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Discharge petition

In United States parliamentary procedure, a discharge petition is a means of bringing a bill out of committee and to the floor for consideration without a report from the committee by "discharging" the committee from further consideration of a bill or resolution. The signatures of an absolute majority of House members are required.

Discharge petitions are most often associated with the U.S. House of Representatives, though many state legislatures in the United States have similar procedures. There, discharge petitions are used when the chair of a committee refuses to place a bill or resolution on the committee's agenda: by never reporting a bill, the matter will never leave the committee, and the full House will not be able to consider it. The discharge petition, and the threat of one, gives more power to individual members of the House and removes a small amount of power from the leadership and committee chairs. In the U.S. House, successful discharge petitions are rare, as the signatures of an absolute majority of House members are required.

History and process
An early form of the discharge petition was introduced into U.S. House rules in 1910 as part of a series of measures intended to check the power of the disliked Speaker Joseph Gurney Cannon (R–Illinois). The modern version, however, was adopted in 1931 by the 71st House. In 1935, the rules were changed so the number of signatures required to force a vote went from one-third of the chamber (145 votes) to an absolute majority (218 votes).

Originally, signatories to a discharge petition were secret. Only once the petition acquired a majority would the clerk announce who signed. In 1993, the procedure was changed to make every step of the process public, with signers published in the Congressional Record. This change was spearheaded by then–Rep. Jim Inhofe (R–Oklahoma).

There are three basic forms of discharge petition:
 * Directly on an unreported measure. This makes it difficult to amend, which may be considered a benefit or a drawback. The committee to be discharged can circumvent this to a degree by reporting the measure.
 * On a "special rule" resolution providing that the unreported measure be recalled from committee and considered. This is the most common variety in modern times; since the 107th Congress, all discharge petitions have been of this variety.
 * On a "special rule" resolution providing that a reported measure that was never called for floor consideration be considered.

Once the House acts on a discharge motion, any further discharge petitions on the same subject are precluded for the remainder of the session of Congress (until the calendar year's close, normally). This is only relevant if the petition succeeds but the bill is rejected anyway, despite a majority of the House apparently wishing to bypass the committee. If the motion is budget-related, then the Committee of the Whole is convened to amend it.

A discharge petition may only be brought after a measure has sat in committee for at least 30 legislative days without being reported; if the petition is on a "special rule" resolution submitted to the Rules Committee, then the period is seven days instead. Once the requisite number of signatures is reached, the petition is placed on the Discharge Calendar, which is privileged business on the second and fourth Mondays of each month. This layover is waived during the last six days of a session before sine die adjournment. At the end of each session of Congress, any discharge petitions remaining unresolved or lacking the required number of signatures are removed from consideration.

Between 1931 and 2003, 563 discharge petitions were filed, of which only 47 obtained the required majority of signatures. The House voted for discharge 26 times and passed 19 of the measures, but only two have become law. However, the threat of a discharge petition has caused the leadership to relent several times; such petitions are dropped only because the leadership allowed the bill to move forward, rendering the petition superfluous. Overall, either the petition was completed or else the measure made it to the floor by other means in 16 percent of cases.

Usage
Discharge petitions are rare. A successful discharge petition embarrasses the leadership; as such, members of the majority party are hesitant to support something that would make the Speaker and their own leaders look bad. (Naturally, the minority party will often support discharge petitions precisely to embarrass the leadership.) Furthermore, since the signers of a petition are not private, majority party members are pressured not to sign, and open themselves up to retribution from the leadership should they disobey.

When signing of a petition was secret (or, more specifically, confirmation that it was signed was secret, as a Representative could claim whatever they liked), petitions were generally only used for serious discontent in the majority. The secrecy also meant that members could claim to be for a piece of legislation while at the same time taking no action to force a vote on such legislation. With this secrecy removed, it became more difficult to dissemble in such a way; it also opened signers to more direct retribution from the leadership. Under the old system, if a petition was unsuccessful, the leadership would never know if a particular Representative signed the petition. If it was successful, all the "defectors" would at least be in the same boat. With open signing, the leadership can exert maximum pressure on stopping the last few signatures. Those who make the last few signatures open themselves to especially severe payback, as early signers could argue privately that they were only posturing, and didn't think the petition would ever pass. In 1994, a strong counter-campaign from the House leadership helped stop the proposal of William Zeliff (R–New Hampshire) and Rob Andrews (D–New Jersey) of "A–Z spending cuts", for example; the proposal received 204 signatures, but could not muster the last 14.

The removal of secrecy also encourages discharge petitions that exist merely to take a public stand on an issue. Since secrecy was removed in the U.S. House, thirty petitions have attained 60 signatures or fewer.

Since 1985
Successful discharge petitions, in which the process was carried to its conclusion, rather than the bill dying or the leadership allowing the bill out of committee (since as noted above, the leadership has simply relented on some bills with pending petitions) are very rare.

In 1985, a discharge petition was filed on the Firearm Owners Protection Act, known as McClure–Volkmer. The Act was a scaling back of gun control legislation that made it easier for gun shows to operate without government interference. The Senate passed the bill, but House Judiciary chair Peter W. Rodino, Jr. (D–New Jersey) declared it "dead on arrival". In response, the National Rifle Association launched a strong campaign to pass the bill in the House via discharge petition. Rather than let the Senate version of the bill out of committee, Rodino instead proffered a compromise piece of legislation with William J. Hughes (D–New Jersey). However, the discharge petition succeeded and the Senate version was passed after minor amendments were added.

In 1993, the Discharge Petition Disclosure Bill was passed by the House, which made the rule change requiring public disclosure of signers. This bill was itself filed with a discharge petition. The Balanced Budget Amendment received 218 signatures twice, in 1992 and 1993; however, it did not pass the Senate.

In 2002, the discharge petition was successfully used to pass the Bipartisan Campaign Reform Act, known as McCain–Feingold in the Senate and Shays–Meehan in the House. Starting in 1997, several attempts were made to bring it to the floor via the discharge petition. After it finally passed the House, the Senate approved it by a vote of 60 to 40, narrowly overcoming a filibuster.

In October 2015, a bipartisan group successfully used a discharge petition to force a vote on a bill to re-authorize the Export-Import Bank of the United States.

In May 2024, a Freedom Caucus-headed discharge petition passed to dislodge a disaster relief tax bill from the rest of the bill it was coupled with that was otherwise stalled in the Senate. The 118th Congress had Republican factions larger than their majority often at odds, giving the Democrat minority party leverage to pass legislative priorities.

Related procedures in the U.S. Senate
The Congressional Review Act creates an expedited process for Congressional review of executive branch regulations (often used against "midnight regulations"), providing an especially quick timetable for consideration of a joint resolution to overturn a particular regulation. As part of this process, Senators may use a "discharge petition" to discharge a Senate committee from consideration of the disapproval resolution. While using the same term as the House process, its use in the United States Senate has few similarities to the House process described above and is limited only to disapproval resolutions created under the conditions of this congressional review process.

The distinct procedure of a "discharge resolution" allows non-controversial measures to forego a committee and be submitted to a voice vote, presuming unanimous consent.

In U.S. state legislatures
Versions of the discharge petition vary widely in U.S. state legislatures. Some use petitions like the House, though others allow a motion to be made to discharge the committee, forcing legislators to vote. The threshold for discharge also varies. For instance, Wisconsin has similar rules to the House; a simple majority is required to succeed, though a motion or a petition are both acceptable. The Kansas Legislature requires 56-percent approval (70 members). Pennsylvania allowed only 30 percent of its members to recall a measure from committee for a time. This was changed in 1925 to a majority, drastically curtailing the number of recalls; still, only 25 (about 10 percent) petition-signers are required to force a motion to be voted on by the floor. Though technically a vote on whether the bill can proceed, the bill's supporters usually claimed that the vote was a vote on the bill itself, providing opportunities to the minority party to, at the least, force the majority party to be put on record as opposing a popular bill.

Outside the United States
Analogs to the discharge petition in Westminster systems do not exist. Discharge petitions are used to try to get around obstructionism by the majority party, as a last resort to get a floor vote on an Act/bill. Anybody who is chosen in a ballot can bring a bill to a floor vote in a Westminster system, so there is no need for a discharge petition to exist. Furthermore, parts of the legislative calendar in many countries (Australia, Canada, Germany etc.) are reserved for the opposition agenda, under the control of the Leader of the Opposition and other opposition parties. Furthermore, Private Members' Bills allow potentially any proposed Act to be considered, even without the consent of the Leader of the House.

title: Discharge petition


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Adkisson SJ-1 Head Skinner

The SJ-1 Head Skinner was a single-seat, gull-wing sports plane built in the US by brothers Earl and Jerry Adkisson of Tuscola, Illinois in 1957.

Design and development
Earl ("Skeezix") and Jerry Adkisson, two brothers at Tuscola airport, joined the Experimental Aircraft Association (EAA) in 1955 and began gathering material for their construction project in the Autumn of that year. Their aircraft would be patterned after the P.Z.L. P.24, a popular Polish gull-winged fighter aircraft of World War II.

Using wings from a 1946 Luscombe 8, cut and re-formed into the gull-wing configuration, the cabin and forward fuselage section were formed of steel tubes. A Luscombe tailcone was attached to the aft end of the steel-tube frame, and standard Luscombe tail surfaces were adapted, with their tips squared off. The spring-steel main landing gear was taken from a Cessna. The planned engine was a 125 to 145 hp Warner radial engine, but settled for a 65 hp Continental A65 driving a Beech-Robey controllable propeller in the initial installation.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Adkisson SJ-1 Head Skinner


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Nelumbo nucifera

Nelumbo nucifera, also known as sacred lotus, Indian lotus, or simply lotus, is one of two extant species of aquatic plant in the family Nelumbonaceae. It is sometimes colloquially called a water lily, though this more often refers to members of the family Nymphaeaceae.

Lotus plants are adapted to grow in the flood plains of slow-moving rivers and delta areas. Stands of lotus drop hundreds of thousands of seeds every year to the bottom of the pond. While some sprout immediately and most are eaten by wildlife, the remaining seeds can remain dormant for an extensive period of time as the pond silts in and dries out. During flood conditions, sediments containing these seeds are broken open, and the dormant seeds rehydrate and begin a new lotus colony.

Under favorable circumstances, the seeds of this aquatic perennial may remain viable for many years, with the oldest recorded lotus germination being from seeds 1,300 years old recovered from a dry lakebed in northeastern China. Therefore, the Chinese regard the plant as a symbol of longevity.

It has a very wide native distribution, ranging from central and northern India (at altitudes up to 1400 m in the southern Himalayas ), through northern Indochina and East Asia (north to the Amur region; the Russian populations have sometimes been referred to as "Nelumbo komarovii"), with isolated locations at the Caspian Sea. Today, the species also occurs in southern India, Sri Lanka, virtually all of Southeast Asia, New Guinea, and northern and eastern Australia, but this is probably the result of human translocations. It has a very long history (c. 3,000 years) of being cultivated for its edible seeds and is commonly cultivated in water gardens. It is the national flower of India and Vietnam.

Classification
The lotus is often confused with the true water lilies of the genus Nymphaea, in particular N. caerulea, the "blue lotus." In fact, several older systems, such as the Bentham & Hooker system (which is widely used in the Indian subcontinent), refer to the lotus by its old synonym, Nymphaea nelumbo.

While all modern plant taxonomy systems agree that this species belongs in the genus Nelumbo, the systems disagree as to which family Nelumbo should be placed in or whether the genus should belong in its own unique family and order. According to the APG IV system, N. nucifera, N. lutea, and their extinct relatives belong in Proteales with the protea flowers due to genetic comparisons. Older systems, such as the Cronquist system, place N. nucifera and its relatives in the order Nymphaeles based on anatomical similarities. According to the APG IV classification, the closest relatives of Nelumbo include the sycamores (Platanaceae).

Botany

The lotus roots are planted in pond or river bottom soil, while the leaves float on the water's surface or are held well above it. The leaf stalks (petioles) can be up to 200 cm long, allowing the plant to grow in water to that depth. The peltate leaf blade or lamina can have a horizontal spread of 1 m. The leaves may be as large as 80 cm in diameter.

Flower
The flowers are usually found on thick stems rising several centimeters above the leaves. They are showy and grow up to 35 cm in diameter.

Some cultivated varieties have extraordinary numbers of petals. For example, the Chinese variety qian ban lian ("thousand petals lotus") can have between 3000 and 4000 petals in a single blossom and the Japanese variety ohmi myoren ("strange lotus") can have between 2000 and 5000 petals, the greatest number recorded for any species of plant.

Researchers report that the lotus has the remarkable ability to regulate the temperature of its flowers within a narrow range, just as humans and other warm-blooded animals do. Roger S. Seymour and Paul Schultze-Motel, physiologists at the University of Adelaide in Australia, found that lotus flowers blooming in the Adelaide Botanic Gardens maintained a temperature of 30 –, even when the air temperature dropped to 10 °C. They suspect the flowers may be doing this to attract cold-blooded insect pollinators. Studies published in the journals Nature and Philosophical Transactions: Biological Sciences in 1996 and 1998 were important contributions in the field of thermoregulation in plants. Two other species known to be able to regulate their temperature include Symplocarpus foetidus and Thaumatophyllum bipinnatifidum. The red tiger lotus is native to West Africa, including Nigeria and Cameroon, and thrives in slow-moving water.

Seed
A fertilized lotus flower bears fruit that contains a cluster of 10 to 30 seeds. Each seed is ovoid 1–2.5 cm wide by 1–1.5 cm long with a brownish coat. Lotus seeds can remain viable after long periods of dormancy. In 1994, a seed from a sacred lotus, dated at roughly 1,300 years old ± 270 years, was successfully germinated.

The traditional sacred lotus is only distantly related to Nymphaea caerulea, but possesses similar chemistry. Both Nymphaea caerulea and Nelumbo nucifera contain the alkaloids nuciferine and aporphine.

The genome of the sacred lotus was sequenced in May 2013. A dedicated genome database lists additional genome assemblies sequenced since then.

Cultivation
The sacred lotus grows in water up to 2.5 m deep. The minimum water depth is about 30 cm. In colder climates, having a deeper water level protects the tubers more effectively, and overall is helpful for better growth and flowering. The sacred lotus germinates at temperatures above 13 C. Most varieties are not naturally cold-hardy, but may readily adapt to living outdoors year-round in USDA hardiness zones 6 through 11 (with some growers having success in zones as low as 4 or 5); the higher the zone's number, the greater the adaptability of the plants. In the growing season, from April to September (in the northern hemisphere), the average daytime temperature needed is 23 to 27 C. In regions with low light levels in winter, the sacred lotus has a period of dormancy. The tubers are not cold-resistant, if removed from water, and exposed to the air; when kept underwater in soil, the energy-rich tubers can overwinter temperatures below 0 C. If the plants are taken out of the water for wintertime storage (mostly in exceptionally cold climates), the tubers and roots must be stored in a stable, frost-free location, such as a garage, preferably in a cardboard box or container filled completely with vermiculite or perlite. Care must be taken to fully insulate the tubers.

Planting
The sacred lotus requires a nutrient-rich and loamy soil. In the beginning of the summer period (from March until May in the northern hemisphere), a small part of rhizome with at least one eye is either planted in ponds or directly into a flooded field. There are several other propagation ways via seeds or buds. Furthermore, tissue culture is a promising propagation method for the future to produce high volumes of uniform, true-to-type, disease-free materials.

The first step of the cultivation is to plough the dry field. One round of manure is applied after ten days, before flooding the field. To support a quick initial growth, the water level is relatively low and increases when plants grow. Then a maximum of approximately 4,000 /ha with grid spacing of 1.2x2 m are used to plant directly into the mud 10–15 cm below the soil surface.

Harvest

The stolon is ready to harvest two to three months after planting. It must be harvested before flowering. Harvesting the stolon is done by manual labor. For this step, the field is not drained. The stolon is pulled out of the water by pulling and shaking the young leaves in the shallow water.

The first leaves and flowers can be harvested three months after planting. Flowers can be picked every two days during summer and every three days during the colder season. Four months after planting, the production of flowers has its climax. The harvest of flowers is usually done by hand for three to four months.

Seeds and seed pods can be harvested when they turn black four to eight months after planting. After sun drying for two to three days, they are processed by mechanical tools to separate seed coats and embryos.

The rhizomes mature to a suitable stage for eating in approximately six to nine months. Early varieties are harvested in July until September and late varieties from October until March, after the ponds or fields are drained. The large, starch-rich rhizomes are easy to dig out of the drained soil. In small-scale production, they are harvested by hand using fork-like tools. In Japan and on bigger farms, manual labour harvesting is fully replaced by machines.

Varieties and cultivars
Lotus varieties have been classified according to their use into three types: rhizome lotus, seed lotus, and flower lotus. Varieties that show more than one of these characteristics are classified by the strongest feature. Regarding production area in China, rhizome lotus has the largest area with 200000 ha, followed by seed lotus with 20000 ha.

Rhizome lotus
Rhizome lotus cultivars produce a higher yield and higher quality rhizomes than seed or flower lotus cultivars. Furthermore, this group grows tall and produces few to no flowers.

Cultivars can be classified by harvest time or by the depth of rhizomes into these types: The main popular Nelumbo nucifera cultivars in China are Elian 1, Elian 4, Elian 5, 9217, Xin 1, and 00–01. The average yield of these cultivars is 7.5–15 t/ha (3.3–6.7 tons/acre) of harvest in July and 30–45 t/ha (13–20 tons/acre) of harvest in September. In Australia, the cultivar grown for the fresh rhizome market in Guangdong and Japan, the common rhizome cultivars are Tenno and Bitchu.
 * Pre-mature (early) cultivars are harvested before the end of July, serotinous (late) cultivars from September on, and mid-serotinous or mid-matutinal cultivars are in between these harvest times. Using pre-mature cultivars, rhizomes can be harvested earlier and sold for a higher price.
 * Adlittoral, deep, and intermediate cultivars are distinguished according to the depth in which the rhizomes grow underground. Adlittoral cultivars range from 10 to 20 cm depth and are often premature. They develop faster due to higher temperatures in surface soil layers. When harvested in July, adlittorals have higher yields than deeper-growing cultivars, but not necessarily when harvested in September. Rhizomes of adlittoral cultivars are crisp and good for frying purposes. Deep cultivars grow more than 40 cm deep. They are often serotinous and can harvest high yields. Their rhizomes are starch-rich.

Seed lotus
The characteristics of seed lotus cultivars are a large number of carpels and seed sets as well as large seeds with better nutritional properties. Roots of these varieties are thin, fibrous, and do not form good rhizomes. The main popular cultivars for seed production in China are Cunsanlian, Xianglian 1, Zilian 2, Jianlian, Ganlian 62, and Taikong 36. The average yield of these cultivars in China is 1.05–1.9 t/ha (0.5–0.8 tons/acre) of dry seeds and weight of thousand seeds between 1020 and 1800 g. Green Jade and Vietnam-Red are recommended cultivars for seed production in Australia.

Flower lotus
Flower lotus cultivars are used exclusively for ornamental purpose, producing many flowers and the lowest plant height.

The seed production of flower lotus is typically poor regarding yield and quality. Flower types differ in the number of petals (single petals, double petals, or multi-petals) and their colours range from single colour in white, yellow, pink, and red to bi-colour, most often of white petals with pink tips or highlights.

The flowers are capable of producing ink used by artists such as Morrison Polkinghorne to produce abstract images of the landscapes of southern Asia.

One example of a flower lotus is Wanlian. Also known as bowl lotus, wanlians are any miniature cultivars of N. nucifera sized between 5 and 8 cm. Bowl lotuses come in various colours and numbers of petals, and they bloom longer than other species of lotus. But together with the rhizome, their seeds are often too small or too hard to be eatable.

The sacred lotus may be crossed with the yellow lotus to produce interspecific hybrids. A few varieties have been produced with differing appearances.

Farming
About 70% of lotus for human consumption is produced in China. In 2005, the cultivation area in China was estimated at 300000 ha. A majority of lotus production takes place in managed farming systems in ponds or flooded fields like rice.

The most widely used system is crop rotation with rice and vegetables. This system is applicable if the propagule (small piece of rhizome) can be planted early in the year. The rhizomes are harvested in July, after which rice can be planted in the same field. Rice is then harvested in October. From November until March, the field stays either free or terricolous vegetables, such as cabbage or spinach, are planted. Alternatively, the vegetable can also be planted after the harvest of the lotus.

Another alternative way is not to harvest the lotus rhizome, although it is ripe. A terricolous vegetable is planted between the rhizomes into the drained field. The rhizomes are then harvested next March.

A third way is to plant lotus in ponds or fields and raise aquatic animals such as fish, shrimp, or crab in the same field. A more efficient use of the water for both, the aquatic animal and the lotus production has been identified with this planting pattern.

Rhizomes

The rhizomes of lotus (, 蓮根, 연근 or 蓮根, कमल ककड़ी, Sindhi Beeh, అల్లిదుంప) are consumed as a vegetable in Asian countries, extensively in China, Japan, India, Pakistan (Sindh), sold whole or in cut pieces, fresh, frozen, or canned. They are fried or cooked mostly in soups, soaked in syrup or pickled in vinegar (with sugar, chili and garlic). Lotus rhizomes have a crunchy texture and are a classic dish at many banquets, where they are deep-fried, stir-fried, or stuffed with meats or preserved fruits. Salads with prawns, sesame oil or coriander leaves are also popular. Fresh lotus root slices are limited by a fast browning rate. Lotus root tea is consumed in Korea.

Lotus root is a popular vegetable in Sri Lanka, where it is often cooked in coconut milk gravy. In India, lotus root (also known as kamala kakaṛī in Hindi) is cooked as a dry curry or Sabzî.

Japan is one of the primary users of the rhizomes, representing about 1% of all vegetables consumed. Japan grows its own lotus but still must import 18,000 tons of lotus rhizome each year, of which China provides 15,000 tons yearly.

Rhizomes contain high amounts of starch (31.2%) without characteristic taste or odor. The texture is comparable to a raw potato. The binding and disintegration properties of isolated Nelumbo starch have been compared with maize and potato starch; Nelumbo starch is shown to be superior as an adjuvant in the preparation of tablets. When dried, N. nucifera is also made into flour, another popular use of this vegetable.

Pips
Lotus pip tea is consumed in Korea.

Seeds

Fresh lotus seeds are nutritious but also vulnerable to microbial contamination, especially fungal infections. Therefore, mostly dry lotus seed-based products are found on the market. Traditional sun baking combined with charcoal processing dries the seeds but results in a loss of nutrients. Freeze-dried lotus seeds have a longer shelf life and maintain original nutrients, while no differences in flavour are found after rehydration compared to fresh lotus seeds.

Dry stored lotus seeds are sensitive to moisture and mold infestation; researchers continue to explore new ways to preserve fresh lotus seeds, such as radiation processing.

Lotus seeds can be processed into moon cake, lotus seed noodles and food in the forms of paste, fermented milk, rice wine, ice cream, popcorn (phool makhana), and others, with lotus seeds as the main raw material. Traditional Chinese medicine claims that fresh lotus seed wine has thirst-quenching, spleen-healing, and anti-diarrheal advantages after drinking, attributed to unspecified bioactive compounds. Lotus seed tea is consumed in Korea, and lotus embryo tea is consumed in China and Vietnam.

Stems
Young lotus stems are used as a salad ingredient in Vietnamese cuisine and as a vegetable ingredient for some soup and curry in Thailand, such as keang som sai bua (แกงส้มสายบัว, lotus stem sour soup) and keang kati sai bua (แกงกะทิสายบัว, lotus stem in coconut milk curry).

In northern and eastern regions of India, the stalk of the flower is used to prepare a soup, kamala gaṭṭē kī sabzī (कमल गट्टे की सब्ज़ी) and an appetizer, kamala kakaṛī pakauṛē (कमल ककड़ी पकौड़े). In South Indian states, the lotus stem is sliced, marinated with salt to dry, and the dried slices are fried and used as a side dish. In Kerala (താമര) and Tamil Nadu, this end product is called thamara vathal.

In the Philippines, an indigenous variety called tukal is used as the main ingredient in dishes with coconut milk. The stems and petals can be bought in markets when in season.

Leaves
In China and Korea, lotus leaf tea (연잎차) is made from the leaves of the lotus. It is also used as a wrap for steaming rice and sticky rice and other steamed dishes in Southeast Asian cuisine, such as lo mai gai in Chinese cuisine or kao hor bai bua (ข้าวห่อใบบัว), fried rice wrapped in lotus leaf in Thai cuisine.

Vietnamese also use lotus leaves to wrap green young rice, cốm, which is eaten in autumn. The leaves impart a unique scent to the soft, moist rice.

Flowers

In Korea, lotus flower tea (연꽃차) is made from the dried petals of the white lotus.

The stamens can be dried and made into a fragrant herbal tea, or used to impart a scent to tea leaves (particularly in Vietnam). This Vietnamese lotus tea is called trà sen, chè sen, or chè ướp sen.

Risks
The petals, leaves, and rhizome can also all be eaten raw, but there is a risk of parasite transmission (e.g., Fasciolopsis buski): it is therefore recommended that they be cooked before eating.

Use in water treatment
Nelumbo nucifera shows high potential for usage in wastewater treatment removing polluting compounds and heavy metals. It is able to grow in variable water conditions and in low light intensity. Various studies show the successful use of N. nucifera to counteract water eutrophication. The leaves of the floating lotus reduce sunlight reaching the lower part of the water. This suppresses algae growth in N. nucifera aquatic systems and thus, the oxygen content is up to 20% higher than in other aquatic plant systems. Due to intense agricultural practices, nitrogen and phosphorus pollution are major problems in aquatic systems. N. nucifera is able to assimilate a higher content of phosphorus than aquatic plants currently used for water remediation (such as water hyacinth). It also assimilates nitrogen ("denitrification") and creates a habitat for bacterial growth in the water body. Through rhizofiltration, heavy metals – including arsenic, copper, and cadmium – can be removed efficiently from the water. The results observed are impressive showing 96% of copper and 85% cadmium metals removed after a seven-day incubation period. The accumulation of heavy metals doesn't show morphological symptoms of metal toxicity; however, the rhizome quality for human consumption needs further study.

Storage and commercialization
Currently, most rhizomes are consumed fresh, and it is not common to store them due to their poor shelf life performance. This limits export possibilities for low-income production countries in Asia. Rhizomes quickly lose water, oxidation occurs and nutrient composition changes within a short time after harvest. Optimal storage temperatures range between 5 and 8 C. There are three different approaches to storing rhizomes. By stacking the rhizomes, they are storable and remain fresh for about three weeks. Special stacking with silver sand and soil results in five to six layers that prevent water loss, thus, the rhizome stays fresh for up to two months. However, the method is not suitable for commercialization but rather for home use. Hydrogen sulfide fumigation reduces enzymatic browning and therefore ensures rhizome quality. Dipping the rhizomes in a salt solution prevents oxidation and bacterial reproduction, which allows storage for up to five months and greater export ability. This treatment is related to the high cost and inefficient cleaning process before eating the rhizomes.

Use in bioengineering
Nelumbo nucifera contains some thermal-stable proteins that might be useful in protein bioengineering processes. The proteins are characterized by seed longevity used for cell protection and repair under stress. There are also several indications that compounds of N. nucifera are used in drug fabrication in human health research for multiple purposes. Lotus leaves possess hydrophobic characteristics, attributed to a waxy coat that prevents water from adhering to the surface. This attribute has influenced the conception of the "lotus effect" in biomimicry and engineering, guiding the design of materials that resist water and remain self-cleaning. Researchers at the National University of Singapore have utilized the water-repelling structure as inspiration for developing eAir, an aero-elastic sensor capable of detecting subtle pressure changes or other environmental stimuli.

Other uses
The distinctive dried seed heads, which resemble the spouts of watering cans, are widely sold throughout the world for decorative purposes and for dried flower arranging.

In Asia, the petals are sometimes used for garnish, while the large leaves are used as a wrap for food, not frequently eaten (for example, as a wrapper for zongzi). Lotus leaves are also used to serve food in various cultures.

A unique fabric called lotus silk, from the lotus plant fibers, is produced only at Inle Lake, Myanmar, and in Siem Reap, Cambodia. This thread is used for weaving special robes for Buddha images called kya thingan (lotus robe).

Chemical composition
The flavonol miquelianin, as well as the alkaloids (+)-(1R)-coclaurine and (−)-(1S)-norcoclaurine, can be found in the leaves of N. nucifera. The plant also contains nuciferine, neferine, and many other benzylisoquinoline alkaloids with medicinal properties.

Traditional medicine
All parts of Nelumbo nucifera are edible, with the rhizome and seeds being the main consumption parts. Traditionally rhizomes, leaves, and seeds have been used as folk medicines, Ayurveda, Chinese traditional medicine, and oriental medicine. In Chinese medicine, seeds are still used as (蓮子心).

Lotus rhizomes and seeds and their processing by-products are widely consumed in Asia, the Americas, and Oceania for high content of physiologically active substances. Especially in China, lotus seeds are popular with a cultural history going back about 3000 years. As early as the Han Dynasty, lotus seeds were already recorded as sweet, astringent, nourishing the heart and kidney in "Shen Nong's Herbal Classic". Nowadays there are 22 varieties for the four known Chinese lines, which are found particularly in Jianning (still called "the town of Jianlian lotus seeds in China") and Guangchang ("the town of white lotus seeds in China").

These days the perennial aquatic herb is gaining popularity because of its nutraceutical and historical importance It will be of economic value if the different parts of lotus can be developed as functional food. Because of its special role in human health and richness in nutrients and bioactive substances, the Chinese Ministry of Health approved the use of N. nucifera as both "food and medicine."

Rhizomes
The rhizomes are 60–14 cm long, 0.5–2.5 cm in diameter, yellowish white to yellowish brown, smooth, and with nodes and internodes.

Lotus root is a moderate-calorie root vegetable (100 g of root stem provides about 74 calories) and is composed of several vitamins, minerals, and nutrients: 83.80% water, 0.11% fat, 1.56% reducing sugar, 0.41% sucrose, 2.70% crude protein, 9.25% starch, 0.80% fiber, 0.10% ash and 0.06% calcium. 100 g of root provides 44 mg of vitamin C or 73% of daily recommended values (RDA).

Lotus rhizome and its extracts have shown diuretic, psychopharmacological, anti-diabetic, anti-obesity, hypoglycemic, antipyretic and antioxidant activities.

Seeds
Lotus seeds are mostly oval or spherical, with sizes varying according to varieties. They are generally 1.2–1.8 cm long, with diameters ranging from 0.8 to 1.4 cm and a weight of 1.1–1.4 g. After lotus seeds have been decorticated and peeled, they are edible and rich in nutrients and can be dried for storage. Their nutritional values can differ due to culture environments and varieties.

Not only do these seeds contain proteins of high quality and are rich in a variety of essential amino acids including high contents of albumin (42%) and globulin (27%), they also contain unsaturated fatty acids, carbohydrates, vitamins, calcium, iron, zinc, phosphorus and other trace elements. They also provide water-soluble polysaccharides, alkaloids, flavonoids, superoxide dismutase, and other bioactive components.

Lotus seeds also contain particularly large amounts of vitamins, including VB1, VB2, VB6 and Vitamin E.

The functional components (polyphenols, protein, polysaccharides) in N. nucifera seeds can help combat high blood pressure, diabetes, and gallstones.

After lotus seed germination, crude protein and fat levels in the endosperm significantly increase. It is therefore an important method to enhance its nutritional quality.

Cultural and religious significance

Nelumbo nucifera is a lotus species with historical cultural and spiritual significance. It is a sacred flower in both Hinduism and Buddhism, representing the path to spiritual awakening and enlightenment. In Christianity, the lotus flower is often associated with the apostle Thomas and his coming to India. The lotus flower is also mentioned in the bible.

In Asian art, a lotus throne is a stylized lotus flower used as the seat or base for a figure. It is the normal pedestal for divine figures in Buddhist art and Hindu art and is often seen in Jain art. Originating in Indian art, it followed Indian religions to East Asia in particular. Lotus flowers are also often held by figures.

The Nelumbo nucifera, which is also called (Nilufar Abi in Persian), can be seen in many reliefs of the Achaemenid period (552 BC) such as the statue of Anahita in the Persepolis. The lotus flower was included in Kaveh the blacksmith's Derafsh and later as the flag of the Sasanian Empire Derafsh Kaviani. Today, it is the symbol of Iranians Solar Hijri calendar.

The lotus flower also holds cultural and religious significance in Ismaili Muslim and related South Asian traditions. For example, in South Asian Ismaili literature, the lotus is compared to the pure soul. A poem describes the lotus' beauty, describing how its delicate white petals remain pure and beautiful, despite its murky environment. Similarly, a pure soul is part of this world, yet is not of this world, much like the circumstances of the lotus. The poem further emphasizes the importance of true knowledge or gnosis, which is likened to the pure rainwater that allows the lotus to flourish. Ismaili belief holds that the true guide provides this true knowledge, without which the pure soul cannot survive. Just as the lotus flower would rather die than drink from a reeking swamp, the pure soul also seeks nourishment solely through true knowledge.

title: Nelumbo nucifera


text:
The Killers (Hemingway short story)

"The Killers" is a short story by Ernest Hemingway, first published in Scribner's Magazine in 1927 and later republished in Men Without Women, Snows of Kilimanjaro, and The Nick Adams Stories. Set in 1920s Summit, Illinois, the story follows recurring Hemingway character Nick Adams as he has a run-in with a pair of hitmen, who are seeking to kill a boxer, in a local restaurant.

Historians have some documents showing that the working title of the piece was "The Matadors". How much Hemingway received for the literary piece is unknown, but some sources state it was $200. Hemingway's depiction of the human experience, his use of satire, and the themes of death, friendship, and the purpose of life have contributed to make "The Killers" one of his most famous and frequently anthologized short stories, and it has been adapted or referenced in various other works since its initial publishing.

Plot summary
In 1920s Prohibition-era Summit, Illinois, hitmen Max and Al enter the restaurant "Henry's Lunch-Room", staffed by George, the owner, and Sam, the cook. They order pork chops and chicken dinners but, learning they are not yet available, settle for ham, bacon, and egg breakfasts. Suddenly, Al takes restaurant patron Nick Adams into the kitchen and ties him up alongside Sam, while Max converses with George and reveals he and Al have been hired to kill Ole Andreson, a Swedish ex-heavyweight prizefighter expected to arrive at the restaurant soon. However, when Andreson does not arrive, Max and Al leave to search for him themselves. After they depart, George sends Nick to Hirsch's Boarding House, run by Mrs. Bell, to warn Andreson about the hitmen. Nick finds Andreson in his room, but is surprised when Andreson does not react to the news, and simply tells Nick not to do anything as there is nothing that can be done to save him. Nick returns to Henry's Lunch-Room to inform George of Andreson's dismissive reaction; when George no longer seems concerned for Andreson, an unsettled Nick decides to leave Summit.

Historical context
"The Killers" was written in the 1920s, when organized crime was at its peak during Prohibition. Chicago was the home of Al Capone, and Hemingway himself spent time in Chicago as a young man. When things became too dangerous for the mob, they retreated to the suburb of Summit, where "The Killers" takes place. Not long before the story was written, the Chicago mob had ordered the killing of a popular boxer of the time, Andre Anderson. His killer, Leo Mongoven, went on the run after the killing in 1926 and was captured following a traffic collision that killed Chicago banker John J. Mitchell and his wife in 1927; Hemingway was probably unaware of the accident as his short story went into print. Anderson once defeated Jack Dempsey, likely Hemingway's source for the character of Ole Andreson.

Despite Hemingway's knowledge of organized crime, he omitted much of that background from the story. Hemingway himself said, "That story probably had more left out of it than anything I ever wrote. I left out all Chicago, which is hard to do in 2951 words."

The story includes several instances of the "n-word" as description of the cook, both in the characters' dialogue and from the 3rd person limited narrator. The cook, Sam, is only in this scene, though he is referred to in a scene that follows shortly thereafter.

In 1984, Oak Park and River Forest High School in Oak Park, Illinois published the anthology Hemingway at Oak Park High, which included short works that Hemingway had written for his school newspaper and literary magazine. One of the stories, "A Matter of Colour", involves the plot of a boxing manager having a man named Swede hide behind a curtain and hit an opponent during a bout; the Swede fails, and the reader is left with an impression that in retaliation, the boxing manager puts out a contract on his life.

Adaptations

 * The Killers (1946), a film starring Burt Lancaster and Ava Gardner
 * "The Wait" ("La espera" in Spanish) (1950), a short story by Jorge Luis Borges that reinterprets its meaning
 * The Killers (1956), a short film directed by Andrei Tarkovsky, Aleksandr Gordon, and Marika Beiku
 * The Killers (1959), a television special starring Ingemar Johansson, Dean Stockwell, and Diane Baker on CBS's Buick-Electra Playhouse
 * The Killers (1964), a film starring Lee Marvin, Ronald Reagan, and Angie Dickinson
 * Carnal Circuit (Original Italian title: Femmine insaziabili) (1969), an unofficial adaptation as a giallo
 * "Bullet in the Brain" (1995), a short story by Tobias Wolff
 * "The Killers", a manga short story by Mamoru Oshii, featured in the 2003–2004 manga Kerberos Saga Rainy Dogs
 * "The Killers in the Diner", the fourth episode of Lupin the 3rd Part 6 (2021), directed by Mamoru Oshii, features a retelling of "The Killers" (with elements of Oshii's manga) as the cast searches for a rare printing of the short story.

title: The Killers (Hemingway short story)


text:
Flambé

 * Flambé is also a type of ceramic glaze.

Flambé (,, ; also spelled flambe) is a cooking procedure in which alcohol is added to a hot pan to create a burst of flames. The word means "flamed" in French.

Flambéing is often associated with the tableside presentation of certain liqueur-drenched dishes set aflame, such as Bananas Foster or Cherries Jubilee when the alcohol is ignited and results in a flare of blue-tinged flame. However, flambéing is also a step in making coq au vin and other dishes and sauces, using spirits before they are brought to the table. By partially burning off the volatile alcohol, flambéing reduces the alcoholic content of the dish while keeping the flavors of the liquor.

History
Modern flambéing became popular in the 19th century. The English Christmas pudding was served flaming in Charles Dickens' 1843 novel, A Christmas Carol: "the pudding... blazing in half of half-a-quarter of ignited brandy". The most common flambé dish appears to have been sweet omelette with rum or kirsch; for example, Alexis Soyer's 1846 cookbook, The Gastronomic Regenerator, gives a recipe for Omelette au Rhum: "...the moment of going to table pour three glasses of rum round and set it on fire". Ida Joscelyne's book, The Marvellous Little Housekeepers (1880), mentions both rum and kirsch; another recipe appears in A.G. Payne's English cookbook, Choice Dishes at Small Cost, of 1882: "Make a sweet omelet, and heat a tablespoonful of kirsch, by holding a light under the spoon. As soon as the spirit catches fire pour it round the omelet, and serve flaming." Perhaps the most famous flambé dish, Crêpe Suzette, was supposedly invented in 1895 as an accident.

Procedure

Cognac, rum, or other flavorful liquors that are about 40% alcohol (80 USA proof) are considered ideal for flambé. Wines and beers have too little alcohol and will not flambé. High-alcohol liquors, such as Bacardi 151 or Everclear, are highly flammable and considered too dangerous by professional cooks. Cinnamon is sometimes added not only for flavor but for show, as the powder ignites when added.

The alcoholic beverage must be heated before lighting it on fire. This is because the liquid is still below the flash point at room temperature, and there are not enough alcoholic vapors to ignite. The vapor pressure increases by heating it, releasing enough vapors to catch fire from the match.

Effects on taste
Flambéing reduces the alcohol content of the food modestly. In one experimental model, about 25% of the alcohol was boiled off. The effects of the flames are also modest: although the temperature within the flame may be quite high (over 500 °C), the temperature at the surface of the pan is lower than that required for a Maillard browning reaction or for caramelization.

Whether or not there is a change in flavor as a result of flambéing is unclear. Some claim that because the flame is above the food, and since hot gases rise, it cannot significantly affect the flavor. Indeed, experimental work shows that most people cannot tell the difference. That said, in an informal taste test conducted by the Los Angeles Times of two batches of caramelized apples (one flambéed and one simmered), one tester declared the "flambéed dish was for adults, the other for kids." Others, however, dispute this and quote celebrated French chefs who claim that flambéing is strictly a show-biz aspect of the restaurant business that ruins food but is done to create an impressive visual presentation at a dramatic point in the preparation of a meal.

Jogging
For safety, it is recommended that alcohol not be added to a pan on a burner and that the cook use a long fireplace match to ignite the pan.

Flambé dishes
Examples of popular flambé dishes include:
 * Bananas Foster
 * Bombe Alaska
 * Cherries jubilee
 * Christmas pudding
 * Crêpes Suzette
 * Feuerzangenbowle
 * Flaming beverages
 * Gundel Palacsinta
 * Steak Diane

title: Flambé


text:
Endodontics

Endodontics (from the Greek roots endo- "inside" and odont- "tooth") is the dental specialty concerned with the study and treatment of the dental pulp.

Overview
Endodontics encompasses the study (practice) of the basic and clinical sciences of normal dental pulp, the etiology, diagnosis, prevention, and treatment of diseases and injuries of the dental pulp along with associated periradicular conditions.

In clinical terms, endodontics involves either preserving part, or all of the dental pulp in health, or removing all of the pulp in irreversible disease. This includes teeth with irreversibly inflamed and infected pulpal tissue. Not only does endodontics involve treatment when a dental pulp is present, but also includes preserving teeth which have failed to respond to non-surgical endodontic treatment, or for teeth that have developed new lesions, e.g., when root canal re-treatment is required, or periradicular surgery.

Endodontic treatment is one of the most common procedures. If the dental pulp (containing nerves, arterioles, venules, lymphatic tissue, and fibrous tissue) becomes diseased or injured, endodontic treatment is required to save the tooth.

Root canal treatment
Root canal treatment is a dental procedure used to treat infected tooth pulp which would be otherwise extracted. The pulp is the soft tissue core of the tooth which contains nerves, blood supply and connective tissue necessary for tooth health. This is usually caused when bacteria enter the pulp through a deep cavity or failed filling.

Root canal treatment is required when the dental pulp is irreversibly damaged and involves both coronal and apical pulp. Root canal treatment can also be carried out on teeth with doubtful pulpal state before placing post-retained crowns and overdentures. Root canal therapy is not only performed when pain relief from an infected or inflamed pulp is required. It is also done to prevent adverse signs and symptoms from the surrounding sequelae and promote the healing and repair of the surrounding periradicular tissues. An example of this is if there is trauma to a front tooth which has caused it to be avulsed from the bony socket; endodontic treatment is required following re-implantation to preserve the aesthetics and function of the tooth, even though there may be no adverse symptoms of the dental pulp, or pain present at the time.

Prior to root canal treatment, clinical examination and radiographic examinations are carried out to diagnose and plan treatment. Local anaesthesia is delivered to make the procedure pain free. The tooth to be treated is then isolated using a rubber dam, which prevents saliva entering the tooth during treatment and protects the airway from the fine files and strong chemicals used. The root canal treatment procedure is often carried out over single or multiple appointments. Root canal treatment involves:

 * Removing the damaged and infected pulp
 * Shaping the entire root canal system
 * Cleaning and disinfecting the entire root canal system
 * Filling and sealing the root canal system
 * Placing a direct restoration such as composite filling or indirect restoration such as a crown

Instrument fractures are common procedural mishaps in root canal treatment. It is essential to prevent instrument fractures. The success of removing a broken instrument depends on the location, direction and type of instrument. A sodium hypochlorite accident can result in long-term functional and aesthetic complications. Extrusion of sodium hypochlorite irrigating solution during a root canal procedure can cause a severe inflammatory reaction and tissue damage. Treatment is provided based on the severity of the injury. Tooth discolouration as a result of root canal treatment can occur if the pulpal tissue remnants are not completely removed or if a root canal sealer material containing silver is used.

Periradicular surgery
Periradicular surgeries involve the root surface. These include apicoectomy (removal of a root end), root resection (removal of an entire root), repair of an injured root due to perforation or resorption, removal of broken fragments of the tooth or a filling material, and exploratory surgery to look for root fractures.

Apicoectomy
An apicoectomy is a surgical procedure through which the apex of a root is resected, and a root-end filling is placed, preventing bacterial leakage into the root canal system from the periradicular tissues. A microsurgical technique is used to carry out apicectomy, which improves post-operative healing.

An apicoectomy can be carried out when a previous root canal treatment fails, and re-root canal treatment is not possible. This may be as a result of anatomical features, such as root dilaceration, which can compromise the completion of cleaning and obturating the root canal system. Procedural errors, including ledges or perforations, may also be indications for an apicectomy.

Local anaesthetic is utilised to achieve anaesthesia as well as haemostasis for improved visualisation. A flap in the gum is designed, and then raised to allow for exposure of the periapical lesion. Bone removal (osteotomy) is carried out to enable access to root apex, and diseased tissue is removed at this point through curettage. The root end resection is carried out, removing 3mm apically. The canal(s) is then obturated, and the flap is sutured. There are a number of root-end filling materials available, including zinc oxide eugenol cements, and mineral trioxide aggregate.

Complications that may arise include:

 * pain: anti-inflammatory agents or analgesics should be taken
 * swelling: intermittent ice will aid in eradicating this. Swelling resolves usually within 24–48 hours.
 * ecchymosis (discolouration): this will often occur distant from the surgical site
 * paraesthesia: usually transient as a result of inflammatory swelling, and sensation will return to normal in 4 weeks
 * serious infection is rare, but can be treated with antibiotics, which should be administered with caution to avoid bacterial resistance
 * maxillary sinus perforation

Other procedures
Other non-surgical endodontic procedures include pulp capping, pulpotomy, apexification, and pulpal regeneration. Hemisection, where a root and its overlying portion of the crown are separated from the rest of the tooth and optionally removed, is another (non-periradicular) endodontic surgery.

Tools
Microsurgical endodontics, the use of magnification devices such as microscopes, and dental loupes, has been widely accepted among endodontists and practitioners; its use is believed to increase accuracy and visualization in the operating field. However, a Cochrane review in 2015 found no evidence to determine whether there is a difference in the outcome of a procedure done by magnification devices or a conventional procedure done with no magnification. The American Association of Endodontists strongly encourages its members to pursue the use of an oral microscope to ensure the highest level of excellence.

The use of a CBCT is also becoming the standard of care.

Training
Endodontists are specialist dentists with additional training, experience and formal qualifications in endodontic treatment, apicectomies, microsurgery, and dental emergency and trauma management. Endodontics is recognized as a specialty by many national dental organizations including the Dental Board of Australia, British General Dental Council, American Dental Association, Royal College of Dentists of Canada, Indian Dental Association, and Royal Australasian College of Dental Surgeons.

Australia
In Australia, endodontics is recognized as one of the thirteen registered dental specialties. In addition to a dental degree, endodontists have an additional three years of postgraduate University training in the area of endodontics to be recognized and registered by the Dental Board of Australia. A general dentist is permitted to perform endodontic treatment, but must be competent in the skills required for the treatment and refer complex cases for specialist management.

United States
In the United States after finishing a dental degree, a dentist must undergo 2–3 additional years of postgraduate training to become an endodontist. American Dental Association (ADA) accredited programs are a minimum of two years in length. Following successful completion of this training, the dentist becomes eligible to sit for the American Board Of Endodontology examination. Successful completion of board certification results in Diplomate status in the American Board of Endodontics.

Although general dentists can perform endodontic treatment, there are several things which set endodontists apart. Endodontists use microscopes during treatment to better treat the small internal anatomy of teeth without taking away too much tooth structure, or causing iatrogenic damage. Also, endodontists use CBCT (3D imaging) to assess case difficulty and for diagnosis and treatment planning of endodontic cases.

Organizations

 * American Association of Endodontists
 * American Board of Endodontics
 * British Endodontic Society
 * Canadian Academy of Endodontics
 * European Society of Endodontology
 * Indian Association of Conservative Dentistry and Endodontics
 * International Federation of Endodontic Associations

Publications

 * Journal of Endodontics Research (JofER)
 * International Endodontic Journal

title: Endodontics


text:
Cleanness

Cleanness (Middle English: Clannesse) is a Middle English alliterative poem written in the late 14th century. Its unknown author, designated the Pearl poet or Gawain poet, also appears, on the basis of dialect and stylistic evidence, to be the author of Sir Gawain and the Green Knight, Pearl, and Patience, and may have also composed St. Erkenwald.

The poem is found solely in the Pearl manuscript, Cotton Nero A x. That manuscript also contains Pearl, Patience, and Sir Gawain and the Green Knight. None of the poems has a title or divisions of chapters, but the breaks are marked by large initial letters of blue, and there are twelve illustrations (or illuminations) contained within the manuscript, depicting scenes from the four poems. Each of these poems is entirely unique to this one manuscript. Cleanness (which is an editorial title) is also known by the editorial title Purity.

The manuscript, Cotton Nero A.x is in the British Library. The first complete publication of Cleanness was in Early English Alliterative Poems in the West Midland Dialect of the fourteenth century, printed by the Early English Text Society in 1864.

Cleanness is a description of the virtues of cleanliness of body and the delights of married love. It takes three subjects from the Bible as its illustrations: the Flood, the destruction of Sodom and Gomorrah, and the fall of Belshazzar. Each of these is described powerfully, and the poetry is among the finest in Middle English. In each case, the poet warns his readers about the dangers of defilement and the joys of purity.

Genre and poetics
A didactic, homiletic poem, Cleanness consists of 1812 lines. Alliteration is used consistently throughout the poem, averaging around three alliterating words per line. The unidentified narrator or preacher speaks in the first person throughout the work. It is an exemplum from the perspective of many.

Narrative
The opening lines of the poem (ll. 1–50) function as a peroration in which the narrator states his theme by contrasting cleanness and purity with filth. He also points out that God hates filth and banishes those who are not properly dressed.

A paraphrase of the Parable of the Great Banquet follows in lines 51–171. This exemplum, explained by lines 171–192, follows directly from the previous sartorial metaphor and serves to show why the hearers should give attention to cleanness. Following this, lines 193–556 expound on God's forgiveness and wrath, using the Fall of the Angels, the Fall of Adam and Eve (Gen 3), and the story of Noah (Gen 6: 5–32, 7, 8) (the first major exemplum of the poem) to demonstrate these divine attributes.

A transition (ll. 557–599), including a comment on how God reacts to sin (esp. lechery), follows.

In a second exemplum, the poet retells the stories of Abraham and Lot (Gen. 18:1–19, 28) (ll. 600 - 1048), including a description of the Dead Sea as the poet understood it.

In another transition (ll. 1050–1148), the narrator explains the symbolism of the second exemplum, ending with a description of God as strongly vengeful.

The third, and by far the longest, exemplum (ll. 1149–1796) recounts the conquest of Jerusalem by Nebuchadnezzar and the transfer of the Temple treasures to Babylon where they were treated with reverence by the king. But after Nebuchadnezzar died, Belshazzar, a man given to the indulgence of his lusts, succeeded him. During an enormous drunken feast, he ordered that the Temple vessels be brought in and that everyone be served in them. God then determines to punish him. A huge hand appears, writes a message on the wall, and vanishes. No one can interpret this message. At the Queen's suggestion, Daniel is called, and he interprets the three words and predicts Belshazzar's downfall.

In his conclusion (ll. 1797–1812), the narrator summarizes by arguing that uncleanness angers God, and cleanness comforts Him.

Author
Though the real name of "The Pearl Poet" (or poets) is unknown, some inferences about him or her can be drawn from an informed reading of his/her works. The original manuscript is known in academic circles as Cotton Nero A.x, following a naming system used by one of its owners, Robert Cotton, a collector of Medieval English texts from the Shropshire/Cheshire dynastyof that name.

Before the manuscript came into Cotton's possession, it was in the library of Henry Savile of Bank in Yorkshire. Little is known about its previous ownership, and until 1824, when the manuscript was introduced to the academic community in a second edition of Thomas Warton's History edited by Richard Price, it was almost entirely unknown. Now held in the British Library, it has been dated to the late 14th century, so the poet was a contemporary of Geoffrey Chaucer, author of The Canterbury Tales, though it is highly unlikely that they ever met.

The three other works found in the same manuscript as Pearl (commonly known as Sir Gawain and the Green Knight, Patience, and Pearl) are often considered to be written by the same author who is accepted to have originated in the Staffordshire/North Shropshire/Cheshire area.

However, the manuscript containing these poems was transcribed by a copyist and not by the original poet. Although nothing explicitly suggests that all four poems are by the same poet, comparative analysis of dialect, verse form, and diction have pointed towards single-authorship.

What is known today about the poet is largely general. As J. R. R. Tolkien and E. V. Gordon, after reviewing the text's allusions, style, and themes, concluded in 1925:

"He was a man of serious and devout mind, though not without humour; he had an interest in theology, and some knowledge of it, though an amateur knowledge perhaps, rather than a professional; he had Latin and French and was well enough read in French books, both romantic and instructive; but his home was in the West Midlands of England; so much his language shows, and his metre, and his scenery."

The most commonly suggested candidate for authorship is John Massey of Cotton, Cheshire. He is known to have lived in the dialect region of the Pearl Poet and is thought to have written the poem, St. Erkenwald, which some scholars argue bears stylistic similarities to Gawain. St. Erkenwald, however, has been dated by some scholars to a time outside the Gawain poet's era. Thus, ascribing authorship to John Massey is still controversial, and most critics consider the Gawain poet an unknown.

Technique
It uses the homiletic principles of education with entertainment (Horace's utile et dulce) and is primarily rooted in Biblical stories. The reference to the fall of the angels is drawn from pseudepigrapha. The technique of presenting exempla and then explicating them as demonstrations of moral principles is characteristic of many sermons of the medieval period. Here the poet uses three exempla with explication in the transitions between them.

Editions

 * Andrew, Malcolm and Waldron, Ronald. 2002. The Poems of the Pearl Manuscript. Berkeley: University of California Press. (4th ed.) ISBN 0-85989-514-9.
 * Gustafson, Kevin, ed. 2010. Cleanness. Peterborough, ON: Broadview Press. ISBN 978-1-55111-399-9 / 1551113996.
 * Vantuono, William, ed. (1984) The Pearl Poems : an omnibus edition. New York: Garland Pub. ISBN 0-8240-5450-4 (v. 1) ISBN 0-8240-5451-2 (v. 2) Text in both Middle English and Modern English

Translations

 * Finch, Casey. "The Complete Works of the Pearl Poet” 1993. Berkeley: University of California Press. ISBN 0-520-07871-3.

Commentary and criticism

 * Hamilton, Ruth E. "The Power of Words and the Power of Narratives: Cleanness" Essays in Medieval Studies, 3: 162 - 173,
 * Morse, C.C. "The Pattern of Judgment in the "Queste" and "Cleanness"." Columbia: University of Missouri Press, 1978.
 * Keiser, E.B. "Desire and Medieval Homophobia: The Legitimation of Sexual Pleasure in Cleanness and Its Contexts" New Haven, Connecticut: Yale University Press, 1997
 * Keiser, Elizabeth. "The Festive Decorum of "Cleanness"." In "Chivalric Literature" ed. by Larry D. Benson and John Leyerle, London, 1980.
 * Kelly, T.D. and J. T. Irwin. "The Meaning of "Cleanness": Parable as Effective Sign." Mediaeval Studies 35: 232 - 60.
 * Lecklider, J.K. "Cleanness: Structure and Meaning"  Woodbridge, Suffolk, UK; Rochester, NY, USA: DS Brewer, 1997
 * Schreiber, Earl G. "The Structures of Clannesse." In The Alliterative Tradition in the Fourteenth Century, ed. Bernard S. Levy and Paul E. Szarmach. Kent, OH: Kent State University Press, 1981.

title: Cleanness


text:
Chronograph

A chronograph is a specific type of watch that is used as a stopwatch combined with a display watch. A basic chronograph has an independent sweep second hand and a minute sub-dial; it can be started, stopped, and returned to zero by successive pressure on the stem. More complex chronographs use additional complications and can have multiple sub-dials to measure seconds, minutes, hours and even fractions of a second. In addition, many modern chronographs use moveable bezels as tachymeters for rapid calculations of speed or distance. Louis Moinet invented the chronograph in 1816 for use in tracking astronomical objects. Chronographs were also used heavily in artillery fire in the mid to late 1800s. More modern uses of chronographs involve aircraft piloting, auto racing, diving and submarine maneuvering.

Since the 1980s, the term chronograph has also been applied to all digital watches that incorporate a stopwatch function.

History
The term chronograph comes from the Greek χρονογράφος (khronográphos 'time recording'), from χρόνος (khrónos 'time') and γράφω (gráphō 'to write'). Early versions of the chronograph are the only ones that actually used any "writing": marking the dial with a small pen attached to the index so that the length of the pen mark would indicate how much time had elapsed. The first modern chronograph was invented by Louis Moinet in 1816, solely for working with astronomical equipment. It was Nicolas Mathieu Rieussec who developed the first marketed chronograph at the behest of King Louis XVIII in 1821. The King greatly enjoyed watching horse races, but wanted to know exactly how long each race lasted, so Rieussec was commissioned to invent a contraption that would do the job: as a result he developed the first ever commercialized chronograph. Rieussec was considered the inventor of the chronograph until the Louis Moinet pocket chronograph discovery in 2013 when history was rewritten. In addition to inventing the chronograph, Louis Moinet is also the father of High Frequency. In 1816, his Compteur de Tierces timepiece beat at a rhythm of 216,000 vibrations per hour (30 Hz). This frequency record stood for exactly one century, before eventually being broken in 1916, after which standard chronometer frequencies returned to present-day levels (generally 5-10 Hz, or 18,000 to 36,000 vibrations per hour). Still in perfect working order, the Compteur de Tierces is preserved at Ateliers Louis Moinet.

In 1913, Longines created the 13.33Z, one of the first chronograph movements ever developed for a wristwatch, featuring 18 jewels, a diameter of 29 mm and height of 6 mm, and a beat rate of 18,000 vph. It utilized a crown that was used both for winding the watch and serving as a pusher for the chronograph.

In 1915, Gaston Breitling produced the first chronograph with a central seconds hand and a 30-minute counter. Later, in 1923, Gaston Breitling introduced the first chronograph with a separate pusher at 2 o'clock. In 1934 Willy Breitling further developed the concept of the chronograph with the addition of the second pusher at 4 o'clock. Since then the 3-pusher chronograph design has been adopted by the entire industry.

In 1844 Adolphe Nicole's updated version of the chronograph was the first to include a re-setting feature which now allowed successive measurements, unlike the constantly moving needle in the original chronograph.

In the early part of the 20th century, many chronographs were sold with fixed bezels marked in order to function as a tachymeter. In 1958 the watch company Heuer introduced a model with a rotating bezel tachymeter for more complex calculations.

Chronographs were very popular with aviators as they allowed them to make rapid calculations and conduct precise timing. The demand for chronographs grew along with the aviation industry in the early part of the 20th century. As the US exploration of outer space initially involved only test pilots, by order of President Dwight D. Eisenhower, chronographs were on the wrists of many early astronauts. Chronograph usage followed a similar trajectory for many fields that involve very precise and/or repeated timing around increasingly more complicated high performance machinery, automobile racing and naval submarine navigation being two examples. As different uses for the chronograph were discovered, the industry responded with different models introducing such features as the flyback (where the second hand could be rapidly reset to zero), minute and hour timers, Rattrapante (or multiple second hands one of which can be stopped and started independently) and waterproof models for divers and swimmers.

Although self winding watches and clockwork have been around since the late 1700s, the automatic (self winding) chronograph was not invented until the late 1960s. In 1969, the watch companies Heuer, Breitling, Hamilton, and movement specialist Dubois Dépraz, developed the first automatic chronograph in partnership. They developed this technology secretly in an effort to prevent other watchmaking houses from releasing an automatic chronograph first, namely their competition Zenith and Seiko. It was in Geneva and in New York that this partnership shared the first automatic chronograph with the world on March 3, 1969. These first automatic chronographs were labelled "Chrono-matic".

Many companies sell their own styles of chronographs. While today most chronographs are in the form of wristwatches, in the early 20th century pocket chronographs were very popular.

Uses
The term chronograph is often confused with the term chronometer. Where "Chronograph" refers to the function of a watch, chronometer is a measure of how well a given mechanical timepiece performs: in order to be labeled a chronometer the timepiece must be certified by the COSC, the official Swiss Chronometer testing institute, after undergoing a series of rigorous tests for robustness, accuracy and precision under adverse conditions (though these requirements fall far short of the accuracy achieved by even the cheapest modern quartz watch). A simple mechanical watch, without the stopwatch functionality, can be certified a chronometer, as can a clock, for example a ship's clock, used for navigation. The terms are not mutually exclusive either, for instance the Omega Seamaster 300M Chronograph GMT Co-Axial is also a COSC certified chronometer

Originally the term chronograph was mainly used in connection with artillery and the velocity of missiles. The Chronograph's main function is to allow a comparison of observation between a time base and, before the electronic stopwatch was invented, a permanent recording of the observer's findings. For example, one of the first applications of the chronograph was to record the time elapsed during horse races.

Some more important uses of the chronograph include the Langley Chronograph, which is used by the US Navy to record, calculate, and analyse data given off by aeroplane launching catapults. Another famous usage of the chronograph was during NASA's Apollo missions to the moon, when each astronaut was equipped with a fully functioning chronograph, the Omega Speedmaster; in one instance, a Bulova chronograph was used. Chronographs are routinely used to record heart beats within hospitals, calculate speed and/or distance on athletic fields, or even as simple timers in kitchens.

Function
Chronographs can be extremely complicated devices, but they all have the basic function of telling time, as they are watches, and of displaying elapsed time. Rieussec's chronograph was fairly simple. It was composed of two faces, a top and bottom face. The bottom face held a pool of ink, while the upper had a pen-like needle attached to it. When activated, the upper face pushed down on the lower face, while revolving around a central axis, which pulled the needle. This dragged the ink, in a circular fashion, recording the time elapsed by the line of ink that the motion created. There was room left for improvement, because Rieussec's chronograph was not easily ready for multiple uses.

This paved the way for the hundreds of patents that have been handed out to people for updating and upgrading this device. Automatic, non-digital chronographs do not require a battery, because the arm or wrist of the wearer creates kinetic energy, which results in the total energy source needed for this device to work. Throughout the day, while the wearer of the watch is walking, the swinging motion of his arm forces a semicircular rotor to turn on a pivot within the watch. The rotor is attached to a ratchet that winds the mainspring in the watch, so that it is ready for use at all times.

The modern day chronograph works by pushing a start button, normally located at the two o'clock position, to begin recording time, and by pushing the same button to stop the recording. When the button is pushed to start the recording, a series of three (in more complicated and more precise chronographs there are more wheels) train wheels start turning. The smallest has a revolution time of one second, the next sixty seconds, and the final one has a revolution time of sixty minutes. The three train wheels interact with one another and record how long it has been since the start button has been activated.

In addition to the start button, it also features a reset button normally located at the four o'clock position. When the reset button is pushed the chronograph hand will reset back to zero.

Tachymeter bezels are a complication that allows rapid calculations of speed or distance. Rotating bezels allow for more complex calculations or repeated calculations without requiring a reset of the timer.

Types
The original chronographs that Rieussec invented were called tape chronographs. They consisted of a tape that was constantly being dragged along at a controlled speed. When activated, a pen would be pushed onto the tape and begin recording until deactivated.

Specialized chronographs are used by deep sea and scuba divers. While basic functionality is the same as other chronographs, diving models have longer and more practical straps to wear over equipment, are made to be waterproof to deeper depths, have more rounded corners to prevent catching and luminous dials for reading in the murky depths.

Metered bezels: Many chronographs have a bezel, that is either fixed or can rotate, around the outside of the dial that is marked to specific scales to allow rapid calculations. While any wristwatch can have a bezel, the chronograph stop start feature, as well as the rotation of the bezel, allows more complex calculations or repeated measurements for a series of calculations. The most popular meter is for Tachymeter readings: a simple scale that allows rapid calculations of speed. Other bezels feature Telemeter scale, for distance. The watchmaking company Breitling offers a model with a rotating bezel, in conjunction with another, fixed, meter on the dial, scaled for use as a slide rule for more complex calculations.

Flyback chronographs have a timing hand that can be rapidly reset, or flyback, to zero. Ordinarily the sweep second hand is stopped to record the time and started again at that spot on the dial, or reset by spinning the second hand all the way to zero again, clockwise. The flyback allows a reading and a quick reset—a counterclockwise flyback—for the next measurement to start at zero.

A rattrapante, sometimes called a double chronograph, has multiple second hands, at least one of which can be stopped and started independently. When not activated, the second hands travel together, one under the other, to appear as just one second hand.

A tourbillon, although not strictly limited to chronographs, is an escapement set in a cage and placed in a rotating balance in order to minimize the effects of gravity on the escapement and increase precision. Because chronograph escapements are generally larger and connect with more complications, a tourbillion in a chronograph will differ from a tourbillion in a more simple timepiece.

Other types of modern-day chronographs are the automatic chronograph and the digital chronograph. The automatic chronograph depends solely on kinetic energy as its power source, while the digital chronograph is much like the common stopwatch and uses a battery to gain power, as well as quartz for timing.

Other, more specific, types of chronographs include split second chronographs, tide chronographs, and asthmometer chronographs. Each of these chronographs has an added feature that sets them apart.

Telemeter
The telemeter chronograph allows the user to approximately measure the distance to an event that can be both seen and heard (e.g. a lightning bolt or a torpedo strike) using the speed of sound. The user starts the chronograph (stopwatch) at the instant the event is seen, and stops timing at the instant the event is heard. The seconds hand will point to the distance measured on a scale, usually around the edge of the face. The scale can be defined in any unit of distance, but miles or kilometers are most practical and commonplace.

title: Chronograph


text:
Hversu Noregr byggðist

Hversu Noregr byggðist (How Norway was inhabited) is an account of the origin of various legendary Norwegian lineages, which survives only in the Flateyjarbók. It traces the descendants of the primeval Fornjót, a king of "Gotland, Kænland and Finnland", down to Nór, who is here the eponym and first great king of Norway, and then gives details of the descendants of Nór (and of his brother Gór) in a following section known as the Ættartölur, 'Genealogies'.

The Hversu account is closely paralleled by the opening of the Orkneyinga saga, which gives a slightly different version of the story and provides details on the descendants of Gór only, including information not found in the Hversu or Ættartölur. This opening portion of Orkneyingers saga is also known as Fundinn Noregr, 'Founding of Norway'.

Much of the material in these two accounts is found nowhere else, especially the tracing of many noble families to the stock of giants rather than to the god Odin which is the tendency elsewhere.

The genealogies also claim that many heroic families famed in Scandinavian tradition but not located in Norway were in fact of Norwegian stock, mostly sprung from Nór's great-grandson Halfdan the Old. Almost all the lineages sprung from Halfdan are then shown to reconverge in the person of Harald Fairhair the first king of all Norway. Where the information here is comparable with accounts in other sources, it is sometimes confirmed and sometimes contradicted, as would be expected. There are also minor discrepancies and contradictions within the Ættartölur. Included also is material on the Danish Skjöldung lineage and the Yngling lineage as ancestors of Harald Fairhair, including the purported line of descent from Adam to Harald.

The Ættartölur end with a genealogy of Harald's royal descendants down to Olaf IV of Norway with the statement the account was written in 1387, a list of the kings of Norway from this Olaf back to Harald Fair-hair, and a mention of the accession of Margaret, Olaf's mother, as direct ruler of Norway.

title: Hversu Noregr byggðist


text:
DiPT

Diisopropyltryptamine (also known as N,N-diisopropyltryptamine or DiPT) is a psychedelic hallucinogenic drug of the tryptamine family that has a unique effect. While the majority of hallucinogens affect the visual sense, DiPT is primarily aural.

Hallucinogenic properties
DiPT's effects are primarily aural. At lower doses, Alexander Shulgin reported effects similar to a flanging or a phase shift. At medium and higher dosages, the effect of DiPT is typically a radical shift downward in perceived pitch. This shift tends to be nonlinear, in that the shift downwards varies in relation to the initial pitch. This can produce bizarre sounds and render music disharmonious. There has been an experiment involving subjects with perfect pitch, the goal of which was to determine whether the pitch difference is truly distortive or linear, the results of which indicated that there is no clear relationship between perceived pitch and actual pitch. Aside from these, the most prevalent non-auditory effect is inner ear pressure (which has been painful in some instances, for example when combined with MDMA).

Chemistry
DiPT is a derivative of tryptamine formed by substituting isopropyl groups for the two hydrogen atoms attached to the non-aromatic nitrogen atom in the tryptamine molecule.

United Kingdom
As is the case with many PiHKAL and TiHKAL drugs, it is Class A in the UK, making it illegal to possess or use.

United States
DiPT is not scheduled at the federal level in the United States, but it could be considered an analog of 5-MeO-DiPT, in which case purchase, sale, or possession for human consumption or illicit use that is not for scientific or industrial purposes could be prosecuted under the Federal Analog Act. Some of the people arrested in Operation Web Tryp were selling DiPT, however the drug is not explicitly forbidden or outlawed.

However the US Drug Enforcement Agency (DEA) withdrew a proposal to ban five psychedelic substances including 4-Hydroxy-N,N-diisopropyltryptamine (4-OH-DiPT), N-Isopropyl-5-Methoxy-N-Methyltryptamine (5-MeO-MiPT) and N,N-Diisopropyltryptamine (DiPT). DEA withdrew the proposed listing as schedule 1 banned substance after a public hearing in 2022.

Florida
"DiPT (N,N-Diisopropyltryptamine)" is a Schedule I controlled substance in the state of Florida making it illegal to buy, sell, or possess in Florida.

Sweden
Sweden's public health agency suggested classifying DiPT as a hazardous substance, on May 15, 2019.

title: DiPT


text:
Youri Djorkaeff

Youri Raffi Djorkaeff (born 9 March 1968) is a French former professional footballer who played as an attacking midfielder or forward. Throughout his club career, he played for teams in France, Italy, Germany, England, and the United States.

At international level, Djorkaeff scored 28 goals in 82 appearances with the France national team between 1993 and 2002. He won the 1998 FIFA World Cup, Euro 2000, and the 2001 FIFA Confederations Cup, also taking part at Euro 1996 and the 2002 FIFA World Cup. He is the son of former player Jean Djorkaeff. On hanging up his boots in 2006 and after having played in France, Italy, Germany, United Kingdom and the US, Youri devoted himself to social projects, which eventually led him to establish the Youri Djorkaeff Foundation in 2014. He currently holds the position of CEO of the FIFA Foundation, following his appointment in September 2019.

Early life
Djorkaeff was born in Lyon, to a French father of Polish and Kalmyk origin, Jean Djorkaeff, and an Armenian mother, Mary Ohanian, in Lyon.

Club career
Djorkaeff started his career in 1984 with French club Grenoble, before moving to RC Strasbourg in 1989, AS Monaco in 1990, and then Paris Saint-Germain in 1995. In 1994, Djorkaeff led Division 1 in goals with 20. He won the UEFA Cup Winners' Cup with PSG in 1996. In 190 French top-flight matches Djorkaeff scored 73 goals.

In 1996, he signed with Italian club Inter Milan. In his first season, he scored 17 goals in 49 appearances across all competitions, scoring 14 goals in 33 Serie A appearances; with his excellent performances, he helped the club to a third–place finish in Serie A, and also reached the UEFA Cup Final, in which Inter were defeated by Schalke on penalties following a 1–1 draw on aggregate, although Djorkaeff was able to net his spot kick. During the course of the season, he also scored a memorable goal from a bicycle kick in a 3–1 home win against Roma in the league, on 5 January 1997, which is considered to be one of the greatest goals scored in the club's history. His following season was less successful individually, as he struggled to play well alongside the club's new signing Ronaldo, although collectively Inter finished the season in second place in Serie A and won the UEFA Cup, defeating Lazio 3–0 in the final at the Parc des Princes. In his third and final season with the team, following the signing of Roberto Baggio, he also struggled to find space in the team, and suffered a further loss of form; moreover, the club eventually finished the season in eighth place, outside of all possible European qualifying spots.

In 1999, he transferred to Germany and Kaiserslautern, helping them to the semi-finals of the UEFA Cup in 2001.

Djorkaeff turned many heads when signing with English club Bolton Wanderers in 2002, but added a lot of class to the team during his three seasons there, resulting in the creation of an international "dream-team" alongside the tricky Nigerian Jay-Jay Okocha, and former Real Madrid midfielder Iván Campo. He was a member of the squad that reached the final of the 2003–04 League Cup. He then transferred to Blackburn Rovers but left the club after playing in only three games.

Djorkaeff then signed with the MetroStars of Major League Soccer in February 2005, turning down higher paid offers from other countries. He became the first French player to play in MLS and ended the season as the team's MVP with ten goals and seven assists in league play. Djorkaeff announced from the beginning that he would hang-up his boots at the end of 2006 season, and played for the re-branded New York Red Bulls. On 1 July 2006, he was spotted in the crowd with French fans at the FIFA World Cup quarter-final match between France and Brazil after telling Red Bulls officials he left the club to attend to "an unexpected, serious family matter in France." Upon his return, he revealed that the purpose of his departure was to be with his sick mother and downplayed watching the World Cup match.

He retired from professional football on 29 October 2006.

International career
Djorkaeff accumulated 82 caps and scored 28 goals for France at senior level between 1993 and 2002. Other than the two major tournaments he won with the national side – the 1998 FIFA World Cup and UEFA Euro 2000 – Djorkaeff also played for his country in UEFA Euro 1996 and the 2002 FIFA World Cup. In the 1998 FIFA World Cup Final in Paris, he set-up Zinedine Zidane's second goal from a corner in an eventual 3–0 victory over defending champions Brazil.

Style of play
Nicknamed The Snake, due to his ability to get past defenders and bend the ball, Djorkaeff was a talented playmaker, who usually played as an attacking midfielder, although he was also capable of playing in deeper positions in midfield on occasion – namely as a central midfielder – or in more attacking roles, as a creative second striker, or even as an outright striker, while he often featured in a wide role on the left flank at international level. An elegant and technically gifted player, he was mainly known for his flair, dribbling skills, and excellent touch on the ball; he was also known for his vision, passing, composure, and class, and possessed a good shot, which enabled him both to score and create goals. He was known for his positional sense and intelligent movement off the ball, as well as his ability to lose his markers with his attacking runs and create space for himself, or provide depth to the team; he was also highly regarded for his accuracy from free kicks and penalties with his right foot. A hard-working player, who was known for his defensive contribution off the ball, he had the ability to link the defence with the attack or drift out wide in a free role in midfield;  as such, his playing style and role has been described as that of a "nine and a half," half-way between that of a midfielder and that of a forward, which from a tactical standpoint, however, occasionally made it difficult for managers to find the right position for him on the pitch that best suited his capabilities. Moreover, despite his talent and success, he was also accused of being inconsistent at times in the media.

Personal life
Djorkaeff has a wife, Sophie, and three children: Sacha, Oan and Angelica. Djorkaeff released a singing single called "Vivre dans Ta Lumière", translated to "Living in Your Light" from French. His father, Jean, and younger brother, Micha Djorkaeff, were also professional football players.

On 15 November 2012 Djorkaeff hosted Phone-a-thon for Armenian charity held in Europe. The Phoneathon benefits the construction of community centres in villages throughout Nagorno Karabakh and comprehensive agricultural development in Armenia's Tavush Region. In addition, a part of the proceeds will be dedicated to providing urgent aid to the Syrian-Armenian community.

During his time in England, Djorkaeff opened a football school in Armenia. After retiring, he became the president of his childhood club in Lyon, Union Generale Armenienne de Decines, in April 2007. Djorkaeff currently also runs the Youri Djorkaeff Foundation, a non-profit organisation dedicated to providing football programs in New York City.

Ecuador forward Djorkaeff Reasco was named after Djorkaeff.

International

 * Scores and results list France's goal tally first, score column indicates score after each Djorkaeff goal.

Honours
Monaco
 * Coupe de France: 1990–91

Paris Saint-Germain
 * Trophée des Champions: 1995
 * UEFA Cup Winners' Cup: 1995–96

Inter Milan
 * UEFA Cup: 1997–98

Bolton Wanderers
 * Football League Cup runner-up: 2003–04

France
 * FIFA World Cup: 1998
 * UEFA European Championship: 2000
 * FIFA Confederations Cup: 2001
 * Kirin Cup: 1994

Individual
 * Division 1 top scorer: 1993–94
 * UEFA European Championship Team of the Tournament: 1996
 * UEFA European Championship top assist provider: 1996
 * Pirata d'Oro (Inter Milan Player of the Year): 1997
 * FIFA XI: 1997

Orders
 * Knight of the Legion of Honour: 1998

title: Youri Djorkaeff