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Astrocyte

Astrocytes (from Ancient Greek ἄστρον, ástron, "star" and κύτος, kútos, "cavity", "cell"), also known collectively as astroglia, are characteristic star-shaped glial cells in the brain and spinal cord. They perform many functions, including biochemical control of endothelial cells that form the blood–brain barrier, provision of nutrients to the nervous tissue, maintenance of extracellular ion balance, regulation of cerebral blood flow, and a role in the repair and scarring process of the brain and spinal cord following infection and traumatic injuries. The proportion of astrocytes in the brain is not well defined; depending on the counting technique used, studies have found that the astrocyte proportion varies by region and ranges from 20% to around 40% of all glia. Another study reports that astrocytes are the most numerous cell type in the brain. Astrocytes are the major source of cholesterol in the central nervous system. Apolipoprotein E transports cholesterol from astrocytes to neurons and other glial cells, regulating cell signaling in the brain. Astrocytes in humans are more than twenty times larger than in rodent brains, and make contact with more than ten times the number of synapses.

Research since the mid-1990s has shown that astrocytes propagate intercellular Ca2+ waves over long distances in response to stimulation, and, similar to neurons, release transmitters (called gliotransmitters) in a Ca2+-dependent manner. Data suggest that astrocytes also signal to neurons through Ca2+-dependent release of glutamate. Such discoveries have made astrocytes an important area of research within the field of neuroscience.

Structure

Astrocytes are a sub-type of glial cells in the central nervous system. They are also known as astrocytic glial cells. Star-shaped, their many processes envelop synapses made by neurons. In humans, a single astrocyte cell can interact with up to 2 million synapses at a time. Astrocytes are classically identified using histological analysis; many of these cells express the intermediate filament glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP). Several forms of astrocytes exist in the central nervous system including fibrous (in white matter), protoplasmic (in grey matter), and radial. The fibrous glia are usually located within white matter, have relatively few organelles, and exhibit long unbranched cellular processes. This type often has astrocytic endfeet, processes that physically connect the cells to the outside of capillary walls when they are in proximity to them. The protoplasmic glia are the most prevalent and are found in grey matter tissue, possess a larger quantity of organelles, and exhibit short and highly branched tertiary processes. The radial glial cells are disposed in planes perpendicular to the axes of ventricles. One of their processes abuts the pia mater, while the other is deeply buried in gray matter. Radial glia are mostly present during development, playing a role in neuron migration. Müller cells of the retina and Bergmann glia cells of the cerebellar cortex represent an exception, being present still during adulthood. When in proximity to the pia mater, all three forms of astrocytes send out processes to form the pia-glial membrane.

Early assessments of energy use in gray matter signaling suggested that 95% was attributed to neurons and 5% to astrocytes. However, after discovering that action potentials were more efficient than initially believed, the energy budget was adjusted: 70% for dendrites, 15% for axons, and 7% for astrocytes. Previous accounts assumed that astrocytes captured synaptic K⁺ solely via Kir4.1 channels. However, it's now understood they also utilize Na⁺/K⁺ ATPase. Factoring in this active buffering, astrocytic energy demand increases by >200%. This is supported by 3D neuropil reconstructions indicating similar mitochondrial densities in both cell types, as well as cell-specific transcriptomic and proteomic data, and tricarboxylic acid cycle rates. Therefore "Gram-per-gram, astrocytes turn out to be as expensive as neurons".

Development
Astrocytes are macroglial cells in the central nervous system. Astrocytes are derived from heterogeneous populations of progenitor cells in the neuroepithelium of the developing central nervous system. There is remarkable similarity between the well known genetic mechanisms that specify the lineage of diverse neuron subtypes and that of macroglial cells. Just as with neuronal cell specification, canonical signaling factors like sonic hedgehog (SHH), fibroblast growth factor (FGFs), WNTs and bone morphogenetic proteins (BMPs), provide positional information to developing macroglial cells through morphogen gradients along the dorsal–ventral, anterior–posterior and medial–lateral axes. The resultant patterning along the neuraxis leads to segmentation of the neuroepithelium into progenitor domains (p0, p1 p2, p3 and pMN) for distinct neuron types in the developing spinal cord. On the basis of several studies it is now believed that this model also applies to macroglial cell specification. Studies carried out by Hochstim and colleagues have demonstrated that three distinct populations of astrocytes arise from the p1, p2 and p3 domains. These subtypes of astrocytes can be identified on the basis of their expression of different transcription factors (PAX6, NKX6.1) and cell surface markers (reelin and SLIT1). The three populations of astrocyte subtypes which have been identified are: 1) dorsally located VA1 astrocytes, derived from p1 domain, express PAX6 and reelin; 2) ventrally located VA3 astrocytes, derived from p3, express NKX6.1 and SLIT1; and 3) intermediate white-matter located VA2 astrocyte, derived from the p2 domain, which express PAX6, NKX6.1, reelin and SLIT1. After astrocyte specification has occurred in the developing CNS, it is believed that astrocyte precursors migrate to their final positions within the nervous system before the process of terminal differentiation occurs.

Function
Astrocytes help form the physical structure of the brain, and are thought to play a number of active roles, including the secretion or absorption of neural transmitters and maintenance of the blood–brain barrier. The concept of a tripartite synapse has been proposed, referring to the tight relationship occurring at synapses among a presynaptic element, a postsynaptic element and a glial element.

 * Structural: They are involved in the physical structuring of the brain. Astrocytes get their name because they are "star-shaped". They are the most abundant glial cells in the brain that are closely associated with neuronal synapses. They regulate the transmission of electrical impulses within the brain.
 * Glycogen fuel reserve buffer: Astrocytes contain glycogen and are capable of gluconeogenesis. The astrocytes next to neurons in the frontal cortex and hippocampus store and release glucose. Thus, astrocytes can fuel neurons with glucose during periods of high rate of glucose consumption and glucose shortage. A recent research on rats suggests there may be a connection between this activity and physical exercise.
 * Metabolic support: They provide neurons with nutrients such as lactate.
 * Glucose sensing: normally associated with neurons, the detection of interstitial glucose levels within the brain is also controlled by astrocytes. Astrocytes in vitro become activated by low glucose and are in vivo this activation increases gastric emptying to increase digestion.
 * Blood–brain barrier: The astrocyte end-feet encircling endothelial cells were thought to aid in the maintenance of the blood–brain barrier, and recent research indicates that they do play a substantial role, along with the tight junctions and basal lamina. However, it has recently been shown that astrocyte activity is linked to blood flow in the brain, and that this is what is actually being measured in fMRI.
 * Transmitter uptake and release: Astrocytes express plasma membrane transporters such as glutamate transporters for several neurotransmitters, including glutamate, ATP, and GABA. More recently, astrocytes were shown to release glutamate or ATP in a vesicular, Ca2+-dependent manner. (This has been disputed for hippocampal astrocytes.)
 * Regulation of ion concentration in the extracellular space: Astrocytes express potassium channels at a high density. When neurons are active, they release potassium, increasing the local extracellular concentration. Because astrocytes are highly permeable to potassium, they rapidly clear the excess accumulation in the extracellular space. If this function is interfered with, the extracellular concentration of potassium will rise, leading to neuronal depolarization by the Goldman equation. Abnormal accumulation of extracellular potassium is well known to result in epileptic neuronal activity.
 * Modulation of synaptic transmission: In the supraoptic nucleus of the hypothalamus, rapid changes in astrocyte morphology have been shown to affect heterosynaptic transmission between neurons. In the hippocampus, astrocytes suppress synaptic transmission by releasing ATP, which is hydrolyzed by ectonucleotidases to yield adenosine. Adenosine acts on neuronal adenosine receptors to inhibit synaptic transmission, thereby increasing the dynamic range available for LTP.
 * Vasomodulation: Astrocytes may serve as intermediaries in neuronal regulation of blood flow.
 * Promotion of the myelinating activity of oligodendrocytes: Electrical activity in neurons causes them to release ATP, which serves as an important stimulus for myelin to form. However, the ATP does not act directly on oligodendrocytes. Instead, it causes astrocytes to secrete cytokine leukemia inhibitory factor (LIF), a regulatory protein that promotes the myelinating activity of oligodendrocytes. This suggests that astrocytes have an executive-coordinating role in the brain.
 * Nervous system repair: Upon injury to nerve cells within the central nervous system, astrocytes fill up the space to form a glial scar, and may contribute to neural repair. The role of astrocytes in CNS regeneration following injury is not well understood though. The glial scar has traditionally been described as an impermeable barrier to regeneration, thus implicating a negative role in axon regeneration. However, recently, it was found through genetic ablation studies that astrocytes are actually required for regeneration to occur. More importantly, the authors found that the astrocyte scar is actually essential for stimulated axons (that axons that have been coaxed to grow via neurotrophic supplementation) to extend through the injured spinal cord. Astrocytes that have been pushed into a reactive phenotype (termed astrogliosis, defined by the upregulation of among others, GFAP and vimentin expression, a definition still under debate) may actually be toxic to neurons, releasing signals that can kill neurons. Much work, however, remains to elucidate their role in nervous system injury.
 * Long-term potentiation: Scientists debate whether astrocytes integrate learning and memory in the hippocampus. Recently it has been shown that engrafting human glial progenitor cell in the nascent mice brains will cause the cells to differentiate into astrocytes. After differentiation these cells increase LTP and improve memory performance in the mice.
 * Circadian clock: Astrocytes alone are sufficient to drive the molecular oscillations in the SCN and circadian behavior in mice, and thus can autonomously initiate and sustain complex mammalian behavior.
 * The switch of the nervous system: Based on the evidence listed below, it has been recently conjectured in, that macro glia (and astrocytes in particular) act both as a lossy neurotransmitter capacitor and as the logical switch of the nervous system. I.e., macroglia either block or enable the propagation of the stimulus along the nervous system, depending on their membrane state and the level of the stimulus.

Astrocytes are linked by gap junctions, creating an electrically coupled (functional) syncytium. Because of this ability of astrocytes to communicate with their neighbors, changes in the activity of one astrocyte can have repercussions on the activities of others that are quite distant from the original astrocyte.

An influx of Ca2+ ions into astrocytes is the essential change that ultimately generates calcium waves. Because this influx is directly caused by an increase in blood flow to the brain, calcium waves are said to be a kind of hemodynamic response function. An increase in intracellular calcium concentration can propagate outwards through this functional syncytium. Mechanisms of calcium wave propagation include diffusion of calcium ions and IP3 through gap junctions and extracellular ATP signalling. Calcium elevations are the primary known axis of activation in astrocytes, and are necessary and sufficient for some types of astrocytic glutamate release. Given the importance of calcium signaling in astrocytes, tight regulatory mechanisms for the progression of the spatio-temporal calcium signaling have been developed. Via mathematical analysis it has been shown that localized inflow of Ca2+ ions yields a localized raise in the cytosolic concentration of Ca2+ ions. Moreover, cytosolic Ca2+ accumulation is independent of every intracellular calcium flux and depends on the Ca2+ exchange across the membrane, cytosolic calcium diffusion, geometry of the cell, extracellular calcium perturbation, and initial concentrations.

Tripartite synapse
Within the dorsal horn of the spinal cord, activated astrocytes have the ability to respond to almost all neurotransmitters and, upon activation, release a multitude of neuroactive molecules such as glutamate, ATP, nitric oxide (NO), and prostaglandins (PG), which in turn influences neuronal excitability. The close association between astrocytes and presynaptic and postsynaptic terminals as well as their ability to integrate synaptic activity and release neuromodulators has been termed the tripartite synapse. Synaptic modulation by astrocytes takes place because of this three-part association.

A 2024 study suggested astrocytes, previously underexplored brain cells, could be key to extending wakefulness without negative effects on cognition and health.

Astrocytomas
Astrocytomas are primary intracranial tumors that develop from astrocytes. It is also possible that glial progenitors or neural stem cells can give rise to astrocytomas. These tumors may occur in many parts of the brain and/or spinal cord. Astrocytomas are divided into two categories: low grade (I and II) and high grade (III and IV). Low grade tumors are more common in children, and high grade tumors are more common in adults. Malignant astrocytomas are more prevalent among men, contributing to worse survival.

Pilocytic astrocytomas are grade I tumors. They are considered benign and slow growing tumors. Pilocytic astrocytomas frequently have cystic portions filled with fluid and a nodule, which is the solid portion. Most are located in the cerebellum. Therefore, most symptoms are related to balance or coordination difficulties. They also occur more frequently in children and teens.

Fibrillary astrocytomas are grade II tumors. They grow relatively slowly so are usually considered benign, but they infiltrate the surrounding healthy tissue and can become malignant. Fibrillary astrocytomas commonly occur in younger people, who often present with seizures.

Anaplastic astrocytomas are grade III malignant tumors. They grow more rapidly than lower grade tumors. Anaplastic astrocytomas recur more frequently than lower grade tumors because their tendency to spread into surrounding tissue makes them difficult to completely remove surgically.

Glioblastoma is a grade IV cancer that may originate from astrocytes or an existing astrocytoma. Approximately 50% of all brain tumors are glioblastomas. Glioblastomas can contain multiple glial cell types, including astrocytes and oligodendrocytes. Glioblastomas are generally considered to be the most invasive type of glial tumor, as they grow rapidly and spread to nearby tissue. Treatment may be complicated, because one tumor cell type may die off in response to a particular treatment while the other cell types may continue to multiply.

Neurodevelopmental disorders
Astrocytes have emerged as important participants in various neurodevelopmental disorders. This view states that astrocyte dysfunction may result in improper neural circuitry, which underlies certain psychiatric disorders such as autism spectrum disorders and schizophrenia.

Chronic pain
Under normal conditions, pain conduction begins with some noxious signal followed by an action potential carried by nociceptive (pain sensing) afferent neurons, which elicit excitatory postsynaptic potentials (EPSP) in the dorsal horn of the spinal cord. That message is then relayed to the cerebral cortex, where we translate those EPSPs into "pain". Since the discovery of astrocyte-neuron signaling, our understanding of the conduction of pain has been dramatically complicated. Pain processing is no longer seen as a repetitive relay of signals from body to brain, but as a complex system that can be up- and down-regulated by a number of different factors. One factor at the forefront of recent research is in the pain-potentiating synapse located in the dorsal horn of the spinal cord and the role of astrocytes in encapsulating these synapses. Garrison and co-workers were the first to suggest association when they found a correlation between astrocyte hypertrophy in the dorsal horn of the spinal cord and hypersensitivity to pain after peripheral nerve injury, typically considered an indicator of glial activation after injury. Astrocytes detect neuronal activity and can release chemical transmitters, which in turn control synaptic activity. In the past, hyperalgesia was thought to be modulated by the release of substance P and excitatory amino acids (EAA), such as glutamate, from the presynaptic afferent nerve terminals in the spinal cord dorsal horn. Subsequent activation of AMPA (α-amino-3-hydroxy-5-methyl-4-isoxazole propionic acid), NMDA (N-methyl-D-aspartate) and kainate subtypes of ionotropic glutamate receptors follows. It is the activation of these receptors that potentiates the pain signal up the spinal cord. This idea, although true, is an oversimplification of pain transduction. A litany of other neurotransmitter and neuromodulators, such as calcitonin gene-related peptide (CGRP), adenosine triphosphate (ATP), brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), somatostatin, vasoactive intestinal peptide (VIP), galanin, and vasopressin are all synthesized and released in response to noxious stimuli. In addition to each of these regulatory factors, several other interactions between pain-transmitting neurons and other neurons in the dorsal horn have added impact on pain pathways.

Two states of persistent pain
After persistent peripheral tissue damage there is a release of several factors from the injured tissue as well as in the spinal dorsal horn. These factors increase the responsiveness of the dorsal horn pain-projection neurons to ensuing stimuli, termed "spinal sensitization", thus amplifying the pain impulse to the brain. Release of glutamate, substance P, and calcitonin gene-related peptide (CGRP) mediates NMDAR activation (originally silent because it is plugged by Mg2+), thus aiding in depolarization of the postsynaptic pain-transmitting neurons (PTN). In addition, activation of IP3 signaling and MAPKs (mitogen-activated protein kinases) such as ERK and JNK, bring about an increase in the synthesis of inflammatory factors that alter glutamate transporter function. ERK also further activates AMPARs and NMDARs in neurons. Nociception is further sensitized by the association of ATP and substance P with their respective receptors (P2X3) and neurokinin 1 receptor (NK1R), as well as activation of metabotropic glutamate receptors and release of BDNF. Persistent presence of glutamate in the synapse eventually results in dysregulation of GLT1 and GLAST, crucial transporters of glutamate into astrocytes. Ongoing excitation can also induce ERK and JNK activation, resulting in release of several inflammatory factors.

As noxious pain is sustained, spinal sensitization creates transcriptional changes in the neurons of the dorsal horn that lead to altered function for extended periods. Mobilization of Ca2+ from internal stores results from persistent synaptic activity and leads to the release of glutamate, ATP, tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α), interleukin 1β (IL-1β), IL-6, nitric oxide (NO), and prostaglandin E2 (PGE2). Activated astrocytes are also a source of matrix metalloproteinase 2 (MMP2), which induces pro-IL-1β cleavage and sustains astrocyte activation. In this chronic signaling pathway, p38 is activated as a result of IL-1β signaling, and there is a presence of chemokines that trigger their receptors to become active. In response to nerve damage, heat shock proteins (HSP) are released and can bind to their respective TLRs, leading to further activation.

Other pathologies
Other clinically significant pathologies involving astrocytes include astrogliosis and astrocytopathy. Examples of these include multiple sclerosis, anti-AQP4+ neuromyelitis optica, Rasmussen's encephalitis, Alexander disease, and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis. Studies have shown that astrocytes may be implied in neurodegenerative diseases, such as Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease, Huntington's disease, Stuttering and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, and in acute brain injuries, such as intracerebral hemorrhage and traumatic brain injury.

Gomori-positive astrocytes and brain dysfunction
A type of astrocyte with an aging-related pathology has been described over the last fifty years. Astrocytes of this subtype possess prominent cytoplasmic granules that are intensely stained by Gomori's chrome alum hematoxylin stain, and hence are termed Gomori-positive (GP) astrocytes. They can be found throughout the brain, but are by far the most abundant in the olfactory bulbs, medial habenula, dentate gyrus of the hippocampus, arcuate nucleus of the hypothalamus, and in the dorsal medulla, just beneath the area postrema.

Gomori-positive cytoplasmic granules are derived from damaged mitochondria engulfed within lysosomes. Cytoplasmic granules contain undigested remnants of mitochondrial structures. These contents include heme-linked copper and iron atoms remaining from mitochondrial enzymes. These chemical substances account for the pseudoperoxidase activity of Gomori-positive granules that can utilized to stain for these granules. Oxidative stress is believed to be cause of damage to these astrocytes. However, the exact nature of this stress is uncertain.

Brain regions enriched in Gomori-positive astrocytes also contain a sub-population of specialized astrocytes that synthesize Fatty Acid Binding Protein 7 (FABP7). Indeed, astrocytes in the hypothalamus that synthesize FABP7 have also been shown to possess Gomori-positive granules. Thus, a connection between these two glial features is apparent. Recent data have shown that astrocytes, but not neurons, possess the mitochondrial enzymes needed to metabolize fatty acids, and that the resulting oxidative stress can damage mitochondria. Thus, an increased uptake and oxidation of fatty acids in glia containing FABP7 is likely to cause the oxidative stress and damage to mitochondria in these cells. Also, FABP proteins have recently been shown to interact with a protein called synuclein to cause mitochondrial damage.

Possible roles in pathophysiology
Astrocytes can transfer mitochondria into adjacent neurons to improve neuronal function. It is therefore plausible that the damage to astrocyte mitochondria seen in GP astrocytes could affect the activity of neurons.

A number of hypothalamic functions show declines in aging that may be related to GP astrocytes. For example, GP astrocytes are in close contact with neurons that make a neurotransmitter called dopamine in both the rat and human hypothalamus. The dopamine produced by these neurons is carried to the nearby pituitary gland to inhibit the release of a hormone called prolactin from the pituitary. The activity of dopaminergic neurons declines during aging, leading to elevations in blood levels of prolactin that can provoke breast cancer. An aging-associated change in astrocyte function might contribute to this change in dopaminergic activity.

FABP7+ astrocytes are in close contact with neurons in the arcuate nucleus of the hypothalamus that are responsive to a hormone called leptin that is produced by fat cells. Leptin-sensitive neurons regulate appetite and body weight. FABP7+ astrocytes regulate the responsiveness of these neurons to leptin. Mitochondrial damage in these astrocytes could thus alter the function of leptin-sensitive neurons and could contribute to an aging-associated dysregulation of feeding and body weight.

GP astrocytes may also be involved in the hypothalamic regulation of overall glucose metabolism. Recent data show that astrocytes function as glucose sensors and exert a commanding influence upon neuronal reactivity to changes in extracellular glucose. GP astrocytes possess high-capacity GLUT2-type glucose transporter proteins and appear to modulate the neuronal responses to glucose. Hypothalamic cells monitor blood levels of glucose and exert an influence upon blood glucose levels via an altered input to autonomic circuits that innervate liver and muscle cells.

The importance of astrocytes in aging-related disturbances in glucose metabolism has been recently illustrated by studies of diabetic animals. A single infusion of a protein called fibroblast growth factor-1 into the hypothalamus has been shown to permanently normalize blood glucose levels in diabetic rodents. This remarkable cure of diabetes mellitus is mediated by astrocytes. The most prominent genes activated by FGF-1 treatment include the genes responsible for the synthesis of FABP6 and FABP7 by astrocytes. These data confirm the importance of FABP7+ astrocytes for the control of blood glucose. Dysfunction of FABP7+/Gomori-positive astrocytes may contribute to the aging-related development of diabetes mellitus.

GP astrocytes are also present in the dentate gyrus of the hippocampus in both rodent and human brains. The hippocampus undergoes severe degenerative changes during aging in Alzheimer's disease. The reasons for these degenerative changes are currently being hotly debated. A recent study has shown that levels of glial proteins, and NOT neuronal proteins, are most abnormal in Alzheimer's disease. The glial protein most severely affected is FABP5. Another study showed that 100% of hippocampal astrocytes that contain FABP7 also contain FABP5. These data suggest that FABP7+/Gomori-positive astrocytes may play a role in Alzheimer's disease. An altered glial function in this region could compromise the function of dentate gyrus neurons and also the function of axons that terminate in the dentate gyrus. Many such axons originate in the lateral entorhinal cortex, which is the first brain region to show degeneration in Alzheimer's disease. Astrocyte pathology in the hippocampus thus might make a contribution to the pathology of Alzheimer's disease.

Research
A study performed in November 2010 and published March 2011, was done by a team of scientists from the University of Rochester and University of Colorado School of Medicine. They did an experiment to attempt to repair trauma to the Central Nervous System of an adult rat by replacing the glial cells. When the glial cells were injected into the injury of the adult rat's spinal cord, astrocytes were generated by exposing human glial precursor cells to bone morphogenetic protein (bone morphogenetic protein is important because it is considered to create tissue architecture throughout the body). So, with the bone protein and human glial cells combined, they promoted significant recovery of conscious foot placement, axonal growth, and obvious increases in neuronal survival in the spinal cord laminae. On the other hand, human glial precursor cells and astrocytes generated from these cells by being in contact with ciliary neurotrophic factors, failed to promote neuronal survival and support of axonal growth at the spot of the injury.

One study done in Shanghai had two types of hippocampal neuronal cultures: In one culture, the neuron was grown from a layer of astrocytes and the other culture was not in contact with any astrocytes, but they were instead fed a glial conditioned medium (GCM), which inhibits the rapid growth of cultured astrocytes in the brains of rats in most cases. In their results they were able to see that astrocytes had a direct role in Long-term potentiation with the mixed culture (which is the culture that was grown from a layer of astrocytes) but not in GCM cultures.

Studies have shown that astrocytes play an important function in the regulation of neural stem cells. Research from the Schepens Eye Research Institute at Harvard shows the human brain to abound in neural stem cells, which are kept in a dormant state by chemical signals (ephrin-A2 and ephrin-A3) from the astrocytes. The astrocytes are able to activate the stem cells to transform into working neurons by dampening the release of ephrin-A2 and ephrin-A3.

In a study published in a 2011 issue of Nature Biotechnology a group of researchers from the University of Wisconsin reports that it has been able to direct embryonic and induced human stem cells to become astrocytes.

A 2012 study of the effects of marijuana on short-term memories found that THC activates CB1 receptors of astrocytes which cause receptors for AMPA to be removed from the membranes of associated neurons.

A 2023 study showed that astrocytes also play an active role in Alzheimer's disease. More specifically, when astrocytes became reactive they unleash the pathological effects of amyloid-beta on downstream tau phosphorylation and deposition, which very likely will lead to cognitive deterioration. Also in 2023, the discovery of specialized astrocytes that mediate glutamatergic gliotransmission in the central nervous system was announced.

Classification
There are several different ways to classify astrocytes.

Lineage and antigenic phenotype
These have been established by classic work by Raff et al. in early 1980s on Rat optic nerves.
 * Type 1: Antigenically Ran2+, GFAP+, FGFR3+, A2B5−, thus resembling the "type 1 astrocyte" of the postnatal day 7 rat optic nerve. These can arise from the tripotential glial restricted precursor cells (GRP), but not from the bipotential O2A/OPC (oligodendrocyte, type 2 astrocyte precursor, also called Oligodendrocyte progenitor cell) cells.
 * Type 2: Antigenically A2B5+, GFAP+, FGFR3−, Ran 2−. These cells can develop in vitro from the either tripotential GRP (probably via O2A stage) or from bipotential O2A cells (which some people think may in turn have been derived from the GRP) or in vivo when these progenitor cells are transplanted into lesion sites (but probably not in normal development, at least not in the rat optic nerve). Type-2 astrocytes are the major astrocytic component in postnatal optic nerve cultures that are generated by O2A cells grown in the presence of fetal calf serum but are not thought to exist in vivo.

Anatomical classification

 * Protoplasmic: found in grey matter and have many branching processes whose end-feet envelop synapses. Some protoplasmic astrocytes are generated by multipotent subventricular zone progenitor cells.
 * Gömöri-positive astrocytes. These are a subset of protoplasmic astrocytes that contain numerous cytoplasmic inclusions, or granules, that stain positively with Gömöri's chrome-alum hematoxylin stain. It is now known that these granules are formed from the remnants of degenerating mitochondria engulfed within lysosomes, Some type of oxidative stress appears to be responsible for the mitochondrial damage within these specialized astrocytes. Gömöri-positive astrocytes are much more abundant within the arcuate nucleus of the hypothalamus and in the hippocampus than in other brain regions. They may have a role in regulating the response of the hypothalamus to glucose.
 * Fibrous: found in white matter and have long thin unbranched processes whose end-feet envelop nodes of Ranvier. Some fibrous astrocytes are generated by radial glia.

Transporter/receptor classification

 * GluT type: these express glutamate transporters (EAAT1/ and EAAT2/) and respond to synaptic release of glutamate by transporter currents. The function and availability of EAAT2 is modulated by TAAR1, an intracellular receptor in human astrocytes.
 * GluR type: these express glutamate receptors (mostly mGluR and AMPA type) and respond to synaptic release of glutamate by channel-mediated currents and IP3-dependent Ca2+ transients.

title: Astrocyte


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Washington State Route 3

State Route 3 (SR 3) is a 59.81 mi state highway in the U.S. state of Washington, serving the Kitsap Peninsula in Mason and Kitsap counties. The highway begins at U.S. Route 101 (US 101) south of Shelton and travels northeast onto the Kitsap Peninsula through Belfair to Gorst, where it intersects SR 16 and begins its freeway. SR 3 travels west of Bremerton, Silverdale and Poulsbo before it terminates at the eastern end of the Hood Canal Bridge, signed as SR 104. The highway is designated as a Strategic Highway Network (STRAHNET) corridor under the National Highway System as the main thoroughfare connecting both parts of Naval Base Kitsap and is also part of the Highways of Statewide Significance program.

SR 3 was established during the 1964 highway renumbering and codified in 1970 as the successor to Secondary State Highway 14 (SSH 14) from Shelton to Belfair, Primary State Highway 14 (PSH 14) from Belfair to Gorst, and PSH 21 from Gorst to the Hood Canal Bridge. PSH 21 was previously part of State Road 21 from 1915 to 1937, while PSH 14 was part of State Road 14 and the Navy Yard Highway from 1919 to 1937. The present SR 3 freeway was opened in 1968 in the Bremerton area and was extended north to Silverdale in 1973, to Bangor in 1981, and to Poulsbo in 1983.

Route description

SR 3 begins at a diamond interchange with US 101 south of Shelton in unincorporated Mason County on the Olympic Peninsula. The highway travels north into Shelton at the end of Oakland Bay on 1st Street and crosses over a Puget Sound and Pacific Railroad line and Goldsborough Creek. SR 3 turns east on Pine Street and leaves Shelton, traveling northeast along Oakland Bay and a US Navy rail line. The highway continues north along Oakland Bay and Case Inlet past heavily forested areas to Allyn-Grapeview, where it serves as the western terminus of SR 302 at North Mason High School. SR 3 travels towards the southern end of the Hood Canal and intersects the eastern termini of SR 106 and SR 300 in Belfair. The highway continues northeast past Bremerton National Airport towards the community of Gorst in Kitsap County, where it forms the western terminus of SR 16.

SR 3 becomes a four-lane divided freeway and travels northeast along the Sinclair Inlet to an interchange with SR 304 in Navy Yard City, serving the city of Bremerton and Naval Station Bremerton. The freeway continues through western Bremerton past the diamond interchange with SR 310 and the community of Chico along Dyes Inlet. SR 3 travels west of Silverdale past the western terminus of SR 303 at the Kitsap Mall and east of Naval Submarine Base Bangor in Bangor. The freeway continues north towards Poulsbo past the termini of SR 308 and SR 305, which serve Keyport and Bainbridge Island respectively. SR 3 travels north from Poulsbo as a two-lane road towards Port Gamble and ends at the eastern approach of the Hood Canal Bridge at an intersection with SR 104.

Every year, the Washington State Department of Transportation (WSDOT) conducts a series of surveys on its highways in the state to measure traffic volume. This is expressed in terms of annual average daily traffic (AADT), which is a measure of traffic volume for any average day of the year. In 2011, WSDOT calculated that the busiest section of SR 3 was between SR 16 in Gorst and SR 304 in Navy Yard City, serving 69,000 vehicles, while the least busiest section was southwest of Allyn-Grapeview at an intersection with Grapeview Loop Road, serving 6,600 vehicles. SR 3 is designated as a STRAHNET corridor within National Highway System, connecting Naval Base Kitsap to the state highway system between Gorst and Bangor, while the rest of the highway is part of the system, which includes roadways important to the national economy, defense, and mobility. WSDOT designates the entire route of SR 3 as a Highway of Statewide Significance, which includes highways that connect major communities in the state of Washington.

History

SR 3 follows the route of a paved section of State Road 21 between Belfair and Port Gamble on the Kitsap Peninsula that was added to the state highway system in 1915. The highway was later split between the Navy Yard Highway from Belfair to Bremerton and State Road 21 from Bremerton to Port Gamble in 1919. In 1923, the state highway system was restructured and the Navy Yard Highway was numbered as State Road 14, while State Road 21 kept its designation. The Navy Yard Highway, an unpaved highway connecting Union to Charleston, was dedicated on June 12, 1923.

During the creation of the primary and secondary state highway system in 1937, the paved State Roads 14 and 21 kept their numerical designations and became PSH 14 and PSH 21, respectively. PSH 21 was extended southwest from Bremerton on the former Navy Yard Highway to Gorst, while PSH 14 turned south at Gorst and headed towards Tacoma. A branch of PSH 14, named SSH 14A, was designated on a gravel road that connected the main highway at Belfair to US 101 in Shelton. In 1955, PSH 21 was extended southwest along PSH 14 from Gorst to Union, shortening PSH 14 to its current route as SR 16.

During the 1964 highway renumbering, a new state route system replaced the existing primary and secondary state highways and SR 3 was designated along SSH 14A, PSH 14, and PSH 21 on its present route when it was codified in 1970. Construction of the freeway section of SR 3 began in 1963 between SR 304 in Navy Yard City and Silverdale west of Bremerton and was opened in February 1968 at a cost of $2.2 million. The freeway was extended north towards Poulsbo in late 1973, and further north to Naval Submarine Base Bangor in 1981 after the arrival of Ohio-class submarines at Bangor. The Poulsbo section was widened and extended through an interchange with SR 305 in the early 1990s. The freeway was originally intended to connect with SR 16 (itself upgraded to a freeway in the 1970s and 1980s) with a bridge across the Sinclair Inlet.

In the 2000s, WSDOT re-built the interchange between SR 3 and SR 303 in Silverdale at a cost of $26 million, paid for by a 2003 gas tax. The new interchange, opened in November 2007, split the western terminus of SR 303 between two exits, signed as 45A and 45B, and removed a loop ramp that created turning conflicts. WSDOT began study of a Belfair bypass in 1966 and completed a provisional report in 2010 that did not recommend constructing a bypass of the community, instead opting for a project to widen the highway and add safety improvements that began work in late 2013. The project was revived later in the decade and is scheduled to be completed by 2026, carrying the new alignment of SR 3 while the existing road remains as a business route through Belfair.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Washington State Route 3


text:
Wikipedia:Auto-categorization/Indiana

Indiana
Articles on this list need to be categorized. Each is shown with the first 500 characters or so of their content, to make your job easier. Scroll down to the bottom of this page to see a list of related categories that existed when this list was being created. Please delete articles from this list after you categorize them, to avoid duplication of effort.

Articles that have the state's name in the title that are not on this list are probably going to be automatically categorized. See the parent page (link at the top of this page) for more information.

Please add municipalities (towns, cities, townships, boroughs, villages, unincorporated communities, etc.) that are direct subdivisions of a county (equivalent to boroughs and census areas in Alaska and parishes in Louisiana) in both the county's category and. Please add county articles to the county category and to. Note that categories for all counties might not yet exist, but they will soon be automatically populated with most of the municipalities that belong there.

There is no convention for county sub-sub-divisions. (For example, villages that are part of towns, and towns that are part of townships.) Certainly sub-sub-divisions should be added to the sub-division category, and probably also a the state-wide. It's unclear whether or not to add them to the county category. See Wikipedia talk:WikiProject Cities.

Category possibilities:
 * (2) Category:Airports_of_Indiana
 * (2) Category:Boone_County,_Indiana
 * (119) Category:Cities_in_Indiana
 * (2) Category:Columbus,_Indiana
 * (2) Category:Fulton_County,_Indiana
 * (2) Category:Governors_of_Indiana
 * (20) Category:Indiana
 * (3) Category:Indiana_State_Parks
 * (10) Category:Indiana_counties
 * (4) Category:Indiana_geography
 * (6) Category:Indiana_history
 * (4) Category:Indiana_politicians
 * (12) Category:Indiana_rivers
 * (5) Category:Indiana_state_highways
 * (1) Category:Indianapolis_Blue_players
 * (2) Category:Indianapolis_Hoosier_players
 * (2) Category:Indianapolis_Racers_players
 * (9) Category:Interstate_highways_in_Indiana
 * (3) Category:Marion_County,_Indiana
 * (1) Category:Monroe_County,_Indiana
 * (1) Category:People_from_Indiana
 * (3) Category:Porter_County,_Indiana
 * (7) Category:Towns_in_Indiana
 * (2) Category:Transportation_in_Indiana
 * (25) Category:Universities_and_colleges_in_Indiana
 * (1) Category:Warren_County,_Indiana

Subcategories of this state:

Category:Indiana Category:Airports_of_Indiana Category:Chicago_metropolitan_area Category:Chicago Category:Chicago_history Category:Chicago_metropolitan_area [repeat] Category:Chicago_neighborhoods Category:Chicago_skyscrapers Category:Mayors_of_Chicago Category:Museums_in_Chicago Category:Parks_in_Chicago Category:University_of_Chicago Category:Cities_in_Indiana Category:Columbus,_Indiana Category:Governors_of_Indiana Category:Governors_of_Indiana [repeat] Category:Indiana_State_Parks Category:Indiana_counties Category:Boone_County,_Indiana Category:Fulton_County,_Indiana Category:Marion_County,_Indiana Category:Monroe_County,_Indiana Category:Porter_County,_Indiana Category:Indiana_geography Category:Indiana_rivers Category:Indiana_history Category:Indiana_politicians Category:Governors_of_Indiana [repeat] Category:Governors_of_Indiana [repeat] Category:People_from_Indiana Category:Towns_in_Indiana Category:Transportation_in_Indiana Category:Indiana_state_highways Category:Interstate_highways_in_Indiana Category:Universities_and_colleges_in_Indiana

title: Wikipedia:Auto-categorization/Indiana


text:
Germán Lux

Germán Darío Lux (born 7 June 1982) is an Argentine former professional footballer who played as a goalkeeper.

After starting out at River Plate, he spent most of his career in Spain with Mallorca and Deportivo.

River Plate
Lux was born in Carcarañá, Santa Fe Province. Nicknamed Poroto, he joined Club Atlético River Plate's youth system aged 16, and made his Primera División debut in 2001. Shortly after, he became first choice.

In the 2006 Apertura, Lux lost his job to emergent talent Juan Pablo Carrizo and, a few months after, was cut from the squad by coach Daniel Passarella. In the beginning of the year he also lost his brother, who committed suicide.

Mallorca
Lux signed a four-year deal with RCD Mallorca for 2007–08, as a backup to youth graduate Miguel Ángel Moyá, but benefitted from an injury to the latter to appear in ten La Liga matches during the season. In his second year, the same occurred: Moyá was again downed with physical problems and Lux was promoted to starter, but lost his job in January 2009 with the signing of Dudu Aouate from Deportivo de La Coruña.

Deportivo
In the following two seasons, Lux was almost exclusively restricted to Copa del Rey matches with Mallorca, only totalling five league appearances. The same fate befell him at his next club, Deportivo La Coruña, where he initially played second-fiddle to Dani Aranzubia.

Lux was again the starter in the 2013–14 campaign, as the Galicians finished runners-up in the Segunda División and subsequently returned to the top flight. Afterwards, he alternated in goal with Fabricio.

Return to River
On 26 June 2017, ten years after leaving for Europe, the 35-year-old Lux returned to River Plate on a three-year contract. In December 2021, after several years as backup to Franco Armani where he was often criticised for his performances, he announced his retirement.

International career
As a starter during the 2004 Summer Olympics (all six matches, no goals conceded), Lux was instrumental in the gold medal triumph of the Argentina national team, who scored 17. He made his full debut on 9 March 2005 in a 1–1 friendly draw against Mexico, as manager José Pékerman only fielded players based in the Argentine league.

Lux was also first-choice in the 2005 FIFA Confederations Cup for the runners-up. He was left out of the squad for the 2006 FIFA World Cup in Germany, however, and Oscar Ustari was picked instead.

Personal life
Lux's older brother, Javier, was also a footballer. A midfielder, he played for several teams during his career.

Honours
River Plate
 * Argentine Primera División: 2002 Clausura, 2004 Clausura
 * Copa Libertadores: 2018
 * Recopa Sudamericana: 2019

Deportivo
 * Segunda División: 2011–12

Argentina
 * FIFA U-20 World Cup: 2001
 * Summer Olympic Games: 2004
 * CONMEBOL Pre-Olympic Tournament: 2004

title: Germán Lux


text:
Wikipedia:Auto-categorization/Kansas

Kansas
Articles on this list need to be categorized. Each is shown with the first 500 characters or so of their content, to make your job easier. Scroll down to the bottom of this page to see a list of related categories that existed when this list was being created. Please delete articles from this list after you categorize them, to avoid duplication of effort.

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Please add municipalities (towns, cities, townships, boroughs, villages, unincorporated communities, etc.) that are direct subdivisions of a county (equivalent to boroughs and census areas in Alaska and parishes in Louisiana) in both the county's category and. Please add county articles to the county category and to. Note that categories for all counties might not yet exist, but they will soon be automatically populated with most of the municipalities that belong there.

There is no convention for county sub-sub-divisions. (For example, villages that are part of towns, and towns that are part of townships.) Certainly sub-sub-divisions should be added to the sub-division category, and probably also a the state-wide. It's unclear whether or not to add them to the county category. See Wikipedia talk:WikiProject Cities.

Category possibilities:
 * (2) Category:Airports_of_Arkansas
 * (10) Category:Allen_County,_Kansas
 * (8) Category:Anderson_County,_Kansas
 * (18) Category:Arkansas
 * (17) Category:Arkansas_counties
 * (1) Category:Arkansas_geography
 * (2) Category:Arkansas_history
 * (4) Category:Arkansas_politicians
 * (14) Category:Arkansas_rivers
 * (1) Category:Ashley_County,_Arkansas
 * (6) Category:Atchison_County,_Kansas
 * (9) Category:Barber_County,_Kansas
 * (10) Category:Barton_County,_Kansas
 * (7) Category:Bourbon_County,_Kansas
 * (12) Category:Brown_County,_Kansas
 * (15) Category:Butler_County,_Kansas
 * (6) Category:Chase_County,_Kansas
 * (8) Category:Chautauqua_County,_Kansas
 * (9) Category:Cherokee_County,_Kansas
 * (3) Category:Cheyenne_County,_Kansas
 * (133) Category:Cities_in_Arkansas
 * (320) Category:Cities_in_Kansas
 * (1) Category:City_locator_maps_of_Kansas
 * (4) Category:Clark_County,_Kansas
 * (9) Category:Clay_County,_Kansas
 * (8) Category:Cloud_County,_Kansas
 * (7) Category:Coffey_County,_Kansas
 * (4) Category:Comanche_County,_Kansas
 * (214) Category:Counties_in_Kansas
 * (5) Category:County_locator_maps_of_Kansas
 * (9) Category:Cowley_County,_Kansas
 * (2) Category:Craighead_County,_Arkansas
 * (11) Category:Crawford_County,_Kansas
 * (1) Category:Crittenden_County,_Arkansas
 * (6) Category:Decatur_County,_Kansas
 * (10) Category:Dickinson_County,_Kansas
 * (9) Category:Doniphan_County,_Kansas
 * (9) Category:Douglas_County,_Kansas
 * (3) Category:Education_in_Kansas
 * (5) Category:Edwards_County,_Kansas
 * (6) Category:Elk_County,_Kansas
 * (5) Category:Ellis_County,_Kansas
 * (6) Category:Ellsworth_County,_Kansas
 * (3) Category:Finney_County,_Kansas
 * (5) Category:Ford_County,_Kansas
 * (10) Category:Franklin_County,_Kansas
 * (6) Category:Geary_County,_Kansas
 * (7) Category:Gove_County,_Kansas
 * (58) Category:Governors_of_Arkansas
 * (11) Category:Governors_of_Kansas
 * (4) Category:Graham_County,_Kansas
 * (2) Category:Grant_County,_Kansas
 * (6) Category:Gray_County,_Kansas
 * (3) Category:Greeley_County,_Kansas
 * (8) Category:Greenwood_County,_Kansas
 * (3) Category:Hamilton_County,_Kansas
 * (8) Category:Harper_County,_Kansas
 * (8) Category:Harvey_County,_Kansas
 * (3) Category:Haskell_County,_Kansas
 * (1) Category:Hempstead_County,_Arkansas
 * (3) Category:Hodgeman_County,_Kansas
 * (2) Category:Hot_Spring_County,_Arkansas
 * (6) Category:Interstate_highways_in_Arkansas
 * (8) Category:Interstate_highways_in_Kansas
 * (1) Category:Jackson_County,_Kansas
 * (9) Category:Jefferson_County,_Kansas
 * (1) Category:Jewell_County,_Kansas
 * (23) Category:Johnson_County,_Kansas
 * (24) Category:Kansas
 * (1) Category:Kansas_City_Athletic_managers
 * (9) Category:Kansas_City_Athletic_players
 * (1) Category:Kansas_City_Cowboy_players
 * (1) Category:Kansas_City_Packer_players
 * (1) Category:Kansas_City_Royal_field_personnel
 * (2) Category:Kansas_City_Royal_managers
 * (17) Category:Kansas_City_Royal_players
 * (1) Category:Kansas_City_Royals_players
 * (1) Category:Kansas_City_Scouts_players
 * (50) Category:Kansas_City_metropolitan_area
 * (1) Category:Kansas_albums
 * (0) Category:Kansas_counties
 * (3) Category:Kansas_geography
 * (9) Category:Kansas_history
 * (4) Category:Kansas_maps
 * (19) Category:Kansas_politicians
 * (6) Category:Kansas_rivers
 * (1) Category:Kearny_County,_Kansas
 * (9) Category:Kingman_County,_Kansas
 * (1) Category:Kiowa_County,_Kansas
 * (1) Category:Labette_County,_Kansas
 * (1) Category:Lane_County,_Kansas
 * (12) Category:Leavenworth_County,_Kansas
 * (1) Category:Lincoln_County,_Kansas
 * (1) Category:Linn_County,_Kansas
 * (1) Category:Logan_County,_Kansas
 * (1) Category:Lyon_County,_Kansas
 * (1) Category:Maps_of_cities_in_Kansas
 * (1) Category:Maps_of_counties_in_Kansas
 * (6) Category:Marion_County,_Arkansas
 * (1) Category:Marion_County,_Kansas
 * (1) Category:Marshall_County,_Kansas
 * (1) Category:McPherson_County,_Kansas
 * (1) Category:Meade_County,_Kansas
 * (1) Category:Miami_County,_Kansas
 * (7) Category:Military_bases_in_Kansas
 * (3) Category:Mississippi_County,_Arkansas
 * (1) Category:Mitchell_County,_Kansas
 * (1) Category:Montgomery_County,_Kansas
 * (1) Category:Morris_County,_Kansas
 * (1) Category:Morton_County,_Kansas
 * (1) Category:Museums_in_Kansas
 * (9) Category:National_Wildlife_Refuges_in_Arkansas
 * (1) Category:Nemaha_County,_Kansas
 * (1) Category:Neosho_County,_Kansas
 * (1) Category:Ness_County,_Kansas
 * (1) Category:Newspapers_of_Arkansas
 * (1) Category:Newspapers_of_Kansas
 * (1) Category:Norton_County,_Kansas
 * (2) Category:Osage_County,_Kansas
 * (1) Category:Osborne_County,_Kansas
 * (1) Category:Ottawa_County,_Kansas
 * (1) Category:Ouachita_County,_Arkansas
 * (1) Category:Pawnee_County,_Kansas
 * (1) Category:Phillips_County,_Kansas
 * (1) Category:Pottawatomie_County,_Kansas
 * (1) Category:Pratt_County,_Kansas
 * (1) Category:Pulaski_County,_Arkansas
 * (1) Category:Rawlins_County,_Kansas
 * (3) Category:Reno_County,_Kansas
 * (1) Category:Republic_County,_Kansas
 * (1) Category:Rice_County,_Kansas
 * (9) Category:Riley_County,_Kansas
 * (1) Category:Rooks_County,_Kansas
 * (1) Category:Rush_County,_Kansas
 * (1) Category:Russell_County,_Kansas
 * (1) Category:Saline_County,_Kansas
 * (1) Category:Scott_County,_Kansas
 * (25) Category:Sedgwick_County,_Kansas
 * (1) Category:Sevier_County,_Arkansas
 * (1) Category:Seward_County,_Kansas
 * (11) Category:Shawnee_County,_Kansas
 * (1) Category:Sheridan_County,_Kansas
 * (1) Category:Sherman_County,_Kansas
 * (1) Category:Smith_County,_Kansas
 * (2) Category:Stafford_County,_Kansas
 * (1) Category:Stanton_County,_Kansas
 * (1) Category:Stevens_County,_Kansas
 * (1) Category:Sumner_County,_Kansas
 * (1) Category:Thomas_County,_Kansas
 * (5) Category:Towns_in_Arkansas
 * (0) Category:Towns_in_Ouachita_County,_Arkansas
 * (3) Category:Transportation_in_Kansas
 * (1) Category:Trego_County,_Kansas
 * (22) Category:U.S._highways_in_Kansas
 * (7) Category:Universities_and_colleges_in_Arkansas
 * (15) Category:Universities_and_colleges_in_Kansas
 * (1) Category:Wabaunsee_County,_Kansas
 * (1) Category:Wallace_County,_Kansas
 * (6) Category:Washington_County,_Arkansas
 * (1) Category:Washington_County,_Kansas
 * (1) Category:White_County,_Arkansas
 * (1) Category:Wichita_County,_Kansas
 * (1) Category:Wilson_County,_Kansas
 * (1) Category:Woodson_County,_Kansas
 * (4) Category:Wyandotte_County,_Kansas

Subcategories of this state:

Category:Kansas Category:Cities_in_Kansas Category:City_locator_maps_of_Kansas Category:Maps_of_cities_in_Kansas Category:Counties_in_Kansas Category:Allen_County,_Kansas Category:Anderson_County,_Kansas Category:Atchison_County,_Kansas Category:Barber_County,_Kansas Category:Barton_County,_Kansas Category:Bourbon_County,_Kansas Category:Brown_County,_Kansas Category:Butler_County,_Kansas Category:Chase_County,_Kansas Category:Chautauqua_County,_Kansas Category:Cherokee_County,_Kansas Category:Cheyenne_County,_Kansas Category:Clark_County,_Kansas Category:Clay_County,_Kansas Category:Cloud_County,_Kansas Category:Coffey_County,_Kansas Category:Comanche_County,_Kansas Category:County_locator_maps_of_Kansas Category:Cowley_County,_Kansas Category:Crawford_County,_Kansas Category:Decatur_County,_Kansas Category:Dickinson_County,_Kansas Category:Doniphan_County,_Kansas Category:Douglas_County,_Kansas Category:Edwards_County,_Kansas Category:Elk_County,_Kansas Category:Ellis_County,_Kansas Category:Ellsworth_County,_Kansas Category:Finney_County,_Kansas Category:Ford_County,_Kansas Category:Franklin_County,_Kansas Category:Geary_County,_Kansas Category:Gove_County,_Kansas Category:Graham_County,_Kansas Category:Grant_County,_Kansas Category:Gray_County,_Kansas Category:Greeley_County,_Kansas Category:Greenwood_County,_Kansas Category:Hamilton_County,_Kansas Category:Harper_County,_Kansas Category:Harvey_County,_Kansas Category:Haskell_County,_Kansas Category:Hodgeman_County,_Kansas Category:Jackson_County,_Kansas Category:Jefferson_County,_Kansas Category:Jewell_County,_Kansas Category:Johnson_County,_Kansas Category:Kearny_County,_Kansas Category:Kingman_County,_Kansas Category:Kiowa_County,_Kansas Category:Labette_County,_Kansas Category:Lane_County,_Kansas Category:Leavenworth_County,_Kansas Category:Lincoln_County,_Kansas Category:Linn_County,_Kansas Category:Logan_County,_Kansas Category:Lyon_County,_Kansas Category:Maps_of_counties_in_Kansas Category:Marion_County,_Kansas Category:Marshall_County,_Kansas Category:McPherson_County,_Kansas Category:Meade_County,_Kansas Category:Miami_County,_Kansas Category:Mitchell_County,_Kansas Category:Montgomery_County,_Kansas Category:Morris_County,_Kansas Category:Morton_County,_Kansas Category:Nemaha_County,_Kansas Category:Neosho_County,_Kansas Category:Ness_County,_Kansas Category:Norton_County,_Kansas Category:Osage_County,_Kansas Category:Osborne_County,_Kansas Category:Ottawa_County,_Kansas Category:Pawnee_County,_Kansas Category:Phillips_County,_Kansas Category:Pottawatomie_County,_Kansas Category:Pratt_County,_Kansas Category:Rawlins_County,_Kansas Category:Reno_County,_Kansas Category:Republic_County,_Kansas Category:Rice_County,_Kansas Category:Riley_County,_Kansas Category:Rooks_County,_Kansas Category:Rush_County,_Kansas Category:Russell_County,_Kansas Category:Saline_County,_Kansas Category:Scott_County,_Kansas Category:Sedgwick_County,_Kansas Category:Seward_County,_Kansas Category:Shawnee_County,_Kansas Category:Sheridan_County,_Kansas Category:Sherman_County,_Kansas Category:Smith_County,_Kansas Category:Stafford_County,_Kansas Category:Stanton_County,_Kansas Category:Stevens_County,_Kansas Category:Sumner_County,_Kansas Category:Thomas_County,_Kansas Category:Trego_County,_Kansas Category:Wabaunsee_County,_Kansas Category:Wallace_County,_Kansas Category:Washington_County,_Kansas Category:Wichita_County,_Kansas Category:Wilson_County,_Kansas Category:Woodson_County,_Kansas Category:Wyandotte_County,_Kansas Category:Education_in_Kansas Category:Universities_and_colleges_in_Kansas Category:Governors_of_Kansas Category:Kansas_City_metropolitan_area Category:Kansas_geography Category:Kansas_rivers Category:Kansas_history Category:Oregon_Trail Category:Kansas_maps Category:City_locator_maps_of_Kansas [repeat] Category:County_locator_maps_of_Kansas [repeat] Category:Maps_of_cities_in_Kansas [repeat] Category:Maps_of_counties_in_Kansas [repeat] Category:Kansas_politicians Category:Governors_of_Kansas [repeat] Category:Military_bases_in_Kansas Category:Museums_in_Kansas Category:Transportation_in_Kansas Category:Interstate_highways_in_Kansas Category:U.S._highways_in_Kansas

title: Wikipedia:Auto-categorization/Kansas


text:
Wikipedia:Auto-categorization/Kentucky

Kentucky
Articles on this list need to be categorized. Each is shown with the first 500 characters or so of their content, to make your job easier. Scroll down to the bottom of this page to see a list of related categories that existed when this list was being created. Please delete articles from this list after you categorize them, to avoid duplication of effort.

Articles that have the state's name in the title that are not on this list are probably going to be automatically categorized. See the parent page (link at the top of this page) for more information.

Please add municipalities (towns, cities, townships, boroughs, villages, unincorporated communities, etc.) that are direct subdivisions of a county (equivalent to boroughs and census areas in Alaska and parishes in Louisiana) in both the county's category and. Please add county articles to the county category and to. Note that categories for all counties might not yet exist, but they will soon be automatically populated with most of the municipalities that belong there.

There is no convention for county sub-sub-divisions. (For example, villages that are part of towns, and towns that are part of townships.) Certainly sub-sub-divisions should be added to the sub-division category, and probably also a the state-wide. It's unclear whether or not to add them to the county category. See Wikipedia talk:WikiProject Cities.

Category possibilities:
 * (2) Category:Airports_of_Kentucky
 * (2) Category:Boone_County,_Kentucky
 * (1) Category:Bridges_in_Kentucky
 * (1) Category:Christian_County,_Kentucky
 * (12) Category:Cities_in_Kentucky
 * (12) Category:Governors_of_Kentucky
 * (1) Category:Harlan_County,_Kentucky
 * (6) Category:Interstate_highways_in_Kentucky
 * (2) Category:Jefferson_County,_Kentucky
 * (17) Category:Kentucky
 * (1) Category:Kentucky_Counties
 * (7) Category:Kentucky_counties
 * (5) Category:Kentucky_geography
 * (3) Category:Kentucky_history
 * (5) Category:Kentucky_politicians
 * (19) Category:Kentucky_rivers
 * (21) Category:Louisville,_Kentucky
 * (2) Category:McCracken_County,_Kentucky
 * (1) Category:Towns_in_Kentucky
 * (2) Category:Transportation_in_Kentucky
 * (2) Category:Unincorporated_communities_in_Kentucky
 * (17) Category:Universities_and_colleges_in_Kentucky

Subcategories of this state:

Category:Kentucky Category:Airports_of_Kentucky Category:Cities_in_Kentucky Category:Louisville,_Kentucky Category:Governors_of_Kentucky Category:Kentucky_counties Category:Boone_County,_Kentucky Category:Christian_County,_Kentucky Category:Harlan_County,_Kentucky Category:Jefferson_County,_Kentucky Category:McCracken_County,_Kentucky Category:Kentucky_geography Category:Kentucky_history Category:Kentucky_politicians Category:Governors_of_Kentucky [repeat] Category:Kentucky_rivers Category:Transportation_in_Kentucky Category:Bridges_in_Kentucky Category:Interstate_highways_in_Kentucky Category:Unincorporated_communities_in_Kentucky Category:Universities_and_colleges_in_Kentucky

title: Wikipedia:Auto-categorization/Kentucky


text:
Wikipedia:Auto-categorization/Louisiana

Louisiana
Articles on this list need to be categorized. Each is shown with the first 500 characters or so of their content, to make your job easier. Scroll down to the bottom of this page to see a list of related categories that existed when this list was being created. Please delete articles from this list after you categorize them, to avoid duplication of effort.

Articles that have the state's name in the title that are not on this list are probably going to be automatically categorized. See the parent page (link at the top of this page) for more information.

Please add municipalities (towns, cities, townships, boroughs, villages, unincorporated communities, etc.) that are direct subdivisions of a county (equivalent to boroughs and census areas in Alaska and parishes in Louisiana) in both the county's category and. Please add county articles to the county category and to. Note that categories for all counties might not yet exist, but they will soon be automatically populated with most of the municipalities that belong there.

There is no convention for county sub-sub-divisions. (For example, villages that are part of towns, and towns that are part of townships.) Certainly sub-sub-divisions should be added to the sub-division category, and probably also a the state-wide. It's unclear whether or not to add them to the county category. See Wikipedia talk:WikiProject Cities.

Category possibilities:
 * (1) Category:Acadia_Parish,_Louisiana
 * (3) Category:Airports_of_Louisiana
 * (6) Category:Allen_Parish,_Louisiana
 * (4) Category:Ascension_Parish,_Louisiana
 * (1) Category:Assumption_Parish,_Louisiana
 * (1) Category:Avoyelles_Parish,_Louisiana
 * (1) Category:Beauregard_Parish,_Louisiana
 * (1) Category:Bienville_Parish,_Louisiana
 * (2) Category:Bossier_Parish,_Louisiana
 * (1) Category:Bridges_in_Louisiana
 * (4) Category:Caddo_Parish,_Louisiana
 * (2) Category:Cajun_and_Louisiana_Creole_music
 * (2) Category:Calcasieu_Parish,_Louisiana
 * (1) Category:Caldwell_Parish,_Louisiana
 * (1) Category:Cameron_Parish,_Louisiana
 * (1) Category:Catahoula_Parish,_Louisiana
 * (46) Category:Cities_in_Louisiana
 * (1) Category:Claiborne_Parish,_Louisiana
 * (1) Category:Concordia_Parish,_Louisiana
 * (1) Category:De_Soto_Parish,_Louisiana
 * (2) Category:East_Baton_Rouge_Parish,_Louisiana
 * (1) Category:East_Carroll_Parish,_Louisiana
 * (1) Category:East_Feliciana_Parish,_Louisiana
 * (1) Category:Evangeline_Parish,_Louisiana
 * (1) Category:Franklin_Parish,_Louisiana
 * (17) Category:Governors_of_Louisiana
 * (1) Category:Grant_Parish,_Louisiana
 * (5) Category:Iberia_Parish,_Louisiana
 * (1) Category:Iberville_Parish,_Louisiana
 * (8) Category:Interstate_highways_in_Louisiana
 * (1) Category:Jackson_Parish,_Louisiana
 * (1) Category:Jefferson_Davis_Parish,_Louisiana
 * (21) Category:Jefferson_Parish,_Louisiana
 * (1) Category:La_Salle_Parish,_Louisiana
 * (6) Category:Lafayette_Parish,_Louisiana
 * (12) Category:Lafourche_Parish,_Louisiana
 * (1) Category:Lincoln_Parish,_Louisiana
 * (1) Category:Livingston_Parish,_Louisiana
 * (20) Category:Louisiana
 * (2) Category:Louisiana_geography
 * (11) Category:Louisiana_history
 * (129) Category:Louisiana_parishes
 * (24) Category:Louisiana_people
 * (0) Category:Louisiana_places
 * (4) Category:Louisiana_politicians
 * (5) Category:Louisiana_rivers
 * (1) Category:Madison_Parish,_Louisiana
 * (1) Category:Morehouse_Parish,_Louisiana
 * (1) Category:Natchitoches_Parish,_Louisiana
 * (1) Category:Ouachita_Parish,_Louisiana
 * (8) Category:Plaquemines_Parish,_Louisiana
 * (1) Category:Pointe_Coupee_Parish,_Louisiana
 * (12) Category:Rapides_Parish,_Louisiana
 * (5) Category:Red_River_Parish,_Louisiana
 * (1) Category:Richland_Parish,_Louisiana
 * (1) Category:Sabine_Parish,_Louisiana
 * (0) Category:Saint_Charles_Parish,_Louisiana
 * (4) Category:St._Bernard_Parish,_Louisiana
 * (17) Category:St._Charles_Parish,_Louisiana
 * (1) Category:St._Helena_Parish,_Louisiana
 * (1) Category:St._James_Parish,_Louisiana
 * (6) Category:St._John_the_Baptist_Parish,_Louisiana
 * (12) Category:St._Landry_Parish,_Louisiana
 * (1) Category:St._Martin_Parish,_Louisiana
 * (9) Category:St._Mary_Parish,_Louisiana
 * (12) Category:St._Tammany_Parish,_Louisiana
 * (11) Category:Tangipahoa_Parish,_Louisiana
 * (4) Category:Tensas_Parish,_Louisiana
 * (9) Category:Terrebone_Parish,_Louisiana
 * (125) Category:Towns_in_Louisiana
 * (3) Category:Transportation_in_Louisiana
 * (2) Category:Unincorporated_communities_in_Louisiana
 * (6) Category:Union_Parish,_Louisiana
 * (18) Category:Universities_and_colleges_in_Louisiana
 * (6) Category:Vermilion_Parish,_Louisiana
 * (9) Category:Vernon_Parish,_Louisiana
 * (36) Category:Villages_in_Louisiana
 * (5) Category:Washington_Parish,_Louisiana
 * (12) Category:Webster_Parish,_Louisiana
 * (4) Category:West_Baton_Rouge_Parish,_Louisiana
 * (6) Category:West_Carroll_Parish,_Louisiana
 * (2) Category:West_Feliciana_Parish,_Louisiana
 * (6) Category:Winn_Parish,_Louisiana

Subcategories of this state:

Category:Louisiana Category:Bridges_in_Louisiana Category:Cities_in_Louisiana Category:New_Orleans Category:New_Orleanians Category:New_Orleans_neighborhoods Category:New_Orleans_suburbs Category:Transportation_of_New_Orleans Category:Governors_of_Louisiana Category:Louisiana_geography Category:Louisiana_rivers Category:Louisiana_history Category:Louisiana_parishes Category:Acadia_Parish,_Louisiana Category:Allen_Parish,_Louisiana Category:Ascension_Parish,_Louisiana Category:Assumption_Parish,_Louisiana Category:Avoyelles_Parish,_Louisiana Category:Beauregard_Parish,_Louisiana Category:Bienville_Parish,_Louisiana Category:Bossier_Parish,_Louisiana Category:Caddo_Parish,_Louisiana Category:Calcasieu_Parish,_Louisiana Category:Caldwell_Parish,_Louisiana Category:Cameron_Parish,_Louisiana Category:Catahoula_Parish,_Louisiana Category:Claiborne_Parish,_Louisiana Category:Concordia_Parish,_Louisiana Category:De_Soto_Parish,_Louisiana Category:East_Baton_Rouge_Parish,_Louisiana Category:East_Carroll_Parish,_Louisiana Category:East_Feliciana_Parish,_Louisiana Category:Evangeline_Parish,_Louisiana Category:Franklin_Parish,_Louisiana Category:Grant_Parish,_Louisiana Category:Iberia_Parish,_Louisiana Category:Iberville_Parish,_Louisiana Category:Jackson_Parish,_Louisiana Category:Jefferson_Davis_Parish,_Louisiana Category:Jefferson_Parish,_Louisiana Category:La_Salle_Parish,_Louisiana Category:Lafayette_Parish,_Louisiana Category:Lafourche_Parish,_Louisiana Category:Lincoln_Parish,_Louisiana Category:Livingston_Parish,_Louisiana Category:Madison_Parish,_Louisiana Category:Morehouse_Parish,_Louisiana Category:Natchitoches_Parish,_Louisiana Category:New_Orleans [repeat] Category:Ouachita_Parish,_Louisiana Category:Plaquemines_Parish,_Louisiana Category:Pointe_Coupee_Parish,_Louisiana Category:Rapides_Parish,_Louisiana Category:Red_River_Parish,_Louisiana Category:Richland_Parish,_Louisiana Category:Sabine_Parish,_Louisiana Category:St._Bernard_Parish,_Louisiana Category:St._Charles_Parish,_Louisiana Category:St._Helena_Parish,_Louisiana Category:St._James_Parish,_Louisiana Category:St._John_the_Baptist_Parish,_Louisiana Category:St._Landry_Parish,_Louisiana Category:St._Martin_Parish,_Louisiana Category:St._Mary_Parish,_Louisiana Category:St._Tammany_Parish,_Louisiana Category:Tangipahoa_Parish,_Louisiana Category:Tensas_Parish,_Louisiana Category:Terrebone_Parish,_Louisiana Category:Union_Parish,_Louisiana Category:Vermilion_Parish,_Louisiana Category:Vernon_Parish,_Louisiana Category:Washington_Parish,_Louisiana Category:Webster_Parish,_Louisiana Category:West_Baton_Rouge_Parish,_Louisiana Category:West_Carroll_Parish,_Louisiana Category:West_Feliciana_Parish,_Louisiana Category:Winn_Parish,_Louisiana Category:Louisiana_people Category:Louisiana_politicians Category:Governors_of_Louisiana [repeat] Category:New_Orleanians [repeat] Category:Towns_in_Louisiana Category:Transportation_in_Louisiana Category:Airports_of_Louisiana Category:Interstate_highways_in_Louisiana Category:Transportation_of_New_Orleans [repeat] Category:Unincorporated_communities_in_Louisiana Category:New_Orleans_neighborhoods [repeat] Category:Universities_and_colleges_in_Louisiana Category:Villages_in_Louisiana

title: Wikipedia:Auto-categorization/Louisiana


text:
Wikipedia:Articles for deletion/Spread Firefox

 * The following discussion is an archived debate of the proposed deletion of the article below. Please do not modify it. Subsequent comments should be made on the appropriate discussion page (such as the article's talk page or in a deletion review).  No further edits should be made to this page.

The result of the debate was - redirected

Spread Firefox
Website promo. Wile E. Heresiarch 05:23, 28 Sep 2004 (UTC) Sorry, the merge request by an IP address was me. --Spe88 14:19, 28 Sep 2004 (UTC)
 * Delete. Excellent cause, but Wikipedia is not the vehicle for promoting it.--Ianb 06:10, 28 Sep 2004 (UTC)
 * Delete. Wikipedia is not a vehicle for promotions, and the campaign is not significant enough to warrant an article.  Falcon 06:18, 28 Sep 2004 (UTC)
 * Delete and Redirect. It now has a brief mention on the Mozilla Firefox article. The redirect will discourage re-creation. Normtalk 20:38, 29 Sep 2004 (UTC)
 * Delete, not relevant for wikipedia. Thue | talk 11:03, 28 Sep 2004 (UTC)
 * Merge with Mozilla Firefox. --81.178.101.155 14:06, 28 Sep 2004 (UTC)
 * Merge as users may see the term "spread firefox" on websites and wonder what it is all about. It isn't redundant, but this isn't a huge branch of Firefox, just a quick blurb about it on the Mozilla Firefox page will do. --Will2k 17:08, Sep 28, 2004 (UTC)
 * Merge/redirect to Mozilla Firefox.   — Gwalla | Talk 19:02, 28 Sep 2004 (UTC)
 * Merge/Redirect to Mozilla Firefox. — El Chico!  Talk 19:32, 28 Sep 2004 (UTC)
 * Merge with Mozilla Firefox, preferably in a Marketing section or something. The recent Firefox marketing push is sadly absent from that article. BTW, use Firefox. —Rory ☺ 19:56, Sep 28, 2004 (UTC)
 * Merge with Mozilla Firefox. Nadavspi 00:10, 29 Sep 2004 (UTC)
 * Delete. As much as I like mozilla, and have been involved in their project in the past, I don't think this is encyclopedic. --Improv 12:09, 29 Sep 2004 (UTC)
 * Delete. Non encyclopedic article. Transient in nature.
 * Delete. This is an encyclopaedia not a marketing tool. Ever found Microsoft Word promotions in Encyclopaedia Brittanica?
 * Merge/Redirect A single sentence in the Mozilla Firefox article is all that is really necessary. Certainly doesn't warrant a whole article in my opinion.Bobbis 21:09, 29 Sep 2004 (UTC)
 * Merge/Redirect I've been convinced.IcycleMort 14:32, 30 Sep 2004 (UTC)
 * Merge and Redirect -- J3ff 22:14, 30 Sep 2004 (UTC)
 * Delete. Taco Deposit | Talk-o Deposit 22:53, Oct 2, 2004 (UTC)
 * Delete. Non-encyclopedic marketing campaign, does not deserve an article of its own. Replace with a mention of the campaign in the Firefox article, where it is relevant. (By the way, have you tried Firefox yet?) -- The Anome 22:56, 2 Oct 2004 (UTC)
 * Keep or Merge --Aaron Einstein 02:53, Oct 3, 2004 (UTC)
 * Delete promotion piece. -- Cyrius|✎ 00:37, 4 Oct 2004 (UTC)

 * The above discussion is preserved as an archive of the debate. Please do not modify it. Subsequent comments should be made on the appropriate discussion page (such as the article's talk page or in a deletion review). No further edits should be made to this page.


text:
Wikipedia:Auto-categorization/Maine

Maine
Articles on this list need to be categorized. Each is shown with the first 500 characters or so of their content, to make your job easier. Scroll down to the bottom of this page to see a list of related categories that existed when this list was being created. Please delete articles from this list after you categorize them, to avoid duplication of effort.

Articles that have the state's name in the title that are not on this list are probably going to be automatically categorized. See the parent page (link at the top of this page) for more information.

Please add municipalities (towns, cities, townships, boroughs, villages, unincorporated communities, etc.) that are direct subdivisions of a county (equivalent to boroughs and census areas in Alaska and parishes in Louisiana) in both the county's category and. Please add county articles to the county category and to. Note that categories for all counties might not yet exist, but they will soon be automatically populated with most of the municipalities that belong there.

There is no convention for county sub-sub-divisions. (For example, villages that are part of towns, and towns that are part of townships.) Certainly sub-sub-divisions should be added to the sub-division category, and probably also a the state-wide. It's unclear whether or not to add them to the county category. See Wikipedia talk:WikiProject Cities.

Category possibilities:
 * (2) Category:Airports_of_Maine
 * (16) Category:Androscoggin_County,_Maine
 * (1) Category:Aroostook_County,_Maine
 * (4) Category:Cities_in_Maine
 * (4) Category:Cumberland_County,_Maine
 * (1) Category:Franklin_County,_Maine
 * (7) Category:Governors_of_Maine
 * (2) Category:Hancock_County,_Maine
 * (3) Category:Interstate_highways_in_Maine
 * (1) Category:Islands_of_Maine
 * (1) Category:Jermaine_Dupri
 * (2) Category:Kennebec_County,_Maine
 * (16) Category:Maine
 * (17) Category:Maine_counties
 * (2) Category:Maine_geography
 * (6) Category:Maine_history
 * (5) Category:Maine_politicians
 * (8) Category:Maine_rivers
 * (1) Category:Museums_in_Maine
 * (1) Category:Penobscot_County,_Maine
 * (15) Category:Towns_in_Maine
 * (1) Category:Transportation_in_Maine
 * (9) Category:Universities_and_colleges_in_Maine
 * (1) Category:Waldo_County,_Maine
 * (1) Category:Washington_County,_Maine
 * (2) Category:York_County,_Maine

Subcategories of this state:

Category:Maine Category:Airports_of_Maine Category:Cities_in_Maine Category:Governors_of_Maine Category:Maine_counties Category:Androscoggin_County,_Maine Category:Aroostook_County,_Maine Category:Cumberland_County,_Maine Category:Franklin_County,_Maine Category:Franklin_County,_Maine [repeat] Category:Hancock_County,_Maine Category:Kennebec_County,_Maine Category:Washington_County,_Maine Category:York_County,_Maine Category:Maine_geography Category:Islands_of_Maine Category:Maine_rivers Category:Maine_history Category:Maine_politicians Category:Governors_of_Maine [repeat] Category:Museums_in_Maine Category:Towns_in_Maine Category:Transportation_in_Maine Category:Interstate_highways_in_Maine Category:Universities_and_colleges_in_Maine

title: Wikipedia:Auto-categorization/Maine


text:
Wikipedia:Auto-categorization/Maryland

Maryland
Articles on this list need to be categorized. Each is shown with the first 500 characters or so of their content, to make your job easier. Scroll down to the bottom of this page to see a list of related categories that existed when this list was being created. Please delete articles from this list after you categorize them, to avoid duplication of effort.

Articles that have the state's name in the title that are not on this list are probably going to be automatically categorized. See the parent page (link at the top of this page) for more information.

Please add municipalities (towns, cities, townships, boroughs, villages, unincorporated communities, etc.) that are direct subdivisions of a county (equivalent to boroughs and census areas in Alaska and parishes in Louisiana) in both the county's category and. Please add county articles to the county category and to. Note that categories for all counties might not yet exist, but they will soon be automatically populated with most of the municipalities that belong there.

There is no convention for county sub-sub-divisions. (For example, villages that are part of towns, and towns that are part of townships.) Certainly sub-sub-divisions should be added to the sub-division category, and probably also a the state-wide. It's unclear whether or not to add them to the county category. See Wikipedia talk:WikiProject Cities.

Category possibilities:
 * (1) Category:Airports_of_Maryland
 * (1) Category:Baltimore_County,_Maryland
 * (2) Category:Charles_County,_Maryland
 * (8) Category:Cities_in_Maryland
 * (1) Category:Frederick_County,_Maryland
 * (11) Category:Governors_of_Maryland
 * (1) Category:Harford_County,_Maryland
 * (1) Category:Howard_County,_Maryland
 * (13) Category:Interstate_highways_in_Maryland
 * (19) Category:Maryland
 * (10) Category:Maryland_counties
 * (1) Category:Maryland_geography
 * (4) Category:Maryland_history
 * (5) Category:Maryland_politicians
 * (12) Category:Maryland_rivers
 * (8) Category:Montgomery_County,_Maryland
 * (2) Category:Montgomery_County,_Maryland_neighborhoods
 * (1) Category:Museums_in_Maryland
 * (1) Category:Newspapers_of_Maryland
 * (25) Category:Prince_George's_County,_Maryland
 * (15) Category:Towns_in_Maryland
 * (2) Category:Transportation_in_Maryland
 * (10) Category:Unincorporated_communities_in_Maryland
 * (25) Category:Universities_and_colleges_in_Maryland

Subcategories of this state:

Category:Maryland Category:Baltimore Category:Cities_in_Maryland Category:Baltimore [repeat] Category:Governors_of_Maryland Category:Maryland_counties Category:Baltimore_County,_Maryland Category:Charles_County,_Maryland Category:Frederick_County,_Maryland Category:Harford_County,_Maryland Category:Howard_County,_Maryland Category:Montgomery_County,_Maryland Category:Montgomery_County,_Maryland_neighborhoods Category:Prince_George's_County,_Maryland Category:Maryland_geography Category:Maryland_rivers Category:Maryland_history Category:Maryland_politicians Category:Governors_of_Maryland [repeat] Category:Museums_in_Maryland Category:Towns_in_Maryland Category:Transportation_in_Maryland Category:Airports_of_Maryland Category:Interstate_highways_in_Maryland Category:Unincorporated_communities_in_Maryland Category:Universities_and_colleges_in_Maryland

title: Wikipedia:Auto-categorization/Maryland


text:
Pingyuan Province

Pingyuan was a former province of the People's Republic of China that existed between 1949 and 1952. Its capital was Xinxiang, now in Henan province.

History
Pingyuan Province was established on August 20, 1949, comprising adjoining prefectures in the provinces of Henan and Shandong:

 * Xinxiang, Henan (along with then-separate urban centre Xinxiang City)
 * Puyang, Henan
 * Anyang, Henan (along with then-separate urban centre Anyang City)
 * Heze, Shandong
 * Huxi, Shandong
 * Liaocheng, Shandong

Pan Fusheng was the first Communist Party Chief of the province, and Chao Zhefu was its only governor. In March 1950, a number of peasants and cattle froze to death when transporting grain to government storage in Puyang prefecture. Pan took partial responsibility for the "Puyang Incident" and was demoted to deputy party chief. He was replaced by Wu De.

The province was abolished on November 15, 1952. Its component territories were returned to their original provinces - with the exception of Anyang's Wu'an, Shexian and Linzhang counties, which were transferred to Handan prefecture in Hebei.

title: Pingyuan Province


text: User talk:67.42.89.228

title: User talk:67.42.89.228


text:
Abortion in Chile

Chile's abortion laws have undergone significant changes in recent years. Prior to 2017, Chile had one of the strictest abortion laws globally, prohibiting the practice altogether. However, since then, abortion has become legal in certain circumstances.

Currently, abortion is legal in three situations: when the life of the mother is at risk, when the fetus is not viable, and in cases of rape during the first 12 weeks of pregnancy (or 14 weeks if the woman is under 14 years old). Despite this, some doctors still refuse to perform abortions, particularly in cases of rape.

In 2006, activists successfully lobbied then-president Michelle Bachelet and the Coalition of Parties for Democracy to legalize emergency contraceptives in response to concerns about the rising number of teen pregnancies. In 2010, they successfully campaigned for free emergency contraceptives at public health centers for anyone over the age of 14 without requiring parental permission.

In August 2017, the National Congress approved a bill legalizing abortion, which went into effect a month later after surviving a constitutional challenge from conservative opponents. In January 2018, both public and private sector medical coverage for abortion became accessible.

In November 2021, the Chamber of Deputies of Chile voted down a bill that would have decriminalized abortion at 14 weeks. Additionally, in 2022, a proposed new constitution that contained provisions for reproductive rights and the legalization of abortion was put to a referendum in Chile. However, the proposed constitution was not approved by the majority of Chilean voters.

Legal background
In 1931, the Health Code introduced a provision allowing therapeutic abortion, permitting women whose lives were at risk to undergo the procedure with the approval of two doctors. However, this provision was abolished by the military dictatorship on September 15, 1989, citing advancements in medicine that made it "no longer justifiable."

The current laws regarding abortion are codified in the penal code under articles 342 to 345, which address "Crimes and Offences against Family Order, Public Morality and Sexual Integrity." According to these laws, illegal abortions are punishable by up to five years of imprisonment for the person performing the procedure, and up to ten years if violence is used against the pregnant woman. If a pregnant woman consents to or performs an illegal abortion on herself, she may face up to five years in prison. Additionally, a medical doctor practicing an illegal abortion may be sentenced to up to 15 years of imprisonment. The country's constitution, in article 19-1, states that "the law protects the life of those about to be born." Prior to 2022, a two-thirds majority in each chamber of the Chilean Congress was required to amend this article.

Since 1990, legislators have submitted 15 bills related to abortion for discussion in Congress, with 12 bills presented in the Chamber of Deputies and three in the Senate. Approximately half of these bills aimed to increase existing penalties or create legal barriers to hinder the legalization of abortion. Two other bills suggested the construction of monuments to commemorate the "innocent victims of abortion." Four bills have requested allowing abortion when the mother's life is at risk, and one bill proposed it in cases of rape. Currently, nine bills are under review, while one has been rejected. Five others have been archived, meaning they have not been discussed for two years. Two identical bills requesting the reinstatement of therapeutic abortion as it was before 1989 are currently under review in the Chamber's Medical Commission. The first bill was submitted on January 23, 2003, and the latest on March 19, 2009.

In November 2013, during the administration of conservative President Sebastián Piñera, a law was enacted declaring March 25 as the "day of those about to be born and of adoption."

Legalization
On January 31, 2015, President Michelle Bachelet submitted a draft bill to Congress with the aim of decriminalizing abortion in specific cases. The proposed cases included situations where the mother's life is at risk, when the fetus will not survive the pregnancy, and in instances of rape during the first 12 weeks of pregnancy (18 weeks if the woman is under 14 years old). On August 2, 2017, Congress approved the bill, reducing the allowable timeframe to 14 weeks in the case of a girl under 14 who has been raped. A request from the opposition to declare the law unconstitutional was rejected by the country's Constitutional Court in a 6-4 decision on August 21, 2017.

The court ruling allowed health facilities to refuse to provide abortions by claiming "conscientious objector" status, although the bill, as approved by Congress, granted this right only to individuals. President Bachelet promulgated the law on September 14, 2017, and it was published in the country's official gazette on September 23, 2017. The Ministry of Health published a protocol for "conscientious objectors" on January 27, 2018. Subsequently, medical coverage in both the public and private sectors became available on January 29, 2018.

On March 23, 2018, the incoming administration of Sebastián Piñera made modifications to the protocol, allowing private health institutions receiving state funds to invoke conscientious objection. However, in May 2018, the Office of the Comptroller General declared both versions of the protocol illegal. In October 2018, the government published an amended protocol, reinstating the prohibition on private health institutions receiving state funds from invoking conscientious objection. Nevertheless, in December 2018, the Constitutional Court, acting on a request from a group of lawmakers supporting the sitting administration, deemed that specific section of the protocol unconstitutional.

Women's health
An amendment made by the Chilean government to section 119 of the Health Code in 1989 stated that there could be no actions taken that would induce an abortion. This amendment was made due to the belief that with medical advances in maternal care, abortion was no longer seen as a necessary means of saving a woman's life.

Concern over high rates of abortion and high maternal mortality rates led the Chilean government to launch a publicly funded family planning program in 1964. Deaths due to illegal abortions dropped from 118 to 24 per 100,000 live births between 1964 and 1979.

There was also a statistically significant decrease in maternal deaths due to abortion from 1990 to 2000. Experts attribute the decline in hospitalizations due to abortion during this period to the increased use of sterilization and antibiotics by illegal abortion providers, the increased availability of the abortifacient drug misoprostol, and the increased use of contraception. In terms of accessibility, in 2002 it was noted that most of the family planning services were offered to married women.

A 2015 study by the Chilean epidemiologist Elard Koch has shown that the decreasing trend in maternal deaths due to abortion has continued through 2009. These results challenge the common notion that less permissive abortion laws lead to greater mortality associated with abortion. Koch states that the increases in women's education and in community support programs for women with unplanned pregnancies have contributed to the reduction of induced abortions and maternal deaths in Chile.

In the period 2000 to 2004, abortion was the third leading cause of maternal mortality in the country, accounting for 12% of all maternal deaths. While there are no accurate statistics, it is estimated that between 2000 and 2002 there were between 132,000 and 160,000 abortions in the country.

A 1997 study found that the majority of eighty women prosecuted in Santiago for having an abortion were young, single mothers, and that many were domestic workers who had moved to the city from rural areas. It also found most of the women were reported to authorities by the hospital at which they sought treatment for their complications, and had no legal representation, or were defended by inexperienced law students.

Public opinion
A July 2006 MORI survey found that 26% of Chileans believed that abortion is "justified", up from 18% in 1990.

A July 2008 all-female nationwide face-to-face poll by NGO Corporación Humanas found that 79.2% of Chilean women were in favor of decriminalizing abortion when the life of the pregnant woman is at risk; 67.9% said it was urgent to legislate on the matter. According to the study, 74.0% of women believed abortion should be permitted in cases of rape, 70.1% in instances of fetal abnormality and 24% in all cases a woman decided it was appropriate.

A March 2009 nationwide telephone poll published by La Tercera newspaper found 67% were against abortion, 19% in favor and 11% in favor only in extreme cases. Regarding abortion when the life of the pregnant woman is at risk, 48% were in favor, 3% only in extreme cases and 47% were against. In cases where the baby would be born with a defect or disease that would most likely cause the baby's death, 51% were against permitting an abortion, 45% were in favor and 2% only in extreme cases. 83% were against performing an abortion on an underage girl who had unprotected sex, while 14% were in favor. 57% were in favor of abortion in the case of rape, with 39% against it.

An October 2009 opinion poll published by Universidad Diego Portales and covering 85% of urban areas of Chile found that a majority were against abortion when the pregnant woman or couple did not have the economic means to raise a baby (80%), when the pregnant woman or couple did not want to have a baby (68%), and when the fetus had a "serious defect" (51%). On the other hand, a majority were in favor of abortion when the pregnant woman's health is at risk (63%) and in cases of rape (64%).

A January 2017 opinion poll conducted by CADEM found that 57% wanted abortion to be allowed in only a few cases, while 19% wanted abortion illegal in all cases and 22% wanted it legal in all cases. A majority were in favor of abortion when the woman's health is at risk (76%), when the fetus does not have a high probability of survival (72%), and when a woman is pregnant as a result of rape (71%), while only a minority supported abortion in cases of a fetus having a physical disability (36%) and in cases of a mother not being able to afford a child (20%).

In August 2021, a Cadem survey showed that 46% of Chileans agree with abortion within 14 weeks, 52% disapprove of the measure and another 2% did not know or did not respond.

Church influence
Around 66% of Chilean citizens identify themselves as members of the Catholic Church, and the government observes many Catholic holidays. The Church has consistently maintained conservative views on abortion while supporting birth control as a means of preventing abortion.

In the 1960s, the Church supported family planning initiatives aimed at reducing maternal mortality rates and stemming the rapid population growth of the time. During the Christian Democratic government of the 1960s, the Church supported the use of contraceptive pills. With the military coup of Augusto Pinochet, there was a return to a new conservative approach in the Catholic Church during the 1980s and 1990s, which is argued to still be strong today.

Today, Catholic arguments in the abortion debates often cite Pope Paul VI's Humanae vitae, an argument that asserts that there should be no unnatural intervention in family building between a man and a woman. This argument is mainly used against abortion but has also been used as an argument against birth control. However, this argument is not the sole view of Catholics in Chile. While the majority of Catholic leaders do not support abortion or contraceptives, there are arguments that find that practicing sensus fidel or simply being faithful is enough and that Humanae vitae does not accurately reflect the necessity of modern-day practices.

There are two important conservative Catholic groups that influence modern-day abortion dialogue:

 * 1) Opus Dei is a Catholic organization that was formed in 1928 by St. Josemaría Escrivá de Balaguer y Albás. Opus Dei has a rigid structure to its approach towards Catholic practice and is against abortion. It has been criticized for aggressively recruiting elites, given that it was formed with highly influential and educated members. Opus Dei continues to enjoy the support of the Vatican.
 * 2) The Legionaries of Christ is a Catholic organization formed in 1941 by Marcial Maciel, a controversial figure who was asked by Pope Benedict XVI to step down from his priesthood duties in 2005 in light of accusations that he had committed abuse against minors. The Legionaries of Christ are known to recruit members and have influence in elite business sectors in Chile.

These two groups are thought to have influence in more elite circles in Chile which then influence public opinion on abortion as well as policies regarding abortion access.

International reaction
In November 2004, the United Nations (UN) committee monitoring compliance with the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (CESCR) ruled that Chile should allow abortion in cases of rape and incest. In 2007, the United Nations Human Rights Council expressed concern over the country's "improperly restrictive" legislation on abortion, especially in cases where the life of the mother is at risk. The UN's High Commissioner for Human Rights also expressed concern over the country's "excessively restrictive abortion laws" in May 2009.

title: Abortion in Chile