text:
Myrmecia (ant)

Myrmecia is a genus of ants first established by Danish zoologist Johan Christian Fabricius in 1804. The genus is a member of the subfamily Myrmeciinae of the family Formicidae. Myrmecia is a large genus of ants, comprising at least 93 species that are found throughout Australia and its coastal islands, while a single species is only known from New Caledonia. One species has been introduced out of its natural distribution and was found in New Zealand in 1940, but the ant was last seen in 1981. These ants are commonly known as bull ants, bulldog ants or jack jumper ants, and are also associated with many other common names. They are characterized by their extreme aggressiveness, ferocity, and painful stings. Some species are known for the jumping behavior they exhibit when agitated.

Species of this genus are also characterized by their elongated mandibles and large compound eyes that provide excellent vision. They vary in colour and size, ranging from 8 to 40 mm. While workers and queens are hard to distinguish from each other due to their similar appearance, males are identifiable by their perceptibly smaller mandibles. Almost all Myrmecia species are monomorphic, with little variation among workers of a given species. Some queens are ergatoid and have no wings, while others have either stubby or completely developed wings. Nests are mostly found in soil, but they can be found in rotten wood and under rocks. One species does not nest in the ground at all; its colonies can only be found in trees.

A queen will mate with one or more males, and during colony foundation she will hunt for food until the brood have fully developed. The life cycle of the ant from egg to adult takes several months. Myrmecia workers exhibit greater longevity in comparison to other ants, and workers are also able to reproduce with male ants. Myrmecia is one of the most primitive group of ants on earth, exhibiting differentiated behaviors from other ants. Workers are solitary hunters and do not lead other workers to food. Adults are omnivores that feed on sweet substances, but the larvae are carnivores that feed on captured prey. Very few predators eat these ants due to their sting, but their larvae are often consumed by blindsnakes and echidnas, and a number of parasites infect both adults and brood. Some species are also effective pollinators.

Myrmecia stings are very potent, and the venom from these ants is among the most toxic in the insect world. In Tasmania, 3% of the human population are allergic to the venom of M. pilosula and can suffer life-threatening anaphylactic reactions if stung. People prone to severe allergic reactions can be treated with allergen immunotherapy (desensitisation).

Etymology and common names
The generic name Myrmecia derives from Greek word Myrmec- (+ -ia), meaning "ant". In Western Australia, the Indigenous Australians called these ants kallili or killal.

Ants of this genus are popularly known as bulldog ants, bull ants, or jack jumper ants due to their ferocity and the way they hang off their victims using their mandibles, and also due to the jumping behaviour displayed by some species. Other common names include "inch ants", "sergeant ants", and "soldier ants". The jack jumper ant and other members of the Myrmecia pilosula species group are commonly known as "black jumpers", "hopper ants", "jumper ants", "jumping ants", "jumping jacks", and "skipper ants".

Taxonomy and evolution
Genetic evidence suggests that Myrmecia diverged from related groups about 100 million years ago (Mya). The subfamily Myrmeciinae, to which Myrmecia belongs, is believed to have been found in the fossil record of 110 Mya ago. However, one study suggests that the age of the most recent common ancestor for Myrmecia and Nothomyrmecia is 74 Mya, and the subfamily is possibly younger than previously thought. Ants of the extinct genus Archimyrmex may possibly be the ancestor of Myrmecia. In the Evans' vespoid scala, Myrmecia and other primitive ant genera such as Amblyopone and Nothomyrmecia exhibit behavior which is similar to a clade of soil-dwelling families of vespoid wasps. Four species groups form a paraphyletic assemblage while five species groups form a monophyletic assemblage. The following cladogram shows the phylogenetic relationships within Myrmecia:

Classification
Myrmecia was first established by Danish zoologist Johan Christian Fabricius in his 1804 publication Systema Piezatorum, in which seven species from the genus Formica were placed into the genus along with the description of four new species. Myrmecia has been classified into numerous families and subfamilies; in 1858, British entomologist Frederick Smith placed it in the family Poneridae, subfamily Myrmicidae. It was placed in the subfamily Ponerinae by Austrian entomologist Gustav Mayr in 1862. This classification was short-lived as Mayr reclassified the genus into the subfamily Myrmicinae three years later. In 1877, Italian entomologist Carlo Emery classified the genus into the newly established subfamily Myrmeciidae, family Myrmicidae. Smith, who had originally established the Myrmicidae as a family in 1851, reclassified them as a subfamily in 1858. He again treated them as a family in 1871. Swiss myrmecologist Auguste Forel initially treated the Poneridae as a subfamily and classified Myrmecia as one of its constituent genera but later placed it in the Ponerinae. William H. Ashemad placed the genus in the subfamily Myrmeciinae in 1905, but it was later placed back in the Ponerinae in 1910 by American entomologist William Morton Wheeler. In 1954, Myrmecia was placed into the Myrmeciinae; this was the last time the genus was placed into a different ant subfamily.

In 1911, Emery classified the subgenera Myrmecia, Pristomyrmecia, and Promyrmecia, based on the shape of their mandibles. Wheeler established the subgenus Halmamyrmecia, and the ants placed in it were characterized by their jumping behavior. The taxon Wheeler described was not referred to in his later publications, and the genera Halmamyrmecia and Pristomyrmecia were synonymised by John Clark. At the same time, Clark reclassified the subgenus Promyrmecia as a full genus. He revised the whole subfamily Myrmeciinae in 1951, recognizing 118 species and subspecies in Myrmecia and Promyrmecia; five species groups were assigned to Myrmecia and eight species groups to Promyrmecia. This revision was rejected by entomologist William Brown due to the lack of morphological evidence that would make the two genera distinct from each other. Due to this, Brown classified Promyrmecia as a synonym of Myrmecia in 1953. Clark's revision was the last major taxonomic study on the genus before 1991, and only a single species was described in the intervening years. In 2015, four new Myrmecia ants were described by Robert Taylor, all exclusive to Australia. Currently, 94 species are described in the genus, but as many as 130 species may exist.

Under the present classification, Myrmecia is the only extant genus in the tribe Myrmeciini, subfamily Myrmeciinae. It is a member of the family Formicidae in the order Hymenoptera. The type species for the genus is M. gulosa, discovered by Joseph Banks in 1770 during his expedition with James Cook on HMS Endeavour. M. gulosa is among the earliest Australian insects to be described, and the specimen Banks collected is housed in the Joseph Banks Collection in the Natural History Museum, London. M. gulosa was described by Fabricius in 1775 under the name Formica gulosa and later designated as the type species of Myrmecia in 1840.

Genetics
The number of chromosomes per individual varies from one to over 70 among the species in the genus. The genome of M. pilosula is contained on a single pair of chromosomes (males have just one chromosome, as they are haploid). This is the lowest number possible for any animal, and workers of this species are homologous. Like M. pilosula, M. croslandi also contains a single chromosome. While these ants only have a single chromosome, M. pyriformis contains 41 chromosomes, while M. brevinoda contains 42. The chromosome count for M. piliventris and M. fulvipes is two and 12, respectively. The genus Myrmecia retains many traits that are considered basal for all ants (i.e. workers foraging alone and relying on visual cues).

Species groups
Myrmecia contains a total of nine species groups. Originally, seven species groups were established in 1911, but this was raised to 13 in 1951; Promyrmecia had a total of eight, while Myrmecia only had five. M. maxima does not appear to be in a species group, as no type specimen is available.

Description
Myrmecia ants are easily noticeable due to their large mandibles, large compound eyes that provide excellent vision and a powerful sting that they use to kill prey. Each of their eyes contains 3,000 facets, making them the second largest in the ant world. Size varies widely, ranging from 8 to 40 mm in length. The largest Myrmecia species is M. brevinoda, with workers measuring 37 mm; M. brevinoda workers are also the largest in the world. Almost all species are monomorphic, but M. brevinoda is the only known species where polymorphism exists. It is well known that two worker subcastes exist, but this does not distinguish them as two different polymorphic forms. This may be due to the lack of food during winter and they could be incipient colonies. The division of labour is based on the size of ant, rather than its age, with the larger workers foraging for food or keeping guard outside the nest, while the smaller workers tend to the brood.

Their colouration is variable; black combined with red and yellow is a common pattern, and many species have golden-coloured pubescence (hair). Many other species are brightly coloured which warns predators to avoid them. The formicine ant Camponotus bendigensis is similar in appearance to M. fulvipes, and data suggest C. bengdigensis is a batesian mimic of M. fulvipes. The number of malpighian tubules differs between castes; in M. dispar, males have 16 tubules, queens range from 23 to 26, and workers have 21 to 29.

Worker ants are usually the same size as each other, although this is not true for some species; worker ants of M. brevinoda, for example, vary in length from 13 to 37 mm. The mandibles of the workers are long with a number of teeth, and the clypeus is short. The antennae consist of 12 segments and the eyes are large and convex. Based on a study on the antennal sensory of M. pyriformis, the antennal sensilla are known to have eight types. Large ocelli are always present. Queens are usually larger than the workers, but are similar in colour and body shape. The head, node, and postpetiole are broader in the queen, and the mandibles are shorter and also broad. Myrmecia queens are unique in that particular species either have fully winged queens, queens with poorly developed wings, or queens without any wings. For example, M. aberrans and M. esuriens queens are ergatoid, meaning that they are wingless. Completely excavated nests showed no evidence of any winged queen residing within them. Some species have queens which are subapterous, meaning they are either wingless or only have rudiments of wings; the queens can be well developed with or without these wing buds. M. nigrocincta and M. tarsata are "brachypterous", where queens have small and rudimentary wings which render the queen flightless. Dealated queens with developed wings and thoraces are considered rare. In some species, such as M. brevinoda and M. pilosula, three forms of queens exist, with the dealated queens being the most recognisable.

Males are easy to identify due to their perceptibly broad and smaller mandibles. Their antennae consist of 13 segments, and are almost the same length as the ants' bodies. Ergatandromorph (an ant that exhibits both male and worker characteristics) males are known; in 1985, a male M. gulosa was collected before it hatched from its cocoon, and it had a long but excessively curved left mandible while the other mandible was small. On the right side of its body, it was structurally male, but the left side appeared female. The head was also longer on the female side, its colour was darker, and the legs and prothorax were smaller on the male side. Male genitalia are retracted into a genital cavity that is located in the posterior end of the gaster. The sperm is structurally the same to other animal sperm, forming an oval head with a long tail.

Among the largest larvae examined were those of M. simillima, reaching lengths of 35 mm. The pupae are enclosed in dark cocoons.

Distribution and habitat
Almost all species in the genus Myrmecia are found in Australia and its coastal islands. M. apicalis is the only species not native to Australia and is only found in the Isle of Pines, New Caledonia. Only one ant has ever established nests outside its native range; M. brevinoda was first discovered in New Zealand in 1940 and the ant was recorded in Devonport in Auckland in 1948, 1965 and 1981 where a single nest was destroyed. Sources suggest the ant was introduced to New Zealand through human activity; they were found inside a wooden crate brought from Australia. While no eradication attempt was made by the New Zealand government, the ant has not been found in the country since 1981 and is presumed to have been eradicated.

Ants of this genus prefer to inhabit grasslands, forests, heath, urban areas and woodland. Nests are found in Callitris forest, dry marri forest, Eucalyptus woodland and forests, mallee scrub, in paddocks, riparian woodland, and wet and dry sclerophyll forests. They also live in dry sandplains, and coastal plain. When a queen establishes a new colony, the nest is at first quite simple structurally. The nest gradually expands as the colony grows larger. Nests can be found in debris, decaying tree stumps, rotten logs, rocks, sand, and soil, and under stones. While most species nest underground, M. mjobergi is an arboreal nesting species found on epiphytic ferns of the genus Platycerium. Two types of nests have been described for this genus: a simple nest with a noticeable shaft inside, and a complex structure surrounded by a mound. Some species construct dome-shaped mounds containing a single entrance, but some nests have numerous holes that are constantly used and can extend several metres underground. Sometimes, these mounds can be 0.5 m (20 in) high. Workers decorate these nests with a variety of items, including charcoal, leaves, plant fragments, pebbles, and twigs. Some ants use the warmth by decorating their nests with dry materials that heat quickly, providing the nest with solar energy traps.

Foraging
The genus Myrmecia is among the most primitive of all known living ants, and ants of the genus are considered specialist predators. Unlike most ants, workers are solitary hunters, and do not lay pheromone trails; nor do they recruit others to food. Tandem running does not occur, and workers carrying other workers as a method of transportation is rare or awkwardly executed. Although Myrmecia is not known to lay pheromone trails to food, M. gulosa is capable of inducing territorial alarm using pheromones while M. pilosula can attack en masse, suggesting these ants can also induce alarm pheromones. M. gulosa induces territorial alarm behaviour using pheromones from three sources; an alerting substance from the rectal sac, a pheromone found in the Dufour's gland, and an attack pheromone from the mandibular gland. Despite Myrmecia ants being among the most primitive ants, they exhibit some behaviours considered "advanced"; adults will sometimes groom each other and the brood, and distinct nest odors exist for each colony.

Most species are diurnal, and forage on the ground or onto low vegetation in search of food, but a few are nocturnal and only forage at night. Most Myrmecia ants are active during the warmer months, and are dormant during winter. However, M. pyriformis is a nocturnal species that is active throughout the whole year. M. pyriformis also has a unique foraging schedule; 65% of individuals who went out to forage left the nest in 40–60 minutes, while 60% of workers would return to the nest in the same duration of time at dusk. Foraging workers rely on landmarks for navigation back home. If displaced a short distance, they will scan their surroundings, and then rapidly move in the direction of the nest. M. vindex ants carry dead nest-mates out of their nests and place them on refuse piles, a behaviour known as necrophoresis.

Pollination
While pollination by ants is somewhat rare, several Myrmecia species have been observed pollinating flowers. For example, the orchid Leporella fimbriata is a myrmecophyte which can only be pollinated by the winged male ant M. urens. Pollination of this orchid usually occurs between April and June during warm afternoons, and may take several days until the short-lived males all die. The flower mimics M. urens queens, so the males move from flower to flower in an attempt to copulate with it. M. nigrocincta workers have been recorded visiting flowers of Eucalyptus regnans and Senna acclinis, and are considered a potential pollination vector for E. regnans trees. Although Senna acclinis is self-compatible, the inability of M. nigrocincta to appropriately release pollen would restrict its capacity to effect pollination. Foraging M. pilosula workers are regularly observed on the inflorescences of Prasophyllum alpinum (mostly pollinated by wasps of the family Ichneumonidae). Although pollinia are often seen in the ants' jaw, they have a habit of cleaning their mandibles on the leaves and stems of nectar-rich plants before moving on, preventing pollen exchange. Whether M. pilosula contributes to pollination is unknown.

Diet
Despite their ferocity, adults are nectarivores, consuming honeydew (a sweet, sticky liquid found on leaves, deposited from various insects), nectar, and other sweet substances. The larvae, however, are carnivorous. After they reach a certain size, they are fed insects that foragers capture and kill. The workers also regurgitate food for other ants to consume. Young ants are rarely fed food regurgitated by adults. Adult workers prey on a variety of insects and arthropods, such as beetles, caterpillars, earwigs, Ithone fusca moths, Perga saw flies, and spiders. Other prey include invertebrates such as bees, cockroaches, crickets, wasps and other ants; in particular, workers prey on Orthocrema ants (a subgenus of Crematogaster) and Camponotus, although this is risky since these ants are able to call for help through chemical signals. Slaters, earthworms, scale insects, frogs, lizards, grass seeds, possum feces and kangaroo feces are also collected as food. Flies such as the housefly and blowfly are consumed. Some species, such as M. pilosula, will only attack small fly species and ignore larger ones. Nests of the social spider Delena cancerides are often invaded by M. pyriformis ants, and nests once housing these spiders are filled with debris such as twigs and leaves by the workers, rendering them useless. These "scorched earth" tactics prevent the spiders competing with the ants. M. gulosa attacks Christmas beetles, but workers later bury them.

Myrmecia is one of the very few genera where the workers lay trophic eggs, or infertile eggs laid as food for viable offspring. Workers laying trophic eggs have only been reported in two species; these species are M. forceps and M. gulosa. Depending on the species, colonies specialise in trophallaxis; queens and larvae eat eggs that are laid by worker individuals, but the workers do not feed on eggs. Neither adults nor larvae consume food during winter, but cannibalism among larvae is known to occur throughout the year. The larvae only cannibalise each other; this is most likely to happen when no dead insects are available.

Predators, parasites and associations
Myrmecia ants deter many potential predators due to their sting. The blindsnake Ramphotyphlops nigrescens consumes the larvae and pupae of Myrmecia, while avoiding the potent sting of the adults, which it is vulnerable to. The short-beaked echidna (Tachyglossus aculeatus) also eats the eggs and larvae. Nymphs of the assassin bug species Ptilocnemus lemur lure these ants to themselves by trying to make the ant sting them, by waving its hind legs around to attract a potential prey item. Body remains of Myrmecia have been found in the stomach contents of the eastern yellow robin (Eopsaltria australis). The Australian magpie (Gymnorhina tibicen), the black currawong (Strepera versicolor), and the white-winged chough (Corcorax melanorhamphos) prey on these ants, but few are successfully taken.

The host association between Myrmecia and eucharitid wasps began several million years ago; M. forficata larvae are the host to Austeucharis myrmeciae, being the first recorded eucharitid parasitoid of an ant, and Austeucharis fasciiventris is a parasitoid to M. gulosa pupae. M. pilosula is affected by a gregarines parasite that changes an ant's colour from their typical black appearance to brown. This was discovered when brown workers were dissected and found to have gregarinasina spores, while black workers showed no spores. Another unidentified gregarine parasite is known to infect the larvae of M. pilosula and other Myrmecia species. This gregarine parasite also softens the ant's cuticle. Other parasites include Beauveria bassiana, Paecilomyces lilacinus, Chalcura affinis, Tricoryna wasps, and various mermithid nematodes.

M. hirsuta and M. inquilina are the only known species in this genus that are inquilines and live in other Myrmecia colonies. An M. inquilina queen has been found in an M. vindex colony. Myrmecia is a larval attendant to the butterfly Theclinesthes serpentata (saltbush blue), while some species, particularly M. nigrocincta, enslave other ant species, notably those in the genus Leptomyrmex. M. nigriceps ants are able to enter another colony of the same species without being attacked, as they may be unable to recognise alien conspecifics, nor do they try to distinguish nestmates from ants of another colony. Formicoxenus provancheri and M. brevinoda share a form of symbiotic relationship known as xenobiosis, where one species of ant will live with another and raise their young separately, with M. brevinoda being the host. Solenopsis may sometimes nest in Myrmecia colonies, as a single colony was found to have three or four Solenopsis nests inside. Lagria beetles and rove beetles in the genus Heterothops dwell inside colonies and skinks and frogs have also been found living unmolested within Myrmecia nests. Metacrinia nichollsi, for example, has been reported living inside M. regularis colonies.

Life cycle
Like other ants, Myrmecia ants begin as an egg. If the egg is fertilised, the ant becomes a diploid female; if not, it becomes a haploid male. They develop through complete metamorphosis, meaning that they pass through larval and pupal stages before emerging as adults.

During the process of founding a colony, as many as four queens cooperate with each other to find a suitable nesting ground, but after the first generation of workers is born, they fight each other until one queen is left alive. However, occasional colonies are known to have as many as six queens coexisting peacefully in the presence of workers. A queen searches for a suitable nest site to establish her colony, and excavates a small chamber in the soil or under logs and rocks, where she takes care of her young. A queen also hunts for prey instead of staying in her nest, a behaviour known as claustral colony founding. Although queens do provide sufficient amounts of food to feed their larvae, the first workers are "nanitics" (or minims), smaller than the smallest workers encountered in older developed colonies. Several species do not have any worker caste, and solitary queens will raid a colony, kill the residing queen, and take over the colony. The first generation of workers may take a while to fully develop into adults; for example, M. forficata eggs take around 100 days to fully develop, while other species may take up to eight months.

Queens lay around eight eggs, but less than half of these eggs develop. Some species, such as M. simillima and M. gulosa, lay their eggs singly on the colony floor, while M. pilosula ants may lay eggs in a clump. These clumps have two to 30 eggs each with no larvae present. Certain Myrmecia species do not lay their eggs singly and form clumps of eggs, instead. The larvae are capable of crawling short distances without the assistance of adult workers, and workers will cover the larvae in dirt to help them spin into a cocoon. If cocoons are isolated from a colony, they are capable of shedding their skins before hatching, allowing themselves to advance to full pigmentation. Sometimes, a newborn can emerge from its pupa without the assistance of other ants. Once these ants are born, they are able to identify distinct tasks, a well known primitive trait. Myrmecia lifespans vary in each species, but their longevity is greater than many ant genera: M. nigrocincta and M. pilosula have a lifespan of one year, while M. nigriceps workers can live up to 2.2 years. The oldest recorded worker was a M. vindex, living up to 2.6 years. If a colony is deprived of workers, queens are able to revert to colony-founding behaviours until a sustainable workforce emerges. A colony may also emigrate to a new nesting spot altogether.

Reproduction
Winged, virgin queens and males, known as alates, appear in colonies during January, before their nuptial flight. Twenty females or fewer are found in a single colony, while males are much more common. The nuptial flight begins at different times for each species; they have been recorded in mid-summer to autumn (January to early April), but there is one case of a nuptial flight occurring from May to July. Ideal conditions for nuptial flight are hot stormy days with windspeeds of 30 km/h (18 mi/h) and temperatures reaching 30 °C (86 °F), and elevations of 91 metres (300 ft). Nuptial flights are rarely recorded due to queens leaving their nest singly, although as many as four queens may leave the nest at the same time. Species are both polygynous and polyandrous, with queens mating with one to ten males. Polygynous and polyandrous societies can occur in a single nest, but particular species are either primarily polygynous or primarily polyandrous. For example, nearly 80% of tested M. pilosula colonies are polygynous while M. pyriformis colonies are mostly polyandrous. Nuptial flight takes place during the morning and can last until late afternoon. When the alates leave the nest, most species launch themselves into the air from trees and shrubs, although others launch themselves off the ground. Queens discharge a glandular secretion from the tergal gland, which males are strongly attracted to. As many as 1,000 alates will gather to mate. A queen was once found to have five or six males attempting to copulate with her. The queen is unable to bear the weight of the large number of males trying to mate with her, and will drop to the ground, with the ants dispersing later on. M. pulchra queens are ergatoid and cannot fly; the males meet the queen out in an open area away from the nest and mate, and these queens do not return to their nest after mating.

Both independent and dependent colony foundation can occur after mating. Isolation by distance (IBD) patterns have been recorded with M. pilosula queens, where nests that tend to be closer together were more genetically related to each other in comparison to other nests further away. Independent colony foundation is closely associated with queens which engage in nuptial flight in areas far from their home colony, showing that dependent colony foundation mostly occurs if they mate near their nest. In some cases, queens could seek adoption into alien colonies if there are no suitable areas to find a nest or independent colony foundation cannot be carried out. Other queens could try to return to their home nest after nuptial flight, but they may end up in another nest near the nest they originally came from. In multiple-queen societies, the egg-laying queens are generally unrelated to one another, but one study showed that it is possible for multiple queens in the same colony to be genetically related to each other. Depending on the species, the number of individuals present in a colony can range from 50 to over 2,200 individuals. A colony with less than 100 workers is not considered a mature colony. M. dispar colonies have around 15 to 329 ants, M. nigrocincta have over 1,000, M. pyriformis have from 200 to over 1,400 and M. gulosa have nearly 1,600. A colony can last for a number of years. Foraging behaviour among smaller workers which never usually leave the nest can be a sign of a colony's impending demise.

Workers are known to produce their own eggs, but these eggs are unfertilised and hatch into male ants. There is a chance of workers attacking a particular individual who has successfully produced male offspring due to a change in a workers cuticular hydrocarbon; cuticular hydrocarbons are believed to play a vital role in the regulation of reproduction. However, this is not always the case. Myrmecia is one of several ant genera which possess gamergate workers, where a female worker is able to reproduce with mature males when the colony is lacking a queen. Myrmecia workers are highly fertile and can successfully mate with males. A colony of M. pyriformis without a queen was collected in 1998 and kept in captivity, during which time the gamergates produced viable workers for three years. Ovarian dissections showed that three workers of this colony mated with males and produced female workers. Queens have bigger ovaries than the workers, with 44 ovarioles while workers have 8 to 14. Spermatheca is present in M. gulosa workers, based on eight dissected individuals showing a spermatheca structurally similar to those found in queens. These spermathecas did not have any sperm. Why the queen was not replaced is still unknown.

Vision
While most ants have poor eyesight, Myrmecia ants have excellent vision. This trait is important to them, since Myrmecia primarily relies on visual cues for navigation. These ants are capable of discriminating the distance and size of objects moving nearly a metre away. Winged alates are only active during the day, as they can see better. Members of a colony have different eye structures due to each individual fulfilling different tasks, and nocturnal species have larger ommatidia in comparison to those that are active during the day. Facet lenses also vary in size; for example, the diurnal species M. croslandi has a smaller lens in comparison to M. nigriceps and M. pyriformis which have larger lenses. Myrmecia ants have three photoreceptors that can see UV light, meaning they are capable of seeing colours that humans cannot. Their vision is said to be better than some mammals, such as cats, dogs or wallabies. Despite their excellent vision, worker ants of this genus find it difficult to find their nests at night, due to the difficulty of finding the landmarks they use to navigate. They are thus more likely to return to their nests the following morning, walking slowly with long pauses.

Sting
Myrmecia workers and queens possess a sting described as "sharp in pain with no burning." The pain may last for several minutes. In the Starr sting pain scale, a scale which compares the overall pain of hymenopteran stings on a four-point scale, Myrmecia stings were ranked from 2–3 in pain, described as "painful" or "sharply and seriously painful". Unlike in honeybees, the sting lacks barbs, and so the stinger is not left in the area the ant has stung, allowing the ants to sting repeatedly without any harm to themselves. The retractable sting is located in their abdomen, attached to a single venom gland connected by the venom sac, which is where the venom is accumulated. Exocrine glands are known in some species, which produce the venom compounds later used to inject into their victims. Examined workers of larger species have long and very potent stingers, with some stings measuring 6 mm.

Interaction with humans
Myrmecia is one of the best-known genera of ants. Myrmecia ants usually display defensive behaviour only around their nests, and are more timid while foraging. However, most species are extremely aggressive towards intruders; a few, such as M. tarsata, are timid, and the workers retreat into their nest instead of pursuing the intruder. If a nest is disturbed, a large force of workers rapidly swarms out of their nest to attack and kill the intruder. Some species, particularly those of the M. nigrocincta and M. pilosula species groups, are capable of jumping several inches when they are agitated after their nest has been disturbed; jumper ants propel their jumps by a sudden extension of their middle and hind legs. M. pyriformis is considered the most dangerous ant in the world by the Guinness World Records. M. inquilina is the only species of this genus that is considered vulnerable by the IUCN, although the conservation status needs updating.

Fatalities associated with Myrmecia stings are well known, and have been attested to by multiple sources. In 1931 two adults and an infant girl from New South Wales died from ant stings, possibly from M. pilosula or M. pyriformis. Another fatality was reported in 1963 in Tasmania. Between 1980 and 2000, there were six recorded deaths, five in Tasmania and one in New South Wales. Four of these deaths were due to M. pilosula, while the remaining two died from a M. pyriformis sting. Half of the victims had known ant-sting allergies, but only one of the victims was carrying adrenaline before being stung. Most victims died within 20 minutes of being stung, but one of the victims died in just five minutes from a M. pyriformis sting. No death has been officially recorded since 2003, but M. pilosula may have been responsible for the death of a man from Bunbury in 2011. Prior to the establishment of a desensitisation program, Myrmecia stings caused one fatality every four years.

Venom
Each Myrmecia species has different venom components, so people who are allergic to ants are advised to stay away from Myrmecia, especially from species they have never encountered before. Based on five species, the median lethal dose (LD50) is 0.18–0.35 mg/kg, making it among the most toxic venoms in the insect world. The toxicity of the venom may have evolved due to the intense predation by animals and birds during the day, since Myrmecia is primarily diurnal. In Tasmania, 2–3% of the human population is allergic to M. pilosula venom. In comparison, only 1.6% people are allergic to the venom of the western honeybee (Apis mellifera), and 0.6% to the venom of the European wasp (Vespula germanica). In a 2011 Australian ant-venom allergy study, the objective of which was to determine what native Australian ants were associated with ant sting anaphylaxis, 265 of the 376 participants in the study reacted to the sting of several Myrmecia species. Of these, the majority of patients (176) reacted to M. pilosula venom and to those of several other species. In Perth, M. gratiosa was responsible for most cases of anaphylaxis due to ant stings, while M nigriscapa and M. ludlowi were responsible for two cases. The green-head ant (Rhytidoponera metallica) was the only ant other than Myrmecia species to cause anaphylaxis in patients. Dogs are also at risk of death from Myrmecia ants; renal failure has been recorded in dogs experiencing mass envenomation, and one dog was euthanised due to its deteriorating health despite treatment. Sensitivity is persistent for many years. Pilosulin 3 has been identified as a major allergen in M. pilosula venom, while pilosulin 1 and pilosulin 4 are minor allergens.

Sting treatment

The nature of treatment for a Myrmecia sting depends on the severity of stingose, and the use of antihistamine tablets are other methods to reduce the pain. Indigenous Australians use bush remedies to treat Myrmecia stings, such as rubbing the tips of bracken ferns onto the stung area. Carpobrotus glaucescens is also used to treat stung areas, using juices that are squeezed and rubbed onto the area, which quickly relieves the pain from the sting.

Emergency treatment is only needed if a person is showing signs of a severe allergic reaction. Prior to calling for help, stung persons should be laid down, and their legs elevated. An EpiPen or an Anapen is given to people at risk of anaphylaxis, to use in case they are stung. If someone experiences anaphylactic shock, adrenaline and intravenous infusions are required, and those who suffer cardiac arrest require resuscitation. Desensitisation (also called allergy immunotherapy) is offered to those who are susceptible to M. pilosula stings, and the program has shown effectiveness in preventing anaphylaxis. However, the standardisation of M. pilosula venom is not validated, and the program is poorly funded. The Royal Hobart Hospital and the Royal Adelaide Hospital are the only known hospitals to run desensitisation programs. During immunotherapy, patients are given an injection of venom under the skin. The first dose is small, but dosage gradually increases. This sort of immunotherapy is designed to change how the immune system reacts to increased doses of venom entering the body.

Before venom immunotherapy, whole-body extract immunotherapy was widely used due to its apparent effectiveness, and it was the only immunotherapy used for ant stings. However, fatal failures were reported, and this led to scientists to research for alternative methods of desensitisation. Before 1986 allergic reactions were not recorded and there was no study on Myrmecia sting venom; whole body extracts were later used on patients during the 1990s, but this was found to be ineffective and was subsequently withdrawn. In 2003, ant venom immunotherapy was shown to be safe and effective against Myrmecia venom.

Prevention
Myrmecia ants are frequently encountered by humans, and avoiding them is difficult. Wearing closed footwear such as boots and shoes can reduce the risk of getting stung; these ants are capable of stinging through fabric, however. A risk of being stung while gardening also exists; most stings occur when someone is gardening and is unaware of the ants' presence. Eliminating nearby nests or moving to areas with low Myrmecia populations significantly decreases the chances of getting stung.

Human uses
Due to their large mandibles, Myrmecia ants have been used as surgical sutures to close wounds.

Cultural representations
The ant is featured on a postage stamp and on an uncirculated coin which are part of the Things That Sting issue by Australia Post, and M. gulosa is the emblem for the Australian Entomological Society. Myrmecia famously appears in the philosopher Arthur Schopenhauer's major work, The World as Will and Representation, as a paradigmatic example of strife and constant destruction endemic to the "will to live".

"But the bulldog-ant of Australia affords us the most extraordinary example of this kind; for if it is cut in two, a battle begins between the head and the tail. The head seizes the tail in its teeth, and the tail defends itself bravely by stinging the head: the battle may last for half an hour, until they die or are dragged away by other ants. This contest takes place every time the experiment is tried.'"

Notable Australian poet Diane Fahey wrote a poem about Myrmecia, which is based on Schopenhauer's description, and a music piece written by German composer Karola Obermüller was named after the ant.

title: Myrmecia (ant)


text:
Talk:History of MoveOn.org

Fair use rationale for Image:Moveon f911.jpg
Image:Moveon f911.jpg is being used on this article. I notice the image page specifies that the image is being used under fair use but there is no explanation or rationale as to why its use in this Wikipedia article constitutes fair use. In addition to the boilerplate fair use template, you must also write out on the image description page a specific explanation or rationale for why using this image in each article is consistent with fair use.

Please go to the image description page and edit it to include a fair use rationale. Using one of the templates at Fair use rationale guideline is an easy way to insure that your image is in compliance with Wikipedia policy, but remember that you must complete the template. Do not simply insert a blank template on an image page.

If there is other fair use media, consider checking that you have specified the fair use rationale on the other images used on this page. Note that any fair use images lacking such an explanation can be deleted one week after being tagged, as described on criteria for speedy deletion. If you have any questions please ask them at the Media copyright questions page. Thank you.

BetacommandBot (talk) 07:10, 1 January 2008 (UTC)

External links modified
Hello fellow Wikipedians,

I have just modified 10 external links on History of MoveOn.org. Please take a moment to review my edit. If you have any questions, or need the bot to ignore the links, or the page altogether, please visit this simple FaQ for additional information. I made the following changes:
 * Added tag to http://hosted.ap.org/dynamic/stories/F/FACEBOOK_ABOUT_FACE?SITE=WIMIL&SECTION=HOME&TEMPLATE=DEFAULT
 * Added archive https://web.archive.org/web/20040907193708/http://archive.salon.com/21st/log/1998/09/25log.html to http://archive.salon.com/21st/log/1998/09/25log.html
 * Added archive https://web.archive.org/web/20040513082726/http://archive.salon.com/21st/log/1998/10/27log.html to http://archive.salon.com/21st/log/1998/10/27log.html
 * Added archive https://web.archive.org/web/20040804192812/http://berkeleyparty.com/party.html to http://www.berkeleyparty.com/party.html
 * Added archive https://web.archive.org/web/20040623044624/http://www.claremont-courier.com/062902/readercomments062902.html to http://www.claremont-courier.com/062902/readercomments062902.html
 * Added archive https://web.archive.org/web/20040603172453/http://www.recordonline.com/archive/2002/06/27/27letter.htm to http://www.recordonline.com/archive/2002/06/27/27letter.htm
 * Added archive https://web.archive.org/web/20040707055110/http://www.moveon.org/moveonbulletin/bulletin4.html to http://www.moveon.org/moveonbulletin/bulletin4.html
 * Added archive https://web.archive.org/web/20040803093801/http://www.commondreams.org/headlines03/0204-01.htm to http://www.commondreams.org/headlines03/0204-01.htm
 * Added archive https://web.archive.org/web/20050324171226/http://archive.deanforamerica.com/press/political/2003/06/27/moveon_primary_win/ to http://archive.deanforamerica.com/press/political/2003/06/27/moveon_primary_win
 * Added archive https://web.archive.org/web/20041212041327/http://students.washington.edu/jneils/moveon/pdfs/Carney.pdf to http://students.washington.edu/jneils/moveon/pdfs/Carney.pdf
 * Added archive https://web.archive.org/web/20080830031530/http://www.salon.com/ent/feature/2004/06/23/fahrenhype/index.html to http://www.salon.com/ent/feature/2004/06/23/fahrenhype/index.html

When you have finished reviewing my changes, you may follow the instructions on the template below to fix any issues with the URLs.

Cheers.— InternetArchiveBot  (Report bug) 19:27, 8 September 2017 (UTC)

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Talk:History of MoveOn.org


text:
Ciuc

Ciuc may refer to:

 * Ciuc Mountains, a mid-high range of mountains of Harghita County in Transylvania
 * Ciuc County, a former county in the Kingdom of Romania
 * Miercurea Ciuc, county seat of Harghita County, Romania

title: Ciuc


text: Category:Italian naturalists

title: Category:Italian naturalists


text:
User:Gr3g~enwiki

A child of the 80's, currently unemployed, and an idiot. --Gr3g 11:46, 11 Oct 2004 (UTC)

title: User:Gr3g~enwiki


text:
Reginald Caton

Reginald Ashley Caton (1897–1971) was an English publisher. He appears as a literary character, especially in novels by Kingsley Amis.

In 1924 he founded the Fortune Press in London, specialising in gay erotica. Repeated legal difficulties saw his prosecution for obscene libel in 1934.

Caton is celebrated for obtaining the rights to Dylan Thomas's 18 Poems, which he published in 1934, with repercussions for the poet. During the war years he first rejected Philip Larkin's first novel Jill (for obscenity), but finally published it in 1946, as he did his poetry collection, The North Ship. No manuscript version of Jill has survived.

Caton also published, for example, Nicholas Moore, and Wrenne Jarman. Experts have concluded that there was no literary, rather than business, consistency. In 1951 he published Bryan Magee's first book, an anthology of poems entitled Crucifixion and Other Poems.

The Fortune Press was sold to Leonard Holdsworth, of the Charles Skilton Publishing Group.

title: Reginald Caton


text:
User:Piotrus/old user page

Who am I?
I am a net freelancer and in Top 1000 (or Top 1%) of active Wikipedians. Love working creatively in a sitting position, and Wiki gives me this great feelinng I am doing something good - no delays in article publications, no need to pay for my work (hmmm, I can see a problem with this in the long run, but I am still an idealist :>). Finished my MA on Economy with flying colors this April, and will hopefully start my PhD studies in politology in October in Poland (proposed topic: impact of changes in communication technology on evolution of political systems). I'd love to study in 'the West' though - in case you are from that part of our lil' planet and looking for PhD studends, do let me know :> --Piotr Konieczny aka Prokonsul Piotrus 19:10, 27 Aug 2004 (UTC)

My English homepage:
 * http://www.wodzu.tonet.pl/republika_prokonsularna/En/index1en.htm

Feel free to contact me by ICQ 70822962 or GG 1298166

What do I do at Wiki?
The below lists shows most important projects I have worked on, am working on or plan to work on.
 * bold - interesting and well written
 * normal - just your ordinary encyclopedia article
 * bold italic - not finished yet, but worth reading even now (because it is interesting!)
 * italic - needs expansion
 * red - needs writing :)

 * History
 * 20th century
 * People
 * Edward Rydz-Smigly
 * Witold Pilecki
 * Zygmunt Konieczny
 * Other
 * Armoured train
 * Modlin and Fort Modlin
 * Western betrayal
 * Polish September Campaign (Polish Defence War of 1939)
 * Battle of Bzura
 * Warsaw Uprising - we made into the Featured Articles, and [brag warning] I said first that we should try this :) [/brag warning]
 * - that's right, he said this first :D [[User:Halibutt|Halibutt]]
 * pre-20th century
 * connected with Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth and Nobles' Democracy
 * People (List of szlachta)
 * Albrycht Stanislaw Radziwill
 * Alexander Karl
 * Jakub Zadzik
 * Jan Zamojski
 * Jerzy Ossolinski
 * Johan Albert
 * Marcin Kromer
 * Polonia sive de situ, populis, moribus, magistratibus et Republica regni Polonici libri duo
 * Stanislaw Koniecpolski
 * Zygmunt III Waza
 * Wladyslaw IV Waza
 * Concepts
 * Confederatio (Konfederacja)
 * Confederated sejm
 * Henrician Articles
 * Hetman
 * Liberum veto
 * May Constitution of Poland
 * Nihil novi
 * Pacta conventa
 * Pospolite ruszenie
 * Rokosz
 * Sejm elekcyjny (Election Sejm, Coronation Sejm, Election Diet, Coronation Diet)
 * Sejm Wielki (Great Sejm, Great Diet)
 * Sejm Niemy (Silent Sejm, Silent Diet)
 * Sejmik
 * other
 * Axumite Kingdom
 * Sociology/politolog/economy
 * people
 * Alfred Weber
 * Arend Lijphart
 * James M. Buchanan
 * The Calculus of Consent: Logical Foundations of Constitutional Democracy
 * Max Weber
 * Ancient Judaism
 * Sociology of Religion (book by Maximilian Weber)
 * The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism
 * The Religion of China: Confucianism and Taoism
 * The Religion of India: The Sociology of Hinduism and Budhism
 * The Three Types of Legitimate Rule
 * Norman Davies
 * other
 * books
 * Future Shock
 * The Gutenberg Galaxy: The Making of Typographic Man
 * communication-related concepts
 * Drum (communication)
 * Heliograph
 * economic system
 * List of economic systems
 * Bureaucracy
 * ideal type)
 * Status class
 * tripartite classification of authority
 * Rational-legal authority
 * Traditional authority
 * Charismatic authority
 * political system
 * List of forms of government
 * Sf
 * Gaunt's Ghosts
 * John Ringo
 * Legend of the Galactic Heroes

Wikiproject I am into;
 * WikiProject_History_of_Poland

My Wikitools

 * Disambig
 * Stub
 * Wikibooks
 * Wikiquote
 * Wikisource
 * Wikitionary

My humble beginings at Wiki
Note: read and laugh

All right, I am getting a hang of this. Some...still appreciate all and any advice u can get, but I have done some useful contributions (yey, my henrician articles made even main page yesterday! :D Yeah, yeah, nothing to brag about...that was just my inner geek. Do leave msgs on my talk page, plz :D --Piotrus 16:17, 29 Apr 2004 (UTC)

-

I am fairly new to the wikistuff - I am not entirely sure I should be writing *this* here. In time, I hope to contribute some information - especially about Polish (Commonwealth) history in XVII century (seems like there is a lot of stuff still needed).

title: User:Piotrus/old user page


text:
User:PeteHarlow

Hello!

I am a systems engineer, author and photographer and I live some 50 kilometres south of Paris. I am a supporter of open content and free software. I hope to be able to contribute some photographs and writing to Wikipedia as time permits.

I can be contacted via this page. My personal web site is Catnip Corner.

title: User:PeteHarlow


text:
Talk:Enclosure

enclosures -Scotland
One of the most influential events in the development of Canada was the migration of the Scots following the implementation of the enclosure system in Scotland.

As part of my undergraduate studies, I conducted an exercise in migration analysis relating to the events following the Black Plague, which included the replacement of the indigenous population and the Clans in Scotland with sheep enclosures. In retrospect, I am convinced that the sheep were deemed less likely to wear kilts, play bagpipes and follow the likes of William Wallace in burning English garrisons.

I have always been convinced that the implementation of the enclosure system was the turning point in the development of independent thought and determination of the modern individual, without which there could not have been the reformation, the industrial revolution, the telephone, Marshall McLuhan or the internet.

Alas, my essay was lost, however, I would welcome contributions about impact of the implementation of the Enclosures in Scotland and development of the modern independent thinker.

Martin Luther and anti-semitism
Removed the portion that called Martin Luther an anti-Semite. A bit hyperbolic given the article's scope and debatable as to the accuracy of that term here. That can be debated on the Martin Luther page.

Enclosure numbers
Private enclosure had been occurring from Tudor times or before. It has been estimated that in 1700 about half the arable land of Britain was still cultivated on the open-field system. By 1820 there were 'only half a dozen English counties of whose area more than 3% remained to be enclosed from the open-field state by Act of Parliment: and in these a fair part of the remaining work was done before 1830' Before 1760 the number of Acts dealing more specifically with the open-field system (i.e. Acts dealing primarily with arable fields and meadows) did not exceed 130. Between 1760 and 1815 the number rose to upwards of 1800. In 1801 the procedure for statutory enclosure was streamlined by the first General Enclosure Act, which simplified the parliamentary machinery for enclousre of commons, and thus reduced its expense. It has been estimated that between 1727 and 1760 when corn prices were generally low, less than 75,000 acres of common pasture and waste were enclosed by Parliamentary Acts; between 1761-1792 the acreage was not far short of half a million - about 478,000; over the period of the French and Napoleonic Wars it rose to over a million; and in the period of 1816-1845 it fell again to under 200,000 acres. ~ender 2007-06-10 15:00:PM MST

Citation dates in parentheses?
As it stands, this article uses citations of the style Does anyone actually like this style? I would like to change it to unless anyone objects?
 * "Hammond & Hammond 1912, p. 28".
 * "Hammond & Hammond (1912), p. 28"

See also WP:CITEVAR, sfnp and harvp. 𝕁𝕄𝔽 (talk) 19:12, 20 March 2024 (UTC)
 * I have no objection. Although seems like a lot of work for not much gain. Good luck don't break it. Wilfridselsey (talk) 20:05, 20 March 2024 (UTC)

title: Talk:Enclosure


text:
Category:EC 2.5.1

Transferases.

Transferring alkyl or aryl groups, other than methyl groups.

title: Category:EC 2.5.1


text:
Su Manshu

Su Manshu (, 1884–1918 ) was a Chinese writer, poet, painter, revolutionist, and translator. His original name was Su Xuanying, Su had been named as a writer of poetry and romantic love stories in the history of early modern Chinese literature. But he was most commonly known as a Buddhist monk, a poetry monk, "the monk of sentiment” (pinyin: qing seng; simplified Chinese: 情僧), and “the revolutionary monk” (pinyin: gem-ing seng; simplified Chinese: 革命僧). Su was born out of wedlock in Yokohama, Japan in 1884. His father was a Cantonese merchant, and his mother was his father's Japanese maid. His ancestral home was in Zhongshan city, Guangdong Province, China. He died at the age of 34 due to a stomach disease in Shanghai.

Education
Su had a good master of painting and language. He mastered many languages — English, French, Japanese and Sanskrit. In 1896, he went to Shanghai with his uncle and aunt to study in the British con-cession when he was thirteen years old. Later, in 1898, he went to Japan to study at the School of Universal Harmony (Da Tong School 大同學校) in Yokohama, Japan. In 1902, he continued to study in the special program for Chinese students at Waseda University ( 早稻田大學 ).

Buddhism
He became a Buddhist monk three times during his life; once at the age of 12 in 1895, later in 1899, and again in 1903, and adopted Su Manshu as a Buddhist name. He studied in Japan and traveled to many Buddhist countries including India, and Java. In 1895, Su fell ill and nearly died due to lack of care from his family, which resulted in his resorting to Buddhism. However, Su did not follow the rules of Buddhism so he was expelled. In 1898, Su suffered a serious setback in his romantic relationship with a Japanese girl named Jingzi. Jinzi's family forced her to leave Su, but she could not bear the great pressure and soon died. After facing this suffering, Su resorted to Buddhism again as a spiritual consolation for a short period. In 1913, Su felt disappointed about the political and social situation, in which the Qing government perpetually banned anti-government remarks in the revolutionary newspaper. So he returned to the temple in Guangdong for the rest of his life.

Career
Su was the most famous prose translator and his masterworks include Selected poems of Byron and Les Miserables. In 1903, he serialized his incomplete translation of Les Miserable World in The China National Gazette  ( 國民日日報 ) and then published it in 1904. Su also translated quite a few poems by foreign romantic poets from Lord Byron and then published a collection of the translations entitled Selected Poems of Byron (拜倫詩選) in 1908. In 1911, some of these translations were published again in an anthology entitled Chao Yin(Voice of the tide). In 1911 or 1912, Su wrote and published his first as well as a most celebrated semi-autobiographical romance novel, Duan Hong Ling Yan Ji (The Lone Swan).

Duan Hong Ling Yan Ji
The Duan Hong Ling Yan Ji (Chinese: 斷鴻零雁記; pinyin: duàn hóng líng yàn jì) was written in classical literary styles and translated into English by George Kin Leung as The Lone Swan in 1929. The novel depicts tragic love stories between a young man and two young ladies, both of whom wholeheartedly fall in love with him. The young man is a monk just like Su, who cannot marry either of the two young ladies, which results in a tragic ending. The similarity between the novel with The Dream of the Red Chamber has led scholars to conclude that Su was much influenced by it. And The Lon Swan is one of the forefathers of the Mandarin Ducks and Butterflies school.

Selected Poems of Lord Byron
The Selected Poems of Lord Byron (Chinese: 拜倫詩選; pinyin: bài lún shī xuǎn) was published in the Chinese empire Hsuantung the first year (in 1909) and translated into Chinese in the form of classical Chinese poetry such as The Isles of Greece and My Native Land, Good Night .

Les Miserables
The translation of Les Miserables was published in the Chinese empire Guangxu 29th year (in 1903). It was serialized in 國民日日報 (English: The China National Gazette ) with a translated title 慘社會 (English: Miserable Society) in Shanghai.

New Culture Movement and May Fourth Movement
Su was involved in revolutionary activity against the Qing Dynasty writing articles and papers. His poems integrated the core of classical Chinese literature and his collocation influenced the New Culture Movement in the early years of the Republic of China. His novels echoed those of the May Fourth Movement writers in criticism of the traditional family. Like writers such as Hu Shi, Wu You and Ba Jin, Su depicted family as an arena beset with cruelty, where authorities abused the younger generations for their own self-interests. He showed how family authority can inflict pain on young people by preventing their desire for romantic love. Although he focused on the pains of the sentimental characters’ personalities, he advocated that individuals could pursue what they wanted.

Su Manshu quan ji
Su Man-shu quan ji was written by Liu Yazi and Liu Wuchi, is a collection of Su Manshu's works, including poetry, novels, letters, miscellaneous essays, poetry translation and novel translation. The book is the most comprehensive collection of Su's literature works.

title: Su Manshu


text:
George Anson (British Army officer, born 1797)

Major-General George Anson CB (13 October 1797 – 27 May 1857) was a British military officer and Whig politician from the Anson family.

Early life
Anson was the second son of Thomas Anson, 1st Viscount Anson, and his wife Lady Anne Margaret Coke, daughter of Thomas Coke, 1st Earl of Leicester of Holkham Hall, Norfolk. Thomas Anson, 1st Earl of Lichfield was his elder brother.

He was educated at Eton College.

Military and political career
Anson entered the Army in 1814 as an ensign in the 3rd (Scots Fusiliers) Guards and served at an early age in the Napoleonic Wars and fought at the Battle of Waterloo. He later sat as a Member of Parliament (MP) for Great Yarmouth from 1818 to 1835, for Stoke-upon-Trent from 1836 to 1837, and for Staffordshire South from 1837 to 1853 and served as Storekeeper of the Ordnance under Lord Melbourne from 1835 to 1841 and as Clerk of the Ordnance under Melbourne in 1841 and under Lord John Russell from 1846 to 1852.

Indian appointment
In 1853 Anson was promoted to the rank of major-general. The following year he was appointed to the command of the Madras Army in 1854, and early in 1856 became Commander-in-Chief in India. He was colonel of the 55th (Westmorland) Regiment of Foot from 12 December 1856. Since Anson's prior military career consisted of a few months' active service as a subaltern in the Guards (admittedly including Waterloo), a decade on home service in London while also sitting in Parliament as an MP, and 26 and a half years on half-pay, these appointments caused disgruntled comment in some quarters and were presented as an example of "Horse Guards Patronage" at its worst. His decision to accept the Madras appointment caused surprise in English political and social circles, where he was noted mainly for his gentlemanly ways, his good looks and attractive wife, and his skill at cards.

In India
During his short period as Commander-in-Chief in India Anson caused resentment by showing bias against the East India Company's army and its sepoys. He appointed all of his aides-de-camp from the Queen's Army, from which he had come. He was quoted as stating that he could never see a sepoy sentry "without turning away in disgust at his unsoldierlike appearance". The Governor-General Lord Canning commented that Anson "was rather a disappointment - but that it would be very difficult to quarrel with anyone so imperturbably good tempered, and so thoroughly a gentleman".

Anson's appointment as C-in-C coincided with the beginning of the period of tension and disaffection leading up to the outbreak of the Indian Rebellion of 1857. On 23 March 1857 Anson told a parade of Indian officers of the Bengal Army that rumors that the government would interfere with their religious beliefs and caste were completely false. He called on the officers to satisfy the sepoys under their command that this was the case. Anson himself reported a week later that the greased cartridge issue was simply a pretext for protest, adding that "the sepoys have been pampered - and have grown insolent beyond bearing". He did however order the postponement of target practice at musketry depots; which would have involved the actual biting of cartridges and was accordingly the immediate cause of distrust amongst the soldiers. While Anson appears to have realised the seriousness of the situation and to have ordered an analysis of the cartridge wrappings in question, he left the training centre at Ambala without taking more decisive action. "Redress and inquiry were both inconvenient so the headquarters' camp marched to Simla" commented the British Instructor of Musketry, left at the depot in the midst of swirling discontent amongst the sepoys there.

On 12 May Anson and his staff were at Simla when the news of the outbreak of the mutiny at Meerut and Delhi reached him. He immediately ordered that European troops take possession of the various arsenals in the Punjab but delayed his own departure for the centre of rebellion while logistical problems were resolved. Anson finally left Ambala for Delhi on 23 May at the head of three regiments of British troops and some sepoy units that he considered reliable. His intention was to join with the Meerut Brigade and press on to retake Delhi. However, Anson died of cholera four days into the march, at the age of 59. He was buried in Kurnaul (now Karnal). His body was later exhumed and taken back to England to be buried in Kensal Green cemetery.

Character
In spite of his personal charm Anson did not enjoy much professional respect amongst his fellow officers in Bengal. A staff colonel commented immediately after his sudden death that the sepoys had "a great hatred for him, honestly thinking that he was commissioned to convert them". A more valid criticism was that his immediate response to the outbreak of the mutiny was a laborious one, at a moment when quick and energetic action could still have been decisive.

Private life
Anson married The Hon. Isabella Elizabeth Annabella Weld-Forester, daughter of Cecil Weld-Forester, 1st Baron Forester, and wife Lady Katherine Mary Manners, in 1830. They had three daughters: the first was Isabella Maria Katherine Curzon-Howe, Countess Curzon, the second was Alice Louisa, The Hon. Mrs. Wentworth-Fitzwilliam and the third Geraldine Georgiana Mary Hervey, Marchioness of Bristol, Isabella survived her husband by only a year and died in December 1858.

Anson was a prominent owner of racehorses: he won The Derby with Attila in 1842 and The Oaks two years later with The Princess.

Other
It has been asserted mistakenly that 'Famous British Olympian Sir Matthew Pinsent is George's great-great-great-grandson', but in fact that was a different George Anson - the uncle of the subject of this article.


text: Category:Members of the Catalan Parliament


text:
Eystein II of Norway

Eystein II (Old Norse: Eysteinn Haraldsson, Norwegian: Øystein Haraldsson); c. 1125 – 21 August 1157) was king of Norway from 1142 to 1157. He ruled as co-ruler with his brothers, Inge Haraldsson and Sigurd Munn. He was killed in the power-struggle against his brother, Inge, in an early stage of the civil war era in Norway.

Origins
Eystein was born, apparently in Scotland, the son of Harald Gille, who was king of Norway from 1130 to 1136, and a woman named Bjaðǫk. Harald was born and raised in Ireland or Scotland, and Eystein was born there. When Harald went to Norway in 1127 to press his claim to royal inheritance, Eystein did not go with him. However, Harald let it be known that he had fathered a son before coming to Norway.

Reign
Eystein first appears in the sagas in 1142, when several Norwegian lendmenn travelled west and fetched him back to Norway from Scotland. His mother came with him to Norway. There, he was recognised as king, and given a share of the kingdom with his younger brothers. The division of the kingdom does not seem to have been territorial, all brothers seem to have held equal regal status over all parts of the country. This period of their reign saw the establishment of an independent Norwegian Archiepiscopacy in Nidaros (Trondheim) in 1152.

The sagas Heimskringla and Orkneyinga saga relates that at some point in the early 1150s, king Eystein went on a campaign to Scotland and England. He captured Harald Maddadson, earl of Orkney in Caithness, and forced him to ransom himself for a considerable sum. He then proceeded to loot along the Scottish and English coast, attacking Aberdeen, Hartlepool and Whitby, in a voyage reminiscent of the earlier viking expeditions.

Civil war
According to the sagas, relations between the three brothers were peaceful as long as the two younger brothers' guardians were alive. But as the younger brothers grew up, tensions arose. In 1155, a meeting between the brothers in Bergen resulted in fighting breaking out between the men of king Inge and king Sigurd, in which king Sigurd was killed. King Eystein was late in arriving for the meeting, and only approached the city after Sigurd was already dead. An uneasy settlement was reached between Inge and Eystein. The reasons for the fighting in Bergen remain disputed. According to the sagas, Eystein and Sigurd had plotted to strip Inge of his royal title and divide his share of the kingdom between them. Some modern historians doubt this version, seeing it as Inge's excuse for his own aggressive actions. In any event, peace between Inge and Eystein did not hold for long after the events of 1155. In 1157, both sides gathered their forces for a confrontation. Inge's forces outnumbered Eystein's, and when they met, on the west coast near Moster, Eystein's forces melted away. Eystein was forced to flee, over land to Viken (the Oslofjord-area). Abandoned by his own men, he was caught, somewhere in the area of present-day Bohuslän, and killed by his captors. Whether or not king Inge ordered his killing seems to have been a disputed question at the time. Eystein's body was buried in the church of Foss in Tunge Hundred. According to Heimskringla, the local population of the area started worshipping Eystein as a saint.

Aftermath
After Eystein's death, his supporters rallied around the young Haakon the Broadshouldered, Sigurd Munn's son, Eystein's nephew. They continued the war against king Inge, in an early stage of the so-called civil war era, which was to last on and off until 1240. The sagas draw a rather negative picture of both Eystein and his brother Sigurd, generally choosing to portray Inge as the just ruler of the three brothers. Heimskringla states of Eystein:

 * "King Eystein was dark and dingy in complexion, of middle height, and a prudent able man; but what deprived him of consideration and popularity with those under him were his avarice and narrowness".

Eystein was married to Ragna Nikolasdottir, a Norwegian gentlewoman. His bastard son Eystein Meyla was proclaimed king by the Birkebeiner party in 1176, but was defeated and killed the year after.

title: Eystein II of Norway


text:
Time (Pink Floyd song)

"Time" is a song by English rock band Pink Floyd. It is included as the fourth track on their eighth album The Dark Side of the Moon (1973) and was released as a single in the United States. With lyrics written by bassist Roger Waters, guitarist David Gilmour shares lead vocals with keyboardist Richard Wright (his last until "Wearing the Inside Out" on the band's 1994 album The Division Bell).

The lyrics deal with the passage of time. Waters got the idea when he realised he was no longer preparing for anything in life, but was right in the middle of it. He has described this realisation taking place at ages 28 and 29 in various interviews. It is noted for its long introductory passage of clocks chiming and alarms ringing. The sounds were recorded in an antique store made as a quadrophonic test by engineer Alan Parsons, not specifically for the album.

The album track also includes a reprise of the song "Breathe". It is the only song on the album to credit all four principal members for songwriting, and the last to do so in the band's discography.

Composition
"Time" is in the key of F♯ minor. Each clock at the beginning of the song was recorded separately in an antiques store. These clock sounds are followed by a two-minute passage dominated by Nick Mason's drum solo, with rototoms and backgrounded by a tick-tock sound created by Roger Waters picking two muted strings on his bass. David Gilmour sings lead on the verses, while Richard Wright sings lead on the bridges with female singers and Gilmour providing backup vocals. The song's lyrics deal with Roger Waters' realization that life was not about preparing yourself for what happens next, but about grabbing control of your own destiny.

"He [Alan Parsons] had just recently before we did that album gone out with a whole set of equipment and had recorded all these clocks in a clock shop. And we were doing the song Time, and he said 'Listen, I just did all these things, I did all these clocks,' and so we wheeled out his tape and listened to it and said 'Great! Stick it on!' And that, actually, is Alan Parsons' idea."

"The drums used on the Time track are roto-toms. I think we did some experiments with some other drums called boo-bans, which are very small, tuned drums, but the roto-toms actually gave the best effect." According to an interview by Phil Taylor in 1994, David Gilmour had been using a Lexicon PCM-70 to store the circular delay sounds heard in "Time", which could duplicate the kind of echo he used to get from his old Binson echo unit.

The verse chords cycle through F♯ minor, A major, E major, and F♯ minor again. During this section, Gilmour's guitar and Wright's keyboards are panned to the extreme right and left of the stereo spectrum, respectively. Gilmour sings lead during this section.

The bridge section, with Wright singing lead, has a notably "thicker" texture, with the female backing vocalists singing multi-tracked "oohs" and "aahs" throughout, and Gilmour singing harmony with Wright in the second half. The chords of this section are D major seventh to A major ninth, which is repeated. The second half progresses from D major seventh to C♯ minor, then B minor to E major.

The first bridge leads to a guitar solo by Gilmour, which plays over the verse and bridge progressions. The solo is followed by another verse sung by Gilmour. When the bridge is repeated, it does not conclude on E major as before. Instead, the B minor leads to an F major chord, while Waters's bass stays on B, resulting in an unusual dissonance as a transition to the key of E minor for "Breathe (Reprise)".

Pink Floyd performed the song live from 1972 to 1975, and after the departure of Waters, from 1987 to 1994. Waters began performing the song in his solo concerts, singing the verses himself, beginning in 1999 with In the Flesh and again with The Dark Side of the Moon Live from 2006 to 2008 (occasionally featuring guest appearances from Nick Mason) and the Us + Them Tour from 2017 to 2018. Gilmour has performed the song live on every one of his solo tours since Pink Floyd's Pulse tour, with the late Richard Wright sharing vocals until his death.

Reception
In a contemporary review for The Dark Side of the Moon, Loyd Grossman of Rolling Stone gave "Time" a positive review, describing the track as "a fine country-tinged rocker with a powerful guitar solo by David Gilmour". Billboard and Louder Sound ranked the song number nine and number five, respectively, on their lists of the 50 greatest Pink Floyd songs.

Film
During live performances, the band back-projected a specially-commissioned, animated film by Ian Emes. The film was subsequently included as an extra on the Pulse DVD.

Personnel

 * David Gilmour – electric guitars, lead (verses and "Breathe (Reprise)") and backing vocals (bridges and "Breathe (Reprise)")
 * Richard Wright – Farfisa organ, Wurlitzer electronic piano, EMS VCS 3, co-lead vocals (bridges)
 * Roger Waters – bass guitar, EMS VCS 3
 * Nick Mason – drums, rototoms

with:

 * Doris Troy, Lesley Duncan, Liza Strike, & Barry St. John – backing vocals

Live versions

 * Live versions of the song are on the Pink Floyd albums Delicate Sound of Thunder and Pulse. The Delicate Sound of Thunder version does not feature the reprise of "Breathe".
 * A Roger Waters solo version is on the album In the Flesh: Live, sung by Waters, Doyle Bramhall II and Jon Carin.
 * Live versions with Richard Wright appear on the David Gilmour solo Remember That Night DVD and Live in Gdańsk album.

Television, films and video games
"Time" was used several times in the seventh episode of The Crowded Room, an Apple TV+ series.

"Time" was used in the opening of the Marvel Cinematic Universe film Eternals.

"Time" was used in the final trailer of the DC Extended Universe film The Flash.

Roger Waters version
"Time" is a single by English musician and Pink Floyd cofounder Roger Waters, which serves as the second single to his album The Dark Side of the Moon Redux, a full re-recording of The Dark Side of the Moon.

Around early 2023, Waters announced that in celebration of the 50th anniversary of The Dark Side of the Moon, he would be releasing a full-length re-recording of the record not featuring the rest of Pink Floyd that would try and re-address the political and emotional statements made on that record. The record's name, cover, and lead single, "Money" was released on 21 July 2023. "Time" would be released 2 months later alongside a lyric video on 24 August 2023.

Similar to lead single "Money", Waters strips back much of the psychedelic instrumentation and heavily slows it down from the original, putting a greater emphasis on Waters' crooning vocals, atmospheric production, and in general a more mellow sound.

Personnel

 * Roger Waters – vocals
 * Gus Seyffert – bass, guitar, percussion, keys, synth, backing vocals
 * Joey Waronker – drums, percussion
 * Jonathan Wilson – guitars, synth, organ
 * Johnny Shepherd – organ, piano
 * Via Mardot – theremin
 * Azniv Korkejian – vocals
 * Gabe Noel – string arrangements, strings, sarangi
 * Jon Carin – keyboards, lap steel, synth, organ

title: Time (Pink Floyd song)


text:
Category:EC 2.5

Transferases.

Transferring alkyl or aryl groups, other than methyl groups.

title: Category:EC 2.5


text:
10 mm caliber

This is a list of firearm cartridges which have bullets in the 10 mm to 10.99 mm caliber range.

 * Length refers to the cartridge case length.
 * OAL refers to the overall length of the cartridge.

All measurements are in mm (in).

title: 10 mm caliber