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John Brown University

John Brown University (JBU) is a private, interdenominational, Christian university in Siloam Springs, Arkansas. Founded in 1919, JBU enrolls 2,343 students from 33 states and 45 countries in its traditional undergraduate, graduate, online, and concurrent education programs.

The 200 acre main campus in northwest Arkansas has been the site of the university since it was founded in 1919. JBU has 2,343 students as of the 2021–2022 school year, 1,228 of whom are on-campus undergraduates. Of these, 818 live on campus. In addition, the university has two off-campus locations: a classroom facility in Rogers, Arkansas, and a Counseling Education Center in Little Rock with classrooms, offices and a Community Counseling Clinic.

The Graduate School at John Brown University has 483 students and offers 16 graduate degrees in business, education, counseling, and cybersecurity.

JBU is accredited by the Higher Learning Commission and competes athletically in the Sooner Athletic Conference. Programs within the university have specialized accreditation from Accreditation Board for Engineering and Technology (ABET), Council for Accreditation of Educator Preparation (CAEP), American Council for Construction Education (ACCE), Accreditation Council for Business Schools and Programs (ACBSP), and Commission on Collegiate Nursing Education (CCNE).

John E. Brown: background
John E. Brown (1879–1957) was not afforded the opportunity to pursue much education, as his family's financial difficulties forced him to begin working at the age of 11. As a teenaged laborer in Arkansas, Brown encountered the Salvation Army and underwent a conversion experience. After his conversion, he became an itinerant Methodist evangelist, with his travels taking him across Arkansas, Missouri, Kansas and the Indian Territory.

Subsequent to becoming an evangelist, Brown accepted a position as president of Scarritt College in Neosho. His two years as president were instrumental in developing his plan to establish his own college. However, Brown felt that the strong emphasis of that school on education without the benefit of life training was harmful to the students. As he said in 1903, "It might be my privilege to have a part in the building of school that would turn the minds of youth back from this exaggerated concept of the value of book knowledge, to the realization that all this is valuable only as it becomes a background for, or the foundation under, the real things of life."

Early years: presidency of John E. Brown Sr. 1919–1948
Maintaining this goal of establishing a college that would provide an interdenominational, Christian education for needy students, who like himself, might not have had a chance of receiving an education, Brown laid the foundation in 1919 for the institution that would later be called John Brown University, John E. Brown College. To pay for the institution's free tuition, Brown developed his school as a Christian vocational college. Students worked jobs such as carpentry and helped in constructing the buildings on campus. The typical work-day was four hours in addition to class time.

Apparently seeking to expand the reach of the growing college, John Brown announced in 1934 that the school was to be changed into a four-year university. The new university was divided into three colleges: the academic, vocational, and Bible colleges, fitting John Brown's stated vision of educating "head, heart, and hand". Spreading the new university's fields of study into new technology, Brown soon purchased a local radio station (KUOA) from which to broadcast Christian programming and his own sermons. Brown had used radio extensively before but was eager to get the resources of radio into the hands of the university. The expanded facilities, such as the distinctive Cathedral Group, which took root in the 1930s and 1940s, caused expenses for which the university had to pay. JBU began charging tuition in 1939, albeit a very small amount, and John Brown began to realize that financially, the vocational aspect of the school was more costly than anticipated. The university relied heavily on outside donations to break even financially.

Shift away from fundamentalism
As the university grew, Brown continued to preach throughout the country and on the radio. He was well known for his attacks on liquor, gambling, dancing, and other Christian fundamentalist issues of the time. This brought him into close proximity with Bob Jones Sr. founder of Bob Jones University, who presented Brown with an honorary doctorate in 1937.

In the 1940s, the close ties between JBU and the Christian fundamentalist movement began to wane, as the university took an unexpected turn away from fundamentalism. John Brown himself was always a proponent of interdenominationalism, and by aligning himself with Youth for Christ and other evangelical organizations after World War II, JBU was making a statement. John Brown's description of the school in 1948 as "interdenominational and definitely evangelical" is very telling in this regard.

Presidency of John E. Brown Jr. 1948–1979
When John Brown Sr. relinquished control of the university (at least in name, since he remained as chairman of the board) in 1948, he began a period of much-needed consolidation. During World War II the student body had dropped to barely over a hundred, and the high echelons of the school's leadership were being run almost exclusively by the Brown family. Under the second Brown, professors and administrators were hired who had more advanced degrees, the Board of Trustees began to develop as a more independent body, and the students elected representatives to an independent council. All of this was beginning to occur by the end of the 1940s. Also, the university began construction on its Cathedral Group, composed of the chapel sanctuary, known as the Cathedral of the Ozarks, the Science building, and the Library, supposedly symbolizing in building form the idea of educating "head, heart, and hand". As much as JBU grew during this period, it still lacked accreditation and its student body continued to hover at around 300 during the 1950s. After the founder's death in 1957, John Brown Jr. worked to improve the quality of the education JBU provided. One crucial step was the abolition of the university's vocational college. Citing the shifting makeup of the workforce in the 1960s, the president did away with the vocational requirement, with the understanding that each department would provide practical career training as part of its curriculum. As a result of these reforms and others, JBU was finally nationally accredited by North Central Association.

During the turbulent years of the Vietnam War and the peace movement, JBU was relatively undisturbed. The school nurtured at that time a strong Christian Americanist vision of the world, tying American patriotism and political conservatism to conservative Christian faith. Instead of joining the anti-war movement, many JBU students joined organizations like Campus Crusade for Christ and traveled to other campuses. When those turbulent times had come and gone, JBU faced the 1970s with uncertainty. Academic standards were low and classes were not challenging. The university recognized the need to improve its quality, so it brought in Elton Trueblood, professor of philosophy at Earlham College, who had written The Idea of A College which argued that colleges should focus on liberal arts over career preparation. Trueblood's visits in the mid-1970s inspired JBU to look for ideas in Arthur F. Holmes' Idea of a Christian College in which a Christian college seeks to integrate faith and learning.

Presidency of John E. Brown III 1979–1993
When John Brown Jr. stepped down as president, the job fell to his son, John Brown III, who immediately sought to improve the academic quality of the university. He visited Wheaton College (Illinois) and heralded its commitment to an integration of academic quality and Christian faith. To accompany his praise of Wheaton, he announced that the first consideration of JBU in selecting prospective students would be academic quality, and raising the entrance requirements. As expected, this began to attract more academically gifted students. Also, in the 1980s, an Honors Program was established. However, the third Brown made sure to maintain JBU's historic emphasis on career training, through its non-liberal arts programs such as Engineering, Construction Management, and Graphic Design. As well as academic programs, John Brown III instituted new building programs and a scholarship for Latin American students paid for by Sam Walton.

Presidency of George F. Ford 1993–1994
John Brown III stepped down as president and was succeeded by George Ford, former Vice President of Roberts Wesleyan College, who left after less than a year because of internal difficulties with the university. During Ford's brief presidency, the university began offering an undergraduate degree completion program ("The Advance Program") in various locations in Northwest Arkansas.

Presidency of Lee Balzer 1994–2004
The former president of Tabor College in Kansas, Lee Balzer, took office after the Ford controversy with a plan to expand the university's reach. He extended the Advance Program for non-traditional students in other cities by establishing branch centers in Fort Smith, Arkansas and Little Rock, Arkansas. During his presidency, JBU offered its first graduate degrees, initially in school counseling, and later including master's degrees in marriage and family therapy, leadership and ethics, business (MBA) and Christian ministry. The Center for Marriage and Family Studies was established during the Balzer presidency. Under President Balzer, JBU also founded the Soderquist Center for Business Leadership and Ethics to promote ethical principles in the business world. In addition, JBU's financial campaign at the end of the 1990s raised more than 39 million dollars to build Walker Student Center, Bell Science Hall, North Hall, and the Soderquist Business Center, all in the span of barely more than five years.

Presidency of Charles Pollard 2004–present
In 2004, Balzer retired. JBU selected Charles (Chip) Pollard, then Professor of English at Calvin College, to take the office of president for the institution. Since taking office, Pollard has overseen an interior and exterior renovation of the Cathedral Group, the expansion of North Hall, growth in the student body to over 2,000 students, and general consolidation after the rapid expansion of the past decade. Pollard's most notable legacy will likely be his extremely successful expansion of the JBU endowment, upgrade of the facilities and successfully growing the school's enrollment. Under the leadership of Pollard, JBU has seen significant growth through a number of sizable financial gifts. Graduate programs expanded to include the Master of Arts in Teaching, Master of Education, MA in Higher Education and MFA in Collaborative Design.

It was announced in early 2010, after receipt of an $8 million anonymous donation, that JBU would construct a new engineering and construction management building. The building was completed in 2011 and named the Balzer Technology Building in honor of the school's former president. Later that year, a JBU engineering student turned successful alumnus and businessman, Bill Berry, provided the financial gift for the Berry Performing Arts Center which was completed in 2011. In 2012, it was announced that the Simmons family, owners of the privately held Simmons Foods located in Siloam Springs, would make a financial gift providing JBU with a new dining and gathering facility. The Simmons Great Hall was completed in mid-2013. The Health Education Building that houses the nursing department was completed in 2016.

Lifestyle standards
In the tradition of some other private Christian universities, John Brown University maintains a conservative set of lifestyle choices. Students sign a community covenant stating they will abstain from profanity, pornography, extramarital sexual activity, harassment, tobacco use, alcohol use, and gambling. The covenant also strictly prohibits LGBTQIA+ relationships on campus. Staff and faculty are not required to sign this covenant but must sign a statement of employee expectations. However, the statement they sign includes that they do not believe in LGBTQIA+ relationships.

John Brown University made national news when it changed its long historically held position not to endorse dancing. In December 2006, the school sponsored its own swing-themed dance on campus.

JBU made national news in early 2013 as it has become famous for its yearly toilet paper basketball game. ESPN did a special highlighting "The greatest technical foul in all of sports."

Campus

John Brown University's main campus is located on 200 acre in Siloam Springs, Arkansas. The university's most recognizable building, the Cathedral of the Ozarks, was completed in 1957 and, along with the two Windgate Visual Art Buildings composes the Cathedral group. The Cathedral contains a sanctuary for chapel and other assemblies, and the back portion is a three-floor academic building housing the music department and the humanities and social sciences. The entire Cathedral group was recently renovated on the inside and resurfaced with white limestone on the exterior.

Between the Cathedral group and Walker Student Center is the campus's main quad, which is used for recreation and relaxation by students. The student center itself houses a cafe, an open area for studying, bookstore, post office, and classrooms on the second floor. Attached to the student center is the Walker co-ed residence hall with male and female residents living on separate floors. There are three other residence halls on campus as well: J. Alvin Brown, an all-male dormitory and the oldest building on campus which was given a $6 million renovation in 2014; Mayfield, an all-female hall completing a $6 million renovation in 2018, and Hutcheson, a co-ed residence hall. Upperclassman and non-traditional student housing options include campus townhouses and the Northslope Apartments.

Other buildings on campus are the Bill George Arena, Soderquist Business Center, Bell Science Hall, Mabee Learning Resource Center, Chapman Administrative Building, Blood Memorial (Admissions) Building, Berry Performing Arts Center, Balzer Technology Center, CARE Clinic, Simmons Great Hall, Health Education Building, Peer-Andrus Studio & Project Barn and the Walton Lifetime Health Complex.

Academics
John Brown University currently offers 41 undergraduate majors, with the most popular as of 2022-23 being Nursing, Psychology, Family and Human Service, Kinesiology and Graphic Design - 65. As a liberal arts college, JBU requires all students to take a core curriculum of classes, which include several Bible classes, English, a foreign language requirement, science credit, the history of Western civilization, a math requirement, wellness, psychology, government, and philosophy. In the period from 2003 to 2012, JBU rose from eighth to first in U.S. News & World Report rankings for the Baccalaureate Colleges in the Southern region. In 2016, due to growth in graduate programs, the university was moved to the Regional Universities in the Souther region category of U.S. News. In 2022, JBU ranked number ten in this list. JBU's Business department won first and second place at the Arkansas Governor's Cup Business Plan competition in 2007 and then in 2011 swept the Governor's Cup, receiving first, second, and third. In 2017, the JBU Enactus team won the U.S. National Championships and represented the U.S. at the Enactus World Cup in London. Its student newspaper, the Threefold Advocate, was named the best student newspaper in Arkansas in 2008 and 2010. The University Honors Program has 200 student members, and is designed to allow students to take Honors versions of the necessary core classes, which are supposed to be more challenging and more encouraging of independent student research. JBU is one of the few small Christian colleges to offer comprehensive degrees in Graphic Design, Photography, and Digital Media. The libraries on campus house 120,000 volumes, and offer Interlibrary loan and tutoring assistance.

Associated centers
John Brown University has two endowed, associated centers: The Center for Healthy Relationships and The Center for Faith and Flourishing.

Athletics
The John Brown (JBU) athletic teams are called the Golden Eagles. The university is a member of the National Association of Intercollegiate Athletics (NAIA), primarily competing in the Sooner Athletic Conference (SAC) since the 1995–96 academic year; which they were a member on a previous stint from 1980–81 to 1982–83. The Golden Eagles previously competed in the Arkansas Intercollegiate Conference (AIC) from 1993–94 to 1994–95; and as an NAIA Independent from 1983–84 to 1992–93.

JBU competes in 11 intercollegiate varsity sports: Men's sports include basketball, cross country, soccer, tennis and track & field; while women's sports include basketball, cross country, soccer, tennis, track & field and volleyball.

Basketball
On March 22, 2005, the JBU men's basketball team won the 2005 NAIA Division I National Championship. John Brown defeated Azusa Pacific University 65–55 at Municipal Auditorium in Kansas City, Missouri. Each year during the first home game, JBU basketball fans come armed with rolls...and rolls...of toilet paper, which they hurl onto the court after the first JBU basket of the season. This 34-year-old tradition brings in record crowds with approximately 2,000 rolls of toilet paper and lands JBU an automatic technical foul for the season.

Golf
The JBU varsity men's golf team was originally formed in 1966. The team lasted until 1973, at which time it was cut from the athletic program. The school restarted its men's varsity golf team in the fall of 2008 and remained intact until 2016.

Cheerleading
JBU began a cheer squad in the fall of 2010. JBU had cheerleading many years ago, but it only counted as a club then.

Club teams and intramurals
The university has club rugby, ultimate frisbee and esports teams for both men and women. The JBU Talons men's club baseball team began play in 2021. These clubs compete against clubs from other universities. To house its club teams, JBU has a rugby pitch and on campus. JBU also has a club ultimate frisbee team. JBU students also participate in a number of intramural sports, from soccer to volleyball to flag football to dodgeball. Many of these events take place on the intramural fields or in the Walton Lifetime Health Complex.

Notable alumni
Republican]] member of the Arkansas House of Representatives from Rogers; advocate of child crime victims, studied in the Leadership/Ethics program at JBC in 2014
 * Rodney Anderson - former member of the Wyoming House of Representatives
 * Dave Armstrong - sportscaster
 * Jimmy Driftwood - folk music songwriter and musician
 * Janet Huckabee - wife of former Governor of Arkansas and 2008 Republican presidential candidate Mike Huckabee; completed her undergraduate degree at John Brown University in 2003
 * Bill McIlvain, former Wyoming Speaker of the House
 * Kendra Moore, American politician
 * John Osteen - founder of Lakewood Church in Houston, Texas
 * Rebecca Petty - [[Republican Party (United States)|
 * Carolyn Pollan - 1959 JBU graduate; the longest serving Republican and the longest serving woman member of the Arkansas House of Representatives; represented Fort Smith from 1975 to 1999; member of the JBU trustees
 * Jim Sheets - retired Arkansas politician; an administrator at JBU from 1953 to 1969
 * Jim Winn - former MLB pitcher

Notable former faculty

 * Mike Flynn - radio producer
 * Delia Haak - Republican member of the Arkansas House of Representatives for District 91
 * Timothy Chad Hutchinson - Republican former member of the Arkansas House of Representatives; adjunct professor of employment law, business law, and corporate governance
 * Robin Lundstrum - Republican member of the Arkansas House of Representatives for Benton and Washington counties since 2015; taught at JBU from 1989 to 1998
 * Wally Moon - Major League Baseball player
 * Mathew Pitsch - adjunct faculty member, Republican member of the Arkansas House of Representatives from Fort Smith
 * William M. Runyan - Christian songwriter who composed "Great Is Thy Faithfulness"
 * Lavenski Smith - Chief Judge of the U.S. Court of Appeals - Eighth Circuit

title: John Brown University


text:
Tiberius Claudius Nero

Tiberius Claudius Nero may refer to:
 * Tiberius Claudius Nero (son of Caecus)
 * Tiberius Claudius Nero (consul 202 BC)
 * Tiberius Claudius Nero (grandfather of Tiberius Caesar)
 * Tiberius Claudius Nero (father of Tiberius Caesar)
 * Tiberius, formerly Tiberius Claudius Nero, Roman emperor from 14 to 37
 * Claudius, formerly Tiberius Claudius Nero Germanicus, Roman emperor from 41 to 54

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Tiberius Claudius Nero


text:
Aerfer

Aerfer was an Italian manufacturing company created in 1955 by the merger of IMAM and Officine Ferroviarie Meridionali. The name is a contraction of Costruzioni Aeronautiche e Ferroviarie (Aeronautical and Railway Constructions).

In 1969 it merged with Salmoiraghi and the aviation division of Fiat to create Aeritalia.

The firm is remembered mostly in connection with the development of Italy's first supersonic jet, the Aerfer Sagittario 2.

List of aircraft

 * SAI.7 (1939) Single propeller engine single-seat racing aircraft
 * SAI.7T (1943) Single propeller engine two-seat training aircraft
 * S.7 (1949) Single propeller engine two-seat touring aircraft
 * Supersette (1951) Single propeller engine two-seat trainer/racing aircraft
 * Sagittario (1953) Single jet engine adaptation of S.7 aircraft, with wooden wings and tail surfaces
 * Aerfer Sagittario 2 (1956) All-metal development of Sagittario. Broke sound barrier.
 * Aerfer Ariete (1958) Development of Sagittario 2 with additional jet engine for climb and speed
 * Aerfer Leone (1959) Proposed development of Sagittario 2 with additional rocket engine for climb and speed. Not built

title: Aerfer


text: User talk:69.158.68.152

title: User talk:69.158.68.152


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User talk:62.6.139.11

Proposed deletion of Sparki

The article Sparki has been proposed for deletion  because of the following concern:
 * No significant coverage able to be found in independent reliable sources

While all contributions to Wikipedia are appreciated, content or articles may be deleted for any of several reasons.

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Please consider improving the article to address the issues raised. Removing will stop the proposed deletion process, but other deletion processes exist. The speedy deletion process can result in deletion without discussion, and articles for deletion allows discussion to reach consensus for deletion. The-Pope (talk) 16:32, 11 July 2011 (UTC)

Nomination of London Posse for deletion
A discussion is taking place as to whether the article London Posse is suitable for inclusion in Wikipedia according to Wikipedia's policies and guidelines or whether it should be deleted.

The article will be discussed at Articles for deletion/London Posse until a consensus is reached, and anyone is welcome to contribute to the discussion. The nomination will explain the policies and guidelines which are of concern. The discussion focuses on high-quality evidence and our policies and guidelines.

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Proposed deletion of MC Mell'O'

The article MC Mell'O' has been proposed for deletion  because of the following concern:
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Proposed deletion of DJ Pogo

The article DJ Pogo has been proposed for deletion  because of the following concern:
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Speedy deletion nomination of Brandendamm

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title: User talk:62.6.139.11


text: Category:Music of Malta

title: Category:Music of Malta


text:
User:Jimmyharris

My weblog - http://jimmysweblog.net

title: User:Jimmyharris


text: Category:Culture of Malta

title: Category:Culture of Malta


text:
Category:Tic-tac-toe

Tic-tac-toe, also called noughts and crosses and many other names, is a paper and pencil game between two players, O and X, who alternate in marking the spaces in a 3×3 board. A player wins by getting three of their own marks in a horizontal, vertical or diagonal row.

title: Category:Tic-tac-toe


text:
Wikipedia:Articles for deletion/Frank X. Ford

Frank X. Ford
Vast tract of sarcasm on someone who appears to be a high school drama teacher. Ianb 00:38, 1 Oct 2004 (UTC)
 * Delete. Prank.   — Gwalla | Talk 01:00, 1 Oct 2004 (UTC)
 * Delete or Cleanup: the person is real, and seems to have some notability. However, the current article is heavily POV, and not usable. Delete unless cleaned up significantly. -- Chris 73 Talk 01:52, Oct 1, 2004 (UTC)
 * Delete. Someone building a towering facade of frothing lunacy about someone doesn't make them notable. I wouldn't trust the current article as far as I can throw Greenland, so if he is remotely notable (52 google hits for "Frank X Ford" isn't great) you are better of starting from scratch. Average Earthman 11:49, 1 Oct 2004 (UTC)
 * I concur. Delete. [[User:Livajo|力伟|т]] 22:50, 1 Oct 2004 (UTC)
 * Delete. In my own school days I could have contributed similar articles --Cje 09:04, 6 Oct 2004 (UTC)
 * Keep. Well-written. --Ute Oronto 21:17, 6 Oct 2004 (UTC)
 * Likely Sock puppet, only about 20 edits at the time of this vote (see contribs). -- Netoholic @ 23:34, 2004 Oct 6 (UTC)
 * All of Ute Oronto's edits are vandalism. RickK 04:28, Oct 7, 2004 (UTC)
 * Delete. [[User:Neutrality|Neutrality (talk)]] 22:00, Oct 6, 2004 (UTC)


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Choctaw language

The Choctaw language (Choctaw: Chahta anumpa ), spoken by the Choctaw, an Indigenous people of the Southeastern Woodlands, US, is a member of the Muskogean language family. Chickasaw is a separate but closely related language to Choctaw.

The Choctaw Nation of Oklahoma published the New Choctaw dictionary in 2016.

Dialects
There are three dialects of Choctaw (Mithun 1999):

 * 1) "Native" Choctaw on the Choctaw Nation in southeastern Oklahoma
 * 2) Mississippi Choctaw of Oklahoma on Chickasaw Nation of south-central Oklahoma (near Durwood)
 * 3) Choctaw of the Mississippi Band of Choctaw Indians near Philadelphia, Mississippi

Other speakers live near Tallahassee, Florida, and with the Koasati in Louisiana, and also a few speakers live in Texas and California.

Phonology

 * More information on suffixes is in the Morphology section.

Consonants

 * 1) The only voiced stop is . The voiceless stops, , and  may become partially voiced between vowels, especially  and for male speakers. Also, the voiceless stops are slightly aspirated at the onset of words and before stressed syllables, behaving like English voiceless plosives.
 * 2) Controversially, some analyses suggest that all nouns end in an underlying consonant phoneme. Nouns apparently ending in a vowel actually have a glottal stop  or a glottal fricative  as the final consonant. Such consonants become realized when suffixes are attached.
 * 3) The distinction between phonemes  and  is neutralized at the end of words.

Free variation

 * There is free variation of some consonants in Choctaw with some speakers:
 * 1) /ɬ/, the voiceless lateral fricative, is pronounced as a voiceless dental fricative [θ]: →.
 * 2) The voiceless labiodental fricative /f/ is pronounced as a voiceless bilabial fricative [ɸ]: →.

Phonological processes of consonants

 * In Choctaw, the voiceless velar plosive, is often pronounced as , a voiced velar fricative, between vowels.
 * →/V_V
 * imofi-aki-lih→imofiy-əɣə̃꞉-lih

 * The voiceless glottal fricative is often pronounced like a voiceless palatal fricative  when it precedes the voiceless palato-alveolar affricate.
 * →/_
 * katihchish→katiçtʃiʃ

Vowels

 * 1)  Lax vowels occur more often in closed syllables. In traditional orthography, ʋ usually indicates  and u usually indicates . Exceptions include pokoli (traditional) for, imalakusi for . The traditional orthography does not distinguish lax and tense front vowels; instead it indicates  with e.
 * 2)  Nasal vowels are intrinsically long.

Pitch

 * 1) In Choctaw, very few words are distinguished only by pitch accent. Nouns in Choctaw have pitch realization at the penultimate syllable or the ultimate syllable. Verbs in Choctaw will have pitch realization at morphemes indicating tense, but sometimes, pitch directly precedes the tense morpheme.

Syllable structure

 * 1) As is in the chart above, there are three syllable structure types in Choctaw: light, heavy, and super heavy. Possible syllables in Choctaw must contain at least one vowel of any quality.
 * 2) Syllables cannot end with a consonant clusters CC. However, there is an exception with the structure *(C)VCC if a word in Choctaw ends with the suffix /-t/.
 * 3) Syllables do not begin with consonant clusters CC, but there is an exception in an initial /i-/ deletion, which results in a syllable *CCV.

Rhythmic lengthening

 * Rhythmic lengthening is the process of lengthening the vowel duration of an even-numbered CV syllable in Choctaw. However, vowels at the end of words are not permitted to undergo that process. Also, if an even-numbered syllable is a verbal prefixes class I or III, the affix's vowel may not undergo lengthening, and the same holds true for noun prefixes class III as well.
 * CV-CV-CVC→CV-CV ꞉ -CVC
 * salahatok→sala꞉hatok

Smallest possible word

 * The smallest possible word in Choctaw must contain either two short vowels or one long vowel.
 * a꞉t

 * /a-/ insertion: there are verbs with only one short vowel in their roots. Without an affix attached to the verb root, the verbs become impossible utterances because Choctaw requires either two short vowels or a long vowel for a word to be formed. An initial A-prefix is thus attached to the root of the verb.
 * *bih → a-bih

Glide insertion

 * When a verb root ends with a long vowel, a glide /w/ or /j/ is inserted after the long vowel.
 * ∅→/wa/ / V꞉____
 * 1) Where V꞉ is oo
 * 2) boo-a-h→bóowah
 * ∅→/ja/ / V꞉____
 * 1) Where V꞉ can be either ii or aa
 * 2) talaa-a-h→talaayah

/i-/ deletion

 * In Choctaw, there is a group of nouns which contain an initial /i-/ that encodes for 3rd person possession. It may be deleted, but if the /i/ is part of a VC syllable structure, the C is also deleted, because the resulting CCV syllable is rarely a permissible syllable structure at the onset of words.
 * /i/→∅ / #____
 * Part 1: /i + C/→∅ + /C/ / #____
 * Part 2: /∅ + C/→∅ / #____
 * ippókni'→ppókni'→pókni'

/-l-/ infix assimilation

 * The verbal infix /l/ is pronounced /h, ch, or ɬ/ when /l/ precedes a voiceless consonant.
 * l → {h, tʃ, ɬ} /_C[-voice]
 * ho-l-tinah → ho-ɬ-tinah

Phonological processes of the suffix /-li/

 * There are several assimilation processes that occur with the suffix /-li/. When the verbal suffix /-li/ is preceded by /f/ /ɫ/ /h/ /m/ /n/ or /w/, the /l/ assimilates to the corresponding consonant that precedes it. Also, the verbal suffix /-li/ is preceded by the consonant /b/, the /l/ is realized as /b/. Third, when the verbal suffix /-li/ is preceded by the consonant /p/, the /p/ is pronounced as /b/. Lastly, when the verbal suffix /-li/ is preceded by the consonant /t/, the /t/ is pronounced as /l/.
 * /l/→/f, ɫ, h, m, n, w/ / /f, ɫ, h, m, n, w/____
 * /kobaf-li-h/→ kobaaffih

 * /l/→/b/ / /b/____
 * /atob-li-h/→ atobbih

 * /p/→/b/ / /b/____
 * /tap-li-h/→ tablih

 * /t/→/l/ / ____/l/
 * /palhat-li-h/→ pallalih

 * There are two deletion processes that occur with the suffix /-li/. If the verbal suffix /-li/ precedes the verbal suffix /-tʃi/, the suffix /-li/ may be deleted if the resulting syllable, after deletion, is a consonant cluster. The other process occurs when the verbal suffix /-li/ precedes the suffix /-t/, which results with the suffix /-li/ being sometimes deleted if the syllable /-li/ has not already gone under phonological processes as described above.
 * /li/→∅ / ____/tʃi/
 * balii-li-chi-h→balii-chi-h

 * /li/→∅ / ____/t/
 * balii-li--h→balii-t

Schwa insertion

 * Schwa insertion: when a glottal fricative or a velar stop  precedes a voiced consonant within a consonant cluster, a schwa  is inserted to break up the consonant cluster.
 * ∅→ / ____[+voiced] consonant
 * ∅→ / ____[+voiced] consonant
 * 'ahnih'→/ahənih/

Vowel deletion

 * Vowel deletion is the process of a short vowel being deleted at a morpheme boundary. It occurs when an affix containing a short vowel at the morpheme boundary binds to a word that also contains a short vowel at the morpheme boundary.
 * 1) For most vowel deletion cases, the preceding short vowel is deleted at the morpheme boundary.
 * V→∅ / ____V
 * /baliil i-aa tʃĩ-h/→baliil aa tʃĩh

 * 1) If a class II suffix attaches to a word that results with two short vowels occurring together, the short vowel that follows the class II suffix is deleted.
 * V→∅ / V____
 * /s a-i baa-waʃoohah/→s a baa-waʃoohah

Verbal morphology
Choctaw verbs display a wide range of inflectional and derivational morphology. In Choctaw, the category of verb may also include words that would be categorized as adjectives or quantifiers in English. Verbs may be preceded by up to three prefixes and followed by as many as five suffixes. In addition, verb roots may contain infixes that convey aspectual information.

Verb prefixes
The verbal prefixes convey information about the arguments of the verb: how many there are and their person and number features. The prefixes can be divided into three sorts: agreement markers, applicative markers, and anaphors (reflexives and reciprocals). The prefixes occur in the following order: agreement-anaphor-applicative-verb stem.

Agreement affixes
The agreement affixes are shown in the following chart. The only suffix among the personal agreement markers is the first-person singular class I agreement marker /-li/. Third-person is completely unmarked for class I and class II agreement arguments and never indicates number.

Some authors (Ulrich 1986, Davies, 1986) refer to class I as actor or nominative, class II as patient or accusative and class III as dative. Broadwell prefers the neutral numbered labels because the actual use of the affixes is more complex. This type of morphology is generally referred to as active–stative and polypersonal agreement.

Class I affixes always indicate the subject of the verb. Class II prefixes usually indicate direct object of active verbs and the subject of stative verbs. Class III prefixes indicate the indirect object of active verbs. A small set of stative psychological verbs have class III subjects; an even smaller set of stative verbs dealing primarily with affect, communication and intimacy have class III direct objects.

Active verbs
As the chart above shows, there is no person-number agreement for third person arguments. Consider the following paradigms:

 * 1)  When the subject and object refer to the same thing or person (coreference), the reflexive ili- prefix is mandatory and used in place of the coreferent object.

Transitive active verbs seemingly with class III direct objects:

 * Am-anoli-tok 'She/he/it/they told me.'
 * Chim-anoli-tok 'She/he/it/they told you.'
 * Im-anoli-tok 'She/he/it/they told him/her/it/them.'
 * Pim-anoli-tok 'She/he/it/they told us.'
 * Hachim-anoli-tok 'She/he/it/they told y'all.'

When a transitive verb occurs with more than one agreement prefix, I prefixes precede II and III prefixes:

Ii- chi- pi̱sa -tok

1P.I- 2S.II- see$⟨NGR⟩$ -PT

'We saw you.'

Ish- pim- anooli -tok.

2S.I- 1P.III- tell -PT

'You told us.'

For intransitive verbs, the subjects of active verbs typically have class I agreement. Because third-person objects are unmarked, intransitive active verbs are indistinguishable in form from transitive active verbs with a third-person direct object.

Stative verbs
The subjects of stative verbs typically have II agreement. A small set of psychological verbs have subjects with class III agreement.

Baliili -li -tok

run -1S.I -PT

'I ran.'

Sa- niya -h.

1S.II- fat -TNS

'I am fat.'

A̱- ponna -h.

1S.III- skilled -TNS

'I am skilled.'

Negatives
The set of agreement markers labelled N above is used with negatives. Negation is multiply marked, requiring that an agreement marker from the N set replace the ordinary I agreement, the verb appear in the lengthened grade (see discussion below), and that the suffix /-o(k)-/ follow the verb, with deletion of the preceding final vowel. The optional suffix /-kii/ may be added after /-o(k)-/. Consider the following example:

Ak- iiya -o -kii -ttook

1S.N- go$⟨LGR⟩$ -NEG -NEG -DPAST

'I did not go.'

Compare this with the affirmative counterpart:

Iya -li -ttook.

go -1S.I -DPAST

'I went'.

To make this example negative, the 1sI suffix /-li/ is replaced by the 1sN prefix /ak-/; the verb root iya is lengthened and accented to yield íiya; the suffix /-o/ is added, the final vowel of iiya is deleted, and the suffix /-kii/ is added.

Anaphoric prefixes
Reflexives are indicated with the /ili-/ prefix, and reciprocals with /itti-/:

Ili- pi̱sa -li -tok.

REFL- see$⟨NGR⟩$ -1S.I -PT

'I saw myself'.

Verb suffixes

 * While the verbal prefixes indicate relations between the verb and its arguments, the suffixes cover a wider semantic range, including information about valence, modality, tense and evidentiality.

The following examples show modal and tense suffixes like /-aachii̱/ 'irrealis'(approximately equal to future), /-tok/ 'past tense', /-h/ 'default tenses':

Baliili -h.

run -TNS

'She runs.'

Baliili -aachi̱ -h.

run -IRR -TNS

'She will run.'

There are also suffixes that show evidentiality, or the source of evidence for a statement, as in the following pair:

Nipi awashli -hli

meat fry -FIRST:HAND

'She fried the meat.' (I saw/heard/smelled her do it.)

Nipi awashli -tok -a̱sha

meat fry -PT -GUESS

'She fried the meat.' (I guess)

There are also suffixes of illocutionary force which may indicate that the sentence is a question, an exclamation, or a command:

Awashli -tok -o̱

fry -PT -Q

'Did she fry it?'

Chahta si- a -h -okii

Choctaw 1S.II- be -TNS -EXCL

'I'm Choctaw!' or 'I certainly am a Choctaw!'

Verbal infixes
Choctaw verb stems have various infixes that indicate their aspect. These stem variants are traditionally referred to as 'grades'. The table below shows the grades of Choctaw, along with their main usage.

Some examples that show the grades follow:

In this example the l-grade appears because of the suffixes /-na/ 'different subject' and /-o(k)/ 'negative':

lowa -t taaha -na falaama -t ak- iiya- o -kii -ttook

burn -SS complete$⟨LGR⟩$ -DS return -SS 1S.N- go$⟨LGR⟩$ -NEG -NEG -DPAST

'... (the school) burned down and I didn't go back.'

The g-grade and y-grade typically get translated into English as "finally VERB-ed":

Taloowa -h

sing -TNS

'He sang.'

Tálloowa -h

sing$⟨GGR⟩$ -TNS

'He finally sang.'

The hn-grade is usually translated as 'kept on VERBing':

Ohó̱ba -na nittak pókkooli oshta -ttook

rain$⟨HNGR⟩$ -DS day ten four -DPAST

'It kept on raining for forty days.'

The h-grade is usually translated "just VERB-ed" or "VERB-ed for a short time":

Nóhsi -h

sleep$⟨HGR⟩$ -TNS

'He took a quick nap.

Noun prefixes
Nouns have prefixes that show agreement with a possessor. Agreement markers from class II are used on a lexically specified closed class of nouns, which includes many (but not all) of the kinship terms and body parts. This is the class that is generally labeled inalienable.

sa- noshkobo

1S.II- head

'my head'

chi- noshkobo

2S.II- head

'your head'

noshkobo

head

'his/her/its/their head'

sa- ishki

1S.II- mother

'my mother'

chi- ishki

2S.II- mother

'your mother'

Nouns that are not lexically specified for II agreement use the III agreement markers:

a̱- ki'

1S.III- father

'my father'

am- ofi

1S.III- dog

'my dog'

Although systems of this type are generally described with the terms alienable and inalienable, this terminology is not particularly appropriate for Choctaw, since alienability implies a semantic distinction between types of nouns. The morphological distinction between nouns taking II agreement and III agreement in Choctaw only partly coincides with the semantic notion of alienability.

Noun suffixes
Choctaw nouns can be followed by various determiner and case-marking suffixes, as in the following examples, where we see determiners such as /-ma/ 'that', /-pa/ 'this', and /-akoo/ 'contrast' and case-markers /-(y)at/ 'nominative' and /-(y)a̱/ 'accusative':

alla nakni -m -at

child male -that -NOM

'that boy (nominative)'

Hoshi -at itti chaaha -m -ako̱ o̱- biniili -h

bird -NOM tree tall -that -CNTR:ACC SUPE- sit -TNS

'The bird is sitting on that tall tree.' (Not on the short one.)

The last example shows that nasalizing the last vowel of the preceding N is a common way to show the accusative case.

Word order and case marking

 * The simplest sentences in Choctaw consist of a verb and a tense marker, as in the following examples:

O̱ba -tok

rain -PT

'It rained.'

niya -h

fat -TNS

'She/he/it is fat, they are fat.'

Pi̱sa- tok

see$⟨NGR⟩$ -PT

'She/he/it/they saw her/him/it/them.'

 * As these examples show, there are no obligatory noun phrases in a Choctaw sentence, nor is there any verbal agreement that indicates a third person subject or object. There is no indication of grammatical gender, and for third person arguments there is no indication of number. (There are, however, some verbs with suppletive forms that indicate the number of a subject or object, e.g. iyah 'to go (sg.)', ittiyaachih 'to go (du.)', and ilhkolih 'to go (pl)'.)

When there is an overt subject, it is obligatorily marked with the nominative case /-at/. Subjects precede the verb

hoshi -at apa -tok

bird -NOM eat -PT

'The birds ate them.'

When there is an overt object, it is optionally marked with the accusative case /-a̱/

hoshi -at sho̱shi (-a̱) apa -tok.

bird -NOM bug -(ACC) eat -PT

'The birds ate the bugs.'

The Choctaw sentence is normally verb-final, and so the head of the sentence is last.

Some other phrases in Choctaw also have their head at the end. Possessors precede the possessed noun in the Noun Phrase:

ofi hohchifo

dog name

'the dog's name'

Choctaw has postpositional phrases with the postposition after its object:

tamaaha bili̱ka

town near

'near a town'

Orthography
The written Choctaw language is based upon the English version of the Roman alphabet and was developed in conjunction with the "civilization program" of the United States, a program to westernize and forcefully assimilate Indigenous Americans, particularly those adhering to what were to become the Five Civilized Tribes (of which the Choctaw are a part) into Anglo-American Culture and Sympathies during the early 19th century. Although there are other variations of the Choctaw alphabet, the three most commonly seen are the Byington (Traditional), Byington/Swanton (Linguistic), and Modern (Mississippi Choctaw).

Many publications by linguists about the Choctaw language use a slight variant of the "modern (Mississippi Choctaw)" orthography listed here, where long vowels are written as doubled. In the "linguistic" version, the acute accent shows the position of the pitch accent, rather than the length of the vowel.

The discussion of Choctaw grammar below uses the linguistic variant of the orthography.

 * 1) Choctaw Bible Translation Committee
 * 2) Substituted with 'v' according to typesetting or encoding constraints.
 * 3) The former is used before a vowel; the latter, before a consonant. The intervocalic use of $⟨hl⟩$ conflated the common consonant cluster /hl/ with /ɬ/.
 * 4) Dictionary editors John Swanton and Henry Halbert systematically replaced all instances of $⟨hl⟩$ with $⟨ł⟩$, regardless whether $⟨hl⟩$ stood for /ɬ/ or /hl/. Despite the editors' systematic replacement of all $⟨hl⟩$ with $⟨ł⟩$, the digraph $⟨lh⟩$ was allowed to stand.

Examples
Some common Choctaw phrases (written in the "Modern" orthography):

 * Choctaw: Chahta
 * hi: Halito!
 * See you later!: Chi pisa la chike!
 * number: holhtina/holhtini
 * Thank you: Yakóki
 * What is your name?: Chi hohchifo yat nanta?
 * My name is...: Sa hohchifo yat...
 * yes: a̱
 * no: kíyo
 * okay: ohmi
 * I don't understand.: Ak akostiníncho.
 * I don't know.: Ak ikháno.
 * Do you speak Choctaw?: Chahta imanompa ish anompola hinla ho̱?
 * What is that?: Yammat nanta?

Other Choctaw words:

 * Cherokee: Chalaki
 * Chickasaw: Chickashsha
 * Seminole: Siminóli
 * Creek/Muskogee: Maskóki
 * today: himak nittak
 * tonight: himak ninak
 * tomorrow: onnakma
 * yesterday: piláshásh
 * month: hashi
 * year/2009: affami/talhípa sippokni toklo akochcha chakkali
 * house: chokka
 * school: holisso ápisa
 * cat: katos
 * dog: ofi
 * cow: wák
 * horse: issoba/soba

Counting to twenty:

 * one: achaffa
 * two: toklo
 * three: tochchína
 * four: oshta
 * five: talhlhapi
 * six: hannali
 * seven: o̱toklo
 * eight: o̱tochchina
 * nine: chakkali
 * ten: pokkoli
 * eleven: awahachaffa
 * twelve: awahtoklo
 * thirteen: awahtochchina
 * fourteen: awahoshta
 * fifteen: awahtalhlhapi
 * sixteen: awahhannali
 * seventeen: awaho̱toklo
 * eighteen: awaho̱tohchínah
 * nineteen: abichakkali
 * twenty: pokkoli toklo

At "Native Nashville" web, there is an Online Choctaw Language Tutor, with Pronunciation Guide and four lessons: Small Talk, Animals, Food and Numbers.

title: Choctaw language


text:
Casablanca Conference

The Casablanca Conference (codenamed SYMBOL) or Anfa Conference  was held in Casablanca, French Morocco, from January 14 to 24, 1943, to plan the Allied European strategy for the next phase of World War II. The main discussions were between US President Franklin Roosevelt (with his military staff) and British Prime Minister Winston Churchill (with his staff). Stalin could not attend. Key decisions included a commitment to demand Axis powers' unconditional surrender; plans for an invasion of Sicily and Italy before the main invasion of France; an intensified strategic bombing campaign against Germany; and approval of a US Navy plan to advance on Japan through the central Pacific and the Philippines. The last item authorized the island-hopping campaign in the Pacific, which shortened the war. Of all the decisions made, the most important was the invasion of Sicily, which Churchill pushed for in part to divert American attention from opening a second front in France in 1943, a move that he feared would result in very high Allied casualties and not be possible until 1944.

Also attending were the sovereign of Morocco, Sultan Muhammad V, and representing the Free French forces, Generals Charles de Gaulle and Henri Giraud, but they played minor roles and were not part of the military planning.  Joseph Stalin, General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union, declined to attend, citing the ongoing Battle of Stalingrad as requiring his presence in Moscow.

Roosevelt and Churchill issued the public Casablanca Declaration, which the promulgation of the policy of “unconditional surrender.” That doctrine came to represent the unified voice of Allied will and the determination that the Axis powers would be fought to their ultimate defeat.

Casablanca Declaration of "unconditional surrender"
The conference produced a unified statement of purpose, the Casablanca Declaration. It announced to the world that the Allies would accept nothing less than the "unconditional surrender" of the Axis powers. Roosevelt had borrowed the term from US Army General Ulysses S. Grant (known as "Unconditional Surrender" Grant ), who had communicated that stance to the Confederate commander during the American Civil War. So Roosevelt stated at the concluding press conference on 24 January that the Allies were demanding "unconditional surrender" from the Germans, the Italians and the Japanese.

In a February 12, 1943 radio address, Roosevelt explained what he meant by unconditional surrender: "we mean no harm to the common people of the Axis nations. But we do mean to impose punishment and retribution upon their guilty, barbaric leaders".

Behind the scenes, the United States and the United Kingdom were divided in the commitment to see the war through to Germany's capitulation and "unconditional surrender". But Churchill had agreed in advance about "unconditional surrender"; he had cabled the War Cabinet four days earlier and they had not objected. US General George Marshall also said that he had been consulted; he had stated on 7 January that Allied morale would be "strengthened by the uncompromising demand, and Stalin's suspicions allayed".

However some source material contradicts the official reported accord between Churchill and Roosevelt, claiming that Churchill did not fully subscribe to the doctrine of "unconditional surrender". The New York Times correspondent Drew Middleton, who was in Casablanca at the conference, later revealed in his book, Retreat From Victory, that Churchill had been "startled by the [public] announcement [of unconditional surrender]. I tried to hide my surprise. But I was his [Roosevelt's] ardent lieutenant".

According to historian Charles Bohlen, "Responsibility for this unconditional surrender doctrine rests almost exclusively with President Roosevelt". He guessed that Roosevelt made the announcement "to keep Soviet forces engaged with Germany on the Russian front, thus depleting German munitions and troops" and also "to prevent Stalin from negotiating a separate peace with the Nazi regime".

That the war would be fought by the Allies until the total annihilation of enemy forces was not universally welcomed. Diplomatic insiders were critical that such a stance was too unequivocal and inflexible, would prevent any opportunity for political maneuvering and would be morally debilitating to French and German resistance groups.

The British felt that arriving at some accommodation with Germany would allow the German Army to help fight off a Soviet takeover of Eastern Europe. To Churchill and the other Allied leaders, the real obstacle to realising that mutual strategy with Germany was the leadership of Adolf Hitler. Allen Dulles, the chief of OSS intelligence in Bern, Switzerland, maintained that the Casablanca Declaration was "merely a piece of paper to be scrapped without further ado if Germany would sue for peace. Hitler had to go."

There is evidence that German resistance forces, highly placed anti-Nazi government officials, were working with British intelligence, MI6, to eliminate Hitler and negotiate a peace with the Allies. One such individual was Admiral Wilhelm Canaris, head of German intelligence, the Abwehr. His persistent overtures for support from the United States were ignored by Roosevelt.

European invasion
Roosevelt, with advice from General George Marshall, the U.S. Army Chief of Staff, lobbied for a cross-Channel invasion of Europe. Churchill, with advice from the British Chiefs of Staff, led by General Sir Alan Brooke, the Chief of the Imperial General Staff (CIGS, the professional head of the British Army), felt the time was not opportune, and favored an Allied assault on the island of Sicily followed by an invasion of mainland Italy. The British argument centred on the need to pull German reserves down into Italy where, due to the relatively poor north–south lines of communication, they could not be easily extracted to defend against a later invasion of northwest Europe. Additionally, by delaying the cross-Channel landing, it would mean that any invasion would be against a German army further weakened by many more months' fighting on the Eastern Front against the Red Army.

Throughout the conference, Roosevelt's attention was prominently focused on the Pacific War front and he faulted the British for what he felt was not a full commitment against Japanese entrenchment. The Italian strategy was agreed upon, a compromise between the two leaders, Roosevelt acceding to Churchill's approach for Europe. Churchill, in turn, pledged more troops and resources to the Pacific and Burma to reinforce positions held by Chiang Kai-shek against the Japanese. The United States would provide assistance to the British in the Pacific by supplying escorts and landing craft.

Logistical issues

 * Next phase of European war
 * All possible aid would be provided to the Russian offensive
 * Assessment of U-boat danger in the Atlantic
 * Disposition of ships, planes, troops in the various theatres of war
 * Stalin and Chiang Kai-shek would be fully apprised of the conference agenda and resulting accords

Leadership of Free French forces
Charles de Gaulle had to be forced to attend, and he met a chilly reception from Roosevelt and Churchill. No French representatives were allowed to attend the military planning sessions.

The conference called for the official recognition of a joint leadership of the Free French forces by de Gaulle and Henri Giraud. There was notable tension between the two men, who limited their interactions to formalities like pledging their mutual support. Roosevelt encouraged them to shake hands for the photographers eager for a photo opportunity, but the ritual handshake was with reluctance and done so quickly that they reportedly had to pose for a second shot. Roosevelt would later describe this meeting between the French leaders as a "shotgun wedding".

Elliott Roosevelt’s book, As He Saw It (1946) describes how Franklin Roosevelt wanted the French provisional government to be set up with Giraud and de Gaulle, who would be "equally responsible for its composition and welfare." (89) That is because Franklin Roosevelt saw de Gaulle as Churchill's puppet and thought that Giraud would be more compliant with US interests. Complications arose because most people in the French Resistance considered de Gaulle the undisputed leader of the Resistance and so Giraud was progressively dispossessed of his political and military roles. Roosevelt eventually recognized de Gaulle as the head of the Free French in October 1944.

Plans for postwar northern Africa
The day before, Roosevelt became the first US president to visit Africa when he stayed at the city of Bathurst, Gambia. The poor situation of Gambians under the British Empire further increased his anti-colonialism, leading him to further discuss and impress upon Churchill the need for an international trusteeship system that would advance colonies like Gambia towards independence. During the Conference, Roosevelt met privately with Churchill and Sultan Muhammad V of Morocco, who was accompanied by his 14-year-old son, Crown Prince Moulay Hassan (the future Hassan II).

Roosevelt also spoke with the French resident general at Rabat, Morocco, about postwar independence and Jewish immigrants in North Africa. Roosevelt proposed that:

"[t]he number of Jews engaged in the practice of the professions (law, medicine, etc.) should be definitely limited to the percentage that the Jewish population in North Africa bears to the whole of the North African population.... [T]his plan would further eliminate the specific and understandable complaints which the Germans bore towards the Jews in Germany, namely, that while they represented a small part of the population, over 50 percent of the lawyers, doctors, schoolteachers, college professors, etc., in Germany were Jews."

This disposition of the Jewish population harkened back to a mindset communicated in earlier years to Roosevelt by the American ambassador to Germany, William Dodd (1933–37). Dodd had appraised Germany's repression of Jews, and writing to Roosevelt, he said: "The Jews had held a great many more of the key positions in Germany than their number or talents entitled them to."

Roosevelt presented the results of the conference to the American people in a radio address on February 12, 1943.

During the return trip to the United States, President Roosevelt met with the President of Brazil, Getúlio Vargas, at the Potenji River Conference, where they discussed Brazil's participation in the war effort and defined the agreements that led to the creation of the Brazilian Expeditionary Force. The conference took place aboard the USS Humboldt in the Potenji River harbor in Natal, on January 28 and 29, 1943.

title: Casablanca Conference


text:
Buffer state

A buffer state is a country geographically lying between two rival or potentially hostile great powers. Its existence can sometimes be thought to prevent conflict between them. A buffer state is sometimes a mutually agreed upon area lying between two greater powers, which is demilitarised in the sense of not hosting the armed forces of either power (though it will usually have its own military forces). The invasion of a buffer state by one of the powers surrounding it will often result in war between the powers.

Research shows that buffer states are significantly more likely to be conquered and occupied than are nonbuffer states. This is because "states that great powers have an interest in preserving—buffer states—are in fact in a high-risk group for death. Regional or great powers surrounding buffer states face a strategic imperative to take over buffer states: if these powers fail to act against the buffer, they fear that their opponent will take it over instead. By contrast, these concerns do not apply to nonbuffer states, where powers face no competition for influence or control."

Buffer states, when authentically independent, typically pursue a neutralist foreign policy, which distinguishes them from satellite states. The concept of buffer states is part of a theory of the balance of power that entered European strategic and diplomatic thinking in the 18th century. After the First World War, notable examples of buffer states were Poland and Czechoslovakia, situated between major powers such as Germany and the Soviet Union. Lebanon is another significant example, positioned between Syria and Israel, thereby experiencing challenges as a result.

Americas

 * 🇧🇴 Bolivia, created by Gran Colombia as a buffer between Peru and Argentina during the Upper Peru question
 * 🇺🇾 Uruguay, served as a demilitarised buffer between Argentina and the Empire of Brazil during the early independence period in South America
 * 🇵🇾 Paraguay, maintained after the end of the Paraguayan War in 1870, as a buffer separating Argentina and Brazil
 * Georgia, a colony established by Great Britain in 1732 as a buffer between its other colonies along the Atlantic coast of North America and Spanish Florida
 * 🇪🇨 Ecuador, served as a "cushion state" between Colombia and Peru, which had a bigger extension and military force and fought a war in the 1820s.

Asia

 * Multiple buffer states played major roles during the Roman–Persian Wars (66 BC – 628 AD). Armenia was a frequently contested buffer between the Roman Empire (as well as the later Byzantine Empire) and the various Persian and Muslim states.
 * 🇰🇵 North Korea, during and after the Cold War, has been seen by some analysts as a buffer state between the military forces of China, the Soviet Union and those of South Korea, Japan, and the United States (stationed in South Korea, Japan, and Taiwan from 1954 to 1979).
 * Manchukuo was a pro-Japanese buffer state between the Empire of Japan, the Soviet Union, and the Republic of China during World War II.
 * 🇹🇭 Thailand, historically known as Siam, was an independent buffer state between the British Raj, British Malaya, French Indochina, and their competing colonial interests in Laos and Cambodia.
 * Korea acted as a buffer zone between the growing superpowers of Imperial Japan and the Russian Empire.
 * The Far Eastern Republic was a formally independent state created to act as a buffer between Bolshevik Russia and the Empire of Japan.
 * Afghanistan was a buffer state between the British Empire, which ruled much of South Asia, and the Russian Empire, which ruled much of Central Asia, during the Anglo–Russian conflicts of the 19th century. Later, the Wakhan Corridor extended the buffer eastwards to the Chinese border.
 * The Himalayan nations of Tibet,   Nepal, 🇧🇹 Bhutan, and  Sikkim were buffer states between the British Empire and China. Later, during the Sino-Indian War of 1962, they became buffers between China and India as the two powers fought along their borders.
 * 🇲🇳 Mongolia acted as a buffer between the Soviet Union and China until 1991. It currently serves as a buffer between Russia and China.
 * 🇱🇧 Lebanon is a buffer state between Israel and Syria.
 * 🇮🇶 Iraq and 🇧🇭 Bahrain are buffer states between Iran and Saudi Arabia.

Africa

 * Morocco served as a buffer state between the Ottoman Empire, Spain, and Portugal in the 16th century.
 * The Bechuanaland Protectorate (present-day 🇧🇼 Botswana) was initially created as a buffer between the British Empire and the two Boer republics of the Orange Free State and the Transvaal Republic until the Second Boer War.

Europe

 * 🇨🇭 Switzerland has been a buffer state between Italy, Austria, France, Germany, and other state powers in medieval and modern Europe.
 * 🇳🇱 The United Kingdom of the Netherlands, composed of today's Belgium and Netherlands, was created by the Congress of Vienna in 1815 to maintain peace between France, Prussia, and the United Kingdom. The kingdom existed for 15 years until the Belgian Revolution.
 * 🇧🇪 Belgium acted as buffer state between France, the German Empire, the Netherlands, and the British Empire before the First World War.
 * The Rhineland served as a demilitarised zone between France and Germany during the interwar years of the 1920s and early 1930s. There were early French attempts at creating a Rhenish Republic.
 * The Socialist Soviet Republic of Byelorussia was founded as a buffer state between Soviet Russia and the European powers.
 * The Qasim Khanate (1452–1681) may have served as a buffer between Muscovy and the Kazan Khanate.
 * 🇦🇹 Austria acted as a buffer state between Germany and Italy during the interwar period.
 * Poland and other states between Germany and the Soviet Union have sometimes been described as buffer states, both as non-communist states before World War II and later as communist states of the Eastern Bloc.
 * Yugoslavia, which broke with the Soviet Union before the formation of the Warsaw Pact, became a buffer state between NATO and the Eastern Bloc during the Cold War.
 * West Germany and East Germany were also regarded as buffer states between NATO and the Warsaw Pact during the Cold War in Europe.
 * During the Cold War, 🇸🇪 Sweden and 🇫🇮 Finland were sometimes regarded as buffer states between NATO and the Soviet Union. More recently, the Russo-Ukrainian War has helped push both countries into joining NATO.

Oceania

 * New Hebrides served as a buffer between the United Kingdom and France in Oceania during the New Imperialism period.
 * 🇵🇬 Papua New Guinea served as a buffer state between Indonesia, the Solomon Islands, and Vanuatu. Indonesia accused both the Solomon Islands and Vanuatu of supporting the Free Papua Movement during the Papua conflict.

title: Buffer state


text:
Category:Northumberland County, Pennsylvania

Articles and categories related to Northumberland County, Pennsylvania


text:
Lisa Gallagher

Lisa Gallagher may refer to:

 * Lisa Gallagher, character in A Killing Spring
 * Lisa Gallagher, political candidate for Brandon—Souris
 * Lisa Gallagher, presenter on BBC Look North (East Yorkshire and Lincolnshire)

title: Lisa Gallagher


text: User talk:65.12.192.220

title: User talk:65.12.192.220