text:
Graves (wine region)

Graves (, gravelly land) is an important subregion of the Bordeaux wine region. Graves is situated on the left bank of the Garonne River, in the upstream part of the region, southeast of the city Bordeaux and stretches over 50 km. Graves is the only Bordeaux subregion which is famed for all three of Bordeaux' three main wine types—reds, dry whites and sweet wines—although red wines dominate the total production. Graves AOC is also the name of one Appellation d'origine contrôlée (AOC) which covers most, but not all of the Graves subregion.

The area encompasses villages including Sauternes, Pessac, Talence, Léognan, Martillac, Saint-Morillon, and Portets.

The name Graves derives from its intensely gravelly soil. The soil is the result of glaciers from the Ice Age, which also left white quartz deposits that can still be found in the soil of some of the top winemaking estates.

History
The Graves is considered the birthplace of claret. Graves wine production for export dates back to Eleanor of Aquitaine, who married Henry II, King of England, creating a flourishing trade between both countries: wine versus coal and iron. In the Middle Ages, the wines that were first exported to England were produced in this area. At that time, the Médoc subregion north of the city Bordeaux still consisted of marshland unsuitable for viticulture, while Graves were naturally better-drained.

Château Pape Clément, founded at the turn of the 14th century by the future Pope Clement V, was the first named chateau in all of Bordeaux. In 1663, Samuel Pepys' mention of Château Haut-Brion was the first recorded mention of French claret in London.

After Médoc was drained by the Dutch in mid-17th century, Médoc gradually took over the role as the source of the most prized Bordeaux wines. In the Bordeaux Wine Official Classification of 1855, only one Graves property, Château Haut-Brion, one of the four original First Growths, was included among the red wines, with all the rest being Médoc properties. All the sweet wines of the 1855 classification were from Sauternes, which is a part of Graves.

A classification of Graves wine was carried out in 1953 for its red wine producers. Dry white wines were included in an updated 1959 classification. In 1987, the part of Graves containing most of the producers of its most expensive wines, closest to the city of Bordeaux itself, created a separate AOC under the name Pessac-Léognan. This has had the effect of devaluing the name and price of wines simply labeled with the Graves appellation.

Wine styles
As with Médoc, Cabernet Sauvignon is the predominant grape, but a somewhat greater proportion of Merlot is typically used in the blend, with smaller amounts of Cabernet Franc, Petit Verdot and Malbec. The dry white wines are a blend of Sauvignon blanc and Sémillon.

A well-known sweet white dessert wine is made in the commune of Sauternes, which is located in the southeast corner of the Graves region.

Appellations in Graves
The Graves subregion contains the following Appellations d'origine contrôlées (AOCs).

Graves AOC
Graves AOC is the basic appellation of the Graves subregion, and can be used for both red and dry white wine. 3100 ha of vineyards were dedicated to this appellation in 2004.

Graves Supérieures AOC
Graves Superieur AOC is an appellation for sweet white wine covering the same area as Graves AOC. The wines are generally considered as simpler than those of Cérons AOC. About 500 ha of vineyards were dedicated to the production of Graves Supérieures in 2004.

Pessac-Léognan AOC

This part of the Graves, located just south of the city of Bordeaux, is home to the first growth estate Château Haut-Brion, as well as all the 1953 classified Graves Growths, including Château La Mission Haut-Brion and Château Laville Haut-Brion. In addition to wine production, the area is known for its crops of pine trees, and vineyards are often separated by rows of forest trees. The soil of Pessac-Léognan is composed of gravel terraces with sediments from different geological eras.

Pessac-Léognan received appellation status in 1987, and produces both red and white wines. All of the estates named in the 1959 Graves classification are located in this appellation. Cabernet Sauvignon is the dominant grape variety, followed by Merlot and the white wine grapes Sauvignon blanc and Sémillon. The white wines of this area are barrel fermented and aged on their lees.

Sauternes AOC and Barsac AOC

Sauternes is an appellation of Graves known for its intensely sweet, white, dessert wines such as the Premier Cru Supérieur classified Château d'Yquem.

Wines produced in the commune of Barsac, such as Premiers Crus Château Climens and Château Coutet, are allowed to be labeled either with the commune name (as Barsac AOC) or with Sauternes. The intense sweetness is the result of the grapes being affected by Botrytis cinerea, a fungus commonly known as noble rot. In the autumn, the Ciron river produces mist that descends upon the area and persists until after dawn. These conditions are conducive to the growth of the fungus, which desiccates the grape and concentrates the sugars inside. The three main grapes are of this are Sémillon, Sauvignon blanc and Muscadelle.

Production costs for this area's botrytized wines are comparatively high. The evaporation and fungus affections produces low yields, one-fifth to one-sixth of that in other Bordeaux regions. The berries are normally harvested individually from the bunch, with pickers going through the vineyards several times between September and November to ensure the berries are picked at their optimal points. The wine is then fermented in small oak barrels, further adding to the cost. Even with half bottles of the First Growths priced at several hundred dollars, these wines still have difficulties turning a profit, and in the mid 20th century, a string of bad vintages drove many growers in the region out of business.

Cérons AOC
Cérons AOC is an appellation for sweet white wines of similar style as Sauternes, but with no producers as noted as the classified Sauternes properties and therefore with lower prices. On the other hand, the wines are considered superior to those of Graves Supérieures AOC of which Cérons effectively is an enclave.

title: Graves (wine region)


text:
Ismael Ehui

Ismaël Ehui (born 10 December 1986) is a French footballer who plays as a striker. He played in the Football League for Scunthorpe United.

Career
Ismael signed a two-year professional contract at Fulham football club after being prolific in front of goal for the youth and reserve team, he then signed a one-year extension. In late February 2006, Ehui joined Football League One side Scunthorpe United on loan to gain vital experience, and to also help them with their survival in League One. He made his debut for the Iron coming on as a second-half substitute in their 3–1 away win at Gillingham. In March 2008, Ehui joined Isthmian League Premier Division side Carshalton Athletic on loan for the rest of the season to assist in their relegation fight. He made an immediate impact with the club, scoring three goals in his first two games and also winning a penalty to set up another. After his release from Fulham in 2008, he then joined Harrow Borough where he had a brief spell. In June 2009 he left Ermis Aradippou to sign with Belgian provincial team R.R.F.C. Montegnée.

Ehui signed for Southern League Division One Central side Northwood in September 2014, joining his younger brother Joakim at the club, but left in the summer of 2015.

After leaving Northwood, Ehui signed for Conference South side Hayes & Yeading United on 3 August 2015, after impressing in pre-season. Ehui later joined Isthmian League side Hendon on dual-registration in December 2015. He later had a short spell with Flackwell Heath before rejoining Northwood in September 2016.

Ehui has since had spells with Chalfont St Peter, Potters Bar Town, Hanwell Town, North Greenford United and Broadfields United. He then returned for a short third spell at Northwood between 2021 and 2022, before departing the club. He also returned for a short spell at Broadfields United.

Personal life
Ehui's younger brother Joakim and cousin Georges are also footballers.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Ismael Ehui


text:
Matthew Collins (Welsh footballer)

Matthew Jeffrey Collins (born 31 March 1986) is a Welsh footballer who plays for Hungerford Town. He has represented Wales at Under-17, Under-19 and Under-21 levels, and plays as a central midfielder and also as a right back.

Career
Born in Merthyr Tydfil, Collins started his career at Swindon Town but Jean Tigana and his Fulham scouts were impressed by him and he signed for the club in the summer of 2001 for a fee in excess of £250,000. Two years later, Collins signed his first professional contract with the club. During a pre season tour to Germany in the 2005–06 season, Collins sustained a hamstring injury, this was a start of a nightmare season as he had recurring hamstring tears which kept him out for an 18-month period. He did not break into the first team at Fulham and signed for League One side Swansea City on a free transfer in May 2007 on a two-year deal. In his first season, he was part of the squad that gained promotion to the Championship winning the League One Title. He joined League Two side Wrexham on a one-month loan deal in November 2007. He made his debut against Shrewsbury Town, playing a full 90 minutes. He returned to Swansea after playing four times for the Dragons. Following an impressive pre-season Roberto Martínez started Collins in Swansea's first Championship match of the 2008–2009 campaign and the following two matches. Collins was rewarded for his good performances by John Toshack as the Welsh manager put the 22-year-old on the bench for the international friendly against Georgia. On 11 August 2010, Collins left Swansea City by mutual consent in a search for regular football.

After leaving Swansea, Collins joined Welsh Premier League side Haverfordwest County. He was only with the Pembrokeshire outfit for 6 months and Collins was transferred to big spending Neath to join up with former Swansea colleagues Lee Trundle and Kristian O'Leary. In his first season at Neath he was part of the side that won the Welsh Premier League play-off final. Collins went on to play in the UEFA Europa League against top flight Swedish side Aalesunds FK, however Neath were unsuccessful progressing to the next stage of the competition.

In June 2012 he joined Aberystwyth Town following the liquidation of Neath. Since joining Aberystwyth Collins has scored 5 goals in 13 games.

title: Matthew Collins (Welsh footballer)


text: Category:Hamilton County, Texas

title: Category:Hamilton County, Texas


text:
Vignats

Vignats is a commune in the Calvados department in the Normandy region in northwestern France.

Climate
The climate that characterizes the municipality is classified, in 2010, as "altered oceanic climate" according to the classification of climates in France, which at that time had eight major climate types in mainland France. In 2020, the municipality still falls under the same type of climate in the classification established by Météo-France, which now includes only five major climate types in mainland France. It is a transitional zone between oceanic climate, mountain climate, and semi-continental climate. The temperature differences between winter and summer increase with the distance from the sea. Rainfall is lower than along the coast, except in the vicinity of mountainous areas.

title: Vignats


text: Category:Polish cinematographers

title: Category:Polish cinematographers


text:
Frank Hussey

Francis Valentine Joseph Hussey (February 14, 1905 – December 26, 1974) was an American sprint runner who won a gold medal in the 4 × 100 m relay at the 1924 Summer Olympics.

Frank Hussey, a schoolboy sensation from New York City's Stuyvesant High School, ran the third leg in the American 4 × 100 m relay team in Paris Olympics, which won the gold medal in a new world record of 41.0.

After returning from Paris, he attended Boston College and then Columbia University, and as a freshman became the leading Collegiate runner in America. He won the AAU championships in 100 yd in 1925.

Although he was considered as a main favorite to gold medal in 100 m before the 1928 Summer Olympics, Hussey was eliminated in the heats of US Olympic Trials. After that he worked as a salesman, taught in the New York State Prison System, and served as an official at athletics events in his free time.

title: Frank Hussey


text:
Category:Italian monarchs

Monarchs of kingdoms within the boundaries of contemporary Italy from the fall of the Western Roman Empire in 476 AD onwards.

title: Category:Italian monarchs


text:
Talk:Matthew Collins (Welsh footballer)

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External links modified (January 2018)
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title: Talk:Matthew Collins (Welsh footballer)


text: Category:Polish spies

title: Category:Polish spies


text:
Talk:Pen name

Nom de plume
Isn't it nom de guerre that is the original French expression and nom de plume just an English invention. gK 18:27, 10 Oct 2004 (UTC)

 * Hmmm. But this is an encyclopedia written in English, and nom de plume has become quite accepted, no? —iFaqeer (Talk to me!) 22:07, Dec 20, 2004 (UTC)

 * I was specifically referring to "Nom de plume is a French-language expression". Somewhere I know I've read a detailed account with dates and references of how the original French expression was nom de guerre, then the English started using nom de plume, and eventually the French even started using nom de plume. I'm still trying to find that reference, but I know it was either in one of the debunking-style books like Tom Burnam's "The Dictionary of Misinformation" or in a book about words. If that account is true, the it should say something like: Nom de plume is a seemingly French phrase originally used by the English, and now adopted by the French. gK [[User talk:GK|¿?]] 06:20, 21 Dec 2004 (UTC)

 * Interesting thoughts. Since 'guerre' means 'war', would a 'non de guerre' be for a 'spy'?  Just asking, Charles Edwin Shipp (talk) 23:38, 8 October 2014 (UTC)

 * No - originally it was a common custom for people enlisting in the army in France (and other "continental" countries) to do so under a false name. Perhaps partly to conceal a criminal past, or even a former enlistment (deserters frequently re-enlisted when the money ran out) - perhaps to avoid shaming the family (ordinary soldiers had very low social status) - who can tell? Anyway, it became the custom - so much so that most recruiting officers took it for granted. Eventually "nom de guerre" became a (rather colloquial?) way of describing ANY false name - including what in English we would call a "pen name" or a "stage name". Now I am neither young, nor French - and French idiom may very well have changed in recent decades without my noticing, but Fowler (of "Modern English Usage" and other RS type sources on English Grammar) declares that "nom de plume" is actually not French at all, but a silly English affectation, based on a misunderstanding of the significance of "nom de guerre". Failing a French person reading this, does anyone have a French friend they can refer this question to? --Soundofmusicals (talk) 01:15, 9 October 2014 (UTC)

 * The current explanation makes no sense. It claims the origin of the expression is Latin before elaborating that it was coined in England.  Huh? Mezigue (talk) 09:58, 15 June 2015 (UTC)

 * This is very old - but of course Latin has nothing to do with the case. Perhaps the editor meant "French"? In case someone is genuinely confused, "pen name" is the English term - "nom de plume" is a literal "French" translation of this that originated in England. It is thus not really "French" at all. --Soundofmusicals (talk) 01:02, 24 September 2016 (UTC)

Repeated Wikilinks
Shouldn't we leave in the repeated links? This is a list and I am assuming that a lot of people will read only part of a list--for example, they'll come looking for the real//pen name of a person for whom they know the pen/real name and will read only that one entry. —iFaqeer (Talk to me!) 22:07, Dec 20, 2004 (UTC)

 * General Wikipedia policy is that there usually should only be one link to another Wiki article per article. It the case of this article, many of the multiple internal Wiki links were for things like author which probably aren't that necessary and won't be used much. gK [[User talk:GK|¿?]] 06:20, 21 Dec 2004 (UTC)

 * I dunno. I was thinking that, say, for an entry for an Australian author, if the link to Australian literature is several screenfulls above, it won't help the person that comes looking one specific pen name. That's all. —iFaqeer (Talk to me!) 06:54, Dec 21, 2004 (UTC)

order of "list of people with pen names"
it should be in alphabetical order. - Stancel 12:03, 3 May 2005 (UTC)

I agree --Manny 21:58, 20 July 2006 (UTC)

I agree too! -- Anonymous 14 December 2006 — Preceding unsigned comment added by 71.247.26.200 (talk) 05:55, 15 December 2006 (UTC)

Internet names
To what extent is an Internet alias actually a pen name? It's one thing for Cecil Adams, who wrote the old-fashioned way previously, but for Wonkette? I'm not saying she's not notable or anything, but it seems out of place on such a list. I think we need to make a decision here and set a precedent. Again, I've nothing against Wonkette (never read her, actually), but she seems to be the only one on the list that fits this description. --BDD 03:09, 10 May 2005 (UTC)
 * A: Keep Wonkette on and add other notable Internet writers
 * B: Remove Wonkette from the list and consider Internet aliases separate identities from pen names

Add one
I would add "Silence Dogood" the pen name Benjamin Franklin used at age 15. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 12.47.174.2 (talk) 21:39, 8 February 2006 (UTC)

Split?
Hi, I would like to suggest that the “Famous pen names” section be split into a new page of its own. It is already very large and is steadily growing so it makes since to me for it to have it’s own article. I will be happy to do the work on this, but I would like to know what your opinion is on this idea before I change anything. S.dedalus 01:44, 20 November 2006 (UTC)

 * I agree completely. Sensfan07, 26 November 2006 — Preceding unsigned comment added by 64.230.60.65 (talk) 01:29, 27 November 2006 (UTC)

 * Sounds like a good idea. Be bold. Rockpock  e  t  05:01, 30 November 2006 (UTC)

 * Absolutely. A logical split. The bold comment was taken from my mouth before I had a chance to form my lips! RoyalbroilT : C 00:55, 6 December 2006 (UTC)

Other meaning for "pen name"
I just saw this. Is there another related meaning of "pen name" that's not currently mentioned in this article, or is that nonsense (that should be reverted from the Hot Pockets article)? 188.192.112.34 (talk) 16:43, 4 August 2009 (UTC)

 * It's someone using a term without understanding it. - Jason A. Quest (talk) 19:15, 4 August 2009 (UTC)

Label
It seems to me that this article is western-centralized in the labeling of different geographical areas. Instead of 'Non-Western', 'Eastern' is a better title. Just as if western cultures have been more prominent in the use of pen-names. which isnt true. Hxasmirl (talk) 22:02, 8 October 2009 (UTC)

Female Authors
Ooh, I know, what about A. C. Crispin? She said on an Amazon.com thing that she bets everyone thinks she's a man because of the neutral initials and the science-fiction bias. Sheavsey33 (talk) 05:07, 15 December 2009 (UTC)

Here it is: [ http://www.amazon.com/A.-C.-Crispin/e/B000APVKUO/ref=ntt_dp_epwbk_0 ], although for some reason the picture on the site is of a man with a very prominent beard... Sheavsey33 (talk) 05:12, 15 December 2009 (UTC)

Male authors
I think some male authors use female pseudonyms when writing romance novels, no? Nil Einne (talk) 22:32, 16 October 2010 (UTC)

Pseudonym?
Most pen names ARE pseudonyms, of course - but by no means all - an author may very well use a variant or more or less spurious form of their real name on the title page of their books. If this is not used elsewhere it is of course a true 'pen name". "Winston S. Churchill", "Captain W.E.Johns" and "J.K. Rowling" spring to mind, but there are others- some of them referred to in the article. I have fiddled the lead definition to allow for this. --Soundofmusicals (talk) 00:55, 24 September 2016 (UTC)

Peter Saxon
Seems the page for Peter Saxons categorizes it as a nom de plume but this page doesn't list the name. Ok to add? — Preceding unsigned comment added by Klamactocrat (talk • contribs) 18:50, 23 April 2021 (UTC)

Nom de plume revisited
Also see original notes above. The paragraph that was supposed to correct this error was rather ambiguous (it was far from clear whether nom de plume was a back translation from French or vice versa). Hopefully this quite well referenced version is rather easier to understand. Soundofmusicals (talk) 08:19, 8 August 2023 (UTC)

 * Incidentally, if nom de plume really HAS crept into French usage since Fowler's time this really needs a (separate) reference. Non? -Soundofmusicals (talk) 08:27, 8 August 2023 (UTC)

removed "literary double" because no references
I've removed this reference to an alternative term.

 * or a literary double

I've never heard this term myself, and searching only shows it used with a different meaning.

If you want to restore this to the article, please add good cites for this usage.

Thanks - 189.60.49.251 (talk) 15:29, 4 September 2023 (UTC)

 * Fair enough - but in that case nor do we need to refer to the spurious "French" usage Nom de plume - at least in the lead - especially when it is well covered in the first post-lead section. Soundofmusicals (talk) 00:19, 6 September 2023 (UTC)

Nom de plume Latest comment: 7 years ago
Latest comments == Nom de plume == Latest comment: 7 years ago 24.156.41.89 (talk) 13:29, 7 July 2024 (UTC)

Nom de plume- update Latest comment: 7 Nom de plume

Latest comment: 7 years ago ago Nom de plume

Latest comment: 7 years ago 24.156.41.89 (talk) 13:30, 7 July 2024 (UTC)

P 24.156.41.89 (talk) 13:31, 7 July 2024 (UTC)

title: Talk:Pen name


text: Category:Polish resistance members

title: Category:Polish resistance members


text:
Rock Creek (Potomac River tributary)

Rock Creek is a tributary of the Potomac River, in the United States, that empties into the Atlantic Ocean via the Chesapeake Bay. The 32.6 mi creek drains about 76.5 sqmi. Its final quarter-mile (400 m) is affected by tides.

Course

The creek rises from a culvert under Dorsey Road at the north edge of Laytonsville Golf Course in Montgomery County, Maryland. A dam forms a small lake near its source. After exiting the golf course, Rock Creek flows between residential developments until it meets Agricultural History Farm Park, where the Upper Rock Creek Trail starts. It flows underneath the Intercounty Connector, which crosses it on a large arch bridge visible from the trail.

It then flows into Lake Needwood at Rock Creek Regional Park in Maryland's Derwood–Rockville area. South of the Lake Needwood Dam, Rock Creek flows in a deep gorge and is paralleled by the main Rock Creek Trail, and is joined by the North Branch Rock Creek. It exits the gorge near the Twinbrook neighborhood of Rockville and the Parklawn Memorial Cemetery.

At North Kensington, Beach Drive begins to parallel the creek. The creek eventually crosses the Capital Beltway and later reaches the Washington, D.C., border.

The creek flows for about 9 mi through Rock Creek Park in Washington, where it is fed by several small creeks (Piney Branch, Pinehurst Branch, Broad Branch, Soapstone Branch, and Luzon Branch) and numerous storm sewers.

The Chesapeake and Ohio Canal joins Rock Creek in Georgetown; the creek's mouth is the canal's eastern terminus. Just below this confluence, the Canal Company in 1831 completed a mole, causeway, and waste weir. This area, which the company dubbed "Rock Creek Basin", silted up and was dredged several times for the Canal's use. The creek (and the canal) empty into the Potomac River at the Tidewater Lock near the Watergate complex.

Watershed
The Maryland portion of the watershed comprises the second-largest watershed in Montgomery County, about 60 sqmi. About 21 percent of the creek's watershed is in Washington. Total land usage in the watershed is 896 acre of wetlands or water, 22272 acre of residential and commercial areas, 15488 acre of forest or grasslands, and 10304 acre of agricultural areas. The creek has a fairly steep gradient, with rapid changes in elevation. The man-made Lake Needwood is located on the creek, north of Rockville.

The conditions of Rock Creek are monitored by the United States Geological Survey.

Water quality and restoration
In Maryland, most of the northern Rock Creek watershed has good to excellent water quality, according to studies conducted by the county government. In 2004, to preserve water quality in partially developed areas, the county imposed restrictions on development (i.e., designation of "Special Protection Areas") in parts of this sub-watershed. The southern portion of the Maryland watershed is highly urbanized. Most of this portion of the creek and its tributaries have poor water quality. As of 2018, the county has completed several stream restoration projects throughout the watershed, and has additional projects planned or under construction.

The D.C. segment of Rock Creek also has poor water quality. In addition to typical urban stormwater pollution problems such as runoff from streets and other impervious surfaces, the creek has high bacteria levels due to leaking sewer pipes and combined sewer overflows (CSOs). The D.C. government, which has a stormwater discharge permit from the United States Environmental Protection Agency, is improving its stormwater management to raise water quality in Rock Creek. In 2009, the District of Columbia Water and Sewer Authority began a planned two-year effort to replace portions of the combined sewer with separate storm sewers, and so eliminate CSO-related problems in the creek.

As of 2021, the bacteria levels in the creek remained dangerously high due to the leaking sewer pipes, even during dry weather, and the public has been warned not to wade into the creek.

Fish species observed in Rock Creek and its tributaries include eastern blacknose dace, bluntnose minnow, yellow bullhead, satinfin shiner, swallowtail shiner, longnose dace, and American eel.

Restoration projects
In 2006, the National Park Service finished a project to remove or bypass eight fish barriers in the creek by adding a fish ladder to bypass the 1905 Peirce Mill Dam, modifying historic fords, and removing abandoned sewage lines and fords. The effort was designed to restore American shad, river herring, and other migratory fish to the creek and their historic upriver spawning grounds. An estimated two million fish migrate up the creek each year.

The D.C. government completed a restoration project on the Milkhouse Run and Bingham Run tributaries in 2013. As of 2014, ongoing restoration projects in the watershed include the Broad Branch and Klingle Run tributaries.

Tributaries
(Listed in order from the mouth upstream)

 * In D.C.
 * Dumbarton Oaks
 * Normanstone Creek
 * Klingle Valley Creek (also called Klingle Creek, Klingle Run)
 * Piney Branch
 * Melvin Hazen Valley Branch
 * Broad Branch
 * Soapstone Branch
 * Luzon Branch
 * Milkhouse Run
 * Bingham Run
 * Pinehurst Branch
 * Fenwick Branch
 * Portal Branch

 * In Maryland
 * Donnybrook Tributary
 * Coquelin Run
 * Capitol View Tributary
 * Kensington Heights Branch
 * Stoney Creek
 * Alta Vista Tributary (formerly Bethesda Run)
 * Luxmanor Branch
 * Stoneybrook Tributary
 * Josephs Branch
 * Turkey Branch
 * Sycamore Creek
 * Croydon Park Tributary
 * Southlawn Branch
 * Williamsburg Run
 * North Branch (Lake Bernard Frank)
 * Lake Needwood (in-line on Rock Creek)
 * Crabbs Branch
 * Mill Creek
 * Pope Farm Branch
 * Airpark Road Branch

title: Rock Creek (Potomac River tributary)


text:
Al LeConey

Jeremiah Alfred LeConey (November 3, 1901 – November 11, 1959) was an American athlete, winner of the gold medal in the 4x100 meter relay race at the 1924 Summer Olympics.

LeConey was raised in Moorestown, New Jersey, where he first started showing his ability as a sprinter at Moorestown High School. In 1922, LeConey won the AAU championships in the 220 yard race and, as a Lafayette College (Class of 1923) student, the IC4A championships in both the 100 and 220 yard races.

At the 1924 Summer Olympics in Paris, Al LeConey ran the anchor leg for the American 4x100 meter relay team which won the gold medal with a world record time of 41.0 seconds.

After the Olympics, LeConey covered the 100 yard distance in 9.4 seconds, but the effort was later disallowed when judges ruled that the time was wind-aided. In 1932, LeConey received an unusual honor when a picture of him at the 1924 Olympics was used by the U.S. Post Office in developing a commemorative stamp.

title: Al LeConey


text:
Omar Ali Saifuddin II

Omar Ali Saifuddin II (3 February 1799 – 18 November 1852) was the 23rd Sultan of Brunei. During his reign, Western powers such as the United Kingdom and the United States visited the country. His reign saw the British adventurer James Brooke becoming the White Rajah of Sarawak.

Early life
When his father, Sultan Muhammad Jamalul Alam I, died in 1804, he was still a minor followed by a physical deformity of an extra thumb on his right hand. Therefore, his grandfather, Paduka Seri Bega'wan Muhammad Tajuddin ascended the throne for the second time. Due to the advanced age of Sultan Muhammad Tajuddin, his younger brother, Pengiran Di-Gadong Pengiran Muda Muhammad Kanzul Alam acted as regent. When Sultan Muhammad Tajuddin died in 1807, the regent became the 21st Sultan of Brunei and was known as Sultan Muhammad Kanzul Alam. Sultan Muhammad Kanzul Alam then appointed his own son, Pengiran Anak Muhammad Alam as heir to the throne of Brunei.

In 1825, when Pengiran Muda Omar Ali Saifuddin had come of age, he asserted his claim to the throne. Pengiran Muda Omar Ali Saifuddin was supported by most nobles as he was the rightful heir according to Brunei's royal traditions. The Kris Si Naga was in the possession of his mother, thus strengthened his claim. To end the succession crisis, Sultan Muhammad Alam stepped down from the throne and was sentenced to death. In 1828, Pengiran Muda Omar Ali Saifuddin ascended the throne as the 23rd Sultan of Brunei, taking the title Sultan Omar Ali Saifuddin II.

Accession and struggle for Kuching
After his succession to the throne, he appointed his uncle Pengiran Muda Hashim as the Bendahara (Prime Minister) as a sign of compassion to heal their family relations after the Second Civil War. Pengiran Bendahara Pengiran Muda Hashim was also the late Sultan Muhammad Alam and Queen Noralam's brother.

During Sultan Omar Ali Saifuddin II's reign, he tried to establish absolute control over the economic importance of Kuching. Before this, only the Pengirans who acted on behalf of the Sultan, were in charge of collecting taxes and revenues from the local people. Especially after the discovery of antimony ore in Kuching, the Sultan became more ambitious in gaining control of Kuching's economy. The Governor of Sarawak at that time, Pengiran Indera Mahkota, also used forced labour to run the antimony mines. A disturbance occurred in Sarawak where an uprising against Brunei rule led by Datu Patinggi Ali, who was one of the ruling chiefs in Kuching. Due to the worsened situation in Sarawak, Pengiran Muda Hashim was ordered to restore order in the area.

Pengiran Muda Hashim and James Brooke
At the time of chaotic situation in Kuching, a British explorer, James Brooke, came on his schooner Royalist looking for trade opportunities in 1839. Brooke came to Kuching from Singapore as he had heard about Kuching's economic potentials. Also, at this time, Brooke met Pengiran Muda Hashim, who was the uncle of Omar Ali Saifuddin, and the two became close friends. Pengiran Muda Hashim asked for Brooke's assistance to help him to suppress the disturbances in Kuching, in return, Pengiran Muda Hashim ensured the appointment of Brooke as the new Governor, after the Governor Raja Pengiran Indera Mahkota had been deposed.

Muda Hashim later appointed James as the temporary governor in 1841 and in 1842, he sailed to Brunei to be given the title of Tuan Besar (Great Lord) and again appointed as the representative in charge of affairs in Old Sarawak by the Sultan. After the disturbances in Sarawak successfully quelled, Brooke met Pengiran Muda Hashim in Kuching to ensure his promises were kept. Pengiran Muda Hashim agreed to honour his promise. In 1842, Omar Ali Saifuddin reluctantly confirmed the appointment of James Brooke as the Governor of Sarawak in a treaty. The treaty officially recognised James Brooke as the Raja of Sarawak and the Sultan had to cede Kuching to James Brooke.

For a yearly payment of $2,500, Brooke obtained the rich in antimony region of Sarawak in July 1842. This meant that Brooke seized control of half of Brunei during this period. Following Sarawak's formal transfer to him in 1847 from Omar Ali Saifuddin, Brooke extended its boundaries (from one location to another), typically at Brunei's cost. The cession of Kuching to Brooke marked the beginning of further cessation of territories to the Brooke family and later, the British North Borneo Company (BNBC).

The rapid loss of Brunei's territories caused severe economic weakness. Because of Britain's colonial policies, which limited Britain's intervention, Brooke was able to extend its territory and cause Brunei to lose its land. Since Britain could exert indirect authority over new territories that were strategically and financially significant to them, they did not object at this time to private initiatives by British residents or trade corporations under their sponsorship to own towns in Northern Borneo.

Treaty of Labuan and death
In October 1843, the Sultan offered the island of Labuan to Britain. Notably on 6 April 1845, the relations between Brunei and the United States first began when the warship USS Constitution visited and anchored off Brunei Bay. In July 1846, James Brooke and Admiral Sir Thomas Cochrane together began a naval attack on Brunei Town and depose the Sultan. The Sultan reluctantly pledged loyalty towards Queen Victoria after he was reinstated.

That same year on 18 December, Omar Ali Saifuddin was forced to cede Labuan to the British Government under the Treaty of Labuan after threats of attack made by the Royal Navy. In 1847, the Sultan signed the Treaty of Friendship and Commerce with Britain which provide them with full control over Brunei's trade, and on 23 June 1850, he signed the Treaty of Peace, Friendship, Commerce and Navigation with the United States.

Due to significant foreign pressure on him, towards the end on his life, Omar Ali Saifuddin's health began rapidly deteriorating. He chose to distance himself from ruling the state but he never abdicated the throne. At the moment, his son-in-law Abdul Momin was appointed a regent. Omar Ali Saifuddin II died in 1852 and was succeeded by his son-in-law, Sultan Abdul Momin as the 24th Sultan of Brunei. Abdul Momin's succession was regarded as a temporary fill-in on the throne before Temenggong Hashim, the son of the late Sultan would succeed to the throne in 1885. He was buried at Kubah Makam Di Raja, Bandar Seri Begawan.

Reputation
By all accounts, Sultan Omar Ali Saifuddin II was an unimpressive figure with a second thumb on his right hand and a dull mind. He owed his position to the ambition and political savvy of his mother rather than to any personal talents. He is sometimes referred to as a fool by Western observers, but it's more likely that he was simply not particularly intelligent, making him a target of plots and a tool of his advisers, whoever they happened to be at the moment. He was never officially installed as the Sultan of Brunei and hence remained a sort of "acting sultan" due to his weakness and the persistence of the disagreements among Brunei's governing class. The solemnization of other ranking posts was also limited. Because the nominal leadership lacked the moral and traditional power conferred by the ceremonies involved with the complete coronation and installation, the overall impact was to weaken the government of Brunei.

title: Omar Ali Saifuddin II


text:
User:Stealthfox

Why Did Slaves Replace Indentured Servants As The Labor Force In the Caribbean?

Indentured servants stopped coming to the islands in the 1600's because the islands were deadly to the whites. The African slaves that were brought over by the Dutch in the 1640's introduced new diseases of which the whites had no immunity. No matter where the whites came from, whether it was from Europe or Africa the diseases were to much for them, however; the blacks fared far better than the whites to adjusting to the climate.

Anoher reason whites chose not to come to the islands is because of the reputation the planters gained as being "cruel masters" and because emancipated slaves did not have a good opportunity to find good paying jobs once they were set free, and they certainly did not have any chance in owning their own plantations. More and more black slaves were being trained as skilled workers which further reduced the opportunity for whites to get jobs, along with the fact the blacks were cheaper to purchase than the whites.

By far the greatest reason that indentured servants were being replaced by black slaves is because of the reputation that the islands had of all o fthe misfortune and death that the whites endured. Black slaves didn't have a choice and had to come to the islands whether they wanted to or not. Meanwhile the whites found it easier in north america with the climate and future possibilities to get jobs or own property.

title: User:Stealthfox


text:
Indian River (Michigan)

Indian River is the name of two rivers in the U.S. state of Michigan:

 * Indian River (Manistique River), in Alger and Schoolcraft counties in the Upper Peninsula
 * Indian River (Mullett Lake), in Cheboygan County in the Lower Peninsula

title: Indian River (Michigan)


text: Category:Polish religious leaders

title: Category:Polish religious leaders


text:
Patrick (given name)

Patrick is a male given name of Latin origin. It is derived from the Roman name Patricius (meaning patrician, i.e. "father", "nobleman").

Actors and entertainers

 * Patrick Armand, French ballet dancer
 * Patrick Brasca, Canadian–Taiwanese singer
 * Patrick Cargill, British actor
 * Pat Condell, English stand-up comedian
 * Pat Corley, American actor
 * Patrick Dempsey (born 1966), American actor
 * Patrick Duffy, American actor
 * Patrick Ellis (radio host) (1943–2020), American radio show host
 * Patrick Nattawat Finkler (born 2003), Thai–German actor, singer, dancer, songwriter and model
 * Patrick Fugit (born 1982), American actor
 * Patrick Gower, New Zealand journalist
 * Patrick Heusinger (born 1981), American actor
 * Patrick J. Adams (born 1981), Canadian actor
 * Patrick Macnee, English actor
 * Patrick Magee, Irish actor
 * Patrick McDonnell, Irish actor
 * Patrick McGoohan (1928–2009), Irish-American actor
 * Patrick Monahan, Irish comedian
 * Patrick O'Connell, Irish actor
 * Pat Paulsen (1927–1997), American comedian and satirist
 * Patrick Poivey (1948-2020), French voice of Bruce Willis.
 * Pat Sajak, American game show host
 * Patrick Stewart (born 1940), English actor
 * Patrick Swayze (1952–2009), American actor
 * Patrick Tam (actor) (born 1969), Hong Kong actor and singer
 * Patrick Tang (born 1974), Hong Kong singer, actor, and television host
 * Patrick Topaloff (1944–2010), French singer and actor
 * Patrick Troughton (1920–1987), English actor
 * Patrick Tse (born 1936), Hong Kong actor, producer, screenwriter and director
 * Patrick Warburton (born 1964), American actor
 * Patrick Waltz (1924–1972), American actor
 * Patrick Wilson (born 1973), American actor and singer

 * Other
 * Sean Patrick Flanery, American actor
 * Sean Patrick Thomas, American actor
 * Neil Patrick Harris, American actor

Authors

 * Patrick, the pseudonym used by artist John Byrne (born 1940), Scottish playwright
 * Patrick Cary (c. 1624–1658), English poet
 * Pat Chapman, English food writer
 * Padraic Colum (1881–1972), Irish author
 * Patrick Cullinan (1932–2011), South African poet and biographer
 * Patrick Delaforce, historian and British Army captain
 * Patrick Jennings (born 1962), American children's book author
 * Patrick Jones (born 1965), Welsh poet and playwright
 * Patrick Lane (1939–2019), Canadian poet
 * Patrick Modiano (born 1945), French novelist
 * Patrick Pearse (1879–1916), Irish poet and nationalist
 * Patrick O'Brian (1914–2000), English author and translator
 * Patrick Süskind (born 1949), German writer and screenwriter

Musicians

 * Pat Acuña (born 1986), American drummer, member of indie rock band Silent Old Mtns
 * Patrick Alavi, German musician
 * Pat Boone (born 1934), American singer
 * Patrick Brasca, Canadian-Taiwanese singer
 * Patrick Bruel, French singer
 * Patrick Carney (born 1980), American drummer, member of indie rock band The Black Keys
 * Pat DiNizio (1955–2017), American songwriter, lead singer of the band The Smithereens
 * Patrick Doyle, Scottish film composer
 * Patrick Girondi, singer, composer
 * Patrick Hernandez, French singer
 * Patrick Lindner, German singer
 * Pat Metheny, American jazz guitarist
 * Steven Patrick Morrissey (born 1959), British singer
 * Patrick Monahan (born 1969), American musician (rock band Train)
 * Patrick "Pat" O'Brien, former lead guitarist for the death metal band Cannibal Corpse, former member for the heavy metal band Nevermore and a former touring musician with the thrash metal band Slayer
 * Patrick Chukwuemeka Okogwu, known as Tinie Tempah, British rapper
 * Patrick Simmons (born 1948), American guitarist and singer, founding member of the band The Doobie Brothers
 * Patrick Stump (born 1984), American musician, lead singer and rhythm guitarist of the band Fall Out Boy
 * Patrick Wilson (born 1969), American musician, drummer of the band Weezer
 * Patrick Wolf (born 1983), English singer-songwriter

Politicians

 * Patrick Dankwa Anin (1928-1999), Ghanaian politician
 * Pat Bell (born 1957), Canadian politician)
 * Patrik Björck (born 1957), Swedish politician
 * Patrick Blake (1846–1909), Canadian politician
 * Patrick Boland, Irish politician
 * Patrick Buchanan, American political commentator, author and politician
 * Patrick Byrne, Irish politician
 * Patrick Connor, Irish politician
 * Patrick Donnelly, Irish politician
 * Patrick Duffy, Irish politician
 * Patrick Duncan, South African politician
 * Patrik Engström (born 1968), Swedish politician
 * Patrick F. Gill, American Representative
 * Patrick Henry (1736–1799), American revolutionary figure
 * Patrick Hetzel (born 1964), French Member of Parliament
 * Patrick Hillery (1923–2008), the sixth President of Ireland (1976–1990)
 * Patrick Home (1728–1808), Scottish MP for Berwickshire (1784–1796)
 * Patrick J. Kennedy, former United States congressman
 * Patrick Leonard, Irish politician
 * Patrik Lundqvist (born 1984), Swedish politician
 * Patrick Matibini (born 1959), Zambian politician and judge / current speaker of the national assembly 'parliament'
 * Patrick Murphy, Irish politician
 * Patrick Norton, Irish politician
 * Patrick Palmer, Irish politician
 * Patrick Pearse (aka Pádraig Pearse) (1879–1916), Irish activist and revolutionary
 * Pat Roberts, American Senator from Kansas
 * Pat Robertson, American preacher and political figure
 * Patrick Lipton Robinson, Jamaican U.N. judge
 * Patrick Tierney, Irish politician
 * Patrick Vahoe (born 1970), Solomon Islands politician
 * Patrick Vans, Scottish judge
 * Patrick Vanse (1655–1733), Scottish MP
 * Levy Patrick Mwanawasa (1948-2008), Former President of the Republic of Zambia

Religious figures

 * Saint Patrick, Christian saint
 * Patrick Duggan (bishop), Roman Catholic Bishop of Clonfert in Ireland

Sportspeople

 * Patrick, the working name of professional wrestler Don Harris
 * Patrik Andersson, Swedish football player
 * Patrick Bailey (born 1999), American baseball player
 * Patrick Baldassarre (born 1986), Swiss basketball player
 * Patrick Bamford, English football player
 * Pat Barry (born 1979), American kickboxer and mixed martial artist
 * Pat Batteaux (born 1978), American football player
 * Patrick Battiston (born 1957), French footballer
 * Patrik Berger, Czech football player
 * Patrik Berglund, Swedish ice hockey player
 * Pat Boller (born 1972), American ice hockey coach and executive
 * Paddy Bradley, Irish Gaelic football player
 * Patrick Burris, American judoka and two-time Olympian
 * Patrick Cain, American football player
 * Pat Calathes (born 1985), Greek-American basketball player
 * Pat Cash, Australian tennis player
 * Patrick Chan (born 1990), Canadian figure skater
 * Patrick Chung, American football player
 * Pat Cummins, Australian cricketer
 * Patrick Dangerfield, Australian football player
 * Patrick Eaves, American-Canadian ice hockey player
 * Pat Elflein, American football player
 * Pat Elzie, American-German basketball coach and former player
 * Patrick Ewing, American basketball player
 * Patrick Faber (field hockey), Dutch field hockey player
 * Patrick Fernandes (born 1993), Cape Verdean footballer
 * Pat Freiermuth (born 1998), American football player
 * Patrik Gunnarsson (born 2000), Icelandic footballer
 * Pádraig Harrington, Irish professional golfer
 * Patrick Heuscher, Swiss volleyball player
 * Patric Hörnqvist, Swedish ice hockey player
 * Patrekur Jóhannesson, Icelandic handball coach
 * Patrick Kane, professional ice hockey player
 * Patrick Kluivert, Dutch football player and coach
 * Patrick Kühl, German swimmer
 * Patrik Kühnen, German tennis player
 * Patrik Laine, Finnish ice hockey player
 * Patrick Laird (born 1995), American football player
 * Patrick Lam (born 1983), Hong Kong equestrian
 * Patrick Larkins (1860–1918), American baseball player
 * Patrick Lewis, American football player
 * Pat Mahomes, American baseball player; father of Patrick Mahomes II
 * Patrick Mahomes II, American football player
 * Patrick Matt, Liechtensteiner cyclist
 * Pat Matzdorf, American athlete
 * Patrick Mazeika (born 1993), American baseball player
 * Patrick Mboma (born 1970), Cameroonian football player
 * Pat McAfee (born 1987), American football player and Sports analyst
 * Patrick McEnroe, American tennis player
 * Patrick McGuirk (born 1967), American football player
 * Patrick McMorris (born 2001), American football player
 * Patrick Mekari (born 1997), American football player
 * Patrick Miller (basketball) (born 1992), American basketball player in the Israeli Basketball Premier League
 * Patty Mills, Australian basketball player←
 * Patrick Morris (American football) (born 1995), American football player
 * Pat Mountain, Welsh football player
 * Patrick O'Connell (1887–1959), Irish footballer
 * Pat O'Connor (disambiguation), multiple people
 * Pat O'Hanlon (born 1991), Australia Rugby League player
 * Patrick Owomoyela (born 1979), German footballer
 * Patrick Pedersen (born 1991), Danish footballer
 * Patrick Queen (born 1999), American football player
 * Patrick Rafter, Australian tennis player
 * Patrick Rakovsky, German football player
 * Patrick Ramsey, American football player
 * Patrick Ricard (American football) (born 1994), American football player
 * Pat Richards (born 1981), Australian Rugby League player
 * Patrick Rowe (born 1969), American football player
 * Patrick Roy, Canadian ice hockey goaltender
 * Pat Ryan (born 1955), American football player
 * Patrick Sandoval, American baseball player
 * Patrick Scales (American football), American football player
 * Patrick Schmollinger, Austrian swimmer
 * Patrick da Silva, Brazilian football player
 * Patrik Sjöberg, Swedish high jumper
 * Pat Spillane, Irish Gaelic footballer
 * Patrick Surtain (born 1976), American football player
 * Patrick Surtain II (born 2000), American football player
 * Pat Tillman (born 1976), American football player and Army Ranger
 * Patrick Vahe (born 1996), American football player
 * Patrick Veszpremi, Australian rules footballer
 * Patrick Vieira, Senegalese-born French football player
 * Patrik Virta (born 1996), Finnish ice hockey player
 * Patrick Vörös (born 1993), Canadian professional wrestler
 * Patrick Willis (born 1985), American football player

Other

 * H.I.H. Prince Patrick Ali of Iran
 * Patrick Abercrombie, English town planner
 * Patrick Bokanowski, a French filmmaker
 * Patrick Tracy Burris (1967–2009), American spree killer
 * Patrick Carr (disambiguation), multiple people
 * Patrick Critton, American former teacher and the first successful aircraft hijacker
 * Patrick E. Crago, American medical researcher
 * Patrick Wood Crusius (born 1998), perpetrator of the 2019 El Paso shooting
 * Patrick Degorce (born 1969), French hedge fund manager
 * Patrick Dumont, American businessman
 * Pat Finucane (1949–1989), Irish lawyer
 * Patrick Fitzgerald, American Attorney
 * Patrick Flanagan, American inventor
 * Patrick Gaffney (disambiguation), multiple people
 * Patrik Gardesten, Swedish officer
 * Patrick de Gayardon (1960–1998), French skydiver, skysurfer and BASE jumper
 * Patrick Gordon, Imperial Russian Army general
 * Patrick Graham (disambiguation), multiple people
 * Patrick Harvey (disambiguation), multiple people
 * Patrick Hemingway, son of author Ernest Hemingway
 * Patrick Hitler, half-nephew of Adolf Hitler
 * Patrick Jeffrey, American diver
 * Patrick Kearney (born 1939), prolific American serial killer, rapist, and necrophile
 * Pat Kenny, Irish broadcaster
 * Patrick Kielty, Irish comedian and television presenter
 * Pat Kiernan, television news anchor
 * Patrick Kong, Hong Kong film director and screenwriter
 * Patrick Lee (Chinese businessman), Chinese business magnate
 * Patrick Anson, 5th Earl of Lichfield (1939–2005; also known as Patrick Lichfield), photographer
 * Patrick Lin (chef), Hong Kong Senior Executive Chef
 * Patrick Lin (cinematographer), Hong Kong–born cinematographer and layout artist
 * Patrick Lung (1934-2014), Hong Kong film director
 * Patrick Lynch (disambiguation), multiple people
 * Patrick Mackay (born 1952), British serial killer
 * Patrick McGuinness (disambiguation), multiple people
 * Sir Patrick Moore, English astronomer
 * Patrick Moore (born 1947), founder member of Greenpeace
 * Patrick Nogueira, Brazilian murderer serving three life sentences plus 25 years in Spain
 * Pat O'Brien, radio and television personality
 * Patrick Russell (disambiguation), multiple people
 * Patrick Rechner, Canadian Captain taken hostage working as a UN observer in Bosnia
 * Patrick "Spaz" Spaziante, American comic book artist
 * Patrick Stritch, Irish photographer from Fermoy, County Cork, best known for his picture of Irish Republican Army general, Liam Lynch
 * Patrick Swift (1927–1983), painter
 * Patrick Tam (film director) (born 1948), Hong Kong film director and film editor
 * Patrick Whelan (1893–1916), Irish Volunteer, KIA during the Easter Rising of 1916
 * Patrick Taylor (disambiguation), multiple people
 * Patrick Theodore (born 1985), Footwear Designer (Indonesian)
 * Patrick Warren (born 1985) British missing person since 1996
 * Patrick Williams (disambiguation), multiple people
 * Patrick Yau, Hong Kong film director and assistant director

Fictional characters

 * Lord Harry, also known as Patrick, the locomotive character from The Railway Series books by the Rev. W. Awdry
 * Patrick, an Irish chip shop owner played by David Mullane in the British web series Corner Shop Show
 * Patrick, a cement mixer in the British children's TV series Thomas & Friends
 * Patrick Bateman in Bret Easton Ellis' novel American Psycho
 * Patrick Clifton, titular character in Postman Pat
 * Patrick Darling in Dirty Sexy Money
 * Sir Patrick Delaney-Podmore in the Harry Potter series of books
 * Patrick Harper (fiction), the Irish right-hand man in the Sharpe book and television series
 * Patrick Jane, main character in The Mentalist
 * Paddy Kirk popular character in the Yorkshire-based soap opera Emmerdale.
 * Patrick Kuby, a character from the television series Breaking Bad
 * Patrick McKinney in the Netflix television series Stranger Things.
 * Patrick McReary, character in GTA IV and GTA V.
 * Patrick Star in the television series SpongeBob SquarePants
 * Patrick Verona, main character in 10 Things I Hate About You

title: Patrick (given name)


text:
User:Project2501a

[[Image:Original_Barnstar.png|left|frame|For your clever contributions There is a Ghost in my Shell
 * user:panosfidis]]

title: User:Project2501a


text:
Bathtub racing

Bathtub racing is a competition that involves the use of bathtub boats, small powered watercraft designed around bathtubs or close facsimiles.

Boat design
Early boats were whimsical and crafted from a variety of materials. Today, most racing bathtub boats are monohull planer types with outboard motors. A form resembling a roll-top tub must be an integral part of the structure. Most tubbers make their "tub" by using a bathtub as the model to lay down a fiberglass mold.

The rules restrict the engine to 9.9 hp (7.3 kW), and the weight to a minimum of 350 lb (159 kg) including driver. There are three classes of bathtub boats: Stock, Modified, and Super-Modified. Stock motors must be an unmodified stock engine, but can be tuned by adjusting the timing. Modified motors can only modify the lower leg and propeller. Super Modified can modify the entire engine as long as factory parts are used.

History
Bathtub racing started in Nanaimo, British Columbia. The idea was conceived to showcase Nanaimo to the world, with the first races beginning with the "Nanaimo to Vancouver Great International World Championship Bathtub Race" in 1967.

Frank Ney, Nanaimo's mayor at the time, was one of the largest supporters and promoters of the annual race from its establishment until his death in 1992, and was an avid participant. He would regularly dress as a pirate and tour the town and surrounding communities.

Until the 1990s, the race was held as a part of Vancouver's annual Sea Festival, aka Sea Fest, when tubbers raced from Nanaimo to Vancouver's Kitsilano Beach. With the demise of the Vancouver Marine Festival in the mid-1990s, the race now involves a course beginning and ending in Nanaimo Harbour.

The current course takes the tubbers into the open waters of Georgia Strait and is currently 58 kilometres in length. The race is held the last weekend of July every year.

Other cities, like Auckland's North Shore with its Englefield Bathtub Derby, and Bremerton, Washington with the US-Canadian Friendship race now hold bathtub races, but the Nanaimo event continues to be the most widely known.

title: Bathtub racing


text:
Talk:Repeating crossbow

Chu Ke Nu or Chu Ko Nu?
In the article it states that the name is sometimes "misspelled as chu-ko-nu", yet in the next paragraph, it is used that way...

As for the use in Age of Empires, maybe it is spelt that way in the game (I have no first hand knowledge of the game), which is why I haven't edited it.

213.22.35.32 (talk) 11:47, 3 April 2009 (UTC)

vindaloo9d's
Please research at: —Preceding unsigned comment added by 24.239.54.193 (talk) 19:37, 30 December 2010 (UTC)
 * Unfortunately that video was deleted and not archived. But maybe have a look at.

Date inconsistency
The article states: "Archaeological evidence of the earliest repeating crossbow was discovered in a Chinese tomb dated to the 4th century BC, during the Three Kingdoms period."

But the Three Kingdoms article gives dates of (184–280). Which is correct? Lulu71339 (talk) 21:07, 31 July 2013 (UTC)

 * I was looking at an article from a Chinese military website here: http://m.jb.mil.cn/yjcz_4658/gbtg/201707/t20170720_35544.html

 * This article states that, the earliest crossbow which can fire multiple arrows at a time was discovered in a tomb that can be traced back to the Warring States period. Note that the Warring States period is about 5th century BC to 220 BC. However this crossbow can only load and fire two arrows at a time.

 * In the Chinese historical book Records of the Three Kingdoms (published around 3rd century, covers the history of the Three Kingdoms, 184-280), a repeating crossbow that can load and fire "ten" arrows at a time was documented. This is by far the oldest text known that uses the word and describes "repeating crossbow" (连弩).

 * Silverwzw (talk) 22:37, 15 May 2019 (UTC)

Technical data
Does anybody have any information on performance data?

I'm particularly interested in "muzzle velocity" of the different designs, and I could not find any reliable English sources to cite such numbers.

I'd be rather surprised if nobody did tests with recreated models.

— Preceding unsigned comment added by 66.234.43.157 (talk) 21:10, 11 February 2014 (UTC)

 * Unscientific, but even a very crude one will shatter the chopsticks it was firing at a straw archery target. Andy Dingley (talk) 14:15, 6 October 2015 (UTC)
 * Jörg Sprave's ancient-Chinese-inspired rubber band version fired Ikea pencils at 135 km/h; his heavily modified double-bowed Adder fires twenty gram bolts at 310 km/h. So it differs wildly depending on the construction of the bow and the projectiles used. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 77.61.180.106 (talk) 03:35, 24 November 2021 (UTC)

Poison?
If they're heavily armored and, presumably, the bolt cannot penetrate that armor, at what point is the arrow/bolt injecting the poison into their bodies? 72.200.151.13 (talk) 01:39, 21 February 2015 (UTC)
 * Even if they're heavily armored, they still could be penetrated, but the shot's are not fatal (By meaning, only a slight cut will be caused) Jason Sudana (talk) 13:26, 6 October 2015 (UTC)

A Commons file used on this page has been nominated for deletion
The following Wikimedia Commons file used on this page has been nominated for deletion: Participate in the deletion discussion at the nomination page. —Community Tech bot (talk) 02:59, 25 November 2018 (UTC)
 * Repeating crossbow WBZ.jpg

Pinyin vs Wade-Giles
Hello. I'm not familiar with the Wade-Giles Mandarin romanisation (only pinyin) but why are the Wade-Giles tones first-second-third (high-rising-falling) but pinyin tones first-third-third (high-falling-falling)? Is it supposed to be like this or just an error? Hkbusfan (talk) 08:47, 14 October 2019 (UTC)

Computer game references
I only knew about the chu-ko-nu because of it being in the computer games Age of Empires and Civilization V (yes, the old revision link below mentions only Civ IV, not sure why). I think that many people who search online for it, including me (also I do have a Chinese background but still never heard of this outside the games mentioned above), probably searched it from the games so can we add those references back? I do think it helps make the connection in people's minds. This is the most recent revision that mentioned the games: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Repeating_crossbow&oldid=355392077 Hkbusfan (talk) 08:54, 14 October 2019 (UTC)

A Commons file used on this page or its Wikidata item has been nominated for deletion
The following Wikimedia Commons file used on this page or its Wikidata item has been nominated for deletion: Participate in the deletion discussion at the. —Community Tech bot (talk) 23:55, 9 May 2020 (UTC)
 * Repeating crossbow WBZ.jpg

Naval battle scroll image
The naval battle scroll image was painted by 太田天洋 in the early 20th century. Including it in this article is extremely problematic, because a layman might very well look at the image and assume it's period art, whereas in reality the painting and the events portrayed are separated by centuries. So to the reader it looks like documentary proof of not just the existence but also the functioning of the machine, whereas in reality the imagination of the artist may have had to bear a fair share of the burden. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 77.61.180.106 (talk) 00:49, 24 November 2021 (UTC)

Liang Jieming
This article lists Liang Jieming as a source, but I'm not impressed with the scholarship of his work. Even this wiki article is better referenced and he doesn't provide proper image attribution either. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 77.61.180.106 (talk) 00:54, 24 November 2021 (UTC)

title: Talk:Repeating crossbow


text:
File talk:PearlHarborCarrierChart.jpg

This chart is from "Reports of General MacArthur, prepared by his General Staff.", printed in 1966 by the Government Printing Office. The map shows the route of the Kido Butai (Striking Force) from the Japanese Home Islands to the launching point north of Hawaii and back to Japan. To the original map I have added the routes of the USS Enterprise and USS Lexington. The longitude and latitude for each day was taken from copies of the deck logs for each ship as included in the "Congressional Investigation Into The Attack On Pearl Harbor."

If you look at the map you will see that the dates show when the carriers left port and where they were on the day of the attack. What you can't see from this map is that the Enterprise had been scheduled to return to Hawaii on Dec. 6th, but had been delayed because heavy seas had made it difficult to refuel her escorting destroyers. The ship was eager to get back in port on Sunday, they had a major softball game scheduled against their prime rival in the league, USS Arizona, to be played that afternoon.

You can also use this chart to locate the position of a Japanese tanker that, according to some people, was near Hawaii and broadcasting her position. The author of that item mistakenly confused "156E" with "156W" for the longitude. 156E is very close to where the Kido Butai's path crosses the 30S latitude line, near Wake Island.

So, from this one chart you can see that the Japanese chose a very careful route to Hawaii, one with little traffic. You can also see that the carriers were not "hustled out of port just before the attack", as some people claimed, and that, in fact, one of them was trying to get back into Pearl before the attack happened. And, that the reports that a Japanese naval vessel was broadcasting from "north of Hawaii" is very, very wrong.

Commons
I've uploaded this image to the Commons. unf (discussion) 62.43.36.154 15:27, 18 October 2005 (UTC)

title: File talk:PearlHarborCarrierChart.jpg


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Talk:Boyfriend

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Either no pics or get a heterosexual picture in here, too....sigh
Really? I'm all for LGBT, freedom and gender equality, so please don't discriminate against heterosexuals. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 93.133.17.83 (talk) 14:09, 30 July 2012 (UTC)
 * It's not discrimination that there's only one couple picture there. Someone just never added one for opposite-sex couples (because there's no requirement to probably). Choose one from the Wikimedia Commons if you like and i'll add it. Thanks ツ Je no va  20  (email) 16:26, 9 November 2012 (UTC)
 * We already have two pictures in the article.-- В и к и  T   16:34, 9 November 2012 (UTC)

Boyfriend
The term boyfriendItalic text has been misinterpreted by many writers. Lets take the combined words, "boy"Italic text and "friend"Italic text. The word "friend" means,someone who is not your blood relation. Then, the "boy" as we all know is a male. Therefore, we can conclude that a boyfriend is simply a friend who is a male and not that a boyfriend being a sex partner,and this also applies to the word,"girlfriend". — Preceding unsigned comment added by 196.29.237.18 (talk) 14:24, 14 August 2015 (UTC)

Semi-protected edit request on 14 October 2016
Brannon patterson is also known as the #bestBFintheworld 81.139.213.54 (talk) 08:42, 14 October 2016 (UTC)

 * ❌ Blatant vandalism.  JTP ( talk • contribs) 15:00, 14 October 2016 (UTC)

Duplicate Template
I cannot edit it, but the boyfriend article has two right side templates, which is highly redundant with it being the same thing. WolfKanin (talk) 15:45, 7 June 2017 (UTC)

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title: Talk:Boyfriend


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Altazimuth mount

An altazimuth mount or alt-azimuth mount is a simple two-axis mount for supporting and rotating an instrument about two perpendicular axes – one vertical and the other horizontal. Rotation about the vertical axis varies the azimuth (compass bearing) of the pointing direction of the instrument. Rotation about the horizontal axis varies the altitude angle (angle of elevation) of the pointing direction.

These mounts are used, for example, with telescopes, cameras, radio antennas, heliostat mirrors, solar panels, and guns and similar weapons.

Several names are given to this kind of mount, including altitude-azimuth, azimuth-elevation and various abbreviations thereof. A gun turret is essentially an alt-azimuth mount for a gun, and a standard camera tripod is an alt-azimuth mount as well.

Astronomical telescope altazimuth mounts
When used as an astronomical telescope mount, the biggest advantage of an alt-azimuth mount is the simplicity of its mechanical design. The primary disadvantage is its inability to follow astronomical objects in the night sky as the Earth spins on its axis. On the other hand, an equatorial mount only needs to be rotated about a single axis, at a constant rate, to follow the rotation of the night sky (diurnal motion). Altazimuth mounts need to be rotated about both axes at variable rates, achieved via microprocessor based two-axis drive systems, to track equatorial motion. This imparts an uneven rotation to the field of view that also has to be corrected via a microprocessor based counter rotation system. On smaller telescopes an equatorial platform is sometimes used to add a third "polar axis" to overcome these problems, providing an hour or more of motion in the direction of right ascension to allow for astronomical tracking. The design also does not allow for the use of mechanical setting circles to locate astronomical objects although modern digital setting circles have removed this shortcoming.

Another limitation is the problem of gimbal lock at zenith pointing. When tracking at elevations close to 90°, the azimuth axis must rotate very quickly; if the altitude is exactly 90°, the speed is infinite. Thus, altazimuth telescopes, although they can point in any direction, cannot track smoothly within a "zenith blind spot", commonly 0.5 or 0.75 degrees from the zenith. (i.e. at elevations greater than 89.5° or 89.25° respectively.)

Current applications
Typical current applications of altazimuth mounts include the following.

Research telescopes
In the largest telescopes, the mass and cost of an equatorial mount is prohibitive and they have been superseded by computer-controlled altazimuth mounts. The simple structure of an altazimuth mount allows significant cost reductions, in spite of the additional cost associated with the more complex tracking and image-orienting mechanisms. An altazimuth mount also reduces the cost in the dome structure covering the telescope since the simplified motion of the telescope means the structure can be more compact.

Amateur telescopes

 * Beginner telescopes: Altazimuth mounts are cheap and simple to use.
 * Dobsonian telescopes: John Dobson popularized a simplified altazimuth mount design for Newtonian reflectors because of its ease of construction; Dobson's innovation was to use non-machined parts for the mount that could be found in any hardware store such as plywood, formica, and plastic plumbing parts combined with modern materials like nylon or teflon.
 * "GoTo" telescopes: It has often proved more convenient to build a mechanically simpler altazimuth mount and use a motion controller to manipulate both axes simultaneously to track an object, when compared with a more mechanically complex equatorial mount that requires minimally complex control of a single motor.

title: Altazimuth mount


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Frank Wykoff

Frank Clifford Wykoff (October 29, 1909 – January 1, 1980) was an American athlete, triple gold medal winner in 4 × 100 m relay at the Olympic Games.

Career
Born in Des Moines, Iowa, Frank Wykoff has a place in track and field history by being the first man to ever win three Olympic relay gold medals, all in world record time.

Wykoff made his debut at the Olympic Games in Amsterdam, where he finished fourth in the 100 m and ran an opening leg in the American 4 × 100 m relay team, which equalled the world record of 41.0 seconds in the final.

After the Olympics, in 1929, Wykoff enrolled at Glendale Community College. He enrolled for one year to be able to train one more season with his Glendale High School coach, Normal Hayhurst. He was close to death the previous fall with a severe throat infection but recovered enough in the spring to tie the world record four times as a sprinter for Glendale. He then transferred to the University of Southern California where he came under the tutelage of the famous coach Dean Cromwell. He won the AAU championships in 100 yd in 1928 and 1931 and the NCAA championships in 100 yd in 1930 and 1931. He ran a new world record in 100 yd of 9.4 s in May, 1930 and repeated it a month later. In 1931, as an anchor of the University of Southern California 4 × 100 m relay team, he helped set a new world record of 40.8. While at USC, Wykoff became a member of the Kappa Alpha Order national fraternity.

At the 1932 Summer Olympics, Wykoff ran the anchor leg for the American 4 × 100 m relay team, which set a new world record of 40.0 seconds. At the 1936 Summer Olympics he again finished fourth in 100 m and again anchored the American 4 × 100 m relay team to gold with a new world record of 39.8.

Following his graduation from USC in 1932 Wykoff earned a master's degree in 1936 and became a teacher and administrator. Wykoff worked for the Los Angeles County school system until retiring in 1972. Frank Wykoff died in Altadena, California, aged 70.

A slogan of Wykoff's, "Clean Speech, Clean Sport, Clean Scholarship, Clean Life," was adopted by the YMCA in 1938.

His medals can be viewed in Los Angeles, CA by contacting la84 Org

title: Frank Wykoff


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Ammonium sulfate precipitation

Ammonium sulfate precipitation is one of the most commonly used methods for large and laboratory scale protein purification and fractionation that can be used to separate proteins by altering their solubility in the presence of a high salt concentration.

Properties
Ammonium sulfate is an inorganic salt with a high solubility that disassociates into ammonium and sulfate  in aqueous solutions. Ammonium sulfate is especially useful as a precipitant because it is highly soluble, stabilizes protein structure, has a relatively low density, is readily available, and is relatively inexpensive.

Mechanism
Ammonium sulfate, as well as other neutral salts, will stabilize proteins by preferential solvation. Proteins are usually stored in ammonium sulfate because it inhibits bacterial growth. With the addition of ammonium sulfate, proteins unfolded by denaturants can be pushed into their native conformations. This can be seen with the folding of recombinant proteins.

The solubility of proteins varies according to the ionic strength of the solution, thus according to the salt concentration. At low ion concentrations (less than 0.5 mol/L), the solubility of proteins increases with increasing salt concentration, an effect termed "salting in". As the salt concentration is further increased, the solubility of the protein begins to decrease. At a sufficiently high ionic strength, the protein will precipitate out of the solution, an effect termed "salting out". When the ammonium and sulfate  ions are within the aqueous solution they are attracted to the opposite charges evident on the compound that is being purified. This attraction of opposite charges prevents the water molecules from interacting with the compound being purified, leading to the precipitation or "salting out".

Proteins differ markedly in their solubilities at high ionic strength, therefore, "salting out" is a very useful procedure to assist in the purification of the desired protein. Ammonium sulfate is commonly used for precipitation because of its high solubility, additionally, it forms two ions high in the Hofmeister series. Because these two ions are at the end of Hofmeister series, ammonium sulfate can also stabilize a protein structure. The ammonium sulfate solubility behavior for a protein is usually expressed as a function of the percentage of saturation. A solubility curve can be determined by plotting the log of the experimentally determined solubility, expressed as mg/mL, versus the percentage saturation of ammonium sulfate.

With the mechanism of salting-out, there is an omission of the salt from the layer of water, which is closely associated with the surface of the protein, known as the hydration layer. The hydration layer plays a vital role in sustaining solubility and suitable natural conformation. There are three main protein-water interaction: ion hydration between charged side chains, hydrogen bonding between polar groups and water, and hydrophobic hydration. Once salt is added to the mixture, there is an increase in the surface tension of the water, thus increasing hydrophobic interactions between water and the protein of interest. The protein of interest then reduces its surface area, which diminishes its contact with the solvent. This is shown by the folding and self-association, which ultimately leads to precipitation. The folding and self-association of the protein pushes out free water, leading to an increase in entropy and making this process energetically favorable.

Procedure
Typically, the ammonium sulfate concentration is increased stepwise, and the precipitated protein is recovered at each stage. This is usually done by adding solid ammonium sulfate; however, calculating the amount of ammonium sulfate that should be added to add to a solution to achieve the desired concentration may be difficult because the addition of ammonium sulfate significantly increases the volume of the solution. The amount of ammonium sulfate that should be added to the solution can be determined from published nomograms or by using an online calculator. The direct addition of solid ammonium sulfate does change the pH of the solution, which can lead to loss of enzyme activity. In those cases, the addition of saturated ammonium sulfate in a suitable buffer is used as an alternative to adding solid ammonium sulfate. In either approach, the resulting protein precipitate can be dissolved individually in a standard buffer and assayed to determine the total protein content.

The ammonium sulfate concentration added should be increased to a value that will precipitate most of the protein of interest whilst leaving the maximum amount of protein contaminants still in the solution. The precipitated protein of interest can subsequently be recovered by centrifugation and dissolved in standard buffer to prepare the sample for the next stage of purification.

In the next stage of purification, all this added salt needs to be removed from the protein. One way to do so is using dialysis, but dialysis further dilutes the concentrated protein. The better way of removing ammonium sulfate from the protein is mixing the precipitate protein in a buffer containing a mixture of SDS, Tris-HCl, and phenol and centrifuging the mixture. The precipitate that comes out of this centrifugation will contain salt-less concentrated protein.

Applications
Ammonium sulfate precipitation is a useful technique as an initial step in protein purification because it enables quick, bulk precipitation of cellular proteins. It is also often employed during the later stages of purification to concentrate protein from dilute solution following procedures such as gel filtration. The drawback of this method is that oftentimes different substances can precipitate along with the protein, and other purification techniques must be performed, such as ion chromatography or size-exclusion chromatography.

title: Ammonium sulfate precipitation


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Lluís Domènech i Montaner

Lluís Domènech i Montaner (21 December 1850 – 27 December 1923) was a Catalan architect who was very much involved in and influential for the Catalan Modernisme català, the Art Nouveau/Jugendstil movement. He was also a Catalan politician.

Born in Barcelona, he initially studied physics and natural sciences, but soon switched to architecture. He was registered as an architect in Barcelona in 1873. He also held a 45-year tenure as a professor and director at the Escola d'Arquitectura, Barcelona's school of architecture, and wrote extensively on architecture in essays, technical books and articles in newspapers and journals.

His most famous buildings, the Hospital de Sant Pau and Palau de la Música Catalana in Barcelona, have been collectively designated as a UNESCO World Heritage Site.

As an architect, 45-year professor of architecture and prolific writer on architecture, Domènech i Montaner played an important role in defining the Modernisme arquitectonic in Catalonia. This style has become internationally renowned, mainly due to the work of Antoni Gaudí. Domènech i Montaner's article "En busca d'una arquitectura nacional" (In search of a national architecture), published 1878 in the journal La Renaixença, reflected the way architects at that time sought to build structures that reflected the Catalan character.

His buildings displayed a mixture between rationalism and fabulous ornamentation inspired by Spanish-Arabic architecture, and followed the curvilinear design typical of Art Nouveau. In the El castell dels 3 dragons restaurant in Barcelona (built for the World's Fair in 1888), which was for many years the Zoological Museum, he applied very advanced solutions (a visible iron structure and ceramics). He later developed this style further in other buildings, such as the Palau de la Música Catalana in Barcelona (1908), where he made extensive use of mosaic, ceramics and stained glass, the Hospital de Sant Pau in Barcelona, and the Institut Pere Mata in Reus.

Domènech i Montaner's work evolved towards more open structures and lighter materials, evident in the Palau de la Música Catalana. Other architects, like Gaudí, tended to move in the opposite direction.

Domènech i Montaner also played a prominent role in the Catalan autonomist movement. He was a member of the La Jove Catalunya and El Centre Català and later chaired the Lliga de Catalunya (1888) (Catalan League) and the Unió Catalanista (1892) (Catalan Union). He was one of the organisers of the commission that approved the Bases de Manresa, a list of demands for Catalan autonomy. He was a member of the Centre Nacional Català (1889) and Lliga Regionalista (1901), and was one of the four parliamentarians who won the so-called "candidature of the four presidents" in 1901. Though re-elected in 1903, he abandoned politics in 1904 to devote himself fully to archeological and architectural research.

He died in Barcelona in 1923 and was buried in the Sant Gervasi Cemetery in that city.

Education and teaching career
Born in Carrer Avinyó in Barcelona, he was the second son of Pere Domènech i Saló, a prestigious publisher and book-binder, and Maria Montaner i Vila, a member of a prosperous family from Canet de Mar, where Domènech i Montaner spent much time in his home/office, now converted into a museum. After having studied physics and mathematics, he studied as an architect in Barcelona and at the school of architecture of the Real Academia de Bellas Artes de San Fernando in Madrid, from where he graduated on 13 December 1873.

Having completed his studies, he travelled through France, Switzerland, Italy, Germany and Austria to gain experience of trends in architecture.

In 1875, as soon as the Barcelona school of architecture opened, he joined it, along with his friend Josep Vilaseca, as a teacher of topography and mineralogy. In 1877 he became professor of "Knowledge of materials and the application of physiochemical science to architecture". In 1899 he was appointed professor of "Architectural Composition" and project teacher. In 1900 he became director of the school of architecture, and between 1901 and 1905 he was substituted by Joan Torras i Guardiola, Domènech at this time being in Madrid as a deputy in the Congress. He returned to the post from 1905 to 1920. His teaching career lasted 45 years, and he exercised a considerable influence on what was to become Modernisme in Catalonia. With his colleague Antoni Maria Gallissà he subsequently set up a workshop for advanced work on the decorative arts applied to architecture.

Architectural works
Domènech i Montaner's buildings combine structural rationality with extraordinary ornamentation  inspired by Hispano-Arabic architectural tradition and by the curves typical of  Modernisme. They were in the architectural vanguard at the time, with the use of structural steel and the total utilization of exposed brickwork, and incorporated a profusion of mosaics, ceramics and stained glass, arranged in exquisite harmony.

As director of the School of Architecture he promoted a style that was adopted by many of his pupils. Puig i Cadafalch regarded him as "a man of a certain period and of a certain artistic school, who was a sounding-board for developments in other countries, adapting them to his own character in an innovative way".

As the years went by, unlike many Modernista architects, Domènech i Montaner's buildings tended to become lighter, reducing the amount of structural material but retaining ornamentation as a primary element.

Pre-Modernista period
No sooner had Domènech graduated than he set out on a tour of Europe in the company of Josep Vilaseca, and was attracted by Prussian architecture. This, as well as Vilaseca's personality, had an influence on his subsequent work.

This influence can be seen in a number of Domènech's works from before 1878 (the year when he published his manifesto En busca d'una arquitectura nacional): the Clavé family tomb and the Casa Montaner on the Ronda de la Universitat, as well as a project for the provincial education institutions that was never built. These works can be regarded as pre-Modernista.

The building for the Editorial Montaner i Simón (1879–1885) was in fact his first work after the manifesto and it employs Mudejar decorative solutions while not abandoning Germanic influence and symbolism. Domènech went beyond European manifestations, employing a forthright new language to implement an architectural approach founded on a new, integrated concept of all the arts. It was commissioned by his uncle Ramon Montaner i Vila, who also had him build his town house in Barcelona, the Palau Ramon Montaner, and remodel the Castell de Santa Florentina, his residence in Canet de Mar.

Modernisme
Domènech received a number commissions associated with the Exposición Universal de Barcelona (1888), thanks to his close friendship with Elies Rogent, director of the School of Architecture and of the works for the Exposition. He was a member of the Mining Committee and the architect in charge of the improvement works on the Parc de la Ciutadella. He also refurbished the Barcelona City Hall to accommodate the royal family during the event. The best-known of these works are undoubtedly the construction of the Hotel Internacional, which no longer exists, but which was put up in a record time of 53 days, and the cafe-restaurant known as the Castell dels Tres Dragons (now the Museu de Zoologia de Barcelona), the building that best expresses these new trends and is considered to mark the beginning of the  Modernista period. The use of exposed chamfered brickwork and the use of exposed structural ironwork gives the building an industrial look, solid and compact on the lower levels but agile and transparent above, with its pierced parapets crowned by a pinnacle. The interior is an open space with two arches that support a stepped, symmetrical roof. Domènech incorporated the best of the applied arts and ornamental solutions that became permanent, such as the florid crowns of the capitals. Ceramics from the Pujol i Bausis factory were used, with designs by Antoni M. Gallissà, Josep Llimona, J.A. Pellicer and Alexandre de Riquer. There were also stained glass windows by Antoni Rigalt i Blanch, but these have now perished. The use of these techniques on the Montaner i Simón building inspired Hendrik Petrus Berlage when he designed the Amsterdam bourse.

Subsequently, he designed private residences such as the Casa Navàs i Rull in Reus; the Casa Lleó Morera, the Casa Thomas in Barcelona and the Casa Solà Morales in Olot. In all of these he adopted an integral approach to modernisme, with an intensive use of the applied arts, particularly sculpture, mosaic and stained glass.

The major works
At the height of his professional career, Domènech i Montaner took on his largest and most complex works, the ones for which he is most widely recognized. His work on these projects overlapped in time, and he was able to take advantage of the experience gained on each one. Much of the knowledge gained and many of the technical innovations employed on the Expo restaurant (the Castell dels Tres Dragons, now the geology museum) were later used in the design and construction of the Palau de la Música, and the avant-garde concepts applied in the Institut Pere Mata were later adopted and improved on at the Hospital de Sant Pau.

The Palau de la Música Catalana and the Hospital de Sant Pau both won awards in the annual architectural  competition organized by the Barcelona City Council, in 1905 and 1913 respectively. More recently UNESCO has declared them to be World Heritage.

Institut Pere Mata
Before the 19th century came to an end, at the height of modernisme, Domènech built the Institut Pere Mata, an institution for the mentally ill in Reus (1897–1919). It is an example of architecture at the service of people, without neglecting the purely aesthetic aspect. It was begun with the support of Pau Font de Rubinat, and marked an advance in the provision of medical services, at a time when there was growing support for a social approach to health. It consists of isolated pavilions organized along internal "streets", catering for all treatment needs. Domènech deploys an ornamental language in which nature helps lighten the spirit as it penetrates into all the rooms by way of the stained glass, ceramics and mosaics. A year later, he was to use the knowledge gained at the Institut for the medically innovative design of the Hospital de Sant Pau.

Palau de la Música Catalana
Domènech used very advanced structural solutions in this work, including laminated sections, a steel frame stabilized by a system of buttresses and perimetral vaults of Gothic inspiration and large walls of glass.

This building is a paradigm of Domènech's work: the control of the interior space and the light by means of the double facade, the stylistic unity of all the applied arts—sculpture, mosaic, stained glass and wrought ironwork. Domènech i Montaner worked with the usual artists on this work: the mosaicist Lluís Brú and the ceramicists Josep Orriols and Modest Sunyol, with stained glass by Rigalt i Granell and   cement tiles by Escofet and sculptures by Miquel Blay, Eusebi Arnau, Didac Massana and Pau Gargallo.

Hospital de Sant Pau
The hospital project was informed by the growing concern at the time about health in the big cities. Domènech studied various solutions that had been used around Europe (Lariboisière Hospital in Paris, St. Thomas's in London, Brugmann in Laeken, Belgium and the military hospital in Toul, France), and devised a totally innovative solution based on isolated pavilions linked by underground passages. With the combination of the Catalan vault and steel structures like those employed at the Tres Dragons and the Palau, large, clear spaces were made possible. The sobriety of the brickwork so typical of Domènech's work is tempered by the warmth of the Montjuïc stone, as is also the case in the Palau de la Música, with sculptures by  Pau Gargallo and Francesc Madurell i Torres.

Writings
Domènech contributed to the leading Catalan publications: La Renaixença, Lo Catalanista, Revista de Catalunya, El Diluvio and La Veu de Catalunya. In 1904, after falling out with Francesc Cambó, he ceased to contribute to La Veu de Catalunya and founded the weekly El Poble Català. He was also the author of many books, some technical works (Historia general del arte: arquitectura, 1886; Iluminación solar de los edificios, 1877) and some political and social essays ("La política tradicional d'Espanya", 1898; "Estudis polítics", 1905, "Conservació de la personalitat de Catalunya", 1912, "La Política tradicional d'Espanya: com pot salvar-se'n Catalunya", 1919).

In an article entitled “En busca de una arquitectura nacional” (In search of a national architecture), published on 28 February 1878 in La Renaixença, he set forth the guiding principles for a modern, national architecture for Catalonia.

He was also active as a publisher. He was editor of the Biblioteca Artes y Letras, published by Editorial Domènech, the family firm, for which he also designed many book-covers, and which included the works of the country's best writers and translations of the most important European authors of the time. Between 1886 and 1897, the Editorial Montaner i Simón published under his direction the monumental Historia General del Arte. Domènech also illustrated the first part, and it was continued by Josep Puig i Cadafalch.

In company with his friends Antoni M. Gallissà and Josep Font i Gumà and with members of the Centre Excursionista de Catalunya, he visited Romanesque churches in several parts of Catalonia; in 1904, those of Pallars, Ribagorça and  Cerdanya; in  1905, those of Ripollès, Gironès, Vallespir, Rosselló and  Vall d'Aran; and finally, in 1906  he visited the churches of Empordà, whose style he dubbed First Romanesque. In this way Domènech collected material for his work on Romanesque architecture, and he provided the School of Architecture with an important photographic archive.

Political activity
Domènech became involved in politics at an early age, and in 1870 he helped to set up the Jove Catalunya foundation and the Centre Català, from which he separated in  1887. He joined the Lliga de Catalunya, of which he became president in  1888, and in 1891 he founded the  Unió Catalanista, of which he was the first president in 1892, with Enric Prat de la Riba as secretary. That same year he chaired the assembly that drew up the Bases de Manresa, a document that laid the foundations for the return of the historic rights acknowledged by the Catalan constitutions.

He pursued a policy of collaboration with Polavieja, who defended regionalist demands. He was also one of the signatories of the Manifest a la reina regent of 1898. The following year he joined the Centre Nacional Català which, on 25 April 1901, merged with the Unió Regionalista, constituting the Lliga Regionalista. The Lliga was made up of sectors of the middle class who were disappointed with the policies of Polavieja and mobilized by the Tancament de Caixes; it stood for a Catalonia that would be free, strong and autonomous.

Domènech's commitment to the defence of national identity was confirmed when he stood for the legislative elections of 19 May 1901, with the candidature known as the "quatre presidents" (four presidents). He was reelected in 1903, but he could not agree with the behaviour of Cambó during the visit by king Alfonso XIII to Barcelona in 1904. It is thought that he was the author of an anonymous article which appeared on 14 April 1904 in the journal Joventut. The author of the article accused the Barcelona city councillors of weakness in defending Catalan demands before the king. He left the Lliga Regionalista and founded the weekly "El Poble Català", around which he organized Esquerra Catalana. Being socially conservative, however, he gradually distanced himself from it and devoted himself to archaeological and historical research, producing ''Centcelles. Baptisteri i celler: memòria de la primitiva església metropolitana de Tarragona (1921), Història i arquitectura del monestir de Poblet (1925), La iniquitat de Casp i la fi del Comtat d'Urgell (1930) and Ensenyes nacionals de Catalunya'' (1936). The last three of these were published posthumously with the assistance of his son Fèlix Domènech i Roura.

His political activities and his research led him to be elected three times as president of the Ateneu Barcelonès (1898, 1911 and 1913). In 1881 he was the "mantenidor" of the Jocs Florals, and in 1895 he presided them. He became a member of what is now known as the Reial Acadèmia Catalana de Belles Arts de Sant Jordi (1901) and entered the Acadèmia de Bones Lletres in 1921.

Other works

 * In Barcelona:
 * Casa Maria Montaner in Ronda Universitat 4, was a building owned by his mother that architect reformed. Currently disappeared.
 * Torre Simon, in Gràcia. It was the mansion of Josep Simon, member of Ramon de Montaner of the editorial Montaner i Simon. Currently, the space much modified and expanded, occupies the School Corma.
 * Housing in carrer Trafalgar 54, which has been refurbished.
 * In Canet de Mar:
 * Nau industrial Jover, Serra i Cia. (1899–1900) disappeared.
 * Unfinished pantheon of the family Montaner-Malató (1899).
 * Creu de Terme of l'Aubó (1908) partially disappeared.
 * In Santander.
 * Pantheon of Marquis of Satrústegui.
 * In Santander.
 * Pantheon of Marquis of Satrústegui.

title: Lluís Domènech i Montaner


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User talk:Stealthfox

Why Did Slaves Replace Indentured Servants As The Labor Force In the Caribbean?

Indentured servants stopped coming to the islands in the 1600's because the islands were deadly to the whites. The African slaves that were brought over by the Dutch in the 1640's introduced new diseases of which the whites had no immunity. No matter where the whites came from, whether it was from Europe or Africa the diseases were to much for them, however; the blacks fared far better than the whites to adjusting to the climate.

Anoher reason whites chose not to come to the islands is because of the reputation the planters gained as being "cruel masters" and because emancipated slaves did not have a good opportunity to find good paying jobs once they were set free, and they certainly did not have any chance in owning their own plantations. More and more black slaves were being trained as skilled workers which further reduced the opportunity for whites to get jobs, along with the fact the blacks were cheaper to purchase than the whites.

By far the greatest reason that indentured servants were being replaced by black slaves is because of the reputation that the islands had of all o fthe misfortune and death that the whites endured. Black slaves didn't have a choice and had to come to the islands whether they wanted to or not. Meanwhile the whites found it easier in north america with the climate and future possibilities to get jobs or own property.

title: User talk:Stealthfox