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Pirate decryption

Pirate decryption is the decryption, or decoding, of pay TV or pay radio signals without permission from the original broadcaster. The term "pirate" is used in the sense of copyright infringement. The MPAA and other groups which lobby in favour of intellectual property (specifically copyright and trademark) regulations have labelled such decryption as "signal theft" even though there is no direct tangible loss on the part of the original broadcaster, arguing that losing out on a potential chance to profit from a consumer's subscription fees counts as a loss of actual profit.

History
The concept of pay TV or pay television involves a broadcaster deliberately transmitting signals in a non-standard, scrambled or encrypted format in order to charge viewers a subscription fee for the use of a special decoder needed to receive the scrambled broadcast signal.

Early pay TV broadcasts in countries such as the United States used standard over-the-air transmitters; many restrictions applied as anti-siphoning laws were enacted to prevent broadcasters of scrambled signals from engaging in activities to harm the development of standard free-to-air commercial broadcasting. Scrambled signals were limited to large communities which already had a certain minimum number of unencrypted broadcast stations, relegated to certain frequencies. Restrictions were placed on access of pay TV broadcasters to content such as recent feature films in order to give free TV broadcasters a chance to air these programs before they were siphoned away by pay channels.

Under these conditions, the pay TV concept was very slow to become commercially viable; most television and radio broadcasts remained in-the-clear and were funded by commercial advertising, individual and corporate donations to educational broadcasters, direct funding by governments or license fees charged to the owners of receiving apparatus (the BBC in the UK, for example).

Pay TV only began to become common after the widespread installation of cable television systems in the 1970s and 1980s; early premium channels were most often movie broadcasters such as the US-based Home Box Office and Cinemax, both currently owned by Warner Bros. Discovery. Signals were obtained for distribution by cable companies using C-band satellite dish antennae of up to ten feet in diameter; the first satellite signals were originally unencrypted as extremely few individual end-users could afford the large and expensive satellite receiving apparatus.

As satellite dishes became smaller and more affordable, most satellite signal providers adopted various forms of encryption in order to limit reception to certain groups (such as hotels, cable companies, or paid subscribers) or to specific political regions. Early encryption attempts such as Videocipher II were common targets for pirate decryption as dismayed viewers saw large amounts of formerly-unencrypted programming vanishing. Nowadays some free-to-air satellite content in the USA still remains, but many of the channels still in the clear are ethnic channels, local over-the-air TV stations, international broadcasters, religious programming, backfeeds of network programming destined to local TV stations or signals uplinked from mobile satellite trucks to provide live news and sports coverage.

Specialty channels and premium movie channels are most often encrypted; in most countries, broadcasts containing explicit pornography must be encrypted to prevent accidental viewing.

Technical issues
Initial attempts to encrypt broadcast signals were based on analogue techniques of questionable security, the most common being one or a combination of techniques such as:
 * Weakening or attenuating specific portions of the video signal, typically those required to maintain synchronization.
 * Inverting video signals so that white becomes black (and vice versa).
 * Adding an interfering signal at one specific frequency which could be simply filtered out at a suitably equipped receiver.
 * Moving the audio portion of the signal to some other frequency or sending it in a non-standard format.

These systems were designed to provide decoders to cable operators at low cost; a serious tradeoff was made in security. Some analogue decoders were addressable so that cable companies could turn channels on or off remotely, but this only gave the cable companies control of their own descramblers — valuable if needed to deactivate a stolen cable company decoder but useless against hardware designed by signal pirates.

The first encryption methods used for big-dish satellite systems used a hybrid approach; analogue video and digital encrypted audio. This approach was somewhat more secure, but not completely free of problems due to piracy of video signals.

Digital TV services, by nature can more easily implement encryption technologies. When first introduced, digital DBS broadcasts were touted as being secure enough to put an end to piracy once and for all. Often these claims would be made in press releases.

The enthusiasm was short-lived. In theory the system was an ideal solution, but some corners had been cut in the initial implementations in the rush to launch the service. The first US DirecTV smart cards were based on the BSkyB VideoCrypt card known as the Sky 09 card. The Sky 09 card had been introduced in 1994 as a replacement for the compromised Sky 07 card. The former had been totally compromised in Europe at the time (1995). The countermeasure employed by NDS Group, the designers of the VideoCrypt system was to issue a new smartcard (known as the Sky 10 card) that included an ASIC in addition to the card's microcontroller. This innovation made it harder for pirates to manufacture pirate VideoCrypt cards. Previously, the program in the Sky card's microcontroller could be rewritten for other microcontrollers without too much difficulty. The addition of an ASIC took the battle between the system designers and pirates to another level and it bought BSkyB at least six months of almost piracy-free broadcasting before the pirate Sky 10 cards appeared on the market in 1996. Initial pirate Sky 10 cards had an implementation of this ASIC but once supplies ran out, pirates resorted to extracting the ASICs from deactivated Sky cards and reusing them.

The first US DirecTV "F" card did not contain an ASIC and it was quickly compromised. Pirate DirecTV cards based on microcontrollers that were often ironically more secure than that used in the official card became a major problem for DirecTV. Similar errors had been made by the developers of the UK's terrestrial digital Xtraview Encryption System, which provided no encryption and relied on hiding channels from listings.

The DirecTV "F" card was replaced with the "H" card, which contained an ASIC to handle decryption. However, due to similarities between the "H" and other existing cards, it became apparent that while the signal could not be received without the card and its ASIC, the card itself was vulnerable to tampering by reprogramming it to add channel tiers or additional programming, opening TV channels to the prying eyes of the pirates.

Two more card swaps would be necessary before the piracy headaches at DirecTV would finally go away; a number of other providers are also in the middle of swapping out all of their subscribers' smartcards due to compromised encryption methods or technology.

A number of vulnerabilities exist even with digital encryption:

 * The same algorithm is used, potentially, for millions of subscribed receivers and or smartcards. The designers have the choice of using their own custom, secret algorithm or using a publicly tested one. The first approach is often referred to as security by obscurity.
 * With many digital TV encryption systems relying on smartcards for their security, any compromise of the smartcard would require a complete replacement of all smartcards being used. That could potentially involve the replacement of millions of smartcards. On a system with a low number of subscribers, the smartcards can be replaced periodically. However, as the number of subscribers grows, the cost of replacing the smartcards and the logistics of the replacement encourages the system users to try to get the longest use out of the smartcards before replacement. The chances of a fatal compromise on the smartcard increases as the time between replacement increases.
 * Any compromise of the smartcard or algorithm will become public quickly. Computers and Internet can be used to make crucial design details publicly available. Internet sites may be located offshore in countries where local laws permit the information and software to be distributed openly; some of the more notorious software distributed to pirates ranges from NagraEdit (a program intended to edit the information stored on Swiss-designed Kudelski NagraVision 1 smartcards) to firmware which may be used to reprogram some free-to-air set-top boxes or desktop PCs equipped with Digital Video Broadcasting (DVB) tuner cards to permit them to decode encrypted broadcasts.
 * The secrecy of any algorithm is only as trustworthy as the people with access to the algorithm; if any of them were to divulge any of the design secrets, every card with the compromised algorithm may need to be replaced for security to be restored. In some cases, outside personnel (such as those employed by lawyers in the NDS vs. DirecTV intellectual property lawsuit over the P4 card design) may obtain access to key and very sensitive information, increasing the risk of the information being leaked for potential use by pirates.
 * If less secure encryption is used due to processor limitations on the smartcards, the system is vulnerable to cryptographic attack using distributed processing. While most secure Internet and online banking transactions require 128-bit encryption, 56-bit codes are not uncommon in video encryption. A cryptographic attack against a 56-bit DES code would still be prohibitively time-consuming on a single processor. A distributed approach in which many users each run software to scan just a portion of the possible combinations, then upload results to one or more central points on a network such as the Internet, may provide information of value to pirates who wish to break security. Distributed processing attacks were used, successfully in some cases, against the D2-MAC/EuroCrypt system used in Europe during the 1990s.
 * The resources available for reverse engineering increase significantly if a direct competitor with smartcard manufacturing knowledge were to attempt to maliciously compromise the system. Integrated circuits may be vulnerable to microprobing or analysis under an electron microscope once acid or chemical means have been used to expose the bare silicon circuitry. One lawsuit has already been launched by Canal+, dropped as the result of the one billion Euro deal to sell TelePiu (Italy), then continued by Echostar (USA). The suit alleged that competitor NDS Group had maliciously used reverse engineering to obtain the computer programs contained within various pay-TV smartcards (including SECA and Nagra cards) and allowed the results to be posted to Internet sites such as the notorious DR7.com.

On May 15, 2008, a jury in the Echostar vs NDS civil lawsuit (8:2003cv00950) awarded Echostar just over US$1,500 in damages; Echostar originally sought $1 billion in damages from NDS. However, a jury was not convinced of the allegations Echostar had made against NDS and awarded damages only for the factual claims that were proven and for which the jury believed an award should be given in accordance with the laws of the United States.

 * The signals moving between the smartcard and the receiver can be easily intercepted and analyzed. They can be vulnerable to a "glitch" by which the incoming power and clock signals are disrupted for a short and carefully timed length of time (such as a millionth of a second) in order to cause the processor to skip an instruction. In many cases, off-the-shelf hardware with modified firmware designed to exploit this weakness was sold to pirates for use in tampering with cards for the US-based DirecTV system.
 * In some cases, buffer overflow exploits have been used to gain access to otherwise locked cards in order to reprogram them.
 * A scheme to monitor the exact instantaneous power consumption of smartcards as they make their computations also provides clues as to what type of computations are being performed.

In some cases, fraudulent cloning has been used to assign identical serial numbers to multiple receivers or cards; subscribe (or unsubscribe) one receiver and the same programming changes appear on all of the others. Various techniques have also been used to provide write protection for memory on the smartcards or receivers to make deactivation or sabotage of tampered cards by signal providers more difficult.

Systems based on removable smartcards do facilitate the implementation of renewable security, where compromised systems can be repaired by sending new and redesigned cards to legitimate subscribers, but they also make the task of replacing smartcards with tampered cards or inserting devices between card and receiver easier for pirates. In some European systems, the conditional-access module (CAM) which serves as a standardized interface between smartcard and DVB receiver has also been targeted for tampering or replaced by third-party hardware.

Improvements in hardware and system design can be used to significantly reduce the risks of any encryption system being compromised, but many systems once thought secure have been proven vulnerable to sufficiently sophisticated and malicious attackers.

Two-way communication has also been used by designers of proprietary digital cable TV equipment in order to make tampering more difficult or easier to detect. A scheme involving the use of a high-pass filter on the line to prevent two-way communication has been widely promoted by some unscrupulous businesses as a means of disabling communication of billing information for pay-per-view programming but this device is effectively worthless as a cable operator remains free to unsubscribe a digital set-top box if two-way communication has been lost. As a device intended to pass signals in one direction only, the line filters offer nothing that couldn't be done (with the same results) by an inexpensive signal booster - a simple one-way RF amplifier already widely available cheaply and readily for other purposes. Also, many such boxes will disallow access to pay-per-view content after a set number of programs are watched before the box can transmit this data to the headend, further reducing the usefulness of such a filter.

Terminology and Definitions
Some of the terminology used to describe various devices, programs and techniques dealing with Pay-TV piracy is named for the particular hacks. The "Season" interface for example is named after the Season7 hack on Sky TV which allowed a PC to emulate a legitimate Sky-TV smartcard. The Season7 referred to the seventh and final season of Star Trek: The Next Generation which was then showing on Sky One. The "Phoenix" hack was named after the mythical bird which can reanimate itself. The hack itself reactivated smartcards that had been switched off by the providers.

Some of the terminology used on Internet discussion sites to describe the various devices, programs and techniques used in dealing with video piracy is strange, non-standard, or specific to one system. The terms are often no different from the brand names used by legitimate products and serve the same function.

ISO/IEC 7816 smartcard terminology

 * ATR is the answer-to-reset data from an ISO/IEC 7816-compliant smartcard. A card reader would provide power, clock and reset signals to a smartcard, along with a bidirectional serial data interface to permit communication. On reset, the card would send a standard block of serial data (nominally at 9600 bit/s) to identify the card type and indicate the desired bitrate for further communication. The frequency of clock to be supplied may vary from one system or card type to another as it appears not to have been specified in the ISO standard.
 * A smart card reader is a device that allows a computer to communicate with a smartcard. Technically, these are simple devices consisting of a smartcard socket, some voltage level conversion circuitry and a crystal oscillator to supply the card with its clock signal. Early models were connected to the serial port on computers so the interface circuitry had to convert between the ISO/IEC 7816 card voltage levels and the RS-232 voltage levels used by the computer's serial port. More recent models use a USB connection to the computer. The simplest of earlier devices was the Phoenix interface. More sophisticated readers are often used in systems where the personal computer itself is to be secured using smartcard systems.
 * AVR and ATmega are trade names for a series of general-purpose 8-bit microcontroller chips manufactured by Atmel Corporation. The terms have been misused widely to refer to blank smartcards or various other hardware devices which were built around these processors. The widely available European funcard series of blank generic ISO/IEC 7816 smartcards were based upon the Atmel processor series; there was also a PIC card based on the Microchip Corporation PIC series of processors.
 * Emulation refers to the use of a personal computer in place of a smartcard using an ISO/IEC 7816-compatible "Season" interface. The PC, as far as the decoder is concerned, becomes a legitimate smartcard due to the program running on it. The program responds like a legitimate smartcard. Sometimes, for development purposes, the PC is programmed to simulate the entire instruction set of the smartcard's microcontroller to allow smartcard code to be developed more readily. As some encryption systems require an application-specific IC (ASIC) on the card to perform decryption, a pirate would also use a card which had been "auxed" (reprogrammed to pass received computer data directly to the application-specific decryption chip) in order to employ such an emulation system. Alternatively, pirates can sometimes emulate the functionality of the ASIC itself to gain access to the encrypted data.
 * A looped smartcard is one where defective or malicious program code written to non-volatile memory causes the smartcard's microcontroller to enter an endless loop on power-up or reset, rendering the card unusable. This is typically a countermeasure used by encryption system owners to permanently deactivate smartcards. In many cases, not even the ISO/IEC 7816 ATR message would be sent. Unloopers were smartcard repair stations intended to cause the card to skip one or more instructions by applying a "glitch" in some form to the power or clock signal in the hope of allowing the smartcard's microcontroller to exit from the endless loop.
 * Bootloaders were hardware which used a similar "glitch" to break a card out of an endless loop on power-up each time the card was used; these did not provide any smartcard reprogramming ability. These could permit DirecTV "H" cards (now no longer in use) to operate despite the permanent damage done by malicious code during the "Black Sunday" attack of 2001. These devices are currently believed to be obsolete.

Receiver (IRD) and microprocessor terminology

 * DVB is an international standard for digital video broadcasting used by virtually all European broadcasters; some North American providers use incompatible proprietary standards such as DSS (DirecTV) or DigiCipher (Motorola) which predate the DVB standardisation effort. The packet size, tables and control information transmitted by proprietary systems require proprietary non-DVB receivers, even though the video itself nominally in some form will often still adhere to the MPEG-2 image compression standard defined by the Moving Picture Experts Group.
 * An IRD is an integrated receiver-decoder, in other words a complete digital satellite TV or radio receiver; "decoder" in this context refers not to decryption but to the decompression and conversion of MPEG video into displayable format.
 * FTA is often used to refer to receivers and equipment which contain no decryption hardware, built with the intention of being able to receive unencrypted free-to-air broadcasts; more properly FTA refers to the unencrypted broadcasts themselves.
 * A CAM or conditional-access module is defined by the DVB standard as an interface between a standardised DVB Common Interface receiver and one or more proprietary smartcards for signal decryption. It is not the smartcard itself. The standard format of this module follows PCMCIA specifications; some receivers bypass the requirement for a separate module by providing embedded CAM functionality in the receiver to communicate with specific proprietary smartcards such as Nagravision, Conax, Irdeto, Viaccess, Betacrypt. In the North American market, most "package receivers" sold by signal providers provide embedded CAM operation; terminology is therefore often misused to misidentify the smartcard as a CAM.
 * JTAG is a standard test interface defined by the Joint Test Action Group and supported on many late-model digital receivers for factory test purposes. Operating using a six-wire interface and a personal computer, the JTAG interface was originally intended to provide a means to test and debug embedded hardware and software. In the satellite TV world, JTAG is most often used to obtain read-write access to nonvolatile memory within a digital receiver; initially programs such as Wall and JKeys were used to read box keys from receivers with embedded CAMs but JTAG has since proven its legitimate worth to satellite TV fans as a repair tool to fix receivers where the firmware (in flash memory) has been corrupted.
 * The Sombrero de Patel is another device used to obtain direct memory access to a receiver without physically removing memory chips from the board to place them in sockets or read them with a specialized device programmer. The device consists of a standard PLCC integrated circuit socket which has been turned upside-down in order to be placed directly over a microprocessor already permanently soldered to a printed circuit board in a receiver; the socket makes electrical contact with all pins of the microprocessor and is interfaced to one or more microcontrollers which use direct memory access to pause the receiver's microprocessor and read or write directly to the memory. The term sombrero is used for this hack as the novel use of an inverted IC socket somewhat resembles a hat being placed upon the main processor.

SmartCard piracy
Smart card piracy involves the unauthorised use of conditional-access smart cards, in order to gain, and potentially provide to others, unauthorised access to pay-TV or even private media broadcasts. Smart card piracy generally occurs after a breach of security in the smart card, exploited by computer hackers in order to gain complete access to the card's encryption system.

Once access has been gained to the smart card's encryption system, the hacker can perform changes to the card's internal information, which in turn tricks the conditional-access system into believing that it has been allowed access, by the legitimate card provider, to other television channels using the same encryption system. In some cases, the channels do not even have to be from the same television provider, since many providers use similar encryption systems, or use cards which have the capacity to store information for decoding those channels also. The information on how to hack the card is normally held within small, underground groups, to which public access is not possible. Instead, the hacking groups may release their hack in several forms. One such way is simply to release the encryption algorithm and key. Another common release method is by releasing a computer program which can be used by the smart card user to reprogram their card. Once complete, the now illegally modified smart card is known as a "MOSC." (Modified Original Smart Card). A third such method, more common in recent times, is to sell the information gained on the encryption to a third party, who will then release their own smart card, such as the K3 card. This third party, for legal reasons, will then use a fourth party to release encrypted files, which then allow the card to decode encrypted content.

Along with modifying original cards, it is possible to use the information provided by the smart card to create an encryption emulator. This, in turn, can be programmed into a cable or satellite receiver's internal software, and offered for download on the internet as a firmware upgrade. This allows access to the encrypted channels by those who do not even own a smart card. In recent times, many underground forum websites dedicated to the hobby of satellite piracy and encryption emulated Free To Air (FTA) receivers have been set up, giving up-to-date information on satellite and cable piracy, including making available firmware downloads for receivers, and very detailed encryption system information available to the public.

Upon gaining the knowledge that their system has been compromised, the smart card providers often have several counter measure systems against unauthorised viewing, which can be put in place over the air, in most cases causing virtually no disruption to legitimate viewers. One such measure is CI revocation. The simplest form of counter measure is a key change. This simply halts viewing for those viewing without authorisation temporarily, since the new key can easily be accessed in the hacked card, and implemented. There are often other more complicated procedures which update a part of the smart card in order to make it inaccessible. These procedures can also, however, be hacked, once again allowing access. This leads to a game of "cat and mouse" between the smart card provider, and the hackers. This, after several stages of progression, can leave the smart card provider in a situation where they no longer have any further counter measures to implement. This leaves them in a situation where they must perform a card and encryption change with all legitimate viewers, in order to eliminate the viewing of the service without permission, at least for the foreseeable future.

Such has been the success of implementing new smart card systems, that another form of smart card piracy has grown in popularity. This method is called card sharing, which works by making available the smart card decoding information in real time to other users, via a computer network. Police monitoring of unsecured card sharing networks has led to prosecutions.

Virtually every common encryption system is publicly known to have been compromised. These include Viaccess, Nagravision, SECA Mediaguard and Conax. The MediaCipher system, owned by Motorola, along with Scientific Atlanta's PowerKEY system, are the only digital TV encryption systems which have not publicly been compromised. This is largely thanks to there being no PC card conditional-access modules (CAMs) available for either encryption system.

Despite the unauthorised decryption of media being illegal in many countries, smart card piracy is a crime which is very rarely punished, due to it being virtually undetectable, particularly in the case of satellite viewing. Laws in many countries do not clearly specify whether the decryption of foreign media services is illegal or not. This has caused much confusion in places such as Europe, where the proximity of many countries, coupled with the large land mass covered by satellite beams, allows signal access to many different providers. These providers are reluctant to pursue criminal charges against many viewers as they live in different countries. There have, however, been several high-profile prosecution cases in the USA, where satellite dealers have been taken to court resulting in large fines or jail time.

Internet key sharing
An Internet key sharing scheme consists of one smart card with a valid, paid subscription which is located on an Internet server. It generates a stream of real-time decryption keys which are broadcast over the Internet to remotely located satellite receivers. Limiting factors in the number of remotely located satellite receivers are the network latency and the period between the updated keys and the ability of the card client's receiver to use the decrypted key stream.

Each receiver is configured in an identical manner, a clone receiving the same television signal from a satellite and, from the internet server, the same decryption keys to unlock that signal. As the server must have individually subscribed smart cards for each channel to be viewed, its continued operation tends to be costly and may require multiple subscriptions under different names and addresses. There is also a risk that as the number of card clients on the card sharing network grows, it will attract the attention of the satellite TV service provider and law enforcement agencies and the monitoring of IP addresses associated with this card sharing network may identify individual users and server operators who then become targets for legal action by the satellite TV service provider or by legal authorities.

Key sharing schemes are typically used where replacement of compromised smart card systems (such as the deprecation of Nagra 1/2 in favour of Nagra 3) has made other pirate decryption methods non-functional.

In February 2014, an episode of BBC's "Inside Out" disclosed that the complete Sky TV package could be obtained from black-market sources for as little as £10 per month through Internet key sharing, Swansea and Cardiff were highlighted with significant activity in pubs using cracked boxes to show Premier League football.

Political issues
In some countries such as Canada and many Caribbean nations (except for the Dominican Republic), the black market in satellite TV piracy is closely tied to the gray market activity of using direct broadcast satellite signals to watch broadcasts intended for one country in some other, adjacent country. Many smaller countries have no domestic DBS operations and therefore few or no legal restrictions on the use of decoders which capture foreign signals.

The refusal of most providers to knowingly issue subscriptions outside their home country leads to a situation where pirate decryption is perceived as being one of the few ways to obtain certain programming. If there is no domestic provider for a channel, a grey market (subscribed using another address) or black market (pirate) system is prerequisite to receive many specific ethnic, sport or premium movie services.

Pirate or grey-market reception also provides viewers a means to bypass local blackout restrictions on sporting events and to access hard-core pornography where some content is not otherwise available.

The grey market for US satellite receivers in Canada at one point was estimated to serve as many as several hundred thousand English-speaking Canadian households. Canadian authorities, acting under pressure from cable companies and domestic broadcasters, have made many attempts to prevent Canadians from subscribing to US direct-broadcast services such as AT&T's DirecTV and Echostar's Dish Network.

While litigation has gone as far as the Supreme Court of Canada, no judicial ruling has yet been made on whether such restrictions violate the safeguards of the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms which are intended to protect freedom of expression and prevent linguistic or ethnic discrimination. Domestic satellite and cable providers have adopted a strategy of judicial delay in which their legal counsel will file an endless series of otherwise-useless motions before the courts to ensure that the proponents of the grey-market systems run out of money before the "Charter Challenge" issue is decided.

According to K. William McKenzie, the Orillia Ontario lawyer who won the case in the Supreme Court of Canada, a consortium headed by David Fuss and supported by Dawn Branton and others later launched a constitutional challenge to defeat section 9(1)(c) of the Radiocommunication Act on the basis that it breached the guarantee of Freedom of Expression enshrined in section 2 (c) of the Canadian Charter of Rights.

The evidence compiled by Mr. McKenzie from his broadcasting clients in opposition to this challenge was so overwhelming that it was abandoned and the Court ordered that substantial costs be paid by the applicants.

In most cases, broadcast distributors will require a domestic billing address before issuing a subscription; post boxes and commercial mail receiving agencies are often used by grey-market subscribers to foreign providers to circumvent this restriction.

The situation in the US itself differs as it is complicated by the legal question of subscriber access to distant local TV stations. Satellite providers are severely limited in their ability to offer subscriptions to distant locals due to the risk of further lawsuits by local affiliates of the same network in the subscribers home designated market area. California stations have sued satellite providers who distributed New York signals nationally, as the distant stations would have an unfair advantage by broadcasting the same programming three hours earlier.

There is also a small "reverse gray market" for Canadian signals, transmitted with a footprint which sends full-strength DBS signals to many if not all of the contiguous 48 US states. This is desirable not only to receive Canadian-only content, but because some US-produced programs air in Canada in advance of their US broadcast. The question of signal substitution, by which Canadian cable and satellite providers substitute the signal of a local or domestic channel over a foreign or distant channel carrying the same program, is rendered more complex by the existence of a reverse grey market. Signal substitution had already been the cause of strong diplomatic protests by the United States, which considers the practice to constitute theft of advertising revenue.

The lack of domestic competition for premium movie channels in Canada is one factor encouraging grey-market reception; language is another key issue as most Spanish-language programming in North America is on the US system and most French-language programming is on the Canadian system. A larger selection of sports and ethnic programming is also available to grey-market subscribers.

It could be said that the 1000-channel universe is a "reality" in North America, but only for the signal pirates as many legal and geographic restrictions are placed on the ability to subscribe to many if not most of the physically available channels.

Other countries such as Nicaragua during Sandinista rule, Cuba, Iran (Islamic Republic of Iran) and Afghanistan during Taliban rule and Iraq during the Saddam Hussein regime, have attempted to prohibit their citizens from receiving any satellite broadcasts from foreign sources.

The situation in Europe differs somewhat, due to the much greater linguistic diversity in that region and due to the use of standardized DVB receivers capable of receiving multiple providers and free-to-air signals. North American providers normally lock their subscribers into "package receivers" unable to tune outside their one package; often the receivers are sold at artificially low prices and the subscription cost for programming is increased in order to favour new subscribers over existing ones. Providers are also notorious for using sales tactics such as bundling, in which to obtain one desired channel a subscriber must purchase a block of anywhere from several to more than a hundred other channels at substantial cost.

Many European companies such as British Sky Broadcasting prohibit subscriptions outside the UK and Ireland. But other satellite providers such as Sky Deutschland do sell yearly subscription cards legally to customers in other European countries without the need for an address or other personal information. The latter also applies to virtually all the Adult channel cards sold in Europe.

The Middle East emerged in the picture with the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. In July 2019, global football authorities of various competitions collectively condemned a pirate broadcasting channel of Saudi Arabia, BeoutQ. The right holders running Premier League, FIFA World Cup and UEFA Champions League called on the authorities of the Arab nation to halt the operations of its homegrown pirate TV and broadcasting service, which is involved in illegal streaming of matches internationally.

BeoutQ emerged in 2017, and since has been widely available across Saudi Arabia. However, the country denied that it is based in Riyadh, stating that the authorities are committed to fighting piracy. In February 2015, several sports bodies and broadcasters, including the U.S. National Basketball Association, U.S. Tennis Association and Sky demanded the United States to add Saudi Arabia its “Priority Watch List” over TV piracy. It was in April 2019, when Office of the United States Trade Representative (USTR) released a report placing Saudi Arabia on the Watch List.

Counter-piracy techniques
A number of strategies have been used by providers to control or prevent the widespread pirate decryption of their signals.

One approach has been to take legal action against dealers who sell equipment which may be of use to satellite pirates; in some cases the objective has been to obtain lists of clients in order to take or threaten to take costly legal action against end-users. Providers have created departments with names like the "office of signal integrity" or the "end-users group" to pursue alleged pirate viewers.

As some equipment (such as a computer interface to communicate with standard ISO/IEC 7816 smartcards) is useful for other purposes, this approach has drawn strong opposition from groups such as the Electronic Frontier Foundation. There have also been US counter-suits alleging that the legal tactics used by some DBS providers to demand large amounts of money from end-users may themselves appear unlawful or border on extortion.

Much of the equipment is perfectly lawful to own; in these cases, only the misuse of the equipment to pirate signals is prohibited. This makes provider attempts at legal harassment of would-be pirates awkward at best, a serious problem for providers which is growing due to the Internet distribution of third-party software to reprogram some otherwise legitimate free-to-air DVB receivers to decrypt pay TV broadcasts with no extra hardware.

US-based Internet sites containing information about the compromised encryption schemes have also been targeted by lawyers, often with the objective of costing the defendants enough in legal fees that they have to shut down or move their sites to offshore or foreign Internet hosts.

In some cases, the serial numbers of unsubscribed smartcards have been blacklisted by providers, causing receivers to display error messages. A "hashing" approach of writing arbitrary data to every available location on the card and requiring that this data be present as part of the decryption algorithm has also been tried as a way of leaving less available free space for third-party code supplied by pirates.

Another approach has been to load malicious code onto smartcards or receivers; these programs are intended to detect tampered cards and maliciously damage the cards or corrupt the contents of non-volatile memories within the receiver. This particular Trojan horse attack is often used as an ECM (electronic countermeasure) by providers, especially in North America where cards and receivers are sold by the providers themselves and are easy targets for insertion of backdoors in their computer firmware. The most famous ECM incident was the Black Sunday attack launched against tampered DirecTV "H" on 3 January 21, 2001 and intended to destroy the cards by overwriting a non-erasable part of the cards internal memory in order to lock the processor into an endless loop.

The results of a provider resorting to the use of malicious code are usually temporary at best, as knowledge of how to repair most damage tends to be distributed rapidly by hobbyists through various Internet forums. There is also a potential legal question involved (which has yet to be addressed) as the equipment is normally the property not of the provider but of the end user. Providers will often print on the smartcard itself that the card is the property of the signal provider, but at least one legal precedent indicates that marking "this is mine" on a card, putting it in a box with a receiver and then selling it can legally mean "this is not mine anymore". Malicious damage to receiver firmware puts providers on even shakier legal ground in the unlikely event that the matter were ever to be heard by the judiciary.

The only solution which has shown any degree of long-term success against tampered smartcards has been the use of digital renewable security; if the code has been broken and the contents of the smartcard's programming widely posted across the Internet, replacing every smartcard in every subscriber's receiver with one of different, uncompromised design will effectively put an end to a piracy problem. Providers tend to be slow to go this route due to cost (as many have millions of legitimate subscribers, each of which must be sent a new card) and due to concern that someone may eventually crack the code used in whatever new replacement card is used, causing the process to begin anew.

Premiere in Germany has replaced all of its smartcards with the Nagravision Aladin card; the US DirecTV system has replaced its three compromised card types ("F" had no encryption chip, "H" was vulnerable to being reprogrammed by pirates and "HU" were vulnerable to a "glitch" which could be used to make them skip an instruction). Both providers have been able to eliminate their problems with signal piracy by replacing the compromised smartcards after all other approaches had proved to provide at best limited results.

Dish Network and Bell Satellite TV had released new and more tamper-resistant smart cards over the years, known as the ROM2, ROM3, ROM10, ROM11 series. All these cards used the Nagravision 1 access system. Despite introducing newer and newer security measures, older cards were typically still able to decrypt the satellite signal after new cards were released (A lack of EEPROM space on the ROM2 cards eventually led to them being unable to receive updates necessary to view programming). In an effort to stop piracy, as by this point the Nagravision 1 system had been thoroughly reverse-engineered by resourceful hobbyists, an incompatible Nagravision 2 encryption system was introduced along with a smart card swap-out for existing customers. As more cards were swapped, channel groups were slowly converted to the new encryption system, starting with pay-per-view and HDTV channels, followed by the premium movie channels. This effort culminated in a complete shutdown of the Nagravision 1 datastream for all major channels in September, 2005. Despite these efforts to secure their programming, a software hack was released in late August, 2005, allowing for the decryption of the new Nagravision 2 channels with a DVB-S card and a PC. Just a few months later, early revisions of the Nagravision 2 cards had been themselves compromised. Broadcast programming currently uses a simulcrypt of Nagravision 2 and Nagravision 3, a first step toward a possible future shutdown of Nagravision 2 systems.

Litigation
Various groups have been targeted for lawsuits in connection with pirate decryption issues:
 * In 2006, a decision in Snow v. DirecTV preserved the right of a private website owner to prohibit DirecTV from accessing an otherwise-public website run by plaintiff Michael Snow to serve anti-DirecTV activists.
 * DirecTV (as the euphemistically-named "End Users Group") had engaged in widespread litigation against its own subscribers on the pretext that users who owned both a smartcard programmer and a DirecTV subscription were presumed to be using the equipment to unlock extra channels on the system. A hundred thousand users were harassed with repeated and legally-questionable demands seeking thousands of dollars per user.
 * In 2004's DirecTV v. Treworgy, the Electronic Frontier Foundation helped establish that DirecTV cannot sue individuals for "mere possession" of smart-card technology, forcing the company to drop its "guilt-by-purchase" litigation strategy.
 * "NagraStar" (a joint venture of Nagravision/Kudelski and DishNetwork/Echostar) has also targeted US end users with legal threats and demands for money.
 * EchoStar, as parent of Dish Network, has sued manufacturers of FTA receivers, claiming that the manufacturers were aware of or complicit in the distribution of aftermarket software which unlocks channels transmitted with compromised encryption schemes. The company has also sued operators of websites which published information about the security issues.
 * DirecTV has used the Digital Millennium Copyright Act and the Federal Communications Act to target developers and distributors of software that allowed users to hack DirecTV's older generation access cards. One 2006 settlement in US federal case DirecTV and NDS vs. Robert Lazarra ended in a one million dollar out-of-court settlement.
 * In 2009, the US Ninth Circuit court ruled in DirecTV, Inc v. Hoa Huynh, Cody Oliver against DirecTV's claim that inserting a smart card into preexisting television equipment constitutes "assembling" a pirate device. DirecTV cannot sue on this theory, dismissing DirecTV's attempt to punish individuals twice for a single offense and upholding a lower court decision that 47 U.S.C., section 605(e)(4) does not apply to individuals owning interception devices solely for personal use. This decision protects legitimate security researchers.
 * DirecTV sued its smartcard vendor NDS, accusing News Data Systems of “breach of contract, fraud, breach of warranty and misappropriation of trade secrets” for its role in designing the now compromised H- and HU- series cards.
 * Canal+ and EchoStar have also sued NDS, alleging that the company reverse-engineered and leaked information about their providers' rival encryption schemes.
 * Québécor-owned cable television operator Videotron sued Bell Satellite TV on the grounds that free signals from compromised satellite TV encryption unfairly cost the cable company paid subscribers. After multiple appeals and rulings against Bell, Québécor and TVA Group were ultimately awarded $141 million in 2015.

One of the most severe sentences handed out for satellite TV piracy in the United States was to a Canadian businessman, Martin Clement Mullen, widely known for over a decade in the satellite industry as "Marty" Mullen.

Mullen was sentenced to seven years in prison with no parole and ordered to pay DirecTV and smart card provider NDS Ltd. US$24 million in restitution. He pleaded guilty in a Tampa, Florida court in September 2003 after being arrested when he entered the United States using a British passport in the name "Martin Paul Stewart".

Mr. Mullen had operated his satellite piracy business from Florida, the Cayman Islands and from his home in London, Ontario, Canada. Testimony in the Florida court showed that he had a network of over 100 sub-dealers working for him and that during one six-week period, he cleared US$4.4 million in cash from re-programming DirecTV smartcards that had been damaged in an electronic counter measure.

NDS Inc. Chief of Security John Norris pursued Mullen for a decade in three different countries. When Mullen originally fled the United States to Canada in the mid-1990s, Norris launched an investigation that saw an undercover operator (a former Canadian police officer named Don Best) become one of Mullen's sub-dealers and his closest personal friend for over a year. In summer of 2003 when Mullen travelled under another identity to visit his operations in Florida, US federal authorities were waiting for him at the airport after being tipped off by Canadian investigators working for NDS Inc.

Ironically, the NDS Group were accused (in several lawsuits) by Canal+ (dismissed as part of an otherwise-unrelated corporate takeover deal) and Echostar (now Dish Network) of hacking the Nagra encryption and releasing the information on the internet. The jury awarded EchoStar $45.69 actual damages (one month's average subscription fee) in Claim 3.

Bell Satellite TV (as Bell ExpressVu) was sued by Vidéotron, a Québécor-owned rival which operates cable television systems in major Québec markets. Québécor also owns TVA, a broadcaster. Bell's inferior security and failure to replace compromised smartcards in a timely fashion cost Vidéotron cable subscribers, as viewers could obtain the same content for free from satellite under the compromised Nagra1 system from 1999 to 2005; pirate decryption also deprived TVA's French language news channel LCN of a monthly 48¢/subscriber fee. The Superior Court of Quebec awarded $339,000 and $262,000 in damages/interest to Vidéotron and TVA Group in 2012. Québec's Appeal Court ruled these dollar amounts "erroneus" and increased them in 2015; despite an attempt to appeal to the Supreme Court of Canada, a final award of $141 million in damages and interest was upheld.

title: Pirate decryption


text:
Perfect Time

Perfect Time is a music album by Irish musician Máire Brennan (now known as Moya Brennan). This recording was for the Word Records company. It was released in 1998.

Recordings were made in Ireland during 1998:

 * Mo Studio, Dublin, Ireland – (Engineer Chris O'Brien)
 * The Production Suite, Dublin, Ireland – (Engineer Chris O'Brien)

Track listing

 * 1) "The Big Rock" – 3:04
 * 2) "Perfect Time" – 4:46
 * 3) "The Light on the Hill" – 4:02
 * 4) "Na Páistí (The Children)" – 2:39
 * 5) "Heal This Land" – 3:45
 * 6) "Song of David" (Psalm 67) – 4:08
 * 7) "Our World" – 6:10
 * 8) "Doon Well" – 3:57
 * 9) "Grá Dé (The Love of God)" – 6:25
 * 10) "The Big Rock" (Instrumental Version) – 3:03

Band

 * Máire Brennan – Vocals, Harp, Keyboards
 * Dee Brennan – Bodhran, Vocals (on Na Páistí)
 * Graham Murphy – Keyboards
 * Denis Woods – Keyboards
 * Gerry O'Conner – Fiddle
 * Anthony Drennan – Guitars
 * David Downes – Uilleann pipes, Low Whistles
 * Cór Mhuire na Doirí Bige the choir of St. Mary's Church, Derrybeg, Donegal – Choir (on Song of David)
 * Baba Brennan – Choir Leader

Commercial singles

 * 1) "Heal This Land"
 * 2) "The Big Rock"

Promotional singles

 * 1) "Perfect Time"
 * 2) "The Light on the Hill"

Release details

 * 1998, UK, Word Records MCD 60052, Release Date ? April 1998, CD
 * 1998, UK, Word Records MCC 50052, Release Date ? April 1998, Cassette
 * 1998, UK, Word Records 7019965601, Release Date ? April 1998, CD
 * 1998, USA, Word Records MCD 69143, Release Date ? April 1998, CD
 * 1998, USA, Word Records 7019965504, Release Date ? April 1998, Cassette
 * 1998, Japan, Columbia Records ESCA 7426, Release Date ? April 1998, Cassette

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Perfect Time


text:
User talk:Wolfychan

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title: User talk:Wolfychan


text:
Native Forest Action Council

Native Forest Action Council was an environmental organisation in New Zealand.

It was formed in 1975 from what was the Beech Forest Action Committee to advocate for the protection of native forests and changed its name to the Maruia Society in 1988. The Maruia Society then became the Ecologic Foundation with Guy Salmon as its director.

title: Native Forest Action Council


text:
Félix Trinidad vs. Ricardo Mayorga

Félix Trinidad vs. Ricardo Mayorga, billed as "Back with a Vengeance", was a professional boxing match contested on October 2, 2004. It pitting together former world champions Felix Tito Trinidad and Ricardo Mayorga, under the promotion of Don King, at the Madison Square Garden in New York City, United States.

Background
The fight involved no world titles, but that did not prevent it from being a large boxing event: With Bernard Hopkins's knockout of Oscar De La Hoya and Roy Jones Jr.'s knockout defeat weeks before, there were no more immediate big fights in the future, and both boxers had impressive knockout records.

The behind the scenes storylines involving this fight helped build up fan interest too: Mayorga, nicknamed "El Matador" ("The Killer"), had been active for the two previous years, settling for a no contest and a knockout win (in a rematch) against Andrew Lewis, then defeating Vernon Forrest twice before losing to Cory Spinks, all in world title fights. He had also won one fight at the Middleweight division. Mayorga, who prides himself in living a "wild style" type of life, had been arrested by the Nicaraguan government one month before the fight, stemming from charges of raping a woman.

During the weigh-in the day before the fight, Mayorga, feeling taunted by Trinidad's fans, responded by grabbing his genitals towards those fans. For the Trinidad fight, Mayorga dyed his hair red. Asked why he did that, he answered that he dyed his hair just because he felt like it.

Trinidad, for his part, had not been active for two years. He lost his motivation, according to him, after Hopkins refused to give him a rematch of their September 28, 2001 bout, in which Hopkins unified the WBA, WBC, and IBF titles by knocking Trinidad out in twelve rounds. After a win against Hacine Cherifi in four rounds in 2002, Trinidad retired. Trinidad reportedly reached a weight of 200 pounds (91 kg) during his retirement.

Because of those circumstances, many experts predicted that this fight would be like the fight between Joe Louis and Rocky Marciano or the one between Larry Holmes and Muhammad Ali: A former great who had been out of the ring for a considerable amount of time taking on an opponent who was, on the other hand, very good, but not to be considered as good as the retired champion ever was, therefore, many predicted Trinidad's doom at the hands of a man like Mayorga, who had won a world title and proven himself against some of the best boxers available while Trinidad was away from boxing.

The fight was telecast on HBO's Pay Per View, and commented by Jim Lampley, Larry Merchant and Roy Jones Jr. The fact it was held in New York guaranteed that many fans from both countries, especially Puerto Ricans, would come to cheer for their boxer.

The fight
Mayorga started the fight by almost falling Trinidad with a jab. A famous part of this round sees Mayorga drop his hands sticking his chin in the air daring the vicious puncher Trinidad to try his best. Trinidad threw three left hooks and Mayorga simply did a mocking dance to taunt Trinidad. In round two, Trinidad and Mayorga traded power punches evenly, with most experts agreeing that Trinidad landed with a little more power.

Mayorga struck in round three with a right to the chin, that caused Trinidad to reel back and touch his glove to the mat. Although this was ruled a knockdown, Trinidad recuperated quickly, and went back into trading with Mayorga. By the end of the round, Mayorga was wobbled again. It has been alleged that, at some point after falling, Trinidad told Mayorga something in Spanish that sounded like "I've tasted your power now. Let's see if you can take mine(power)!".

By round four, Mayorga began to spurt a cut. Trinidad started to move to take advantage of the cut. Nevertheless, the round featured many furious exchanges between the two rivals.

Round five was similar to round four. Both fighters stood in the center of the ring, trading power punches until the bell. This style set the pattern for the rest of the fight, but Mayorga was noticeably tiring after six rounds, and he had sustained two more injuries.

The end of the fight came in round eight. Trinidad, seizing an opportunity for a knockout, dropped Mayorga three times, forcing the referee to stop the bout, giving Trinidad the TKO win.

Aftermath
There was the possibility of a rematch between Trinidad and de la Hoya, who was defeated by Trinidad in 1999 via a controversial decision. A fight against Hopkins, based on the outcome of Hopkins-de la Hoya, was also very considered, just like a fight with Roy Jones Jr. Soon after the fight with Mayorga, though, Trinidad only fought Winky Wright in May 2005, losing in 12 rounds for only the second loss of his career. Eventually, Trinidad would fight Jones Jr. in January 2008, losing by unanimous 12-round decision.

As for Mayorga, he required hospitalization due to the injuries he sustained. Immediately after being released from the hospital (three days after the fight), he flew back to Nicaragua, where he would immediately begin a law process to determine whether he was guilty or not of rape. On October 5, he announced his retirement from boxing, although he later returned onto the ring to fight Michele Piccirillo and then Oscar De La Hoya.

The fight between Trinidad and Mayorga went on to be considered by some respected critics as a candidate for 2004's "fight of the year" immediately after it was over.

Promoter Don King went on a tirade against HBO days after the fight, complaining that HBO had dedicated 6 months to promote the Hopkins-de la Hoya fight and only six days to promote the Trinidad-Mayorga showdown. HBO executives replied by saying that King was apparently too caught up with the political debates of 2004, and that HBO and King have enjoyed a mutual working relationship for many years.

Undercard
Confirmed bouts:

title: Félix Trinidad vs. Ricardo Mayorga


text:
User talk:MKI

Hello and welcome to Wikipedia!

Here are some tips to help you get started:

 * Try the Tutorial, and feel free to experiment in the test area.
 * If you need help, post a question at the Help Desk
 * Eventually, you might want to read the Manual of Style and Policies and Guidelines.
 * Remember Neutral point of view
 * Explore, be bold in editing pages, and, most importantly, have fun!

Good luck!

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P.S. One last helpful hint. To sign your posts like I did above (on talk pages, for example) use the '~' symbol. To insert just your name, type ~~~ (3 tildes), or, to insert your name and timestamp, use ~~~~ (4 tildes).

Your account will be renamed
Hello,

The developer team at Wikimedia is making some changes to how accounts work, as part of our on-going efforts to provide new and better tools for our users like cross-wiki notifications. These changes will mean you have the same account name everywhere. This will let us give you new features that will help you edit and discuss better, and allow more flexible user permissions for tools. One of the side-effects of this is that user accounts will now have to be unique across all 900 Wikimedia wikis. See the announcement for more information.

Unfortunately, your account clashes with another account also called MKI. To make sure that both of you can use all Wikimedia projects in future, we have reserved the name MKI~enwiki that only you will have. If you like it, you don't have to do anything. If you do not like it, you can pick out a different name. If you think you might own all of the accounts with this name and this message is in error, please visit Special:MergeAccount to check and attach all of your accounts to prevent them from being renamed.

Your account will still work as before, and you will be credited for all your edits made so far, but you will have to use the new account name when you log in.

Sorry for the inconvenience.

Yours, Keegan Peterzell Community Liaison, Wikimedia Foundation 01:29, 20 March 2015 (UTC)

title: User talk:MKI


text: User talk:69.37.197.252

title: User talk:69.37.197.252


text:
Marcellin Champagnat

Marcellin Joseph Benedict Champagnat, FMS (20 May 1789 –6 June 1840) was a French Catholic religious born in Le Rosey, village of Marlhes, near St. Etienne (Loire), France. He was the founder of the Marist Brothers, a religious congregation of brothers in the Catholic Church devoted to Mary and dedicated to education. His feast day is 6 June, his death anniversary.

Champagnat was ordained as a priest on 22 July 1816 and was part of a group led by Jean-Claude Colin, who founded the Society of Mary, a separate religious congregation to the Marist Brothers teaching order Champagnat founded later. Champagnat was born in the year of the storming of the Bastille, the start of the French Revolution. The religious, political, economic, and social unrest of the times he lived influenced his priorities and life path.

Seminary and ordination

With money he earned from raising sheep, he went to the Minor Seminary at Verrières-en-Forez. He entered in October 1805. Older than many of his classmates, at the age of 17, he failed his first year and was sent home. He was readmitted, through the efforts of his mother, his parish priest, and the superior of the seminary.

Champagnat, who by this time had developed from being timid and shy into a gregarious young man, was known to frequent the local pubs. As a consequence, he was eventually regarded as a member of a group known as the “Happy Gang,” made up of seminarians who were a familiar sight in the taverns of the town during their free time.

At the beginning of his second year, Champagnat settled down to a more sober lifestyle. He continued to apply himself to his studies throughout his second year at the seminary. Two events, occurring during the summer following the second year, also helped to moderate his exuberant behaviour. The first was the sudden death on 2 September 1807 of his friend, Denis Duplay. The second was a serious conversation with Father Linossier, who supervised the seminary, about improving Champagnat's general conduct. Champagnat left Verrières for St. Irenaeus, the major seminary near Lyons.

He then attended the major seminary at Saint Irenaeus in Lyon for his spiritual and theological formation as a priest. Among his companions were Jean-Marie Vianney and Jean-Claude Colin. He was no natural scholar but through hard work and the support of his mother and aunt he was finally ordained.

It was here that the idea for the Society of Mary was conceived and promoted by a group of seminarians, including Champagnat. He was ordained on 22 July 1816, at the age of twenty-seven, and the next day, travelled to the shrine of Our Lady of Fourviéres above Lyons with others interested in establishing a Society of Mary. The group of young men together dedicated themselves to Mary as "The Society of Mary". From the start, he announced the Society should include teaching Brothers to work with children deprived of Christian education in remote rural areas because others were not going to them.

Founding the Marist Brothers

After his ordination, Champagnat was appointed pastor in La Valla, on the slopes of Mont Pilat. Champagnat was struck by the isolation in which people lived and the lack of education in the rural area. At the end of October 1816, after attending Jean-Baptist Montagne, a dying sixteen-year-old completely ignorant of basic Catholic teaching, Champagnat acted upon his conviction of the need for religious Brothers.

After witnessing the poor treatment of a student by a teacher on his first day at school, Champagnat's thoughts on education had been shaken. He was motivated to establish a society that would care for indigent children and display "great zeal for the poor". When he later instructed the Marists on how to educate their students, he ordered them, "Keep loving them as long as they are with you, since this is the only way to work with any success at reforming them. Love them all equally—no outcasts, no favourites". He stated on another occasion, "I cannot see a child without wanting to tell him how much God loves him".

On 2 January 1817, Champagnat encouraged two young men Jean-Marie Granjon and Jean-Baptiste Audras, to join him in forming the nucleus of the Marist Brothers. Others soon followed. La Valla thus became the birthplace of the Marist Brothers. In 1817 he started a small establishment for training teachers at La Valla, which became a centre for his young Brothers. In 1824, when the new French king, Charles X, transferred the oversight of elementary education to the Catholic Church, Champagnat won support to build a new and larger novitiate, which became the Notre Dame Hermitage, and the brothers began to spread more widely.

In the early years of the new society, Champagnat personally supervised the training of the Brothers, visiting all of their schools and taking part in their teaching. By 1833, the novices of the Brothers were primarily men in their late teens and early twenties. They were required to be literate and numerate and received instruction in doctrine and the religious life as they trained to become teachers, living by a regular timetable of prayer, study, and manual work. Soon, the Brothers extended their services from the small country parishes in which they had begun their work to the larger towns.

In 1818 Champagnat opened the first Marist school whose timetable he designed in such a way to fit the farming needs of his parishioners (such as allowing children off school to help in the fields at planting and harvesting time). He set fees for the school at a level he knew most rural families could meet. In fact, if he knew the family was unable to afford anything, the tuition was free. Champagnat had a great devotion to the guardian angels, and directed that an image of a guardian angel be placed in every classroom.

Encouraged by the success of the school in La Valla, others were founded at Marlhes in 1819, in Saint-Sauveur-Street 1820, and in Bourg-Argental in 1822. But this success endangered the small congregation, which had little more than novices. In March 1822, eight applicants came from Haute-Loire, giving a new impetus to the institution, and allows the creation of new houses in Vanosc 1823, Saint-Symphorien-le-Chateau 1823, and Chavanay Charlieu 1824.

In 1837, Champagnat printed a Rule for his Brothers. In view of Champagnat's declining health, however, in 1839 Jean-Claude Colin advised him to have the Brothers elect a successor. This took place with the election of Brother François Rivat as Director-General and Champagnat's successor on 12 October 1839.

Final years
After a long-term illness, Champagnat died of cancer on 6 June 1840, aged 51, at Our Lady of the Hermitage in the Gier River valley about 30 kilometres from where he had commenced his work. He was buried on 8 June. He left this message in his Spiritual Testament of 18 May 1840: "Let there be among you just one heart and one mind. Let it always be said of the Little Brothers of Mary as it was of the early Christians: See how they love one another!" By that time there were 278 Brothers and 48 Marist schools in France, and the order was spreading to the South Pacific.

The nascent order called themselves Les Petits Frères de Marie or Little Brothers of Mary. The Marist Brothers Institute was formally approved in 1863 by Pope Pius IX, and were given the name Institutum Fratrum Maristarum a Scholis. Members of the order are identified by the initials "FMS".

Veneration
Champagnat's cause was formally opened on 9 August 1896, granting him the title of Servant of God. Champagnat was declared Venerable on 11 July 1920 by Pope Benedict XV, beatified by Pope Pius XII on 29 May 1955, and canonised by Pope John Paul II on 18 April 1999. His feast day is observed in the Catholic Church on 6 June.

Legacy
At his death, there were 280 Marist Brothers in the south of France. The number grew to 1500 Brothers in 1856. In 2000, there are about 5000 Marist Brothers and tens of thousands of lay people who undertake the work of spreading Marist education in 74 countries around the world.

Champagnat never wrote an extended exposition of his educational philosophy, but he believed that to teach children one must love them; secular subjects should be well taught as a means of attracting children to the schools, and they would learn the basic elements of their faith as well. Influenced by the French school of spirituality, Champagnat saw God at the centre of life and the Virgin Mary as a sure means of attracting people to God.

title: Marcellin Champagnat


text:
Hotel (Hailey novel)

Hotel is a 1965 novel by Arthur Hailey. It is the story of an independent New Orleans hotel, the St. Gregory, and its management's struggle to regain profitability and avoid being assimilated into the O'Keefe chain of hotels. The St. Gregory is supposedly based on the Roosevelt Hotel, although the old St. Charles Hotel is also cited as the basis for the novel.

Adaptations
The novel was adapted into a movie in 1967, and in 1983 Aaron Spelling turned it into a television series, airing for five years on ABC. In the TV series the St. Gregory Hotel was moved from New Orleans to San Francisco.

Characters

 * Peter McDermott, manager
 * Warren Trent, proprietor
 * Christine Francis, secretary to Warren Trent
 * Herbie Chandler, villainous Bell Captain
 * Aloysius Royce, administrative assistant to Warren Trent
 * Curtis O'Keefe, owner of the O'Keefe chain
 * Dorothy "Dodo" Lash, O'Keefe's starlet companion
 * Albert Wells, aging hotel guest
 * The Duke and Duchess of Croydon, guests in the Presidential Suite
 * Ogilvie, house detective
 * Julius "Keycase" Milne, hotel thief
 * Marsha Preyscott, one night guest in the hotel

Plot
Peter McDermott: The main character is Mr. Peter McDermott; the general manager with a past. He is a graduate in Hotel Management from Cornell University and subsequently got a job in a hotel. However, he had been involved with a lady at a time when he was supposed to be on duty. This gave Peter's wife and the lady's husband a reason to ask for a divorce. McDermott's dalliance was not a big thing for the hotel, but the newspaper coverage was such that he was dismissed from his job and blacklisted. But Warren Trent, the head of the St. Gregory Hotel, ignoring the past and considering the skill, hired him. The novel is about McDermott's attempts to deal with several crises in the hotel which involve a range of other characters.

The Hotel Finance Problem: The hotel's unpayable and unrenewable mortgage is due on Friday, necessitating its sale. Curtis O'Keefe, who owns a large hotel chain, plans to buy the St. Gregory hotel, as the O'Keefe chain did not have a hotel in New Orleans. They had offered to pay the two million due on the mortgage and one million dollar and living accommodation to Warren Trent as well. However Warren did not want to lose the hotel which he had nurtured for so long. They decided upon a deadline of Friday afternoon to make a decision on the deal. Warren Trent meanwhile decided to make a deal with the Journeyman's Union who had long wanted to enter the hotel Industry but were not successful. This way Warren Trent could maintain the hotel's independence and still have a say in its affairs. The Journeyman's Union had decided to send two of its executives on Thursday to study the hotel books and then decide before the Friday afternoon deadline. Royall Edwards of the St. Gregory had been appointed by Warren Trent to work with the two officers all night, if required, so that they could complete the study. However, upset with the denial of entry of a Negro man to the hotel, which made headlines, the Journeyman's Union broke the deal. Warren Trent had no option but to give in to Curtis O'Keefe. To his utmost surprise, a few minutes before Friday noon, the bank manager who had turned down refinancing of the hotel, came with an offer, that an individual, whose name could not be disclosed then, would be paying the mortgage and buying the major shares of the hotel. Warren Trent would be the chairman, though Warren knew that he would be just a figurehead, but as it was a better offer, so he accepted.

Christine and Albert Wells: Christine is Warren Trent's secretary. Peter and Christine have a liking for each other. They share many things in common and feel they could be happy together. In the hotel, an elderly guest, Mr. Albert Wells, suffers a medical problem in his room. The hotel staff is alert and quickly moves him to another room. Christine took care of Albert Wells personally as he was the hotel guest.

Marsha Preyscott: In another incident a group of teen-aged boys create a major incident that is aggravated by the fact that they are the sons of the local banker, car dealer, and other town notables. They attempt to rape Miss Prescott, the daughter of Mr. Prescott, a department store magnate, who is currently in Rome. However, on hearing her screams, Aloysius Royce (a Negro and main help to Warren Trent, who treats him like a son) steps in and Marsha is able to escape. Peter handles the situation and asks for a written apology from each of the boys involved in it. In these letters, the villainous Bell Captain Herbie Chandler is named as the one who made the incident possible. Because of his collusion in this, Chandler is threatened with firing on the spot; however, McDermott plans to take it to Mr. Trent, because of Chandler's years of employment. Chandler attempts to bribe the general manager, but fails, and is told to leave the office in a cold rage. Chandler plots some kind of revenge against McDermott, and he steps on elevator number 4. Marsha falls in ‘love’ with Peter McDermott and proposes marriage. Peter finds it difficult to say no to her considering her affluence and beauty, but finally says no as he knows that he likes Christine. However he overcomes his sense of guilt when he learns from Anna (Marhsa's head maidservant) that she is always the same and will be OK in a short time - and that Anna was never married. However, Marsha, in framing a good background to convince Peter, had said that Anna had a very good life with her husband whom she had met only once before marriage, and it was not necessary to know a person for too long before to decide on marriage.

The Dentist Convention: The hotel business gains a minimum from room rent, the bulk of its profit coming from the food and the conventions held. A major convention of dentists was supposed to be held in the St. Gregory. Dr Ingram, the president of the convention, has arrived and settled in his room. Then a Dr. Nicholas, a prominent Negro dentist and university lecturer, arrives at the counter, showing a confirmed reservation. However hotel policy does not allow Negroes. Dr Ingram was quite disappointed at this and threatened to take the convention out of the hotel, causing a major loss. When Peter discussed it with Warren, he said that after a few discussions this would be forgotten, the convention would be held, and there was no need to worry. And after a few meetings the convention finally decided to stay, though Dr. Ingram resigned from his post.

Curtis O'Keefe and Dodo: Curtis O'Keefe, who owns a large hotel chain, plans to buy the St. Gregory. He is there with Dodo, his girlfriend. But Curtis wants to move on. He gets a movie role for Dodo and intends to go to New York to meet his new girlfriend. When Warren tells Curtis that he is not going to accept Curtis' offer to sell the hotel, Curtis is very disappointed and in a fit of anger he tells Dodo that he doesn't want her any more. Dodo is upset, although somehow she already knows. She has to board her flight to Los Angeles and takes elevator number 4, as she is about to move out of the hotel.

Duke and Duchess of Croydon: In another instance the Duke and Duchess of Croydon are hiding out in the hotel as they are responsible for a gruesome hit-and-run accident which made the headlines. The Duke had gone to a night club, where the Duchess found her husband. On their way back the Duke hit a woman and her daughter, both of whom died. However, in the accident the headlight and the trim ring of the car were damaged. The Duke and Duchess arrived back at the hotel to try to find a way out, so that there would not be the slightest suggestion of them being involved in an accident. When the room-service waiter arrives in the presidential suite with dinner, the Duchess intentionally hits him so that her dress gets spoiled. The Duchess creates a big issue over this just to make her presence felt, so that it can be interpreted that she was in the hotel. But the chief house officer Ogilvie gets a hint of it and tries to blackmail the Duke and Duchess. They finally reach an agreement that Ogilvie would drive their Jaguar to Chicago and a total of twenty-five thousand dollars would be paid to him. By the time the police could identify the car with the broken headlight and trim pieces, Ogilvie would be out of New Orleans. His departure was scheduled to be at 1 am Thursday. Ogilvie gets a written note from the Duchess asking for permission to drive her car out of the garage in case the garage officer asks for it. The moment he is driving the car out of hotel, Peter enters the hotel and they make eye contact, though Peter does not think much of it at the time. However, recollecting all the events – a Jaguar belonging to the Duke and Duchess being driven by Ogilvie – the broken headlight of the Jaguar – the fuss created by Duchess about the waiter – all establish a link towards the involvement of the Duke and Duchess. Peter inquires from the garage officer and is informed that Ogilvie had a written note from the Duchess and so was allowed to drive the car away, but somehow the note got misplaced. Peter informed police captain Yolles of the incident, but they could not prove it without any evidence. After working hard, the attendant responsible for garbage recycling, manages to find the note. When the note is shown to the Duchess, she frowns. The Duke then decides to admit his crime and decides to leave and steps into elevator number 4.

Keycase Milne: A hotel thief operating in the St. Gregory. He has managed to get keys of several rooms in the hotel by using tricks, asking for other room number keys from the reception desk, using girls to obtain keys for him, among many other ways. When he saw the Duke and Duchess in the hotel he thinks it would be excellent if he could get the key of their room. He manages to get the key from reception by trickery, gets a duplicate prepared, and steals fifteen thousand dollars and some jewelry from the Duchess's room. After obtaining so much he decides to leave the hotel and boards elevator number 4.

Climax: The meeting to take over the hotel scheduled at 11:30 am Friday is in place. Mr. Dempster from New York arrives to reveal who his boss is, and it is Albert Wells, the hotel guest whom Christine had taken care of, not thinking of him as a rich man, who has bought the hotel. To Peter's complete surprise, he is appointed the Executive Vice-President of the St. Gregory and would be running the hotel with Dempster as officiating president, the position Dempster had in all other hotels owned by Albert Wells. During the meeting Christine comes running and tells them that elevator number 4 has met with an accident and had a free fall, killing a worker.

Actually, several passengers were killed, including an elderly couple. Dodo, suffering from serious injuries, is rushed to a hospital. It is then that Curtis realizes how much he loves Dodo and gets the best neurosurgeons for her. She is soon out of danger. The Duke, on the other hand, was killed instantly. The Duchess, in shock upon hearing that, is expressionless. The policeman, Captain Yolles, now thinks the blame for the hit-and-run could be easily moved onto the Duke, as he is now dead, and the Duchess could save herself. Herbie Chandler, the bell captain, is permanently paralyzed and never works again. Keycase escapes unharmed and runs away with all his money, vowing to go straight. Warren Trent is happy that he could retain his hotel as its chairman. Aloysius Royce leaves the hotel to study law but not before he and McDermott have a drink together.

Structure of novel
The novel features multiple unfolding plot lines which take place over a period of five weekdays, Monday through Friday. Some days feature self-contained episodes exploring particular elements of the routine of a large hotel in detail. Meg Yetmein, the cleaning lady, "gets hers back" by smuggling out steaks under her clothing toward the end of her shift; Tom Earlshore, the fired bartender, does much the same by "skimming" liquor. Other brief episodes explain techniques used by prostitutes in entering and exiting the hotel undetected, and the various methods used by the hotel thief.

Background to writing
Hailey worked on the novel for two and a half years, finishing in June 1964. He says his wife Sheila was of great assistance with the research. The book clubs, essential for sales of Hailey's book, originally rejected the novel. However, when the book was read in galleys three studios bid on the movie rights and it was sold to Warner Bros who wanted Hailey to write the screenplay. The book became a best seller, Hailey's most successful to date.

title: Hotel (Hailey novel)


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User talk:Lint Roll

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title: User talk:Lint Roll


text:
Ecologic Foundation

The Ecologic Foundation is an environmental organisation in New Zealand.

The Society had its origins in the Beech Forest Action Committee and the Native Forest Action Council (NFAC). In 1989 the NFAC changed its name to the Maruia Society: "Maruia" means "sheltered valley" in the Maori language, and there is also a valley of that name in New Zealand's South Island. In 1999, the society adopted an altered mission and took the name the Ecologic Foundation.

Throughout most of its history, the executive director was Guy Salmon who has been present through all the group's incarnations.

The Maruia Society lost a lot of members during the mid-late 1990s when it came out in support of sustainable milling of West Coast beech—in contrast to the mainstream environmental movement in New Zealand which was advocating against active management of the forests with money being channeled back into the forests for pest control.

title: Ecologic Foundation


text:
Michael Heizer

Michael Heizer (born 1944) is an American land artist specializing in large-scale and site-specific sculptures. Working largely outside the confines of the traditional art spaces of galleries and museums, Heizer has redefined sculpture in terms of size, mass, gesture, and process. A pioneer of 20th-century land art or Earthworks movement, he is widely recognized for sculptures and environmental structures made with earth-moving equipment, which he began creating in the American West in 1967. He currently lives and works in Hiko, Nevada, and New York City.

Work
Heizer began his artistic career in New York in 1966 with a series of geometric canvases painted with PVA latex. The paintings that would follow, characterized by non-traditionally shaped canvases, demonstrate Heizer's early exploration of positive and negative forms; such harmonies of presence and absence, matter and space, are essential to his art. In Trapezoid Painting (1966) and Track Painting (1967), he emphasizes the perimeters of raw canvases by painting them black, while the white interiors are perceived as negative spaces. These hard-edged "displacement paintings" parallel the immense geometries he achieves when moving earth. The slate grey contours of U Painting (1975), for example, anticipate the shapes of the depressions and angular mounds that appear in one of his latest projects City.

In the late 1960s, Heizer left New York City for the deserts of California and Nevada, where he began making his first "negative" sculptures. These works were created by removing earth to shape subterranean negative forms directly into desert floor. Completed in 1967, North, East, South, West, consisted of several geometrically shaped holes dug in the Sierra Nevada. The following year Heizer completed Nine Nevada Depressions, a series of large negative sculptures located primarily on dry lakes throughout the state, Jean Dry Lake, Black Rock Desert and Massacre Dry Lake, near Vya, Nevada among them. In 1969, Heizer made the series Primitive Dye Paintings, in which white lime powder and concentrated aniline dyes were spread over the dry desert landscape, covering large areas that, when viewed from the air, formed amorphous, organic shapes. The culmination of this critical early period was the creation of Double Negative in 1969, a project for which he displaced 240,000 tons of rock in the Nevada desert, cutting two enormous trenches—each one 50-feet-deep and 30-feet-wide and together spanning 1,500 feet—at the eastern edge of Mormon Mesa near Overton, Nevada.

Heizer has since continued his exploration of the dynamics between positive forms and negative space. His Adjacent, Against, Upon (1976) juxtaposes three large granite slabs in different relationships to cast concrete forms; the 30-50 ton granite slabs were quarried in the Cascade Mountain Range and transported by barge and train to Myrtle Edwards Park. For Displaced/Replaced Mass (1969/1977), later installed outside the Marina del Rey, California, home of Roy and Carol Doumani, he planted four granite boulders of different sizes from the High Sierra into lid-less concrete boxes in the earth so that the tops of the rocks are roughly level with the ground. For a 1982 work at the former IBM Building in New York, Heizer sheared off the top of a large rock and cut grooves into the surface before setting it on supports hidden within a stainless steel structure. Designed as a fountain, the boulder appears to float over running water. He called it Levitated Mass, a title he would use again in future. Commissioned by the president of the Ottawa Silica Company, the Effigy Tumuli earthwork in Illinois is composed of five abstract animal earthworks reclaiming the site of an abandoned surface coal mine along the Illinois River; the shapes (1983–85)—a frog, a water strider, a catfish, a turtle, and a snake—reflect the environment of the site, which overlooks the river. In 1983, Heizer received a Guggenheim Fellowship for Fine Arts.

In 2012, Heizer completed Levitated Mass (2012). On permanent installation at Los Angeles County Museum of Art, Levitated Mass is a massive white, diorite boulder (21.5 feet wide and 21.5 feet high) that sits atop a 456-foot-long sloped walkway, allowing viewers to experience the weight of the rock as they walk through the empty space below. It took eleven nights, from February 28 to March 10, 2012, to move the 340-ton rock from Jurupa Valley to the museum. The installation is situated in a field of polished concrete slices, set at a slight angle between the Resnick Pavilion and Sixth Street. Heizer opened the exhibit on June 24, 2012. A feature documentary, also named Levitated Mass, was directed and edited by the filmmaker Doug Pray. It details the making of the sculpture as it relates to Heizer's career while portraying the boulder's 105-mile journey through Los Angeles and the public's reaction to its installation. Other recent public artworks by Michael Heizer include Tangential Circular Negative Line in Mauvoisin, Switzerland, commissioned by Fondation Air&Art directed by Jean Maurice Varone, as well as Collapse (1967/2016) and Compression Line (1968/2016) at Glenstone, Potomac, Maryland.

In the early 1970s, Heizer began work on City, an enormous complex in the rural desert of Lincoln County, Nevada. His work on the project continues to this day, supported by the Dia Art Foundation through a grant from the Lannan Foundation. Limited public access to City began in 2022.

A campaign to have the Basin and Range area around City designated as a national monument to protect it from development took place, and a group of American museums, including the Los Angeles County Museum of Art (LACMA), the Museum of Modern Art, the Institute of Contemporary Art, Boston and the Walker Art Center, have joined to draw public attention to a petition urging preservation of the area. In July 2015, President Barack Obama signed a proclamation (using his authority under the Antiquities Act of 1906) creating the Basin and Range National Monument on 704,000 acres in Lincoln and Nye counties, an area including Heizer's City.

Heizer's artworks are represented in museum collections and public spaces worldwide.

Major permanent commissions

 * Tangential Circular Negative Line (2012), Mauvoisin, Switzerland, an Air&Art Foundation commission directed by Jean Maurice Varone
 * Levitated Mass (2012), Resnick Pavilion North Lawn at LACMA, Los Angeles, California
 * Effigy Tumuli (1985), Buffalo State Park, Ottawa, Illinois
 * 45 Degrees, 90 Degrees, 180 Degrees (1984), Rice University, Houston, Texas
 * Levitated Mass (1982), 590 Madison Avenue, New York. EJM Equities Collection, New York
 * North, East, South, West (1982), 5th and Flower Streets, Los Angeles

Other works

 * Isolated Mass/Circumflex (#2) (1968–72), Nine Nevada Depressions, Menil Collection, Houston, Texas
 * Rift # 1 (1968–72; deteriorated), Nine Nevada Depressions, Massacre Dry Lake, Nevada
 * Windows and Matchdrops (1969), seven small rills in the floor in front of the Kunsthalle Düsseldorf entrance, Germany
 * Displaced/Replaced Mass 1, 2 & 3 (1969), Silver Springs, NV. No longer extant.
 * Double Negative (1969–70), located near Overton, Nevada
 * Dragged Mass (1971), Detroit Institute of Arts, Detroit
 * City (1972, completed 2022), Lincoln County, Nevada
 * Adjacent, Against, Upon (1976), Myrtle Edwards Park, Seattle, Washington
 * This Equals That (1980; removed ), Michigan State Capitol Complex, Lansing, Michigan
 * North, East, South, West (1967/2002), Dia:Beacon, Beacon, New York

Exhibitions
In 1968, Heizer was included in Earth Works, the influential group show at Virginia Dwan's gallery, and then in the Whitney Museum painting annual in 1969, where his contribution was a huge photograph of a dye painting in the desert. For his first one-person show, at the Galerie Heiner Friedrich, Munich in 1969, he removed 1,000 tons of earth in a conical shape to create Munich Depression. In 1977, he was included in documenta 6, Kassel. Major exhibitions of his work have been staged at institutions such as the Museum Folkwang, Essen (1979), the Museum of Contemporary Art, Los Angeles (1984), and Fondazione Prada, Milan (1996). Recent gallery exhibitions have been held at Gagosian Gallery.

Selected solo exhibitions

 * 1971 Michael Heizer: Photographic and Actual Work. Detroit Institute of Arts, Detroit
 * 1979 Michael Heizer. Museum Folkwang, Essen. Travelled to Rijksmuseum Kroller-Muller, Otterlo, Netherlands.
 * 1984 In Context: Michael Heizer: 45°, 90°, 180°/Geometric Extraction. Museum of Contemporary Art, Los Angeles
 * 1985 45°, 90°, 180°: A Sculpture for Rice University. Farish Gallery, School of Architecture, Rice University, Houston
 * 1985 Michael Heizer: Dragged Mass geometric. Whitney Museum of American Art, New York
 * 1988 Michael Heizer: New Sculptures. Akira Ikeda Gallery, Tokyo
 * 1996 Michael Heizer: Negative – Positive +. Fondazione Prada, Milan
 * 2010 Michael Heizer: Works from the 1960s and 70s. David Zwirner, New York
 * 2012 Michael Heizer: Actual Size. Los Angeles County Museum of Art, Los Angeles
 * 2015 Michael Heizer: Altars. Gagosian Gallery, New York
 * 2016 Michael Heizer. Whitney Museum of American Art, New York
 * 2018 Le Bourget, Paris

Selected group exhibitions

 * 1966 The Annual Invitational Exhibition. Park Place Gallery, New York
 * 1968 Earthworks Dwan Gallery, New York
 * 1968 1968 Annual Exhibition: Contemporary American Sculpture. Whitney Museum of American Art, New York
 * 1969 New Media: New Methods Montclair Art Museum, Montclair, NJ; Organised by Museum of Modern Art, New York.
 * 1969 Op Losse Schroeven: Situaties en Cryptostructuren (Square pegs in round Holes). Stedelijk Museum, Amsterdam. Travelled to: Verborgene Strukturen. Museum Folkwang, Essen.
 * 1969 Live in Your Head: When Attitudes Become Form. Kunsthalle Bern, Bern, Switzerland. Travelled to: Museum Haus Lange, Krefield, West Germany; Institute of Contemporary Arts, London.
 * 1969 Land Art: Long, Flanagan, Oppenheim, Smithson, Boezem, Dibbets, De Maria, Heizer. Fernsehgalerie Gerry Schum, Berlin. Televised April 15, 1969.
 * 1969 1969 Annual Exhibition: Contemporary American Painting. Whitney Museum of American Art, New York
 * 1970 XXXV Esposizione internazionale d’arte di Venezia Venice
 * 1970 Information. Museum of Modern Art, New York
 * 1971 Sixth Guggenheim International Exhibition. Solomon R. Guggenheim Museum, New York
 * 1971 VII Biennale. Parc Floral de Paris, Paris
 * 1973 American Drawings 1963-73. Whitney Museum of American Art, New York
 * 1976 Drawing Now. Museum of Modern Art
 * 1977 Biennial Exhibition. Whitney Museum of American Art, New York, NY.
 * 1977 Documenta 6. Museum Friedericianum, Kassel, Germany.
 * 1980 L'Amérique aux Indépendants, 1944-1980 : 91ème Exposition, Société des Artistes Indépendants. Grand Palais, Paris, France.
 * 1984 Collectie Becht. De verzameling Agnes en Frits Becht. Stedelijk Museum, Amsterdam, Netherlands.
 * 1986 Individuals: A Selected History of Contemporary Art, 1945–1986. Museum of Contemporary Art, Los Angeles, CA.
 * 1987 American Drawing and Watercolors of the Twentieth Century. Selection from the Whitney Museum of American Art. National Gallery of Art, Washington, D.C.; traveled to The Cleveland Museum of Art, Cleveland, OH.; Achenbach Foundation, California Palace of the Legion of Honor, San Francisco, CA; Arkansas Arts Center, Little Rock, AR; Whitney Museum of American Art, Stamford, CT.
 * 1987 Photography and Art: Interactions since 1946. Los Angeles County Museum of Art, Los Angeles, CA; traveled to The Museum of Fort Lauderdale, Fort Lauderdale,
 * 1988 Vital Signs: Organic Abstraction from the Permanent Collection. Whitney Museum of American Art. New York, NY
 * 1989 20 Jahre Internationale Kunstmesse Basel. Galerie Hans Mayer, Düsseldorf, Germany.
 * 1990 Pharmakon ’90. Nippon Convention Center, Makuhari Messe, Tokyo, Japan.
 * 1997 47th International Art Exhibition – La Biennale di Venezia. Venice, Italy.
 * 2009 Photoconceptualism, 1966–1973. Whitney Museum of American Art, New York, NY.
 * 2010 The Original Copy: Photography of Sculpture, 1839 to Today. The Museum of Modern Art, New York, NY; traveled to Kunsthaus Zürich, Zurich, Switzerland.
 * 2013 When Attitudes Become Form: Bern 1969/Venice 2013. Ca’ Corner della Regina, Fondazione Prada, Venice, Italy.

Homages

 * Mungo Thomson, Levitating Mass (2012), Aspen, Colorado.
 * Régis Perray, 340 grammes déplacés... during Levitated Mass by Michael Heizer (2012), Nantes, France.
 * Jack Daws, Life on the Farm (Heizer), 2010

title: Michael Heizer