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Cyberathlete Professional League

The Cyberathlete Professional League (CPL) was a professional sports tournament organization specializing in computer and console video game competitions. It was established by Angel Munoz on June 27, 1997, hosting biannual tournaments in hotels. The CPL's World Tour in 2005 marked a global expansion of esports, but concerns arose about fan engagement and attracting new audiences. The post-tour era saw increased competition from the WSVG, and the CPL faced financial troubles including the loss of its main sponsor, Intel, to WSVG in 2006. Shortly after, WSVG's Matt Ringel purchased the 2006 CPL Summer event, leading to a decline in the CPL's influence. The CPL attempted a "World Season" in late 2006, hosting fewer events with reduced prize money. Rumors circulated about the league's health, and in March 2008, the CPL ceased operations. Later that year, the CPL was acquired by an investment group in Abu Dhabi, later becoming solely owned by WoLong Ventures PTE of Singapore. The CPL continued hosting annual competitions in China in collaboration with the municipal government of Shenyang.

Early years (1997–1999)
The Cyberathlete Professional League (CPL) was launched on June 27, 1997, by gamer and former Dallas stockbroker Angel Munoz. The CPL began hosting twice-yearly tournaments, Summer and Winter, in hotels such as the Gaylord Texan Resort on the outskirts of Dallas. The first event, called The FRAG, attracted 300 players competing for a prize pool of $4,000 in merchandise, as sponsors in computing found it easier to contribute spare graphics cards rather than cash.

The second major event, aptly named "The CPL Event," was held in July 1998 at the Dallas Infomart, and the third event, named FRAG 2, occurred in October 1998 at the Hyatt Regency in downtown Dallas. The move to the Hyatt offered advantages such as increased space, a more suitable environment for LAN events, and the introduction of the CPL's first 24-hour "Bring Your Own Computer" (BYOC) event. The Hyatt Regency in Dallas would become the chosen site for 13 CPL events spanning from 1998 to 2003. The Grand Ballroom of the Westin Park Central Hotel hosted the next CPL event, "Extreme Annihilation," departing from the familiar Hyatt Regency. The event attracted sponsors such as Babbage's, Cisco Systems, and Dell Computer Corporation. Babbage's increased support, offering 600 free spectator passes and a $5,000 prize for the Quake II tournament.

The next CPL event was the "Extreme Annihilation" in March 1999. Following "Extreme Annihilation", CPL collaborated with Interplay Entertainment for the 1999 Descent III Championship and Lanfest in Las Vegas. Despite offering the largest prize purse in professional gaming to date, $50,000, the event faced challenges, including slow registrations and venue concerns. Monte Fontenot, CPL Director of Events, emphasized that Las Vegas was not an ideal venue for gamers, and the game choice, Descent III, lacked broad appeal. The CPL then moved on to its sixth event, "Ground Zero," in New York City, which was preceded by the first-ever esports qualifier in Springfield, Virginia. Ground Zero also was the introduction of the first official female gaming competition, the Female Frag Fest 99. Ground Zero marked CPL's emergence into mainstream media, attracting both positive and negative attention from outlets such as Rolling Stone, Wired Magazine, and The Wall Street Journal. Following Ground Zero, the CPL hosted its fourth event of 1999, FRAG 3, returning to Dallas. The Hyatt Regency hosted the event in its basement.

Expansion and emergence of Counter-Strike (2000–2004)
A total of seven CPL tournaments took place in 2000. In the early days of the CPL, death match free-for-all games, such as Quake, were the most popular titles. However, a Dallas pizzeria owner named Frank Nuccio eventually persuaded CPL event organizer Monte Fontenot to include Counter-Strike in CPL events. Counter-Strike first appearance in the CPL was at the $100,000 Razer CPL Event, which was originally scheduled for Los Angeles in March 2000 but was relocated to Marsalis Hall at the Hyatt Regency in Dallas.

CPL divisions were established in Europe and Asia, with negotiations underway for divisions in Australia, in 2000. While CPL Asia's first and only event in Singapore attracted players from overseas, organizational challenges and scheduling conflicts led to the discontinuation of CPL Asia. Plans for future events were repeatedly postponed until the CPL severed ties with the organizer in 2003. The CPL Denmark event in October 2000 marked the debut of the CPL Europe division, combining the CPL France and CPL Scandinavia events. Eurogamer described the event as a "disastrous false-start." Munoz attributed the problems to the Swedish organizers and plans were underway for CPL Europe under new management. After the setback in Denmark, the CPL found new European partners, leading to a second CPL Europe event in December 2000 in Cologne, Germany. Following first CPL Europe event, the CPL hosted the CPL Gateway Country Challenge, an event hosted simultaneously in 320 Gateway Country stores across the United States. The event, which began on November 4, 2000, and featured the video game Midtown Madness 2, had 10,000 competitors, $300,000 in prizes, and became the largest PC tournament in history.

The final event of 2000 was Babbage's CPL at the Hyatt Regency in Dallas. The event faced challenges from the outset, as a winter storm in Texas caused travel delays for participants. Only 240 of the expected 512 Quake III competitors checked in, leading to a delayed start for the tournament. In contrast, the Counter-Strike tournament was at full capacity with 40 teams. Additionally, Karna, the parent company of Razer and sponsor of the Babbage's CPL Counter-Strike tournament, failed to fulfill its end, resulting in winners receiving only 2/3 of their prize winnings.

In 2001, Nuccio became the commissioner of the CPL, and March of that year, he integrated his online Counter-Strike league, Domain of Games, into CPL, forming the Cyberathlete Amateur League (CAL). Initially focused on Counter-Strike, CAL expanded to include Quake III Arena and Unreal Tournament. On March 14, the CPL announced a that it would be dropping Quake III Arena as the official tournament game in the World Championship Event in December, and named Counter-Strike as its replacement. Moreover, the Speakeasy CPL Event in April 2001 marked a departure from the CPL's traditional focus on Quake III Arena, hosting only a Counter-Strike tournament. Additionally, a beta version of Half-Life TV (HLTV) was introduced at the event, creating a multicast spectator mode to allow an unlimited number of viewers to watch games.

Two international CPL events, the CPL Atomic Event in Melbourne, Australia, in April and the Virtua CPL Latin America Event, which was held shortly after the US Speakeasy Event, faced controversy, leading to no subsequent events hosted by those partners. The European division, however, did well, with CPL Europe hosting the Pentium 4 CPL Holland Event in May 2001. The United States' CPL 4-Year Anniversary Event, which was scheduled for June 28, 2001, celebrated CPL's four-year milestone and feature a return to Quakeworld as the primary focus, alongside other tournaments, including Counter-Strike. Over 900 attendees turned out, surpassing expectations, with the Counter-Strike tournament acting as a qualifier for the upcoming CPL World Championship Event. During the five-month break before the World Championship Event, CPL Europe hosted several events in August, including the ELSA CPL European Championships in London and the CPL Berlin Event. The CPL Berlin, held at the ICC Center, was CPL Europe's first exclusively Counter-Strike event. The CPL World Championship Event in December 2001 was filmed by ESPN. In an attempt to legitimize esports as a professional sport, players were required to use their surnames in competition instead of gaming aliases. The main event of the World Championship was the Counter-Strike tournament, which was sponsored by Razer with $10,000 in prize money.

Nuccio parted ways with the CPL in 2004 due to philosophical differences on the optimal approach to advancing the industry, as Nuccio advocated for reinvesting profits into a national league structured around geography. Munoz, however, chose to maintain the CPL's safe and profitable two-a-year tournament plan.

World Tours (2005–2008)
In 2005, the CPL held the 2005 CPL World Tour, a significant moment signaling the global expansion of esports. Centered around the new FPS game Painkiller, the tour featured ten stops across four continents, culminating in a grand final in Times Square, New York, with a million-dollar prize pot and MTV broadcasting. However, competition arose between broadcasting entities, and TSN secured the contract to broadcast the CPL World Tour, sidelining Radio iTG. Despite this setback, the tour showcased an rivalry between Fatal1ty and Dutch FPS player Sander "Vo0" Kaasjager, and ultimately, the tour was considered a success.

The 2005 CPL World Tour, despite its lucrative prize pool, raised concerns about fan engagement and attracting new audiences. Attendance at events varied, with notable success in China but disappointment in places like CPL Sheffield, where turnout was meager. The post-World Tour era saw the CPL's challenges intensify, especially with the emergence of a new league, the World Series of Video Games (WSVG), operating on a similar business model—charging players for a spot at a Bring Your Own Computer LAN. Led by management consultant Matt Ringel, WSVG recruited a dozen former CPL staff to organize events, starting with a competition near Louisville, Kentucky, in February 2006.

In the months leading up to CPL Summer 2006, scheduled for July, the CPL lost its main sponsor, Intel, to the WSVG. With the need for sponsors to support the summer event, Munoz managed to secure less lucrative deals with microchip maker AMD and graphics-card company ATI. While these agreements were sufficient to salvage one tournament a year, it could only fund the smaller and less costly event, CPL Winter at the Hyatt. WSVG's Ringel seized the opportunity and purchased the summer event from Munoz for just under a million dollars. This move proved to be a safe bet for the WSVG, given that the CPL already had three thousand gamers registered at $100 each, instantly recouping $300,000 of the million-dollar investment. Despite being labeled as a partnership between the CPL and WSVG, four days prior to the start of the event, Ringel removed all references to the CPL and renamed the event the Intel Summer Championship, aligning it with his principal sponsor.

After its Summer event was absorbed by the WSVG, the CPL ran a subdued "World Season" in late 2006, featuring a few scattered stops across the globe, a significantly reduced prize pool of $150,000, and only two games: Counter-Strike and Quake 3.Subsequently, the CPL hosted only one tournament in Dallas, CPL Winter 2007, and a World Tour final in London in early 2008. During this period, rumors circulated about the league's declining health. On the ESReality.com forums, gamers posted pictures of the Titanic, reflecting the sentiment surrounding the CPL's decline. In March 2008, the CPL ceased operations, citing a "crowded field of competing leagues."

Sale of the company (2008–2010)
On August 25, 2008, the CPL announced that it had signed an acquisition agreement with an investment group based in Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates. On April 2, 2010, former CPL employee Tonya Welch shared concerns about the CPL's new management. She argued that the claim of the CPL being bought by a middle-eastern investment group from Abu Dhabi was untrue and fabricated to deceive previous owners, potential investors, the gaming community, and the public. According to Welch, the actual purchase was orchestrated by a private group of US investors. On August 23, 2010, the former parent company of the CPL, announced that the two-year acquisition process of the CPL was finalized, and that the sole owner of the CPL (and its subsidiaries) was now WoLong Ventures PTE of Singapore. Following this acquisition, the CPL has hosted annual competitions in China, in collaboration with the municipal government of Shenyang. The new company also was renamed to Cyberathlete Pte Ltd.

Cyberathlete Amateur League
The CPL also owned and operated an online video game league for amateur players and teams, named the Cyberathlete Amateur League or CAL. CAL operated year-round, with regular eight-week seasons, one or two matches per week, and a single-elimination postseason (playoffs).

The CAL was based mainly on online game play. A 2003 competition hosted by CAL was played in a Hyatt Regency Ballroom. Several tables were placed together where 10 computers were set up for the professional gamers. The game was Half-Life: Counterstrike. The CAL ceased operating in 2009. By 2004, CAL had over 200,000 players competing in its league.

On November 14, 2008, the newly formed CPL Holding Group, LLC from United Arab Emirates announced that it had acquired CAL. On February 22, 2009, CAL ceased online operations. At its peak CAL was one of the largest online gaming leagues in North America with 20,000 teams and over 600,000 registered players.

title: Cyberathlete Professional League


text:
Boundary Park

Boundary Park is a football stadium in Oldham, Greater Manchester, England. Its name originates from the fact that it lies at the northwestern extremity of Oldham, with Royton and Chadderton lying immediately north and west respectively.

Boundary Park was originally known as the Athletic Ground when it was opened in 1896 for Oldham's first professional football club, Oldham County F.C.. When County folded in 1899, Pine Villa F.C. took over the ground and changed their name to Oldham Athletic. Oldham Athletic A.F.C. have played their home games here since the stadium was opened. Oldham RLFC left their traditional home, Watersheddings, in 1997 and moved to Boundary Park, although they briefly moved to Hurst Cross in Ashton-under-Lyne in 2002, where they played until 2009, when the football club decided that they no longer wanted them as tenants.

Overview
The Lookers Stand on the Broadway side was knocked down as part of a proposed redevelopment (see below). Oldham Borough Council confirmed planning approval for the new North Stand in April 2013. This will have capacity for 2,671 spectators, plus a health and fitness suite, supporters' bar and event facilities. The hardcore Oldham fans used to be situated in the Chadderton Road End (Chaddy End); a traditional, small, one-tiered stand. However, the 'Athleticos' now occupy the larger Rochdale Road End, and the away fans are allocated the Chaddy End. The main stand has existed since the time when the stadium was originally built, and is a small two-tiered structure. Terracing disused since the conversion to an all-seater can still be seen towards the end of this stand.

Capacity
The stadium currently has an all-seated capacity of 13,186. It became an all-seater venue during the 1994–95 season – the season after Oldham Athletic's relegation from the top flight of English football. In the early days, the stadium could hold nearly 50,000 people. The highest crowd ever recorded at Boundary Park is 47,671, for an FA Cup tie between Oldham and Sheffield Wednesday in 1930. The highest attendance for a league match was also recorded during the same season against Blackpool, with 45,304 attending for the promotion clash.

Ownership
Historically, Boundary Park was owned by the football club which has occupied it since 1904, Oldham Athletic. This arrangement changed in 1999 when the then owners of the football club sold the stadium to Oldham Property Partnerships, Oldham Council’s joint venture company.

The football club entered administration in 2003 and a takeover by Simon Blitz, Simon Corney and Danny Gazel was completed in early 2005. Blitz and Gazel purchased the football club through their company Oldham Athletic (2004) Association Football Club Limited and subsequently completed the purchase of Boundary Park through a separate company, Brass Bank Limited, with that purchase completing in June 2005.

The ownership of the football club and its stadium was again split in 2011 when Blitz and Gazel sold their shares in Oldham Athletic to Corney, whilst retaining ownership of Boundary Park through Brass Bank Limited.

Corney’s sale of Oldham Athletic to Moroccan football agent Abdallah Lemsagam in 2018 led to a period of dispute between Lemsagam and Blitz over the use of Boundary Park by the football club.

Finally, Lemsagam sold the football club to local businessman Frank Rothwell in July 2022, at which time Rothwell announced that he was also in advanced discussions to purchase Boundary Park from Blitz, a transaction which completed on 24 March 2023, bringing the football club and its stadium back under single ownership for the first time in over ten years.

"Fantastic in Plastic"

In 1986 the club installed an artificial pitch in order to generate more income for the club and this coincided with the club's upturn in fortunes under manager Joe Royle. In 1987, the club reached the play-offs and in 1989–90 the club went through what is regarded as one of the club's greatest ever seasons, reaching the League Cup Final and the semi-final of the FA Cup, and the club claimed major upsets in defeating the likes of Arsenal, Southampton, Everton and Aston Villa. Critics felt that the pitch gave the club an advantage, but in 1991 Royle responded to this. When Portsmouth manager Frank Burrows declared that Oldham could not play away from home, Royle stuck the article to the dressing room door and the team responded with a 4–1 victory.

At the end of the 1990–91 season the club secured promotion to the top flight, the final match on the plastic pitch was probably one of the most memorable games played at the ground when Latics, in order to win the old Second Division, had to beat Sheffield Wednesday and rely on West Ham losing. After 60 minutes of the game, Sheffield Wednesday were 2–0 up, but Ian Marshall pulled a goal back, then Paul Bernard equalised with less than ten minutes to play. By this point, West Ham were losing. In time added on, Andy Barlow went down in the box and the referee awarded a penalty. Neil Redfearn stepped up to convert it and a mass pitch invasion followed, as it had been confirmed that West Ham had lost 2–1 at home to Notts County. In gaining promotion to the top flight, Oldham Athletic were forced to have the plastic pitch removed because of league rules. They stayed in the top division for three seasons (1991–92, 1992–93 and 1993–94) before being relegated, and after three disappointing seasons in the second tier were relegated again in 1997. They remained in the third division, which was later called League One, until they were relegated at the end of the 2017–18 season.

Records
Boundary Park is anecdotally known as being the coldest ground in the Football League, earning the nickname coined by Joe Royle, Ice Station Zebra. It is also the second-highest stadium, at 526 feet (155m) above sea level, of any Premier League or Football League club after the Hawthorns, home of West Bromwich Albion, 552 feet (168m).

Redevelopment
There were plans in the late 1990s for a move to a new 20,000 seater stadium (named Sports Park 2000) on adjoining waste ground, but these plans were scrapped.

On 15 February 2006, the club unveiled plans for the redevelopment of their current ground. The plans would see every stand other than the Rochdale Road End being redeveloped. When completed it would initially be a 16,000 seater stadium, estimated to cost £80 million, and with a working name of the Oldham Arena.

On 14 November 2007, Oldham Athletic received planning permission for the Broadway Stand, whilst Oldham Borough Council rejected the further development of the stadium due to local objections regarding the height and size of a proposed block of flats. On 12 December 2007, after amending the plans, another council meeting gave permission for redevelopment. Facilities would include conferencing and a hotel plus the option of a casino.

Demolition of the Broadway Stand started on 8 May 2008, with the work completed before the start of the new season. The building of the new stand was due to commence in December 2008 and was expected to take 16 months.

On 5 September 2008, Simon Blitz told podcast World Soccer Daily that although Oldham still planned to continue the development of Boundary Park and surrounding areas, the plans were on hold for now because of the financial crisis of 2007–2010 and the subsequent downturn in the UK property market.

Because of these problems, the club announced in the summer of 2009 that it was considering moving to a new stadium in Failsworth. This caused some controversy amongst supporters as despite Failsworth being officially part of the borough, it has a Manchester postcode. It is also only three miles from the City of Manchester Stadium and only one mile from the proposed new stadium of F.C. United of Manchester in Moston, Manchester. If all went to according to plan, the new stadium was anticipated to be ready for the beginning of the 2011–12 season - however, these plans were also shelved due to the Charities Commission turning down the application.

On 28 July 2011 the council offered the club £5.7 million to help with their redevelopment fund of Boundary Park, which would involve the redevelopment of the Broadway Stand.

Oldham Council confirmed planning approval for the new North Stand in April 2013, including a 2,671 capacity stand, a health and fitness suite, supporters' bar and event facilities. Demolition and preparatory work started in the summer of 2013.

Construction of the new North Stand completed on 17 October 2015 for the home match against Sheffield United. The new North Stand is significantly taller than the stand that it replaced although the capacity for supporters is roughly the same. The additional height has allowed for a supporters bar, offices, corporate hospitality, retail opportunities and a gymnasium.

Following the club's relegation to non-league football with the match against Salford City abandoned, Oldham Athletic decided that the now renamed ‘Joe Royle Stand’ would be closed for the 2022-23 season, on cost and safety grounds.

In March 2023, it was announced that Oldham Council would invest £1 million in a new pitch at Boundary Park making the surface suitable for increased usage including the return of Oldham R.L.F.C. to the stadium from the 2024 season.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Boundary Park


text:
Guria

Guria (გურია) is a region (mkhare) in Georgia, in the western part of the country, bordered by the eastern end of the Black Sea. The region has a population of 104,338 (2023), with Ozurgeti as the regional capital.

Geography
Guria is bordered by Samegrelo to the north-west, Imereti to the north, Samtskhe-Javakheti to the east, Ajaria to the south, and the Black Sea to the west. The province has an area of 2,033 km2.

Guria is traversed by the northeasterly line of equal latitude and longitude.

Administrative divisions
Guria is divided into 4 entities (3 municipalities and 1 city), including:

 * City of Ozurgeti
 * Ozurgeti Municipality
 * Lanchkhuti Municipality
 * Chokhatauri Municipality

History
The territory that is now Guria was part of the kingdom of Colchis, best known in the West for the tale of the Golden Fleece. Following the collapse of the Colchian Kingdom it became part of the Kingdom of Lazica in the first century BC. In antiquity the area was a significant source of iron, as early as the fifth century BC, and also copper and gold.

The toponym "Guria" is first attested in the c. 800 Georgian chronicle of Pseudo-Juansher.

Guria first appears c. 1352 as a fief of the house of Vardanidze-Dadiani; and after 1463 it became a sovereign principality independent of the Kingdom of Georgia under a branch of that house, known thereafter by the name of Gurieli. The principality, comprising modern Guria and much of Adjara with the city of Batumi, was subsequently reduced in size and devastated in a series of conflicts with the Ottoman Empire. A Russian protectorate was established by the treaty concluded on June 19, 1810 between Mamia V Gurieli and the empire, and in 1829, during the regency for the last prince, the Gurieli David, the principality was annexed by Russia.

There were uprisings against Russian rule in 1819 and again in 1841. In 1840, Guria was made a county (uyezd) and renamed Ozurgeti, after one of its main towns. In 1846, it was transferred to the new Kutais Governorate. By 1904, the population was just under 100,000, occupying an area of approximately 532000 acre of mountains and swampy valleys, covered by corn fields, vineyards, and some tea plantations. It was the most ethnically homogenous of Georgian areas, with the peasantry and lesser rural nobility making up almost the entire population, with a high level of literacy and a relatively high degree of economic self-satisfaction. The peasant protest movement, which originated in 1902 and culminated in an open insurrection against the government during the Russian Revolution of 1905, was the most effective and organized peasant movement in the empire. The peasants’ self-government, the so-called Gurian Republic, survived into 1906, when it was crushed and Guria devastated by the Cossack punitive expedition. The region was a native powerbase of the Georgian Social Democratic (Menshevik) Party which dominated the Democratic Republic of Georgia from 1918 to 1921. Guria was a scene of guerrilla resistance to the militarily imposed Soviet rule early in the 1920s. Under the Soviet government, Guria was an agrarian area divided into three administrative districts. In 1995, the Georgian government decreed the creation of the region (mkhare) of Guria, restoring the province's historical name to official usage.

The Orthodox churches of Likhauri and Shemokmedi are the main historical buildings in the province.

Etymology
"Some say that the root of the word [Guria] refers to restlessness and the word should mean “the land of the restless” and is associated with events during the eighth and ninth centuries when “Leon became the King of Abkhazeti. Guruls (governor of Guria) refused to obey the ruler of Odzrakho, ceased their vassal relations with Adarnase and Ashot Bagrationi and united with Leon” as it was described in Vakhushti Bagrationi’s historical works of the eighteenth century."

"According to a later explanation, in the times of Georgia’s prosperity, when its borders stretched from 'Nikopsia to Daruband', Guria was situated in the heart of the Georgian territory." The linguistic evidence for the above hypothesis is the Megrelian word for “heart” – “guri” (Georgian: “guli”).

Economy
Subtropic farming and tourism are a mainstay of the region's economy. Water is one of Guria's main assets. The province is famous for the mineral water of Nabeglavi, which is similar to Borjomi in its chemical composition, and the Black Sea health resort of Ureki, which is rich in magnetic sand. Guria is also one of the largest tea growing regions in Georgia.

Ethnic and religious groups
According to the 2014 census, Guria has a population of 113.350 inhabitants, which accounts for 3.1% of the total population of Georgia. 98% of the population is ethnic Georgian (mostly native Gurians), 1% is ethnic Armenian and the remaining 1% is composed of Russians and Ukrainians and the majority of the population is Orthodox Christians (87%), followed by Islam (11%).

Gurians
The Gurians or Gurulebi (Georgian: გურულები) is one of the ethnographical groups of Georgians, inhabiting Guria. Gurians are Orthodox Christian and speak the Gurian dialect of the Georgian language.

Administration
The administration centre is Ozurgeti. There are 194 populated areas, including:
 * City: 2 (Ozurgeti, Lanchkhuti)
 * Daba: 7 (Chokhatauri, Bakhmaro, Gomismta, Ureki, Naruja, Laituri, Kveda Nasakirali)
 * Villages: 185

Governors
To date, the following politicians have held the office of Governor of Guria:

 * 1995-1997 - Mikheil Chkuaseli
 * 1997-1998 - Oleg Nikoleishvili
 * 1998–2003 - Carlo Gujabidze
 * 2003-2004 - Vakhtang Goliadze
 * 2004-2005 - Bezhan Kalandadze
 * 2005-2006 - Aleko Tsintsadze
 * 2006-2008 - Mikheil Svimonishvili
 * 2008-2008 - Ramaz Nikolaishvili
 * 2008–2013 - Valeri Chitaishvili
 * 2013–2014 - Giorgi Chkhaidze
 * 2015-2017 - Gia Salukvadze
 * 2017-2018 - Merab Chanukvadze
 * 2018–2021 - Zurab Nasaraya
 * 2021–2021 - Giorgi Sakhokia
 * 2021–Present - Giorgi Urushadze

Notable people

 * Ekvtime Takaishvili (1862–1953), historian
 * Noe Zhordania (1868–1953), Prime Minister of the Democratic Republic of Georgia from 1918 to 1921.
 * Pavle Ingorokva (1893–1983), historian, philologist, and public benefactor
 * Boris Paichadze (1915–1990), football player
 * Eduard Shevardnadze (1928–2014), Georgia's former president
 * Nodar Dumbadze (1928–1984), writer

title: Guria


text: Category:American historians

title: Category:American historians


text:
Talk:BNSF Railway Bridge 5.1

Portland & Seattle Railway
I find the sentences at the beginning of the history section a bit convoluted: "The original, swing-span bridge was built in 1906–08 by the Spokane, Portland and Seattle Railway (SP&S), as part of construction of a new line between Vancouver, Washington and Portland. SP&S was formed jointly by the Northern Pacific Railway and Great Northern Railway, originally as the Portland & Seattle Railway, to build and ultimately operate new railroad lines from Portland to Seattle and Portland to Spokane, but was renamed Spokane, Portland & Seattle Railway—in early 1908, before opening any track sections—after construction of the Portland–Spokane line got under way before the Seattle line." I think it's misleading to say that the bridge was built by SP&S given that the majority of construction took place before the railway was renamed. Also, do you think it's necessary to tell readers about how the Portland & Seattle Railway was created? Mentioning that "Northern Pacific Railway" and "Great Northern Railway" were the names of the companies that created the railroad seems only tangentially relevant to the history of the bridge. I think the following would be clearer: "The original, swing-span bridge was built in 1906–08 by the Portland & Seattle Railway as part of construction of a new line between Vancouver, Washington and Portland. The Portland & Seattle Railway was created in 1905 with the goal of building new railroad lines from Portland to Seattle and from Portland to Spokane. The company was renamed Spokane, Portland & Seattle Railway (SP&S) in early 1908—before opening any track sections—after construction of the Portland–Spokane line got under way before the Seattle line." What are your thoughts? Lord Bolingbroke (talk) 20:05, 19 December 2018 (UTC)
 * That's a good suggestion. Your recommended wording seems fine to me. SJ Morg (talk) 09:24, 20 December 2018 (UTC)

Richard Serra 16mm film
This bridge is the subject of a 16mm film by artist Richard Serra from 1976. Perhaps that can be added to the article? I wasn't sure if it was relevant or which section it would go in. https://www.theguardian.com/culture/gallery/2013/sep/28/the-10-best-bridges?CMP=Share_AndroidApp_Other Feelfreetoblameme (talk) 14:44, 5 July 2023 (UTC)

Stop Calling it The Burlington Northern Bridge.
Who is the current owner? Is it the BNSF Railway? If so, then make the change. The BN is now a Fallen Flag of the railroads.

Eric Erie Ericerie (talk) 14:21, 23 November 2023 (UTC)
 * A move to BNSF Railway Bridge 5.1 seems reasonable since "BNSF Railway" is the official name of the company. Any comment ? – Lord Bolingbroke (talk) 19:56, 23 November 2023 (UTC)
 * At the time I made the major expansion of this article (2011), the railroad that owns and uses this bridge had been Burlington Northern for 41 years, of the bridge's then 103-year existence, whereas it had been BNSF Railway for only 16 years – and there was no way to know how long it might remain BNSF before another reorganization. However, now that it has remained BNSF for 28 years (and counting), it seems very reasonable to rename this article, so I have no objection. – SJ Morg (talk) 05:35, 28 November 2023 (UTC)
 * Sounds good, I'll go ahead and move the page. – Lord Bolingbroke (talk) 23:01, 28 November 2023 (UTC)

title: Talk:BNSF Railway Bridge 5.1


text:
File:Two Tribes single.jpg

Summary
This image is the cover of the "Two Tribes" 7" and first 12" release. Its inclusion here is claimed as fair use because:

 * It illustrates an educational article about the album from which the cover illustration was taken.
 * The image is used as the primary means of visual identification of the article topic.
 * It is a low resolution image.
 * The image is only a small portion of the commercial product.
 * It is not replaceable with an uncopyrighted or freely copyrighted image of comparable educational value.
 * The use of the cover will not affect the value of the original work or limit the copyright holder's rights or ability to distribute the original.

The use of the cover illustration is in good faith, and its inclusion enhances the quality of the article without reducing the commercial value of the recording from which it was drawn.

title: File:Two Tribes single.jpg


text:
USS Richmond (CL-9)

USS Richmond (CL-9) was an Omaha-class cruiser light cruiser, originally classified as a scout cruiser, of the United States Navy. She was the third Navy ship named for the city of Richmond, Virginia.

Built in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
Richmond was originally authorized on 29 August 1916, and awarded to William Cramp & Sons, Philadelphia on 30 July 1917. She was laid down on 16 February 1920, and launched on 29 September 1921, sponsored by Miss Elizabeth S. Scott. Richmond was commissioned on 2 July 1923, with Captain David F. Boyd in command.

Characteristics
Richmond was 550 ft long at the waterline with an overall length of 555 ft, her beam was 55 ft and a mean draft of 13 ft. Her standard displacement was 7050 LT and 9508 LT at full load. Her crew, during peace time, consisted of 29 officers and 429 enlisted men.

Power plant
Richmond was powered by four Parsons steam turbines geared steam turbines, each driving one screw, using steam generated by 12 White-Forster boilers. The engines were designed to produce 90000 ihp and reach a top speed of 35 kn. She was designed to provide a range of 10000 nmi at a speed of 10 kn, but was only capable of 8460 nmi at a speed of 10 kn

Original armament
Richmond's main armament went through many changes while she was being designed. Originally she was to mount ten 6 in/53 caliber guns; two on either side at the waist, with the remaining eight mounted in tiered casemates on either side of the fore and aft superstructures. After America's entry into World War I the US Navy worked alongside the Royal Navy and it was decided to mount four 6-in/53 caliber guns in two twin gun turrets fore and aft and keep the eight guns in the tiered casemates so that she would have an eight gun broadside and, due to limited arcs of fire from the casemate guns, four to six guns firing fore or aft. Her secondary armament consisted of two 3 in/50 caliber anti-aircraft guns in single mounts. Richmond was initially built with the capacity to carry 224 mines, but these were removed early in her career to make way for more crew accommodations. She also carried two triple and two twin, above-water, torpedo tube mounts for 21 in torpedoes. The triple mounts were fitted on either side of the upper deck, aft of the aircraft catapults, and the twin mounts were one deck lower on either side, covered by hatches in the side of the hull.

The ship lacked a full-length waterline armor belt. The sides of her boiler and engine rooms and steering gear were protected by 3 in of armor. The transverse bulkheads at the end of her machinery rooms were 1.5 in thick forward and three inches thick aft. The deck over the machinery spaces and steering gear had a thickness of 1.5 inches. The gun turrets were not armored and only provided protection against muzzle blast and the conning tower had 1.5 inches of armor. Richmond carried two floatplanes aboard that were stored on the two catapults. Initially these were probably Vought VE-9s until the early 1930s when the ship may have operated OJ-2 until 1935 and Curtiss SOC Seagulls until 1940 when Vought OS2U Kingfishers were used on ships without hangars.

Armament changes
During her career Richmond went through several armament changes, some of these changes were save weight, but others were to increase her AA armament. The lower torpedo tube mounts proved to be very wet and were removed, and the openings plated over, before the start of World War II. Another change made before the war was to increase the 3-inch guns to eight, all mounted in the ship's waist. After 1940, the lower aft 6-inch guns were removed and the casemates plated over for the same reason as the lower torpedo mounts. The ship's anti-aircraft armament were augmented by three twin 40 mm Bofors guns along with 12 20 mm Oerlikon cannons by the end of the war.

Inter-war period
On completion of a three-month shakedown cruise to Europe, Africa, and South America, Richmond underwent post-shakedown availability and in December departed Norfolk for New Orleans. There, at the end of 1923, she became flagship of the Scouting Force.

In early January 1924, she got underway to participate in Fleet Problem III which tested Caribbean defenses and transit facilities of the Panama Canal. On the 19th, she arrived off Veracruz, rescued survivors of USS Tacoma (C-18), wrecked on Blanquilla Reef; then proceeded to Tampico to stand by as political tension rose. On the 26th, she headed for Galveston, only to return to Mexico on 3 February to evacuate refugees from Puerto Mexico and transport them to Veracruz. On the 17th, she headed east and joined in exercises off Puerto Rico.

In May, Richmond returned briefly to New Orleans, then steamed for the northeast coast and further exercises. Toward the end of July she departed Newport, R.I., for duty as a station ship along the route of USAAS's first aerial circumnavigation of the world. On 2 August, she attempted to take in tow the Douglas World Cruiser "Boston", downed on the Atlantic Ocean after engine trouble, but the floatplane capsized in rough seas, although the two crew were rescued. Then, from September through December, she underwent overhaul at the New York Navy Yard.

In January 1925, Richmond, flagship of Light Cruiser Divisions, Scouting Fleet, again participated in Caribbean exercises. In February, she transited the Panama Canal and during March trained off the California coast. In April, she steamed to Hawaii for joint Army-Navy maneuvers, after which she joined the Battle Fleet for a good will cruise to Australia and New Zealand.

Returning to Norfolk on 23 November, Richmond operated off the eastern seaboard and in the Caribbean through 1926. On 1 February 1927, she again transited the Panama Canal; conducted exercises in Hawaiian waters; then continued on to China, arriving at Shanghai on 3 April. She remained on the China Station for a year, with only infrequent diversions to the Philippines for repairs and exercises. On 14 April 1928, she sailed eastward and less than three months later departed San Pedro, California, for Corinto, Nicaragua with a Navy Battalion embarked. On 25 July, she retransited the Panama Canal and for the next six years operated off the New England and mid-Atlantic coasts and in the Caribbean with occasional interruptions for fleet problems and exercises in the eastern Pacific.

From September 1934 to December 1937, Richmond operated off the west coast as a unit of the Scouting Fleet. On 12 February 1935, she rescued 64 members of the crew of the downed airship USS Macon. After 21 December 1937, she served as flagship of the Submarine Force, and on 10 May 1938, she headed back to the east coast. On 26 August, she returned to San Diego and resumed her previous duty with the Submarine Force. In the winter of 1939 and the fall of 1940, she returned to the Atlantic for fleet and submarine exercises, and, at the end of December 1940, hauled down the flag of the Submarine Force.

With the new year, 1941, Richmond shifted to Pearl Harbor; and, from January to June, served as flagship, Scouting Force. Into October, she remained in Hawaiian waters, operating with Cruiser Division 3 (CruDiv 3), then she returned to California and in November began Neutrality Patrols off the west coasts of the Americas. On 7 December, she was en route to Valparaíso, Chile.

World War II
Recalled from her original mission, she took up patrol off Panama and in 1942 commenced escorting reinforcement convoys to the Galápagos Islands and Society Islands. Later, returning to patrols from Panama to Chile, she put into San Francisco for overhaul in December and in January 1943 sailed for the Aleutians.

Richmond arrived at Unalaska on 28 January 1943. On 3 February, she became flagship of Task Group 16.6 (TG 16.6), a cruiser-destroyer task group assigned to defend the approaches to recently occupied Amchitka. On the 10th, she underwent her first enemy air raid and on the 18th she participated in the initial bombardment of Holtz Bay and Chichagof Harbor, Attu Island.

The force then resumed patrols to enforce the blockade of enemy installations on Attu and Kiska. In March, the Japanese decided to run the blockade and on the 22nd dispatched a force of two heavy cruisers, two light cruisers, four destroyers, and three transports from Paramushiro. TG 16.6, one light cruiser, one heavy cruiser, and four destroyers, intercepted the Japanese on the 26th approximately 180 mi (290 km) west of Attu and 100 mi (160 km) south of the Komandorski Islands.

The Japanese sent the transports and one destroyer on, then turned to meet Richmond's force. At 0840, the Battle of the Komandorski Islands began.

Initially firing on Richmond, the Japanese soon concentrated on USS Salt Lake City (CA-25), the only American ship with the firing range to reach them. In the running, retiring action which ensued and lasted until shortly after noon, Salt Lake City went dead in the water, but continued firing. Richmond went to her aid as the American destroyers closed the Japanese for a torpedo attack. The enemy, however, low on fuel and ammunition did not press their advantage. Changing course, they headed west, pursued by the American destroyers. Salt Lake City regained power after four minutes and Richmond joined the destroyers, but the action was broken off as the Japanese outdistanced TG 16.6.

The transports sent ahead by the Japanese turned back for the Kuriles before reaching Attu. TG 16.6 had succeeded in its mission. In May, a week-long struggle resulted in the reoccupation of Attu by American forces.

In August, Kiska became the target, and Richmond joined in the preinvasion bombardment. The landings took place on the 15th and met no resistance. The Japanese had pulled out undetected, before the end of July.

On 24 August, Richmond departed the Aleutians; underwent overhaul at Mare Island; then returned to Kiska. Through the remainder of the year, she conducted patrols to the west of the outer Aleutians. On 4 February 1944, she began bombardment missions in the Kuriles which continued, alternated with antishipping sweeps, for the remainder of World War II.

With the end of hostilities, Richmond covered the occupation of northern Japan. On 14 September 1945, she departed Ominato for Pearl Harbor, where she was routed on to Philadelphia for inactivation. Decommissioned on 21 December, Richmond was struck from the Naval Vessel Register on 21 January 1946, and was sold on 18 December to the Patapsco Scrap Co., Bethlehem, Pa.

Awards

 * Asiatic-Pacific Campaign Medal with two battle stars for World War II service

title: USS Richmond (CL-9)


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Saint Patrick's Church (Benton, Wisconsin)

Saint Patrick's Church is the Catholic parish for Benton, Wisconsin and surrounding areas. The parish is part of the Diocese of Madison.

The church was built in 1852 by the pioneer priest Samuel Charles Mazzuchelli, a Dominican. Mazzuchelli was the church's architect, as well as its founder. Mazzuchelli — who was declared Venerable by Pope John Paul II in 1993 — is buried in the church cemetery. The church was one of 25 he built in the Upper Mississippi valley.


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Nairobi National Park

Nairobi National Park is a national park in Kenya that was established in 1946 about 7 km south of Nairobi. It is fenced on three sides, whereas the open southern boundary allows migrating wildlife to move between the park and the adjacent Kitengela plains. Herbivores gather in the park during the dry season. Nairobi National Park is negatively affected by increasing human and livestock populations, changing land use and poaching of wildlife. Despite its proximity to the city and its relative small size, it boasts a large and varied wildlife population, and is one of Kenya's most successful rhinoceros sanctuaries.

History
British colonists arrived in the area where the park is in the late 19th century. At this time, the Athi plains east and south of what is today Nairobi had plentiful wildlife. Nomadic Maasai lived and herded their cattle among the wildlife. Kikuyu people farmed the forested highlands above Nairobi. As Nairobi grew—it had 14,000 residents by 1910—conflicts between humans and animals increased. Residents of the city carried guns at night to protect against lions. Animals were gradually confined to the expansive plains to the west and south of Nairobi, and the colonial government set this area aside as a game reserve. Settlers from Nairobi including Isak Dinesen, author of Out of Africa, rode horses among gazelles, impala, and zebras in this reserve.

The conservationist Mervyn Cowie was born in Nairobi. Returning to Kenya after a nine-year absence in 1932, he was alarmed to see that the amount of game animals on the Athi plains had dwindled. Expanding farms and livestock had taken the place of the game. He later recalled this place as a paradise that was quickly disappearing. At this time, the area that would later become Nairobi National Park was part of the Southern Game Reserve. Hunting was not permitted in the reserve, but nearly every other activity, including cattle grazing, dumping, and even bombing by the Royal Air Force was allowed. Cowie started to campaign for the establishment of a national park system in Kenya. The government formed a committee to examine the matter.

Officially opened in 1946, Nairobi National Park was the first national park established in Kenya. Maasai pastoralists were removed from their lands when the park was created. Cowie was named as director of Nairobi National Park and held this position until 1966. In 1989, Kenyan President Daniel arap Moi burned twelve tons of ivory on a site within the park. This event improved Kenya's conservation and wildlife protection image.

Geography
The park covers an area of 117.21 sqkm and is small in comparison to most of Africa's national parks. The park's altitude ranges between 1533 and 1760 m. It has a dry climate. The park is the only protected part of the Athi-Kapiti ecosystem, making up less than 10% of this ecosystem. The park has a diverse range of habitats and species.

The park is located about 7 km from the Nairobi's centre. There is electric fencing around the park's northern, eastern, and western boundaries. Its southern boundary is formed by the Mbagathi River. This boundary is not fenced and is open to the Kitengela Conservation Area (located immediately south of the park) and the Athi-Kapiti plains. There is considerable movement of large ungulate species across this boundary.

Flora
The park's predominant environment is open grass plain with scattered Acacia bushes. The western uplands of the park have highland dry forest with stands of Olea africana, Croton dichogamus, Brachylaena hutchinsii, and Calodendrum. The lower slopes of these areas are grassland. Themeda, cypress, Digitaria, and Cynodon species are found in these grassland areas. There are also scattered yellow-barked Acacia xanthophloea. There is a riverine forest along the permanent river in the south of the park. There are areas of broken bush and deep rocky valleys and gorges within the park. The species in the valleys are predominantly Acacia and Euphorbia candelabrum. Other tree species include Apodytes dimidiata, Canthium schimperiana, Elaeodendron buchananii, Ficus eriocarpa, Aspilia mossambicensis, Rhus natalensis, and Newtonia species. Several plants that grow on the rocky hillsides are unique to the Nairobi area. These species include Euphorbia brevitorta, Drimia calcarata, and Murdannia clarkeana.

Fauna
The park has a large and diverse wildlife population. Species found in the park include lion, leopard, African buffalo, black rhinoceros, giraffe, hippopotamus, spotted hyena, blue wildebeest, plains zebra, cheetah, Thomson's gazelle, Grant's gazelle, common eland, impala, hartebeest, waterbuck, common warthog, olive baboon, black-backed jackal, common ostrich, and Nile crocodile.

Herbivores, including wildebeest and zebra, use the Kitengela conservation area and migration corridor to the south of the park to reach the Athi-Kapiti plains. They disperse over the plains in the wet season and return to the park in the dry season. The concentration of wildlife in the park is greatest in the dry season, when areas outside the park have dried up. Small dams built along the Mbagathi River give the park more water resources than these outside areas. They attract water dependent herbivores during the dry season. The park is the northern limit for wildlife migrations in the dry season. The park has a high diversity of bird species, with up to 500 permanent and migratory species in the park. Dams have created a man-made habitat for birds and aquatic species.

The David Sheldrick Trust runs a sanctuary in the park that hand-rears orphaned elephant and rhinoceros calves, and later releases them back into secure sanctuaries. Orphaned and sick animals are brought to the sanctuary from all over Kenya. The sanctuary is located close to the park's main entrance. It was opened in 1963. It was set up by Daphne Sheldrick after the death of her husband David Sheldrick, the anti-poaching warden of Tsavo National Park. Nairobi National Park is sometimes called Kifaru Ark, which means "Rhinoceros Sanctuary". It is one of Kenya's most successful rhinoceros sanctuaries, and it is one of only a few parks where visitors can be certain of seeing a black rhinoceros in its natural habitat.

Conservation
Mervyn Cowie oversaw the development of several of Kenya's national parks and designed them with human visitors in mind. This emphasis helped to make tourism Kenya's primary industry. However, it exacerbated problems between the human population and wildlife. Farmers living next to the parks did not have input into the establishment of the parks. Locals received very little benefit from the game animals. Livestock is threatened by lions, and some landowners think that Kenya's wildlife is not good for them. In 1948, 188,976 people lived in Nairobi, and by 1997 the city's population had grown to 1.5 million. The park is under pressure from the city's growing population and need for farmland. People live right next to the park's boundaries, which creates human-animal conflicts. The human population also creates pollution and garbage. Effluent and industrial waste from factories located along the park's northern boundary contaminate the park's surface and ground water systems. Treaties with the Maasai in 1904 and 1911 forced them to give up all of their northern grazing lands on the Laikipia escarpment near Mount Kenya. Some of the people that lost land there were resettled in the Kitengela area. The Maasai's pastoral life did not create any conflicts with the wildlife. Today the Kitengela's former Maasai group-ranches have been privatized and some of the land has been sold to farmers. Houses, cultivated plots, schools, shops, and bars are found on the Kitengela plains. Some of the park's revenues have been used for community projects in order for the people living on the Kitengela to benefit from the presence of the national park. Many Maasai landowners have formed the Kitengela Landowners Association, which works with the Kenyan Wildlife Service to both protect the wildlife and find benefits for the locals.

The park and the Athi-Kapiti Plains are linked by the migrations of wild herbivore populations. The plains to the south of the park are important feeding areas during the wet season. Before the city was established, herds of animals followed the rains and moved across the plains from Mount Kilimanjaro to Mount Kenya, a migration as great as the migration that takes place on the Serengeti. However, as the city grew the park became the northernmost limit of the animal's migration. Migrating animals can reach their southern pastures by travelling through the part of the Athi plains called the Kitengela. This land is very important to their migration routes, but growth in the human population and the accompanying need for land threaten to cut off this traditional migration route from the park to land further south. The park's migratory species are also threatened by changing settlement patterns, fencing, and their closeness to Nairobi and other industrial towns. These activities fragment their ecosystems and occupy their habitat.

Since 2005, the protected area is considered a Lion Conservation Unit.

Tourism and education
Nairobi National Park is the main tourist attraction for visitors to Nairobi. Visitor attractions include the park's diverse bird species, cheetah, hyena, leopard, and lion. Other attractions are the wildebeest and zebra migrations in July and August, the Ivory Burning Site Monument, and the Nairobi Safari Walk and animal orphanage. Inhabitants of Nairobi visit the park and thousands of Kenyan children on school field trips visit the park each week.

The park's Wildlife Conservation Education Centre has lectures and video shows about wildlife and guided tours of the park and animal orphanage. These tours are primarily, but not exclusively, to educate schools and local communities. There has been criticism about animals' housing, and they now have more spacious housing in a more natural environment. The Kenya Wildlife Service has created a Safari Walk that highlights the variety of plants and animals that are in Kenya, and how they affect Kenya's population.

title: Nairobi National Park


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User:Exol

 * Account on the French side
 * Account on the Arabic side
 * HomePage outside Wikipedia

Here are some pages that I have created on the English Wikipedia:

 * Fermat Prize
 * Michel Talagrand
 * Irit Dinur
 * David Donoho
 * Dominique Bakry
 * Institut de Mathématiques de Toulouse IMT
 * Annales de la Faculté des Sciences de Toulouse
 * Electronic Journal of Probability
 * Electronic Communications in Probability

Of course, these pages are now self evolving (see their history sub-pages). The global victory of energy over entropy in Wikipedia is amazing, and this entropy-energy dynamics is probably more important than energy or entropy. In a way, dynamics is life whereas static is death. If you think that anarchy is dangerous, what are you doing here? Wikipedia looks like a huge dynamical painting where everyone can be an artist. I urge you to contribute, by leaving comments, by correcting mistakes, or by creating new pages! If you benefited from Wikipedia, you must contribute. Just think about this sentence attributed sometimes to Jacques Ellul: think globally, act locally.

 * List of contributions to Wikipedia English

title: User:Exol


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Wilbur R. Franks

Wilbur Rounding Franks, OBE (4 March 1901 – 4 January 1986) was a Canadian scientist, notable as the inventor of the anti-gravity suit or G-suit, and for his work in cancer research.

Career
He was born in Weston, Ontario and was a medical graduate at the University of Toronto. As a cancer researcher at the Banting and Best Medical Research Institute at University of Toronto, Franks developed an idea that resulted in the world's first anti-gravity suit or G-suit. Franks had noted that his test tubes often broke when subjected to severe centrifugal force. He had solved the problem by first inserting them into larger and stronger liquid-filled bottles.

In 1940, the anti gravity suit was developed under the name Franks Flying Suit by Wilbur R. Franks and his colleagues at the Banting and Best Medical Research Institute at the University of Toronto. The suit was made with rubber and water-filled pads. It counteracted the effects of high G forces on aircraft pilots, which otherwise would cause them to black out. These suits were used during World War II and all G-Suits worn by air force pilots as well as astronauts and cosmonauts around the world are based on his original designs. When testing his first prototype, Franks stated: "The suit had been cut to fit me perfectly, standing up. . . . In the airplane I was sitting down, and when the pressure hit I thought it was going to cut me in two. The idea became practical only when we realized that great areas of the body could be left outside the fluid system."

In 1941 fellow Canadian scientist, Dr. Sir Frederick Banting, co-discoverer of insulin, died in a plane crash near Musgrave Harbour, Canada while on his way to England to assist Franks in the testing of the suit.

Recognition and awards
Wilbur Franks received an OBE for his work in early 1944 for giving "the Allied forces a tremendous tactical advantage" and "saving the lives of thousands of Allied fighter pilots." With this invention, over five times more pilots survived than they would've without the G-suit. In 1983, Franks was inducted into Canada's Aviation Hall of Fame. Franks work was also noticed in the United States where he was awarded the Legion of Merit, the Aerospace Medical Association's Theodore C. Lyster Award and Eric Liljencrantz Award.

Legacy
There is a Wilbur R. Franks Award that is given by the Canadian Society of Aviation Medicine for contributions to aviation medicine. The Wilbur Rounding Franks building located at 17 Wing Winnipeg is the home of the Canadian Forces School of Survival and Aeromedical Training (CFSSAT).

title: Wilbur R. Franks


text: Category:Historians from Imperial China

title: Category:Historians from Imperial China


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Gillian Spencer

Gillian Spencer (born December 18, 1939) is an American soap opera actress and writer.

She had supporting roles on the soaps The Secret Storm as Lynn Wilkins Warren from 1961-1962 and The Edge of Night as Leora Davies in 1963 before joining Guiding Light in 1965 in the role of the troubled heroine Robin Fletcher. Gillian was part of the original cast of One Life to Live as the original Victoria Lord from 1968 until 1970, and it was during her stint that Viki's split personality was introduced. While Erika Slezak would become famous for this part, Gillian and Lee Patterson (Joe Riley) were fan favorites and the show's first major romantic couple.

From 1972-1975, she played As the World Turns's Jennifer Hughes, Kim Stewart's sister, Bob's third wife and Frannie's mother who died after being hit by a motorist. However, she is probably best remembered for playing the role of Daisy Cortlandt on the ABC soap, All My Children, a role she played from 1980 through 1989, and in 1991, 1994, 1995, 1996, and on April 20, 2010 with Taylor Miller (Nina Cortlandt) for the tribute episode for James Mitchell (Palmer Cortlandt). Daisy (Palmer's first wife) was originally presumed dead and used the alias "Monique Jonvil" to befriend Nina in college.

Over the years, Nina often referred to her mother as "Monique". For her role of Daisy, Spencer received an Emmy Nomination for Best Actress. In 1997, Gillian made a guest return to "As the World Turns" where the spirit of Jennifer appeared to her ailing sister.

Spencer appeared in the 1968 feature comedy What's So Bad About Feeling Good?; in the film, she plays The Sack, a melancholy young woman living in a New York City commune with a burlap sack covering her entire body except for her bare feet.

She was co-head writer of Another World. She has also been a writer for As the World Turns, All My Children and the serial Days of Our Lives.

Positions held
All My Children
 * Script Writer (1989–1992)
 * Story Consultant (1986–1989)
 * Actress: Daisy Cortlandt (1979–1989, 1994, 1995, 2010)

Another World
 * Script Writer (1997–1999)

As the World Turns
 * Script Writer (1993–1994)
 * Actress: Jennifer Sullivan Ryan Hughes, R. N. (1972–1975, 1997)

Days of Our Lives
 * Script Writer (September 3, 2001 – September 2003)

The Edge of Night
 * Actress: Lyn Wilkins (1962–1963)

General Hospital
 * Breakdown Writer (2000–2001)

Guiding Light
 * Script Writer (March 2004 – May 13, 2005)
 * Occasional Script Writer (December 2003)
 * Actress: Robin Lang (1964–1967)

One Life to Live
 * Interim Headwriter (July 16, 1999 – December 1999)
 * Script Writer (May 12–14, 1999)
 * Breakdown Writer (May 17 –July 15, 1999)
 * Actress: Victoria Lord (1968–1970)

The Secret Storm
 * Actress: Leora Davies (1963)

title: Gillian Spencer


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Pluralistic ignorance

In social psychology, pluralistic ignorance (also known as a collective illusion) is a phenomenon in which people mistakenly believe that others predominantly hold an opinion different from their own. In this phenomenon, most people in a group may go along with a view they do not hold because they think, incorrectly, that most other people in the group hold it. Pluralistic ignorance encompasses situations in which a minority position on a given topic is wrongly perceived to be the majority position, or the majority position is wrongly perceived to be a minority position.

Pluralistic ignorance can arise in different ways. An individual may misjudge overall perceptions of a topic due to fear, embarrassment, social desirability, or social inhibition. Individuals may develop collective illusions when they feel they will receive backlash when they think their belief differs from society's belief. From a group-level perspective, and arguably the most accurate way of analyzing pluralistic ignorance, causes of divergence between public behaviors and private opinions are caused by conservative lags (change in attitude without a change in behavior), liberal leaps (change in behavior without a change in attitude), and social identities (conforming to societal expectations of how one should behave based on the traditional ideals of the group).

However, pluralistic ignorance describes the coincidence of a belief with inaccurate perceptions, but not the process by which those inaccurate perceptions are arrived at. Related phenomena, such as the spiral of silence and false consensus effect, demonstrate that pluralistic ignorance is not unique in its inaccurate assumption of others' opinions and these misconceptions can lead to negative consequences like groupthink and the bystander effect.

History
Floyd Allport first discussed the phenomenon of "literal attitude behavior inconsistency" in 1924, observing society's tendency to conform to social norms at a large scale even in the absence of personal agreement to those social norms. In an effort to explain this inconsistency, Allport presented the idea that individuals do not often act on personal conviction unless they believe those convictions are shared by the individuals around them. In Allport's 1931 book titled Students Attitudes: A Report of the Syracuse University Research Study, which he co-wrote with his student Daniel Katz, the term "pluralistic ignorance" was used for the first time.

Allport and his students Daniel Katz and Richard Schanck produced studies of attitude change, and racial stereotyping and prejudice, and their pursuit of the connections between individual psychology and social systems helped to found the field of organizational psychology.

Further behavioral, economic, and social psychology research was done by Todd Rose to demonstrate the interchangeability of the terms pluralistic ignorance and collective illusions. His findings of historical events, scientific studies and social media patterns indicate that by using either term one is saying the same thing. The societal systems like ours unconsciously participate in perpetuating false beliefs and narratives with a desire to fit in.

Although social psychologists, such as Allport and Katz, initiated the development of pluralistic ignorance, work pertaining to this phenomenon has since been heavily conducted by sociologists and public opinion researchers. This shift, in part, can be attributed to laboratory experiments, the primary research method of social psychology, proving insufficient in studying the inconsistencies between attitudes and norms.

As Allport was the first person to bring awareness to the phenomenon of pluralistic ignorance, it is important to point out that his analysis of this phenomenon was strictly at the individual level. He strongly disagreed with expanding the discussion to the larger group and involving the concept of shared cognition, "the collective cognitive activity from individual group members where the collective activity has an impact on the overall group goals and activities."

This is not a unanimous stance for all those who have studied pluralistic ignorance. Sargent and Newman acknowledge that the individual aspects of pluralistic ignorance are important to discuss, but are lacking in providing a full picture of all the moving parts at play in the study of pluralistic ignorance. In their perspective, pluralistic ignorance is defined as "a group-level phenomenon, wherein individuals belonging to a group mistakenly believe that others' cognitions (attitudes, beliefs, feelings) and/or behaviors differ systematically from their own, regardless of how the misperception arises".

Research
Prentice and Miller conducted a contemporary study on pluralistic ignorance, examining individuals beliefs on alcohol use and estimating the attitudes of their peers. The authors found that, on average, individual levels of comfort with drinking practices on campus were much lower than the perceived average. In one subset of experiments they traced the attitude change toward alcohol consumption of men versus women over the semester. In men, the authors found a shifting of private attitudes toward this perceived norm, demonstrating a form of cognitive dissonance. Women were found to have no shift in attitude over the course of the semester. Additionally, students perceived deviance from the social norm on alcohol use was correlated with various measures of campus alienation. Even though that deviance from the social norm was only perceived, it shows how isolation from the larger population can lead to larger differences between an individual's belief and the populations belief, leading to pluralistic ignorance. This study showed that the university students showcased pluralistic ignorance by individuals believing that the general populations comfort level with drinking practices was significantly higher than their personal comfort level, when in reality the individuals comfort level was quite similar to the general populations comfort level.

Additional research has shown that pluralistic ignorance plagues not only those who indulge, but also those who abstain. Examples consist of individuals beliefs on traditional vices such as gambling, smoking and drinking to lifestyles such as vegetarianism. With the latter showcasing that pluralistic ignorance can be caused by the structure of the underlying social network, not exclusively cognitive dissonance, demonstrating how pluralistic ignorance can arise through a variety of methods.

Racial segregation in the United States
Pluralistic ignorance was blamed for exacerbating support for racial segregation in the United States. It has also been named a reason for the illusory popular support that kept the Communist Party of the Soviet Union in power, as many opposed the regime but assumed that others were supporters of it. Thus, most people were afraid to voice their opposition.

Alcohol consumption on college campuses
Another case of pluralistic ignorance concerns drinking on campus in countries where alcohol use is prevalent at colleges and universities. Students drink at weekend parties and sometimes at evening study breaks. Many drink to excess, some on a routine basis. The high visibility of heavy drinking on campus, combined with reluctance by students to show any public signs of concern or disapproval, gives rise to pluralistic ignorance: Students believe that their peers are much more comfortable with this behavior than they themselves feel.

"The Emperor's New Clothes" fairy tale
Hans Christian Andersen's fairy tale "The Emperor's New Clothes" is a famous fictional case of pluralistic ignorance. In this story two con artists come into the Emperor's kingdom and convince him that they make the finest clothes in all of the land that can only be seen by anyone who was not stupid. The con artists continued to steal gold, silk and other precious items for their "unique creation". Out of fear for being seen as stupid, all of the emperor's men and townspeople kept silent about the fact they could not see the emperor's clothes until finally a small child comes forth and says that the emperor is not wearing any clothes. Once the child is willing to admit that he cannot see any clothes on the emperor, the emperor and townspeople finally admit that the emperor has been tricked and that there was never an outfit being made.

Public concern for climate change
Pluralistic ignorance has also been blamed for large majorities of the public remaining silent on climate change—while 'solid majorities' of the American and UK public are concerned about climate change, most erroneously believe they are in the minority with their concern. It has been suggested that pollution-intensive industries have contributed to the public's underestimation of public support for climate solutions. For example, in the U.S., support for pollution pricing is high, yet public perception of public support is much lower.

In August 2022, Nature Communications published a survey with 6,119 representatively sampled Americans that found that 66 to 80% of Americans supported major climate change mitigation policies (i.e. 100% renewable energy by 2035, Green New Deal, carbon tax and dividend, renewable energy production siting on public land) and expressed climate concern, but that 80 to 90% of Americans underestimated the prevalence of support for such policies and such concern by their fellow Americans (with the sample estimating that only 37 to 43% on average supported such policies). Americans in every state and every assessed demographic (e.g. political ideology, racial group, urban/suburban/rural residence, educational attainment) underestimated support across all policies tested, and every state survey group and every demographic assessed underestimated support for the climate policies by at least 20 percentage points. The researchers attributed the misperception among the general public to pluralistic ignorance. Conservatives were found to underestimate support for the policies due to a false consensus effect, exposure to more conservative local norms, and consumption of conservative news, while liberals were suggested to underestimate support for the policies due to a false-uniqueness effect.

Tulip mania of 1634
Another example of pluralistic ignorance is the tulip mania of 1634. It is a great example of how investors can be swept up in a financial frenzy due to collective illusion. The Dutch elite decided that having one's own unique collection of the spring flowering bulbs was an absolute necessity. So, despite the flower's lack of any intrinsic value, the prices began to rise.

Masculine norms
Men's conceptions of how they are expected to conform to norms of masculinity present additional examples of pluralistic ignorance. Specifically, most college age men are uncomfortable with other men "bragging about sexual acts and giving details", but erroneously believe themselves to be in the minority for their discomfort. Similarly, college age men underestimate other men's "desire to make sure they have consent when sexually active". This "role-conflict" can have deleterious consequences for men's physical and mental health, as well as for society. Netflix's Derren Brown: The Push explores some aspects of these concepts.

Women working outside the home in Saudi Arabia
According to a 2020 study, the vast majority of young married men in Saudi Arabia express private beliefs in support of women working outside the home but they substantially underestimate the degree to which other similar men support it. Once they become informed about the widespread nature of the support, they increasingly help their wives obtain jobs.

Prioritizing college in America
According to a 2023 survey, most Americans do not prioritize college while believing most other Americans do. Similarly, the belief that society does not prioritize personally fulfilling work or that others desire a one-size-fits-all model of education is a collective illusion.

Causes of divergence in public vs. private opinion
Pluralistic ignorance can arise due to various aspects of human interaction. These are three key causes of pluralistic ignorance when analyzing the phenomenon at the group level.

Conservative lag
The conservative lag is the most common cause of pluralistic ignorance and has also been labeled as "conservative bias". This cause refers to a change in attitude that is not then followed by a change in behavior. A popular example of a conservative lag would be the civil rights movement. Although there was a shift in the private opinions of White Americans toward African Americans and the practice of segregation, a shift in social norms and public behavior did not come until long after. This example of pluralistic ignorance demonstrates a valuable aspect of social change, "a society's perception of itself tends to lag behind actual changes in people's private beliefs and values".

Liberal leap
A liberal leap is described as a change in behavior that is not then followed by a change in attitude. This cause is often associated with revolutions or polarizing events that shift the fabric of society, resulting in a change in behavior. A couple examples would be the shift in the French's public support of the Church in the 18th century, but their attitudes staying the same or the sexual revolution in America during the 60s and 70s that resulted in a change in public behavior and sexual expression, yet personal attitudes toward sexual behavior remained consistent.

Social identities
This cause of pluralistic ignorance focuses on the correlation between one's social identity and their behavior in social settings. In an effort to conform to certain values, ideals, and norms, an individual's behavior may not align with their attitude or beliefs. This is commonly associated with studies involving gender norms, such as children choosing to play with toys and engage in activities that are associated with their biological gender, even when they may have an interest in something that does not fit the traditional expectation.

Consequences
In recent years, pluralistic ignorance has been categorized as a roadblock to collective action involving important public issues, such as climate change and the COVID-19 pandemic. Another consequence of pluralistic ignorance is groupthink. This refers to a situation where small, cohesive groups of intelligent individuals are led to make unintelligent decisions. Taking it a step further is the "illusion of unanimity", which describes a situation where an individual believes that they are the only one in the group that does not agree with the decision being made. Often times, this illusion causes individuals to embrace the decision, as bad as it may be, if they feel their disagreement is not shared with the other members of the group.

Perhaps the most researched consequence of pluralistic ignorance from an individualistic perspective is the bystander effect. In its most rudimentary form, the bystander effect describes a situation in which an individual is witnessing an event that prompts a strong set of emotions, yet they choose not to act on them since the surrounding "bystanders" are making no visible efforts to act, giving the impression that the individual's feelings toward the situation are invalid and not shared. This ultimately can result in a lack of action from everyone witnessing the event when action may be the appropriate choice given the situation.

Maintaining the perspective of the individual, pluralistic ignorance can also cause people to feel alienated from a specific group. When one's personal attitude is seemingly in contrast to the majority, if not all, of those in the group, it can cause the individual to become "embittered" and "suspicious of those around them". It may even motivate the individual to speak out against what is the perceived majority view or go completely silent. The most probable result is the conformity of the individual in the way they speak and behave, possibly to the point of changing their personal convictions, in what might be the inaccurately perceived majority opinion.

False consensus effect
Pluralistic ignorance can be compared with the false consensus effect. In pluralistic ignorance, people privately disdain but publicly support a norm (or a belief), while the false consensus effect causes people to wrongly assume that most people think like they do, while in reality most people do not think like they do (and express the disagreement openly). For instance, pluralistic ignorance may lead students to drink alcohol excessively because they believe that everyone else does so, while in reality everyone else also wishes they could avoid binge drinking but no one expresses that wish out of fear of being ostracized. A false consensus for the same situation would mean that the student believes that most other people do not enjoy excessive drinking, while in fact most other people do enjoy that and openly express their opinion about it.

A study undertaken by Greene, House, and Ross used simple circumstantial questionnaires on Stanford undergrads to gather information on the false consensus effect. They compiled thoughts on the choice they felt people would or should make, considering traits such as shyness, cooperativeness, trust, and adventurousness. Studies found that when explaining their decisions, participants gauged choices based on what they explained as "people in general" and their idea of "typical" answers. For each of the stories those subjects said that they personally would follow a given behavioral alternative also tended to rate that alternative as relatively probable for "people in general": those subjects who claimed that they would reject the alternative tended to rate it as relatively improbable for "people in general". It was evident that the influence of the subjects' own behavior choice affected the estimates of commonness. Although it would seem as if the two are built on the same premise of social norms, they take two very oppositional stances on a similar phenomenon. The false consensus effect considers that in predicting an outcome, people will assume that the masses agree with their opinion and think the same way they do on an issue, whereas the opposite is true of pluralistic ignorance, where the individual does not agree with a certain action but go along with it anyway, believing that their view is not shared with the masses (which is usually untrue).

False uniqueness effect
This phenomenon is similar to pluralistic ignorance in that it involves observing the differences in oneself compared to others, rather than the similarities. This observation of others is often negative, alluding to one's habit of viewing oneself as better at possessing positive characteristics when compared to those around them. Unlike pluralistic ignorance, false uniqueness effect is a distinctly individual phenomenon with no beginning or outcomes associated with group dynamics.

Spiral of silence
The parallel between pluralistic ignorance and the spiral of silence comes from their joint interest in the reasoning behind the shift in public opinion perceptions in relation to the public's genuine attitudes. When viewing pluralistic ignorance through a social perspective, one can assess how it is caused through misinformation that is shared broadly by those who are highly visible. This is where the concept of visibility becomes most important in understanding the intertwined web of pluralistic ignorance and the spiral of silence.

When a group stands out by way of making the most noise or causing the most chaos, this can give the impression that the group is more influential than they actually are. The spiraling process is initiated by the most visible and expressed opinions being shared loudly and publicly, while the genuine and differing opinions of the group are not expressed (or not on the same scale), causing a misleading depiction of the group's true attitudes and beliefs. Thus, pluralistic ignorance gives way to a shift in the climate of opinion, which then causes the spiral of silence to perpetuate as those who view their attitudes and beliefs as the minority opinion (when they might not be) choose to remain silent.

title: Pluralistic ignorance


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Talk:Timeline of operating systems

Didn't Commodore DOS exist before 1982? I thought it existed with the PET. Haven't changed it since I am not 100% sure! :) (Chris Fletcher)  — Preceding unsigned comment added by 202.182.91.94 (talk) 06:27, 26 May 2015 (UTC)

Given that the "Other" column gives up so much to Amiga related OSs, I think it would be better to make a separate column for Amiga things. Personally though I would prefer it if they were simply removed and put on their own page where they can be ignored by everybody except those in the Amiga-enthusiast audience who are likely to be the only people interested in reading about it. Amiga spam is a galling feature of the Wikipedia computing pages. Vapourmile (talk) 10:05, 20 July 2019 (UTC) The first two entries look doubtful to me, as is the claim that Dyseac supported distributed computing. That leaves MIT's Tape Director of 1954 as probably the first OS. Dan Oom (talk) 12:01, 24 November 2019 (UTC) Why is there no mention of Symbian OS? It was an evolution of EPOC32 and was one of the major components that started the smartphone revolution?

title: Talk:Timeline of operating systems


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Morgan Edge

Morgan Edge is a fictional character appearing in American comic books published by DC Comics. Originally a supporting character, he is a media mogul who acquires The Daily Planet and employs Clark Kent as a television journalist for his WGBS TV network. After the Crisis on Infinite Earth series which led to a revision of the DC Universe, the character was a leader of Intergang.

Adrian Pasdar portrayed Morgan Edge in the Arrowverse series Supergirl. In Superman & Lois, Adam Rayner played a version of the character who is also Superman's Kryptonian half-brother named Tal-Rho.

Publication history
Morgan Edge first appeared in Superman's Pal, Jimmy Olsen #133 and was created by Jack Kirby. Kirby based his physical appearance on actor Kevin McCarthy, while his personality was inspired by television executive James T. Aubrey. According to Kirby's production assistant Mark Evanier, Kirby "wanted to explore the theme of organized crime gaining a foothold in corporate America - particularly a giant media conglomerate. Given the shady background of the company that acquired Warner Bros. and DC [i.e. Kinney National Company], it was something of an inside joke." However, under prodding from editorial staff who preferred Edge to be an ongoing supporting character rather than a villain who would ultimately have to be brought to justice (and thus written out of the series), the "Morgan Edge" connected to Intergang was revealed to be an imposter.

Pre-Crisis
In his original incarnation, Edge was the president of the Galaxy Broadcasting System (owners of television station WGBS), the media corporation which eventually bought the Daily Planet. Edge was in many ways a stereotype of a ruthless capitalist, intervening in the Planet's homey atmosphere and challenging the authority of the somewhat older Perry White, but he was a decent man who had moments of good-heartedness and maintained reasonably friendly relationships with most of his employees, including Clark Kent. Following the takeover of the Planet, Edge transferred Kent to the news division, making him a traveling correspondent and later anchorman on WGBS. This move added several TV co-workers to the Superman supporting cast, including fretful producer Josh Coyle, sports broadcaster Steve Lombard, weather forecaster Oscar Asherman, and co-anchor Lana Lang (who had been one of Clark's childhood friends in Smallville).

As one of the wealthiest men in Metropolis, Edge was a major political figure in the city and frequently encountered Superman, the subject of many of his network's news stories, whom he, like most others, failed to realize was also Clark Kent. Although rarely integral to a plotline, Edge was a supporting character in many Superman stories.

For a while, it appeared that Edge was connected to the Apokolips-sponsored crime organisation Intergang, but this was revealed to be a clone created by the 'Evil Factory', a genetics laboratory working for Darkseid. For example, this clone attempted to have Jimmy Olsen, the Guardian and, incidentally, a random Daily Planet employee named Goody Rickels, a Don Rickles lookalike, murdered as part of a cover-up.

It was later revealed that Morgan Edge's birth name was Morris Edelstein. After he won his first TV station in a game of poker, Morris Edelstein changed his name to Morgan Edge because he was ashamed of his lower-class Jewish background and kept the details of his past closely guarded.

Post-Crisis
When DC continuity was rebooted after the Crisis on Infinite Earths, Edge remained president of WGBS, but his ties to the Planet and friendship with Superman were retconned away, and he was genuinely connected to Intergang. He was eventually exposed by the Daily Planet, in articles by Clark Kent and Cat Grant, who was working for WGBS undercover. Edge was imprisoned, but even managed to cause trouble there by publishing his autobiography On the Edge, which dumped upon his father Vincent Edge as well as Cat Grant, revealing that she slept her way into a scoop. After his release from jail, Morgan Edge returned as sponsor of the Superman Revenge Squad. Prior to his imprisonment, one of his actions generated much fan anger, in which Edge sadistically and gleefully ran over a raccoon on the road, prompting one fan to write in saying "Lex Luthor treats people like animals, but even he does not run them over intentionally".

Recently, Morgan Edge has resurfaced as a powerful media pundit, with the show Edge of Reason, where he gives off anti-Kryptonian spin for General Lane. He is also seen in a "flash-forward" panel in Adventure Comics (vol. 2) #1, making a mysterious deal with Despero.

The New 52
In 2011, "The New 52" rebooted the DC universe. Morgan Edge appears as a powerful and self-centered media mogul and the new owner of the Daily Planet, he is seen as the sponsor of the Challengers of the Unknown program before they all leave due to his ruthless business strategy. This version of Morgan Edge is depicted as a bald African American man with a goatee. Although a tough businessman, Edge did recognize talent, and awarded Lois Lane the editorship of the Daily Planet.

Edge's multiple media holdings become a benefit to Superman as Lois Lane, now director of Edge's Metropolis news station, has said building's security cameras "hacked" to provide vital intelligence on a rampaging villain.

Prior to DC Rebirth, in the last issue of the 2011 Justice League series, it is mentioned that Lex Luthor had bought the Daily Planet from him.

In other media

 * Morgan Edge appears in Smallville, initially portrayed by Rutger Hauer and later by Patrick Bergin. This version is a Metropolis crime lord and old friend of Lionel Luthor, who he grew up with in Suicide Slum. After learning Clark Kent stole money from one of Edge's gangs while under the influence of Red Kryptonite, Edge recruits Clark to steal a package, which the latter later discovers is his own blood sample, from Lionel's LuthorCorp office. When Jonathan Kent destroys the sample, Edge takes him and Martha Kent hostage in retaliation. Clark procures a new sample from himself and gives it to Edge, who in turn gives it to Lionel, promising to give him the source. Edge's thugs kidnap Clark and attempt to bring him to Metropolis, but the latter escapes. Lionel, believing he was betrayed, orders his security to kill Edge, who is presumed dead, but secretly found by Lex Luthor. Now in hiding, Edge undergoes plastic surgery, but later conspires with Lionel to break Lex's psyche. While attempting to kill Lex, Edge is killed.
 * Morgan Edge appears in the Justice League episode "Secret Society", voiced by an uncredited Brian George. This version is a collector of unique oddities and displays no moral qualms against collecting sentient beings, such as Clayface, whom he kept in a jar for some time until the eponymous Secret Society rescued him.
 * Morgan Edge appears as a character summon in Scribblenauts Unmasked: A DC Comics Adventure.
 * Morgan Edge appears in the third season of Supergirl, portrayed by Adrian Pasdar. This version is an amoral real estate developer who runs Edge Global.
 * Morgan Edge appears in Superman & Lois, portrayed by Adam Rayner. This version is a Kryptonian named Tal-Rho, the son of Lara Lor-Van and Zeta-Rho (portrayed by A.C. Peterson) and the maternal half-brother of Superman. Like Superman, Tal-Rho was also sent off of Krypton in an escape pod. After landing in England, he comes into conflict with the local townspeople and is captured and experimented on, developing a hatred of humanity in the process. After escaping, he develops the identity of "Morgan Edge", an intelligent, eloquent, and impassioned self-made mogul and the head of EnerCorp and Galaxy Holdings, as well as a plot to resurrect Krypton on Earth by implanting Kryptonian consciousnesses into human hosts using X-Kryptonite and the Eradicator, only to be defeated by Superman and John Henry Irons and remanded to a cell with red solar lighting. In the second season, Tal-Rho assists Superman in fighting Ally Allston before relocating to Bizarro World.
 * A Bizarro version of Tal-Rho appears in the episode "Bizarros in a Bizarro World", also portrayed by Rayner. He is married to his version of Lana Lang and is on good terms with Bizarro. The Bizarro Tal-Rho is later killed by Ally Allston.

title: Morgan Edge


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DCMS

DCMS may refer to:

 * Department for Culture, Media and Sport, a department of the British government
 * Deccan College of Medical Sciences, a medical college in Hyderabad, India
 * Distribution center management system, in the field of warehousing, logistics and supply chain management
 * Desert Christian Middle School, one of the Desert Christian Schools, a middle school in Lancaster, California

title: DCMS