yoshiharu invited archers from neighboring provinces to come to the capital for an archery contest.
 * 1527 (Daiei 6, 12th month): Large-scale mining operations commenced at the Iwami Ginzan Silver Mine in what is now Shimane Prefecture.

title: Daiei (era)


text:
Fritter

A fritter is a portion of meat, seafood, fruit, vegetables, or other ingredients which have been battered or breaded, or just a portion of dough without further ingredients, that is deep-fried. Fritters are prepared in both sweet and savory varieties.

Definition
The 1854 edition of An American Dictionary of the English Language by Noah Webster defines fritter as a transitive verb meaning "to cut meat into small pieces to be fried". Another definition from 1861 is given as "a pancake cont. chopped fruit, poultry, fish; also a small piece of meat fried".

Africa
West African countries have many variations similar to fritters. The most common process includes the blending of peeled black-eyed peas with peppers and spices to leave a thick texture. A Yoruba version, akara, is a popular street snack and side dish in Nigerian culture.

South Africa
Pumpkin fritters (commonly known as Pampoenkoekies, usually served with cinnamon sugar and served at any time of day, are popular in South Africa. Other variations often include banana instead of pumpkin.

South Asia
Fritters are extremely popular roadside snacks all over South Asia and are commonly referred to as pakora (pakoda) or bhaji (bhajia) in local parlance—the onion bhaji also enjoys a high popularity abroad and at home.

India and Pakistan
In India and Pakistan, a pakora is a fritter of assorted vegetables and spices.

In the South Indian state of Kerala, banana fritters are extremely popular. Piyaji is a Bengali dish of fritters with onions.

Brunei
In Brunei, fritters are known as cucur and they are eaten as snacks. Cucur is also part of local street food and usually sold in street market-style food booth (locally known as gerai). They are usually made with fillings which are commonly made with banana, shrimp, yam, sweet potatoes and vegetables (usually sliced cabbages or carrots). Some local fruits, when they are in season, are also made into cucur, most commonly durian, breadfruit (sukun), tibadak (Artocarpus integer) and tarap (Artocarpus odoratissimus).

Indonesia
In Indonesia, fritters come under the category of gorengan (fritters, from goreng "to fry"), and many varieties are sold on travelling carts or by street vendors throughout Indonesia. Various kinds of ingredients are battered and deep-fried, such as bananas (pisang goreng), tempe mendoan, tahu goreng (fried tofu), oncom, sweet potato, cassava chunk, cassava tapai, cireng (tapioca fritters), bakwan (flour with chopped vegetables), Tahu isi (filled tofu), and breadfruit. These are often eaten accompanied by fresh bird's eye chili. The variety known as bakwan commonly contains flour with chopped vegetables such as carrot and cabbage, whereas the fried patties called perkedel typically consist of mashed potatoes or ground corn (perkedel jagung or bakwan jagung).

Malaysia
In Malaysia, it is common for a type of fritter called "cucur" (such as yam, sweet potato and banana ) to be fried by the roadside in a large wok and sold as snacks.

Myanmar
In Burmese cuisine, fritters are called a-kyaw (အကြော်), while assorted fritters are called a-kyaw-sone (အကြော်စုံ). The most popular a-kyaw is the gourd fritter (ဘူးသီးကြော်). Diced onions, chickpea, potatoes, a variety of leafy vegetables, brown bean paste, Burmese tofu, chayote, banana and crackling are other popular fritter ingredients. Black beans are made into a paste with curry leaves to make bayagyaw —small fritters similar to falafel. Unlike pisang goreng, Burmese banana fritters are made only with overripe bananas with no sugar or honey added.

The savory fritters are eaten mainly at breakfast or as a snack at tea. Gourd, chickpea and onion fritters are cut into small parts and eaten with Mohinga, Myanmar's national dish. These fritters are also eaten with Kao hnyin baung rice and with Burmese green sauce—called chin-saw-kar or a-chin-yay. Depending on the fritter hawker, the sauce is made from chili sauce diluted with vinegar, water, cilantro, finely diced tomatoes, garlic and onions.

Philippines
In the Philippines, egg fritters are called tokneneng (duck) or kwek-kwek (quail), and squid fritters are called kalamares. These, along with shrimp fritters called okoy, and banana fritters called maruya are also sold in travelling cart or street side vendors.

China
Throughout China, fritters are sold at roadsides. They may contain pork, but are commonly vegetarian.

Japan
In Japanese cuisine, tempura is vegetable or seafood dipped and fried in a light crispy batter and served as a common accompaniment to meals.

Korea
In Korean cuisine, deep-fried foods are known as twigim (튀김). Twigim are often battered and breaded, but there are varieties without breading, as well as varieties without breading and batter. Popular twigim dishes include dak-twigim (fried chicken), gim-mari-twigim (fried seaweed roll), goguma-twigim (fried sweet potato), gul-twigim (fried oyster), ojingeo-twigim (fried squid), and saeu-twigim (fried shrimp).

Traditional vegetarian deep-fried foods associated with Korean temple cuisine include twigak and bugak. Twigak are made from vegetables such as dasima (kelp) and bamboo shoot, without breading or batter. Bugak are made from vegetables such as dasima, perilla leaves, and chili peppers, which are coated with glutinous rice paste and dried thoroughly.

Iran
The Iranian variety is called Kuku which come in different versions like the ones with potatoes or the ones with herbs. This type of fritter resembles a crustless quiche.

New Zealand
Whitebait fritters are popular in New Zealand.

United Kingdom
In British fish and chip shops, the fish and chips can be accompanied by "fritters", which means a food item, such as a slice of potato, a pineapple ring, an apple ring or chunks, or mushy peas fried in batter. Hence: "potato fritter", "pineapple fritter", "apple fritter", "pea fritter", etc. At home and at school, fritters are also sometimes made with meat, especially Spam and corned beef. A fritter roll or roll and fritter is a potato fritter inside a bread roll, served with salt and vinegar.

Canada and the United States
The apple fritter is a common fritter in Canada and the United States. Commonly found in doughnut shops, it is typically made from a yeast dough made of flour, sugar, eggs, milk, butter or shortening, and baker's yeast. The dough is basically the same as a traditional Canadian/American doughnut dough. It is flattened out and rolled with chopped apples and cinnamon. It is then chopped up into small pieces then reformed. It then is cut into portions and left to rise before being deep-fried or fried immediately. After done frying, they are dipped in a vanilla flavored glaze. It is believed to have been created by Tim Hortons in 1964 as one of their two original pastry items along with the dutchie doughnut. There is also a quick bread version that can be found from recipes online. It is mainly in the United States of America and is typically made from flour, sugar, baking powder, chopped apples, cinnamon, milk and eggs. It is also deep-fried and dipped in vanilla glaze as the yeasted version. In 2020, McDonald's announced that they will be serving apple fritters along with two other pastry items all day.

Caribbean
Conch fritters are commonly prepared in The Bahamas.

title: Fritter


text:
Wikipedia:Articles for deletion/YA

ÝÄ was proposed for deletion. This page is an archive of the discussion about the proposed deletion. This page is no longer live. Further comments should be made on the article's talk page rather than here so that this page is preserved as an historic record. The result of the debate was DELETE. 8 votes to delete. Postdlf 03:48, 29 Oct 2004 (UTC)

ÝÄ
Nonexistent creature from a nonexistent mythology. Terminate with extreme prejudice. —No-One Jones (m) 09:15, 22 Oct 2004 (UTC)

 * Delete. - Ta bu shi da yu 10:52, 22 Oct 2004 (UTC)
 * Patent nonsense, or fiction at best. Not even good enough for BJAODN. Delete. - Mike Rosoft 01:02, 23 Oct 2004 (UTC)
 * D WTF? Daddy kill the scary monster! Chris 02:09, 23 Oct 2004 (UTC)
 * Delete big scary non-monster and its stone dagger. Gotta give points for originality, tho. - Lucky 6.9 02:51, 23 Oct 2004 (UTC)
 * Delete or speedy delete for nonsense. Is it written in some kind of conlang?  That's not English there.  Using its own malignant will life from?  Huh?  Geogre 04:06, 23 Oct 2004 (UTC)
 * Delete. Sounds like flavor text from a collectible monster card game. No references exist anywhere else, and there's no link to a parent mythology. Inky 01:22, 27 Oct 2004 (UTC)
 * Delete, although it seems like that's where it's headed anyways. We really do not need this sort of thing. Maybe we could have a page specifically for all the flavor text and suchlike that people seem so fond of posting. And why, while we're at it, can't we merge all articles on Pokemon into one article? Ok, enough ranting. Suntiger 20:50, 27 Oct 2004 (UTC)

This page is now preserved as an archive of the debate and, like other '/delete' pages is no longer 'live'. Subsequent comments on the issue, the deletion or on the decision-making process should be placed on the relevant 'live' pages. Please do not edit this page.

title: Wikipedia:Articles for deletion/YA


text:
West Los Angeles

West Los Angeles is an area within the city of Los Angeles, California, United States. The residential and commercial neighborhood is divided by the Interstate 405 freeway, and each side is sometimes treated as a distinct neighborhood, mapped differently by different sources. Each lies within the larger Westside region of Los Angeles County.

West Los Angeles Community Plan
The West Los Angeles Community Plan area recognized by the city of Los Angeles is generally bounded by Centinela Avenue on the west; Wilshire Boulevard and Santa Monica Boulevard on the north; National Boulevard, Pico Boulevard, and Exposition Boulevard on the south; and Durango Avenue, Robertson Boulevard, and Canfield Avenue on the east. Among the neighborhoods included within it are Sawtelle, Rancho Park, Beverlywood, Cheviot Hills, Castle Heights, and Century City. The Community Plan area itself is part of the larger West Los Angeles Area Plan Commission area (i.e., the Westside region).

Automobile Club of Southern California
The Automobile Club of Southern California does not mark boundaries on its map, but centers the neighborhood of West Los Angeles proper as south of Santa Monica Boulevard, west of Interstate 405, north of Olympic Boulevard and east of Barrington Avenue. The borders of the official West Los Angeles Neighborhood Council correspond closely to this definition. Specifically, its district stretches from the 405 freeway in the east to Centinela Avenue in the west and Wilshire Boulevard in the north and the 10 freeway in the south. This is roughly the same area labeled as "Sawtelle" in the Mapping L.A. website of the Los Angeles Times.

The Los Angeles Times
In 2003, a Los Angeles Times correspondent noted: "The meaning of the term West Los Angeles varies widely. Some use it to describe the entire Westside including Santa Monica, Venice and stretching east to Western Avenue. More precisely, though, it is the portion of incorporated Los Angeles between the Santa Monica city limits on the west, Wilshire Boulevard on the north, Century City to the east and extending just beyond National Boulevard on the south. Sections of West L.A. run the gamut from stylish Cheviot Hills to a cluster of generic homes east of Bundy Drive."

That report on the meaning of West Los Angeles also included Rancho Park, located at Pico and Beverly Glen, and the Westdale Trousdale area near National Boulevard and Barrington Avenue.

City of Los Angeles
The 2004 City of Los Angeles & Communities map by the Los Angeles Almanac shows West Los Angeles as a neighborhood south of Santa Monica Boulevard and north of Culver City. West Los Angeles is book-ended with Mid-City, Mid-City West and Mid-Wilshire on the east and Sawtelle on the west. Century City, Rancho Park, and Cheviot Hills are shown (without boundaries) as sub-neighborhoods in West Los Angeles.

Together, the areas east and west of Sepulveda Boulevard/I-405 comprise a large portion of the official West Los Angeles Community Plan area.

Frommer's Guide
The Frommer's Guide described West Los Angeles as "a label that generally applies to everything that isn't one of the other Westside neighborhoods." It lies "south of Santa Monica Boulevard, north of Venice Boulevard, east of Santa Monica and Venice, and west and south of Century City.

Mapping L.A.
In 2009, the Los Angeles Times Mapping L.A. project defined West Los Angeles as south of Santa Monica Boulevard, west of Beverly Glen Boulevard, north of Pico Boulevard and east of Sepulveda Boulevard. Profiling the neighborhood in 2018, the Times described it as follows: "Nowadays, West L.A. is a marooned rump of the once-mighty West Los Angeles of old, which stretched from Century City to the Santa Monica city limits, and which has atomized over the years into a handful of disparate neighborhoods. ... Many people assume West Los Angeles refers to all that lies between the sea and Robertson Boulevard (or wherever their own arbitrary border of central Los Angeles lies). But it is its own place, not just a toponym to be used interchangeably with 'the Westside.'"

Demographics
For the area west of the 405 freeway, Mapping L.A. gives the population of the 2.69-square-mile "Sawtelle" neighborhood as 35,844 according to the 2000 U.S. census, with a rise to 38,698 in 2008 as estimated by the Los Angeles Department of City Planning. Its density of 13,319 people per square mile, about was average for the city of Los Angeles but among the highest densities for the county. The percentage of Asian people is high for the county and the area is highly diverse compared to both City of Los Angeles and County of Los Angeles averages. Mexico (29.0%) and Iran (13.8%) are the most common foreign places of birth. Notably, 49.8% of residents 25 and older have a four-year degree, which is high for the city of Los Angeles and high for the county. The percentages of never married males and never married females are among the county's highest.

For the area east of the 405 freeway, Mapping L.A. gives the population of the 1.05-square-mile neighborhood as 12,659 according to the 2000 U.S. census, with a rise to 13,582 in 2008 as estimated by the Los Angeles Department of City Planning. Its density of 12,061 people was about average for the city of Los Angeles. 76.7% of residents were non-Hispanic white, 11.4% were Asian-American; 5.3% were Hispanic or Latino of any race; 2.3% were African American and 4.1% identified themselves with other or mixed race categories.

The median household income in east Mapping L.A. area was $86,403 in 2008 dollars, which was considered high for both the city and the county. The percentage of households earning $125,000 and up was high for the county. Median age of residents was 38, old compared with other locality in the city and the county. The average household size was 1.9, low for both the city and the county. 51% of residents rented their living quarters, and 49% owned them. The percentage of widowed men and women was among the county's highest. Iranian and Russian were the most common ancestries.

The east Mapping L.A. area was highly educated, with 60.4% of residents 25 and older holding a four-year degree, a higher ratio than found in the rest of the city or the county.

Homeless population
In 2022, there were 412 homeless individuals in West Los Angeles.

Enclaves
Neighborhoods include:
 * Beverlywood
 * Castle Heights
 * Century City
 * Cheviot Hills
 * Crestview
 * Faircrest Heights
 * La Cienega Heights
 * Reynier Village
 * Pico-Robertson
 * Carthay Square
 * Little Ethiopia
 * Picfair Village
 * South Carthay
 * Westwood
 * Wilshire Vista
 * Rancho Park

Government and infrastructure
The Los Angeles County Department of Health Services SPA 5 West Area Health Office serves West Los Angeles.

Emergency services
Los Angeles Police Department operates the West Los Angeles Community Police Station at 1663 Butler Avenue. Los Angeles Fire Department Station 59 at 11505 W. Olympic Boulevard serves the area.

Public schools
West Los Angeles is part of the Los Angeles Unified School District. Neighborhood elementary schools are Brockton Avenue, Canfield Elementary School, Castle Heights Elementary School, Charnock Road Elementary School, Cheviot Hills Continuation School, Clover Avenue Elementary School, Crescent Heights Boulevard Elementary School, Nora Sterry Elementary School, Overland Elementary School, Shenandoah Street Elementary School and Warner Avenue. Middle schools are Emerson, Palms, and Webster. High schools are Hamilton High School, Los Angeles Center for Enriched Studies, University High School and Indian Springs Continuation, both on the same site.

Private schools
YULA High School, Yeshivat Ohr Chanoch Boys High School, Vista School, Temple Issiah Preschool and Kindergarten, Saint Sebastian School, St. Mary Magdalen Elementary School, Rabbi Jacob Pressman Academy, Lycee Francais de Los Angeles, Bais Chaya Mushka Chabad, West Los Angeles Baptist School and First Lutheran School of Venice are nearby private schools. Pacific States University in the Harvard Heights area is a graduate and undergraduate college.

Public libraries
The Los Angeles Public Library operates the West Los Angeles Regional Library.

Parks and recreation
The Stoner Recreation Center is situated in the area. The center includes a waterpark, barbecue pits, a lighted baseball diamond, lighted outdoor basketball courts, a children's play area, a lighted football field, an indoor gymnasium without weights and a capacity of 300 people, picnic tables, a lighted soccer field, lighted tennis courts, and lighted volleyball courts. The Annual Cherry Blossom Festival, co-sponsored by the West Los Angeles Japanese American Community Center, is held at the park. Other parks and recreations in the area are Cheviot Hills Park, Rancho Park Golf Course and Reynier Park. Sawtelle Boulevard has become one of the most prominent food streets in the city and the entire 90025 ZIP code, encompassing both sides of the 405 freeway, is undergoing more teardowns of old residences than anywhere other in the city.

Media
Fox Broadcasting Company maintains studio operations on South Bundy Drive for local stations KTTV and KCOP-TV, as well as national Fox Sports programming. West Los Angeles is also home to The Village recording studio, which has been used for musical projects including albums, motion picture and television soundtracks, and radio programming.

Notable people

 * Nikki Reed, actress
 * David Avadon, illusionist
 * Pat Doyle, baseball coach
 * Juliet Landau, actress
 * Geoff Schwartz, NFL football player
 * Mitchell Schwartz, NFL football player
 * Pat Smear, guitarist for the Foo Fighters, Germs, and Nirvana.

title: West Los Angeles


text:
Eishō (Muromachi period)

Eishō (永正) was a Japanese era name (年号) after Bunki and before Daiei. The period spanned the years from February 1504 through August 1521. The reigning emperor was Go-Kashiwabara-tennō (後柏原天皇).

Change of era

 * 1504 Eishō gannen (永正元年): The era name was changed to mark the beginning of a new cycle of the Chinese zodiac. The previous era ended and a new one commenced in Bunki 4, on the 30th day of the 2nd month.

Events of the Eishō era

 * 1504 (Eishō 1): A great famine.
 * 1505 (Eishō 2): Noda Castle built.
 * 1508 (Eishō 5, 1st month): A new revolt in Miyako and the assassination of Hosokawa Masamoto encouraged former-Shōgun Ashikaga Yoshitane in believing that this would be a good opportunity to re-take Heian-kyō. He assembled his troops and marched at their head towards the capital; and by the 6th month of Eishō 5, he was once more in command of the streets of Miyako. Starting in 1508, Yoshitane is known as the Muromachi period's 10th shōgun.
 * September 21, 1510 (Eishō 7, 18th day of the 8th month): Earthquake at Seionaikai (Latitude: 34.600/Longitude 135.400), 6.7 magnitude on the Surface wave magnitude scale.
 * October 10, 1510 (Eishō 7, 8th day of the 9th month): Earthquake in the Enshunada Sea (Latitude: 34.500/Longitude: 137.600), 7.0.
 * 1511 (Eishō 8, 2nd month): Yoshida Kanetomo died at the age of 77, which was considered a significant event in the chronicles of the Imperial history of Japan.
 * September 16, 1511 (Eishō 8, 24th day of the 8th month): Battle of Funaokayama. Former shōgun Ashikaga Yoshitane returns from Tanba, fearing that Hosokawa Seiken is planning to attack Heian-kyō. Then, with the assistance of Ōuchi Yoshioki, Yoshitane entered the capital.
 * 1512 (Eishō 9): Tamanawa Castle built.
 * 1513 (Eishō 10, 5th month): Shōgun Ashikaga Yoshiki changes his name to Yoshitane, by which he is better known to historians.

title: Eishō (Muromachi period)


text:
Bunki

Bunki (文亀) was a Japanese era name (年号) after Meiō and before Eishō.  This period spanned the years from February 1501 through February 1504. The reigning emperor was Go-Kashiwabara-tennō (後柏原天皇).

Change of era

 * 1501 Bunki gannen (文亀元年): The era name was changed  to mark the anniversary of the enthronement of Go-Kashiwabara and the 58th year of the Chinese zodiac. The previous era ended and a new one commenced in 1501 (Meiō 10, 29th day of the 2nd month).

Events of the Bunki era

 * 1501 (Bunki 1): The former shōgun Yoshimura was exiled. He retired to Suō Province, and he lived in exile in the home of the daimyō of that han. He changed his name to Ashikaga Yoshitane; and he summoned all the military forces of the western empire to come to his aid. Hosokawa Masamoto was made master of all the provinces which encircled the Kinai.
 * 1502 (Bunki 2, 7th month): Minamoto no Yoshitaka was elevated to the 2nd tier of the 4th class kuge officials, and he expressed thanks to the emperor for that honor. In the same month, the name of Ashikaga Yoshitaka was changed to that of Yoshizumi.
 * 1503 (Bunki 3): There was a great drought in the summer of this year.

title: Bunki


text:
Hopkins River (New Zealand)

The Hopkins River (Te Awa Aruhe) is in the central South Island of New Zealand. It flows south for 45 km from the Southern Alps / Kā Tiritiri o te Moana into the northern end of Lake Ōhau in the Mackenzie Country.

Its headwaters, on the southern slopes of Mount Hopkins, form the northernmost point of Otago, and the river's braided valley is part of the border between Otago and Canterbury. The river's main tributary is the Dobson River.

title: Hopkins River (New Zealand)


text:
Meiō

Meiō (明応), also known as Mei-ō, was a Japanese era name (年号) after Entoku and before Bunki. This period spanned the years from July 1492 through February 1501. Reigning emperors were Go-Tsuchimikado-tennō (後土御門天皇) and Go-Kashiwabara-tennō (後柏原天皇).

Change of era

 * 1492 Meiō gannen (明応元年): The era name was changed to mark an event or a number of events. The old era ended and a new one commenced in Entoku 4.

Events of the Meiō era

 * 1492 (Meiō 1, 8th month): Shōgun Yoshimura led an army against Takayori in Ōmi Province. He laid siege to Mii-dera. Takayori saved himself by escaping in the slopes of Mount Koka. Then, Shōgun Yoshimura returned to Heian-kyō.
 * 1492 (Meiō 2, 1st month): The kampaku Ichijō Fuyuyoshi was named daijō-daijin.
 * 1492 (Meiō 2, 2nd month): Shōgun Yoshimura, accompanied by Hatakeyama Masanaga, marched against Kawachi Province, with plans to capture and put to death Hatakeyama Toshitoyo, the son of Yoshinari.
 * September 12, 1495 (Meiō 4, 24th day of the 8th month): Earthquake at Kamakura (35.1°N, 139.5°W), 7.1 on the Surface wave magnitude scale.
 * July 9, 1498 (Meiō 7, 20th day of the 6th month): Earthquake in the Enshū-nada Sea (34.4°N, 137.7°W), 6.4.
 * September 20, 1498 (Meiō 7, 2nd day of the 7th month): Earthquake in the Enshū-nada Sea (34°N, 138.1°W), 8.3 ; and also on that same day, another earthquake in Nankaidō (33.5°N, 135.2°W), 7.5.

title: Meiō


text:
Dahomey Amazons

The Dahomey Amazons (Fon: Agojie, Agoji, Mino, or Minon) were a Fon all-female military regiment of the Kingdom of Dahomey (in today's Benin, West Africa) that existed from the 17th century until the late 19th century. They were the only female army in modern history. They were named Amazons by Western Europeans who encountered them, due to the story of the female warriors of Amazons in Greek mythology.

The emergence of an all-female military regiment was the result of Dahomey's male population facing high casualties in the increasingly frequent violence and warfare with neighbouring West African states. This led to Dahomey being one of the leading states in the slave trade with the Oyo Empire, which used slaves for commodity exchange in West Africa until the slave trade in the region ended. The lack of men likely led the kings of Dahomey to recruit women into the army. It should be further noted that the formation of a female-only army unit was a retaliation and manoeuvre around the forced tribute of male slaves to Oyo each year.

Origin
King Houegbadja (who ruled from 1645 to 1685), the third King of Dahomey, is said to have originally started the group which would later become the Mino as a corps of elephant hunters called the gbeto. The gbeto may even predate Houegbadja, as there is a tradition where he merely organized pre-existing groups into a corps, and another were the gbeto themselves offered to serve the king.

Houegbadja's daughter Queen Hangbe (ruling from 1716 to 1718) established a female bodyguard. European merchants recorded their presence. According to tradition, her brother and successor King Agaja successfully used them in Dahomey's defeat of the neighbouring kingdom of Savi in 1727. The group of female warriors was referred to as Mino, meaning "Our Mothers" in the Fon language, by the male army of Dahomey. Other sources contest the claim that King Agaja's older sister Queen Hangbe was the ruler to establish the units, some even going so far as to question whether or not Queen Hangbe actually existed.

From the time of King Ghezo (ruling from 1818 to 1858), Dahomey became increasingly militaristic. Ghezo placed great importance on the army, increasing its budget and formalizing its structure from ceremonial to a serious military. While European narratives refer to the women soldiers as "Amazons", they called themselves ahosi (king's wives) or Mino (our mothers).

Recruitment

Ghezo recruited both men and women as soldiers from foreign captives. Female soldiers were also recruited from free Dahomean women, with some enrolled from as young as eight years of age. Other accounts indicate that the Mino were recruited from among the ahosi ("king's wives"), of which there were often hundreds. Some women in Fon society became soldiers voluntarily, while others were involuntarily enrolled if their husbands or fathers complained to the king about their behaviour.

Membership among the Mino was supposed to hone any aggressive character traits for the purpose of war. During their membership they were not allowed to have children or be part of married life (though they were legally married to the king). Many of them were virgins. The regiment had a semi-sacred status, which was intertwined with the Fon belief in Vodun. Oral Dahomean tradition holds that, upon recruitment, the Amazons were subjected to female genital mutilation.

The Mino trained with intense physical exercise. They learned survival skills and indifference to pain and death, storming acacia-thorn defences in military exercises and executing prisoners. Discipline was emphasised.

Serving in the Mino offered women the opportunity to "rise to positions of command and influence" in an environment structured for individual empowerment. The Mino were also wealthy and held high status.

Political role
The Mino took a prominent role in the Grand Council, debating the policy of the kingdom. From the 1840s to 1870s (when the opposing party collapsed), the majority of Mino generally supported peace with the Egba of Abeokuta arguing instead to raid smaller, less defended tribes. This set them at odds with their male military colleagues, who supported a full-on assault of Abeokuta. Civilian council members who allied with the Agojie also advocated for stronger commercial relations with Britain, favouring the trade of palm oil above that of slaves.

Apart from the council, the Annual Customs of Dahomey included a parade and reviewing of the troops, and the troops swearing of an oath to the king. The celebrations on the 27th day of the Annual Customs consisted of a mock battle in which the Agojie attacked a "fort" and "captured" the slaves within, a custom recorded by the priest Francesco Borghero in his diaries.

Combat and structure
The women soldiers were rigorously trained in pain, endurance and speed. Once training was completed they were given uniforms. By the mid-19th century, they numbered between 1,000 and 6,000 women, about a third of the entire Dahomey army, according to reports written by visitors. The reports also noted that the women soldiers were consistently judged to be superior to the male soldiers in effectiveness and bravery in battle.

The women soldiers were said to be structured in parallel with the army as a whole, with a centre wing (the king's bodyguards) flanked on both sides, each under separate commanders. Some accounts note that each male soldier had a mino counterpart. In one mid-19th-century account by an English observer, it was documented that the women who had three stripes of whitewash around each leg were honoured with marks of distinction.

The women's army consisted of a number of regiments: huntresses, riflewomen, reapers, archers and gunners. Each regiment had different uniforms, weapons and commanders.

In the latter period, the Dahomean female warriors were armed with Winchester rifles, clubs and knives. Units were under female command. An 1851 published translation of a war chant of the women claims the warriors would chant: "[a]s the blacksmith takes an iron bar and by fire changes its fashion so have we changed our nature. We are no longer women, we are men."

Conflict with neighbouring kingdoms
The Agojie battles consisted mainly within Africa against various kingdoms and tribes. During that time period it was customary that once an enemy was defeated they would be killed or enslaved. Many African tribes participated in this and Dahomey was no exception. They would often enslave their enemies and sell them to European slave traders in exchange for weaponry for battle. As early as 1728, under the direction of King Agaja, the Dahomean army conquered the kingdoms of Whydah, and Popos. In 1840, they helped to capture the fortress of the Mahee at Attahapahms. However, it was at the hands of their long-standing enemy Abeokuta that they suffered crushing defeat, resulting in many casualties.

First Franco-Dahomean War
The European encroachment into West Africa gained pace during the latter half of the 19th century, and in 1890 King Béhanzin started fighting French forces in the course of the First Franco-Dahomean War. European observers noted that the women "handled admirably" in hand-to-hand combat, but fired their flintlocks from the hip rather than firing from the shoulder.

The Mino participated in one major battle: Cotonou, where thousands of Dahomeans (including many Mino) charged the French lines and engaged the defenders in hand-to-hand combat. The Mino were decisively crushed, with several hundred Dahomey troops being gunned down. Reportedly, 129 Dahomey fighters were killed in melee combat within the French lines.

Second Franco-Dahomean War
By the end of the Second Franco-Dahomean War, special units of the Mino were being assigned specifically to target French officers. After several battles, the French prevailed in the Second Franco-Dahomean War and put an end to the independent Dahomean kingdom. French soldiers, particularly of the French Foreign Legion, were impressed by the boldness of the Amazons and later wrote about their "incredible courage and audacity" in combat.

Against a military unit with decidedly superior weaponry and a longer bayonet, however, the Dahomey Mino could not prevail. During a battle with French soldiers at Adegon on October 6, 1892, during the second war, the bulk of the Mino corps were wiped out in a matter of hours in hand-to-hand combat after the French engaged them with a bayonet charge. The Dahomey lost 86 regulars and 417 Dahomey Mino, with nearly all of those deaths being inflicted by bayonets; the French lost six soldiers.

Disbandment and legacy

The troops were disbanded when the kingdom became a French protectorate in 1894. Oral tradition states that some surviving Mino secretly remained in Abomey afterwards, where they quietly assassinated a number of French officers. Other stories say the women pledged their services in protection of Agoli-Agbo, the brother of Béhanzin, disguising themselves as his wives in order to guard him.

Some of the women married and had children, while others remained single. According to a historian who traced the lives of almost two dozen former Mino, all the women displayed difficulties adjusting to life as retired warriors, often struggling to find new roles in their communities that gave them a sense of pride comparable to their former lives. Many displayed a tendency to start fights or arguments that frightened their neighbours and relatives.

Between 1934 and 1942, several British travellers in Abomey recorded encounters with former Mino, then old women who spun cotton or idled around courtyards. An unknown number of women are said to have trained with the members of the Dahomey Mino after they were disbanded, in effect continuing the tradition. They never saw combat. Around 2019, Lupita Nyong'o interviewed one of these who was still alive, for the TV documentary Warrior Women with Lupita Nyong'o.

Nawi, the last Dahomey Mino
The last survivor of the Dahomey Mino is thought to have been a woman named Nawi. In a 1978 interview in the village of Kinta, a Beninese historian met Nawi, who claimed to have fought the French in 1892. Nawi died in November 1979, aged well over 100.

In popular culture
Dahomey Mino are mentioned in the sci-fi novel Robur the Conqueror (1886) by Jules Verne (Chapter XV: A skirmish in Dahomey).

Dahomey Mino were represented in the 1987 film Cobra Verde by German director Werner Herzog.

Ghezo's Mino play a significant role in the 1971 novel Flash for Freedom! by George MacDonald Fraser.

The warriors are also the main focus and written about in Layon Gray's stage play The Dahomey Warriors.

The Dora Milaje, warriors and bodyguards of the Marvel Comics character Black Panther, are partially based on the Dahomey Mino.

In Age of Empires II: The African Kingdoms and Age of Empires III: The African Royals there is a female unit named Gbeto that is influenced by and named after Dahomey Mino.

In the video game Empire: Total War you can recruit Dahomey Mino units if you have conquered certain regions in North Africa.

In the Lovecraft Country episode "I Am", Hippolyta is transported to a world where she becomes a Dahomey Mino.

In 2015, UNESCO published the comic novel The Women Soldiers of Dahomey as part of their UNESCO Series on Women in African History. As an artistic and visual interpretation intended for private or public use in classrooms, it tells the story of the Mino in connection with European colonial rule in Africa and ends with their legacy for the present-day Republic of Benin: "In addition to the imprint that they have left on the collective memory, the women soldiers bequeathed to the Republic of Benin dances that are performed to this day in Abomey, songs and legends. There are many women soldiers in the Benin Armed Forces today. They keep the memory of the women soldiers of the Kingdom of Dahomey alive."

"The Last Amazon of Dahomey" is a play in the Booker Prize-winning novel of 2019 called Girl, Woman, Other, by Bernardine Evaristo.

The Ahosi are featured in the 2021 graphic novel Wake: The Hidden History of Women-Led Slave Revolts by Rebecca Hall and Hugo Martinez.

The Dahomey Mino are the subject of the 2022 American film The Woman King, directed by Gina Prince-Bythewood.

Dahomey Amazons are represented as Minos in the novel Sister Mother Warrior by Vanessa Riley (William Morrow, July 12, 2022).

Mortal Kombat 1 has the Umgadi, which are references to the Dahomey Minos.

title: Dahomey Amazons


text:
Entoku

Entoku (延徳) was a Japanese era name (年号) after Chōkyō and before Meiō. This period spanned the years from August 1489 through July 1492. The reigning emperor was Go-Tsuchimikado-tennō (後土御門天皇).

Change of era

 * 1489 Entoku gannen (延徳元年): The era name was changed to mark an event or a number of events. The old era ended and a new one commenced in Chōkyō 3.

Events of the Entoku era

 * April 26, 1489 (Entoku 1, 26th day of the 3rd month): The shōgun Yoshihisa died at age 25 while leading a military campaign in Ōmi Province. He had led the shogunate for 18 years. His father, the former Shogun Yoshimasa, was strongly afflicted by his death; and because of this unanticipated development, he was moved to reconcile with his brother, Yoshimi.
 * January 27, 1490 (Entoku 2, 7th day of the 1st month): The former shōgun Yoshimasa died at age 56.
 * 1490 (Entoku 2, 7th month): Ashikaga Yoshimura (known as Ashikaga Yoshitane after 1501), nephew of Yoshimasa, is proclaimed as shōgun at age 25.

title: Entoku


text:
Elephant's Memory

Elephant's Memory (also billed as Elephants Memory, without the apostrophe) was an American rock band formed in New York City in the late 1960s, known primarily for backing John Lennon and Yoko Ono from late 1971 to 1973. For live performances with Lennon and Ono, the band was known as the Plastic Ono Elephant's Memory Band.

Formation and early career (1967–1972)
Elephant's Memory was formed between 1967 and 1968, by Stan Bronstein (saxophone, clarinet, and vocals) and Rick Frank Jr. (drums). In 1968, they briefly added Carly Simon as a vocalist. By 1969, the line-up had expanded to include John Ward (bass) with Danny Adler (guitar and keyboards) who originally performed in the Blues Doctors (1964-1966), Chester Ayers (guitar), Myron Yules (bass trombone), R. Sussmann (keyboards), Michal Shapiro (vocals), Guy Peritore (guitar and vocals), David Cohen (guitar, keyboards, and vocals), and Michael Rose on guitar.

Two of the band's songs, "Jungle Gym at the Zoo" and "Old Man Willow", appeared on the 1969 soundtrack to the film Midnight Cowboy. Elephant's Memory received a gold disc for their contribution to the soundtrack.

In 1970, the band had a minor hit single with the song "Mongoose" on Metromedia Records, peaking at #50 on the Hot 100 on October 17, 1970 but at #5 on Chicago's WCFL on November 23, 1970 and reaching #1 in Pittsburgh on KQV. In Canada, "Mongoose" reached #71 on September 26, 1970. In 1971 the band released the single "Skyscraper Commando", of which Record World said "the lyric is powerful and the instrumental track is right up there with 'Mongoose.'"

Between 1970 and 1973, the line-up remained more or less constant around Bronstein and Frank, together with guitarists Wayne "Tex" Gabriel, keyboardist Adam Ippolito and bassist Gary Van Scyoc.

Work with Lennon and Ono, and later career (1972–1976)
Known around the Greenwich Village area as a politically active street band, Elephant's Memory backed Lennon and Ono on their album Some Time in New York City during recording sessions in March 1972. The album was released in June 1972 in the United States, and in September 1972 in the UK.

Later in 1972, they were billed as the Plastic Ono Elephant's Memory Band and performed with Lennon and Ono on various TV shows, albums and concerts. On August 30, 1972, with the addition of John Ward on bass and Jim Keltner on drums, the band played with Lennon and Ono at the famous One to One Concert organized by Geraldo Rivera, to benefit the Willowbrook State School for children with intellectual disabilities. The concert was filmed and recorded, later released in February 1986 as the album Live In New York City. On September 4, they played live again with Lennon and Ono at the Jerry Lewis MDA Labor Day Telethon, performing "Imagine", "Now or Never" and "Give Peace A Chance".

In April and May 1972, the band recorded their second self-titled album, produced by Lennon and released on the Beatles' Apple Records label, together with an accompanying single "Power Boogie." Billboard called it a "selection of good, strong unpretentious rock." It also contains various contributions by Lennon himself on guitar and vocals. This album has never been re-issued on compact disc. From October to November, the band recorded material for Ono's double album Approximately Infinite Universe, released in January 1973.

On September 5, 1973, the band appeared at the Hells Angels "Pirate Party" held on the SS Bay Belle, together with a band featuring Jerry Garcia. This performance was later featured in the 1983 documentary film Hells Angels Forever.

The line-up of Elephant's Memory included at various times, Daria Price on castanets, Robert O'Leary on bass, and John La Bosca on piano. However, the line-up that recorded Angels Forever in 1974, was Stan Bronstein and Richard Frank, plus Gary Van Scyoc on bass, Chris Robison and Jon Sachs.

In 2010, Van Scyoc and Ippolito appeared in LENNONYC, a documentary about John Lennon for the PBS American Masters series.

In May 2010, guitarist Wayne "Tex" Gabriel died at the age of 59.

Discography

 * Island in the Sky (1968, album by The Tuneful Trolley)
 * several members of Elephant's Memory performed the brass heard on the LP.
 * Midnight Cowboy soundtrack (1969), songs "Jungle Gym At The Zoo" and "Old Man Willow"
 * Elephant's Memory (1969)
 * Take It to the Streets (1970)
 * Some Time in New York City (1972), John Lennon & Yoko Ono album, Elephant's Memory did session work
 * Elephant's Memory (1972), produced by John Lennon & Yoko Ono
 * Approximately Infinite Universe (1973), Yoko Ono album, Elephant's Memory did session work
 * Bio (1973), with Chuck Berry
 * Angels Forever (1974)
 * Our Island Music (1976), credited to Stan Bronstein/Elephant's Memory Band
 * Live in New York City (1986), with John Lennon, recorded in 1972

title: Elephant's Memory


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Chōkyō

Chōkyō (長享) was a Japanese era name (年号, nengō, "year name") after Bunmei and before Entoku. This period spanned the years from July 1487 through August 1489. The reigning emperor was Go-Tsuchimikado-tennō (後土御門天皇).

Change of era

 * 1487 Chōkyō gannen (長享元年): The era name was changed to mark an event or a number of events. The old era ended and a new one commenced in Bunmei 19.

Events of the Chōkyō era

 * 1487 (Chōkyō 1): Takatskasa-no Masahira was replaced as kampaku by the former naidaijin Kiyosho-no Masatada.
 * 1487 (Chōkyō 1, 8th month): Udaijin Ōe-no mikado Nobukatsu died at age 42.
 * 1487 (Chōkyō 1, 8th month): Shōgun Yoshihisa led a large army against Rokkaku Takayori (also known as Rokkaku Tobatsu), the daimyō of southern Ōmi Province.

title: Chōkyō


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Bunmei

Bunmei (文明) was a Japanese era name (年号) after Ōnin and before Chōkyō. This period spanned from April 1469 through July 1487. The reigning emperor was Go-Tsuchimikado-tennō (後土御門天皇).

Change of era

 * 1469 Bunmei gannen (文明元年): The era name was changed to mark an event or a number of events. The old era ended and a new one commenced in Ōnin 3.

Events of the Bunmei era

 * 1468 (Bunmei 2, 7th month): Ichijō Kanera (1402–1481) was relieved of his duties as kampaku.
 * January 18, 1471 (Bunmei 2, 27th day of the 12th month ): The former Emperor Go-Hanazono died at age 52.
 * April 16, 1473 (Bunmei 5, on the 19th day of the 3rd month): Yamana Sōzen died at age 70.
 * 1478 (Bunmei 10): Ichijō Kanera  published Bunmei ittō-ki (On the Unity of Knowledge and Culture) which deals with political ethics and six points about the duties of a prince.
 * February 21, 1482 (Bunmei 14, 4th day of the 2nd month): Construction of Ashikaga Yoshimasa's Silver Pavilion commenced.

title: Bunmei


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Dobson River (New Zealand)

The Dobson River (Ōtaao) is a river in the South Island of New Zealand. It flows south between the Neumann and Ohau ranges for 45 km from its source to the east of Mount Hopkins, in the Southern Alps, before joining with the Hopkins River, close to the latter's entry into the northern end of Lake Ōhau in the Mackenzie Country. The river flows over wide shingle beds, and has no rapids of interest to whitewater enthusiasts. It was named by Julius von Haast in the 1860s for his father-in-law, Edward Dobson, who was the Canterbury Provincial Engineer. The Māori name, also given as Otao in some works, means "driftwood," and has also been applied to the Hopkins River into which the Dobson/Ōtaao flows.

The New Zealand Department of Conservation maintains a tramping track and several backcountry huts in the river valley. Two of the huts are accessible by 4WD vehicle.

There is no direct geographical link with the West Coast town of Dobson.

title: Dobson River (New Zealand)