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Oloroso

Oloroso ("scented" in English) is a variety of fortified wine (sherry) made in Jerez and Montilla-Moriles and produced by oxidative aging. It is normally darker than Amontillado. Oloroso is usually dark and nutty.

Unlike the fino and Amontillado sherries, in oloroso the flor yeast is suppressed by fortification at an earlier stage. This causes the finished wine to lack the fresh yeasty taste of the fino sherries. Without the layer of flor, the sherry is exposed to air through the slightly porous walls of the American or Canadian oak casks and undergoes oxidative aging. As the wine ages, it becomes darker and stronger and is often left for many decades.

Oloroso sherry is also the base for many of the sweet sherries developed for the international market, such as Bristol Cream, in which oloroso is sweetened and sometimes has the color removed by charcoal filtering to achieve the desired effect.

Varieties

 * Oloroso del Puerto is an oloroso from El Puerto de Santa María.
 * Manzanilla Olorosa is a manzanilla aged to the point that it takes on the quality of an Oloroso.

Serving
Olorosos are dry, not sweet. Wines labelled as "Rich Oloroso", "Sweet Oloroso" or "Oloroso Dulce" were banned by the Andalusian regional government on 12 April 2012. They will have to be re-labelled as "Cream Sherry: Blend of Oloroso". The rules applicable to the sweet and fortified denominaciones de origen Montilla-Moriles and Jerez-Xérès-Sherry are:

For the full rules for the sweetness of Sherry see Sweetness of wine.

Oloroso should be served at 12–14 °C, and can be served as an apéritif with nuts, olives or figs, with game and red meats, or after a meal with rich cheeses. Sweetened Oloroso can also be taken as a long drink with ice. Cream Sherries, which are Oloroso sweetened by blending with Pedro Ximénez wine, should also be served at 12–14 °C and are usually served after a meal as a dessert wine. They can also be served with certain dishes, such as foie gras.

Storing
Because Oloroso Sherries have already been through years of oxidative aging, they can be safely stored for years before opening. Once opened, Oloroso will slowly lose some of its aroma and flavor, but can be kept corked and refrigerated for up to two months after opening. The older the Oloroso, the longer it will remain flavorful and drinkable - as long as 12 months.

Other uses
Historically the casks used to ship Oloroso Sherry to the UK, often remained in the UK where they were used in Scotland and Ireland to age whisky. Since the Spanish government changed the export laws in 1981, stipulating that sherry must be bottled in Spain, sherry casks are now manufactured purely for the whisky industry—by seasoning casks with Oloroso or other sherry prior to the distilleries using them to age their whisky. It's extremely rare that a cask used by a sherry Bodega to actually age sherry is used in the production of whisky. Single malt whisky aged in sherry casks is regarded by some as a special category with its own aficionados. This category usually refers to whether the whisky was finished (aged first in another cask and then transferred to an Oloroso cask or butt for finishing), or fully matured (taken directly off the still and matured entirely in a cask that once held Oloroso). The Oloroso wine infused in the wood of the casks imparts some of the flavor and aroma of the wine to the whisky during the aging process. Oloroso casks are also used to age brandy for the same reasons. A whisky that was matured only in Oloroso casks is often fruitier, with stronger notes of tobacco, pepper, and stewed fruits.

title: Oloroso


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Category:Houston Astros players

This category includes baseball players for the franchise currently known as the Houston Astros. This franchise has been known by two names: See also
 * Houston Colt .45s (1962-1964)
 * Houston Astros (1965-present)
 * Houston Colt .45s players

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Category:Houston Astros players


text: Category:Houston Astros field personnel

title: Category:Houston Astros field personnel


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Category:Chicago Cubs players

This category is for players who appeared in at least one game for the Chicago Cubs baseball franchise, from 1902 to the present.

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text: Category:Chicago Cubs field personnel

title: Category:Chicago Cubs field personnel


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Template:Birth year category header

See also: deaths.

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text: Category:Tampa Bay Devil Rays players

title: Category:Tampa Bay Devil Rays players


text: Category:Tampa Bay Devil Rays field personnel


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Student exchange program

A student exchange program is a program in which students from a secondary school (high school) or higher education study abroad at one of their institution's partner institutions. A student exchange program may involve international travel, but does not necessarily require the student to study outside their home country.

Foreign exchange programs provide students with an opportunity to study in another country and experience a different environment. These programs provide opportunities that may not be available in the participant's home country, such as learning about the history and culture of other countries and meeting new friends to enrich their personal development. International exchange programs are also effective to challenge students to develop a global perspective.

The term "exchange" means that a partner institution accepts a student, but does not necessarily mean that the students have to find a counterpart from the other institution with whom to exchange. Exchange students live with a host family or in a designated place such as a hostel, an apartment, or a student lodging. Costs for the program vary by the country and institution. Participants fund their participation via scholarships, loans, or self-funding.

Student exchanges became popular after World War II, intended to increase the participants' understanding and tolerance of other cultures, as well as improving their language skills and broadening their social horizons. Student exchanges also increased further after the end of the Cold War. An exchange student typically stays in the host country for a period of 6 to 12 months; however, exchange students may opt to stay for one semester at a time. International students or those on study abroad programs may stay in the host country for several years. Some exchange programs also offer academic credit.

Students of study abroad programs aim to develop a global perspective and cultural understanding by challenging their comfort zones and immersing themselves in a different culture. Studies have shown that students' desire to study abroad has increased, and research suggests that students choose programs because of location, costs, available resources and heritage. Although there are many different exchange programs, most popular are the programs that offer academic credit, as many students are concerned about traveling hindering their academic and professional plans.

Short-term exchange
A short-term exchange program is also known as STEP. These focus on home-stays, language skills, community service, or cultural activities. High school and university students can apply for the programs through various government or non-governmental organizations that organize the programs. A short-term exchange lasts from one week to three months and doesn't require the student to study in any particular school or institution. The students are exposed to an intensive program that increases their understanding of other cultures, communities, and languages.

Long-term exchange
A long-term exchange is one which lasts six to ten months or up to one full year. Participants attend high school or university in their host countries, through a student visa. Typically, guest students coming to the United States are issued a J-1 cultural exchange visa or an F-1 foreign student visa. Students are expected to integrate themselves into the host family, immersing themselves in the local community and surroundings. Upon their return to their home country they are expected to incorporate this knowledge into their daily lives, as well as give a presentation on their experience to their sponsors. Many exchange programs expect students to be able converse in the language of the host country, at least on a basic level. Some programs require students to pass a standardized test for English language comprehension prior to being accepted into a program taking them to the United States. Other programs do not examine language ability. Most exchange students become fluent in the language of the host country within a few months. Some exchange programs, such as the Congress-Bundestag Youth Exchange, KL-YES, FLEX are government-funded programs.

The Council on Standards for International Educational Travel is a not-for-profit organization committed to quality international educational travel and exchange for youth at the high school level.

Application process
Long-term (10 to 12-month) exchange applications and interviews generally take place between a few days to few months depending on program type, host university requirements and destination country in advance of departure, Students generally must be between the ages of 13 and 18. Some programs allow students older than 18 years of age in a specialized work-study program.

Some programs require a preliminary application form with fees, and then schedule interviews and a longer application form. Other programs request a full application from the beginning and then schedule interviews. High school scholarship programs often require a set GPA of around 2.5 or higher. Programs select the candidates most likely to complete the program and serve as the best ambassadors to the foreign nation. Students in some programs, such as Rotary, are expected to go to any location where the organization places them, and students are encouraged not to have strict expectations of their host country. Students are allowed to choose a country, but may live at any spot within that country.

The home country organization will contact a partner organization in the country of the student's choice. Students accepted for the program may or may not be screened by the organization in their home country. Partner organizations in the destination country each have differing levels of screening they require students to pass through before being accepted into their program. For example, students coming to America may be allowed to come on the recommendation of the organization in their home country, or the hosting partner may require the student to submit a detailed application, including previous school report cards, letters from teachers and administrators, and standardized English fluency exam papers. The US agency may then accept or decline the applicant. Some organizations also have Rules of Participation. For example, almost all US organizations cannot allow an exchange student to drive an automobile during their visit. Some organizations require a written contract that sets standards for personal behavior and grades, while others may be less rigorous. Lower cost programs can result in a student participating without a supervisor being available nearby to check on the student's well-being. Programs provided by agencies that provide compensation for representatives are more likely to retain local representatives to assist and guide the student and keep track of their well-being.

Costs
The costs of student exchange are determined by the charges from a student exchange program organisation or the university or college. The costs vary depending on the country, length of study and other personal factors. Different programs through the school/university of choice may offer students scholarships that cover the expenses of travel and accommodation and the personal needs of a student.

Prevalence worldwide
Students study abroad from many countries around the globe. As of 2017, the top 8 countries sending students abroad for tertiary education are as follows:

Australian high school exchange programs
Each state in Australia provides a different program of student exchange for secondary students. The programs from each state are different for whether a student in Australia is looking to study internationally or a student from another country is looking to study in Australia. Student exchange in Australia, depending on the state, might be managed by registered exchange organizations or the school chosen for study must be registered. The countries that are most popular for Australian students to choose to study are, Japan, France, Germany, USA, Italy, Canada, Belgium, Spain and Argentina. The main purpose of student exchange in Australia is to allow students to study, engage and experience a new culture. International students who choose to study in Australia are given different opportunities through the programs at set schools will learn about Australian culture, but also gain English language skills at a high school level.

Australian university students exchange programs
Exchange programs for university students to study abroad vary depending on the university campus offers. International student exchange programs for university students are aimed to enhance students' intercultural skills and knowledge. Student exchange programs for university students allow broadening their knowledge on their study of choice from a different country. This gives university students a chance to develop their work experience by seeing how their studying profession is practiced in another country. International exchange for tertiary students allows them to gain cultural experience in their studies and a chance to travel abroad while completing their degree.

Foreign students in Spain
A series of studies conducted within the last decade found similar results in students studying abroad in Spain for a short-term and/or semester long program. These studies found that students can improve their speaking proficiency during one semester, there is a positive relationship between students' integrative motivation and interaction with second language culture, and student contact with the Spanish language has a great effect on their speaking improvement. It is especially apparent in students who live with host families during their program. Anne Reynolds-Case found improvements in understanding and usage of the vosotros form after studying in Spain. One study specifically studies culture perceptions of students studying abroad in Spain. Alan Meredith defines culture as consisting "of patterns, explicit and implicit, of and for behavior acquired and transmitted by symbols, constituting the distinctive achievement of human groups, including their embodiments in artifacts." Questionnaires were given to students living with host families during a two-month program in Spain. He studies how these groups perceive customs, such as concern for personal appearance, physical contact, cooking styles, politics, etc. The study found a variety of results depending the cultural custom. However, the US students' perceptions most closely aligned with the Young Spaniards (16–22 years old). At the same time, Angela George's study found little significance in the adoption of regional features during their semester abroad. Though most of these studies focused on students who came from America to study in Spain, the United States is not the only one sending their students. Brian Denman's article demonstrates an increase of Saudi student mobility for education, including locations such as Spain.

Drawbacks
Even though exchange students learn to improve themselves through the experience of studying and staying in another country, there are also many difficulties to be encountered. One of them is when exchange students are unable to adapt to pedagogy followed by the host country. Another is conflicts between the host family (who have provided accommodation) and the students, when it cannot be solved by communicating with each other and the student usually will be asked to stay with another host until they find a new match. This process, however, could take time while the students' duration of stay is limited. Even with preparation and knowledge about the new environment, they could still experience culture shock, which can affect them in different ways. Students from a completely different culture can also encounter homesickness for a longer period of time. Transportation can also be a problem, as it is often difficult or impractical for a student to buy a car during a short program. Moreover, students will find it hard to find a job, even part-time since most exchange visas do not allow students to work and it is difficult to obtain one that does. Another potential drawback is health issues that can occur during the stay in a foreign country. Students are advised to always have health insurance while traveling abroad, and carry emergency contact details of their local hosts and of multiple family members as well. Students participating in student exchange programs have sometimes been vulnerable to threats such as terrorism and other crimes. For example, in 1998 a number of US students traveling in Guatemala on a college sponsored trip were attacked in the Santa Lucía Cotzumalguapa area, with the entire group being robbed and physically harassed and threatened, and five of the young women being raped.

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Manzanilla (wine)

Manzanilla is a fortified wine similar to fino sherry made in the port of Sanlúcar de Barrameda, in the province of Cádiz, Andalusia (Spain), and is produced under the Spanish Denominación de Origen Protegida (DOP) of Manzanilla-Sanlúcar de Barrameda DOP. In Spanish, chamomile infusion is called "manzanilla", and thus this wine gets the name because the wine's aroma is said to be reminiscent of such infusion.

Manzanilla is manufactured using the same methods as a fino sherry and results in a very pale, dry wine. It is often described as having a savoury and salty flavour, believed to develop from the chalky soil near the sea estuary of the Guadalquivir river. Sanlúcar de Barrameda's cool temperatures and high humidity contribute to a higher yield of flor yeast than in Jerez or El Puerto de Santa María. The thicker cap of flor better protects the wine from contact with the air, resulting in a fresher, more delicate flavour than a fino from Jerez. It is typically aged for three to five years in a solera, but some types may be aged longer.

Special types of Manzanilla

 * Manzanilla Pasada is a Manzanilla aged longer than usual (approximately seven years), so that its veil of flor begins to fade, though not long enough to become an Amontillado.
 * Manzanilla Amontillada is similar to a Manzanilla pasada but in some cases aged as long as 12 years, taking on more of the qualities of an Amontillado.
 * Manzanilla Olorosa is a rich form of Manzanilla that takes on the quality of Oloroso through extended aging, sometimes as much as 30 years.
 * Jerez Cortado is a Palo Cortado made from Manzanilla.

On 12 April 2012, the rules applicable to the sweet and fortified Denominations of Origen Montilla-Moriles and Jerez-Xérès-Sherry were changed.

The classification by sweetness is:

Authorised grape varieties
The authorised grape varieties are the same as those of Jerez-Xérès-Sherry DOP:

 * White: Palomino, Pedro Ximénez, Moscatel de Grano Menudo, and Moscatel de Alejandría

Serving
Manzanilla is best served chilled at 7 –. In Spain it is often served with olives, almonds, or other tapas such as Jamón serrano or seafood.

It is also popular in the cocktail Rebujito.

Storing
Like fino, manzanilla is a delicate form of sherry and should be drunk within a year of bottling. Once opened it will immediately begin to deteriorate and should be drunk in one sitting for the best results. If necessary it can be stored, corked and refrigerated, for up to one week after opening.

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Generation Adidas

Generation Adidas is a joint venture between Major League Soccer and U.S. Soccer aimed at raising the level of young professional soccer talent in the United States. The program, sponsored by Adidas, offers professional-ready players in the U.S. developmental system not yet eligible for the MLS SuperDraft early entry, allowing MLS to compete with foreign professional clubs without comparable restrictions on player signing. From its establishment in 1997 to 2005, the program was sponsored by Nike and was called Project-40. Originally intended to improve the U.S. national team player pool, American national team eligibility is no longer required for program entry.

Carlos Parra was the first Project-40 player when he signed with the league and was allocated to the New York/New Jersey MetroStars in 1997. Since then, the program has included players such as Tim Howard, DaMarcus Beasley, Maurice Edu, Carlos Bocanegra, Clint Dempsey, Jozy Altidore, Ben Olsen, Sacha Kljestan, Freddy Adu, Brad Guzan, Michael Bradley, Nick Rimando, Kyle Beckerman, and NFL kicker Josh Lambo.

Generation Adidas players do not count against the MLS senior roster and usually earn a much higher salary than the league minimum. Entering into the program automatically classifies a player as professional, and thus disqualifies them from playing college soccer. As a result, Generation Adidas players are also guaranteed scholarships to continue their college education should they end their professional career early.

From 1998 to 2000, MLS entered a team of Project-40 players, supplemented by other MLS players who did not get much playing time, into the A-League in the USL.

In 2017, MLS introduced Canadian Generation Adidas players, part of a new initiative with the Canadian Soccer Association. Canadian Generation Adidas players count as domestic players on US based MLS teams.

2023
The 2023 class was announced on December 19, 2022, prior to the 2023 MLS SuperDraft. The first five picks in the draft, including top pick Hamady Diop from Clemson, were Generation Adidas players.

2024
The two-member 2024 class was announced on December 19, 2023, the same day as the 2024 MLS SuperDraft.

title: Generation Adidas


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Extensible Binary Meta Language

Extensible Binary Meta Language (EBML) is a generalized file format for any kind of data, aiming to be a binary equivalent to XML. It provides a basic framework for storing data in XML-like tags. It was originally developed for the Matroska audio/video container format.

EBML is not extensible in the same way that XML is, as the XML schema (e.g., DTD) must be known in advance.

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Roman art

The art of Ancient Rome, and the territories of its Republic and later Empire, includes architecture, painting, sculpture and mosaic work. Luxury objects in metal-work, gem engraving, ivory carvings, and glass are sometimes considered to be minor forms of Roman art, although they were not considered as such at the time. Sculpture was perhaps considered as the highest form of art by Romans, but figure painting was also highly regarded. A very large body of sculpture has survived from about the 1st century BC onward, though very little from before, but very little painting remains, and probably nothing that a contemporary would have considered to be of the highest quality.

Ancient Roman pottery was not a luxury product, but a vast production of "fine wares" in terra sigillata were decorated with reliefs that reflected the latest taste, and provided a large group in society with stylish objects at what was evidently an affordable price. Roman coins were an important means of propaganda, and have survived in enormous numbers.

Introduction
While the traditional view of the ancient Roman artists is that they often borrowed from, and copied Greek precedents (much of the Greek sculptures known today are in the form of Roman marble copies), more of recent analysis has indicated that Roman art is a highly creative pastiche relying heavily on Greek models but also encompassing Etruscan, native Italic, and even Egyptian visual culture. Stylistic eclecticism and practical application are the hallmarks of much Roman art.

Pliny, Ancient Rome's most important historian concerning the arts, recorded that nearly all the forms of art – sculpture, landscape, portrait painting, even genre painting – were advanced in Greek times, and in some cases, more advanced than in Rome. Though very little remains of Greek wall art and portraiture, certainly Greek sculpture and vase painting bears this out. These forms were not likely surpassed by Roman artists in fineness of design or execution. As another example of the lost "Golden Age", he singled out Peiraikos, "whose artistry is surpassed by only a very few ... He painted barbershops and shoemakers' stalls, donkeys, vegetables, and such, and for that reason came to be called the 'painter of vulgar subjects'; yet these works are altogether delightful, and they were sold at higher prices than the greatest paintings of many other artists." The adjective "vulgar" is used here in its original definition, which means "common".

The Greek antecedents of Roman art were legendary. In the mid-5th century BC, the most famous Greek artists were Polygnotos, noted for his wall murals, and Apollodoros, the originator of chiaroscuro. The development of realistic technique is credited to Zeuxis and Parrhasius, who according to ancient Greek legend, are said to have once competed in a bravura display of their talents, history's earliest descriptions of trompe-l'œil painting. In sculpture, Skopas, Praxiteles, Phidias, and Lysippos were the foremost sculptors. It appears that Roman artists had much Ancient Greek art to copy from, as trade in art was brisk throughout the empire, and much of the Greek artistic heritage found its way into Roman art through books and teaching. Ancient Greek treatises on the arts are known to have existed in Roman times, though are now lost. Many Roman artists came from Greek colonies and provinces.

The high number of Roman copies of Greek art also speaks of the esteem Roman artists had for Greek art, and perhaps of its rarer and higher quality. Many of the art forms and methods used by the Romans – such as high and low relief, free-standing sculpture, bronze casting, vase art, mosaic, cameo, coin art, fine jewelry and metalwork, funerary sculpture, perspective drawing, caricature, genre and portrait painting, landscape painting, architectural sculpture, and trompe-l'œil painting – all were developed or refined by Ancient Greek artists. One exception is the Roman bust, which did not include the shoulders. The traditional head-and-shoulders bust may have been an Etruscan or early Roman form. Virtually every artistic technique and method used by Renaissance artists 1,900 years later had been demonstrated by Ancient Greek artists, with the notable exceptions of oil colors and mathematically accurate perspective. Where Greek artists were highly revered in their society, most Roman artists were anonymous and considered tradesmen. There is no recording, as in Ancient Greece, of the great masters of Roman art, and practically no signed works. Where Greeks worshipped the aesthetic qualities of great art, and wrote extensively on artistic theory, Roman art was more decorative and indicative of status and wealth, and apparently not the subject of scholars or philosophers.

Partly because Roman cities were mostly far larger than the Greek city-states in population, and generally less provincial, art in Ancient Rome took on a wider, and sometimes more utilitarian, purpose. Roman culture assimilated many cultures and was for the most part tolerant of the ways of conquered peoples. Roman art was commissioned, displayed, and owned in far greater quantities, and adapted to more uses than in Greek times. Wealthy Romans were more materialistic; they decorated their walls with art, their home with decorative objects, and themselves with fine jewelry.

In the Christian era of the late Empire, from 350 to 500 CE, wall painting, mosaic ceiling and floor work, and funerary sculpture thrived, while full-sized sculpture in the round and panel painting died out, most likely for religious reasons. When Constantine moved the capital of the empire to Byzantium (renamed Constantinople), Roman art incorporated Eastern influences to produce the Byzantine style of the late empire. When Rome was sacked in the 5th century, artisans moved to and found work in the Eastern capital. The Church of Hagia Sophia in Constantinople employed nearly 10,000 workmen and artisans, in a final burst of Roman art under Emperor Justinian (527–565 CE), who also ordered the creation of the famous mosaics of Basilica of San Vitale in the city of Ravenna.

Painting

Of the vast body of Roman painting we now have only a very few pockets of survivals, with many documented types not surviving at all, or doing so only from the very end of the period.

The best known and most important pocket is the wall paintings from Pompeii, Herculaneum and other sites nearby, which show how residents of a wealthy seaside resort decorated their walls in the century or so before the fatal eruption of Mount Vesuvius in AD 79. A succession of dated styles have been defined and analysed by modern art historians beginning with August Mau, showing increasing elaboration.

Wall paintings of the same period have also been found from the remains of prominent aristocratic homes in Rome itself. Much of Nero's palace in Rome, the Domus Aurea, built in the 60s AD, survived as grottos; their paintings inspired the grotesque style of painting popular during the Renaissance. We also have murals from houses identified with the emperor Augustus and his wife Livia, dating to beginning of the first century AD. The Casa della Farnesina is another prominent survival of the early Empire that gave up many paintings.

Outside of Italy, many fragments of painted walls have been found throughout the Empire, but few complete pieces. In the Western provinces of the Empire most fragments date from after the year 200 AD.

From Roman Egypt there are a large number of what are known as Fayum mummy portraits, bust portraits on wood added to the outside of mummies by a Romanized middle class; despite their very distinct local character they are probably broadly representative of Roman style in painted portraits, which are otherwise entirely lost.

Starting in the 3rd century AD and finishing by about 400 we have a large body of paintings from the Catacombs of Rome, by no means all Christian, showing the later continuation of the domestic decorative tradition in a version adapted - probably not greatly adapted - for use in burial chambers, in what was probably a rather humbler social milieu than the largest houses in Pompeii.

Nothing remains of the Greek paintings imported to Rome during the 4th and 5th centuries, or of the painting on wood done in Italy during that period. In sum, the range of samples is confined to only about 200 years out of the about 900 years of Roman history, and of provincial and decorative paintings.

Most of this wall painting was done using the a secco (dry) method, but some fresco paintings also existed in Roman times. There is evidence from mosaics and a few inscriptions that some Roman paintings were adaptations or copies of earlier Greek works. However, adding to the confusion is the fact that inscriptions may be recording the names of immigrant Greek artists from Roman times, not from Ancient Greek originals that were copied. The Romans entirely lacked a tradition of figurative vase-painting comparable to that of the Ancient Greeks, which the Etruscans had emulated.

Variety of subjects
Roman painting provides a wide variety of themes: animals, still life, scenes from everyday life, portraits, and some mythological subjects. During the Hellenistic period, it evoked the pleasures of the countryside and represented scenes of shepherds, herds, rustic temples, rural mountainous landscapes and country houses. Erotic scenes are also relatively common. In the late empire, after 200AD, early Christian themes mixed with pagan imagery survive on catacomb walls.

Landscape and vistas
The main innovation of Roman painting compared to Greek art was the development of landscapes, in particular incorporating techniques of perspective, though true mathematical perspective developed 1,500 years later. Surface textures, shading, and coloration are well applied but scale and spatial depth was still not rendered accurately. Some landscapes were pure scenes of nature, particularly gardens with flowers and trees, while others were architectural vistas depicting urban buildings. Other landscapes show episodes from mythology, the most famous demonstrating scenes from the Odyssey.

In the cultural point of view, the art of the ancient East would have known landscape painting only as the backdrop to civil or military narrative scenes. This theory is defended by Franz Wickhoff, is debatable. It is possible to see evidence of Greek knowledge of landscape portrayal in Plato's Critias (107b–108b): "... and if we look at the portraiture of divine and of human bodies as executed by painters, in respect of the ease or difficulty with which they succeed in imitating their subjects in the opinion of onlookers, we shall notice in the first place that as regards the earth and mountains and rivers and woods and the whole of heaven, with the things that exist and move therein, we are content if a man is able to represent them with even a small degree of likeness ..."

Still life
Roman still life subjects are often placed in illusionist niches or shelves and depict a variety of everyday objects including fruit, live and dead animals, seafood, and shells. Examples of the theme of the glass jar filled with water were skillfully painted and later served as models for the same subject often painted during the Renaissance and Baroque periods.

Portraits

Pliny complained of the declining state of Roman portrait art, "The painting of portraits which used to transmit through the ages the accurate likenesses of people, has entirely gone out ... Indolence has destroyed the arts."

In Greece and Rome, wall painting was not considered as high art. The most prestigious form of art besides sculpture was panel painting, i.e. tempera or encaustic painting on wooden panels. Unfortunately, since wood is a perishable material, only a very few examples of such paintings have survived, namely the Severan Tondo from c. 200 AD, a very routine official portrait from some provincial government office, and the well-known Fayum mummy portraits, all from Roman Egypt, and almost certainly not of the highest contemporary quality. The portraits were attached to burial mummies at the face, from which almost all have now been detached. They usually depict a single person, showing the head, or head and upper chest, viewed frontally. The background is always monochrome, sometimes with decorative elements. In terms of artistic tradition, the images clearly derive more from Greco-Roman traditions than Egyptian ones. They are remarkably realistic, though variable in artistic quality, and may indicate that similar art which was widespread elsewhere but did not survive. A few portraits painted on glass and medals from the later empire have survived, as have coin portraits, some of which are considered very realistic as well.

Gold glass
Galla Placidia (rechts) und ihre Kinder.jpg medallion in Brescia (Museo di Santa Giulia), most likely Alexandrian, 3rd century ADDaniel Thomas Howells (2015). "A Catalogue of the Late Antique Gold Glass in the British Museum (PDF)." London: the British Museum (Arts and Humanities Research Council). Accessed 2 October 2016, p. 7: "Other important contributions to scholarship included the publication of an extensive summary of gold glass scholarship under the entry ‘Fonds de coupes’ in Fernand Cabrol and Henri Leclercq's comprehensive Dictionnaire d’archéologie chrétienne et de liturgie in 1923. Leclercq updated Vopel's catalogue, recording 512 gold glasses considered to be genuine, and developed a typological series consisting of eleven iconographic subjects: biblical subjects; Christ and the saints; various legends; inscriptions; pagan deities; secular subjects; male portraits; female portraits; portraits of couples and families; animals; and Jewish symbols. In a 1926 article devoted to the brushed technique gold glass known as the Brescia medallion (Pl. 1), Fernand de Mély challenged the deeply ingrained opinion of Garrucci and Vopel that all examples of brushed technique gold glass were in fact forgeries. The following year, de Mély's hypothesis was supported and further elaborated upon in two articles by different scholars. A case for the Brescia medallion's authenticity was argued for, not on the basis of its iconographic and orthographic similarity with pieces from Rome (a key reason for Garrucci's dismissal), but instead for its close similarity to the Fayoum mummy portraits from Egypt. Indeed, this comparison was given further credence by Walter Crum's assertion that the Greek inscription on the medallion was written in the Alexandrian dialect of Egypt. De Mély noted that the medallion and its inscription had been reported as early as 1725, far too early for the idiosyncrasies of Graeco-Egyptian word endings to have been understood by forgers."

"Comparing the iconography of the Brescia medallion with other more closely dated objects from Egypt, Hayford Peirce then proposed that brushed technique medallions were produced in the early 3rd century, whilst de Mély himself advocated a more general 3rd-century date. With the authenticity of the medallion more firmly established, Joseph Breck was prepared to propose a late 3rd to early 4th century date for all of the brushed technique cobalt blue-backed portrait medallions, some of which also had Greek inscriptions in the Alexandrian dialect. Although considered genuine by the majority of scholars by this point, the unequivocal authenticity of these glasses was not fully established until 1941 when Gerhart Ladner discovered and published a photograph of one such medallion still in situ, where it remains to this day, impressed into the plaster sealing in an individual loculus in the Catacomb of Panfilo in Rome (Pl. 2). Shortly after in 1942, Morey used the phrase ‘brushed technique’ to categorize this gold glass type, the iconography being produced through a series of small incisions undertaken with a gem cutter's precision and lending themselves to a chiaroscuro-like effect similar to that of a fine steel engraving simulating brush strokes." ]]

Gold glass, or gold sandwich glass, was a technique for fixing a layer of gold leaf with a design between two fused layers of glass, developed in Hellenistic glass and revived in the 3rd century AD. There are a very few large designs, including a very fine group of portraits from the 3rd century with added paint, but the great majority of the around 500 survivals are roundels that are the cut-off bottoms of wine cups or glasses used to mark and decorate graves in the Catacombs of Rome by pressing them into the mortar. They predominantly date from the 4th and 5th centuries. Most are Christian, though there are many pagan and a few Jewish examples. It is likely that they were originally given as gifts on marriage, or festive occasions such as New Year. Their iconography has been much studied, although artistically they are relatively unsophisticated. Their subjects are similar to the catacomb paintings, but with a difference balance including more portraiture. As time went on there was an increase in the depiction of saints. The same technique began to be used for gold tesserae for mosaics in the mid-1st century in Rome, and by the 5th century these had become the standard background for religious mosaics.

The earlier group are "among the most vivid portraits to survive from Early Christian times. They stare out at us with an extraordinary stern and melancholy intensity", and represent the best surviving indications of what high quality Roman portraiture could achieve in paint. The Gennadios medallion in the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York, is a fine example of an Alexandrian portrait on blue glass, using a rather more complex technique and naturalistic style than most Late Roman examples, including painting onto the gold to create shading, and with the Greek inscription showing local dialect features. He had perhaps been given or commissioned the piece to celebrate victory in a musical competition. One of the most famous Alexandrian-style portrait medallions, with an inscription in Egyptian Greek, was later mounted in an Early Medieval crux gemmata in Brescia, in the mistaken belief that it showed the pious empress and Gothic queen Galla Placida and her children; in fact the knot in the central figure's dress may mark a devotee of Isis. This is one of a group of 14 pieces dating to the 3rd century AD, all individualized secular portraits of high quality. The inscription on the medallion is written in the Alexandrian dialect of Greek and hence most likely depicts a family from Roman Egypt. The medallion has also been compared to other works of contemporaneous Roman-Egyptian artwork, such as the Fayum mummy portraits. It is thought that the tiny detail of pieces such as these can only have been achieved using lenses. The later glasses from the catacombs have a level of portraiture that is rudimentary, with features, hairstyles and clothes all following stereotypical styles.

Genre scenes
Roman genre scenes generally depict Romans at leisure and include gambling, music and sexual encounters. Some scenes depict gods and goddesses at leisure.

Triumphal paintings
From the 3rd century BC, a specific genre known as Triumphal Paintings appeared, as indicated by Pliny (XXXV, 22). These were paintings which showed triumphal entries after military victories, represented episodes from the war, and conquered regions and cities. Summary maps were drawn to highlight key points of the campaign. Josephus describes the painting executed on the occasion of Vespasian and Titus's sack of Jerusalem: "There was also wrought gold and ivory fastened about them all; and many resemblances of the war, and those in several ways, and variety of contrivances, affording a most lively portraiture of itself. For there was to be seen a happy country laid waste, and entire squadrons of enemies slain; while some of them ran away, and some were carried into captivity; with walls of great altitude and magnitude overthrown and ruined by machines; with the strongest fortifications taken, and the walls of most populous cities upon the tops of hills seized on, and an army pouring itself within the walls; as also every place full of slaughter, and supplications of the enemies, when they were no longer able to lift up their hands in way of opposition. Fire also sent upon temples was here represented, and houses overthrown, and falling upon their owners: rivers also, after they came out of a large and melancholy desert, ran down, not into a land cultivated, nor as drink for men, or for cattle, but through a land still on fire upon every side; for the Jews related that such a thing they had undergone during this war. Now the workmanship of these representations was so magnificent and lively in the construction of the things, that it exhibited what had been done to such as did not see it, as if they had been there really present. On the top of every one of these pageants was placed the commander of the city that was taken, and the manner wherein he was taken."

These paintings have disappeared, but they likely influenced the composition of the historical reliefs carved on military sarcophagi, the Arch of Titus, and Trajan's Column. This evidence underscores the significance of landscape painting, which sometimes tended towards being perspective plans.

Ranuccio also describes the oldest painting to be found in Rome, in a tomb on the Esquiline Hill:

"It describes a historical scene, on a clear background, painted in four superimposed sections. Several people are identified, such Marcus Fannius and Marcus Fabius. These are larger than the other figures ... In the second zone, to the left, is a city encircled with crenellated walls, in front of which is a large warrior equipped with an oval buckler and a feathered helmet; near him is a man in a short tunic, armed with a spear...Around these two are smaller soldiers in short tunics, armed with spears...In the lower zone a battle is taking place, where a warrior with oval buckler and a feathered helmet is shown larger than the others, whose weapons allow to assume that these are probably Samnites."

This episode is difficult to pinpoint. One of Ranuccio's hypotheses is that it refers to a victory of the consul Fabius Maximus Rullianus during the second war against Samnites in 326 BC. The presentation of the figures with sizes proportional to their importance is typically Roman, and finds itself in plebeian reliefs. This painting is in the infancy of triumphal painting, and would have been accomplished by the beginning of the 3rd century BC to decorate the tomb.

Sculpture
Early Roman art was influenced by the art of Greece and that of the neighbouring Etruscans, themselves greatly influenced by their Greek trading partners. An Etruscan speciality was near life size tomb effigies in terracotta, usually lying on top of a sarcophagus lid propped up on one elbow in the pose of a diner in that period. As the expanding Roman Republic began to conquer Greek territory, at first in Southern Italy and then the entire Hellenistic world except for the Parthian far east, official and patrician sculpture became largely an extension of the Hellenistic style, from which specifically Roman elements are hard to disentangle, especially as so much Greek sculpture survives only in copies of the Roman period. By the 2nd century BC, "most of the sculptors working in Rome" were Greek, often enslaved in conquests such as that of Corinth (146 BC), and sculptors continued to be mostly Greeks, often slaves, whose names are very rarely recorded. Vast numbers of Greek statues were imported to Rome, whether as booty or the result of extortion or commerce, and temples were often decorated with re-used Greek works.

A native Italian style can be seen in the tomb monuments of prosperous middle-class Romans, which very often featured portrait busts, and portraiture is arguably the main strength of Roman sculpture. There are no survivals from the tradition of masks of ancestors that were worn in processions at the funerals of the great families and otherwise displayed in the home, but many of the busts that survive must represent ancestral figures, perhaps from the large family tombs like the Tomb of the Scipios or the later mausolea outside the city. The famous bronze head supposedly of Lucius Junius Brutus is very variously dated, but taken as a very rare survival of Italic style under the Republic, in the preferred medium of bronze. Similarly stern and forceful heads are seen in the coins of the consuls, and in the Imperial period coins as well as busts sent around the Empire to be placed in the basilicas of provincial cities were the main visual form of imperial propaganda; even Londinium had a near-colossal statue of Nero, though far smaller than the 30-metre-high Colossus of Nero in Rome, now lost. The Tomb of Eurysaces the Baker, a successful freedman (c. 50-20 BC) has a frieze that is an unusually large example of the "plebeian" style. Imperial portraiture was initially Hellenized and highly idealized, as in the Blacas Cameo and other portraits of Augustus.

The Romans did not generally attempt to compete with free-standing Greek works of heroic exploits from history or mythology, but from early on produced historical works in relief, culminating in the great Roman triumphal columns with continuous narrative reliefs winding around them, of which those commemorating Trajan (113 AD) and Marcus Aurelius (by 193) survive in Rome, where the Ara Pacis ("Altar of Peace", 13 BC) represents the official Greco-Roman style at its most classical and refined, and the Sperlonga sculptures it at its most baroque. Some late Roman public sculptures developed a massive, simplified style that sometimes anticipates Soviet socialist realism. Among other major examples are the earlier re-used reliefs on the Arch of Constantine and the base of the Column of Antoninus Pius (161), Campana reliefs were cheaper pottery versions of marble reliefs and the taste for relief was from the imperial period expanded to the sarcophagus.

All forms of luxury small sculpture continued to be patronized, and quality could be extremely high, as in the silver Warren Cup, glass Lycurgus Cup, and large cameos like the Gemma Augustea, Gonzaga Cameo and the "Great Cameo of France". For a much wider section of the population, moulded relief decoration of pottery vessels and small figurines were produced in great quantity and often considerable quality.

After moving through a late 2nd century "baroque" phase, in the 3rd century, Roman art largely abandoned, or simply became unable to produce, sculpture in the classical tradition, a change whose causes remain much discussed. Even the most important imperial monuments now showed stumpy, large-eyed figures in a harsh frontal style, in simple compositions emphasizing power at the expense of grace. The contrast is famously illustrated in the Arch of Constantine of 315 in Rome, which combines sections in the new style with roundels in the earlier full Greco-Roman style taken from elsewhere, and the Four Tetrarchs (c. 305) from the new capital of Constantinople, now in Venice. Ernst Kitzinger found in both monuments the same "stubby proportions, angular movements, an ordering of parts through symmetry and repetition and a rendering of features and drapery folds through incisions rather than modelling... The hallmark of the style wherever it appears consists of an emphatic hardness, heaviness and angularity – in short, an almost complete rejection of the classical tradition".

This revolution in style shortly preceded the period in which Christianity was adopted by the Roman state and the great majority of the people, leading to the end of large religious sculpture, with large statues now only used for emperors, as in the famous fragments of a colossal acrolithic statue of Constantine, and the 4th or 5th century Colossus of Barletta. However rich Christians continued to commission reliefs for sarcophagi, as in the Sarcophagus of Junius Bassus, and very small sculpture, especially in ivory, was continued by Christians, building on the style of the consular diptych.

Traditional Roman sculpture is divided into five categories: portraiture, historical relief, funerary reliefs, sarcophagi, and copies of ancient Greek works. Contrary to the belief of early archaeologists, many of these sculptures were large polychrome terra-cotta images, such as the Apollo of Veii (Villa Givlia, Rome), but the painted surface of many of them has worn away with time.

Narrative reliefs
While Greek sculptors traditionally illustrated military exploits through the use of mythological allegory, the Romans used a more documentary style. Roman reliefs of battle scenes, like those on the Column of Trajan, were created for the glorification of Roman might, but also provide first-hand representation of military costumes and military equipment. Trajan's column records the various Dacian wars conducted by Trajan in what is modern day Romania. It is the foremost example of Roman historical relief and one of the great artistic treasures of the ancient world. This unprecedented achievement, over 650 foot of spiraling length, presents not just realistically rendered individuals (over 2,500 of them), but landscapes, animals, ships, and other elements in a continuous visual history – in effect an ancient precursor of a documentary movie. It survived destruction when it was adapted as a base for Christian sculpture. During the Christian era after 300 AD, the decoration of door panels and sarcophagi continued but full-sized sculpture died out and did not appear to be an important element in early churches.

Pottery and terracottas
The Romans inherited a tradition of art in a wide range of the so-called "minor arts" or decorative art. Most of these flourished most impressively at the luxury level, but large numbers of terracotta figurines, both religious and secular, continued to be produced cheaply, as well as some larger Campana reliefs in terracotta. Roman art did not use vase-painting in the way of the ancient Greeks, but vessels in Ancient Roman pottery were often stylishly decorated in moulded relief. Producers of the millions of small oil lamps sold seem to have relied on attractive decoration to beat competitors and every subject of Roman art except landscape and portraiture is found on them in miniature.

Glass
Luxury arts included fancy Roman glass in a great range of techniques, many smaller types of which were probably affordable to a good proportion of the Roman public. This was certainly not the case for the most extravagant types of glass, such as the cage cups or diatreta, of which the Lycurgus Cup in the British Museum is a near-unique figurative example in glass that changes colour when seen with light passing through it. The Augustan Portland Vase is the masterpiece of Roman cameo glass, and imitated the style of the large engraved gems (Blacas Cameo, Gemma Augustea, Great Cameo of France) and other hardstone carvings that were also most popular around this time.

Mosaic

Roman mosaic was a minor art, though often on a very large scale, until the very end of the period, when late-4th-century Christians began to use it for large religious images on walls in their new large churches; in earlier Roman art mosaic was mainly used for floors, curved ceilings, and inside and outside walls that were going to get wet. The famous copy of a Hellenistic painting in the Alexander Mosaic in Naples was originally placed in a floor in Pompeii; this is much higher quality work than most Roman mosaic, though very fine panels, often of still life subjects in small or micromosaic tesserae have also survived. The Romans distinguished between normal opus tessellatum with tesserae mostly over 4 mm across, which was laid down on site, and finer opus vermiculatum for small panels, which is thought to have been produced offsite in a workshop, and brought to the site as a finished panel. The latter was a Hellenistic genre which is found in Italy between about 100 BC and 100 AD. Most signed mosaics have Greek names, suggesting the artists remained mostly Greek, though probably often slaves trained up in workshops. The late 2nd century BC Nile mosaic of Palestrina is a very large example of the popular genre of Nilotic landscape, while the 4th century Gladiator Mosaic in Rome shows several large figures in combat. Orpheus mosaics, often very large, were another favourite subject for villas, with several ferocious animals tamed by Orpheus's playing music. In the transition to Byzantine art, hunting scenes tended to take over large animal scenes.

Metalwork
Metalwork was highly developed, and clearly an essential part of the homes of the rich, who dined off silver, while often drinking from glass, and had elaborate cast fittings on their furniture, jewellery, and small figurines. A number of important hoards found in the last 200 years, mostly from the more violent edges of the late empire, have given us a much clearer idea of Roman silver plate. The Mildenhall Treasure and Hoxne Hoard are both from East Anglia in England. There are few survivals of upmarket ancient Roman furniture, but these show refined and elegant design and execution.

Coins and medals
Few Roman coins reach the artistic peaks of the best Greek coins, but they survive in vast numbers and their iconography and inscriptions form a crucial source for the study of Roman history, and the development of imperial iconography, as well as containing many fine examples of portraiture. They penetrated to the rural population of the whole Empire and beyond, with barbarians on the fringes of the Empire making their own copies. In the Empire medallions in precious metals began to be produced in small editions as imperial gifts, which are similar to coins, though larger and usually finer in execution. Images in coins initially followed Greek styles, with gods and symbols, but in the death throes of the Republic first Pompey and then Julius Caesar appeared on coins, and portraits of the emperor or members of his family became standard on imperial coinage. The inscriptions were used for propaganda, and in the later Empire the army joined the emperor as the beneficiary.

Architecture
It was in the area of architecture that Roman art produced its greatest innovations. Because the Roman Empire extended over so great of an area and included so many urbanized areas, Roman engineers developed methods for citybuilding on a grand scale, including the use of concrete. Massive buildings like the Pantheon and the Colosseum could never have been constructed with previous materials and methods. Though concrete had been invented a thousand years earlier in the Near East, the Romans extended its use from fortifications to their most impressive buildings and monuments, capitalizing on the material's strength and low cost. The concrete core was covered with a plaster, brick, stone, or marble veneer, and decorative polychrome and gold-gilded sculpture was often added to produce a dazzling effect of power and wealth.

Because of these methods, Roman architecture is legendary for the durability of its construction; with many buildings still standing, and some still in use, mostly buildings converted to churches during the Christian era. Many ruins, however, have been stripped of their marble veneer and are left with their concrete core exposed, thus appearing somewhat reduced in size and grandeur from their original appearance, such as with the Basilica of Constantine.

During the Republican era, Roman architecture combined Greek and Etruscan elements, and produced innovations such as the round temple and the curved arch. As Roman power grew in the early empire, the first emperors inaugurated wholesale leveling of slums to build grand palaces on the Palatine Hill and nearby areas, which required advances in engineering methods and large scale design. Roman buildings were then built in the commercial, political, and social grouping known as a forum, that of Julius Caesar being the first and several added later, with the Forum Romanum being the most famous. The greatest arena in the Roman world, the Colosseum, was completed around 80 AD at the far end of that forum. It held over 50,000 spectators, had retractable fabric coverings for shade, and could stage massive spectacles including huge gladiatorial contests and mock naval battles. This masterpiece of Roman architecture epitomizes Roman engineering efficiency and incorporates all three architectural orders – Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian. Less celebrated but just as important if not more so for most Roman citizens, was the five-story insula or city block, the Roman equivalent of an apartment building, which housed tens of thousands of Romans.

It was during the reign of Trajan (98–117 AD) and Hadrian (117–138 AD) that the Roman Empire reached its greatest extent and that Rome itself was at the peak of its artistic glory – achieved through massive building programs of monuments, meeting houses, gardens, aqueducts, baths, palaces, pavilions, sarcophagi, and temples. The Roman use of the arch, the use of concrete building methods, the use of the dome all permitted construction of vaulted ceilings and enabled the building of these public spaces and complexes, including the palaces, public baths and basilicas of the "Golden Age" of the empire. Outstanding examples of dome construction include the Pantheon, the Baths of Diocletian, and the Baths of Caracalla. The Pantheon (dedicated to all the planetary gods) is the best preserved temple of ancient times with an intact ceiling featuring an open "eye" in the center. The height of the ceiling exactly equals the interior radius of the building, creating a hemispherical enclosure. These grand buildings later served as inspirational models for architects of the Italian Renaissance, such as Brunelleschi. By the age of Constantine (306-337 AD), the last great building programs in Rome took place, including the erection of the Arch of Constantine built near the Colosseum, which recycled some stone work from the forum nearby, to produce an eclectic mix of styles.

Roman aqueducts, also based on the arch, were commonplace in the empire and essential transporters of water to large urban areas. Their standing masonry remains are especially impressive, such as the Pont du Gard (featuring three tiers of arches) and the aqueduct of Segovia, serving as mute testimony to their quality of their design and construction.

title: Roman art


text: Category:Arizona Diamondbacks players

title: Category:Arizona Diamondbacks players


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Tog

Tog(s) or TOG(s) may refer to:
 * ACM Transactions on Graphics, a scientific journal covering computer graphics
 * Bruce Tognazzini's nickname
 * Clothing, sometimes referred to as "togs"
 * Tog, short for "togman", a cloak or loose coat
 * Swimming togs, a swimsuit, sometimes shortened to "togs"
 * TOG (hackerspace), a hackerspace in Dublin, Ireland
 * Tog (unit) of thermal insulation
 * TOG1 and TOG II*, WWII UK tank prototypes
 * TOGs, "Terry's Old Geezers/Gals", listeners of a UK radio show
 * TOG, the List of IOC country codes (IOC code) of Togo
 * TOG superfamily of proteins.
 * Tonga (Nyasa) language, ISO 639-2 code
 * Turn Out Gear

title: Tog


text: Category:Florida Marlins players

title: Category:Florida Marlins players


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László Mérő

László Mérő (born Budapest, 11 December 1949) is a Hungarian research psychologist and popular science author. He has Jewish ancestry. He is a lecturer at the Experimental Psychology Department of Eötvös Loránd University and at the business school Kürt Academy. He is also a founder and leader of a software company producing computer games. One of his projects is a computer game he is developing with Ernő Rubik, the inventor of the Rubik's Cube. He is also the leader of the Hungarian team at the World Puzzle Championship. His son is Csaba Mérő, an 8-time Hungarian go champion. His daughter, Vera Mérő, is a human rights activist and author.

He represented Hungary in the Tenth International Mathematical Olympiad held in Moscow in 1968, and was awarded a Bronze Medal. He graduated from Eötvös Loránd University with a degree in Mathematics in 1974. He spent the next ten years at the Computer and Automation Institute of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences, working on various pattern recognition and artificial intelligence projects. Recognizing the limitations of artificial intelligence, he began investigating human cognition. Since 1984 he has been at the Experimental Psychology Department of Eötvös Loránd University, studying cognitive psychology and psychophysics.

He has written two books, Ways of Thinking (newer translation: Habits of Mind) and Moral Calculations, that aroused the interest of the wider, non-professional public. His books analyze the quasi-rational mechanisms of people and the nature of rationality in general, undermining some common beliefs about our minds' functioning.

He has been publishing in Magyar Narancs a series titled Are you the dance instructor here? (The title refers to a joke: A client enters the dancing school and asks a well-dressed man: "Are you the dance instructor here?" "Fuck no, I'm the etiquette instructor!") Several of these essays were collected in a book in 2005 (see below).
 * Picture

Volumes published in English

 * Ways of Thinking : The Limits of Rational Thought and Artificial Intelligence (August/October 1990, hardcover: ISBN 981-02-0266-0, paperback: ISBN 981-02-0267-9)
 * A revised (rewritten) edition of the former:
 * Habits of Mind : The Power and Limits of Rational Thought (February 2002, ISBN 0-387-95077-X)

 * Moral Calculations : Game Theory, Logic and Human Frailty (July 1998, ISBN 0-387-98419-4)

A lesser known book of his is Rubik's Puzzles : The Ultimate Brain Teaser Book (March 2000, ISBN 1-85868-790-X).

Other language editions
His books (originally written in Hungarian) have been published in English, German, French, Italian, Spanish, and Croatian. The Moral Calculations was awarded the second prize as the Scientific Book of the Year in Germany in 1999.

 * Ways of Thinking; Habits of Mind – Észjárások (Hungarian); Die Grenzen der Vernunft (German)
 * Moral Calculations – Mindenki másképp egyforma (Hungarian); Optimal entschieden?; Die Logik der Unvernunft (German); Les aléas de la raison (French); Calcoli morali (Italian); Los azares de la razón (Spanish)
 * Az élő pénz ("The living money", ISBN 963-8453-84-2) –, only in Hungarian
 * Maga itt a tánctanár? – Pszichológia, moralitás, játék és tudomány ("Are You the Dance Instructor Here? – Psychology, morality, game and science", ISBN 963-8453-97-4) – a collection of articles;, only in Hungarian
 * A csodák logikája – A kiszámíthatatlan tudománya ("Logic of Miracles: Making Sense of Rare, Really Rare, and Impossibly Rare Events", ISBN 978-0300224153) – Mathematical explanation of the recent phenomena of highly improbable events occurring in a large and turbulent world.

title: László Mérő


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Pamphill

Pamphill is a village in south-east Dorset, England, just outside Wimborne Minster, four miles north of Poole. The village has a population of 704 (2001).

Church of St Stephen
In its current form, the Parish church of St Stephen dates from 1908, when it was designed by the architect Charles Ponting to serve the Bankes family of Dorset as their place of worship. The village of Pamphill was in their estate at this time.

Pamphill First School
First built in 1695, the school was only the central part of the building, meaning a very low capacity, with adjoining almshouses on either side. It was built through the will of Roger Gillingham of the Middle Temple, who left property in Bedfordshire, Hackney and Stepney to trustees, in assurance that they would raise £400 for a close next to Pamphill Green. It has continued over the years with the almshouses becoming classrooms and, closer to now, building work to make more room. An inscription on the outside of the school reads: To God & ye poor

The pious & charitable gift of

ROGER GILLINGHAM

of the Middle Temple, London, Esq.

This free writing school & ye almshouse adjoining

Were built by ALDRICH SWAN clerk & Rector

of Kington Magna in this county & one of the

Ministers of the parish & Pursuant to the Gift

of Trust of the said Roger Gillingham

Ao Doi 1698

The Vine Inn
The Vine Inn is a public house at Vine Hill, that is on the Campaign for Real Ale's National Inventory of Historic Pub Interiors. It was a bakery until about 1900, when it was refitted as a pub. It is owned by the National Trust.

title: Pamphill


text: Category:Florida Marlins field personnel


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Talk:Lilith (novel)

Untitled
I clarified the origins of Lilith; old version could have been misinterpreted as characterising Jewish religious texts as mythology, in contrast to the Bible. They're all mythology of course but should be treated equally. - Anon. User:195.92.67.69 15:49, 17 October 2004
 * OK, so far, but unfortunately in your clarification you introduced the error of implying that Lilith is a character mentioned in the Bible, which she is not. --Blainster 17:38, 18 July 2005 (UTC)

The article states that the Little Ones "never grow up", and yet "Vane's mission is to help the Little Ones to grow up". Is this a mistake in the article text, or is there some other way to reconcile the apparent discrepancy? --Blainster 17:38, 18 July 2005 (UTC)

It is right; but you have to read the book to understand this.

Ballantine Adult Fantasy
Must this sentence be included: "Its importance was recognized in its later revival in paperback by Ballantine Books as the fifth volume of the celebrated Ballantine Adult Fantasy series in September, 1969." I have noticed that this same sentence is used in every article about a book in that series. This simply cannot be true for all of them. With the steadily incresing popularity of Chesterton, Lewis, and Tollkin, the importance of MacDonald's works have never been 'forgotten', which makes the inclusion of this sentence appear to be a mere advertisement. I deleted it once, but it was replaced. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 155.245.57.35 (talk) 22:04, 13 April 2008 (UTC)
 * I think the point of the sentence is that being published as part of the Ballantine Adult Fantasy series denotes importance. It was essentially a series of classic fantasy reprints, and therefore the works selected by the editor for the series are classics.    This would hold true for all the works the editor selected.  Demonstrating Lilith's importance in this way doesn't suggest that MacDonald's works would have forgotten without the BAF reprint, it is merely another demonstration of that importance.  I'm also not sure that I would classify the sentence as an advertisement.  I'm not sure what the point would be of advertising a series which which was published over 30 years ago and is not currently in print.  I would support adding the sentence back, but I'll wait and see if anyone else wants to weigh in.--Rtrace (talk) 00:56, 14 April 2008 (UTC)
 * As the person who probably put in most of those notices, I naturally agree. I in fact used the Ballantine Adult Fantasy series article as a springboard for the creation of many of the articles on the works included in it. The BAFS was a landmark series in the publication of modern fantasy, and the inclusion of any work in it is noteworthy. Therefore, I have put the sentence back. BPK (talk) 03:32, 14 April 2008 (UTC)

I am the person who took the sentence out. First of all, at the very least the phrase 'Its importance was recognized in' is overstrong. The implication is that its importance is recognized in its apperence in the Ballantine collection...and nowhere else, or for the first time. I think that the implication of this is that it had been 'forgotten' by the public until its republication. This indeed might have been the case for many of the works in the Ballantine collection, but certainly not for MacDonald. Seconldly, I think it is clear that fans of a certain artistic entity (be it book, publisher, or genre) are often disposed to promote that entity and I think that this promotion is fairly charicterized as 'adverstisement'. Moreover, if it is the case that being (re)published in the Ballantine Adult Fantasy series denotes importance then it must also be the case that being included in other collections, of greater merit, also denotes importance. Yet by far the vast majority of the books included in Encyclopedia Britanica Inc.'s Great Books of the Western World, Harvard's Harvard Classics, and Harold Bloom's The Western Canon all leave unmentioned their apperence in these noteworthy collections. This fact alone seems to me to justify the removal of the sentence. I almost never edit Wikipedia pages (think this might be the second one I have done) and I know little about how the very process of discussion in which I am currently partaking really works. I am not adament about the removal of the sentence, but I do think that my points are correct. It strikes me as inappropreate to tie a book to one publication in this way. Particularly when the book pre-existed the publication in question by 73 years, has seen many other publications before and since, is currently available in several other publications, and now resides in the public domain.
 * I just don't get the same implication from the phrase "Its importance was recognized in its later revival..." that you do. I just don't think that mentioning one example of the novel's importance implies there were no other such examples.  Certainly, if there are other examples, they could (and should) be added to the article.  As to the other classic reprint series you mention, I would enjoy seeing links to series from the individual articles and in fact it has been done for a few of the volumes (e.g. Candide, Almagest, On Old Age and The Cenci).  The fact that no editor has chosen to back link for all the articles in the series you mention doesn't mean that it shouldn't be done.  I had previously assumed that your use of the term "advertisement" was along the lines of types of articles mentioned in WP:ADS, which is clearly not what is being done here.  As far as promoting the BAF article by linking the individual volumes, I don't really see a problem with that.  It is not as if links to the BAF article are being placed in an article to which it has no relation.  Lastly, I'm not even certain that Lilith was in print when Ballantine reprinted it in 1969.  There was not a printing for 5 years before the BAF reprint.  The Donald H. Tuck Encyclopedia of Science Fiction and Fantasy which covers through 1968 lists UK printings in 1895, 1896 and 1924.  There were US printings 1895, 1896 and 1925 as a standalone novel, and in 1954 and 1964 as part of an omnibus.  Worldcat appears to agree with Tuck.--Rtrace (talk) 22:12, 19 April 2008 (UTC)

I commend your efforts in uncoving the printing history. I will look into this myself. I stand by my claims about the implications of this sentence, but at this point I would only be repeating arguments that I have already made, and I suppose an impasse goes to the regular contributers and those with the governing authority of these articles. I think your note about the literary articles which do cite their appearnce in certain collections only affirms my claim about such references. Note that the articles on the works which you cited are really the lesser known of the works in the collections (with the possible exception of Candide). These works are simply not recognizeable to the average reader, ergo the connection to an appearence in a collection helps provide some context. Note that the major achors of such a collection (The Illiad, The Odyssey, The Annied, Hamlet, War and Peace, etc.) don't bother to cite their apperence in such collections. Nor should they, for what would be added to the prestege of The Odyssey if it's article cited each collecton (of merit) in which it had appeared? So at the very least it seems like a matter of appropreate weighting (which was the point of my innitial post on this comment section). If the book stands alone as a work, then there is no need to reference an appearence in such a collection; if it does not then such a citation is helpful. But the important thing to notice here is that such a citation makes the work subordinate to the collection. Yet this is typically getting things backwards. The Great Books series is not an inherently great entity which then bestowes greatness on the books which it chooses to collect, rather the books it collects are great and therefore collected. That's what makes the Great Books series great. So even though there are occasions where I think referenceing a work's appearence in a collection (of merit) might provide helpful historical/cultural context, I am, in general, opposed to such a practice which debases books in favor of collections, and authors in favor of publishers. FURTHER NOTE: I just looked at the articles which you pointed out cited the works appearance in a collection, and it is completely clear that both the works themselves and the articles demand such a note in a way that the article on Lilith simply does not. The Candide article includes its appearance in the Great Books collection in a paragraph which is aimed at listing laudatory comments about the book. It names Candide's place in the Great Books collection along side several other 'best of' lists. While I object to this practice too, it is at least different in that it is praising the book and not making it subservient to a particular collection. An Old Age and The Cencil are even clearer cases, both works are lesser known and demand such context, and both articles are single paragraph snippets about the book (probably not read by the author of the article). The article themselves were probably only prompted by someone scanning down the library shelf of collections mentioned. I would support the removal of such references should the articles be expanded (say to the extent of the Lilith article). The Almagest is clearly a different case. That article simply references its appearance as a note at the end of the article with the heading 'Modern Editions'. This simply tells the reader where to find a copy of an otherwise hard to find text. If this is the point of the sentence in the Lilith article then I would support it being moved to the end of the article, given the status of a bibliographic reference and listed alongside other editions. As it stands none of the examples you provided: (i) do what the sentence in the Lilith article does, (ii) do what you say that the sentence in the Lilith article should do, (iii) are entirely appropriate to the article at hand or any such article. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 155.245.57.35 (talk) 16:05, 24 April 2008 (UTC)

Fair use rationale for Image:LilithNovel.jpg
Image:LilithNovel.jpg is being used on this article. I notice the image page specifies that the image is being used under fair use but there is no explanation or rationale as to why its use in this Wikipedia article constitutes fair use. In addition to the boilerplate fair use template, you must also write out on the image description page a specific explanation or rationale for why using this image in each article is consistent with fair use.

Please go to the image description page and edit it to include a fair use rationale. Using one of the templates at Fair use rationale guideline is an easy way to ensure that your image is in compliance with Wikipedia policy, but remember that you must complete the template. Do not simply insert a blank template on an image page.

If there is other fair use media, consider checking that you have specified the fair use rationale on the other images used on this page. Note that any fair use images lacking such an explanation can be deleted one week after being tagged, as described on criteria for speedy deletion. If you have any questions please ask them at the Media copyright questions page. Thank you.

BetacommandBot (talk) 23:39, 13 February 2008 (UTC)

This article has gotten steadily worse
The major revision of the plot summary which was instituted on May 17, 2006, the bulk of which remains to this day, was absolutely abysmal. I just finished reading the book and the plot summary prior to that time was much better. I would like to revert all edits back to that point but I have a feeling all the editors since that time would be incensed.Spiritquest (talk) 15:56, 1 June 2010 (UTC)

title: Talk:Lilith (novel)


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John O'Brien (novelist)

John O'Brien (May 21, 1960 – April 10, 1994) was an American author. His first novel, Leaving Las Vegas, was published in 1990 by Watermark Press and made into a film of the same name in 1995.

Life and career
O'Brien was born in Oxford, Ohio, where his parents, Bill and Judy O'Brien, were both students at Miami University. He was the brother of writer Erin O'Brien. John grew up in Brecksville and Lakewood, Ohio, and graduated from Lakewood High School in 1978. He married Lisa Kirkwood in 1979, and the couple moved to Los Angeles, California, in 1982. They divorced in 1992, at his initiative. His first novel, Leaving Las Vegas, is dedicated to her.

Through a friend of his ex-wife, O'Brien got a gig writing Episode 37 of the animated series Rugrats, "Toys in the Attic", which premiered in 1992 under his only known pseudonym, Carroll Mine. According to his sister, Erin, he was disgusted with editorial changes made to his script.

Death
O'Brien died from suicide at his Beverly Hills apartment on April 10, 1994, two weeks after learning that his novel, Leaving Las Vegas, was to be adapted into a film. His father says that the novel was his suicide note. Two more of his novels were published posthumously: Stripper Lessons (Grove Press, 1997) and The Assault on Tony's (Grove Press, 1996), both of which had been left unfinished at the time of his death and were completed by his sister, Erin. A third manuscript, Better, was published by Akashic Press in 2009.

title: John O'Brien (novelist)


text: Category:Kansas City Royals players

title: Category:Kansas City Royals players


text: Category:Kansas City Royals field personnel


text:
Flor

Flor (Spanish and Portuguese for flower) in winemaking, is a film of yeast on the surface of wine, important in the manufacture of some styles of sherry. The flor is formed naturally under certain winemaking conditions, from indigenous yeasts found in the region of Andalucía in southern Spain. Normally in winemaking, it is essential to keep young wines away from exposure to air by sealing them in airtight barrels, to avoid contamination by bacteria and yeasts that tend to spoil it. However, in the manufacture of sherries, the slightly porous oak barrels are deliberately filled only about five-sixths full with the young wine, leaving "the space of two fists" empty to allow the flor yeast to take form and the bung is not completely sealed. The flor favors cooler climates and higher humidity, so the sherries produced in the coastal Sanlúcar de Barrameda and El Puerto de Santa María have a thicker cap of flor than those produced inland in Jerez. The yeast gives the resulting sherry its distinctive fresh taste, with residual flavors of fresh bread. Depending on the development of the wine, it may be aged entirely under the veil of flor to produce a fino or manzanilla sherry, or it may be fortified to limit the growth of flor and undergo oxidative aging to produce an amontillado or oloroso sherry.

During the fermentation phase of sherry production, the flor yeast works anaerobically, converting sugar into ethanol. When all the sugar has been consumed, the physiology of the yeast changes to where it begins an aerobic process of breaking down and converting the acids into other compounds such as acetaldehyde. A waxy coating appears on the cells' exterior, causing the yeast to float to the surface and form a protective "blanket" thick enough to shield the wine from oxygen. This process drastically lowers the acidity of the wine and makes sherry one of the most aldehydic wines in the world. Studies have shown that for the flor to thrive, the wine must stay in a narrow alcohol range of 14.5% to 16% ABV. Below 14.5% the yeast will not form its protective cap, and so the wine will oxidize to the point of becoming vinegar. Above 16% the flor cannot survive, and so the wine essentially becomes an oloroso.

Other regions
A film of yeast similar to flor is also used in the production of vin jaune in the Jura wine region in eastern France. The French term used for this yeast film is voile, meaning "veil".

A similar yeast to flor is used in the production of Szamorodni szaraz in the Tokaj wine region in northeastern Hungary and southeastern Slovakia. The Hungarian name for this yeast is hártya which means film.

Natural yeast film was traditionally used in Gose beer to seal bottles, instead of caps or corks.

Flor is also present in Vernaccia di Oristano D.O.C. a wine from the italian region of Sardinia and Malvasia di Bosa.

title: Flor


text:
User talk:Harume~enwiki

Map license
Thanks for the compliment. The GFDL basically allows you to reuse the map (and modify the map) however you wish, but requires two basic things: firstly, there needs to be credit given to whoever made it, and secondly, the map must remain under the GFDL, including any modifications you make to it. So basically, all you'd need to do is: If that's done, I don't think there would be any problems with you using the map. (Just out of interest, what sort of project would it be used for?) -- Vardion 15:44, 17 Oct 2004 (UTC)
 * Have a note saying where the map came from (just mentioning Wikipedia would do)
 * Have a note saying that the map (and anything you create based on the map) is under the GFDL.

Your account will be renamed
Hello,

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Renamed
 This account has been renamed as part of single-user login finalisation. If you own this account you can |log in using your previous username and password for more information. If you do not like this account's new name, you can choose your own using this form after logging in: . -- Keegan (WMF) (talk) 13:38, 22 April 2015 (UTC)

title: User talk:Harume~enwiki


text:
La Massana

La Massana (originally La Maçana) is one of the seven parishes of the Principality of Andorra. It is located in the northwest of the country. La Massana is also the name of the main town of the parish. The name Massana derives from the Latin name mattianam for a variety of apple. Other settlements in the parish are Pal, Arinsal, Erts, Sispony, Anyós, L'Aldosa de la Massana, Puiol del Pui, Escàs, Els Plans, Mas de Ribafeta, Xixerella and Pui.

The parish is extremely mountainous and contains the highest mountain in Andorra, Coma Pedrosa (2942 m). Its western side limits with Tor, Pallars municipal term, in the border with Spain.

Physical geography
The parish has an area of 65 km2, and adjoins the neighbouring parishes of Ordino, Encamp, Escaldes-Engordany, and Andorra la Vella, and also France (Occitanie) and Spain (Catalonia). There is 262 ha of agricultural land, 14% of the total agricultural land in Andorra.

The main villages are La Massana (the capital city itself), Pal, Arinsal, Anyós, Erts, Sispony, L'Aldosa, and Escàs. Other settlements are Xixerella, Mas de Ribafeta, El Pui, and Puiol del Piu.

Coma Pedrosa in the north-west of the parish is the highest point in the Principality of Andorra at 2942 m, and has panoramic views of the Pyrenees. The mountain is also the site of the Coma Pedrosa Nature Reserve. It is covered by heavy snowfalls in winter, and usually retains some snow cover in summer. The four next-highest peaks are Medacorba (2914 m), Sanfonts (2888 m), Pla de l'Estany (2859 m), and Racofred (2837 m). The town of La Massana has an average elevation of 1240 m above sea-level. There are four lakes: Forcats, Montmantell, Estany Negre, and Les Truites Lake.

The parish has three main rivers. The Valira del Nord, which begins at the Llac de Tristaina, is a 14 km long tributary of the Gran Valira. There are also the Pal and the Montaner.

The mountains have rough pastures with numerous native species of Pyrenean wildflowers, and extensive forests of pines, firs, birches, wild cherries, and oaks.

Climate
The average annual temperature of La Massana town is 8 C. Across the whole parish, the climate varies greatly with elevation. Regions above the Alpine tree line at about 2100–2400 m have an alpine climate and alpine tundra. The valleys have a milder climate that is essentially temperate.

Tourism
The main industry is tourism and the parish is a major tourism destination. In winter, the main activities are skiing, snowboarding, and ski biking. The main ski resort, Vallnord, includes the Arinsal and Pal sectors, which jointly have 89 km of runs ranging in altitude from 2600 m to 1550 m. In summer, the main activities are hiking, climbing, mountain biking, 4x4 trails, and canyoning.

Agriculture
Agricultural land amounting to 262 ha is used for growing tobacco, vegetables (mainly potatoes), and cereals. There are rough pastures on the higher slopes which are used for raising dairy cattle and also for keeping horses used in trekking holidays.

Construction and real estate
The construction industry and real estate have also been significant sectors of the economy.

Sights and culture
There are two museums: Casa Rull Ethnographic Museum in Sispony, and Farga Rossell, a forge built in the mid-19th century which has demonstrations of iron working.

The parish is host to a number of fiestas and other public celebrations. There are the festa patronale on 17 November, the festa major on 15 August, and the Rosary fete on the second Sunday of July. A fiesta is also held at the end of June or beginning of July, depending on the weather, to mark the consecration of the livestock and pastures.

Transport
The transport infrastructure consists of roads, road tunnels, gondola lifts, and two heliports. There are no railways, ports, airports, or navigable waterways.

Buses
There are regular bus services throughout the rural and metropolitan areas of the parish. There are services to most destinations inside Andorra and several long-distance services to destinations outside Andorra such as Barcelona and Toulouse.

Road infrastructure
The parish is linked to the neighbouring parish of Ordino by the CG-3 main road, and to the capital, Andorra La Vella, by the CG-3/CG-4 main road.

There are two road tunnels along the route of the CG-3/CG-4: the Pont Pla Tunnel, a 1.3 km long tunnel built in 2006, and the Sant Antoni Tunnel, a 280 m long tunnel built in 2003. The Pont Pla Tunnel has been designated the best and safest tunnel in Europe by the European Tunnels Assessment Programme (EuroTAP).

The parish's road network is being upgraded in a multimillion-euro programme involving new tunnel construction, road widening, improved sign-posting, new bicycle lanes, and additional safety measures such as crash barriers and signal-controlled pedestrian crossings.

The Dos Valires Tunnel, a road tunnel between Anyós and Encamp, was completed in 2012, cutting the expected journey times from the current 30–45 minutes to 5 minutes.

Heliports
There are two heliports in the area — one in La Massana town (the Heliport Terra Guindaldes) and one in Arinsal, both providing commercial helicopter services. In addition, there is a heliport in the capital, Andorra la Vella Heliport. There are no scheduled passenger flights to these heliports, but it is possible to book taxi flights from Barcelona, Lleida, Perpignan, or Toulouse airports for fixed prices. There is no airport in Andorra. The nearest one is Andorra–La Seu d'Urgell Airport in Spain around 12 km from the border.

Gondola lifts
There is a gondola lift linking the town of La Massana to Vallnord (Pal-Arinsal sector ski station); it runs throughout the year. There are further gondola lifts within the ski resorts themselves.

Notable people

 * Siegfried Grabner (born 1975, in Waiern, Carinthia, Austria) is an Austrian professional snowboarder, competed in the 2006 Winter Olympics. He now lives in La Massana.
 * Josep Gómes (born 3 December 1985 in La Massana) international footballer who plays as a goalkeeper.
 * Philippe Shangti (born 1983 in Toulouse, France) is a contemporary artist who lives and works in La Massana. He represent the Principality of Andorra at the 58th Venice Biennale with his project "The Future is Now".
 * Maria Ubach i Font (born 14 June 1973 in La Massana), current Minister of Foreign Affairs of Andorra.
 * Roger Vidosa (born 1984 in La Massana) alpine skier, he competed at the 2006 Winter Olympics and at the 2010 Winter Olympics.

title: La Massana