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Economy of Africa

The economy of Africa consists of the trade, industry, agriculture, and human resources of the continent. , approximately 1.3 billion people were living in 53 countries in Africa. Africa is a resource-rich continent. Recent growth has been due to growth in sales, commodities, services, and manufacturing. West Africa, East Africa, Central Africa and Southern Africa in particular, are expected to reach a combined GDP of $29 trillion by 2050.

In March 2013, Africa was identified as the world's poorest inhabited continent; however, the World Bank expects that most African countries will reach "middle income" status (defined as at least US$1,025 per person a year) by 2025 if current growth rates continue. There are a number of reasons for Africa's poor economy: historically, even though Africa had a number of empires trading with many parts of the world, many people lived in rural societies; in addition, European colonization and the later Cold War created political, economic and social instability.

However,, Africa was the world's fastest-growing continent at 5.6% a year, and GDP is expected to rise by an average of over 6% a year between 2013 and 2023. In 2017, the African Development Bank reported Africa to be the world's second-fastest growing economy, and estimates that average growth will rebound to 3.4% in 2017, while growth increased to 4.2% in 2018. Growth has been present throughout the continent, with over one-third of African countries posting 6% or higher growth rates, and another 40% growing between 4% and 6% per year. Several international business observers have also named Africa as the future economic growth engine of the world.

History
For millennia, Africa's economy has been diverse, driven by extensive trade routes that developed between cities and kingdoms. Some trade routes were overland, some involved navigating rivers, still others developed around port cities. Large African empires became wealthy due to their trade networks, for example Ancient Egypt, Nubia, Mali, Ashanti, the Oyo Empire and Ancient Carthage . Some parts of Africa had close trade relationships with Arab kingdoms, and by the time of the Ottoman Empire, Africans had begun converting to Islam in large numbers. This development, along with the economic potential in finding a trade route to the Indian Ocean, brought the Portuguese to sub-Saharan Africa as an imperial force. Colonial interests created new industries to feed European appetites for goods such as palm oil, rubber, cotton, precious metals, spices, cash crops other goods, and integrated especially the coastal areas with the Atlantic economy.

A significant factor on economic development was the gain of human capital by the elite. Between the 14th and 20th century, it can be observed that in regions with more elite violence and hence higher chances to die at a younger age the elite did not invest much in education. Therefore, their numeracy (as a measure of human capital) tends to be lower than in less safe countries and vice versa. This can explain the difference in economic development between the African regions. •

20th century upheaval
Following the independence of African countries during the 20th century, economic, political and social upheaval consumed much of the continent. An economic rebound among some countries has been evident in recent years, however.

The dawn of the African economic boom (which is in place since the 2000s) has been compared to the Chinese economic boom that had emerged in Asia since late 1970s. In 2013, Africa was home to seven of the world's fastest-growing economies.

As of 2018, Nigeria is the biggest economy in Africa by nominal GDP, followed by South Africa; in terms of PPP, Egypt is second biggest after Nigeria. Equatorial Guinea has Africa's highest GDP per capita. Oil-rich countries such as Algeria, Libya and Gabon, and mineral-rich Botswana have emerged among the top economies since the 21st century, while Zimbabwe and the Democratic Republic of Congo are potentially among the world's richest nations by natural resources, but have sunk into the list of the world's poorest nations due to pervasive political corruption, warfare, and emigration. Botswana stands out for its sustained strong and stable growth since independence.

Current conditions
The United Nations predicts Africa's economic growth will reach 3.5% in 2018 and 3.7% in 2019. As of 2007, growth in Africa had surpassed that of East Asia. Data suggest parts of the continent are now experiencing fast growth, thanks to their resources and increasing political stability and 'has steadily increased levels of peacefulness since 2007'. The World Bank reports the economy of Sub-Saharan African countries grew at rates that match or surpass global rates. According to the United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs, the improvement in the region's aggregate growth is largely attributable to a recovery in Egypt, Nigeria and South Africa, three of Africa's largest economies.

Sub-Saharan Africa was severely harmed when government revenue declined from 22% of GDP in 2011 to 17% in 2021. 15 African nations hold significant debt risk, and 7 are currently in financial crisis according to the IMF. The region went on to receive IMF Special Drawing Rights of $23 billion in 2021 to assist critical public spending.

The economies of the fastest growing African nations experienced growth significantly above the global average rates. The top nations in 2007 include Mauritania with growth at 19.8%, Angola at 17.6%, Sudan at 9.6%, Mozambique at 7.9% and Malawi at 7.8%. Other fast growers include Rwanda, Mozambique, Chad, Niger, Burkina Faso, Ethiopia. Nonetheless, growth has been dismal, negative or sluggish in many parts of Africa including Zimbabwe, the Democratic Republic of the Congo, the Republic of the Congo and Burundi. Many international agencies are increasingly interested in investing in emerging African economies, especially as Africa continues to maintain high economic growth despite current global economic recession. The rate of return on investment in Africa is currently the highest in the developing world.

Debt relief is being addressed by some international institutions in the interests of supporting economic development in Africa. In 1996, the UN sponsored the Heavily Indebted Poor Countries (HIPC) initiative, subsequently taken up by the IMF, World Bank and the African Development Fund (AfDF) in the form of the Multilateral Debt Relief Initiative (MDRI). As of 2013, the initiative has given partial debt relief to 30 African countries.

In early 2021, the European Investment Bank, with the help of the Making Finance Work for Africa Partnership (MFW4A), surveyed 78 banks in Sub-Saharan Africa for the EIB Banking in Africa study. The banks that took part control nearly 30% of the continent's assets. Almost two-thirds of Banks surveyed tightened lending rules, but more than 80% expanded their use of restructuring or loan moratoriums. Few banks were required to modify their employee levels, while slightly under one-third adjusted their prices. Approximately half of the answering banks had employee guarantees, the majority of which came from the central bank, the government, or an international financial institution. Fiscal stimulus packages in African countries through to mid-2020 amounted to roughly 1–2% of GDP, with monetary stimulus amounting to about 2% of GDP. This is close to the IMF's global average for low-income developing nations, which is around 2% of 2020 GDP over a one-year period from the start of the COVID-19 pandemic. At the same time, developing markets adopted a package worth around 4% of GDP, whereas advanced countries executed a package worth approximately 16% of GDP. As African nations struggled to address the health and economic repercussions of the pandemic, the average fiscal deficit throughout Africa increased from 5% of GDP in 2019 to over 8% in 2020. Due to a lack of fiscal headroom, the deficit resulted in increasing borrowing, which African countries have less capacity to absorb than other developed economies.

Northern and Southern African countries have taken the most total measures to address the financial sector crisis resulting from the pandemic, with an average of 14 measures per country. 34 African nations have adopted steps to increase liquidity and lower borrowing costs, mostly through lowering the policy rate. South Africa, for example, has decreased policy rates by 200 basis points or more. The most used measure has been to modify the handling of nonperforming loans by lowering provisioning requirements. To help banks get through the COVID-19 crisis, authorities have limited dividends or other uses of earnings, permitted the temporary release of capital buffers, eased capital or liquidity requirements, or made other temporary adjustments to prudential standards. Despite the COVID-19 pandemic, African private investment was steady in 2020, rising to $4.3 billion from $3.9 billion in 2019 as pipeline and current transactions were closed. For resource-intensive nations, real per capita GDP is anticipated to stay below pre-pandemic levels until at least 2024, with growth of barely 1% per year in 2022 and

2023. Before the pandemic, 2% or more of growth had been anticipated.

In 2023, East Africa has the largest crowding out pressures, whereas North Africa has the lowest. In a recent report, female-led businesses were found more likely to invest in innovation, export goods and services, and provide employee training. Over half of the banks studied in this report indicated a lower percentage of non-performing loans among enterprises run by women than males. Female-led firms also had lower rates of bankruptcy and were less likely to be affected by the COVID-19 pandemic. 65% of banks in Africa were found to have a gender focused strategy in place.

Trade growth
Trade has driven much of the growth in Africa's economy in the early 21st century. China and India are increasingly important trade partners; 12.5% of Africa's exports are to China, and 4% are to India, which accounts for 5% of China's imports and 8% of India's. The Group of Five (Indonesia, Malaysia, Saudi Arabia, Thailand, and the United Arab Emirates) are another increasingly important market for Africa's exports.

Future
Africa's economy—with expanding trade, English language skills (official in many Sub-Saharan countries), improving literacy and education, availability of splendid resources and cheaper labour force—is expected to continue to perform better into the future. Trade between Africa and China stood at US$166 billion in 2011.

Africa will only experience a "demographic dividend" by 2035, when its young and growing labour force will have fewer children and retired people as dependents as a proportion of the population, making it more demographically comparable to the US and Europe. It is becoming a more educated labour force, with nearly half expected to have some secondary-level education by 2020. A consumer class is also emerging in Africa and is expected to keep booming. Africa has around 90 million people with household incomes exceeding $5,000, meaning that they can direct more than half of their income towards discretionary spending rather than necessities. This number could reach a projected 128 million by 2020.

During the President of the United States Barack Obama's visit to Africa in July 2013, he announced a US$7 billion plan to further develop infrastructure and work more intensively with African heads of state. A new program named Trade Africa, designed to boost trade within the continent as well as between Africa and the U.S., was also unveiled by Obama.

With the introduction of the new economic growth and development plan introduced by the African Union members about 27 of its members who average some of the most developing economies of the continent will further boost economic social and political integration of the continent. The African Continental Free Trade Area will boost business activities between member states and within the continent. This will further reduce too much reliance on importation of finished products and raw materials in to the continent.

The gap between rich and poor countries is predicted to continue to grow over the coming decades.

Entrepreneurship
Entrepreneurship is key to growth. Governments will need to ensure business friendly regulatory environments in order to help foster innovation. In 2019, venture capital startup funding grew to 1.3 billion dollars, increasing rapidly. The causes are as of yet unclear, but education is certainly a factor.

Causes of the economic underdevelopment over the years
The seemingly intractable nature of Africa's poverty has led to debate concerning its root causes. Endemic warfare and unrest, widespread corruption, and despotic regimes are both causes and effects of the continued economic problems. The decolonization of Africa was fraught with instability aggravated by cold war conflict. Since the mid-20th century, the Cold War and increased corruption, poor governance, disease and despotism have also contributed to Africa's poor economy.

According to The Economist, the most important factors are government corruption, political instability, socialist economics, and protectionist trade policy.

Infrastructure
According to the researchers at the Overseas Development Institute, the lack of infrastructure in many developing countries represents one of the most significant limitations to economic growth and achievement of the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs). Infrastructure investments and maintenance can be very expensive, especially in such areas as landlocked, rural and sparsely populated countries in Africa.

It has been argued that infrastructure investments contributed to more than half of Africa's improved growth performance between 1990 and 2005 and increased investment is necessary to maintain growth and tackle poverty. The returns to investment in infrastructure are very significant, with on average 30–40% returns for telecommunications (ICT) investments, over 40% for electricity generation, and 80% for roads.

In Africa, it is argued that to meet the MDGs by 2015, infrastructure investments would need to reach about 15% of GDP (around $93 billion a year). Currently, the source of financing varies significantly across sectors. Some sectors are dominated by state spending, others by overseas development aid (ODA) and yet others by private investors. In sub-Saharan Africa, the state spends around $9.4 billion out of a total of $24.9 billion.

In irrigation, SSA states represent almost all spending; in transport and energy a majority of investment is state spending; in Information and communication technologies and water supply and sanitation, the private sector represents the majority of capital expenditure. Overall, aid, the private sector and non-OECD financiers between them exceed state spending. The private sector spending alone equals state capital expenditure, though the majority is focused on ICT infrastructure investments. External financing increased from $7 billion (2002) to $27 billion (2009). China, in particular, has emerged as an important investor.

Colonialism
The principal aim of colonial rule in Africa by European colonial powers was to exploit natural wealth in the African continent at a low cost. Some writers, such as Walter Rodney in his book How Europe Underdeveloped Africa, argue that these colonial policies are directly responsible for many of Africa's modern problems. Critics of colonialism charge colonial rule with injuring African pride, self-worth and belief in themselves. Other post-colonial scholars, most notably Frantz Fanon continuing along this line, have argued that the true effects of colonialism are psychological and that domination by a foreign power creates a lasting sense of inferiority and subjugation that creates a barrier to growth and innovation. Such arguments posit that a new generation of Africans free of colonial thought and mindset is emerging and that this is driving economic transformation.

Historians L. H. Gann and Peter Duignan have argued that Africa probably benefited from colonialism on balance. Although it had its faults, colonialism was probably "one of the most efficacious engines for cultural diffusion in world history". These views, however, are controversial and are rejected by some who, on balance, see colonialism as bad. The economic historian David Kenneth Fieldhouse has taken a kind of middle position, arguing that the effects of colonialism were actually limited and their main weakness wasn't in deliberate underdevelopment but in what it failed to do. Niall Ferguson agrees with his last point, arguing that colonialism's main weaknesses were sins of omission. Analysis of the economies of African states finds that independent states such as Liberia and Ethiopia did not have better economic performance than their post-colonial counterparts. In particular the economic performance of former British colonies was better than both independent states and former French colonies.

Africa's relative poverty predates colonialism. Jared Diamond argues in Guns, Germs, and Steel that Africa has always been poor due to a number of ecological factors affecting historical development. These factors include low population density, lack of domesticated livestock and plants and the north–south orientation of Africa's geography. However Diamond's theories have been criticized by some including James Morris Blaut as a form of environmental determinism. Historian John K. Thornton argues that sub-Saharan Africa was relatively wealthy and technologically advanced until at least the seventeenth century. Some scholars who believe that Africa was generally poorer than the rest of the world throughout its history make exceptions for certain parts of Africa. Acemoglue and Robinson, for example, argue that most of Africa has always been relatively poor, but "Aksum, Ghana, Songhay, Mali, [and] Great Zimbabwe ... were probably as developed as their contemporaries anywhere in the world." A number of people including Rodney and Joseph E. Inikori have argued that the poverty of Africa at the onset of the colonial period was principally due to the demographic loss associated with the slave trade as well as other related societal shifts. Others such as J. D. Fage and David Eltis have rejected this view.

Language diversity

African countries suffer from communication difficulties caused by language diversity. Greenberg's diversity index is the chance that two randomly selected people would have different mother tongues. Out of the most diverse 25 countries according to this index, 18 (72%) are African. This includes 12 countries for which Greenberg's diversity index exceeds 0.9, meaning that a pair of randomly selected people will have less than 10% chance of having the same mother tongue. However, the primary language of government, political debate, academic discourse, and administration is often the language of the former colonial powers; English, French, or Portuguese.

Trade-based theories
Dependency theory asserts that the wealth and prosperity of the superpowers and their allies in Europe, North America and East Asia is dependent upon the poverty of the rest of the world, including Africa. Economists who subscribe to this theory believe that poorer regions must break their trading ties with the developed world in order to prosper.

Less radical theories suggest that economic protectionism in developed countries hampers Africa's growth. When developing countries have harvested agricultural produce at low cost, they generally do not export as much as would be expected. Abundant farm subsidies and high import tariffs in the developed world, most notably those set by Japan, the European Union's Common Agricultural Policy, and the United States Department of Agriculture, are thought to be the cause. Although these subsidies and tariffs have been gradually reduced, they remain high.

Local conditions also affect exports; state over-regulation in several African nations can prevent their own exports from becoming competitive. Research in Public Choice economics such as that of Jane Shaw suggest that protectionism operates in tandem with heavy State intervention combining to depress economic development. Farmers subject to import and export restrictions cater to localized markets, exposing them to higher market volatility and fewer opportunities. When subject to uncertain market conditions, farmers press for governmental intervention to suppress competition in their markets, resulting in competition being driven out of the market. As competition is driven out of the market, farmers innovate less and grow less food further undermining economic performance.

Governance
Although Africa and Asia had similar levels of income in the 1960s, Asia has since outpaced Africa, with the exception of a few extremely poor and war-torn countries like Afghanistan and Yemen. One school of economists argues that Asia's superior economic development lies in local investment. Corruption in Africa consists primarily of extracting economic rent and moving the resulting financial capital overseas instead of investing at home; the stereotype of African dictators with Swiss bank accounts is often accurate. University of Massachusetts Amherst researchers estimate that from 1970 to 1996, capital flight from 30 sub-Saharan countries totalled $187bn, exceeding those nations' external debts. Authors Leonce Ndikumana and James K. Boyce estimate that from 1970 to 2008, capital flight from 33 sub-Saharan countries totalled $700bn.

Congolese dictator Mobutu Sese Seko became notorious for corruption, nepotism, and the embezzlement of between US$4 billion and $15 billion during his reign. Socialist governments influenced by Marxism, and the land reform they have enacted, have also contributed to economic stagnation in Africa. For example, the regime of Robert Mugabe in Zimbabwe, particularly the land seizures from white farmers, led to the collapse of the country's agricultural economy, which had formerly been one of Africa's strongest; Mugabe had been previously supported by the USSR and China during the Zimbabwe War of Liberation. Tanzania was left as one of the world's poorest and most aid-dependent nations, and has taken decades to recover. Since the abolition of the socialist one-party state in 1992 and the transition to democracy, Tanzania has experienced rapid economic growth, with growth of 6.5% in 2017.

Foreign aid
Food shipments in case of dire local shortage are generally uncontroversial; but as Amartya Sen has shown, most famines involve a local lack of income rather than of food. In such situations, food aid—as opposed to financial aid—has the effect of destroying local agriculture and serves mainly to benefit Western agribusiness which are vastly overproducing food as a result of agricultural subsidies.

Historically, food aid is more highly correlated with excess supply in Western countries than with the needs of developing countries. Foreign aid has been an integral part of African economic development since the 1980s.

The aid model has been criticized for supplanting trade initiatives. Growing evidence shows that foreign aid has made the continent poorer. One of the biggest critics of the aid development model is economist Dambisa Moyo (a Zambian economist based in the US), who introduced the Dead Aid model, which highlights how foreign aid has been a deterrent for local development.

Today, Africa faces the problem of attracting foreign aid in areas where there is potential for high income from demand. It is in need of more economic policies and active participation in the world economy. As globalization has heightened the competition for foreign aid among developing countries, Africa has been trying to improve its struggle to receive foreign aid by taking more responsibility at the regional and international level. In addition, Africa has created the ‘Africa Action Plan’ in order to obtain new relationships with development partners to share responsibilities regarding discovering ways to receive aid from foreign investors.

Trade blocs and multilateral organizations
The African Union is the largest international economic grouping on the continent. The confederation's goals include the creation of a free trade area, a customs union, a single market, a central bank, and a common currency (see African Monetary Union), thereby establishing economic and monetary union. The current plan is to establish an African Economic Community with a single currency by 2023. The African Investment Bank is meant to stimulate development. The AU plans also include a transitional African Monetary Fund leading to an African Central Bank. Some parties support development of an even more unified United States of Africa.

International monetary and banking unions include: Major economic unions are shown in the chart below.
 * Central Bank of West African States
 * Bank of Central African States
 * Common Monetary Area

Regional economic organizations
During the 1960s, Ghanaian politician Kwame Nkrumah promoted economic and political union of African countries, with the goal of independence. Since then, objectives, and organizations, have multiplied. Recent decades have brought efforts at various degrees of regional economic integration. Trade between African states accounts for only 11% of Africa's total commerce as of 2012, around five times less than in Asia. Most of this intra-Africa trade originates from South Africa and most of the trade exports coming out of South Africa goes to abutting countries in Southern Africa.

There are currently eight regional organizations that assist with economic development in Africa:

Economic variants and indicators
After an initial rebound from the 2009 world economic crisis, Africa's economy was undermined in the year 2011 by the Arab uprisings. The continent's growth fell back from 5% in 2010 to 3.4% in 2011. With the recovery of North African economies and sustained improvement in other regions, growth across the continent is expected to accelerate to 4.5% in 2012 and 4.8% in 2013. Short-term problems for the world economy remain as Europe confronts its debt crisis. Commodity prices—crucial for Africa—have declined from their peak due to weaker demand and increased supply, and some could fall further. But prices are expected to remain at levels favourable for African exporter.

Regions
Economic activity has rebounded across Africa. However, the pace of recovery was uneven among groups of countries and subregions. Oil-exporting countries generally expanded more strongly than oil-importing countries. West Africa and East Africa were the two best-performing subregions in 2010.

Intra-African trade has been slowed by protectionist policies among countries and regions, and remains low at 17 percent, compared to Europe, where intra-regional trade is at 69 percent. Despite this, trade between countries belonging to the Common Market for Eastern and Southern Africa (COMESA), a particularly strong economic region, grew six-fold over the past decade up to 2012. Ghana and Kenya, for example, have developed markets within the region for construction materials, machinery, and finished products, quite different from the mining and agriculture products that make up the bulk of their international exports.

The African Ministers of Trade agreed in 2010 to create a Pan-Africa Free Trade Zone. This would reduce countries' tariffs on imports and increase intra-African trade, and it is hoped, the diversification of the economy overall.

Economic sectors and industries
Because Africa's export portfolio remains predominantly based on raw material, its export earnings are contingent on commodity price fluctuations. This exacerbates the continent's susceptibility to external shocks and bolsters the need for export diversification. Trade in services, mainly travel and tourism, continued to rise in year 2012, underscoring the continent's strong potential in this sphere.

Agriculture

48% of working people in Africa work in agriculture, the highest in the world. The situation whereby African nations export crops to the West while millions on the continent starve has been blamed on the economic policies of the developed countries. These advanced nations protect their own agricultural sectors with high import tariffs and offer government subsidies to their farmers. which many contend leads the overproduction of such commodities as grain, cotton and milk. The impact of agricultural subsidies in developed countries upon developing-country farmers and international development is well documented. Agricultural subsidies can help drive prices down to benefit consumers, but also mean that unsubsidised developing-country farmers have a more difficult time competing in the world market; and the effects on poverty are particularly negative when subsidies are provided for crops that are also grown in developing countries since developing-country farmers must then compete directly with subsidised developed-country farmers, for example in cotton and sugar. The IFPRI has estimated in 2003 that the impact of subsidies costs developing countries $24 billion in lost incomes going to agricultural and agro-industrial production; and more than $40Bn is displaced from net agricultural exports. The result of this is that the global price of such products is continually reduced until Africans are unable to compete, except for cash crops that do not grow easily in a northern climate.

In recent years countries such as Brazil, which has experienced progress in agricultural production, have agreed to share technology with Africa to increase agricultural production in the continent to make it a more viable trade partner. Increased investment in African agricultural technology in general has the potential to reduce poverty in Africa. The demand market for African cocoa has experienced a price boom in 2008. The Nigerian, South African and Ugandan governments have targeted policies to take advantage of the increased demand for certain agricultural products and plan to stimulate agricultural sectors. The African Union has plans to heavily invest in African agriculture and the situation is closely monitored by the UN.

Ticks are a constant pressure on the continent's livestock. Although acaricides have been commonly used by farmers here, they are becoming less effective. Tick vaccines are under development and may fill this void.

Energy

Africa has significant resources for generating energy in several forms (hydroelectric, reserves of petroleum and gas, coal production, uranium production, renewable energy such as solar, wind and geothermal). The lack of development and infrastructure means that little of this potential is actually in use today. The largest consumers of electric power in Africa are South Africa, Libya, Namibia, Egypt, Tunisia, and Zimbabwe, which each consume between 1000 and 5000 KWh/m2 per person, in contrast with African states such as Ethiopia, Eritrea, and Tanzania, where electricity consumption per person is negligible.

Petroleum and petroleum products are the main export of 14 African countries. Petroleum and petroleum products accounted for a 46.6% share of Africa's total exports in 2010; the second largest export of Africa as a whole is natural gas, in its gaseous state and as liquified natural gas, accounting for a 6.3% share of Africa's exports. Only South Africa is using nuclear power commercially.

Infrastructure

Lack of infrastructure creates barriers for African businesses. Although it has many ports, a lack of supporting transportation infrastructure adds 30–40% to costs, in contrast to Asian ports.

Railway projects were important in mining districts from the late 19th century. Large railway and road projects characterize the late 19th century. Railroads were emphasized in the colonial era, and roads in 'post-colonial' times. Jedwab & Storeygard find that in 1960–2015 there were strong correlations between transportation investments and economic development. Influential political include pre-colonial centralization, ethnic fractionalization, European settlement, natural resource dependence, and democracy.

Many large infrastructure projects are underway across Africa. By far, most of these projects are in the production and transportation of electric power. Many other projects include paved highways, railways, airports, and other construction.

Telecommunications infrastructure is also a growth area in Africa. Although Internet penetration lags other continents, it has still reached 9%. As of 2011, it was estimated that 500,000,000 mobile phones of all types were in use in Africa, including 15,000,000 "smart phones".

Mining and drilling
The mineral industry of Africa is one of the largest mineral industries in the world. Africa is the second biggest continent, with 30 million km2 of land, which implies large quantities of resources. For many African countries, mineral exploration and production constitute significant parts of their economies and remain keys to future economic growth. Africa is richly endowed with mineral reserves and ranks first or second in quantity of world reserves of bauxite, cobalt, industrial diamond, phosphate rock, platinum-group metals (PGM), vermiculite, and zirconium.

African mineral reserves rank first or second for bauxite, cobalt, diamonds, phosphate rocks, platinum-group metals (PGM), vermiculite, and zirconium. Many other minerals are also present in quantity. The 2005 share of world production from African soil is the following: bauxite 9%; aluminium 5%; chromite 44%; cobalt 57%; copper 5%; gold 21%; iron ore 4%; steel 2%; lead (Pb) 3%; manganese 39%; zinc 2%; cement 4%; natural diamond 46%; graphite 2%; phosphate rock 31%; coal 5%; mineral fuels (including coal) & petroleum 13%; uranium 16%.

Since Africa is home to large reserves of the minerals needed for the ongoing energy transition, i.e. the transition to renewable energy technologies, the predicted increase in global demand for these critical minerals could become a driver of sustainable economic development on the continent, not least for the mineral-rich countries of Africa. The African Union has outlined a policy framework, the Africa Mining Vision, to leverage the continent’s mineral reserves in pursuit of sustainable development and socio-economic transformation. A key ambition in this vision is to transform Africa's economies from today's high levels of commodity export to a larger share of industrial manufacturing of higher value-added products, an ambition that will require investments in capacity building, research and development.

Manufacturing

Both the African Union and the United Nations have outlined plans in modern years on how Africa can help itself industrialize and develop significant manufacturing sectors to levels proportional to the African economy in the 1960s with 21st-century technology. This focus on growth and diversification of manufacturing and industrial production, as well as diversification of agricultural production, has fueled hopes that the 21st century will prove to be a century of economic and technological growth for Africa. This hope, coupled with the rise of new leaders in Africa in the future, inspired the term "the African Century", referring to the 21st century potentially being the century when Africa's vast untapped labor, capital, and resource potentials might become a world player. This hope in manufacturing and industry is helped by the boom in communications technology and local mining industry in much of sub-Saharan Africa. Namibia has attracted industrial investments in recent years and South Africa has begun offering tax incentives to attract foreign direct investment projects in manufacturing.

Countries such as Mauritius have plans for developing new "green technology" for manufacturing. Developments such as this have huge potential to open new markets for African countries as the demand for alternative "green" and clean technology is predicted to soar in the future as global oil reserves dry up and fossil fuel-based technology becomes less economically viable.

Nigeria in recent years has been embracing industrialization, It currently has an indigenous vehicle manufacturing company, Innoson Vehicle Manufacturing (IVM) which manufactures Rapid Transit Buses, Trucks and SUVs with an upcoming introduction of Cars. Their various brands of vehicle are currently available in Nigeria, Ghana and other West African Nations. Nigeria also has few Electronic manufacturers like Zinox, the first Branded Nigerian Computer and Electronic gadgets (like tablet PCs) manufacturers. In 2013, Nigeria introduced a policy regarding import duty on vehicles to encourage local manufacturing companies in the country. In this regard, some foreign vehicle manufacturing companies like Nissan have made known their plans to have manufacturing plants in Nigeria. Apart from Electronics and vehicles, most consumer, pharmaceutical and cosmetic products, building materials, textiles, home tools, plastics and so on are also manufactured in the country and exported to other west African and African countries. Nigeria is currently the largest manufacturer of cement in Sub-saharan Africa. and Dangote Cement Factory, Obajana is the largest cement factory in sub-saharan Africa. Ogun is considered to be Nigeria's industrial hub (as most factories are located in Ogun and even more companies are moving there), followed by Lagos.

The manufacturing sector is small but growing in East Africa. The main industries are textile and clothing, leather processing, agribusiness, chemical products, electronics and vehicles. East African countries like Uganda also produce motorcycles for the domestic market.

Investment and banking

Africa's US$107 billion financial services industry will log impressive growth for the rest of the decade as more banks target the continent's emerging middle class. The banking sector has been experiencing record growth, among others due to various technological innovations.

China and India have showed increasing interest in emerging African economies in the 21st century. Reciprocal investment between Africa and China increased dramatically in recent years amidst the current world financial crisis.

The increased investment in Africa by China has attracted the attention of the European Union and has provoked talks of competitive investment by the EU. Members of the African diaspora abroad, especially in the EU and the United States, have increased efforts to use their businesses to invest in Africa and encourage African investment abroad in the European economy.

Remittances from the African diaspora and rising interest in investment from the West will be especially helpful for Africa's least developed and most devastated economies, such as Burundi, Togo and Comoros. However, experts lament the high fees involved in sending remittances to Africa due to a duopoly of Western Union and MoneyGram that is controlling Africa's remittance market, making Africa is the most expensive cash transfer market in the world. According to some experts, the high processing fees involved in sending money to Africa are hampering African countries' development.

Remittances continue to be the most important source of external financial flows to Africa, accounting for 3.8% of GDP in 2021. However, only approximately 30% of it is dedicated to economic activities, the majority of which are in the informal sector, limiting its potential for productive transformation.

Angola has announced interests in investing in the EU, Portugal in particular. South Africa has attracted increasing attention from the United States as a new frontier of investment in manufacture, financial markets and small business, as has Liberia in recent years under their new leadership.

There are two African currency unions: the West African Banque Centrale des États de l'Afrique de l'Ouest (BCEAO) and the Central African Banque des États de l'Afrique Centrale (BEAC). Both use the CFA franc as their legal tender. The idea of a single currency union across Africa has been floated, and plans exist to have it established by 2020, though many issues, such as bringing continental inflation rates below 5 percent, remain hurdles in its finalization.

Stock exchanges

As of 2012, Africa has 23 stock exchanges, twice as many as it had 20 years earlier. Nonetheless, African stock exchanges still account for less than 1% of the world's stock exchange activity. The top ten stock exchanges in Africa by stock capital are (amounts are given in billions of United States dollars): but now a days there are around 29 stock exchange in Africa

 * South Africa (82.88)(2014)
 * Egypt ($73.04 billion (30 November 2014 est.))
 * Morocco (5.18)
 * Nigeria (5.11) (Actually has a market capitalisation value of $39.27 Bln)
 * Kenya (1.33)
 * Tunisia (0.88)
 * BRVM (regional stock exchange whose members include Benin, Burkina Faso, Guinea-Bissau, Ivory Coast, Mali, Niger, Senegal and Togo: 6.6)
 * Mauritius (0.55)
 * Botswana (0.43)
 * Ghana (.38)

Between 2009 and 2012, a total of 72 companies were launched on the stock exchanges of 13 African countries.

General and cited references

 * Fage, J. D. A History of Africa (Routledge, 4th edition, 2001 ISBN 0-415-25247-4) (Hutchinson, 1978, ISBN 0-09-132851-9) (Knopf 1st American edition, 1978, ISBN 0-394-32277-0)
 * Kayizzi-Mugerwa, Steve The African Economy: Policy, Institutions and the Future (Routledge, 1999, ISBN 0-415-18323-5)
 * Laouisset, Djamel (2009). A Retrospective Study of the Algerian Iron and Steel Industry. New York City: Nova Publishers. ISBN 978-1-61761-190-2
 * Moshomba, Richard E. Africa in the Global Economy (Lynne Rienner, 2000, ISBN 1-55587-718-4)
 * OECD. African Economic Outlook 2006/2007 (OECD, 2007, ISBN 978-92-64-03313-9)
 * Rodney, Walter. How Europe Underdeveloped Africa. (Washington: Howard UP, 1982, ISBN 0-88258-096-5)
 * Sahn, David E., Paul A. Dorosh, Stephen D. Younger, Structural Adjustment Reconsidered: Economic Policy and Poverty in Africa (Cambridge University Press, 1997, ISBN 0-521-58451-5)
 * Sahn, David E., Paul A. Dorosh, Stephen D. Younger, Structural Adjustment Reconsidered: Economic Policy and Poverty in Africa (Cambridge University Press, 1997, ISBN 0-521-58451-5)

title: Economy of Africa


text:
Burt Lake

Burt Lake is a 17,120 acre lake in Cheboygan County in the U.S. state of Michigan. The western shore of the lake is on the boundary with Emmet County. The lake is named after William Austin Burt, who, together with John Mullett, made a federal survey of the area from 1840 to 1843.

The lake is approximately 10 mi long from north to south, about 5 mi at its widest, and 73 ft at its deepest. Major inflows to the lake are the Maple River, which connects with nearby Douglas Lake, the Crooked River, which connects with nearby Crooked Lake, the Sturgeon River which enters the lake near the point where the Indian River flows out of the lake into nearby Mullett Lake and the Little Carp River which enters on the northern end of the lake.

The lake is part of the Inland Waterway, by which one can boat from Crooked Lake several miles (km) east of Petoskey on the Little Traverse Bay of Lake Michigan across the northern tip of the lower peninsula's so-called mitten to Cheboygan on Lake Huron. Along with nearby Mullett Lake and Black Lake, it is noted for its population of Lake Sturgeon, which briefly held the record of largest sturgeon caught in the USA.

YMCA Camp Al-Gon-Quian and Burt Lake State Park are both located on the southern shore of the lake. The unincorporated community of Burt Lake is on the southwest shore on M-68. Interstate 75 passes to the east of the lake, with two interchanges near the south end of the lake at the unincorporated community of Indian River.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Burt Lake


text:
Victoria Tunnel

Victoria Tunnel may refer to:

 * Victoria Tunnel (Liverpool), England
 * Victoria Tunnel (Newcastle), England
 * Victoria Tunnel, Queensland, Australia
 * Mount Victoria Tunnel, Wellington, New Zealand

title: Victoria Tunnel


text:
Wapping Tunnel

Wapping or Edge Hill Tunnel in Liverpool, England, is a tunnel route from the Edge Hill junction in the east of the city to the Liverpool south end docks formerly used by trains on the Liverpool-Manchester line railway. The tunnel alignment is roughly east to west. The tunnel was designed by George Stephenson with construction between 1826 and 1829 to enable goods services to operate between Liverpool docks and all locations up to Manchester, as part of the Liverpool and Manchester Railway. It was the first transport tunnel in the world to be bored under a city. The tunnel is 2030 m long, running downhill from the western end of the 262 m long Cavendish cutting at Edge Hill in the east of the city, to Park Lane Goods Station near Wapping Dock in the west. The Edge Hill portal is near the former Crown Street Station goods yard. The tunnel passes beneath the Merseyrail Northern Line tunnel approximately a quarter of a mile south of Liverpool Central underground station.

History
Liverpool is built on an escarpment running down to the River Mersey. The original proposal for the railway out of Liverpool was a route north along the docks and riverbank. This route proved problematic with local landowners. The new route entering the city centre from the east required considerable engineering works in addition to the tunnel. The 1-in-48 gradient of the tunnel was much too steep for the power of the steam locomotives of the day. A large stationary steam engine was installed at the Cavendish cutting at Edge Hill in a short tunnel bored into the rock face on the side of the cutting, near a decorative Moorish Arch spanning the cutting. Goods wagons were hauled by rope up from the Park Lane goods station at the south end docks. The goods wagons were hitched to locomotives at the Edge Hill junction for the continuing journey to all locations from Liverpool to Manchester. The tunnel opened in 1830 and closed on 15 May 1972.

The dockside portal to the tunnel is clearly visible on Kings Dock Street. This was the middle of three short exit tunnels at the western end, which met in a short open ventilation cutting between Park Lane and Upper Frederick Street. The quoted length of 2030 m includes both the main tunnel and the short exit tunnel.

The Edge Hill entrance is still open to the atmosphere, however not accessible to the public. The portal is the central of three tunnels at the western end of the Cavendish cutting. The right hand tunnel is the original 1829 tunnel into Crown Street Station. The left hand tunnel is the later 1846 tunnel into the Crown Street goods yard. This tunnel currently has tracks, for use as a headshunt and locomotive run-round for goods trains. However, artwork from before the third tunnel was constructed shows that a portal was already present from the outset - this was purely for architectural symmetry and is, in fact, a store room.

Other visible evidence of the tunnel still exists, in the form of three imposing red-brick ventilation towers. One is on the landscaped park between Crown Street and Smithdown Lane, one on Blackburne Place (illustration), and one close to Grenville Street South. There were at least two others that were later demolished, one adjacent to Great George Street, and one by Myrtle Street.

Plans for partial reinstatement of tunnel

In the 1970s, during planning work for the Merseyrail underground in Liverpool city centre, there were two proposals to use parts of the Wapping Tunnel or Waterloo Tunnel (Victoria Tunnel) to connect Liverpool Central underground station and Edge Hill junction. During the construction of the Merseyrail network in the 1970s a part of the new tunnel south out of Central Station passed over the Wapping Tunnel at right angles. The new tunnel dropped into the upper part of the Wapping tunnel reducing its height. This would require lowering the floor of the tunnel at this point to allow trains to pass. When the junction on the Northern Line tunnel south of Central station was built in the late 1970s, two header tunnels were constructed to cater for branching into the Wapping Tunnel.

In May 2007 it was reported that chief executive of Merseytravel, Neil Scales, had prepared a report outlining the possibilities for reuse of the tunnel. The November 2016 refresh of Mersytravel's Long Term Strategy references a "Wapping Tunnel Scheme" in Network Rail's CP7 period. Merseytravel hope to re-use the tunnel to create new underground connections into burrowing junctions south of Liverpool Central station on the Northern Line to allow trains to run between Central station and Edge Hill station and beyond.

Merseytravel commissioned a feasibility study into the re-opening of the tunnel which was completed in May 2016. The study was focused on using the Wapping Tunnel to connect the Northern and City Lines together and the possible creation of a new station along the route to serve the city's Knowledge Quarter. The report found that the Wapping Tunnel was in good condition though suffered from flooding in places and would require some remedial work, however the concept of re-opening the tunnel was viable.

Accidents and incidents

 * 28 September 1907, Brakesman John Fairbrother, was working a train to the docks. The train stopped in the tunnel and as Fairbrother went to lift some of the wagon brakes he slipped bruising his back and knees. While he was not injured further, lifting the brakes caused the train to descend uncontrollably down the tracks damaging 13 wagons and 4 brake vans.

title: Wapping Tunnel


text: Talk:Atropa belladonna

title: Talk:Atropa belladonna


text:
Railnews

Railnews is a national monthly newspaper and news website for the British railway network.

Content
Railnews concentrates on issues important to employees of the railway industry, such as investment, careers, changes to industry structure, political developments, industrial relations and other trade union matters. It also maintains a focus on the people of the rail industry, rather than the companies alone. As a trade title covering the modern industry, it is not designed for railway enthusiasts or the heritage railway market.

The ethos of Railnews is to be "dispassionate, objective and accurate". Following this, Railnews never carries unmarked advertorials, although much of its advertising revenue does come from major railway suppliers and operators.

History
Railnews, in the early days spelt 'Rail News', was originally the house newspaper of British Railways, published by the British Railways Board. It first appeared in 1963 under the editorship of Keith Horrox with a price of 6d, replacing the former magazines which had been produced for each railway Region, although Regional 'slip' pages continued for many years. From 1978 to October 1996 it was issued free to all employees of British Rail. An attempt to sell it as a result of the privatisation of British Rail was unsuccessful and production ceased in October 1996. In February 1997 the title was revived by some former BR managers, with Sir William McAlpine as Chairman and Cyril Bleasdale as Managing Director. Both maintained these positions until their deaths. The managing director is now David Longstaff. Only four months went by between the ending of the BR version and the launch in March 1997 of its independent successor.

Today
Railnews is no longer a house journal with a particular stance to maintain and, although fully supportive of the industry it serves, it carries objective, balanced reports. Distributed to both individual subscribers and large railway companies (who have corporate subscriptions) it penetrates the entire industry from trackside to boardroom.

The newspaper and website were both fully redesigned in February 2012, bringing a new, cleaner, more modern look to the title. Since September 2009 the Managing Editor has been former BBC journalist Sim Harris. He succeeded Paul Whiting, who has retired.

title: Railnews


text:
Ganzourgou Province

Ganzourgou is a province of Burkina Faso and is in Plateau-Central Region. The capital of Ganzourgou is Zorgho, which is along the road between Ouagadougou and Niamey, Niger. Other important localities in the province are Mogtédo and Méguet. The population of Ganzourgou in 2019 was 481,794.

Ganzourgou is divided into 8 departments:

title: Ganzourgou Province


text:
Lemon (color)

Lemon or lemon-color is a vivid yellow color characteristic of the lemon fruit. Shades of "lemon" may vary significantly from the fruit's actual color, including fluorescent tones and creamy hues reflective of lemon pies and confections.

The first recorded use of lemon as a color name in English dates to 1598. In the academic regalia of the United States, the color denotes library and information science.

Lemon chiffon
Lemon chiffon is the X11 color and web color lemonchiffon. It was formulated in 1987 when it was first introduced as a named color in the X Window System. After the invention of the World Wide Web in 1991, these colors became known as the X11 web colors.

Lemon meringue
Displayed at right is the color lemon meringue. The source of this color is the "Pantone Textile Paper eXtended (TPX)" color list, color #12-0711 TPX—Lemon Meringue.

Lemon glacier
Lemon glacier is a fluorescent color, displayed in non-fluorescent form at the right.

The color lemon glacier was released by Crayola in 2009 in the extreme twistable crayons. This color is very slightly greenish looking to the naked eye (just barely detectable)--as can be seen in its color box, its green code is very slightly larger than its red code.

Luis lemon
Luis Lemon is a fluorescent color, displayed in non-fluorescent form at the right.

Luis Lemon is one of Models Own's ice neon nail polish color sets. It is a variant of Laser Lemon below.

Laser lemon
Laser lemon is a fluorescent color, displayed in non-fluorescent form at the right.

The color laser lemon was named by Crayola in 1990. Before that, from its formulation in 1972 to 1990, it had been incorrectly been named chartreuse. In actuality, a chartreuse color is one in which the green hex code has a slightly higher value than the red hex code in the RGB values of the color.

Lemon yellow
The color lemon yellow is shown at right.

Lemon yellow was a Crayola color from 1949 to 1990.

Bitter lemon
Displayed at right is the color bitter lemon.

The first use of the color name bitter lemon was in 2001, when it was formulated as one of the colors on the Xona.com Color List.

Citron
Displayed at right is the color citron.

The name has been used since at least the 1920s for an equal mix of orange and green pigments.

"Citron" is the French word for "lemon". This dark tone of lemon was formulated for use in interior design and fabric design.

Lemon curry
Displayed at right is the color lemon curry.

The source of this color is the "Pantone Textile Paper eXtended (TPX)" color list, color #15-0751 TPX—Lemon Curry.

Deep lemon
Displayed at right is the color deep lemon.

Deep lemon is the deep tone of lemon that is called "lemon" by Pantone.

The source of this color is the "Pantone Textile Paper eXtended (TPX)" color list, color #13-0752 TPX—Lemon.

title: Lemon (color)


text:
Category:Police officers

Police and sheriff's patrol officers maintain order, enforce laws and ordinances, and protect life and property within an assigned area. Depending on local law, they may perform a combination of the following duties: patrol a specific area on foot or in a vehicle; direct traffic; issue traffic summonses; investigate accidents; maintain public order; perform escort duties; apprehend and arrest suspects; or serve legal processes of courts.

Transit, transport and railroad police protect and police railroad and transit property, employees, or passengers.

title: Category:Police officers


text:
Wikipedia:Requests for adminship/Gwalla

Gwalla
Vote here
 * (21/4/2) ending 20:55 17 Oct 2004 (UTC)

Gwalla is careful & well-informed, contributing to a variety of topics (see his user page). Reserved & focused in exchanges with other editors. Someone I consider a solid contributor. He has contributed more than 1500 edits since January 2004. Wile E. Heresiarch 20:55, 10 Oct 2004 (UTC)

 * I humbly accept Mr. Heresiarch's nomination.   — Gwalla | Talk 23:48, 10 Oct 2004 (UTC)

Support
 * 1) Wile E. Heresiarch 20:55, 10 Oct 2004 (UTC)
 * 2) Graham  ☺ | Talk 21:16, 10 Oct 2004 (UTC)
 * 3) CryptoDerk 22:58, Oct 10, 2004 (UTC).  Being active behind the scenes shouldn't preclude someone from being an admin.  After an in depth look at his edits, his talk page, his discussions, and his logic, he appears to me to be ideal admin material.
 * 4) Certainly a good grasp of policy as evidenced by VFD contributions. Also note that his edits prior to about August were completely VFD-free, which makes up for any bias against him for this reason. For the record, he does have more than 2000 edits. -- Grunt 🇪🇺 23:36, 2004 Oct 10 (UTC)
 * 5) Seems solid. Since he's done so much VfD work, I took a close look at it—his votes seem to be much in line with community consensus, and on more controversial topics he justifies his opinion well. —Stormie 01:53, Oct 11, 2004 (UTC)
 * 6) I've had numerous interactions with Gwalla, and all were positive. Very reasonable and hard-working editor, perhaps with a mild VfD addiction, but I've seen nothing but excellent article-related edits too. • Benc • 04:38, 11 Oct 2004 (UTC)
 * 7)   — Kate Turner | Talk 10:38, 2004 Oct 11 (UTC)
 * {Ανάριον} 11:42, 11 Oct 2004 (UTC)
 * 1) If anything, the VfD work is a plus -- VfD is one of the 'policy areas' of Wikipedia, and mature contributions there, in addition to the more general areas of the site, are a plus. I feel Gwalla has contributed well to Wikipedia. --Improv 18:04, 11 Oct 2004 (UTC)
 * 2) Michael Snow 20:06, 11 Oct 2004 (UTC)
 * 3) Go Gwalla! Support! And endorsed by Heresiarch as well. - RedWordSmith 05:20, 12 Oct 2004 (UTC)
 * 4)  ℛ yan! |  Talk  11:23, Oct 12, 2004 (UTC)
 * 5) Examined a number of user's edits in main and talk namespaces; all are good as far as I've seen.  Appears willing and able to explain himself when necessary, to distinguish between his personal interests and the good of Wikipedia, and to resolve disputes amicably and according to policy.  Level of attention to VfD is abnormal, but an examination of voting patterns does not suggest an agenda (especially since the number of articles he nominates is relatively low), and a willingness to participate in this administrative task seems like an argument for adminship, not against it.   —Triskaideka 21:58, 12 Oct 2004 (UTC)
 * 6) Wolfman 04:43, 13 Oct 2004 (UTC)
 * 7) All of the user's edits seem to be in good faith.  If one of the detractors could cite concrete examples of a frivolous deletion, it might make more sense.  --DropDeadGorgias (talk) 15:36, Oct 13, 2004 (UTC)
 * 8) Absolutely.  I also think people opposing on the basis that he thinks most of the VfD nominators are correct are missing the spirit of the project.  Our users nominate for VfD wisely, for the most part, so it's not surprising to see mainly "delete" votes.  Will Gwalla be a good administrator?  Absolutely. Geogre 00:55, 14 Oct 2004 (UTC)
 * My concern is that there seems to be an unwillingness on the part of Gwalla and many other regulars on Vfd to even try to improve an article rather than delete it. I have seen quite a few articles that could have been saved with a little effort deleted, Nacho King! comes to mind. If Gwalla can produce evidence that he has previously worked to improve articles posted on Vfd, I am willing to change my vote. -JCarriker 02:07, Oct 14, 2004 (UTC)
 * 1) Strong support. Being a deletionist is not a valid reason to oppose adminship. Ambi 06:43, 14 Oct 2004 (UTC)
 * 2) Slightly overzealous VfDing gives me a lack of clear sense of this user. Vote moved to support.   – Andre ( talk )  15:25, Oct 14, 2004 (UTC)
 * 3) Weak oppose. I am primarily concerned with his eagerness to delete articles without even trying to improve them.-JCarriker 05:26, Oct 12, 2004 (UTC) Support. Gwalla has addressed my concerns. -JCarriker 22:27, Oct 14, 2004 (UTC)
 * 4) Good edits, including in VfD. No evidence of serious conflicts with others. func(talk) 14:19, 16 Oct 2004 (UTC)
 * 5) ffirehorse 20:34, 16 Oct 2004 (UTC)
 * 6) Good unbiased edits in VfD. jni 14:22, 17 Oct 2004 (UTC)

Oppose
 * 1) Approximately 70% of his recent contributions have to do with VfD. Oppose. Sorry. --Lst27
 * 2) I'm with Lst on this one. Over 1000 VfD votes logged in the last 2 months, vast majority are deletes. With no significant edits outside of VfD and a lot of repetitive minor edits, not sure how we can gauge his readiness for adminship. (my views on admin noms) -- Netoholic @ 21:36, 2004 Oct 10 (UTC)
 * 3) I agree. User is a bit too VfD-zealous.  Any way, not enough edits in my book.  Would possibly support after 2,000 edits and a branch out in his contribs.  blankfaze |  (беседа!)  22:37, 10 Oct 2004 (UTC)
 * 4) Too little edits, too many deletions. {Ανάριον} 08:28, 12 Oct 2004 (UTC)

Neutral
 * 1) I agree with both blankfaze and Grunt. Come back in three weeks or so. [[User:Neutrality|Neutrality (talk)]] 23:39, Oct 10, 2004 (UTC)
 * Hey, I check Vfd often as well, but I think Gwalla spends a little too much time doing so. I'd like to see more and larger-scale edits to articles. As of now, I have a hard time evaluating how he interacts with other users. --Slowking Man 06:00, Oct 11, 2004 (UTC)

Comments
 * Gwalla has more than 2000 edits.
 * I think its admirable someone is paying such close attention to the VfD ballots--he has far more tolerance for it than I--and isn't this the sort of administrative work we're looking for? PedanticallySpeaking 17:45, Oct 12, 2004 (UTC)
 * Out of interest, why are we taking into consideration the amount of VfD work Gwalla has performed? My question is posed because that adminship is a responsibility where the person will need to be aware of the VfD process and other Wikipedia policies reasonably well, and I feel extensive balanced work here would be a plus for the community. Also, if Gwalla's work on VfD has been moderate, balanced and diplomatic (haven't looked at this closely yet) it might be that he/she will also be very good at arbritration disputes. To play devil's advocate on my own points, however, it may be that we want a balanced of encyclopaedia articles and meta stuff, in which Gwalla might be seen as somewhat lacking. Thoughts? - Ta bu shi da yu 23:48, 12 Oct 2004 (UTC)
 * Tuba, you're right, of course. Someone who goes to VfD often ought to be considered more worthy of adminship than less.  Netoholic brought up the issue, and I'm a little surprised to see people following it.  JCarricker's point in general is, in general, a good one that every single Wikipedian's conscience should be pricked by.  That said, I know that I've saved more than a few from deletion, but I haven't saved anywhere nearly as many as I could have.  The reason is simple:  VfD isn't Clean Up.  I'm not dismissing JCarricker's concerns at all, but the simple truth is that when something gets to VfD, we are supposed to be deciding strictly whether something should stay or not.  The Clean Up process has been overwhelmed as surely as VfD has, and far too few people work there, but I don't think anyone can be blamed for not saving articles on VfD, even if anyone who does so should be praised for having done so. If anyone asks me if VfD and Clean Up are broken, I'll say "yes," but conflating the two isn't the answer.  Geogre 03:24, 14 Oct 2004 (UTC)
 * My concern is not to place blame as to why Vfd is flawed but to see if there is a part of Gwalla that is concerned that it is broken. If his response is as eloquent and thoughtful as yours Geogre, I'll remove my opposition and may even consider supporting the nomination. -JCarriker 03:49, Oct 14, 2004 (UTC)
 * I think it's less a matter of VfD being broken than that Cleanup is—cleanup's just flooded (and I have participated in cleanup, although not as much as I should). I have tried to rescue some articles (most recently, Man-Faye), but in general I think the functions should be kept separate. For one thing, the more VfD takes over the job of Cleanup, the more articles will be put on VfD because they need to be fixed up rather than deleted.   — Gwalla | Talk 21:18, 14 Oct 2004 (UTC)
 * Thanks, that answers my question. -JCarriker 22:27, Oct 14, 2004 (UTC)

Questions for the candidate

A few generic questions to provide guidance for voters:
 * 1. What sysop chores, if any, would you anticipate helping with? (Please read the page about administrators and the administrators' reading list.)
 * A. I would participate in Votes for Undeletion and scan Recent Changes for vandalism. I don't expect to do much speedy-deleting, as I prefer the VfD process in most cases.
 * 2. Of your articles or contributions to Wikipedia, are there any about which you are particularly pleased, and why?
 * A. I'm pretty pleased with Initiation (phonetics), Tod Browning, and List of web comics.
 * 3. Have you been in any conflicts over editing in the past or do you feel other users have caused you stress? How have you dealt with it and will deal with it in the future?
 * A. I was involved in a small conflict over tengwar, which was resolved amicably. Some users have caused me some stress, but I take it in stride, since nothing that happens on Wikipedia can really cause me harm. Decisions I think are poor are, at worst, small, short-term setbacks to the project, and at best are cases in which I'm wrong (hey, it happens).

title: Wikipedia:Requests for adminship/Gwalla


text:
File:Harry Chapin - On the Road to Kingdom Come.jpg

Summary
Harry Chapin - On the Road to Kingdom Come album cover


text:
Wikipedia:Articles for deletion/Fundigo

Fundigo was proposed for deletion. This page is an archive of the discussion about the proposed deletion. This page is no longer live. Further comments should be made on the article's talk page rather than here so that this page is preserved as an historic record. The result of the debate was DELETE

Not particularly notable, Google only brings back about 16 hits... --Sparky the Seventh Chaos 20:56, Oct 10, 2004 (UTC)

 * Delete. Not notable enough. MarkS 22:12, 10 Oct 2004 (UTC)
 * Delete. Not notable at all. Dsmdgold 22:36, Oct 10, 2004 (UTC)
 * Delete: schoolyard blog. Geogre 01:18, 11 Oct 2004 (UTC)
 * Delete. Not notable. --Improv 01:30, 11 Oct 2004 (UTC)
 * I thought this was about Fundingo. Anyway: non-notable website, delete. - Mike Rosoft 15:03, 14 Oct 2004 (UTC)
 * Delete. Non-notable website. Chrisvls 22:07, 15 Oct 2004 (UTC)

This page is now preserved as an archive of the debate and, like other '/delete' pages is no longer 'live'. Subsequent comments on the issue, the deletion or on the decision-making process should be placed on the relevant 'live' pages. Please do not edit this page.

title: Wikipedia:Articles for deletion/Fundigo


text:
On the Road to Kingdom Come

On the Road to Kingdom Come is the sixth studio album by the American singer-songwriter Harry Chapin, released in 1976. Longer versions of the songs "Corey's Coming" and "If My Mary Were Here" appeared on Chapin's 1979 live album Legends of the Lost and Found.

Personnel

 * Harry Chapin - guitar, vocals
 * Buzz Brauner - recorder
 * Stephen Chapin - keyboards, vocals
 * Carolyn Dennis - vocals
 * Ron Evanuik - cello
 * Donna Fein - vocals
 * Howie Fields - drums, percussion
 * Bobbye Hall - percussion
 * Muffy Hendrix - vocals
 * Sharon Hendrix - vocals
 * Doug Walker - guitar, vocals
 * John Wallace - bass, vocals
 * Robert Ludwig - mastering engineer

title: On the Road to Kingdom Come


text:
Talk:She-tragedy

Comments
Good article. One question: The Spectator as a female-oriented journal? I had never thought that, given the contributors and the way it was the center of the Kit-Kat Club. Geogre 20:58, 10 Oct 2004 (UTC)

It's impossible to log in as Bishonen. :-( (213.238.211.112 has a "talk page", though, check it out!) I'm quoting my source about The Spectator, but I also believe Addison wrote that it was first and foremost intended for the, wait for it, gulp, help, oh heck, well, here it comes, for the "fair sex". --213.238.211.112 21:41, 10 Oct 2004 (UTC)

 * Ok. It was a quibble.  Somewhere I've got a selected Spectator.  I should look at Spectator 1 again, just to see.  It's certainly fair to say that it had a female readership, but it had a universal readership. Geogre 22:05, 11 Oct 2004 (UTC)

Clarifying the 'Newness' of these plays with regard to women's centrality/psychology
I think the following statements need some clarification: that the she-tragedies "demonstrated the psychology and behavior of women in their private sphere and presented it for public consideration, a new concept that emerged as women began to star in main roles instead of only supporting characters" and that "For the first time, plays were written that had a woman as the main character and that followed her experiences and emotions".

These statements seem odd as currently worded, given that much earlier plays, such as Sophocles' Antigone]], and Aeschylus' Agamemnon, have women in main roles and also explore their psychological lives.

--Jay4283 (talk) 22:35, 4 July 2019 (UTC)

title: Talk:She-tragedy


text:
Cham, Switzerland

Cham is a municipality in the canton of Zug in Switzerland.

Location
Cham is located on the northern shore of Lake Zug, 5.5 km northwest of the cantonal capital of Zug. Surrounding Cham, Steinhausen is to the east, Hünenberg is to the west, Lake Zug is south, and Maschwanden and Knonau in the Canton of Zürich are to the north. The town has an area of 19.82 km2. The train station is located 418 m above sea level and the highest point in town is 468 m above sea level.

The town is located at the mouth of the Lorze river, with two sections (Kirchbühl and Städtli) located on both sides of the river. Cham also includes a number of smaller villages; Enikon, Lindencham, Friesencham, Hagendorn, Rumentikon, Niederwil, Oberwil and Bibersee.

Cham has an area,, of 17.8 km2. Of this area, 63.3% is used for agricultural purposes, while 13.2% is forested. Of the rest of the land, 21.7% is settled (buildings or roads) and the remainder (1.8%) is non-productive (rivers, glaciers or mountains).

History
The shores of Lake Zug were populated at least 6000 years ago with several sites in Cham. A number of finds in the village of Oberwil in Cham show that there were a number of middle and late Bronze Age settlements in Cham. In 1944–45 a large, unique Roman watermill with multiple waterwheels was found in the village of Hagendorn. A Roman warehouse from the same era has been discovered in the village of Heiligkreuz.

The city's name, Cham, means 'village' and refers to a large Celtic settlement on the shore of Lake Zug. Following the collapse of the Western Roman Empire, there was also an Alamannic settlement, but only place names remain. The first mention of the town (as Chama) occurred on 16 April 858 when King Louis the German gave the town to his daughter, Hildegard, the abbess of the Fraumünster Abbey in Zürich. The town was administered by a variety of nobles and bailiffs over the following centuries.

In 1360 the town was granted a charter as well as the rights to hold a market and enroll citizens. This charter, granted by Charles IV, was given to Gottfried von Hünenberg as the ruler of the city. The Habsburgs, attempting to maintain their influence in the region following the loss of Zug to the Swiss Confederation in 1364, bought part of the town in 1366 and completely bought the Hünenberg family out in 1370. However, following the decisive Habsburg defeat in the Battle of Sempach in 1386, Cham was taken by Zug and Schwyz. The Habsburgs had pawned the town to a citizen of Zürich, Götz Mülner, and so Zug was not able to completely own the city until the loan was repaid in 1415. The city would remain under the control of the vogt or bailiff of Zug until the French invasion of 1798.

In the 16th century, the reform-minded preacher Jost Müller unsuccessfully attempted to bring the Reformation to Cham.

Following the 1798 invasion of Switzerland and the collapse of the Old Swiss Confederacy, Cham finally became an independent town; although the citizens still paid some taxes and tithes to Zug until 1816 when most were abolished and 1872 when the last one ended.

The rapid industrialization of the second half of the 19th century caused a population boom in Cham and the surrounding villages. The population doubled between 1850 and 1880 and continued to grow at a slightly slower rate afterward. The first urban plan and construction ordinances came into being in 1950. A goal of the planning was to maintain the character of the industrial part of the city, becoming a center for the surrounding villages and preserve the parkland along the lake. In 1991 the town was awarded the Wakker Prize for the preservation of its architectural heritage. By 1990 Cham was the third largest city in the canton of Zug.

Demographics
Cham has a population (as of ) of. 19.6% of the population was made up of foreign nationals. Over the last 10 years, the population has grown at a rate of 14%. Most of the population speaks German (85.7%), with Serbo-Croatian being second most common (3.1%) and Italian being third (1.9%).

In the 2007 federal election, the most popular party was the SVP which received 31.3% of the vote. The next three most popular parties were the CVP (22.2%), the FDP (18.2%) and the Green Party (17.8%).

In Cham, about 76.4% of the population (between age 25–64) have completed either non-mandatory upper secondary education or additional higher education (either a university or a Fachhochschule).

The historical population was

Weather
Cham has an average of 136.1 days of rain per year and on average receives 1147 mm of precipitation. The wettest month is June during which time Cham receives an average of 144 mm of precipitation. During this month, there is precipitation for an average of 13.5 days. The driest month of the year is February with an average of 69 mm of precipitation over 13.5 days.

Sights and recreation
This small town has its own medical clinic, institutions for primary and secondary education, kindergarten and a public green with sports facilities available all year round.

Cham also provides visitors and residents alike with hotel services, congress hall, churches (Roman Catholic and Reformed), a marina, and a castle (St. Andreas). The church of St. James is a late Baroque building from the 18th century, with a late Gothic tower from the 15th century. There are several well-established restaurants providing a variety of local and international cuisines.

Heritage sites of national significance
There are a number of Swiss heritage sites of national significance in Cham. These include the Eslen, a Neolithic lake shore settlement, the church and Cistercian convent at Frauenthal, the Castle of St. Andreas, two buildings in the old city, and the brickyard.

Transportation
Cham is located 5.5 km from Zug and is centrally located between Luzern (25 km) and Zürich (32 km). The Swiss Federal Railways line from Luzern through Thalwil to Zürich occasionally stops in Cham. The E41 highway passes near Cham. The city can also be reached by bus from Zug and in the summer by boat.

Industry
Cham has an unemployment rate of 2.05%. , there were 206 people employed in the primary economic sector and about 68 businesses involved in this sector. 2,151 people are employed in the secondary sector and there are 179 businesses in this sector. 4,900 people are employed in the tertiary sector, with 783 businesses in this sector.

For most of Cham's history, farming and light industry were the main sources of income. The Lorze River has always been a key for the development of the city. The first recorded watermill in Cham was built in 1279. About 1641 a dyeing and bleaching operation was built along the river. In 1657 a paper mill was built, which partly mechanized in the 1720s and had the first paper machine in 1840. Following several mergers and expansions, this factory became the first Swiss wood pulp factory. In the 20th century it became Papierfabrik Cham AG, the largest company in Cham.

In 1863, a cotton spinning and weaving company opened in Cham. Following a major fire in 1888 the factory closed, but the dormitories for child laborers for the factory are now a children's home.

In 1864, Cham was connected to the Zürich-Lucerne train line. In 1866, the American Page family founded the Anglo-Swiss Condensed Milk Company in Cham to take advantage of this new rail line. The company initially produced only condensed milk, but soon grew to produce other milk products. In 1905, it merged with the Farine Lactée Henri Nestlé Company to form Nestlé. The company expanded rapidly; by 1907, they had over 1,000 milkmen in 44 locations. In 1913 a conflict over money between the factory and the milkmen led to a strike and weakened the company. Following World War I, the company faced financial crisis and began to shut down production in Cham.

In 1905, one-third of the population worked in agriculture, while half worked in industry. By 1955, nearly two-thirds of the population worked in industry. In the following year, industrial jobs decreased while the central location and low taxes encouraged a growth in service industries. In 2001, 80% of the businesses and 58% of the jobs are in service industries, while 40% are in manufacturing.

Sport
SC Cham is the municipality's football club.

Notable people

 * Victor Villiger (1868 in Cham – 1934) a Swiss-born German chemist and the discoverer of the Baeyer-Villiger oxidation
 * Robert Schiess (1896 in Cham – 1956) a Swiss painter and member of the Pontifical Swiss Guard
 * George Page (1910 in Cham - 2001) an American alpine skier, competed in the 1936 Winter Olympics
 * Grégory Rast (born 1980 in Cham) a Swiss former professional road bicycle racer
 * Cora Huber (born 1981 in Cham) a Swiss bobsledder, competed at the 2006 Winter Olympics
 * Priska Doppmann (born 1971 in Cham) a Swiss road racing cyclist, competed at the 2008 Summer Olympics
 * Martin Elmiger (born 1978 in Hagendorn) a Swiss former road racing cyclist, Swiss National Road Race champion in 2001, 2005, 2010 and 2014

title: Cham, Switzerland


text:
Algaut

Algaut (or Algöt) was a Geatish king who ruled West Götaland according to the Heimskringla. Snorri Sturluson relates that he was burnt to death by his son-in-law, the Swedish king Ingjald Ill-ruler.

title: Algaut


text: Category:Socialists

title: Category:Socialists


text:
Massouda Jalal

Dr. Massouda Jalal (داکتر مسعوده جلال) is the first woman in the history of Afghanistan who ran for the Office of the President of Afghanistan in 2002, 2004, and again in 2019. Dr. Jalal emerged as a leading voice of Afghan women after her election as the Representative to the 2002 Loya Jirga (Grand Assembly) as she became one of the frontrunners for the position of Interim President of Afghanistan, opposite to ex-president Hamid Karzai.

Serving as the Minister of Women's Affairs (2004-2006) in the cabinet of government of Afghanistan and the head of the Commission for the Law on the Elimination of Violence against Women (EVAW), she left behind a string of legacies that includes the framework for the National Action Plan for the Women of Afghanistan (NAPWA), a ten-year plan for women to liberate Afghan women from poverty and promote their participation in public life.

Between 2001-2004, Dr. Jalal also served as the only Afghan woman as the member of the “Peace Delegation of Afghanistan". Before joining politics, she worked as a Professor at the Kabul Medical University, and she has also worked in leadership positions in the UN World Food Programme, UNHCR, and the International Committee of the Red Cross in Afghanistan. She is fluent in Persian, Pashto, English, Dutch, and Hindi/Urdu and moderately fluent in French and German languages.

Early life and education
Born to a middle-class family in Kapisa Province of Afghanistan, one of seven children, Jalal moved to Kabul to attend high school. After scoring the second highest marks at the national level in the National College Entrance Exam of Afghanistan (Konkor), she attended the Kabul Medical University as a first generation high school and college student, where she later joined the faculty. Amidst raging war in the early 1990s, she and her academic colleagues founded the Human Rights Commission which reported human rights violations to the UN Special Envoy to Afghanistan. She was a member of the faculty in the Kabul Medical University until 1996, when the Taliban government had her removed. After her removal from the Kabul Medical University's faculty, she worked as a National Senior Program Officer and Head of Women's Department for United Nations-World Food Programme (UN-WFP), Consultant to the International Committee of the Red Cross, and Senior Program Officer for the United Nation's Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR). Under the Taliban rule, her efforts for women and girls’ right to education and work led her to get arrested for political reasons. She was released from prison through United Nation Headquarter's intervention. Her husband, Professor Dr. Faizullah Jalal, has been a professor of Law and Political Science at Kabul University for the past 30 years and they have three children. Taliban security service officers arrested Professor Faizullah Jalal on 8 January 2022 for his alleged role in criticizing Taliban government on social media.

Political career
Jalal was elected as a Representative of her Kabul neighborhood to the 2002 Emergency Loya Jirga (Grand Assembly) of Afghanistan. In 2002, when she ran for the Office of the President in the Interim Government of Afghanistan, she was placed into consideration to lead Afghanistan as Interim President, but she was finally placed a second to ex-president of Afghanistan Hamid Karzai. She turned down the offer to become ex-President Hamid Karzai's first Vice President in exchange for the withdrawal of her candidacy.

In 2003, Jalal was again elected from Kabul to the Constitutional Loya Jirga (Grand Assembly) of Afghanistan. During the drafting of the Constitution of Afghanistan, she worked with fellow women delegates to lobby for the inclusion of women and human rights provisions, including Article 22; Article 53, Section 2; Article 44; Article 54, Section 2; and Articles 83 and 84. During the Constitutional debates on whether Afghan women should be given the right to vote and run as a candidate for high positions in government, her experience in running as a presidential candidate was used as reference by the supporters, citing that she had already practiced that right. By running as presidential candidate, she had already set the benchmark on the highest level of position in which Afghan women should be allowed to compete. This gist of the debate was reflected in the documentation of the Constitutional Commission and was covered by media.

Dr Massouda Jalal run again for the Office of the President of Afghanistan as the only woman candidate in the 2004 Afghan presidential election. In 2004 election, Jalal was placed 6th among 17 male candidates. From 2001 – 2004. She was the only Afghan woman who was part of the delegation of Afghanistan during the peace negotiations. In this role, she actively participated in formal peace negotiations.

Serving as the Minister of Women's Affairs (2004-2006) in the cabinet of government of Afghanistan and the head of the Commission for the Law on the Elimination of Violence against Women (EVAW), she left behind a string of legacies that includes the framework for the National Action Plan for the Women of Afghanistan (NAPWA), a ten-year plan for women to liberate Afghan women from poverty and promote their participation in public life. She was also Head of the Commission for the Law on the Elimination of Violence against Women (EVAW), which was also adopted later as a decree to liberate Afghan women from fear, violence and oppression. During her time as the Minister of Women's Affairs she travelled to all provinces of Afghanistan. During one of her official trips to the Takhar province of Afghanistan, her convoy was targeted and bombed, leaving two of her guards severely injured. Her efforts to strive to promote human rights, women rights, equality, justice and peace during her work as the Minister of Women's Affairs are published in two books.

Furthermore, "Frontrunner: The Afghan Woman Who Surprised the World" is a documentary made on her. It is the heroic story of the first woman to run for President of Afghanistan. Although she ultimately lost the election to ex-president Hamid Karzai, her courageous campaign opened the door for over 550 women to run for Parliament just a few months later.

Civil Society Activism
Ever since she left working for the government of Afghanistan in 2006, she has been engaged in human rights, civil society, social, and political activism. She is the founder of Jalal Foundation, a non-profit, non-government organization that brings together women's councils and organizations to build women's capacity, protect women's rights, promote women's political participation, and bring the voices of women in international fora. Dr. Massouda Jalal has also founded the Freedom Message Weekly Newspaper—an activist tabloid that exposed the abuses of women's right and human rights and promoted democracy and freedom of expression in Afghanistan. In these capacities she has traveled to more than 50 countries of the world to represent Afghan women and raise their voices in the international platforms. She is also the founder and co-founder of multiple women's organizations and networks in Afghanistan and the region.

In 2010, gunmen attacked two Jalal Foundation women's rights activists in Helmand when they were on an official trip, killing one and putting the other in a coma. The attack forced Dr. Jalal to halt her travels. More recently, during her third run for the Office of President in 2019, Dr Jalal boldly critiqued extremism and the violations of human rights and women's rights in the national and international media. This resulted in several attacks on her and her family members, including her house and office were bombed by the enemies of peace and democracy. After the fall of Kabul in August 2021, Jalal was forced to go into exile to the Netherlands.

Awards and honors
Her tireless efforts and activism have been recognized and appreciated by many international awards and honors. She has received the following awards:

 * Human Rights Global Prize of the United Nations;
 * Women Excellence Award, SAARC Chamber Women Entrepreneurs’ Council  (SCWEC), 2010.
 * Awardee, Center for Development and Population Activities (CEDPA)
 * Leadership Award for Outstanding Contribution to Women Upliftment Award from the World CSR Congress;
 * Awardee, Outstanding Visionary Women Leadership Award from the World Women Leadership Congress, WWLCA, 2014
 * Awardee, International Human Rights and Law Group
 * Nominee, ASHOKA Fellowship Award
 * Nominee, Tulip Prize Award, 2012 and 2011
 * Topped the 1981 Scholarship Contest of Kapisa province at the provincial level.
 * Ranked second in the 1981 National College Entrance Exam of Afghanistan (Kankor) at the national level.

She is the author of several publications, the latest of which is a book entitled “Hanging by the Thread: Afghan Women’s Rights and Security Threats”, an articulation of her perspectives in the country's peace and political processes. Her past writings and activism include many articles and interviews on Afghan democracy, rule of law, women's rights and violence against women both in Persian and English, many of which were published in the local media and international press.

title: Massouda Jalal


text:
Revolutionary Workers Headquarters

Revolutionary Workers Headquarters (RWH) was a U.S. Marxist-Leninist organization that formed out of a split from the Revolutionary Communist Party (RCP) in 1977. After Mao Zedong, leader of the Communist Party of China, died in 1976, the majority of the RCP's leadership criticized the post-Mao Chinese leadership as "revisionist" and "capitalist-roaders", saying that China was no longer a socialist country.

A sizable minority of the RCP believed China was still a socialist country, and continued to support the post-Mao Chinese Communist Party under new leader Hua Guofeng. They left the RCP to form the RWH. Aside from differences on how to assess the changes in China, the RWH also criticized the RCP for ultra-leftism, or left-idealism in their approach to political work in the U.S. After leaving the RCP, the RWH also did an extensive critique of the RCP's line on the national question, criticizing the RCP for being "white chauvinist".

The RWH published this critique in a lengthy pamphlet titled Build the Black Liberation Movement, which itself was subsequently criticized by Amiri Baraka of the League of Revolutionary Struggle in a pamphlet titled RWH on the BLM: Wrong Again! as having white chauvinist errors. The RWH made efforts to unite in the early 1980s with the Communist Party (Marxist-Leninist), but then the CP(M-L) dissolved. In 1985, the RWH merged with the Proletarian Unity League and the Organization for Revolutionary Unity to form the Freedom Road Socialist Organization.

During its brief existence, RWH cadre were active in various movements, including the labor movement, struggles of oppressed nationalities, the women's movement, the student movement, the struggle for divestiture from companies doing business in then-apartheid dominated South Africa, and others. Through its cadres who worked in the Revolutionary Student Brigade, the RWH was directly involved with the founding of the Progressive Student Network.

Initially, RWH activity was almost exclusively found in urban areas of the Midwest and the East; it expanded to the West Coast when it absorbed the Bay Area Communist Union in 1979. While the RWH was structured according to the principles of democratic centralism, it did not consider itself a communist party per se, but rather a "pre-party organization."

title: Revolutionary Workers Headquarters


text: User:Disastrophe

title: User:Disastrophe


text:
Template talk:Contains special characters

Displaying only when needed
Would it be theoretically possible to code this template so that it checks what rendering capabilities a reader has and displays only if the reader does not have the capability to render the characters? That would be nice, as it's a wasted warning in the situation where a reader's browser can actually render them. {{u| Sdkb  }}  talk 04:58, 8 January 2024 (UTC)

 * I seem to have had this thought already two years back, but it got basically no response at the time, so might as well re-up here. {{u| Sdkb  }}  talk 05:33, 8 January 2024 (UTC)
 * No, not without some privacy-infringing or resource-intensive gadget. Nardog (talk) 10:48, 8 January 2024 (UTC)
 * No, browsers won't tell you about this for privacy reasons. You can do some tricks with Javascript that are pretty expensive to detect it, but it's not really worth it. —Th e DJ (talk • contribs) 09:49, 9 January 2024 (UTC)

Template-protected edit request on 1 April 2024
Could the image be added to the Ottoman Turkish template, as in Special:Diff/1193170987? – anlztrk (talk | contribs) 10:35, 1 April 2024 (UTC)
 * ✅ Primefac (talk) 11:26, 1 April 2024 (UTC)

Cuneiform support
The single parameter for cuneiform needs to be replaced with multiple new parameters for: These variants of the cuneiform use different fonts, and a single parameter for each of them would only be confusing for readers who would try to download the rendering support.
 * Old Babylonian cuneiform
 * Neo-Assyrian cuneiform
 * Neo-Babylonian cuneiform
 * Anatolian cuneiform
 * Urartian cuneiform.

Additionally, the template links to Help:Special characters when the cuneiform parameter is used although it should link to Help:Multilingual support. Can this be corrected? Antiquistik (talk) 14:03, 29 May 2024 (UTC)
 * Please provide the text that should be used so that it can be added in to the code. Primefac (talk) 16:30, 29 May 2024 (UTC)
 * For Old Babylonian cuneiform: This page contains Old Babylonian cuneiform script. Without proper rendering support, you may see question marks, boxes, or other symbols instead of cuneiform script.
 * For Neo-Assyrian cuneiform: This page contains Neo-Assyrian cuneiform script. Without proper rendering support, you may see question marks, boxes, or other symbols instead of cuneiform script.
 * For Neo-Babylonian cuneiform: This page contains cuneiform script. Without proper rendering support, you may see question marks, boxes, or other symbols instead of cuneiform script.
 * For Anatolian cuneiform: This page contains Anatolian (Hattic, Hittite, Hurrian, Luwian or Palaic) cuneiform script. Without proper rendering support, you may see question marks, boxes, or other symbols instead of cuneiform script.
 * A separate template for Urartian cuneiform won't be needed as Urartian uses Neo-Assyrian cuneiform. Antiquistik (talk) 17:52, 29 May 2024 (UTC)
 * Sorry for the delay; done. Primefac (talk) 17:47, 8 June 2024 (UTC)

Line feed
On the North British Academy of Arts article, the Contains special characters template is introducing an extra line feed at the top of the article. Praemonitus (talk) 16:41, 7 June 2024 (UTC)
 * This does not appear to be the case. Primefac (talk) 17:09, 8 June 2024 (UTC)
 * When I compare North British Academy of Arts to, say, Salt substitute, the first line is quite clearly at a different location. Praemonitus (talk) 19:00, 8 June 2024 (UTC)
 * Looks the same to me. I did check the code, for what it's worth, and there is no extraneous whitespace above or below any part of the template code. Primefac (talk) 19:03, 8 June 2024 (UTC)
 * Must be a browser difference then. Thanks. Praemonitus (talk) 19:26, 8 June 2024 (UTC)

Template-protected edit request on 19 July 2024
The SVGs meant to pictographically represent the Gothic Alphabet that are currently in use across Wikipedia, including on this template page, are from a font known as MPH 2B Damase. I believe that the glyphs within this font are not a good representation of the Gothic Alphabet, as they have many quirks that are not seen in attested examples of the letters. I have created SVGs of the letters that are more accurate to the forms seen in the Codex Argenteus, one of the largest extant parts of the Gothic corpus, to hopefully replace the roughly 19-year old versions used by Wikipedia. To this end, I would be grateful if you changed the image for the Gothic characters template from this:

to this:

Thank you for your time.

Fungustober (talk) 00:54, 20 July 2024 (UTC)
 * ✅ Primefac (talk) 11:56, 20 July 2024 (UTC)


text:
Mullett Lake

Mullett Lake is a lake in Cheboygan County in the U.S. state of Michigan. The lake is named after John Mullett, who, together with William A. Burt, made a federal survey of the area from 1840 to 1843. A neighboring lake was named after Burt. Historically, Mullett Lake has been recorded as Mullet Lake, Mullet's Lake, and Mullett's Lake on maps and documents.

Description of lake
Major inflows to the lake are the Indian River, which connects with nearby Burt Lake, Pigeon River, Little Pigeon River, and Mullett Creek. The Cheboygan River flows out of the northeast end of the lake.

The lake is part of the Inland Waterway, by which one can boat 38 mi from Crooked Lake and Round Lake near the Little Traverse Bay on Lake Michigan across the northern tip of the Lower Peninsula to Cheboygan on Lake Huron.

The Inland Waterway was a Native American trade route that was later opened to small steamer and modern recreational traffic.

Interstate 75 passes to the west of the lake, with two interchanges near the south end of the lake at the unincorporated community of Indian River. M-27 passes along the northern shore of the lake through the unincorporated communities of Mullett Lake and Topinabee, while M-33 running north–south passes along a portion of the eastern shore through the community of Aloha.

Mullett Lake is an excellent fishery, containing large populations of game species, including brown trout, brook trout, rainbow trout, lake trout, splake, smelt, northern Pike, muskellunge, yellow perch, walleye, smallmouth bass, largemouth bass, sunfish and most notably lake sturgeon (the state record specimen was taken from these waters)

In the census-designated place of Mullett Lake, which is located on the north end of Mullett Lake, there is a historic former Michigan Central passenger train station. The station sits directly at the end of Polish Line Road and has about 200 ft of lake front property. It was bought in 1950 by an old railroad employee once it shut down and was turned into a family cottage. The "Old Depot", which is the nickname for the cottage, was the main connection between Detroit and Mackinaw City. The former railbed now serves as the North Central State Trail.

title: Mullett Lake


text:
File:Harry Chapin - Dance Band on the Titanic.jpg

Summary
Harry Chapin - Dance Band on the Titanic album cover


text:
Talk:BC Tel

Telus "acquired"
With respect to statement that TELUS "acquired" BC TELECOM, see "About TELUS" page re: "merger of equals".

BC Tel History
BC Telephone Co [BC Tel], from the time I could remember in the early 1970's [i.e. started paying attention] until it's "privatization" in the late 80’s early 90’s was a provincial Crown corporation – as were most [if not all] provincial telephone monopolies across Canada. Anyone know when BC Tel became a Crown corporation? [I'm thinking during the W.A.C. Bennett years] MelioraCogito (talk) 01:41, 24 March 2012 (UTC)

title: Talk:BC Tel