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Bukusu

The Bukusu people (Bukusu: Babukusu) are one of the 17 Kenyan tribes of the Luhya Bantu people of East Africa residing mainly in the counties of Bungoma and Trans Nzoia. They are the largest tribe of the Luhya nation, with 1,188,963 identifying as Bukusu in the 2019 Kenyan census. They speak the Bukusu dialect.

Origins
The Bukusu myths of origin state that the first man, Mwambu (the discoverer or inventor), was made from mud by Wele Khakaba (meaning God the Creator) at a place called Mumbo (which translates to 'west'). God then created a woman known as Sela to be his wife. Mwambu and his descendants moved out of Mumbo and settled on the foothills of Mount Elgon (known to them as Masaba), from where their descendants grew to form the current Bukusu population.

Anthropologists believe that the Bukusu did not become distinct from the rest of the Luhya population until the late 18th century at the very earliest. They moved into Central Uganda as part of a much larger group of people, many forming the eastern extension of the great Bantu migration out of central Africa. (See Origins of the Luhya.) The Bukusu sub-tribe includes a subdivision called ekholo(clan). This subdivision includes the Baala, Bakibeti, the Bakibumbi, the Batilu, the Bameme, Baloncha, Bayundo, Bakimweyi, Bakongolo, Babhichachi, the Baengele, the Batukuika, the Batecho, the Bachemwile, the Bakoi, the Basekese, the Balunda, the Babulo, the Bakhoma, the Balukulu, the Basefu, the Babhuya, and the Basonge.

Settlement
Together with other Luhya sub-nations, the Bukusu are thought to have first settled north of Lake Turkana at a place called Enambukutu. From there they settled in the Cherangani Hills at a place called Embayi, also known as Silikwa-mbayi. After evil and bad omens befell them, they dispersed taking six routes: five going around the western side of Mount Elgon and one via the eastern side of Mount Elgon. Those who went via the western side of Mount Elgon included the Basilikwa, the Banabayi, the Baneala, the Bakikayi and the Bamalaba. The Mwalie cluster took the eastern side route and settled at the Mwalie hills. This area was already inhabited by some Kalenjin sub-nationalities like the Laku, the Sabiny( known by the bukusu as basawinja), the Bongomek, and the Sebei, who were hostile to their new neighbors. To protect themselves against these tribes the Bukusu built fortified villages, an ancient art from their origin in Misri.

Currently, the Bukusu mainly inhabit Bungoma, Trans Nzoia, Uasin Gishu, Kakamega and Busia Counties of Western region of Kenya. The Bamasaba of Uganda are very closely related to the Babukusu, with many shared customs and closely related dialects. Previously, the Bukusu were referred to as the Kitosh by the colonialists; this was a word derived from the Nandi and Kwavi who used the word derogatively to describe the Babukusu. Kitosh means 'the terrible ones'; they called them this because the Bukusu warriors were ruthless and decisive in battlefields. Following vigorous campaigns, the name Kitosh was eventually substituted by Bukusu in the mid-1950s.

Oral tradition
The Bukusu trace their origin from Muntu we Entebbe, who lived in Tabasya of Misri. Muntu was a great warrior who was later deified by the people of Misri. His son Mwambu married Sela, the granddaughter Samba Ambarani, who is believed to be Abraham the Hebrew. Mwambu founded the cities of Kush, Nabibia (Nubia), Namelu (Meroe), Rwa (Alwa) and others including Soba and Balana. Mwambu became the father of Mwaabini the inventor and discoverer. Mwaabini was the father of Kongolo and Saba.

Masaba, the father of Bukusu and Kisu, led the people to Embayi which was later to become Sirikwa, or the fallen kingdom. It fell after the people disobeyed their God Khakaba, so he sent a giant boulder from the sky which hit the land of Mbayi, causing an earthquake followed by swarms of stinging insects, epidemics and other calamities which forced the subjects of Sirikwa to scatter. They dispersed and settled among the Kipsigis, the Nandi, the Samburu, the Marakwet, the Borana and further beyond. The main body of the population headed south east and west under the banners of Basirikwa, Banabayi, Bakikayi, Baneala, Bamalaba and Bamwalie.

Traditional life
The Bukusu lived in fortified villages, and did not have a structure of central authority. The highest authority was the village headman, called Omukasa, who was usually elected by the men of the village. There were also healers and prophets who acquired great status through their knowledge of tribal tradition, medicines, and religion. Elijah Masinde, a resistance leader and traditional medicine man, was revered as a healer in the early 1980s.

Family
Bukusu family structure was traditionally modeled on the Luhya structure, it was and still is modeled on Bukusus culture itself. Families were usually polygamous, with the first wife accorded a special status among her co-wives. Society was entirely patriarchal: women were present not only as child-bearers but also as an indication of status. In addition, the practice of polygamy meant more hands to work the fields, an advantage in a society founded on agriculture.

Children inherited the clan of their father, and were not allowed to marry from either their own clan or their mother's clan. The first son of the first wife was usually the main heir to his father, and he had a special name denoting this status: Simakulu. At birth, children were usually named after grandparents or famous people, or after the weather. Male and female names were different: male names frequently began with 'W', while female names usually began with 'N'. Thus, for example, a boy born during a famine could be named 'Wanjala', while a girl could be named 'Nanjala'. Both names share the same root word, 'njala', from 'eNjala', the Bukusu word for hunger.

Initiation
The Bukusu practice male circumcision. It is thought that they adopted the practice from contact with the Kalenjin at Mount Elgon. Others argue, however, that the presence of the practice in the other Luhya tribes indicates an earlier adoption, before the Bukusu settled at Mount Elgon.

In ceremonies that were spaced about two years apart, young boys of a particular age (usually about 15 years) would, on getting the go-ahead from their parents, invite relatives and friends to their initiation.

The initiation was a public event, witnessed by all. Going through the operation without showing any sign of pain is thought to be an indicator of bravery. Once circumcised, an initiate became a member of an age group.

There are eight age-groups known as 'Bibingilo'. These are (Bakolongolo (2000-2010), Bakikwameti (2012-2022), Bakananachi (2024-2034), Bakinyikeu (2036-1946), Banyange (1948-1958), Bamaina (1960-1970), Bachuma (1972-1986), Basawa (1988-1998)), forming a cyclical system spanning over 100 years, with each age-group lasting for 12 years(composed of 6 sub-sets of 2 years each) apart from Bachuma which lasts for 16 years (made up of 8 sub-sets of 2-years each), one of which lasted from 1872–1886. The reason for this was the tradition that there was an old man of the age group of Basawa from the previous cycle who was still alive and he was not meant to live and see the next Basawa. Eventually the old man died in 1884 and the Basawa ensued the next initiation period in 1888. It was then agreed to avoid such delays, and that any man who lives long enough to appear reaching the second cycle would be killed. This has been the tradition since then. Once the last age-group has been reached, the first is restarted, and so on. For example, the Bachuma age-group lasted from 1872 to 1886: every Bukusu circumcised within this period (that is, in 1872 through to 1886) belongs to that age-group. In 1888, the Basawa age group began, and lasted until 1898. Each age group is represented once every century.

Female circumcision is not a traditional Bukusu practice, though some clans are said to have practiced it. This is especially the case around Mount Elgon, where the neighbouring Kalenjin tribes also practice a form of female circumcision.

Although circumcision was universal among the Bukusu, the form of the ceremony varied according to the clan. In particular, the festivities and ceremonies accompanying the final stage of initiation, when the now-healed initiates came out of seclusion to rejoin their families as 'men', were specific to clans, and have been handed down largely intact to the present day. Much was taught to these young initiates during this time which enabled them to face marriage with information.

Marriage
First marriages are typically between men aged 18–20, and women about age 16. There were two types of first-time marriage: arranged marriages and enforced eloping. If a young man came from a well-to-do family, he would ask his sisters to find a girl for him to marry. The ability of a girl to cook well, bear children and work in the fields were the main attractions of a potential wife. Once a girl was identified, an emissary was sent to her parents to ask for her hand. The girl had no say whatsoever in the whole matter: bride price would be discussed, and once paid she would be sent to live with her new husband. This form of marriage is common in traditional households.

In some cases, the potential groom would be from a poor family and could not afford to pay the likely bride price. Traditional society allowed such boys to abduct the girls they intended to marry. (The girl had to present an opportunity to be 'abducted', so her cooperation was essential.) The couple would then leave their home to live with a far-off relative for a while, until the boy acquired enough wealth to pay the original bride price, as well as a fine, to the parents of the girl. This practice has since died out.

The Bukusu highly approve of intermarriages between themselves and the BaMasaaba; they have similarities in codes of conduct, marriage customs, circumcision traditions and folklore. Among the most famous of Bukusu marriage customs is the immense respect accorded to in-laws. A lady, for example, treats her father-in-law with much deference, and they are not allowed to make physical contact in any way. The same is true of a man and his mother-in-law.

In marriage, duties were strictly segregated. Housework and agricultural duties were performed by the women and children. The older boys looked after cattle. Young, newly married men formed the community's warriors, while middle-aged men did little. Older men formed the village's council of elders, and resolved disputes. Punishment for crimes was usually on an eye-for-an-eye basis, while petty crimes like theft were punished by the perpetrators being expelled from the village, and their property confiscated and redistributed to the wronged party.

Cattle were very important as the main means of exchange, alongside cowrie shells (known as chisimbi). Most values, from the beauty of a girl to the price of a field of land, were expressed in terms of heads of cattle. Possessing cattle, wealth, and prosperous agriculture, the Bukusu were sometimes not only admired but also envied by neighboring communities. Occasionally intermarriages would take place between them and the other communities and it was common practice for Kalenjin neighbors to give the Bukusu their sons to look after their herds of cattle. In times of famine, which are said to have been frequent among their Kalenjin neighbors, the latter used to even sell their children to the Bukusu. The Bukusu also used to send their own young boys to grow up with Kalenjin or Maasai families, in some cases for espionage purposes.

Death
Being sedentary pastoralists, they had time to care for their sick and bury their dead. A sick person was looked after until he recuperated or died. When a person died, he was buried in a grave with a warrior's weapons if he was an elder. Several functions were performed during and after the funeral ceremony. Ordinarily, burial pits were 3 - 4 ft deep, much shallower than today's. People were buried facing east, the direction in which the sun rises. There are two known clans amongst the Bukusu who bury their people in a sitting position.

Wild animals like hyenas would sometimes exhume corpses from graves and eat them. In such an incident, people recovered the skull of the desecrated body and hanged it in a leafy tree. When the family of the deceased migrated, they brewed beer (kamalwa ke khuukhalanga) for the ceremony of transferring the skull with them to the new home or settlement. An elder woman was entrusted with the responsibility of conveying the skull to the new site. Burial of the dead was ingrained in the Bukusu traditions.  { "type": "FeatureCollection", "features": [] }

Demographics
The Bukusu people are the largest sub-tribe of the Luhya people in Kenya, residing mainly in the counties of Bungoma and Trans Nzoia. In the 2019 Kenyan census, the total number of Luhyas was estimated at 6,823,842. Of these, 3, 944, 257 volunteered information about their sub-tribes, with Bukusu being named by 1,188,963 people.

Economic activities
Bukusu accounts indicate that both agricultural and pastoral economies have been practiced by the tribe for as long as can be remembered. This is authenticated by the vast amount of knowledge regarding farming practices, their rich pastoral vocabulary and the variety of legends connected with pastoral life. Today, they farm mainly maize for subsistence and sugar cane as a cash crop in the Bungoma area, as well as wheat in the Kitale area. Cattle and sheep are universally kept: cattle for milk, and sheep for meat and ceremonial functions (e.g.: offers for sacrifice). Larger or polygamous families will usually have a team of oxen for ploughing and haulage. Chicken, a traditional delicacy, are now kept for commercial egg production.

Politics
The Bukusu currently form one of the main support bases of the governing coalition in Kenya, through the Forum for the Restoration of Democracy – Kenya (FORD–Kenya) political party led by Moses Wetangula and the New Ford Kenya party led by Eugene Wamalwa. Previously, they were associated with opposition to the Kalenjin-dominated reign of former President Daniel arap Moi. Their political leaders have included Michael Christopher Wamalwa Kijana, Masinde Muliro, George Welime Kapten, Musikari Nazi Kombo and Moses Masika Wetangula, Peter Kisuya, Wakoli Bifwoli, Wafula Wamunyiyi, David Eseli Simiyu, and Lawrence Sifuna.

Culture
The Bukusu play a traditional seven-stringed lyre known as the litungu and the silili. Elijah Masinde, who formalised the traditional faith through Dini ya Msambwa, was a Bukusu elder; he promoted the culture and faith of the Bukusu and hence Luhya and African peoples. In Dini Ya Msambwa, Elijah Masinde resisted colonialism and the extermination of the Luhya people's way of life. Circumcision Bukusu circumcision is done to boys that are between 12–28 years. They play trading jingle bells "chinyimba" as they call, visit all there relatives to inform them the date of circumcision. The boy to be circumcised, will do everything and make sure,he has informed everyone. Third day to the d day, the boy will be smeared with millet flour, "khuchukhamo" which will be used to make alcohol taken on the day of circumcision. The second last day, He will visit his uncle where by the bull will be slaughtered (likhoni) to signify the connection to uncle's place. That will be the day of celebration and there after, the boy will be taken the following day to a place called "sitosi/silongo", to be smeared by mud before he brought back home, stand in the courtyard (etiang'i) and be circumcised.

Notable people
Notable Bukusu people include:

 * Jonathan Barasa (1916 – December 1996) was Kenyan chief from Sirisia
 * Nancy Baraza (born 1957 in Bungoma District, Western Kenya) First Deputy Chief Justice of Kenya)
 * Wakoli Bifwoli, Omuyemba, former MP Bumula constituency
 * Mukhisa Kituyi, Omutukwika Mukitang'a, former Kimilili MP, Trade Minister and current Secretary General of UNCTAD
 * Musikari Kombo, Omulunda, former Minister and Chairman of FORD–Kenya
 * Kenneth Lusaka (born 18 September 1963)The 2nd and current speaker of the Kenyan Senate
 * Elijah Masinde, Omubichachi, resistance leader and founder of Dini ya Musambwa
 * Eusebius Juma Mukhwana, Omusakali, founder of the SACRED Africa
 * Masinde Muliro, 1922 - August 14, 1992) Omukokho, former minister and opposition leader
 * Maurice Michael Otunga, Omukhone, first Kenya Cardinal, Former head of the Catholic Church in Kenya
 * James Situma Kenyan footballer
 * Wafula Wabuge, a first and only President of Western Kenya during the Majimbo system and a former Ambassador to the US
 * Eugene Wamalwa, Omuengele, former MP Saboti Constituency and currently Cabinet Secretary for Devolution
 * Michael Kijana Wamalwa, Omuengele, former vice president of Kenya
 * Wycliffe Wangamati Kenyan actuary and politician currently serving as the Second Governor of Bungoma County
 * Paul Wekesa (born 2 July 1967) Former professional tennis player
 * Moses Wetangula, current Party Leader of FORD–Kenya and Senator, Bungoma County

title: Bukusu


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I'm 34 years old and very interested in web design (and related fields such as web standards, CSS, etc), cryptozoology and digital culture.

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White-rumped swift

The white-rumped swift (Apus caffer) is a species of swift. Although this small bird is superficially similar to a house martin, it is not closely related to that passerine species. The resemblances between the swallows and swifts are due to convergent evolution reflecting similar life styles.

Description
This 14 – long species has, like some relatives, a short forked tail and long swept-back wings that resemble a crescent or a boomerang. It is entirely dark except for a pale throat patch and a narrow white rump. It is similar to the closely related little swift, but is slimmer, darker and has a more forked tail and a narrower white rump.

Call
This is a quiet species compared to little swift, but a twittering trill is sometimes given.

Habits
Like other swifts they have very short legs that they use only for clinging to vertical surfaces. They never settle voluntarily on the ground, and spend most of their lives in the air, feeding on insects that they catch in their beaks. Like other swifts they drink on the wing.

Habitat
The habitat of this species is dictated by that of its hosts, and is therefore normally man-made structures such as bridges and buildings.

Breeding range
White-rumped swifts breed in much of sub-Saharan Africa, and have expanded into Morocco and southern Spain. The populations in Spain, Morocco and the south of Africa are migratory, although their wintering grounds are not definitively known. Birds in tropical Africa are resident apart from seasonal movements. In 2022, nesting was observed in Corsica.

Breeding
This species appropriates the nests of little swifts and those swallows which build retort-shaped nests. In Europe and north Africa, this usually means the red-rumped swallow, but south of the Sahara other species like wire-tailed swallow are also parasitised. The original owners of the nests are driven away, or the white-rumps settle in the nest and refuse to move. Once occupied, the nest is lined with feathers and saliva, and one or two eggs are laid.

title: White-rumped swift


text:
Paul Wühr

Paul Wühr (10 July 1927 – 12 July 2016) was a German experimental author. Wühr lived by Lake Trasimeno in Umbria, Italy and wrote for the publisher Hanser-Verlag.

Novels

 * Gegenmünchen, 1970
 * Das falsche Buch, 1983
 * Der faule Strick, 1987
 * Wenn man mich so reden hört, 1993
 * Luftstreiche, 1994
 * Was ich noch vergessen habe, 2002

Poems

 * Grüß Gott ihr Mütter ihr Väter ihr Töchter ihr Söhne, 1976
 * Rede, 1979
 * Sage, 1988
 * Salve Res Publica Poetica, 1997
 * Venus im Pudel, 2000

Radio plays

 * Das Experiment, 1963
 * Wer kann mir sagen, wer Sheila ist?, 1964
 * Die Rechnung, 1965
 * Fensterstürze, 1968
 * Preislied, 1971
 * Soundseeing Metropolis München, 1986
 * Faschang Garaus, 1988

Textbooks

 * So spricht unsereiner, 1973 (contains texts for the radio plays Preislied, So eine Freiheit, Trip Null, Verirrhaus)

Plays

 * Pyramus und Thisbe, 1986

Awards and prizes

 * 1971 – Hörspielpreis der Kriegsblinden
 * 1984 – Literaturpreis der Stadt Bremen (for his novel Das falsche Buch)
 * 1990 – Petrarca-Preis
 * 1997 – Großer Literaturpreis der Bayerischen Akademie der Schönen Künste
 * 2002 – Hans-Erich-Nossack-Preis.

title: Paul Wühr


text:
Jean-Jacques Nattiez

Jean-Jacques Nattiez (born December 30, 1945, in Amiens, France) is a musical semiologist or semiotician and professor of musicology at the Université de Montréal. He studied semiology with Georges Mounin and Jean Molino and music semiology (doctoral) with Nicolas Ruwet.

He is a noted specialist on the writings of the composer and conductor Pierre Boulez.

In 1990, he was made a Member of the Order of Canada. In 2001, he was made a Knight of the National Order of Quebec.

Awards

 * 1988, Dent Medal of the Royal Musical Association
 * 1989, Prix André-Laurendeau pour les sciences humaines from the Association canadienne française pour l'avancement des sciences
 * 1990, Molson Prize from the Canada Council
 * 1994, prix Léon-Gérin pour les sciences sociales du Gouvernement du Québec
 * 1996, Fumio Koizumi Prize for Ethnomusicology, Tokyo, Japan
 * 2004, the Killam Prize by the Canada Council for the Arts
 * In 2011, he was promoted to Officer of the Order of Canada "for his contributions to the development of musicology as a researcher, professor and specialist of music semiotics".

title: Jean-Jacques Nattiez


text: User:MacGyverMagic/Bookmarks

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User:King144

Richard Anderson - Motor Records/Repair - Industrial Electrician -35 years- Georgia Pacific Corp. Camas Mill

home page

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Talk:Indian National Satellite System

Untitled
INSAT is always capitalized. The page name (currently Insat) has to be changed to INSAT as well as all references to INSAT.--Sivaraj 07:16, 28 Sep 2004 (UTC)

Proposed listing
This is a listing for the INSAT series of satellites, please append your comments.

--IMpbt 14:50, 5 May 2005 (UTC)

Name
Shouldn't the name be INSAT? =Nichalp  «Talk»=  14:54, 15 August 2006 (UTC)

INSAT 4C Merge
I propose merging the content of INSAT 4C into this article. Comments? (Sdsds - Talk) 23:50, 26 April 2007 (UTC)

INSAT 1A & 1B
I worked on the communications modules for INSAT 1A & 1B, I was told that 1A blew all its fuel out. 1A was launched from the Space Shuttle; there are NASA videos of the release. Each sat had a VHRR camera costing $6,000,000 each, they required 6 people to move it, 2 actually moved it and 4 observed.(Lookinhere (talk) 09:22, 5 December 2008 (UTC))

 * Actually INSAT 1A was launched by a Delta rocket, INSAT 1B was launched by the Space Shuttle.-- PremKudva    Talk   11:09, 10 September 2016 (UTC)

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Convert into table form?
I have been working on the Indian Remote Sensing satellite page. I was wondering if we should change this into a similar tabular format? Prad2609 (talk) 04:59, 13 January 2021 (UTC)

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Talk:Earnings before interest, taxes, depreciation and amortization

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Easy analogy
As I teach ebitda in my accounting class, I often use the following analogy, which I would like someone to be bold and steal from me into this article and elsewhere... ;) When discussing what the ebitda means and what it doesn't mean, I always use the rhetorical question, "When was the last time you told someone your net income?"  Everyone tells their friends their ebitda, their gross, because it allows you more social clout.  Anyway...  --Mrcolj 01:05, 15 November 2006 (UTC)

Nov 06
I'm firmly in the accrual accounting camp, so I think this page is one-sided. Since the section removed (below) was clearly a response to this, and it was deleted, I'll ask you guys first before making any corrections. I have no problems with these pages presenting POVs. I think I can counter anything you present. Nor do I quibble about references. But I am not going to waste my time if it will only be promptly deleted because you don't like a word. So ?????Retail Investor 22:43, 11 November 2006 (UTC)
 * Do it. Or if you're hesitant, make changes here first... I'll back you.  --Mrcolj 01:05, 15 November 2006 (UTC)

Done. I tried to be fair to both sides even though I think EBITDA is wrong, wrong, wrong!Retail Investor 20:35, 17 November 2006 (UTC)

Aug 05
I recently removed the following section. It might merit restoration but it had some important flaws that made me decide to remove it pending further editing. Here is my reasoning:

 * "The most important metric for investors is the company's income" is incorrect. You could argue that it is an important metric, or that it is considered by some to be the most important metric. However, there are many ways in which the net income measure misrepresents the financial health of a company. Further, no one ever retired because they had put so much "net income" in the bank. Since it's ultimately cash that we all earn, save and spend, many argue that cash flow is the most important metric for investors. Indeed, modern valuation practice is based on the projection of a company's future free cash flows (not profits) and estimation of the present value of those cash flows based on the time value of money.

 * EBITDA is clearly NOT the same thing as "operating cash flow". For example, if a company increases its inventories by $100M in a period, its operating cash flow will be reduced by $100M, but there will be no impact on EBITDA.

 * It is exactly wrong to say that "amortization ... costs money". A primary reason to consider earnings without the impact of amortization is that it costs nothing. It reflects an expenditure made in a prior year -- all of the money has already been spent, but in order to match the impact of that expenditure to all of the years in which it will create value for the company, an expense is "artificially" recorded in subsequent years.

==Discussion When companies publish their financial statements, the most important metric for investors is the company's income, which is calculated as the company's revenue minus all its expenses. Some companies also publish their EBITDA, which, these companies usually claim, provides a more true picture of the company's profitability than the "income" number. The EBITDA is the earnings before cash expenses of interest income/expense and income tax, and non-cash expenses of depreciation and amortization of capital expenditures. So it's the same thing as the operating cash flow (from the cash flow statement) without cash outflow from interest and taxes. But there is a reason the interest, amortization, and taxes is on the income statment, because it cost money. The issue is however not the "net net" cash and income from the company, but comparable numbers. Management compare all levels of income and cash flow to earlier periods. And a favorite may be the EBITDA.

 * I linked the terms "accrual accounting" and "cash basis accounting" to the relevant pages.DanG 08:56, 13 July 2006 (UTC)

Article needs serious help
This article needs serious help. There's no clear definition and example of EBIT for the uninformed, and most of the article seems dedicated to pros and cons. How about calling them strengths and weaknesses? NPOV comes to mind. --SueHay 19:45, 1 April 2007 (UTC)

Although not a specialist in this subject it is close to my heart as it is the prefered metric used for the basic valuation of small privet companies, in the UK at least. As a first assesment a multiplier of 5 - 10 times EBITDA is used a rough cut cut valuation, prior to the arm wrastling commencing. —Preceding unsigned comment added by Supertyke (talk • contribs) 16:19, 9 October 2008 (UTC)

Another problem with EBITDA
It is not clear whether or not EBITDA includes or excludes interest income earned on cash and marketable securities. I believe EBITDA should exclude interest income (earned on cash) and interest expense (paid on debt), but the definition varies by user. Interest income (earned on cash and marketable securities) is usually non-operational (meaning the cash flow was not generated by a firm's core operations - its business) and therefore should not be included in EBITDA. EBITDA should measure earnings generated by a company's core operations.

EBIT v EBITDA
Could someone write a simple text to differenciate between the two? —Preceding unsigned comment added by 195.6.25.118 (talk) 10:38, 7 March 2008 (UTC)

EBIT (earnings before interest and taxes) is a company's net income before income tax expense and interest expenses are deducted. EBIT is used to analyze the performance of a company's core operations without the costs of the capital structure and tax expenses impacting profit. Aaronlai23 (talk)

Criticism of EBITDA
The controversies around this term should be integrated in the article. Here are some examples MaxPont (talk) 08:43, 28 May 2008 (UTC)

Use by Private Equity investors
100 shares is an unnecessary modifier. The use of the term "retail investor" already indicates a non-institutional or significant investor and the use of the specific number, 100, implies that some other number might have use of EBITDA.Es330td (talk) 19:26, 2 September 2009 (UTC)

New appraoch
I rewrote the article and attempted to make it more concise and more helpful. Particularly tried to work out "what it does tell you" and "what it does not tell you" and "how it is misused". Hope I achieved those goals a little bit while keeping it reasonable short. Jaeljojo (talk) 15:19, 7 July 2012 (UTC)

Many thanks - I think an example would also be most helpful. I will give it a shot when I have a moment. Hopefully. 82.16.153.183 (talk) 09:18, 14 August 2012 (UTC)

Requested move 26 December 2014

 * The following is a closed discussion of a requested move. Please do not modify it. Subsequent comments should be made in a new section on the talk page. Editors desiring to contest the closing decision should consider a move review. No further edits should be made to this section.

The result of the move request was: Not moved. The arguments are against, and there has been no chat for a long time. — Amakuru (talk) 11:52, 17 January 2015 (UTC)

– Per WP:COMMONNAME. Given the unwieldy nature of the full names, the acronyms are widely used as the primary name of these terms. This is the case both in the articles and in scholarly works and the media. Similar to EV/EBITDA, which we don't spell out for the same reason. Oncenawhile (talk) 23:47, 26 December 2014 (UTC)
 * Earnings before interest, taxes, depreciation, and amortization → EBITDA
 * Earnings before interest and taxes → EBIT (accounting)
 * Earnings before interest, taxes, depreciation, amortization, and restructuring or rent costs → EBITDAR
 * Operating income before depreciation and amortization → OIBDA
 * Comment given the inexplicable nature of the acronyms, do we have to? GregKaye  ✍ ♪  02:19, 27 December 2014 (UTC)
 * Oppose – we normally avoid acronyms except where they are very well known, like FBI. These are not.  Dicklyon (talk) 07:49, 27 December 2014 (UTC)
 * Hi and, EBITDA and EBIT are possibly the most commonly used and well known acronyms in finance (and EBITDAR and OIBDA are derivates of these). EBITDA gets >100,000 googlebooks hits vs. 74,000 for the spelt out version, and EBIT gets >150,000 vs 21,000 for the spelt out version. The books always use the acronym first, then note the long version in brackets or a footnote, and then revert back to the acronym (a couple of examples are  and ). Oncenawhile (talk) 23:13, 29 December 2014 (UTC)
 * I'm not saying that it's obscure, or uncommon, or not useful. It's just not a good title.  Dicklyon (talk) 23:26, 29 December 2014 (UTC)
 * Oncenawhile, even Dicklyon's FBI redirects to Federal Bureau of Investigation, GregKaye 04:02, 30 December 2014 (UTC)

 * The above discussion is preserved as an archive of a requested move. Please do not modify it. Subsequent comments should be made in a new section on this talk page or in a move review. No further edits should be made to this section.


text: User talk:141.16.65.35

title: User talk:141.16.65.35


text:
Earnings before interest and taxes

In accounting and finance, earnings before interest and taxes (EBIT) is a measure of a firm's profit that includes all incomes and expenses (operating and non-operating) except interest expenses and income tax expenses.

Operating income and operating profit are sometimes used as a synonym for EBIT when a firm does not have non-operating income and non-operating expenses.

Formula
where
 * EBIT = (net income) + interest + taxes = EBITDA – (depreciation and amortization expenses)
 * operating income = (gross income) – OPEX = EBIT – (non-operating profit) + (non-operating expenses)
 * EBITDA = earnings interest, taxes, depreciation, and amortization
 * OPEX = operating expense

Overview
A professional investor contemplating a change to the capital structure of a firm (e.g., through a leveraged buyout) first evaluates a firm's fundamental earnings potential (reflected by earnings before interest, taxes, depreciation and amortization (EBITDA) and EBIT), and then determines the optimal use of debt versus equity (equity value).

To calculate EBIT, expenses (e.g. the cost of goods sold, selling and administrative expenses) are subtracted from revenues. Net income is later obtained by subtracting interest and taxes from the result.

title: Earnings before interest and taxes


text:
User:Sivaraj

Stuff

 * /links
 * /todo
 * /sandbox
 * My photographs in Wikimedia Commons (mostly dual licensed under GFDL & cc-by-sa).

title: User:Sivaraj


text:
Talk:Sphere of influence

recommendation for update
Most maps that survey spheres of influences include stripped colors to demarcate colonies from spheres of influences. Lamenating entire strokes of China under a single solid strip indicates direct colonial presence, whereas stripped indicators would signify areas within the influence of foreign powers. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 72.81.233.159 (talk) 20:57, 16 May 2011 (UTC)

Map
This map does not give essential information, e.g. what year etc. The borders of China must be made more clear. Does anyone can improve this map? Thanks, --Scriberius (talk) 09:35, 28 November 2007 (UTC) P.S. For those who understand German, see de:WP:KW for a discussion about this map.

Japan seems to be red, why is the stupid korean peninsula red too? I would recomend that for powers where the country is visible on the map they have the same colour,
 * The Empire of Japan included all the red areas. See Taiwan under Japanese rule and Korea under Japanese rule.Heroeswithmetaphors (talk) 12:20, 10 April 2008 (UTC)

Here's what you need to know. These were mostly briefly proposed "spheres of influence". Literally all Chinese provinces except Manchuria remain similar to that of the Ottoman Empire, Japan, and Siam. Crediblesourcesplease (talk) 13:56, 7 March 2020 (UTC)

I would like to clarify a bit. What I meant precisely was Qing provinces. Crediblesourcesplease (talk) 14:02, 7 March 2020 (UTC)

I would also like to add the fact that all treaty ports of China remained opened equally to all countries concerned even Manchuria eventhough the Russians tried hard to oppose it. So essentialy the Open Door Policy were always respected by almost everyone including Germany even before Secretary John Hay's Open Door Policy diplomatic notes. Crediblesourcesplease (talk) 14:16, 7 March 2020 (UTC)

Plus all provinces of China except for Manchuria remained completely barred from international commerce until the Republican revolutions of the 1912. So from the beginning to end of the Qing Dynasty only treaty ports enganged in international commerce Crediblesourcesplease (talk) 14:19, 7 March 2020 (UTC)

Ambigution?
This topic seems to have a couple aspects to it. Maybe they should get separated out. The traditional imperial definition probably should be on a separate page from its meanings in modern shopping and management.

 * I agree - and as touched on by Jack Upland above, the term sphere of influence is more accurate when used describing sphere of influence (astrodynamics), so why should a search for sphere of influence point to a completely unrelated topic? We can include them all in a disambiguation page. Feyrauth (talk) 02:14, 2 July 2008 (UTC)

Russian vs. Western spheres of influence???
Armenia article speaks of Russian vs. Western spheres of influence existing today. I see a little note of that in cold war mayhaps, but none in current times. Can it be said that Armenia falls in both Russian and Western spheres of influence? More importantly, does any source speak about those spheres in modern times?--Kiyarr lls- talk 02:57, 21 July 2008 (UTC)

yes but what did it mean legally?
I'm disappointed. When European diplomats negotiated formal spheres of influence in China or the Near East, one imagines that they had something specific in mind, but I can't tell from the article what that would be. Did the European powers merely agree to keep out of each other's slices of China, or what? —Tamfang (talk) 22:21, 24 April 2009 (UTC)
 * The Congress of Vienna article mentions sphere of influence as well. It might not be a legal term but it could be just a philosophical thought that helped diplomats organize and think about the world. (Which begs the question: does international law have clear definitions of terms? Afterall "international law" is very different from "law", the latter which is decided by and enforced by governments. There is no government that has created international law.) --Bruce Hall (talk) 11:06, 22 March 2011 (UTC)

India - Founder of non-aligned movment
Despite perceptions in the US, India considered itself nonaligned except for strategic treaties with USSR. India was one of the founder members of the non-aligned movement. I think the map should reflect that. 129.118.38.198 (talk) 01:53, 3 August 2009 (UTC)
 * This could be a good example. Many of the countries who were formally in the non-aligned movement where actually within the sphere of influence of either the US or the USSR.  Of course, one should also distinguish between a country being within the sphere of influence of another and a country just receiving support from or buying arms from another.  India and Pakistan is an interesting example.  Pakistan was supported by the US and India by the USSR, if one was to speak roughly.  Does that mean that either country was in the sphere of influence of the US and the USSR?  Or were those countries just seeking support from wherever they can find it for their own conflict?  Perhaps India, being an ex-colony, was (and is) in the sphere of influence of the UK.  Could be a good example to discuss the issue. --Bruce Hall (talk) 11:01, 22 March 2011 (UTC)

by I am an idiat

No Imagination?
Does the conceiver of the idea of the 'Sphere of Influence' have any imagination beyond the military conception of conflict and partnership? Doesn't the military mind have a conception of the Human Organism? Maybe, in a more grandiose flowering... Where is the physics of it all? Stevenmitchell (talk) 05:05, 8 May 2012 (UTC)

Illogical map of China
This wiki page doesn't make any sense. I request legitimate historians to review it and edit any false contents. In my opinion the vast majority of China except for Manchuria remains completely under Chinese rule and sovereignity with zero attempts by the powers to outline the so called "spheres of influence Crediblesourcesplease (talk) 15:14, 6 March 2020 (UTC)
 * Hi, I've checked the sources, they are all published history books with clear references to the treaties signed by the European powers and the Qing dynasty regarding resources and infrastructure in all of those provinces. Colonialism and spheres of influence are not the same thing and your source on colonialism does not necessarily contradict the article. 42.61.172.8 (talk) 11:45, 30 April 2020 (UTC)

"Contemporary United States (1991–present)"
If this section is going to consist solely of "See also: Foreign relations of the United States", there's no reason for it to exist. — Red XIV (talk) 00:02, 4 February 2024 (UTC)
 * Then delete it, instead of complaining of how inadequate it is. Dimadick (talk) 16:35, 4 February 2024 (UTC)

title: Talk:Sphere of influence


text: File:Peelmap-a.png

title: File:Peelmap-a.png


text:
User:Phil179

Phil179

Articles Created

 * Tower Records
 * Indo people
 * John Chinaman
 * Eden seminary
 * San Joaquin Valley
 * Sundanese
 * Nieuwe Kerk
 * Knil

Articles Contributed To

 * Davis, California
 * University of California, Davis
 * California Central Valley
 * Little Egypt
 * Lebanon, Illinois
 * St. Clair County, Illinois
 * Hoosier

title: User:Phil179


text:
User:Sivaraj/links

 * thaagam - My blog about Photography (in Tamil).
 * INFITT - I am a member of this organization.
 * My old home - This page is defunct now.

title: User:Sivaraj/links


text:
User:Kyz

Hello everyone,

I am Stuart Caie and am a great fan of all things Amiga.

Some of the articles I wrote:
 * LZX
 * Stop Huntingdon Animal Cruelty
 * Princes Street
 * The Internet memes category and several of the articles in it.
 * Need To Know

Some of the articles I enjoy editing:
 * Big Ben
 * Private Eye
 * Adequacy.org
 * Animal testing
 * Infinity

title: User:Kyz


text:
Convention on International Civil Aviation

The Convention on International Civil Aviation, also known as the Chicago Convention, established the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO), a specialized agency of the United Nations charged with coordinating international air travel. The Convention establishes rules of airspace, aircraft registration and safety, security, and sustainability, and details the rights of the signatories in relation to air travel. The convention also contains provisions pertaining to taxation.

The document was signed on December 7, 1944, in Chicago by 52 signatory states. It received the requisite 26th ratification on March 5, 1947, and went into effect on April 4, 1947, the same date that ICAO came into being. In October of the same year, ICAO became a specialized agency of the United Nations Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC). The convention has since been revised eight times (in 1959, 1963, 1969, 1975, 1980, 1997, 2000 and 2006).

the Chicago Convention had 193 state parties, which includes all member states of the United Nations except Liechtenstein. The Cook Islands is a party to the Convention although it is not a member of the UN. The convention has been extended to cover Liechtenstein by the ratification of Switzerland.

Main articles
Some important articles are:

Article 1: Every state has complete and exclusive sovereignty over airspace above its territory.

Article 3 bis: Every other state must refrain from resorting to the use of weapons against civil aircraft in flight.

Article 5: The aircraft of states, other than scheduled international air services, have the right to make flights across state's territories and to make stops without obtaining prior permission. However, the state may require the aircraft to make a landing.

Article 6: (Scheduled air services) No scheduled international air service may be operated over or into the territory of a contracting State, except with the special permission or other authorization of that State.

Article 10: (Landing at customs airports): The state can require that landing to be at a designated customs airport and similarly departure from the territory can be required to be from a designated customs airport.

Article 12: Each state shall keep its own rules of the air as uniform as possible with those established under the convention, the duty to ensure compliance with these rules rests with the contracting state.

Article 13: (Entry and Clearance Regulations) A state's laws and regulations regarding the admission and departure of passengers, crew or cargo from aircraft shall be complied with on arrival, upon departure and whilst within the territory of that state.

Article 16: The authorities of each state shall have the right to search the aircraft of other states on landing or departure, without unreasonable delay.

Article 24: Aircraft on a flight to, from, or across the territory of another contracting State shall be admitted temporarily free of duty, subject to the customs regulations of the State. Fuel, lubricating oils, spare parts, regular equipment and aircraft stores on board an aircraft of a contracting State, on arrival in the territory of another contracting State and retained on board on leaving the territory of that State shall be exempt from customs duty, inspection fees or similar national or local duties and charges. This exemption shall not apply to any quantities or articles unloaded, except in accordance with the customs regulations of the State, which may require that they shall be kept under customs supervision.

Article 29: Before an international flight, the pilot in command must ensure that the aircraft is airworthy, duly registered and that the relevant certificates are on board the aircraft. The required documents are:
 * Certificate of registration
 * Certificate of airworthiness
 * Passenger names, place of boarding and destination
 * Crew licenses
 * Journey Logbook
 * Radio Licence
 * Cargo manifest

Article 30: The aircraft of a state flying in or over the territory of another state shall only carry radios licensed and used in accordance with the regulations of the state in which the aircraft is registered. The radios may only be used by members of the flight crew suitably licensed by the state in which the aircraft is registered.

Article 32: The pilot and crew of every aircraft engaged in international aviation must have certificates of competency and licensees issued or validated by the state in which the aircraft is registered.

Article 33: (Recognition of Certificates and Licences) Certificates of airworthiness, certificates of competency and licensees issued or validated by the state in which the aircraft is registered, shall be recognized as valid by other states. The requirements for the issuing of those certificates or airworthiness, certificates of competency or licensees must be equal to or above the minimum standards established by the convention.

Article 40: No aircraft or personnel with endorsed licenses or certificate will engage in international navigation except with the permission of the state or states whose territory is entered. Any license holder who does not satisfy international standard relating to that license or certificate shall have attached to or endorsed on that license information regarding the particulars in which he does not satisfy those standards.

Annexes
The convention is supported by nineteen annexes containing standards and recommended practices (SARPs). The annexes are amended regularly by ICAO and are as follows:

 * Annex 1 – Personnel Licensing
 * Licensing of flight crews, air traffic controllers & aircraft maintenance personnel. Including Chapter 6 containing medical standards.

 * Annex 2 – Rules of the Air
 * Appendix 1 - Signals
 * Appendix 2 - Interception of civil aircraft
 * Appendix 3 - Tables of cruising levels
 * Appendix 4 - Unmanned free balloons
 * ATTACHMENT A. Interception of civil aircraft
 * ATTACHMENT B. Unlawful interference
 * Annex 3 – Meteorological Service for International Air Navigation
 * Vol I – Core SARPs
 * Vol II – Appendices and Attachments
 * Annex 4 – Aeronautical Charts
 * Annex 5 – Units of Measurement to be used in Air and Ground Operations
 * Annex 6 – Operation of Aircraft
 * Part I – International Commercial Air Transport – Aeroplanes
 * Part II – International General Aviation – Aeroplanes
 * Part III – International Operations – Helicopters
 * Annex 7 – Aircraft Nationality and Registration Marks
 * Annex 8 – Airworthiness of Aircraft
 * Annex 9 – Facilitation
 * Annex 10 – Aeronautical Telecommunications
 * Vol I – Radio Navigation Aids
 * Vol II – Communication Procedures including those with PANS status
 * Vol III – Communication Systems
 * Part I – Digital Data Communication Systems
 * Part II – Voice Communication Systems

 * Vol IV – Surveillance Radar and Collision Avoidance Systems
 * Vol V – Aeronautical Radio Frequency Spectrum Utilization
 * Annex 11 – Air Traffic Services – Air Traffic Control Service, Flight Information Service and Alerting Service
 * Annex 12 – Search and Rescue
 * Annex 13 – Aircraft Accident and Incident Investigation
 * Annex 14 – Aerodromes
 * Vol I – Aerodrome Design and Operations
 * Vol II – Heliports
 * Annex 15 – Aeronautical Information Services, like NOTAMs
 * Annex 16 – Environmental Protection
 * Vol I – Aircraft Noise
 * Vol II – Aircraft Engine Emissions
 * Vol III – Certification Requirement
 * Vol IV – Carbon Offsetting and Reduction Scheme for International Aviation (CORSIA)
 * Annex 17 – Security: Safeguarding International Civil Aviation Against Acts of Unlawful Interference
 * Annex 18 – The Safe Transport of Dangerous Goods by Air
 * Annex 19 – Safety Management (Since 14 November 2013)

Annex 5, Units of Measurement to be Used in Air and Ground Operations, named in its Table 3-3 three "non-SI alternative units permitted for temporary use with the SI": the foot (for vertical distance = altitude), the knot (for speed), and the nautical mile (for long distance).

Kerosene tax
Article 24 of the Chicago Convention stipulates that when flying from one contracting state to another, the kerosene that is already on board aircraft may not be taxed by the state where the aircraft lands, nor by a state through whose airspace the aircraft has flown. This was intended to prevent double taxation. However, there is no tax regulation in the Chicago Convention to refuelling the aircraft before departure.

The Chicago Convention does not preclude a kerosene tax on domestic flights and on refueling before international flights. Although the ICAO has produced various policy documents suggesting that no taxes of any kind should be placed on aviation fuel, none of these are legally binding, and they are not found in the Chicago Convention itself.

Although there are numerous bilateral agreements, so-called 'air services agreements', which make more extensive agreements, including often tax exemption when refueling an aircraft that has come from another contracting state, these are independent from the Chicago Convention; moreover, some air services agreements do allow for the taxation of fuels.


text:
The News & Observer

The News & Observer is an American regional daily newspaper that serves the greater Triangle area based in Raleigh, North Carolina. The paper is the largest in circulation in the state (second is the Charlotte Observer). The paper has been awarded three Pulitzer Prizes, the most recent of which was in 1996 for a series on the health and environmental impact of North Carolina's booming hog industry. The paper was one of the first in the world to launch an online version of the publication, Nando.net in 1994.

Ownership
On May 17, 1995 the News & Observer Publishing Company was sold to McClatchy Newspapers of Sacramento, California, for $373 million, ending 101 years of Daniels family ownership. In the mid-1990s, flexo machines were installed, allowing the paper to print thirty-two pages in color, which was the largest capacity of any newspaper within the United States at the time. The McClatchy Company currently operates a total of twenty-nine daily newspapers in fourteen states with a combined weekday circulation of 1.6 million and a Sunday circulation of 2.4 million. With McClatchy's acquisition of most of Knight Ridder's properties in 2006, North Carolina's two largest newspapers (the News & Observer and The Charlotte Observer) are now under common ownership.

History
The News & Observer traces its roots to The Sentinel, which was founded by the Rev. William E. Pell in 1865 and who used, "the newspaper to fight against the domination of carpetbaggers and other forces during Congressional Reconstruction." The paper's struggles to stay relevant and make money led to new ownership in 1868. With the new owner The Sentinel began to cover the Democrats' push to retake the North Carolina Legislature, along with the impeachment of Gov. William W. Holden in 1871.

The Sentinel went bankrupt a little over ten years after the paper was first founded. The owners of the newly founded Raleigh Observer, Peter M. Hale and William L. Saunders, bought the now-bankrupt paper, ending its publication and focusing on the Raleigh Observer. After about ten years the paper ran out of money, so the two owners sold to the owner of the Raleigh News, Samuel A. Ashe.

Ashe combined the two papers under the new banner The News & Observer in September 1880, making it the sole daily paper in Raleigh. Ashe ran the company personally until 1894, focusing on politics and the Democratic party. Ashe used connections within the Democratic Party to get an upper leg on upcoming stories. This model worked well for the paper until Ashe lost favor in the Democratic caucus, leading the paper to fall on hard financial times for the fourth time in its history.

In 1894 the paper was sold at auction, this time to a Washington, North Carolina, native who was a strong Democratic supporter. Josephus Daniels, with help from Julian Carr and other friends, bought the paper. Quickly Daniels refocused the News and Observer to combat rampant corruption and other problems he saw within the state. Put differently by Daniels himself, "The News and Observer was relied upon to carry the Democratic message and to be the militant voice of White Supremacy, and it did not fail in what was expected, sometimes going to extremes in its partisanship." Daniels believed that "the greatest folly and crime" in U.S. history was granting Blacks the right to vote.

In the findings of the Wilmington Race Riot Commission, Daniels is the only name mentioned as a cause of the Wilmington insurrection of 1898, According to historian Helen Edmonds, the paper "led in a campaign of prejudice, bitterness, vilification, misrepresentation, and exaggeration to influence the emotions of the whites against the Negro." The result was the only successful coup d'état in American history, the overthrow of Wilmington's elected government by force. In 1900, he used the paper to support soon-to-be Governor Charles B. Aycock, another white supremacist, during his bid for the office. He also used the paper to advocate female suffrage, workers' compensation, state industrialization, better roads and crop rotation.

In 2006, on occasion of the release of the report of the 1898 Wilmington Race Riot Commission, the newspaper offered "an apology for the acts of someone [Daniels] we continue to salute in a different context…and for the misdeeds of the paper as an institution." The newspaper published a 16-page special report on the events of 1898.

After Daniels
Daniels continued to run the paper until his death in the mid-1940s. After his death his four sons assumed management of the company. All four sons contributed to the operation of the paper, but Jonathan Daniels, editor from 1933 to 1941 and from 1948 until 1964, kept the paper in the direction of appealing for school desegregation and a reduction in race related discrimination. It was also under Jonathan's leadership that The News and Observer bought out the Raleigh Times and moved to a building on South McDowell St. in downtown Raleigh, where they stayed until the building was sold in 2015.

On September 3, 1934, The News and Observer began a column about state politics called "Under the Dome", which started on the back page, moved to the front and now runs in the local section.

In 1968, the Daniels family hired Claude Sitton, who had been a correspondent for The New York Times and later an editor there. Serving as the editorial director of the paper, he promoted The News & Observer as a government watchdog and moved the news of the paper away from the personal and partisan stances it had taken under Josephus Daniels. However, its editorials were still often aligned with the Democratic Party. A year later, the Mini Page children's supplement was created and published. Today, it is one of America's most widely used children's newspaper supplements.

In 1971, Sitton became the editor and the paper began buying and publishing smaller local newspapers, starting with The Island Packet in Hilton Head, South Carolina and The Cary News in Cary, North Carolina.

On March 16, 1980, a welder's torch started a fire and burned through newsprint threaded through the press, injuring three and causing millions in damage.

In 1987, the staffs of The News & Observer and The Raleigh Times merged, and on November 30, 1989, the last edition of The Raleigh Times was published. In 1988, The News & Observer endorsed its first Republican candidate for statewide election, showing, perhaps, a distancing from Democratic partisanship.

Throughout the early 1990s, The News & Observer divested itself of various local newspapers in South Carolina and the North Carolina mountains, and by September 1993, Sunday sales of The News & Observer reached 200,000 for every week. However, the newspaper still owns The Cary News, Chapel Hill News, and the Smithfield Herald among other newspapers. In 1994, the paper created Nando.net, becoming an Internet service provider and began publishing the NandO Times online newspaper.

In 1999, The News & Observer was named one of America's 100 best newspapers by the Columbia Journalism Review, and one of the 17 best-designed newspapers in the world by the Society for News Design.

In 2004, The News & Observer along with three other news publishers filled suit against the Raleigh–Durham International Airport for preventing the company from adding new newspaper racks in the terminal. After appeal, a 2010 decision from the Fourth Circuit determined that the restriction was a violation of the first amendment because it put a restriction on expression.

In September 2008, the News and Observer offered buyouts to all 320 newsroom employees, approximately 40% of its staff, in an effort to cut expenses. Previously the company had shut down its Durham news bureau and in a separate event laid off 70 employees. Layoffs and buyouts have continued since then.

In 2015 the newspaper announced it would sell its facility in downtown Raleigh for redevelopment, which will entail demolition of much of the facility. New presses will be installed at the newspaper's auxiliary production facility in Garner. Editorial offices will remain in a portion of the redeveloped facility. By June 2021, the paper only employed 64 reporters.

Awards
Claude Sitton was awarded for his distinguished commentary. Michael Skube was awarded for his writing about books and other literary topics. In the Winter of 1995 The News & Observer released a nine part series on the booming pork industry in North Carolina. The series covered environmental and health risk of the waste disposal systems used within the pork industry in the state. The award was presented to the paper for the work done by Melanie Sill, Pat Stith and Joby Warrick.
 * 1983 – Pulitzer Prize in Commentary
 * 1989 – Pulitzer Prize in Criticism
 * 1996 – Pulitzer Prize in Public Service

Other publications
The News & Observer Publishing Co. formerly published a number of bi-weekly newspapers that focused on local news in various triangle-area communities. These included:

 * The Cary News covering Cary and Morrisville.
 * The Chapel Hill News covering Carrboro, Chapel Hill, Hillsborough, and Pittsboro.
 * The Clayton News-Star covering Clayton.
 * The Durham News was first published in 2005 and covers all of Durham County.
 * The Eastern Wake News Serving Wendell, Zebulon, and Knightdale.
 * The Garner-Cleveland Record Distributed to homes in Garner and Cleveland.
 * The Smithfield Herald First published in 1882 Covers Angier, Benson, Four Oaks, Princeton, Selma, and Smithfield.
 * Midtown Raleigh News covering the area between downtown Raleigh and the I-440 Beltline.
 * North Raleigh News covering North Raleigh
 * Southwest Wake News Covering Apex, Fuquay-Varina, Holly Springs, New Hill, and Willow Springs.

In June, 2017 these papers were shifted in focus from local community news to entertainment, food, and light features, and in January, 2018 were consolidated into a single bi-weekly paper titled Triangle Today, however that paper was discontinued in January, 2019.

The News & Observer Publishing Co. owns Insider State Government News Service, a newsletter publisher about state government.

title: The News & Observer


text:
File:Ptarmigan cairngorm.JPG

Rock Ptarmigan in Cairngorm, Scotland, January 2004. Photo by John McCann.

title: File:Ptarmigan cairngorm.JPG


text:
Chuan Leekpai

Chuan Leekpai (ชวน หลีกภัย,, ; ; born 28 July 1938) is a Thai politician who is the former president of the National Assembly of Thailand as well as the speaker of the Thai House of Representatives from 2019 to 2023. Previously he twice served as the Thai prime minister, from 20 September 1992 to 19 May 1995 and from 9 November 1997 to 9 February 2001.

As the leader of the Democrat Party, Chuan was elected in September 1992, becoming Thailand's first prime minister to come to power without either aristocratic or military backing. His first administration consisted of a five party coalition of the Democrat, New Aspiration, Palang Dhamma, Social Action, and Social Unity Parties until he was defeated in the 1995 election, but assumed power in late-1997 following the fall of the Chavalit Yongchaiyudh administration, which was held responsible for the economic crisis that beset Thailand that year. Although criticised as a slow actor and allowing numerous corruption scandals, Chuan managed to meet factional demands and extend Thailand's social security system.

Early life
Born in Mueang Thap Thiang, Trang province, to a teacher named Niyom Leekpai and Tuan Leekpai, Chuan has nine siblings and is the third child in the family. He would later move to the temple school at Wat Amarintraram in Bangkok where he lived for six years. He went on to study law at Thammasat University, Bangkok and later became a barrister-at-law of the Thai Bar Association. Chuan is ethnic Hokkien, coming from a third-generation Thai Chinese and Peranakan family.

First term (1992–1995)
In the aftermath of Bloody May, the Democrat Party won a plurality of seats in the September 1992 elections, with 79 seats, compared to the Chart Thai Party with 77 seats. Chuan formed a coalition government with the New Aspiration Party and Ekkaparb parties. The Phalang Dharma Party joined his cabinet after the New Aspiration Party left in 1994.

Key policies of Chuan's first administration included:
 * Engagement with Burma. As with all previous administrations, the Chuan government employed a policy of constructive engagement with the military government of Burma, provoking much criticism.
 * Reforestation. A huge five million rai reforestation programme in honour of King Bhumibol's 50th anniversary of accession to the throne (1996) was initiated in 1994.  The reforestation programme was officially declared a failure, with less than 40 percent of the target realised. The director-general of the RFD was suspended from his post for alleged corruption.
 * Emphasis on national economic stability, decentralisation of the administrative powers to the rural provinces, fostering income, opportunity and economic development distribution to the regions.

The first Chuan administration fell when members of the cabinet were implicated in profiting from Sor Phor Kor 4-01 land project documents distributed in Phuket Province. Fierce public and press criticism and dissolution of parliament were the reasons for his administration's downfall.

Second term (1997–2001)

Chuan became prime minister for the second time on 9 November 1997, replacing Chavalit Yongchaiyudh, with a shaky line-up of a six party coalition and 12 independent defectors from a seventh party, Prachakorn Thai. The ruling coalition increased its 20-seat majority in October 1998, by including the Chart Pattana Party.

Economic reform
Chuan's second government enacted several economic reforms for which it was severely criticised. Chuan's "bitter medicine" policies brought little economic relief in the years following the 1997 economic crisis, particularly at the grassroots level. Opinions emerged that the Democrats were only helping big financial institutions and making the country more dependent of foreign investors. Nevertheless, many of the reforms recommended by the IMF were in line with the policies of market economies such as Australia and New Zealand. The subsequent government's economic growth was based even more strongly on selling national assets and private organisations abroad such as the Shin Corporation, while most of its economic gains were built on the frugality of the Democrat policy platform. Thai Rak Thai painted the Democrats as having "open contempt" for the plight of the common Thai which set off a revenge vote against the party during the 2001 election, which gave a landslide victory to Thaksin Shinawatra.

Education reform
During Chuan's second administration the National Education Act 1999 was enacted.

Human rights
Chuan's second government came under fire for the violent arrest of 223 villagers protesting the Pak Mun Dam. Historian Nidhi Iawsriwong noted that "the present situation is as worse as that of the May event (the bloody crackdown of anti-government protesters in 1992). We have a tyrannical government that is arrogant and not accountable to the public. This is dangerous because the government still sees itself as legitimate and claims that it is democratic. In fact, it is as brutal as the military government".

Controversy arose in early 1999 when it became known that Chuan nominated Thanom Kittikachorn to the post of honorary royal guard, provoking widespread criticism. The situation was resolved when Thanom resigned. Thanom was one of the "three tyrants" who ruled Thailand from 1963 to 1973 and ordered the massacre of pro-democracy students on 14 October 1973, after which he was ordered to step down and be exiled by King Bhumibol Adulyadej.

In April 2000, the editor in chief of the Chiang Mai daily newspaper Pak Nua was shot and seriously wounded in an attempted murder, but recovered. The editor believed that his repeated critical reporting on the government led to the assault.

Corruption
Although generally regarded as relatively clean and honest when compared to other Thai administrations, Chuan's government found itself plagued with corruption scandals and rumours. Key cases of corruption included:
 * Rakkiat Sukhthana, Health Minister, was charged with taking a five million baht (US$125,000) bribe from a drug firm and forcing state hospitals to buy medicine at exorbitant prices. After being found guilty, he jumped bail and went into hiding.
 * Suthep Thaugsuban, Minister of Transport and Communications, whose brokering of illegal land deals caused the fall of the Chuan 1 government, was linked to abuse of funds in setting up a co-operative Surat Thani Province.
 * The "edible fence" seed scandal, in which massive overpricing of seeds distributed to rural areas happened. The Deputy Minister of Agriculture was forced to resign.
 * The Salween logging scandal, where up to 20,000 trees were felled illegally in the Salween forest in Mae Hong Son. Some of them turned up in the compound of the Democrat party's office in Phichit Province.
 * Sanan Kajornprasart, Interior Minister, as well as eight other cabinet ministers were found to have understated their declared assets. Sanan was later barred by the Constitutional Court from politics for five years.
 * Chuan himself was found by the National Counter-Corruption Commission to have undeclared shareholdings in a rural cooperative.

Chuan stepped down as the Leader of Democrat Party in 2003.

Personal life
Chuan Leekpai has one son, Surabot Leekpai, with Pakdiporn Sujaritkul, his common-law wife. His mother tongue is Southern Thai, but his proficiency in Central Thai is native level. He is able to speak English well.

National honours

 * 🇹🇭 Thailand:
 * [[Image:Order of the White Elephant - Special Class (Thailand) ribbon.svg|80px]] Knight Grand Cordon (Special Class) of the Most Exalted Order of the White Elephant
 * [[Image:Order of the Crown of Thailand - Special Class (Thailand) ribbon.svg|80px]] Knight Grand Cordon (Special Class) of The Most Noble Order of the Crown of Thailand
 * [[Image:Order of Chula Chom Klao - 2nd Class upper (Thailand) ribbon.svg|80px]] Knight Grand Commander (Second Class, higher grade) of the Most Illustrious Order of Chula Chom Klao
 * Order of Ramkeerati ribbon.png Order of Symbolic Propitiousness Ramkeerati
 * King Rama IX Coronation Medal (Thailand) ribbon.svg Recipient of the King Rama IX Coronation Medal
 * 25th Buddhist Century Celebration Medal (Thailand) ribbon.svg 25th Buddhist Century Celebration Medal
 * Serving Free Peoples Medal (Thailand) ribbon.svg Serving Free Peoples Medal
 * Ribbon bar of Red Cross Medal of Appreciation, 1st Class (Thailand).svg First Class (Gold Medal) of the Red Cross Medal of Appreciation

Foreign decorations

 * 🇵🇭 Philippines:
 * PHI Order of Sikatuna 2003 Grand Collar BAR.svg Grand Collar (Raja) of the Order of Sikatuna (1993)
 * 🇵🇪 Peru:
 * PER Order of the Sun of Peru - Grand Cross BAR.png Grand Cross of the Order of the Sun (1999)
 * 🇵🇹 Portugal:
 * PRT Order of Christ - Grand Cross BAR.svg Grand Cross of the Order of Christ (1999)
 * 🇳🇮 Nicaragua:
 * NI Ribbon bar of the Grand Cross of the Order of Rubén Dario.png Grand Cross of the Order of Rubén Dario (2000)
 * 🇷🇴 Romania:
 * Order of the Star of Romania - Ribbon bar.svg Grand Cross of the Order of the Star of Romania (2000)
 * 🇩🇰 Denmark
 * Order of the Dannebrog S.K.svg Grand Cross of the Order of the Dannebrog (2001)

title: Chuan Leekpai


text: User talk:81.7.80.221

title: User talk:81.7.80.221


text:
Mental accounting

Mental accounting (or psychological accounting) is a model of consumer behaviour developed by Richard Thaler that attempts to describe the process whereby people code, categorize and evaluate economic outcomes. Mental accounting incorporates the economic concepts of prospect theory and transactional utility theory to evaluate how people create distinctions between their financial resources in the form of mental accounts, which in turn impacts the buyer decision process and reaction to economic outcomes. People are presumed to make mental accounts as a self control strategy to manage and keep track of their spending and resources. People budget money into mental accounts for savings (e.g., saving for a home) or expense categories (e.g., gas money, clothing, utilities). People also are assumed to make mental accounts to facilitate savings for larger purposes (e.g., a home or college tuition). Mental accounting can result in people demonstrating greater loss aversion for certain mental accounts, resulting in cognitive bias that incentivizes systematic departures from consumer rationality. Through increased understanding of mental accounting differences in decision making based on different resources, and different reactions based on similar outcomes can be greater understood.

As Thaler puts it, “All organizations, from General Motors down to single person households, have explicit and/or implicit accounting systems. The accounting system often influences decisions in unexpected ways”. Particularly, individual expenses will usually not be considered in conjunction with the present value of one’s total wealth; they will be instead considered in the context of two accounts: the current budgetary period (this could be a monthly process due to bills, or yearly due to an annual income), and the category of expense. People can even have multiple mental accounts for the same kind of resource. A person may use different monthly budgets for grocery shopping and eating out at restaurants, for example, and constrain one kind of purchase when its budget has run out while not constraining the other kind of purchase, even though both expenditures draw on the same fungible resource (income).

One detailed application of mental accounting, the Behavioral Life Cycle Hypothesis posits that people mentally frame assets as belonging to either current income, current wealth or future income and this has implications for their behavior as the accounts are largely non-fungible and marginal propensity to consume out of each account is different.

Utility, value and transaction
In mental accounting theory, the framing effect defines that the way a person subjectively frames a transaction in their mind will determine the utility they receive or expect. The concept of framing is adopted in prospect theory, which is commonly used by mental accounting theorists as the value function in their analysis (Richard Thaler Included ). In Prospect Theory, the value function is concave for gains (implying an aversion to risk), indicating decreasing marginal utility with accumulation of gain. The value function is convex for losses (implying a risk-seeking attitude). A concave value function for gain incentivizes risk-averse behavior because marginal gain decreases relative increase in value. Conversely a convex value function for losses means that the impact of a loss is more detrimental to a person than an equivalent gain, thus incentivizing risk-seeking behavior in order to avoid loss. These proponents of the value function portray the concept of loss aversion, which asserts that people are more likely to make decisions in order to minimize loss than to maximise gain.

Given the Prospect Theory framework, how do people interpret, or ‘account for’, multiple transactions/outcomes, of the format $$(x, y)$$? They can either view the outcomes jointly, and receive $$Value(x+y)$$, in which case the outcomes are integrated, or $$Value(x) + Value(y)$$, in which case we say that the outcomes are segregated. The choice to integrate or segregate multiple outcomes can be beneficial or detrimental to overall utility depending on correctness of application. Due to the nature of our value function’s different slopes for gains and losses, our utility is maximized in different ways, depending on how we code the four kinds of transactions $$x$$ and $$y$$ (as gains or as losses):1)  Multiple gains:  $$x$$ and  $$y$$ are both considered gains. Here, we see that $$Value(x) + Value(y) > Value(x+y)$$. Thus, we want to segregate multiple gains.

2)  Multiple losses:  $$x$$ and  $$y$$ are both considered losses. Here, we see that $$Value(-x) + Value(-y) < Value( -(x+y) )$$. We want to integrate multiple losses.

3)  Mixed gain: one of  $$x$$ and  $$y$$ is a gain and one is a loss, however the gain is the larger of the two. In this case, $$Value(x) + Value(-y) < Value(x-y)$$. Utility is maximized when we integrate a mixed gain.

4)  Mixed loss: again, one of  $$x$$ and  $$y$$ is a gain and one is a loss, however the loss is now significantly larger than the gain. In this case, $$Value(x) + Value(-y) >Value(x-y)    $$. Clearly, we don't want to integrate a mixed loss when the less is significantly larger than the gain. This is often referred to as a "silver lining", a reference to the folk maxim "every cloud has a silver lining". When the loss is just barely larger than the gain, integration may be preferred.

Integration and segregation of outcomes is a means of framing that can impact the overall utility derived from multiple outcomes. Mental accounting interprets the tendency of people to mentally segregate their financial resources into different categories. In the event of financial losses or gains in different mental accounts, people will be impacted differently than if the financial loss was integrated across their entire financial portfolio. In the event of multiple gain and mixed loss, mental accounting will segregate outcomes resulting in maximised utility. In the event of multiple losses and mixed gain, mental accounting will segregate outcomes resulting in minimized utility.

There are two values attached to any transaction - acquisition value and transaction value. Acquisition value is the money that one is ready to part with for physically acquiring some good. Transaction value is the value one attaches to having a good deal. If the price that one is paying is equal to the mental reference price for the good, the transaction value is zero. If the price is lower than the reference price, the transaction utility is positive. Total utility received from a transaction, then, is the sum of acquisition utility and transaction utility.

Pain of Paying
A more proximal psychological mechanism through which mental accounting influences spending is through its influence on the pain of paying that is associated with spending money from a mental account. Pain of paying is a negative affective response associated with a financial loss. Prototypical examples are the unpleasant feeling that one experiences when watching the fare increase on a taximeter or at the gas pump. When considering an expense, consumers appear to compare the cost of the expense to the size of an account that it would deplete (e.g., numerator vs. denominator). A $30 t-shirt, for example, would be a subjectively larger expense when drawn from $50 in one's wallet than $500 in one's checking account. The larger the fraction, the more pain of paying the purchase appears to generate and the less likely consumers are to then exchange money for the good. Other evidence of the relation between pain of paying and spending include the lower debt held by consumers who report experiencing a higher pain of paying for the same goods and services than consumers who report experiencing less pain of paying.

Main principles of mental accounts
Richard Thaler divided the concept mental accounting into two main principles; segregation of gains and losses, and account reference points. Both principles utilize concepts related to utility and pain of paying to interpret how people evaluate economic outcomes.

Segregation of gains and losses
A main principle of mental accounting is the assertion that people frame gains and losses by segregating into different mental accounts rather than integrating into their overall account. The impact of this tendency means that outcomes can be framed based on the context of a decision. In mental accounting the framing of a decision reduces from the overall account to a smaller segregated account which can incentivize purchase decisions. An example of this was posed by Thaler where people were more inclined to drive 20 minutes to save $5 on a $15 purchase than on a $125 purchase. The principle applies to mental accounting where if gains and losses are viewed relative to a smaller segregated account then the outcome is viewed differently.

Account reference points
Account reference points refer to the tendency for people to set a reference point on a current decision based on prior outcome in the same mental account. As a result the impact of prior outcomes integrate into the current decision when determining overall utility. An example was posed by Thaler where gamblers were more inclined to make risk-seeking bets on the last race of the day. This phenomenon was justified by the assertion that gamblers segregate the gains and losses from each day into separate accounts and integrate gains and losses for each day in an account. It can then be interpreted that end-of-day risk-seeking bets is an example of loss aversion where gamblers attempt to equalize their daily account.

Practical implications
Since the inception of the concept, mental accounting has been applied to interpret consumer behavior particularly in the contexts of online shopping, consumer reward points, public taxation policy.

Psychology
Mental accounting is subject to many logical fallacies and cognitive biases, which hold many implications such as overspending.

Credit cards and cash payments
Another example of mental accounting is the greater willingness to pay for goods when using credit cards than cash. Swiping a credit card prolongs the payment to a later date (when we pay our monthly bill) and integrates it to a large existing sum (our bill to that point). This delay causes the payment to stick in our memory less clearly and saliently. Furthermore, the payment is no longer perceived in isolation; rather, it is seen as a (relatively) small increase of an already large credit card bill. For example, it might be a change from $120 to $125, instead of a regular, out-of-pocket $5 cost. And as we can see from our value function, this V(-$125) – V(-$120) is smaller than V(-$5), thus the pain of paying is reduced.

Marketing
Mental accounting can be useful for marketers predict customer response to bundling of pricing and segregation of products. People respond more positively to incentives and costs when gains are segregated, losses are integrated, marketers segregate net losses (the silver lining principle), and integrate net gains. Automotive dealers, for example, benefit from these principles when they bundle optional features into a single price but segregate each feature included in the bundle (e.g. velvet seat covers, aluminum wheels,anti-theft car lock). Cellular phone companies can use principles of mental accounting when deciding how much to charge consumers for a new smartphone and to give them for their trade-in. When the cost of the phone is large and the value of the phone to be traded in is low, it is better to charge consumers a slightly higher price for the phone and return that money to them as a higher value on their trade in. Conversely, when the cost of the phone and the value of the trade-in are more comparable, because consumers are loss averse, it is better to charge them less for the new phone and offer them less for the trade-in.

Public policy
Mental accounting can also be utilized in public economics and public policy. Inherently, the way that people (and therefore tax-payers and voters) perceive decisions and outcomes will be influenced by their process of mental accounting. Policy-makers and public economists could potentially apply mental accounting concepts when crafting public systems, trying to understand and identify market failures, redistribute wealth or resources in a fair way, reduce the saliency of sunk costs, limiting or eliminating the Free-rider problem, or even just when delivering bundles of multiple goods or services to taxpayers. The following examples exist where mental accounting applied to public policy and programs produced positive outcomes.

A good example of the importance of considering mental accounting while crafting public policy is demonstrated by authors Justine Hastings and Jesse Shapiro in their analysis of the SNAP (Supplemental Nutritional Assistance Program). They "argue that these findings are not consistent with households treating SNAP funds as fungible with non-SNAP funds, and we support this claim with formal tests of fungibility that allow different households to have different consumption functions" Put differently, their data supports Thaler's (and the concept of mental accounting's) claim that the principle of fungibility is often violated in practice. Furthermore, they find SNAP to be very effective, calculating a marginal propensity to consume SNAP-eligible food (MPCF) out of benefits received by SNAP of 0.5 to 0.6. This is much higher than the MPCF out of cash transfers, which is usually around 0.1.

The implications of taxation policy on taxpayers was examined through mental accounting principles in Optimal Taxation with Behavioral Insights. The research paper applied the ideology of the three pillars of optimal taxation, and incorporated mental accounting concepts (as well as misperceptions and internalities). Outcomes included novel economic insights, including application of nudges present in optimal taxation frameworks, and challenging the Diamond-Mirrlees productive efficiency result and the Atkinson-Stiglitz uniform commodity taxation proposition, finding they are more likely to fail with behavioral agents.

In the paper Public vs. Private Mental Accounts: Experimental Evidence from Savings Groups in Colombia, it was demonstrated that mental accounting can be exploited to help nudge people towards saving more. The study found that publicly creating a savings goal greatly increased the savings rate of participants when compared to the control and those who set savings goals privately. The power of the labeling effect was observed to vary based on the savings success history of the participants.

Mental accounting plays a powerful role in our decision-making processes. It is important for public policy experts, researchers, and policy-makers continue to explore the ways that it can be utilized to benefit public welfare.

title: Mental accounting


text:
NOAA-4

NOAA-4, also known as ITOS-G was a weather satellite operated by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). It was part of a series of satellites called ITOS, or improved TIROS. NOAA-4 was launched on a Delta rocket on November 15, 1974. The launch carried two other satellites: AMSAT-OSCAR 7 and Intasat.

It remained operational for 1463 days until it was deactivated by NOAA on November 18, 1978.

title: NOAA-4


text:
Wikipedia:Articles for deletion/Isparta

Isparta was proposed for deletion. This page is an archive of the discussion about the proposed deletion. This page is no longer live. Further comments should be made on the article's talk page rather than here so that this page is preserved as an historic record. The result of the debate was keep

discussion moved from Pages needing translation into English: Isparta -- unsure of language. SWAdair | Talk 04:48, 14 Sep 2004 (UTC)
 * Looks Turkish, but I can't tell if it's encyclopedic. -- Jmabel 05:47, Sep 14, 2004 (UTC)
 * Definitely Turkish. Possibly description of a city so named. Gadykozma 14:59, 18 Sep 2004 (UTC)

 * It's been 2 weeks, no action. If it's translated, judge it on its merits. Otherwise delete. -- Jmabel 07:48, Sep 28, 2004 (UTC)
 * Delete unless translated. Thue | talk 11:01, 28 Sep 2004 (UTC)

 * Translated, but it is a stub. I would not claim it is worthy of keeping. at0 01:00, 2 Oct 2004 (UTC)
 * Translated. It looks like a perfectly good stub. Keep. -- Jmabel 07:12, Oct 3, 2004 (UTC)

This page is now preserved as an archive of the debate and, like other '/delete' pages is no longer 'live'. Subsequent comments on the issue, the deletion or on the decision-making process should be placed on the relevant 'live' pages. Please do not edit this page.

title: Wikipedia:Articles for deletion/Isparta


text:
Pyrgeometer

A pyrgeometer is a device that measures near-surface infra-red (IR) radiation, approximately from 4.5 μm to 100 μm on the electromagnetic spectrum (thereby excluding solar radiation).

It measures the resistance/voltage changes in a material that is sensitive to the net energy transfer by radiation that occurs between itself and its surroundings (which can be either in or out). By also measuring its own temperature and making some assumptions about the nature of its surroundings it can infer a temperature of the local atmosphere with which it is exchanging radiation.

Since the mean free path of IR radiation in the atmosphere is ~25 meters, this device typically measures IR flux in the nearest 25 meter layer.

Pyrgeometer components

A pyrgeometer consists of the following major components:

 * A thermopile sensor which is sensitive to radiation in a broad range from 200 nm to 100 μm
 * A silicon dome or window with a solar blind filter coating. It has a transmittance between 4.5 μm and 50 μm that eliminates solar shortwave radiation.
 * A temperature sensor to measure the body temperature of the instrument.
 * A sun shield to minimize heating of the instrument due to solar radiation.

Measurement of long wave downward radiation
The atmosphere and the pyrgeometer (in effect its sensor surface) exchange long wave IR radiation. This results in a net radiation balance according to:

 * $$E_\mathrm{net} = E_\mathrm{in} - E_\mathrm{out}$$

Where (in SI units):
 * $Enet$ = net radiation at sensor surface [W/m2]
 * $Ein$ = long-wave radiation received from the atmosphere [W/m2]
 * $Eout$ = long-wave radiation emitted by the sensor surface [W/m2]

The pyrgeometer's thermopile detects the net radiation balance between the incoming and outgoing long wave radiation flux and converts it to a voltage according to the equation below.

 * $$ E_\mathrm{net} = \frac{U_\mathrm{emf}}{S}$$

Where (in SI units):
 * $Enet$ =net radiation at sensor surface [W/m2]
 * $Uemf$ = thermopile output voltage [V]
 * $S$ = sensitivity/calibration factor of instrument [V/W/m2]

The value for $S$ is determined during calibration of the instrument. The calibration is performed at the production factory with a reference instrument traceable to a regional calibration center.

To derive the absolute downward long wave flux, the temperature of the pyrgeometer has to be taken into account. It is measured using a temperature sensor inside the instrument, near the cold junctions of the thermopile. The pyrgeometer is considered to approximate a black body. Due to this it emits long wave radiation according to:

 * $$E_\mathrm{out} = \sigma T^4$$

Where (in SI units):
 * $Eout$ = long-wave radiation emitted by the earth surface [W/m2]
 * $σ$ = Stefan–Boltzmann constant [W/(m2·K4)]
 * $T$ = Absolute temperature of pyrgeometer detector [K]

From the calculations above the incoming long wave radiation can be derived. This is usually done by rearranging the equations above to yield the so-called pyrgeometer equation by Albrecht and Cox.

 * $$E_\mathrm{in} = \frac{U_\mathrm{emf}}{S}+ \sigma T^4$$

Where all the variables have the same meaning as before.

As a result, the detected voltage and instrument temperature yield the total global long wave downward radiation.

Usage
Pyrgeometers are frequently used in meteorology, climatology studies. The atmospheric long-wave downward radiation is of interest for research into long term climate changes.

The signals are generally detected using a data logging system, capable of taking high resolution samples in the millivolt range.

title: Pyrgeometer