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National Council of Teachers of English

The National Council of Teachers of English (NCTE) is a United States professional organization dedicated to "improving the teaching and learning of English and the language arts at all levels of education. Since 1911, NCTE has provided a forum for the profession, an array of opportunities for teachers to continue their professional growth throughout their careers, and a framework for cooperation to deal with issues that affect the teaching of English." In addition, the NCTE describes its mission as follows:

"The Council promotes the development of literacy, the use of language to construct personal and public worlds and to achieve full participation in society, through the learning and teaching of English and the related arts and sciences of language."

The NCTE is involved in publishing journals (such as College Composition and Communication and College English) and books that address the concerns of English language arts educators. Since the 1970s, it has issued annual Doublespeak Awards and Orwell Awards. It also issues the NCTE Intellectual Freedom Award.

History
As stated on the official NCTE website, the National Council of Teachers of English was founded in 1911 by a group of educators in Chicago, Illinois, known as the English Round Table of the National Education Association. This group wanted to create a professional response to changing needs and values regarding education, particularly English language education. The impetus for this early effort was a concern that school curricula were becoming too narrow and were incapable of addressing the needs of an increasingly diverse student population. A special committee was formed to address these issues. Since this time the NCTE has provided a forum for English teaching professionals to continue their professional growth throughout their careers, in addition to providing a framework for cooperative action pertaining to issues that affect the instruction of English.

These concerned educators at first set themselves a limited task: to explore the problems arising from a rigid, narrowly defined approach to English language instruction. Soon, however, it became apparent that more was needed, and that only a national professional organization would have the ability to affect policy decisions.

By 1919, the original investigatory committee had grown large enough to become such an organization. Because of its open-door policy regarding membership, the NCTE from the first maintained a divisional structure, with separate groups representing groups based on grade levels, divided up into elementary, secondary, and postsecondary educators.

By 1948, the simple divisions based on grade level were inadequate, and the Conference on College Composition and Communication (CCCC) was formed to address the special needs of communication and composition teachers at the university and community college level. This reliance on committee organization proved to be extremely useful, for it permitted interested groups to concentrate their focus on particular issues or trends. Membership grew dramatically in the second half of the twentieth century, and over the years new committees were formed, leading to the five-conference structure in place at the beginning of the twenty-first century.

In 1954, the organization's president was Lou L. LaBrant, who lived to be 103 and taught for 70 years.

Structure
NCTE offers its members opportunities to grow professionally by interacting with colleagues in all sides of English teaching. Individuals belong to any of four broad sections of membership – Elementary, Middle, Secondary or College. They may also join other groups centered on various teaching specialties within English, each with its own journal, meetings, and projects.

Major interest groups, called Conferences, serve teachers of college writing and rhetoric; teacher educators in higher education and in-service posts; teachers with an interest in whole language; and English department chairs, K-12 supervisors, and other English instruction leaders. Assemblies are informal special interest groups, ranging in focus from computers in English to research, which meet at NCTE conventions. A notable example of this last sort of group is the Children's Literature Assembly, which publishes the Journal of Children's Literature.

Commissions monitor and report on trends and issues in the teaching of language, composition, literature, reading, and media. Nearly 50 committees and task forces carry out projects on issues and topics in the teaching of English, among them testing and evaluation, censorship, instructional technology, response to literature, teacher preparation and certification, and English in urban schools.

In addition to commissions, standing committees are charged with focusing on issues and/or areas of continued concern that affect the English language area of study. There are three standing committees; the committee against censorship, the committee on diversity and inclusivity, and the committee on global citizenship.

Committee Against Censorship
The committee against censorship's charge is "to solicit and receive reports of censorship incidents from NCTE members, constituent groups, and sources outside the Council; to serve as a resource on current patterns of censorship; to continue to raise awareness of censorship issues; to serve as an advisory committee to NCTE Headquarters considering the kinds of support and services that an Intellectual Freedom/Anti-Censorship Center could provide; to promote policies for literature adoption that allay the possibility of censorship; to help NCTE develop rationales for the teaching of controversial texts, and to develop a white paper that further explores students' right to write and all of its implications.

Committee on Diversity and Inclusivity
The committee on diversity and inclusivity's charge is to "advise NCTE on efforts to foster diversity and inclusivity among members and potential members, including (but not restricted to) in terms of race, ethnicity, sex and gender identity, age, economic status, physical ability, and teaching circumstances. Work in concert with the Executive Committee and Executive Director on specific assignments that ensure equity and diversity within membership. Identify strategies to employ the resources and values of diversity and inclusivity to advance NCTE's mission for all members, our students, and our constituencies. Provide annual or biannual analyses of the effectiveness of NCTE diversity and inclusivity initiatives (programs, awards, events, etc.), and to make recommendations based on that analysis. Identify existing research or resources that can support a diverse NCTE membership and their professional needs. Identify gaps or opportunities that might be met with new research or resources."

Committee on Global Citizenship
The committee on global citizenship's charge is "to promote interest and knowledge of global connections and issues across the Council, including convention sessions, publications, social media, and Council projects; To promote discussions of the learning needs of students in schools and colleges who come from global contexts and of instructional strategies for teachers of these students; To encourage discussions of the teaching of English and world Englishes in global contexts as well as in North American schools and colleges with increasingly globally diverse students; To provide awareness of literacy education in global contexts in order to provide a mutual exchange of pedagogical ideas and issues; To encourage the integration of global and international literature and of strategies for intercultural understanding within schools and colleges; and to engage the Council in an exploration of the changing needs of literacy teaching and learning in an increasingly global society and as members of a broader global community."

Awards
The NCTE offers several awards for organizations performing work consistent with NCTE’s mission. These awards include:
 * Children's Book and Poetry Awards
 * Diversity Awards
 * Educator Awards
 * Leadership Awards
 * Research Awards
 * Student Writing Awards
 * Publication Awards

Strategic governance
In November 2003, the NCTE Executive Committee adopted a new model of policy-oriented style of governance for the Council. They studied the meaning and ramifications of issues for the organization as a whole.

Journals
NCTE published the following journals:
 * College Composition and Communication, journal of the Conference on College Composition and Communication
 * College English
 * English Education, journal of English language arts teacher educators
 * English Journal
 * English Leadership Quarterly, journal of the Conference on English Leadership
 * FORUM: Issues about Part-Time and Contingent Faculty, sponsored by the Conference on College Composition and Communication
 * Language Arts
 * Research in the Teaching of English
 * Talking Points, journal of literacies and languages for all
 * Teaching English in the Two-Year College
 * Voices from the Middle, journal of the Middle Level Section

Teaching English in the Two-Year College
Teaching English in the Two-Year College is an official publication of the council and is aimed at teachers and scholars in two-year colleges. The peer-reviewed academic journal covers a range of topics related to the teaching of English language arts at the college level, including all areas of composition (basic, first-year, and advanced); business, technical, and creative writing; and the teaching of literature, along with other areas of professional concern. It sometimes publishes special issues devoted to specific themes. It is abstracted and indexed by EBSCO databases and the Modern Language Association. It was established in 1973 and the following persons are or have been editors-in-chief:
 * Ruth Shaw and Keats Sparrow (co-editors, 1974–1975)
 * Keats Sparrow and Frieda Purvis (co-editors)
 * Bertie Fearing and John Hutchens (1980–1987)
 * Nell Ann Pickett (1988–1994)
 * Mark Reynolds (1994–2001)
 * Howard Tinberg (2001–2006)
 * Jeff Sommers (2006–2016)
 * Holly Hassel (2016–2020)
 * Darin Jensen (2020–present)

Political activities
NCTE is engaged in a variety of political issues affecting English Education and does so primarily through Steering Committee on Social and Political Concerns (SLATE). According to the NCTE website, SLATE attempts to "influence public attitudes and policy decisions affecting the teaching of English language arts at local, state, and national levels; to implement and publicize the policies adopted by NCTE. As part of its political action function, SLATE will serve as NCTE's intellectual freedom network."

NCTE and SLATE
NCTE and Slate are involved in many political issues, some of which include:
 * No Child Left Behind Act (NCLB)
 * Banned Books
 * Striving Readers Act

Present and future
The NCTE currently has a reported 35,000 members and subscribers in the United States and internationally. This membership is composed of teachers and supervisors of English programs ranging from elementary, middle, and secondary schools to faculty in college and university English departments as well as teacher educators, local and state agency English specialists, and other professionals in directly related fields. Sponsoring over 120 regional, state, provincial, local, and student affiliates within the United States, Canada, and Asian countries, the NCTE continues its rapid annual growth.

title: National Council of Teachers of English


text:
A350 (disambiguation)

A350 usually refers to the Airbus A350, a long-range widebody airliner created by Airbus.

A350 may also refer to:

 * The original designation for what is now known as the Airbus A330neo
 * A350 road (England), a north–south primary route in southern England
 * ABM-1 Galosh or A-350 missile, a nuclear tipped anti-ballistic missile used in the former Soviet Union
 * Fujifilm FinePix A350, a basic digital point and shoot camera
 * DSLR-A350 aka Sony α350, a digital SLR with A-mount in the Sony Alpha camera system

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: A350 (disambiguation)


text:
Hayden Foxe

Hayden Vernon Foxe (born 23 June 1977) is an Australian former professional soccer player who works as assistant coach with Western United. He played football as a centre-back at the top level in Germany, Japan, Belgium, England and Australia. Foxe represented his country at international level 11 times between 1998 and 2003.

Europe
Beginning his career at Sydney club Blacktown City he moved to Dutch club Ajax Amsterdam where he played from 1995–97. Foxe soon established a reputation as a talented young defender, earning a move to J1 League club Sanfrecce Hiroshima in 1998–99.

Becoming an important player both at club and international level, Foxe represented his country at the 1996 Summer Olympics and 2000 Summer Olympics. He impressed enough to earn a move to England's West Ham United for the 2000–01 season. He was then immediately loaned to Belgian club Mechelen in order to build up his match fitness. Foxe returned to West Ham United in March, but struggled in the Premiership, losing his place when then manager Harry Redknapp left the club later that year.

After playing only 12 games for West Ham, he moved to Portsmouth (then managed by Harry Redknapp) for £400,000 in May 2002. Foxe was an important player as Portsmouth won the 2002–03 First Division title, and in doing so were promoted to the Premiership. He was a regular in Portsmouth's side until a fractured bone in his foot ended his campaign at Christmas. He spent the rest of that season, as well as the 2004–05 season, rehabilitating.

New manager Alain Perrin elected not to renew his contract when it expired in June 2005, and he was released. Foxe returned to Australia to undergo an operation in an attempt to resolve his ongoing injury problems. Foxe trained with Leeds United during their 2006 pre-season campaign and signed a five-month permanent contract with the Yorkshire club on 11 August 2006.

Foxe attempted to rebuild his career at Leeds and since the departure of Kevin Blackwell, both care-taker manager John Carver and new manager Dennis Wise provided the Aussie with chances to perform. Foxe however only ultimately played a bit part in the 2006–07 season and was released at the end of the season when Leeds United were relegated to English League One. He scored one league goal during his time at Leeds, against Luton in a 5–1 defeat.

Perth Glory
In 2007, he returned to Australia to play for Perth Glory in the A-League and missed the first half of the season due to a knee injury but returned later in the season to play the last six games of the 2007–08 season. After finishing the 2008–09 season with Glory, he has been released.

Sydney FC
On 7 January 2010, he was announced to have made a comeback to the A-League on a short-term injury replacement deal with Sydney FC. After his short term contract, he signed a one-year extension with Vítězslav Lavička noting how his presence late in the season was a crucial factor in Sydney's end of season success, which will keep him at the club until the end of the 2010–11 A-League season. He was the vice captain.

Foxe announced his retirement from football at the end of the 2010–11 A-League season, deciding not to continue with Sydney FC for their Asian Champions League campaign, despite keen interest from coach Lavička for his services.

Youth
Foxe played 1993 World Youth Championship Finals in Japan with the Australia U17 national team and at the 1997 FIFA World Youth Championship in Malaysia with the U20 national team.

With the Australia U23 national team he participated in qualification for the 1996 Summer Olympics and he was a member of the squad at the 1996 Summer Olympics in Atlanta and 2000 Summer Olympics in Sydney.

Senior
Foxe was capped by the Australia national team.

Personal life
He is the brother of Jeremy Foxe & Damien Foxe, who also played football.

Honours
Portsmouth
 * Football League First Division: 2002–03

Sydney FC
 * A-League Premiership: 2009–10
 * A-League Championship: 2009–10

title: Hayden Foxe


text:
Battle of Cape St. George

The Battle of Cape St. George was a naval battle of the Pacific campaign of World War II fought on 25 November 1943, between Cape St. George, New Ireland, and Buka Island (now part of the North Solomons Province in Papua New Guinea). It was the last engagement of surface ships in the Solomon Islands campaign. During the engagement, a force of five US Navy destroyers led by Captain Arleigh Burke intercepted a similar sized Japanese force that was withdrawing from Buka towards Rabaul, having landed reinforcements on the island. In the ensuing fight, three Japanese destroyers were sunk and one was damaged, with no losses amongst the US forces.

Background
The Americans had landed Marines from the 3rd Marine Division around Cape Torokina on Bougainville Island on 1 November 1943. Judging the landings a ruse, and that the real Allied objective was the airfields around Buka Island to the north of Bougainville, the Japanese delayed launching a concerted counterattack on Cape Torokina, and instead determined to reinforce Buka. As a result, 920 Japanese Army troops were embarked on the destroyers JAPANESE DESTROYER Amagiri, JAPANESE DESTROYER Yūgiri and JAPANESE DESTROYER Uzuki under the command of Captain Katsumori Yamashiro and were sent to reinforce the garrison, escorted by the destroyers JAPANESE DESTROYER Ōnami and JAPANESE DESTROYER Makinami under the command of Captain Kiyoto Kagawa. The convoy was spotted by reconnaissance aircraft, and the United States Navy sent Captain Arleigh Burke's Destroyer Squadron 23, composed of Destroyer Division 45 (USS Charles Ausburne (DD-570), USS Claxton (DD-571), and USS Dyson (DD-572)), under Burke's direct command, and Destroyer Division 46 (USS Converse (DD-509) and USS Spence (DD-512)), under Commander Bernard Austin to intercept it. Meanwhile, nine PT boats under Commander Henry Farrow moved into the Buka Passage to engage the Japanese if Burke's force was unable to make contact.

Battle
The Japanese battle plan divided their force into two columns, with the three transport destroyers trailing the two escort destroyers. The American battle plan also divided their force into two columns using tactics devised by Burke and first employed successfully by Commander Frederick Moosbrugger at the Battle of Vella Gulf the previous August. One column would make a torpedo attack while the other took up a supporting position ready to open gunfire as soon as the first column's torpedo attack struck home.

The Japanese destroyers landed the 920 troops and supplies and embarked 700 Navy aviation personnel being withdrawn because Allied bombing had rendered the airfield at Buka non-operational. The Japanese force was returning to Rabaul when Farrow's PT boats spotted four of the Japanese ships on their radar on 25 November 1943 just after midnight; however, the PT boats mistook the Japanese vessels for friendly forces and hove to further ashore. Two of the Japanese ships subsequently attacked the PT boats, firing on them and attempting to ram PT-318. They failed to score any hits, though, while one of the PT boats, PT-64, fired a torpedo which missed its target. Afterwards, the Japanese destroyers steamed west towards Cape St. George.

Around 01:41, Kagawa's two screening destroyers were picked up by radar by Burke's destroyers, which had moved into position between Cape St. George and Buka, with Dyson making contact first. Poor visibility prevented the Japanese from spotting the American ships in turn. Burke elected to use his own division for the torpedo attack. Superior radar allowed the American ships to approach within 5500 yd and launch their torpedoes at about 01:55 before the Japanese sighted them. Onami was hit by several torpedoes and sank immediately with all hands, including Kagawa. Makinami was hit by one torpedo and disabled.

Burke's force established radar contact with the rest of the Japanese force at 13000 yd soon after launching their torpedoes and turned to pursue; Yamashiro's three transport destroyers fled north, pursued by Burke's division, while Converse and Spence from Austin's division finished off the disabled Makinami with torpedoes and gunfire. During the chase, torpedoes fired by Japanese destroyers exploded in the wakes of the American destroyers. Burke's three destroyers steadily gained on the three heavily laden Japanese destroyers, opening fire around 02:22, scoring several hits. Uzuki was hit by one dud shell and escaped without significant damage. Amagiri escaped untouched. Around 02:25, the Japanese ships split up and fled in different directions. Burke chose to pursue Yugiri with his entire force and sank her at about 03:28 after a fierce engagement.

Aftermath
By 03:45, Burke’s and Austin's divisions had linked up, continuing to push north to pursue the withdrawing Japanese ships. Burke subsequently called off the attempt at 04:04, low on fuel and ammunition and needing to withdraw before daylight, when Japanese aircraft would likely begin operations to search for them. In the event, the only aircraft the US ships spotted once daylight came were friendly AirSols P-38 Lightnings.

The battle represented a significant victory for the Americans and was later described as an "almost perfect action," for which Burke was awarded a Navy Cross. It was the final surface engagement of the Solomon Islands campaign and the last such action in the wider Pacific for nine months. Although the Japanese were able to land their troops and withdraw their supporting personnel, they lost three destroyers sunk and one damaged, without inflicting any losses on the American force. Amongst the Japanese crews, a total of 647 were killed. A total of 279 survivors from Yugiri were rescued by the Japanese submarine JAPANESE SUBMARINE I-177 and 11 by the Japanese submarine JAPANESE SUBMARINE I-181.

Namesake
The U.S. Navy Ticonderoga-class guided-missile cruiser USS Cape St. George (CG-71), in commission since 1993, was named for this battle.

title: Battle of Cape St. George


text: Category:American geologists

title: Category:American geologists


text: Category:American ichthyologists

title: Category:American ichthyologists


text: Category:Ichthyologists by nationality

title: Category:Ichthyologists by nationality


text: Category:American zoologists

title: Category:American zoologists


text:
Talk:Virialsatz

THis simply duplicates http://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virialsatz

title: Talk:Virialsatz


text:
Caroline Caddy

Caroline Mavis Caddy (born 20 January 1944) is an Australian poet.

Biography
Born in Western Australia to an Australian mother and an American father, Caroline Mavis Caddy spent part of her childhood in the United States and Japan. She returned to Western Australia where she finished high school, and later worked as a dental nurse with the Road Dental Unit. According to Queensland poet Jaya Savige "Caddy writes with equal verve about the rural southwest of WA and her time abroad, particularly in China (though also Canada and Antarctica). ...Her relaxed, often conversational tone belies her sharp eye for detail which, combined with a knack for simile and metaphor, has remained acute throughout her career."

Awards

 * 1990 – Western Australian Week Literary Award for poetry
 * 1991 – National Book Council Banjo Award for Poetry
 * 1992 – National Book Council Award for Poetry
 * 2008 – Wesley Michel Wright Prize

title: Caroline Caddy


text: Category:Swiss emigrants

title: Category:Swiss emigrants


text:
Battle of Rabaul

Battle of Rabaul may refer to:
 * Battle of Bita Paka, a 1914 battle fought south of Kabakaul, on the island of New Britain
 * Siege of Toma, a bloodless action during World War I on the island of New Pomerania (now New Britain)
 * Battle of Rabaul (1942)
 * Bombing of Rabaul (1942)
 * Bombing of Rabaul (November 1943)
 * New Britain campaign (1943–45)

title: Battle of Rabaul


text: User talk:129.21.176.59

title: User talk:129.21.176.59


text: Category:English theologians

title: Category:English theologians


text:
Ferrari F355

The Ferrari F355 (Type F129) is a sports car manufactured by Italian car manufacturer Ferrari produced from May 1994 until 1999. The car is a heavily revised Ferrari 348 with notable exterior and performance changes. The F355 was succeeded by the all-new Ferrari 360 in 1999.

Design emphasis for the F355 was placed on significantly improved performance, as well as drivability across a wider range of speeds and in different environments (such as low-speed city traffic).

Specifications
Apart from the displacement increase from 3405 cc to 3495 cc, the major difference between the V8 engine in the 348 and F355 is the introduction of a 5-valve cylinder head. This new head design allowed for better intake permeability and resulted in an engine that was considerably more powerful, generating a maximum power output 380 PS at 8,250 rpm and 363 Nm of at 6,000 rpm. The longitudinally mounted 90° V8 engine was stroked by 2 mm over the 348's engine (77 mm rather than 75 mm), resulting in the small increase in displacement. Engine internals are produced using lightweight materials; the connecting rods are forged in Ti6-Al-4V titanium alloy. The engine's compression ratio is 11:1 and employs the Bosch Motronic 2.7 engine control unit in the 1995 model year, later changed to the M5.2 in 1996 through end of production. The Motronic system controls the electronic fuel injection and ignition systems, with a single spark plug per cylinder. Engine lubrication is via a dry sump oiling system. The engine was designed by Paolo Martinelli.

The F355 addressed transmission issues that plagued the earlier models. A coolant heat-exchanger was installed which upon startup, warmed the gearbox oil quicker. A rod-driven actuation system, which replaces the 348's cable operated system, was also added for precise gear shifts.

The frame is a steel monocoque with tubular steel rear sub-frame with front and rear suspensions using independent, unequal-length wishbones, coil springs over gas-filled telescopic shock absorbers with electronic control servos and anti-roll bars. The car allows selection between two damper settings, "Comfort" and "Sport". The road-going models came with Pirelli tyres, size 225/40ZR 18 at the front and 265/40 ZR 18 at the rear. Although the F355 was equipped with power-assisted steering (intended to improve low-speed drivability relative to the outgoing 348), this could optionally be replaced with a manual steering rack setup by special order.

Aerodynamics for the car included over 1,300 hours of wind tunnel analysis. The car incorporates a nolder profile on the upper portion of the tail and a fairing on the underbody that generates downforce when the car is at speed.

The car's standard seats are upholstered with hides from Connolly leather, and are fitted asymmetrically in the car; this results in the driver being slightly closer to the car's centerline than the passenger.

At launch, the only model available was the Berlinetta. The Spider (convertible version), and the GTS (targa top model) were introduced in 1995. In 1997, the Formula One-style electrohydraulic-operated automated manual paddle-shift transmission was introduced and the cars equipped with this transmission were called 355 F1. The F355 was the last in the series of mid-engine Ferrari models with the Flying Buttress rear window, a lineage going back to the 1965 Dino 206 GT, unveiled at the Paris Auto Show.

The nomenclature does not follow the formula from the previous decades, i.e., engine capacity (in litres) followed by the number of cylinders (e.g. 246 = 2.4 litres, 6 cylinders, 308 = 3.0 litres, 8 cylinders, etc.). In naming the F355, Ferrari used engine capacity followed by the number of valves per cylinder (355 = 3.5 litre engine capacity and 5 valves per cylinder) to bring the performance advances introduced by a 5-valve per cylinder configuration into the forefront.

F355 Berlinetta
The Berlinetta was introduced in May 1994, as the first in a successful series of F355 models. Initially, the 6-speed manual was the only transmission available. However, in 1997, the Berlinetta was the first-ever road car to be equipped with the innovative F1-style gearbox management system. Derived directly from Formula 1, where it made its debut in 1989 resulting in a win at the Brazilian Grand Prix, the electro-hydraulic system was operated by paddles behind the steering wheel using the F355's conventional 6-speed manual gearbox. The new transmission guaranteed faster gear changes, with the additional advantage that both of the driver's hands could stay on the wheel at all times.

Ferrari produced 4,871 road-going Berlinetta models during the entire production run, of which 3,829 were equipped with the 6-speed manual and 1,042 with F1 transmissions.

F355 Spider
The F355 Spider debuted in 1995, its Pininfarina-penned lines honed by 1,800 hours in the wind tunnel, resulted in a blend of elegant style and aerodynamic performance. For the first time on a Ferrari automobile, the automated manual soft-top was powered electronically. Initially, the Spider was offered with the 6-speed manual transmission. In 1997, the Spider was offered with the F1 transmission available as an option. The Spider proved to be the second-most popular F355 model, with a total production of 3,717 units, of which 2,664 were produced with the 6-speed manual transmission and 1,053 were produced with the F1 transmission.

F355 GTS
In 1995, Ferrari introduced the GTS model to the F355 family. The GTS model was based on the Berlinetta but offered a removable "targa-style" hardtop roof, which could be stored behind the seats. Other specifications were identical to the Berlinetta. A total of 2,577 GTS models were produced, with 2,048 delivered with the 6-speed manual transmission and another 529 with the F1 transmission.

F355 Challenge
In 1995, Ferrari introduced a race-ready F355 Challenge model for use specifically in the Ferrari Challenge race series. The Ferrari F355 Challenge model was developed by starting with a standard Ferrari F355 Berlinetta and modifying it with a US$30,000 factory-to-dealer supplied kit. The initial 1995 cars came with factory fitted cage mounts and without carpets. Each year, the cars arrived with more and more factory fitted race parts, culminating in 1998 with full-evolution cars which were supplied as virtually complete race cars except for some parts such as the rear wing, which still needed to be fitted by the dealer.

The kit initially was more substantial than the 348 Challenge and the engine, gearbox, and shock-absorbers were sealed with special tags to prevent unauthorized modifications. The kit included the following components/modifications:
 * Roll-cage
 * Racing bucket seats
 * Safety harnesses
 * Fire extinguisher
 * Engine cut-off switch
 * Manual radiator fan control and upgraded fans
 * Competition steering wheel
 * Lightweight exhaust
 * Rear wing
 * Competition clutch
 * Upgraded 14-inch Brembo brakes (carried over from the F40)
 * 18-inch Speedline magnesium wheels
 * Pirelli racing slicks
 * Solid suspension bushings and competition springs
 * Front and Rear brake cooling ducts
 * Challenge black perforated rear grille (halfway through the 1995 season to get extra air through the engine-bay)
 * Lightened front bumper
 * Front and rear tow hooks

The F355 Challenge shares the same engine and physical dimensions as the standard F355 Berlinetta. 108 cars in total were produced, all of which were equipped with the 6-speed manual transmission. Although some sources indicate that over 300 cars were subject to the Challenge conversion, yet this claim remains unproven. There were 18 RHD cars imported by Ferrari UK and modified by MHT. A further 10 were sold to the rest of the RHD markets. Making the total number to only 28 RHD models. These RHD models become extremely rare and valuable. Some of these rare cars are located in Indonesia, Australia, Japan, and only one known example in South Africa. Each F355 Challenge has an emblem on the rear that specifically denotes the "F355 Challenge."

Limited Edition Fiorano
For the 1999 model year, Ferrari introduced a limited production of F355 Spider models designated, "Serie Fiorano". Launched in March 1999, this limited production run of 100 planned units (104 actually produced) included a number of enhancements increasing the track performance much closer to the Challenge versions:
 * Competizione-derived Fiorano suspension pack, featuring wide track, stiffer springs, a thicker anti-roll bar
 * Drilled and ventilated brake discs and competition brake pads
 * Competizione-sourced steering rack
 * Challenge rear grilles and enameled Scuderia Ferrari shields
 * Carbon-fibre inserts (normally only available as expensive special order options): centre console, door sills, and paddle-shifters
 * Suede-covered steering wheel

There were 100 Serie Fiorano units delivered to the U.S. market, 74 with the F1 paddle-shift transmission and 26 with the 6-speed manual. An additional 4 units were produced beyond the planned production for the U.S., with only 3 European models and one unit destined for South Africa. The American units were delivered with a numbered plaque affixed to the dashboard while the 3 Fioranos delivered to Europe had no numbered plaque.

Serie Fiorano Chassis Numbers

 * 355 spider Fiorano F1 (US model) 74 ex (sn 115426 - 116799)
 * 355 spider Fiorano manual (US model) 26 ex (sn 116291 - 116579)
 * 355 spider Fiorano F1 (EURO model) 3 ex (sn 116194, 116201 and 116489)
 * 355 spider Fiorano F1 (South Africa model) 1 ex (sn 115624)

Fiorano Handling Pack
Although not a limited edition model a "Fiorano Handling Pack" was offered as a track focused factory option upgrade to the F355 & 355 F1 in Europe to road cars built in the final year of production - these featured upgrades straight from the Challenge Evo parts bin. The Fiorano Handling Pack (FHP) included – Quick steering rack & pump, lowered ride height, uprated springs, wider track, thicker anti-roll bars, Challenge EVO suspension ECU and upgraded brake pads with red callipers and drilled discs specifically for the road car.

The little known Ferrari F355 "Fiorano" was the first ‘Challenge’ inspired track focused V8 Ferrari road car.

So few buyers ordered their cars with the Fiorano Handling Package that less than 2% of production had this specified and only 0.3% were manual - In the UK only seven F355’s with a manual gearbox were delivered to the UK market. Just four Berlinettas', Zero GTS and three Spiders. This makes a manual F355 Fiorano Berlinetta as rare as a Manual 599.

Performance
Manufacturer Performance Claims

 * Max. power: 380 PS at 8,250 rpm
 * Specific output: 107.2 HP/L
 * Max. torque: 363 Nm at 6,000 rpm
 * 0–100 km/h (0–62 mph): 4.7 seconds
 * 0–160 km/h (0–100 mph): 10.8 seconds
 * 0–400 m: 12.9 seconds
 * 0–1,000 m: 23.7 seconds
 * Top speed: 295 km/h (past redline limit)

Independently Tested Performance

 * 0 to 97 kph: 4.5 seconds
 * 0 to 100 mph: 11.2 seconds
 * 0 to 130 mph: 19.1 seconds
 * Rolling start, 5-60 mph: 5.5 seconds
 * Top gear, 30-50 mph: 7.9 seconds
 * Top gear, 50-70 mph: 8.2 seconds
 * Standing $1/4$-mile: 13.0 seconds at 110 mph
 * Top speed (redline limited): 179 mph
 * Braking, 70 mph–0: 156 ft
 * Roadholding, 300-ft-diameter skidpad: 0.98 g

Production
Total production of 11,273 units made the F355 the most-produced Ferrari at the time. This sales record would be surpassed by its successor, the 360 and later, the F430.

Recall
In November 2009, Ferrari recalled about 2,400 1995–99 355s and 355F1s in the United States because of improperly placed screw clamps that could damage the fuel-supply pipes and allow fuel to leak into the engine compartment. Ferrari learned of the problem when it was sued over a fire involving an injury to a driver.

title: Ferrari F355


text: Category:Swiss theatre directors

title: Category:Swiss theatre directors


text:
Hearing (law)

In law, a hearing is the formal examination of a case (civil or criminal) before a judge. It is a proceeding before a court or other decision-making body or officer, such as a government agency or a legislative committee.

Description
A hearing is generally distinguished from a trial in that it is usually shorter and often less formal.

During the course of litigation, oral arguments are presented in support of motions at hearings. The purpose of these arguments may be to resolve the case without further trial, such as through a motion to dismiss or for summary judgment, or to decide discrete issues of law, such as the admissibility of evidence, which will determine how the trial proceeds. Limited evidence and testimony may also be presented at hearings to supplement the legal arguments.

Types
Terminology varies from country to country, and there are different types of hearings under different legal systems.

A preliminary hearing (also known as evidentiary hearing, probable cause hearing, and other variant terms) is a proceeding, after a criminal complaint has been filed by the prosecutor, to determine whether there is enough evidence to require a trial.

Australia
A hearing is a part of the court process in Australia. There are different types of hearing in a case. There may be several hearings, although not all may be scheduled. These include:

 * court mentions, where a case first is heard in court; and/or
 * directions hearing(s) (a brief hearing in front of a judge or commissioner); and
 * a contest mention, where disputed issues are resolved, this is the part of the hearing where evidence may be adduced (the process of putting forward or presenting evidence or arguments for consideration by the court ); a "type of pre-trial hearing which aims to facilitate early guilty pleas and narrow the issues in dispute".

United Kingdom
A hearing is a part of the court process in England and Wales. The term "rolled-up hearing" is also used, referring to occasions when permission is considered for a procedural application on the basis that, if permission is granted, the substantive application will be heard immediately afterwards.

United States
There are several different types of hearings in the US legal system, each serving a unique purpose.
 * Congressional hearing
 * Unofficial hearing

 * Preliminary hearings are used to determine whether there is sufficient evidence to require a trial. In a preliminary hearing, a judge listens to arguments and evidence from both sides before deciding whether the case should proceed to trial.
 * Motion hearings are held when a party asks the court to take a specific action in the case. For example, a party may request that certain evidence be excluded from trial or that a case be dismissed before trial. In a motion hearing, each side presents arguments and evidence to the judge, who then makes a decision based on the law and facts presented.
 * Evidentiary hearings are used to resolve disputes related to evidence in a case. During an evidentiary hearing, parties present arguments and evidence related to the admissibility of certain evidence or the validity of expert testimony. The judge then makes a ruling on whether the evidence in question can be presented at trial.
 * Depositions are another type of hearing commonly used in the US legal system. Depositions involve sworn testimony from a witness or party in a case, taken outside of court and recorded by a court reporter. Depositions are often used to gather information before trial or to impeach the credibility of a witness at trial.

In the mid-20th century, as a result of what has been called the "due process revolution," a series of Supreme Court decisions expanded the rights of individuals in legal proceedings and required more formal procedures and protections.

One key decision during this period was Goldberg v. Kelly (1970), which involved a challenge to the system for terminating welfare benefits in New York. The Court held that the Due Process Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment requires that individuals have the opportunity to be heard and present evidence before their benefits are terminated.

The decision in Goldberg helped to establish the principle that many administrative decisions require some form of hearing or other procedure to ensure that individuals are not deprived of their rights without due process of law. It also illustrated that what constitutes a hearing can depend on the context. In Goldberg, the goal of a speedy decision was held to "justify the limitation of the pre-termination hearing to minimum procedural safeguards", which included such basic matters as the right to appear and to cross-examine witnesses, but did not include "a complete record and a comprehensive opinion". This has had a significant impact on the US legal system, leading to an increase in the number of hearings and other procedures required in a wide range of legal contexts.

title: Hearing (law)


text: Category:Swiss composers

title: Category:Swiss composers


text:
Category:Irish emigrants

People who were born in Ireland and emigrated to other Nations.

 * See: Category:Irish diaspora.

title: Category:Irish emigrants


text: User talk:68.76.135.105

title: User talk:68.76.135.105


text: User talk:68.41.175.119

title: User talk:68.41.175.119


text:
Talk:Mutual information

Unit of information?
instead >> It should be noted that these definitions are ambiguous because the base of the log function is not specified. To disambiguate, the function I could be parameterized as I(X,Y,b) where b is the base. Alternatively, since the most common unit of measurement of mutual information is the bit, a base of 2 could be specified.

how about The unit of information depends on the base of the log function. Most common are bases of 2, e, or 10, resulting in units of bits, nats and digits, respectively.

Internetexploder 08:15, 29 April 2007 (UTC)

I didn't initiate the notice, but the guidelines state that this notice is internal to Wikipedia and are not really for the casual reader's consumption. Any attention that a qualified contributor can give is welcome. Ancheta Wis 23:55, 23 Oct 2004 (UTC)

 * Noting Category:Pages needing attention, I would say that, while someone may have thought that a good guideline, it is de facto incorrect (and not policy). I, for one, do not agree with that guideline, because it hides the fact that the article needs attention from all those who can edit it and it disclaims to newbies that we know the article isn't as good as it could be. — 131.230.133.185 5 July 2005 19:23 (UTC)

[This article is] poorly explained. --Eequor 03:39, 22 Aug 2004 (UTC)

A practical example might help
For audience out of the maths/stats field, an example could increase the broad understanding of the idea of the MI. To this end, I think some of the text in Simple English version of the article could be incorporated.

"For example, knowing the temperature of a random day of the year will not reveal what month it is, but it will give some hint. The changes in the likelihood when the temperature is known can be explained and measured with mutual information. For instance, to measure mutual information between month and temperature, we would need to know how many days in the year are 10 degrees Celsius, how many days out of the year are March and finally how many days are 10 degrees Celsius in March."

(e.g. emre) 09:23, 5 July 2017 (UTC)

 * How about a simple numeric example with, say five, pairs:
 * 1 1
 * 0 1
 * 1 1
 * 1 0
 * 0 0
 * Mutual_information 0.02 (example from https://github.com/Craigacp/MIToolbox)

W102102 (talk) 13:18, 21 May 2022 (UTC)

Simplify eq?
why not just say:
 * $$ I(X,Y) = \sum_{x,y} p(x,y) \times \log_2 \frac{p(x,y)}{p(x)\,p(y)}. \!$$

instead of all the confusing talk about what f and g are? Please elaborate if there is a specific reason why it is done this way. -- BAxelrod 02:08, 19 October 2005 (UTC)

 * The definitions given in the article are correct. They just happen to be highly formal.  Less formal definitions are given in the article on information theory (recently added by me, but I called it transinformation).  Whether this level of formality is appropriate for this article is a matter for debate.  I tend to think not, because in general, someone who is working at that level of formality is not going to be looking in Wikipedia for a definition, but on the other hand, it "simplifies" matters because then one definition suffices for both the discrete and continuous cases.  (i.e. integration over the counting measure is simply ordinary discrete summation.) -- 130.94.162.64 22:53, 2 December 2005 (UTC)

 * O.K. Simplified the formula. -- 130.94.162.64 05:24, 3 December 2005 (UTC)

 * Another note: $$ I(X,Y)\, $$ is incorrect.  $$ I(X;Y)\, $$ is the accepted usage.  Use a semicolon. -- 130.94.162.64 11:35, 4 December 2005 (UTC)

Mutual information between $$m$$ random variables
How about adding the mutual information among multiple scalar random variables:

$$I(y_1;\ldots; y_m)=\sum^m_{i=1}H(y_i)-H(\mathbf{y})$$

 * (In reply to unsigned comment above:) Apparently there isn't a single well-defined mutual information for three or more random variables. It is sometimes defined recursively:

 * $$I(Y_1; Y_2) = H(Y_1) - H(Y_1 | Y_2),\,$$
 * $$I(Y_1; \ldots ; Y_m) = I(Y_1; \ldots ; Y_{m-1}) - I(Y_1; \ldots ; Y_{m-1} | Y_m),\, m\geq 3 ,$$

 * where $$I(Y_1; \ldots ; Y_{m-1} | Y_m)= \mathbb E _{Y_m}\{I((Y_1|y_m); \ldots;(Y_{m-1}|y_m))\}.$$

 * This definition fits more along the lines of the interpretation of the mutual information as the measure of an intersection of sets, but it can become negative as well as positive for three or more random variables (in contrast to the definition in the comment above, which is always non-negative).

 * --130.94.162.64 23:15, 19 May 2006 (UTC)

 * This may or may not be useful to those of you wanting to extend mutual information, see Interaction_information. Mouse7mouse9 20:30, 9 May 2016 (UTC)  — Preceding unsigned comment added by Mouse7mouse9 (talk • contribs)

Source
The formula is from Shannon (1948). This should be written.

Who coined the term "mutual information"? --Henri de Solages 18:41, 7 November 2005 (UTC)

Remove irrelevant reference?
The first reference, Cilibrasi and Vitanyi (2005), contains only two mentions of mutual information:

"Another recent offshoot based on our work is hierarchical clustering based on mutual information, [23]."

"[23] A. Kraskov, H. St¨ogbauer, R.G. Adrsejak, P. Grassberger, Hierarchical clustering based on mutual information, 2003, http://arxiv.org/abs/q-bio/0311039"

I suggest this reference be removed as it's not helpful.

--84.9.75.186 10:57, 3 September 2007 (UTC)

 * The Kraskov & Stögbauer paper is an interesting one. Is that the one you are referring to?  —Dfass 11:25, 3 September 2007 (UTC)

In-text symbols are inconsistently formatted
Most of the in-text symbols and equations are formatted with italics, but a few (those with subscripts) are formatted in math mode. Shouldn't they all be formatted consistently? The separated equations use math mode, so my preference would be for in-text symbols and equations to be formatted in math mode as well. Jamesmelody (talk) 17:53, 22 February 2009 (UTC)

 * Ohhh... Apparently, the difference between the appearance of some in-text symbols and others is due to rendering differences in my browser.  I was writing in-text equations elsewhere, using the math environment everywhere, and noticed the same type of differences.  Perhaps I need to tweak my math rendering preferences...
 * Jamesmelody (talk) 19:18, 22 February 2009 (UTC)

Subtleties with Entropy and Mutual Information for Continuous Random Variables
I believe the article requires greater rigor when dealing with continuous random variables. Consider the following example:

Let $$X = N(0,\alpha)$$, a normal distribution, and let $$Y = X^2$$, and suppose I want to find the mutual information $$I(X,Y)$$ via $$I(X,Y)=H(X)-H(X|Y)$$. I know that $$H(X) = H[N(0,\alpha)] = 0.5 \log_2 (2\pi e\alpha)$$ bits. Additionally, I know that the random variable $$X|Y$$ is discrete with

\mathrm{Prob}\{X=\sqrt{y} \, | Y=y\} = 1/2 \ \mathrm{and} $$

\mathrm{Prob}\{X=-\sqrt{y} \, | Y=y\} = 1/2, $$

except when $$y=0$$, in which case $$\mathrm{Prob}\{X=0 \, | Y=0\} = 1$$. Hence, $$I(X,Y)=0.5 \log_2 (2\pi e\alpha)-1$$ bits.

Problem solved — except that now I can select $$\alpha$$ to make the first term less than one, making the mutual information negative. But the article tells me that mutual information can not be negative. This seems inconsistent.

I believe the inconsistency arises from the fact that $$X$$ and $$Y$$ are not jointly continuous random variables, because the support of the joint probability "density" is the curve $$y=x^2$$. More rigorously, the joint cumulative distribution function has a discontinuity on the curve $$y=x^2$$. This is evident in the fact that while the individual random variables are continuous, the conditional random variable $$X|Y$$ is discrete. Hence my argument subsequently mixed (discrete) entropy with differential entropy, two definitions that are not consistent.

Perhaps my belief is wrong. There may be a better explanation for the inconsistency, one which enables a fully consistent calculation in this example. (Perhaps the differential entropy of the conditional random variable $$X|Y$$ is $$-\infty$$? This would make the mutual information infinite, regardless of the value of $$\alpha$$, which would be consistent both with the requirement of nonnegativity and with the understanding of mutual information as an indication of degree of dependence.)

I suggest that the article be explicit in the case of continuous mutual information of the conditions on the joint distribution. In addition, I suggest that the section "Relation to Other Quantities" be explicit about when it is appropriate to use differential entropy as opposed to entropy. Finally, I suggest that the article explore the possible inconsistencies and limitations of mutual information for the continuous case. In particular, I should expect in my example that the mutual information indicate complete statistical dependence. Jamesmelody (talk) 19:44, 22 February 2009 (UTC)

 * The mutual information between two continuous random variable can be somewhat more rigorously explained by discretizing them by placing them in "bins" and then taking the limit as the bin size goes to zero. For example, if X and Y are continuous real-valued random variables, then their mutual information is
 * $$I(X;Y) = \lim_{\delta\rightarrow 0} I\left(\left\lfloor\frac X \delta\right\rfloor; \left\lfloor\frac Y \delta\right\rfloor\right).$$
 * Using this definition it can be easily seen that the (bivariate) mutual information can never be negative. In your example where one variable is completely determined by the other, i.e. $$Y=X^2$$, it makes sense that the mutual information would be infinite, since we can specify X to arbitrarily many digits of accuracy, and perfectly recover all those digits from the value of Y.

 * The most general rigorous and widely applicable definition of the mutual information is probably in terms of the Kullback–Leibler divergence of the joint distribution with respect to the product of the marginal distributions, which is defined (and remains finite) if and only if the joint distribution of the two random variables is absolutely continuous (in the sense of measures) with respect to the product of the marginals. Anyways, feel free to be bold and improve the article as you see fit.  I'll try to help. Deepmath (talk) 22:48, 22 February 2009 (UTC)

Scholarpedia
Possible source: []. Note that some of Scholarpedia is under copyright, so you can't just copy the content. —Preceding unsigned comment added by Njerseyguy (talk • contribs) 04:45, 7 July 2009 (UTC)

p(x,y) = 0 ?
It seems to me that there is a possibility for joint probability function p(x,y) to return 0, for example, in such case when variable values x and y never occur together. Can anyone explain, how it is possible to calculate mutual information, when there is a chance that p(x,y) for some x and y returns 0.

90.190.231.235 (talk) 12:15, 30 December 2009 (UTC)Siim

 * Priors or pseudo-counts are often used to iron out wrinkles like this and account for un-observed data. In this case you can define I(X;Y) := 0 if p(x,y)=0. This is relatively trivial to prove using L'Hôpital's rule. --Paul (talk) 21:49, 30 December 2009 (UTC)

Bogus Expectations
The conditional mutual expectation is defined using the epxression

\mathbb E_Z \big(I(X;Y)|Z\big) $$ There are two problems with this expression. First, $$I(X;Y)$$ is not a random variable. So taking its expectation is a no-op. Second, the expectation is conditioned on the random variable $$Z$$, which is not defined outside the scope of the expectation. This is how conditional expecatation is defined (see e.g. )

\mathbb E \big(X|Y) = \sum_{x} p(x|Y) x $$ Indeed, this expectation is itself a random variable.

The same problem occurs in the definition of the multivariate mutual entropy. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 128.114.60.41 (talk) 19:50, 9 March 2010 (UTC)

Stochastic processes
Would some knowledgeable person please add some material on the mutual information of stochastic processes? Thanx! Rinconsoleao (talk) 14:12, 22 December 2010 (UTC)

Multivariate mutual information equations
Can anyone verify the equations in the multivariate mutual information section.

This equation
 * $$I(X_1;\,...\,;X_n) = I(X_1;\,...\,;X_{n-1}) - I(X_1;\,...\,;X_{n-1}|X_n),$$

Does not reduce to any of the equations above for the basic 2-variable mutual information, if, for example, $$X_1=X$$ and $$X_n=X_2=Y$$

Should the equation instead be this?

 * $$I(X_1;\,...\,;X_n) = H(X_1;\,...\,;X_{n-1}) - H(X_1;\,...\,;X_{n-1}|X_n),$$

Willkeim (talk) 13:43, 8 April 2012 (UTC) Willkeim

Distance is "universal"
The claim that the distance D(X,Y) is "universal" is pretty flimsy. Here is the text from the article "An information-based sequence distance and its application to whole mitochondrial genome phylogeny", Ming Li et al., referred to in the Wikipedia article:

 * Now, consider any computable distance D. In order to exclude degenerate distances such as D(x, y) = 1/2 for all sequences x and y, we limit the number of sequences in a neighborhood of size d. Let us require for each x'',
 * ''|{y : |y| = n and D(x, y) ≤ d}| ≤ 2dn. (2)
 * ''Assuming equation (2), we prove the following theorem.
 * THEOREM 2. For any computable distance D, there is a constant c < 2 such that, with probability 1, for all sequences x and y, d(x, y) ≤ cD(x, y)''.

In other words, the distance must be "computable" (which I expect is a very specific, application-dependent notion) and it must satisfy another very technical condition (2). So it is not very universal -- at least not without considerable qualification. "Qualified universal" is fairly like "adulterated pregnant" in my view. See also remarks at Talk:Variation_of_information. 129.132.211.9 (talk) 19:57, 22 November 2014 (UTC)

Figure
The figure giving the mutual information of various scatterings of data looks like nonsense. It gives positive values for distributions that are separable. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 128.40.61.82 (talk) 12:24, 19 February 2016 (UTC)

Furthermore no indication is given as to how the mutual information was calculated from a data set. There are no mentions of estimators for the mutual information in the article. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 128.40.61.82 (talk) 12:30, 19 February 2016 (UTC)

 * I don't see that it's nonsense. The figures represent normalized probability distributions P[x,y] on presumably the same scale, and the mutual information is calculated directly from that, no "estimators" required. I don't understand the statement " It gives positive values for distributions that are separable." or in what sense that implies a problem. I agree that an explanation would be good, particularly describing the scale, and someone should verify the numbers. PAR (talk) 17:06, 24 February 2016 (UTC)

 * It's explained via the code is included at https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Mutual_Information_Examples.svg - that it uses `mi.plugin` from the `entropy` R package, which uses a histogram-based approach to MI calculation. It's the equivalent figure to that used on the correlation page, and the distance covariance page. I don't really have any strong attachment to it. I make it to help me understand how MI worked on different datasets that I was already familiar with. naught101 (talk) 06:20, 25 February 2016 (UTC)

 * Looking at the numbers, the distribution at the top center looks like a normal distribution in 2 dimensions, and that mutual information should be zero, so I think all of the numbers are suspect. I think it is a great idea, a great plot, to compare the different notions of variance and entropy, if only the numbers were right. If you would rework it to fix those numbers, it would be an excellent contribution. PAR (talk) 11:13, 25 February 2016 (UTC)

 * Probably because n=1000, which is pretty low, and histogram binning is always a bit biased. I'm probably not going to fix it, because that would require re-writing a new MI estimator in R, and I don't have the time for that. There's a non-biased python implementation of a k-nearest neighbours estimator, so it would be possible re-build the script in python around that, but again, time restraints. naught101 (talk) 04:26, 26 February 2016 (UTC)

Multivariate mutual information
The quantity introduced here has been called many things in the literature, but no publication I can find has ever referred to it as "multivariate mutual information". Wikipedia should NOT be the primary source defining new terms. This is a real problem that introduces confusion to the field. 130.209.89.69 (talk) 16:21, 25 April 2016 (UTC)

Creating the maximum possible mutual information
As written the article takes the nature of the model to be fixed. A consequence from fixing it is for increase of the mutual information to be made impossible. To increase the mutual information is, however, the aim of scientific research. This pitfall can be avoided by viewing the model as a procedure for making inferences and by optimizing these inferences information theoretically. A consequence is for the maximum possible mutual information to be created from fixed resources. Details are provided by Ronald Christensen in his "Entropy Minimax Source Book."Terry Oldberg (talk) 22:14, 10 July 2016 (UTC)

Zero mutual information between two variables
The article states that the mutual information between two variables is 0 iff the two variables are independent and random, however I think there may be another case: when both variables may take only one and the same value (thus they are always the same value with 1 probability). I'm not sure if that's a reasonable edge case, but if it is, it ought to be noted. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 192.80.95.230 (talk) 21:09, 11 January 2017 (UTC)

 * The article says "I(X; Y) = 0 if and only if X and Y are independent random variables." This is correct.  This is not the same as "... the two variables are independent and random", though "being random" is often interpreted in informal contexts to mean "being a random variable of uniform distribution" (or sometimes simply as "having an uncertain value").  These informal interpretations do not apply here.  What is meant by a "random variable" (duly linked in the article) is a quantity that has an associated distribution over its values.  The edge case described (fixed value) corresponds to a random variable in which the distribution has a form that constrains the value to a constant.  It is nevertheless correct to still call it a "random variable".  —Quondum 17:03, 6 June 2017 (UTC)

Removed statement about exact relationship for binary data
In, I removed the following passage:
 * In the special case where the number of states for both row and column variables is 2 (i, j = 1, 2), the degrees of freedom of the Pearson's chi-squared test is 1. Out of the four terms in the summation
 * $$ \sum_{i,j } p_{ij} \log \frac{p_{ij}}{p_i p_j }$$
 * only one is independent. It is the reason that mutual information function has an exact relationship with the correlation function $$ p_{X=1, Y=1}-p_{X=1}p_{Y=1}$$ for binary sequences.

My reasons are as follows: —Quondum 16:40, 6 June 2017 (UTC)
 * The source describes a rather specific circumstance: a bit sequence, in which the mutual information between bits of the same sequence separated by a fixed offset is being considered. This may too esoteric for the article, and may be illustrated by the amount of information that would be needed to outline the case under consideration.
 * As assumption appears to be that the statistics are stationary (i.e. that the joint probability of any pair of bit positions depends only on their separation, not on their absolute position), and symmetric; these are natural assumptions in settings of interest to some, but should not be used to suggest that there is anything special about binary sequences in the general case.
 * The way in which the statement was presented, it comes across as implying what is demonstrably untrue: that with an arbitrary joint probability distribution (or contingency table) of two bits, there is a direct relationship between at the stated correlation function (and others?) and the mutual information of the bits.
 * I found (through calculation) that in the general setting I had to constrain the joint probability (which starts with three degrees of freedom, the only constraint being that the total probability of all four possible sequences is 1) to one degree of freedom artificially, to achieve the stated exact relationship.

Jargon: Inconsistent Usage of Prepositions "of" and "from" Needs Explaining (or at least acknowledging with a comment)
I am a novice with information theory (though not with probability) but there seems to be an uncommented glaring inconsistency of the jargon used between several different wikipedia pages. Throughout page Kullback–Leibler_divergence, "of" is attached to the distribution that is immediately to the left of the || in the mathematical notation. And "from" is applied to the distribution that is to the right of the ||. Whereas on pages Mutual_information and Information_gain_in_decision_trees this assignment of prepositions (to construct the accompanying jargon terminology) is precisely reversed. Can anyone please explain or comment (or correct if one of these pages is in error)? Is this just another instance of those in the theoretical know making a big effort to maximize the impenetrability of their subject matter to novices, or am I being too cynical? -Thanks in advance. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 138.40.68.45 (talk) 15:47, 27 February 2019 (UTC)

Marginal Entropy or Individual Entropy?
In the section 'Relation to conditional and joint entropy' the description of the terms describes H(X) and H(Y) as 'marginal entropies' ("where H(X) and H(Y) are the marginal entropies"). But in the Venn diagram description, H(X) is described as the 'individual entropy' ("The circle on the left (red and violet) is the individual entropy H(X)"). It is confusing to someone not well versed in probability and statistics to use the two different labels 'marginal entropy' and 'individual entropy' because they won't know that the two terms refer to the same thing. I think H(X) and H(Y) should be referred to as 'marginal entropies' throughout, but a parenthetical such as '(The marginal entropy of X is the preferred name for the entropy of X, H(X), when contrasting it conditional entropies.)' should be added. If no one objects, I'm happy to add it. Nick (talk) 19:40, 25 June 2019 (UTC)

Get Rid of Equation Boxes
It is a bit unclear why many of the equations are wrapped in an. Not only does it seem to be uncommon, it also has poor rendering in dark mode when read in one of the native apps on e.g. iPad or iPhone. Normal equations would do fine as well. Daniel Strobusch (talk) 09:39, 4 January 2021 (UTC)

Shannon's name
Article reads:
 * The quantity was defined and analyzed by Claude Shannon..., although he did not call it "mutual information".

So what did Shannon call it? --Macrakis (talk) 19:11, 26 July 2021 (UTC)

Discrete v. Continuous distributions
I am thinking in particular of the section: "In terms of PDFs for continuous distributions" but the translation between continuous and discrete distributions and so the effect quantization or binning data is not straight forward.

Can we add something? Or is there a good existing article? — Preceding unsigned comment added by W102102 (talk • contribs) 14:56, 21 May 2022 (UTC)

title: Talk:Mutual information


text:
Emily Litella

Emily Litella is a fictional character created and performed by comedian Gilda Radner in a series of appearances on Saturday Night Live. Based on a person in her early life, Emily Litella was a popular character in Radner's comedy repertoire.

Premise
Emily Litella is an elderly woman with a hearing problem who appeared 26 times on SNL's Weekend Update op-ed segment between November 15, 1975 (Season 1) and December 17, 1977 (Season 3). Attired in a frumpy dress, sweater and Lisa Loopner eyeglasses, Litella was introduced with professional dignity by the news anchors, who could sometimes be seen cringing slightly in anticipation of the malapropisms they knew would follow. These sketches were, in part, a parody of the Fairness Doctrine, which at the time required broadcasters in the United States to present opposing viewpoints on public issues.

Litella would peer through her reading glasses and, in the character's high-pitched, warbly voice, would read a prepared statement in opposition to an editorial that the TV station had supposedly broadcast. Litella would become increasingly agitated as her statement progressed. Midway in her commentary, it became apparent to the anchor and the audience that Litella had misheard or misunderstood the subject of the editorial to which she was responding. A typical example:

"What is all this fuss I hear about the Supreme Court decision on a 'deaf' penalty? It's terrible! Deaf people have enough problems as it is!"

The news anchor would interrupt Litella to point out her error, along the lines, "That's death penalty, Ms. Litella, not deaf ... death." Litella would wrinkle her nose, say something like, "Oh, that's very different," then meekly turn to the camera and say, smiling, "Never mind!"

When Litella played against news anchor Chevy Chase (whom she often called "Cheddar Cheese" ), he would be somewhat sympathetic to her. After Chase left Saturday Night Life, Jane Curtin took over the anchor role and provided a more adversarial foil. Often, she would scold Litella, "Every week you come on and you get it wrong," to which Litella would reply, "Bitch!"

History
Radner based Litella on her childhood nanny, Elizabeth Clementine Gillies, known as "Dibby", who was allegedly hard of hearing. The running gag "Never mind" became a lighthearted catchphrase of the era.

In her first appearance on SNL, the character of Emily Litella was an author who appeared as an interview subject on a show called "Looks At Books". Though she had the same wavery voice and somewhat frumpy wardrobe as she would in later episodes, Litella did not appear to have a hearing problem in this appearance. All but one of the subsequent SNL appearances by Litella were at the newsdesk, and featured the by-now much more familiar "editorial reply" iteration of the character. In the eleventh episode of season four, on February 10, 1979, with guest hostess Cicely Tyson, the final comedy sketch was called "Emily Litellavision", and featured Litella hosting a staging of a song from Porky and Bess, her Porky Pig–based mis-hearing of Porgy and Bess by George and Ira Gershwin and DuBose Heyward, with Garrett Morris singing a song to Tyson with added stuttering, and the orchestra shown wearing pig masks.

Outside of Saturday Night Live, Radner played the character briefly on The Muppet Show. At the top of that episode, Miss Litella is discovered backstage by stage manager Scooter, where she is vociferously complaining about the indignity of her appearing in something so silly as "The Muffin Show", whereupon Scooter gently persuades Miss Litella that she would be appearing on "The Muppet Show", not "The Muffin Show". After hearing this reassurance, she withdraws her objection, and meekly apologizes to Scooter by saying, "Never mind."

The character also appeared in Radner's 1979 one-woman off-Broadway show, Gilda Live, in which Litella took a job as a substitute teacher in Bedford-Stuyvesant, replacing a teacher who had been a victim of a stabbing by one of his students, which put him in the hospital. Miss Litella further cautioned her new students to be very careful where they put their toes, as the regular teacher's "stubbing" was the third such "stubbing", as Miss Litella put it, at the school that week alone; and that the "stubbings" must be pretty serious, in order to have put their teacher in hospital indefinitely.

A similar character, Anthony Crispino (played by Bobby Moynihan), made his first appearance on a Weekend Update in Season 35, and became a recurring character.

title: Emily Litella


text:
Spiceland

Spiceland may refer to:

 * Spiceland, Indiana, a town
 * Spiceland Township, Indiana

title: Spiceland


text:
The Locked Room

The Locked Room (original Swedish title: Det slutna rummet) is a mystery novel by Swedish writers Maj Sjöwall and Per Wahlöö, published in 1972. It is part of their detective series revolving around Martin Beck and his team. The Locked Room has two plots running simultaneously. Larsson and Kollberg are extremely reluctantly part of a special task force that needs to solve a spree of bank robberies. Martin Beck is given a pity job after recovering from being shot at the conclusion of The Abominable Man; he needs to solve a classic situation of the genre: the locked room mystery.

The incompetence of the Swedish police force has spread to the point that all three detectives are severely hindered in their work. One criminal walks free for a heinous crime he did commit, then has to do hard time for a crime he did not.

Plot summary
The story begins with Beck recovered after his injury sustained at the end of the previous book and now returning to the National Police Bureau; he discovers that the police force still is amateurish and unprofessional for the most part, which he was accustomed to previously. Patrolmen have found a highly decomposed corpse (as it turns out later, a murdered man--found in a locked from inside apartment. An incompetent detective, Aldor Gustavsson, had the case shelved as suicide. No one was much disturbed by the fact that the weapon had not been found in the apartment.

The novel now has two storylines: the locked room investigation and the bank robbery specialists.

The latter take by accident the petty criminal Mauritzon, a mate of Malmström and Mohrén, and accuse him of a bank robbery in which a bank customer was shot. At the same time Martin Beck solves the locked room mystery- the gun was shot from outside by Maurtizon, when the window was open. The window had fallen so that the latch had closed by itself.

Since the evidence collected by Martin Beck is insufficient, Mauritzon is acquitted of murder; but for the bank robbery, of which he is innocent, but whose evidence he cannot refute, he is sentenced to manslaughter with lifetime imprisonment.

The bank robbers pursued by Attorney Olsson manage to fool the police (the robbery does not occur in Stockholm, but in Malmö instead).

During the investigation, Beck, in a depressive phase of his life, meets a woman named Rhea Nielsen and he finds new courage which in the following novels plays an important role.

Characters
Beck meets Rhea Nielsen, and it is love at first sight, sort of, in slow motion. Contrary to his ex-wife, she is a no-nonsense left-wing type of person and his intellectual equal.

Criminal mastermind Werner Roos and bank robbers Malmström and Mohrén are introduced, as is their ineffectual but successful Nemesis, public prosecutor 'Bulldozer' Olsson.

Police officer Kenneth Kvastmo is introduced to replace Kurt Kvant as Police officer Karl Kristianssons partner.

Film adaptation
The book was adapted by Dutch filmmaker Jacob Bijl as De gesloten kamer in 1993. In this film, the action is set in Antwerp and Beck is played by famous Belgian actor Jan Decleir. Most of the other characters were renamed to match the new setting; for instance, the name of Beck's colleague Kollberg was changed to Colbert.

title: The Locked Room


text:
Duane Denison

Duane Denison (born January 21, 1959) is an American guitarist best known for work with the punk rock band The Jesus Lizard. He is also a founding member of super-group Tomahawk.

Biography
Denison began his musical career by studying classical guitar at Eastern Michigan University. His work with classical guitar helped influence his unique sound, which helped earn him a spot on Spin Magazine's "100 Greatest Guitarists of All Time." "Denison has played warped jazz-rock with Firewater, cool jazz with the Denison-Kimball Trio, experimental alt-metal with Tomahawk, rockabilly punk with Th’ Legendary Shack Shakers, and outlaw country with Hank Williams III. But the angular, metallic sheets of noise that Denison unleashed with the Jesus Lizard are what he’ll ultimately be remembered and revered for. Tightly controlled yet capable of ripping and tearing like a runaway chainsaw, Denison’s riffs influenced an entire generation of post-hardcore guitarists, including the burgeoning wave of noise-punkers like the Men and Roomrunner.”

In 1999 Denison moved to Nashville after The Jesus Lizard broke up in order to play with Hank Williams III's "Damn Band". Soon after his move to Nashville, Denison began collaborating and exchanging demo tapes with Mike Patton, whom he met at a Mr. Bungle show in 1999. Denison started the demos on a 4 track tape machine and sent them to Patton who added vocals to the tapes and sent them back. After having a solid idea of what the songs should sound like they went into the studio and recorded what would become the first Tomahawk album which was released in 2001.

Denison and ex-Ministry bassist Paul Barker collaborated in 2007 to form a new band, U.S.S.A. U.S.S.A. released one album in that same year, titled The Spoils.

From late 2008 until 2012, he played guitar for Nashville-based Legendary Shack Shakers. Denison supplied the lead guitars on EmptyMansions snakes/vultures/sulfate released on April 2, 2013.

title: Duane Denison


text:
Ada Cambridge

Ada Cambridge (21 November 1844 – 19 July 1926), later known as Ada Cross, was an English-born Australian writer. She wrote more than 25 works of fiction, three volumes of poetry and two autobiographical works. Many of her novels were serialised in Australian newspapers but never published in book form. While she was known to friends and family by her married name, Ada Cross, her newspaper readers knew her as A.C. She later reverted to her maiden name, Ada Cambridge, and that is how she is known today.

Life
Ada was born at St Germans, Norfolk, the second child of Thomasine and Henry Cambridge, a gentleman farmer. She was educated by governesses, an experience she abhorred. She wrote in a book of reminiscences: "I can truthfully affirm that I never learned anything which would now be considered worth learning until I had done with them all and started foraging for myself. I did have a few months of boarding-school at the end, and went to sex school school for its day it was, but it left no lasting impression on my mind." (The Retrospect, Chapter IV). It was an unmarried aunt who contributed most to her intellectual development.

On 25 April 1870, she married the Rev. George Frederick Cross and a few weeks later sailed for Australia. She arrived in Melbourne in August and was surprised to find it a well-established city. Her husband was sent to Wangaratta, then to Yackandandah (1872), Ballan (1874), Coleraine (1877), Bendigo (1884) and Beechworth (1885), where they remained until 1893. Her Thirty Years in Australia (1903) describes their experiences in these parishes. She experienced lost children to whooping cough and scarlet fever.

Cross at first was the typical hard-working wife of a country clergyman, taking part in all the activities of the parish and incidentally making her own children's clothes. Her health, however, broke down, for a number of reasons, including a near-fatal miscarriage and a serious carriage accident, and her activities had to be reduced, but she continued to write.

In 1893, Cross and her husband moved to their last parish, Williamstown, near Melbourne, and remained there until 1909. Her husband went on the retired clergy list at the end of 1909 with permission to operate in the diocese until 1912. In 1913 they both returned to England, where they stayed until his death on 27 February 1917. Ada returned to Australia later that year. She died in Melbourne on 19 July 1926, and was buried at Brighton General Cemetery. She was survived by a daughter and a son, Dr K. Stuart Cross.

Career
While Cambridge began writing in the 1870s to make money to help support her children, her formal published career spans from 1865 with Hymns on the Litany and The Two Surplices, to 1922 with an article "Nightfall" in Atlantic Monthly. According to the scholar Patricia Barton, her early works "contain the seeds of her lifelong insistence on and pursuit of physical, spiritual and moral integrity, as well as the interweaving of poetry and prose which was to typify her writing career." Nancy Cato writes that "some of her ideas were considered daring and even a little improper for a clergyman's wife. She touches on extramarital affairs and the physical bondage of wives."

In 1875, Cambridge's first novel, Up the Murray, appeared in the Australasian, but was not published separately. It was not until 1890, with the publication of A Marked Man, that her fame as a writer was established. However, despite regular good reviews, there were many who discounted her because she did not write in the literary tradition of the time, one that was largely non-urban and masculine, that focused on survival against the harsh environment.

Cambridge was the first president of the Women Writers Club and an honorary life-member of the Lyceum Club of Melbourne. Her many friends in the literary world included Grace "Jennings" Carmichael, Rolf Boldrewood, Ethel Turner, and George Robertson.

Legacy
The Ada Cambridge Prizes were first awarded in 2005. There are now four such prizes: the Ada Cambridge Biographical Prose Prize, the Ada Cambridge Poetry Prize, the Young Adas Short Story Prize, and the Young Adas Graphic Short Story Prize. These all carry a cash component and winners are announced at the Williamstown Literary Festival each year.

Cambridge Street in the Canberra suburb of Cook is named after her.

Selected works

 * Novels
 * The Two Surplices (1865)
 * My Guardian: A Story of the Fen Country (1874)
 * Up the Murray (1875)
 * In Two Years Time (1879)
 * Dinah (1880)
 * A Mere Chance (1880)
 * Missed in the Crowd (1882)
 * A Girl's Ideal (1882)
 * Across the Grain (1882)
 * The Three Miss Kings (1883)
 * A Marriage Ceremony (1884)
 * A Little Minx (1885)
 * Against the Rules (1886)
 * A Black Sheep (1889)
 * A Woman's Friendship (1889) (Serialised in the Age, 1889; first published in book form in 1988)
 * A Marked Man (1890)
 * Not All in Vain (1891)
 * Fidelis (1895)
 * A Humble Enterprise (1896)
 * Materfamilias (1898)
 * Path and Goal (1900)
 * The Devastators (1901)
 * Sisters (1904)
 * A Platonic Friendship (1905)
 * A Happy Marriage (1906)
 * The Eternal Feminine (1907)
 * The Making of Rachel Rowe (1914)

 * Poetry collections
 * Hymns on the Litany (1865)
 * Hymns on the Holy Communion (1866)
 * Echoes (1869)
 * The Manor House and Other Poems (1875)
 * Unspoken Thoughts (1887)
 * The Hand in the Dark and Other Poems (1913)

 * Short story collections
 * The Vicar's Guest: A Tale (1869)
 * At Midnight and Other Stories (1897)

 * Children's fiction
 * Little Jenny (1867)

 * Autobiography
 * Thirty Years in Australia (1903)
 * The Retrospect (1912)

title: Ada Cambridge


text: Category:Transportation planning

title: Category:Transportation planning


text:
Spickard

Spickard may refer to:

 * Spickard, Missouri, city in Grundy County, Missouri, United States
 * Mount Spickard, mountain of Whatcom County, Washington, United States

People with the surname

 * Bob Spickard (born 1946), American surf rock musician
 * Paul Spickard (born 1950), American historian

title: Spickard


text:
Talk:Ras GTPase

RTK/Ras/MAPK signaling
I'm not familiar enough with it but could somebody please introduce more in the context of RTK/Ras/MAPK signaling? -- xy (talk) 09:47, 15 October 2008 (UTC)

changes
I have changed the Constitutively active Ras entry from the wrong: Constitutively active Ras (RasD) contains a mutation that blocks the functional binding of GAP and "locks" Ras in the active GTP-bound state.

To what you see now. --Adamshutes 00:00, 24 Oct 2004 (UTC)adamshutes

I changed the shorthand "Pi" to "inorganic phosphate" because it's less confusing.

Confuseddave 18:01, 2 January 2006 (UTC)

Some links to sort through
I'm putting some links here fairly indiscriminately until I decide (or someone else does) which if any are worth adding to the article itself.

 * Signaling Specificity by Ras Family GTPases Is Determined by the Full Spectrum of Effectors They Regulate, Pablo Rodriguez-Viciana et al.

 * Transformation Potential of Ras Isoforms Correlates with Activation of Phosphatidylinositol 3-Kinase but Not ERK, Weiquan Li et al.

 * The Cell, Alberts et al.

 * Cancer Medicine 6

 * The Ras/Raf/MEK/Extracellular Signal-Regulated Kinase Pathway Induces Autocrine-Paracrine Growth Inhibition via the Leukemia Inhibitory Factor/JAK/STAT Pathway, Jong-In Park et al.

 * Meaningful relationships: the regulation of the Ras/Raf/MEK/ERK pathway by protein interactions. W Kolch abstract pdf

any history of the name?

Acronym
The article doesn't explain what R.A.S. actually stands for ? XApple (talk) 13:58, 17 May 2010 (UTC)

Yes it does. (RA)t (S)arcoma. Originally cloned from a rat sarcoma, or neoplasm of mesenchymal origin. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 98.14.206.81 (talk) 00:43, 29 June 2010 (UTC)

Too technical
isabella c

I was looking for something to explain the Ras oncogene to a college freshman taking an introductory biology course. That's certainly part of the target audience for this article. I don't think it meets that test.

The problems start with the introduction. WP:NOTPAPER: "Introductory language in the lead and initial sections of the article should be written in plain terms and concepts that can be understood by any literate reader of Wikipedia without any knowledge in the given field before advancing to more detailed explanations of the topic. While wikilinks should be provided for advanced terms and concepts in that field, articles should be written on the assumption that the reader will not or cannot follow these links, instead attempting to infer their meaning from the text."

The introduction starts with terms like "GTPases" and "signal transduction", which most people wouldn't be familiar with at least until after they had finished a biology course. You can't define terms with other terms that the reader doesn't understand.

Campbell's biology is an example of how it is possible to define it in terms that a high school student can understand:

"ras gene. This gene codes for Ras protein, a G protein that relays a growth signal from a growth factor receptor on the plasma membrane to a cascade of protein kinases that ultimately results in the stimulation of the cell cycle. Many ras oncogenes have a point mutation that leads to a hyperactive version of the Ras protein that can lead to excessive cell division." --Nbauman (talk) 19:20, 25 November 2011 (UTC)

 * I've had a go at plain-Englishing the opening paragraphs - let me know what you think! HenryScow (talk) 13:46, 30 November 2011 (UTC)
 * It looks like this problem has been addressed, at least for the lead. Tag removed. MartinPoulter (talk) 15:24, 14 May 2012 (UTC)

Clinical Studies
Why is Reolysin on here? That therapy is completely unrelated to alterations in RAS. This is just an attempt by the reolysin people to hype their product. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 155.52.122.136 (talk) 20:58, 18 September 2013 (UTC)

title: Talk:Ras GTPase


text:
Talk:Hearing (law)

Untitled
Does this really belong here? should be in Wiktionary! -- Kums 23:59, 23 Oct 2004 (UTC)

title: Talk:Hearing (law)


text: Talk:Entropy of fusion

title: Talk:Entropy of fusion


text:
Kevin Rutmanis

Kevin Rutmanis (born October 17, 1958) is an American bass guitarist. He is of Latvian descent. Before getting into music, he was a student teacher. In late 1985, along with his younger brother Sandris Rutmanis, Thor Eisentrager, and then Jayhawks drummer Norm Rogers, he started the band The Cows. After the dissolution of The Cows, Rutmanis was the bass guitar player for The Melvins from 1998 to 2005. He was also the bass guitarist in the supergroup Tomahawk featuring Mike Patton. Kevin played bass on Tomahawk's first two long play releases, titled Tomahawk and Mit Gas, and played for two world tours supporting those albums. He has since recorded with Hepa-Titus.

Cows

 * 1987 – Taint Pluribus Taint Unum
 * 1989 – Daddy Has a Tail
 * 1990 – Effete and Impudent Snobs
 * 1991 – Peacetika
 * 1992 – Cunning Stunts
 * 1993 – Sexy Pee Story
 * 1994 – Orphan's Tragedy
 * 1996 – Whorn
 * 1998 – Sorry in Pig Minor

Melvins

 * 1999 – The Maggot
 * 1999 – The Bootlicker
 * 2000 – The Crybaby
 * 2001 – Electroretard
 * 2001 – Colossus of Destiny
 * 2002 – Hostile Ambient Takeover
 * 2004 – Pigs of the Roman Empire (with Lustmord)
 * 2004 – Never Breathe What You Can't See (with Jello Biafra)
 * 2005 – Sieg Howdy! (with Jello Biafra)
 * 2013 – Everybody Loves Sausages (guest appearance)
 * 2015 – "Dumb Numbers" Split Series
 * 2016 – Three Men and a Baby (with Mike Kunka)

Tomahawk

 * 2001 – Tomahawk
 * 2003 – Mit Gas

Hepa/Titus

 * 2011 - The Giving Brain
 * 2012 - Follow Me
 * 2014 - Gettin' It On
 * 2016 - FM Warm Weather
 * 2017 - Omega Pig
 * 2018 - Champagne of Incest
 * 2019 - Blue Fat Pussy

Teenage Larvae

 * 1993 - Songs For Pigs
 * 2017 - Omega Pig

title: Kevin Rutmanis


text:
Northwestern

Northwestern or North-western or North western may refer to:
 * Northwest, a direction
 * Northwestern University, a private research university in Evanston, Illinois
 * The Northwestern Wildcats, this school's intercollegiate athletic program
 * Northwestern Medicine, an academic medical system comprising:
 * Northwestern University Feinberg School of Medicine
 * Northwestern Memorial Hospital.

Other colleges and universities

 * Northwestern College (Iowa), a small Christian college in Iowa
 * University of Northwestern – St. Paul (formerly Northwestern College), a small Christian college, located in Roseville, Minnesota
 * The former Northwestern College in Watertown, Wisconsin, which was incorporated into Martin Luther College in New Ulm, Minnesota in 1995
 * Northwestern Michigan College, a small college located in Traverse City, Michigan
 * Northwestern Oklahoma State University in Alva, Oklahoma
 * Northwestern State University, in Natchitoches, Louisiana
 * Northwestern California University School of Law, an online based law school in Sacramento, California
 * Northwestern Polytechnic University in Fremont, California

Other schools

 * Northwestern High School (disambiguation), a number of high schools in the United States

Geographic areas

 * Northwestern United States, a region of the United States of America
 * North Western Oklahoma City, a district of Oklahoma City around Western Avenue
 * North West Province, South Africa, a province of South Africa
 * North Western Province, Sri Lanka, a province of Sri Lanka
 * North-Western Province, Zambia, one of Zambia's ten provinces
 * Northwestern Federal District, Russia
 * Northwestern Krai, a subdivision of Imperial Russia
 * North-Western Territory, a Hudson's Bay Company region, precursor to today's Northwest Territories though including what is now Yukon Territory
 * North-Western Provinces, an administrative region in British India

Other

 * Northwestern Memorial Hospital, a nationally ranked academic medical center in Chicago, Illinois
 * Northwestern Station in Chicago, Illinois
 * The Chicago and North Western Railway
 * The Oshkosh Northwestern, a daily newspaper based in Oshkosh, Wisconsin
 * FV Northwestern crab fishing vessel featured on Deadliest Catch
 * The Northwestern (band), a British rock band
 * Northwestern (genre), a genre of literature and film depicting Westerns set in Canada and Alaska
 * North Western Road Car Company (1923), the historic 1923-1974 bus company based in Stockport, England
 * North Western Road Car Company (1986), the historic 1986-1997 bus company based in Liverpool, England
 * North Western Railway (disambiguation)

title: Northwestern


text:
Massachusetts Public Interest Research Group

Massachusetts Public Interest Research Group (MASSPIRG) is a non-profit organization that is one of the largest of the state PIRG organizations. It works on a variety of political activities, including textbook trading on college campuses. They also provide internships and work study jobs for students on Massachusetts college campuses. Along with the Massachusetts Service Alliance, MASSPIRG helped create Massachusetts Community Water Watch, an organization that works specifically on environmental political. Student funding of MASSPIRG has been criticized at several schools, where students wish to see MASSPIRG funding cut.

History
The Public Interest Research Groups emerged at the behest of Ralph Nader who, during a college speaking tour, called on students to form political groups.

Criticism and rebuttal
The book Activism, Inc: How the Outsourcing of Grassroots Campaigns Is Strangling Progressive Politics in America by Columbia University sociologist Dana Fisher, is based on an ethnographic study she did in a stratified random sample of fund canvass offices during the summer of 2003. Fisher charges the corporatized fundraising model (of which the Fund is an example) with mistreating idealistic young people by using them as interchangeable parts and providing them with insufficient training. Fisher also states that the outsourcing of grassroots organizing by groups like the Sierra Club and Greenpeace to organizations like the Fund has led to the decay of grassroots infrastructure and opportunities for involvement on the left. The Fund has created a website, canvassingworks.org, to respond to a few of the criticisms raised by the book. The site includes testimony by former Fund staff who have moved into leading roles in other progressive organizations and other progressive leaders, including U.S. Representative Jan Schakowsky (IL), Sierra Club Executive Director Carl Pope, Dr. Woody Holton (Associate Professor of American history at the University of Richmond), and Randy Hayes of the Rainforest Action Network.

Notable members

 * Joyce Elaine Roop

Affiliate organizations

 * The Fund for Public Interest Research
 * Environment Massachusetts
 * Human Rights Campaign
 * Sierra Club


text:
Battle of Formigny

The Battle of Formigny, fought on 15 April 1450, was a major battle of the Hundred Years' War between England and France. A decisive French victory that destroyed the last significant English field army in Normandy, it paved the way for the capture of their remaining strongholds.

Although artillery had been used in siege warfare since the early 14th century, Formigny is thought to be the first major European engagement where it was present on the battlefield.

Background
Charles VII of France used the time afforded by the 1444 Treaty of Tours to reorganise and reinvigorate his armies. In contrast, the English were divided by the internal struggle for power that eventually led to the Wars of the Roses in 1455. The inability to agree a coherent strategy left their forces in Normandy scattered and dangerously weak.

As a result, the French were in a much stronger position when they broke the truce in June 1449. By August, they had taken Pont-Audemer, Pont-L'Evêque and Lisieux, and by October had occupied much of Normandy. Cutting north and east, the Bureau brothers captured Rouen in October, Harfleur in December, then Honfleur and Fresnoy in January 1450, before investing Caen.

During the winter of 1449, the English assembled an expeditionary force in Portsmouth to relieve Caen. It was led by Sir Thomas Kyriell, a relatively unknown commander who would be comprehensively out manoeuvred by his French opponents. Lack of money and supplies hampered recruiting and lowered morale; in January 1450 the troops lynched an official sent to negotiate with them over pay.

On 15 March 1450, Kyriell and some 2,500 men landed in Cherbourg, where they were reinforced by another 1,800 collected by Edmund Beaufort, 2nd Duke of Somerset, English commander in Normandy. He did so by taking them from English garrisons in Bayeux, Caen, and Vire, under Sir Matthew Gough, Sir Robert Vere and Sir Henry Norbury respectively.

Battle
Rather than immediately relieving Caen as originally planned, Kyriell attacked Valognes, whose possession allowed the French to isolate Cherbourg from the rest of the Cotentin peninsula. It fell on 27 March after a short siege, and Kyriell continued onto French-held Carentan, which he reached on 12 April. Despite a number of small skirmishes, Clermont, the local French commander, refused to give battle, so Kyriell instead marched for Bayeux. He stopped near Formigny on 14 April, closely followed by 3,000 men from Carentan under Clermont. On the same day, the Constable of France, Arthur de Richemont, arrived in Saint-Lô with a Breton force of 2,000, split between 1,200 cavalry and 800 infantry. Having made contact, Clermont urged him to move on Formigny as soon as possible.

On 15 April, the English sighted Clermont, and the armies took up positions facing each other on the Carentan-Bayeux road, near a small tributary of the Aure. Now totalling somewhat less than 4,000 men, of whom 2,900 were archers, the English assembled in two main "battles" across the road to Carentan, with their backs to the stream. Although they did not have time to construct the usual defence works of sharpened stakes, Kyriell was confident since he outnumbered Clermont, and was unaware of Richemont's proximity.

Pausing to assess the situation, in the early afternoon Clermont ordered his dismounted men at arms to attack the English position. These assaults were repulsed, as were two French cavalry probes of their flanks. He then instructed his two culverins to open fire; since the guns were out of effective bowshot range, the English archers were unable to respond, and left their positions in an attempt to capture them. It was now around 7:00 pm; Richemont and his 1,200 cavalry arrived from the south, crossing the Aure and threatening the English flank. Encouraged by the presence of the king's most influential advisor, Pierre de Brézé, Clermont's forces stood their ground.

With many of his men busy dragging the captured guns back to their lines, Kyriell shifted forces to the left to face the new threat, while Clermont responded by renewing his attack. The English were caught in the open by the Breton cavalry, then enveloped by French troops under Clermont and Brézé. Attacked from both sides, they were split into small groups and suffered heavy casualties. The vast majority were either killed or captured, including Kyriell, although Sir Matthew Gough and a small party escaped to Bayeux.

Contemporary chronicles suggest that despite protestations from their commanders, after the battle French infantrymen massacred about 500 captured English archers. Their corpses were later buried in a nearby field, later dubbed "The English Tomb".

Aftermath
Kyriell's army had effectively ceased to exist, with the vast majority either killed or taken prisoner. Contemporary French records claim 3,744 bodies were buried, although this seems to have included casualties from both sides. The same sources suggest another 1,200 to 1,400 were taken prisoner, while other historians suggest 2,500 killed and 900 captured. Estimates of French and Breton losses vary from "less than a thousand", to "about 500", or "a handful". As other significant English forces in Normandy had been eliminated before the battle, the whole region quickly fell to the victorious French. Caen was captured on 12 June, and Cherbourg, the last English-held fortress in Normandy, fell on 12 August.

Prior to 1450, artillery had previously been confined to siege warfare, and Formigny is arguably the first battle in which cannon played a role on the battlefield. Unlike the better known Battle of Castillon, their impact is difficult to judge, since contemporary accounts are unclear. Arguably the arrival of the Breton cavalry on the English flank was the decisive factor, since it forced them to leave their prepared defensive position, although the French guns also played a role in making that happen.

Most significantly, the noise of their firing alerted Richemont to the fact that a battle was taking place and its rough location, so causing his appearance on the field. It was fortunate for Clermont this was so; one of his captains wrote shortly afterwards that if Richemont had not arrived when he did, Clermont's army would have suffered "irreparable damage" due to the English numerical superiority.

title: Battle of Formigny