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José Sócrates

José Sócrates Carvalho Pinto de Sousa (born 6 September 1957), commonly known as José Sócrates, is a Portuguese politician who was the prime minister of Portugal from 12 March 2005 to 21 June 2011. For the second half of 2007, he acted as the president-in-office of the Council of the European Union.

Sócrates grew up in the industrial city of Covilhã. He joined the centre-left Socialist Party in 1981 and was elected as a member of parliament in 1987. Sócrates entered the government in 1995, as secretary of state for Environment in the first cabinet of António Guterres. Two years later, he became Minister of Youth and Sports (where he helped to organize Portugal's successful bid to host UEFA Euro 2004) and in 1999 became Minister for Environment. Sócrates prominence rose during the governments of António Guterres to the point that when the prime minister resigned in 2001, he considered to appoint Sócrates as his successor.

In opposition, José Sócrates was elected leader of the Socialist Party in 2004 and led the party to its first absolute majority in the 2005 election. By then, Portugal was experiencing an economic crisis, marked by stagnation and a difficult state of public finances. Like the preceding centre-right government, Sócrates implemented a policy of fiscal austerity and structural reforms. Among the most important reforms were the 2007 Social Security reform and the 2009 labour law reform. His government also restructured the provision of public services, closing thousands of elementary schools and dozens of health care facilities and maternity wards in rural areas and small cities. Despite austerity, Sócrates' government intended to boost economic growth through government-sponsored investments, namely in transportation, technology and energy as well as in health and school infrastructure. The government launched several public–private partnerships to finance such projects. Internally, Sócrates was accused of having an authoritarian style and of trying to control media, while internationally he completed the negotiations of Lisbon Treaty and had close ties with leaders such as the prime minister of Spain José Luis Rodriguez Zapatero and the president of Venezuela Hugo Chavez. The first Sócrates government was initially able to reduce the budget deficit and controlling public debt, but economic growth lagged.

In 2008–09, with the Great Recession starting to hit Portugal and facing recession and high unemployment, austerity was waned as part of the European economic stimulus plan. Nevertheless, support for Sócrates and the Socialists eroded and the ruling party lost its majority in the 2009 election. The second government of José Sócrates faced a deterioration of the economic and financial state of the country, with skyrocketing deficit and growing debt. Austerity was resumed in 2010 while the country entered a hard financial crisis in the context of the European debt crisis.

On 23 March 2011, Sócrates submitted his resignation to President Aníbal Cavaco Silva after the Parliament rejected a new austerity package (the fourth in a year), leading to the 2011 snap election. Financial status of the country deteriorated and on 6 April Sócrates caretaker government requested a bail-out program which was conceded. The €78 billion IMF/European Union bailout to Portugal thus started and would last until May 2014. Sócrates lost the snap election held on 5 June 2011 and resigned as Secretary-General of the Socialist Party. For most of his political career, Sócrates was associated with several corruption cases, notably Independente University and Freeport cases.

On 21 November 2014 he was arrested in Lisbon, accused of corruption, tax evasion, and money laundering, becoming the first former Prime Minister in the history of the country to be thus accused. On 24 November Sócrates was remanded in custody on preliminary charges of corruption and tax fraud. He was held in Évora prison until 4 September 2015 when he left the prison for a relative's house in Lisbon, where he remained under house arrest until 16 October 2015. That day, a judge released him from house arrest, allowing him to await the end of the investigation in freedom, although remaining forbidden from leaving the country or contacting other suspects of the case. The police investigation, known as Operation Marquis continued until his indictment in October 2017. In 2018, Sócrates abandoned the Socialist Party.

Early years
José Sócrates was born in Porto on 6 September 1957, and was registered as a newborn in Vilar de Maçada, Alijó municipality, in northeastern Portugal, since the locality was his family ancestral homeland. However, the young José Sócrates lived throughout his childhood and teen years with his father, a divorced building designer, in the city of Covilhã, Beiras e Serra da Estrela, in central inland Portugal, in the Centro region. His parents are Fernando Pinto de Sousa (Vilar de Maçada, Alijó, 15 November 1926 – Porto, 18 July 2011) and wife and remote relative Maria Adelaide de Carvalho Monteiro (b. Vilar de Maçada, Alijó, 8 October 1931). He has two younger siblings, António Carvalho Pinto de Sousa, born circa 1962, and Ana Maria Carvalho Pinto de Sousa, died in 1988. He is a descendant of the illegitimate daughter of António José Girão Teixeira Lobo Barbosa (Porto, Sé, 9 January 1715 – Alijó, Vilar de Maçada), Fidalgo of the Royal Household and Knight of the Order of Christ.

Education
José Sócrates studied in Covilhã's basic and secondary schools, until the age of 18. Then, in 1975, he went to Coimbra in order to attend a higher education institution. He earned in 1979 his 4-year bacharelato degree as a civil technical engineer from the Instituto Superior de Engenharia de Coimbra (in 1988 incorporated into the Instituto Politécnico de Coimbra). From 1987 to 1993, he took law classes at Universidade Lusíada, a private university in Lisbon, but failed to graduate. In 1994/95, already a well-known politician, he briefly attended the Instituto Superior de Engenharia de Lisboa where he completed some academic disciplines in order to get a CESE diploma (a complementary diploma to his bacharelato degree because until 1999 the polytechnic institutions did not offer licenciatura degrees), but instead, under circumstances which would provoke a controversy in 2007, he earned in 1996 the licenciatura (licentiate degree) in civil engineering from the Universidade Independente, a private university in Lisbon which was shut down by Portuguese authorities in 2007/2008. He also has an MBA degree awarded in 2005 by ISCTE, a public university institute in Lisbon, that he obtained after had attended successfully the first year of a 2-year master's degree program of ISCTE that he did not complete. After his tenure as prime minister of Portugal ended in 2011, Sócrates and his elder son, moved to Paris where Sócrates attended the Institut d'Etudes Politiques de Paris (known as SciencesPo). In 2013, SciencesPo awarded him his master's degree in political science. His 2013 book Confiança do Mundo – Sobre a Tortura Em Democracia was based on his masters thesis there; however, there was some dispute as to its authorship.

Political career
José Sócrates was one of the founders of JSD (the youth branch of PSD – Portuguese Social Democratic Party) before changing his political affiliation and applying for membership in the PS – Portuguese Socialist Party. He has been a member of the Socialist Party since 1981. José Sócrates served as a technical engineer for the Covilhã City Council, and has been elected a member of the Portuguese Parliament since 1987, representing the Castelo Branco electoral district. While serving as the chairperson of the Castelo Branco Federation of the Socialist Party (1983–1996), he was elected to the Party's National Secretariat in 1991. José Sócrates was ousted by the Board of the Guarda Municipality in 1990 and 1991, after being warned several times because of poor quality of construction projects and lack of monitoring of the construction works. Sócrates was threatened with disciplinary action for wrongdoings in the technical direction of particular works of whose projects he was the author, but despite being ousted from this capacity, he was never penalized. In addition, as a Member of the Parliament, Sócrates was not allowed by law to work as a technical engineer between 1987 and 1991. From 1989 to 1996, he served as a member of the Covilhã Municipal Assembly. He served as spokesperson on environmental affairs for the Socialist Party from 1991 to 1995. In 1995, he entered government as secretary of state for Environment in the first government of António Guterres. Two years later, Sócrates became Minister for Youth and Sports and was one of the organizers of the EURO 2004 cup in Portugal. He became Minister for Environment in Guterres' second government in 1999. Following the elections of 2002 (won by José Manuel Durão Barroso), Sócrates became a member of the opposition in the Portuguese Parliament. Meanwhile, he also had a program of political analysis, hosted jointly with Pedro Santana Lopes on RTP. After the resignation of Ferro Rodrigues as party leader in 2004, he won a bid for the post of secretary-general against Manuel Alegre and João Soares, winning the vote of nearly 80% of party members on 24 September 2004. After the victory of his party in the 2005 legislative election, Sócrates was called on 24 February by President Jorge Sampaio to form a new government – the XVII Constitutional Government. After the 2009 legislative election, held on 27 September 2009, José Sócrates was elected for a second term as prime minister of Portugal. He was also a Member of the Portuguese Council of State as the prime minister.

Family and residence
Sócrates is divorced from Sofia Costa Pinto Fava, an engineer, with whom he has two sons, José Miguel Fava Pinto de Sousa (b. 1993) and Eduardo Fava Pinto de Sousa (b. 1995). Sofia is a daughter of José Manuel Carvalho Fava, an architect, and Clotilde Mesquita (daughter of Armando Mesquita and Palmira da Costa Pinto), engineer and sister of Alexandre Mesquita Carvalho Fava and Mara Mesquita Carvalho Fava.

Sócrates lives in Lisbon, although he used to be a registered elector of the municipality of Covilhã, the place where he voted until the law was changed (since after the mid-2000s every person votes in one's residential area). Since late 2018, he has been living in Ericeira.

Health and well-being
José Sócrates had photos of himself taken during his morning jog at places like the Red Square in Moscow, Rio de Janeiro's Copacabana, Luanda, and Lisbon. In January 2008, a smoking ban came into force in Portugal's public buildings and on public transport, but Sócrates was reported to have been smoking in May during a private state flight to Venezuela where he met Hugo Chávez. He has since admitted it was a mistake, apologized and promised to quit smoking. In addition, he claimed he was not aware he was breaking the law when he did so. However, by 2012, after he had left the spotlight, the Portuguese newspaper Diário de Notícias reported he was no longer a non-smoker.

Fandom
He is a supporter of SL Benfica.

Prime minister of Portugal
After the Portuguese legislative election of 2005, Sócrates was called on 24 February by President Jorge Sampaio to form a new government. Sócrates and his first government – the XVII Constitutional Government – took office on 12 March 2005.

After the Portuguese legislative election of 2009, held on 27 September 2009, José Sócrates was elected for a second term as prime minister of Portugal. The new government was sworn into office on 26 October 2009.

On 5 June 2011, after the 2011 legislative election, the Social Democratic Party led by Pedro Passos Coelho won, forcing Sócrates' resignation as Secretary-General of the Socialist Party and as prime minister of Portugal.

José Sócrates' cabinet
Sócrates headed the government beginning on 12 March 2005, comprising the XVII and XVIII Governos Constitucionais (17th and 18th Constitutional Governments).

Administrative reforms

The XVII Governo Constitucional government, headed by Prime Minister José Sócrates, tried to create new rules and implement reforms aiming at better efficiency and rationalized resource allocation in the public sector, fighting civil servant overcapacity (excedentários) and reducing bureaucracy for both citizens and companies (e.g.: empresa na hora, PRACE – Programa de Reestruturação da Administração Central do Estado, and SIMPLEX – Programa de Simplificação Administrativa e Legislativa), among others. Since the XVII Governo Constitucional government (with José Sócrates as prime minister and Teixeira dos Santos as minister of finance) Portugal's fiscal policy improved with a steady increase of the number of taxpayers and the growth of the receipt amount from State taxation. However these policies had little effect, and the country's public debt and deficit were both out of control by 2010, along with a record high unemployment rate. João Bilhim directed in 2005 the committee responsible for the Programme for Restructuring the State's Central Administration (PRACE) but was said to be disappointed with the results. Several reforms and measures implemented in 2006/2007 by the government (XVII Governo Constitucional – headed by Prime Minister José Sócrates), resulted in improved welfare system financial sustainability but reduced income expectations of future pensioners up to 40%. In addition, economically active people must work for more years before retirement than formerly. A sustainability factor was also introduced, giving employees the option of working longer or receiving slightly lower pensions, as life expectancy forecasts increase. After the Portuguese regionalization referendum of 1998 where the "No" to regionalization of the mainland into eight administrative regions was victorious, the XVII Governo Constitucional government announced in January 2009 its firm intention of starting again a regionalization process for Portugal. According to this governmental project, mainland Portugal was to be regionalized into five regions with a wide range of administrative autonomy, using the already established NUTS II system: Alentejo, Algarve, Lisbon and Tagus Valley, Central Portugal and Northern Portugal. The transformation of the Portuguese public administration from a traditional one to an information technology-based multiplatform service, was praised by the European Commission through its European Union benchmark for the sector, that consecutively placed Portugal in the first position of the ranking in 2009 and 2010.

Technological plan
One of the government's main policies was the Plano Tecnológico (Technological Plan), aimed at increasing Portugal's competitivity through the modernization of its economy. The plan consisted of three key areas: knowledge, technology and innovation. A low-cost Intel-based netbook for use by children announced by Sócrates's government cabinet, named Magalhães (after Fernão de Magalhães) and packaged and assembled for the Portuguese school-age children and the low-to-middle income economy export market by the Portuguese company J.P. Sá Couto, headquartered in Matosinhos, Norte region, was among the government's innovations under the Technological Plan. Governmental efforts in the technological domain also included state support of a Portuguese factory that was owned by the German-based semiconductor company Qimonda AG, in Vila do Conde, Norte region, when the parent company filed a bankruptcy petition with the local court in Munich, Germany, in early 2009. Qimonda Portugal was at the time one of the top Portuguese net exporters.

The European Innovation Scoreboard of 2010 placed Portugal-based innovation in 15th position, as a result of an impressive increase in innovation expenditure and output.

Educational reforms
The government allocated more resources for education policy and reorganised the sector aiming more choice and better quality in professional technical education. Enhanced and improved professional technical education programs were implemented in 2007 in an effort to revitalize this sector which had been almost discontinued after the Carnation Revolution of 1974. Other education reforms included more financial support for students (in all educational levels), systematic teaching and school evaluation, the compulsory closing of some problematic and unreliable private higher education institutions (like the Independente University and Moderna University) by the Minister for Science, Technology and Higher Education, Mariano Gago, and a will to rank and benchmark the higher education institutions through a newly created state-run agency (the Agência de Acreditação e Avaliação do Ensino Superior). During the XVII Governo Constitucional, the pan-European Bologna Process was fully implemented in Portugal.

On the other hand, the government created a policy of certification and equivalence of qualifications for adult people with low levels of formal education who want a 4th, 6th, 9th or 12th grade equivalence without returning to school (for example, through this process, called Novas Oportunidades, adults—18 years old and older—with the 9th grade might be granted an equivalence to the 12th grade after a process ranging from a part-time 3-month programme or a 1-day-per-week 8-month programme; those who have less than 9th grade have a similar programme to get the 9th grade certification and can then apply to the 12th grade programme). The curricula do not include any classical high school discipline or a traditional examination process. These diplomas are awarded based on vaguely construed life experience. Some critics alleged this policy was an effort to make up the poor national statistical indicators on education, with little impact on the quality of the work force's qualification of Portugal in the European Union context.

According to the OECD's Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA), the average Portuguese 15-year-old student was for many years underrated and underachieving in terms of reading literacy, mathematics and science knowledge in the OECD, nearly tied with the Italian and just above those from countries like Greece, Turkey and Mexico. However, since 2010, PISA results for Portuguese students improved dramatically. The PISA 2009 report states that the average Portuguese 15-year-old student, when rated in terms of reading literacy, mathematics and science knowledge, is placed at the same level as those students from the United States, Sweden, Germany, Ireland, France, Denmark, United Kingdom, Hungary and Taipei, with 489 points (493 is the average). However, a couple of weeks later, the Portuguese Ministry of Education announced a 2010 report published by its office for educational evaluation GAVE (Gabinete de Avaliação do Ministério da Educação) which criticized the results of PISA 2009 report and claimed that the average Portuguese teenage student had profound handicaps in terms of expression, communication and logic, as well as a low performance when asked to solve problems.

Transportation developments

Prime Minister José Sócrates and his government team supported the decision of building new transportation infrastructure such as a new airport for Lisbon and a high speed rail network. For months the government of Prime Minister José Sócrates insisted the country's only option for a new airport was in the Ota region north of Lisbon. But a powerful lobby, headed by local business honchos and given the imprimatur of the Portuguese president Aníbal Cavaco Silva, forced Sócrates's Government into reversal, by bringing an alternative site for the new airport – the Portuguese Air Force's shooting range in Alcochete east of Lisbon. A study commissioned by a group of businesspeople said the Alcochete site would save taxpayers as much as €3bn in construction costs, and would have less of an environmental impact. The government argued that Ota was a key piece of its overall transport strategy, which included highspeed rail lines to Spain, but even so recognized that the project wasn't finalized and that a debate on the pros and cons of both sites would be worthwhile. Then the government commissioned a technical study to the state-run civil engineering laboratory (Laboratório Nacional de Engenharia Civil) comparing both locations one to each other. Following the conclusions of that study, on 10 January 2008 Prime Minister José Sócrates announced the option Alcochete as the most rational choice for a new airport for Lisbon.

Other
In 2007, the XVII Governo Constitucional, headed by Prime Minister José Sócrates, legalised abortion in Portugal after a referendum. Voters were being asked to decide whether to make abortion legal in the first 10 weeks of pregnancy, if carried out at the woman's request in a registered clinic. Despite the turnout for a referendum being too low (40%; 50% needed) to be legally binding, José Sócrates said: "Our interest is to fight clandestine abortion and we have to produce a law that respects the result of the referendum." This socialist government cabinet also announced its intention to legalize same-sex marriage at some point during its mandate. Same-sex marriage in Portugal was legalized on 17 May 2010.

Also, in 2009, through the Decree-Law 91/2009, the rights of fathers and mothers were equalled under the law (see also Fathers' rights).

After a sharp increase of the violent crime rate in Portugal during the XVII Governo Constitucional government (2005–2009), the minister of internal administration, Rui Pereira, announced in February 2009 the expansion of the police force through the recruitment of 2,000 new police officers, 7,000 new state-of-the-art police weapons, 1,000 bulletproof vests, among other measures.

Until 2010, for stock held for more than twelve months the capital gain was exempt. The capital gain of stock held for shorter periods of time was taxable on 10%. From 2010 onwards, for residents, all capital gain of stock and other assets above €500 is taxable on 20%. Investment funds, banks and corporations are in general exempted of capital gain tax over stock.

Presidency of the Council of the European Union
José Sócrates, as prime minister of Portugal, presided over the rotative presidency of the Council of the European Union for the period July–December 2007. In this post, Sócrates and his team focused on the EU-Brazil (1st EU-Brazil summit) and EU-African Union (2007 Africa-EU Summit) relations, as well as in the approval of the Treaty of Lisbon. The Portuguese Parliament voted to ratify the Treaty of Lisbon on 23 April 2008. After the Irish referendum on 12 June 2008, Prime Minister José Sócrates said he saw the Irish "No" to the treaty as a "personal defeat" after it was signed by EU leaders in the Portuguese capital. A second referendum was held in Ireland in 2009, and the outcome was the approval of the Treaty of Lisbon by all EU member states, including Ireland.

Economic crisis
From 2005 to 2010, José Sócrates' cabinet faced increasing challenges due to economic and financial downturn. Portuguese economy was in crisis since 2002 owing to stagnation and high unemployment; in the late 2000s, Europe's sovereign debt crisis led to huge deficits and even higher rampant unemployment in Portugal. International financial markets compelled the Portuguese Government, like other European governments, to make radical changes in economic policy. Thus in September 2010, the Portuguese Government announced a fresh austerity package following other Eurozone partners, aiming to halve its budget deficit by 2011 with a series of tax hikes and salary cuts for public servants. In 2009, the deficit had been 9.4%, one of the highest in the Eurozone and way above the European Union's Stability and Growth Pact 3% limit. The Portuguese Government earlier targeted a 2011 shortfall of 5.1% but a growing crisis sparked by chronic budget expenditure, massive debt and deficit problems, forced Portugal to take even more difficult measures. In September, pressure from the International Monetary Fund, Ecofin, OECD and the main opposition party, forced Sócrates' cabinet to adopt successive packages of radical austerity measures, contrary to what had been promised during the previous electoral campaigns. A report published in January 2011 by the Diário de Notícias, a leading Portuguese newspaper, demonstrated that in the period between the Carnation Revolution in 1974 and 2010, the democratic Portuguese Republic governments have encouraged over expenditure and investment bubbles through unclear public-private partnerships. This has funded numerous ineffective and unnecessary external consultancy and advising committees and firms, allowed considerable slippage in state-managed public works, inflated top management and head officers' bonuses and wages, causing a persistent and lasting recruitment policy that has boosted the number of unnecessary public servants. The economy has also been damaged by risky credit, public debt creation and mismanaged European structural and cohesion funds for almost four decades. Apparently, the Prime Minister Sócrates's cabinet was not able to forecast or prevent any of this when symptoms first appeared in 2005, and later was incapable of doing anything to ameliorate the situation when the country was on the verge of bankruptcy in 2011.

On 6 April 2011, having already resigned as prime minister, Sócrates went on television to announce that Portugal, facing bankruptcy, would request financial assistance from the IMF (at the time managed by Dominique Strauss-Kahn) and the European Financial Stability Facility, as Greece and the Republic of Ireland had already done. The announcement was made 48 hours after Sócrates had categorically denied the move would be needed.

Fall of government
On 23 March 2011, Sócrates resigned following passage of a no confidence motion sponsored by all five opposition parties in parliament over spending cuts and tax increases. Before the vote, Sócrates had stated that he would resign if the vote for further austerity measures didn't pass. As a result, a general election was held on 5 June 2011.

The Portuguese government fell a day before an EU summit was due to take place to finalise the EU's response to countries requiring a bailout in the future.

After losing the Portuguese legislative election of 2011, held on 5 June 2011, he resigned from Secretary-General of the Socialist Party.

Sócrates–Independente affair
In March 2007, Universidade Independente (UnI), a private university in Lisbon, was placed under investigation for alleged irregularities on several matters.

In that same month, Sócrates' licenciatura degree in civil engineering by Universidade Independente was put under enormous public scrutiny. Journalists found that qualifications awarded did not follow procedure and that four of the five academic disciplines were given in the private university by the same professor, António José Moraes, a socialist government appointee. A fifth academic discipline, "technical English" was given by the Independente's rector. A strong case was built up related to possible false declarations by José Sócrates regarding his university degree, and the way he was awarded this degree in civil engineering. Among other issues, the Independente degree in civil engineering was not an accredited degree, a civil engineering department was not yet established at that university, one examination was sent by fax and Sócrates' diploma was issued on a Sunday, a day on which the university was always closed.

Some Portuguese news media professionals stated that Sócrates or members of his staff, through phone calls, threatened court action against journalists and tried to stop the reportings on his licenciatura degree awarded by UnI. On 9 April 2007, Universidade Independente was closed by government officials after an investigation reported several serious irregularities in the running of this private university.

Under heavy pressure, Sócrates provided his version of the facts on Wednesday 11 April 2007 in a live broadcast interview for the RTP 1 TV channel and RDP radio. The prime minister stated he was not favoured by the Universidade Independente to obtain the degree, declared he had been the target of "catty accusations", and defended the authenticity of the degree, though admitting he is not a fully chartered civil engineer. In his official biography at the Portuguese Government's official website Sócrates claimed to have already obtained the qualification of engineer. He later admitted that this was a "lapse", and the government website altered his CV, downgrading "civil engineer" to "diploma in civil engineering". In the interest of accuracy, he should have used "licenciado em engenharia civil" instead of "engenheiro". Before he had been granted the degree, he presented himself as an "engineer" when he was solely a "technical engineer". Portuguese Parliament documents with official information on Sócrates personal data were found, proving such inconsistencies. Sócrates and his staff replied to this by stating that it was probably a misunderstanding in the parliamentary services. After having the licenciatura diploma he used the title "engineer" in several official documents, despite the fact that his unaccredited degree in civil engineering from Universidade Independente was not legally recognized to allow for the use of the title "engineer"; a profession which is regulated in Portugal by the Ordem dos Engenheiros.

José Sócrates was fiercely criticised by members of Portugal's democratic opposition in the Parliament regarding both proved and unproven issues related with this controversy. Nicolau Santos, a television journalist and a director of Expresso newspaper, criticised the controversial series of fait-divers published in Público and claimed that despite the extensive coverage of details, Público's investigation lead to "no definitive conclusion" and might be connected with other issues. In the same tone, several other media personalities, like SIC Notícias' journalist Ricardo Costa, also suggested controversially that SONAE corporation, the parent company of Público newspaper, was behind the beginning of the controversy due to a failed takeover bid of SONAE's telecommunications operator over the largest Portuguese telecom – Portugal Telecom. The complexity of the takeover bid involving the largest Portuguese telecom, prompted State intervention by the Autoridade da Concorrência (The Portuguese Competition Authority).

It was found that a close friend of Sócrates, Armando Vara, was also awarded a diploma by the Universidade Independente days before he was appointed to a high ranking banking administration position in the state-run Caixa Geral de Depósitos, which in turn was strictly opened to candidates holding at last one academic degree in any subject.

Investigation
State authorities investigated the affair and archived the file on the grounds that the suspicions of falsification and irregularities allegedly attributed to José Sócrates turned out to be formally impossible to prove. On the other hand, the Universidade Independente was investigated by education state authorities, which resulted in the compulsory closing of that private university in October 2007, due to lack of academic rigour and teaching quality, along with generalized managerial and financial chaos in the institution.

Magalhães computer
A low-cost Intel Classmate PC-based netbook for use by children, announced and sponsored by Sócrates' cabinet, named Magalhães (after Fernão de Magalhães), assembled by the Portuguese company J.P. Sá Couto, was at the centre of a controversy on 7 October 2008, when the company was suspected of €5 million worth of tax evasion. J.P. Sá Couto dismissed all the accusations regarding alleged fiscal fraud within the company. Other major controversy regarding Magalhães computer were the legal issues about public contracting procedure in the agreement involving the Government and the company J.P. Sá Couto. The case led to an investigation that raised other similar issues involving other governmental agreements and public contracts.

Freeport outlet controversy
Since 2005, and, especially again in 2009, it was suggested by some Portuguese and British media that José Sócrates allegedly waived environmental restrictions, following intervention by one of his uncles and a cousin, to grant the British company Freeport a licence to build the Alcochete mall, a gigantic emporium near the Tagus river, developed in part on protected land outside Lisbon in 2002, when he was Minister for Environment of the PM António Guterres' cabinet. Portuguese authorities have meanwhile insisted José Sócrates was not under investigation, nor was he a suspect, while UK's Serious Fraud Office refused to confirm the veracity of reports emanating in Portugal. José Sócrates also stated the Freeport project was in due compliance with all legal requirements at the time. Júlio Eduardo Coelho Monteiro, a businessman who is an uncle of José Sócrates, told the Portuguese newspaper Sol how he established contact between his nephew and Freeport's representatives.

In a DVD held by the British police and released in March 2009 by the Portuguese media, Charles Smith, a consultant hired to handle the licensing of the Freeport of Alcochete, clearly stated that José Sócrates "was corrupt" and that he received, through a cousin, money to give the green light to the project for the "outlet". The recording revealed by TVI is only part of a conversation of 20 minutes that alongside Charles Smith also included John Cabral, an official of the consultant, and Alan Perkins, director of Freeport. It was the latter who, without knowledge of the other two, has recorded the event, where Smith and Cabral were questioned about the money that left the company to be used for the payment of "gloves" to the current prime minister. Charles Smith is one of two defendants in the case Freeport, commercial space on the process of Freeport Alcochete, related to alleged suspicions of corruption in the amendment to the Special Protection Area of the Tagus estuary (ZPET) decided three days before the elections of 2002, through a decree-law, when José Sócrates was Minister of Environment.

The conversation now revealed took place in 2006 with the aim of explaining the large outgoing amounts of money from the company's headquarters in London at the time of approval of the project. According to some sources contacted in London by TVI, José Sócrates remains the main suspect of British police. The British police are now set to send to the Portuguese authorities the 25 volumes of all research done in this process in England. The Serious Fraud Office, which investigates major financial fraud in Britain, has seen its activity limited due to the lack of cooperation of the Portuguese authorities in investigating the case. The first official meeting took place only on 17 November 2008 in The Hague, the headquarters of Eurojust, a body which is designed to facilitate judicial cooperation in the EU. Judge Cândida Almeida, director of DCIAP (Central Department for investigation and prosecution), which coordinates the department's prosecutor who investigates the case, refused a joint research proposal by the English. Then she became aware of the DVD. The prosecutor dropped the evidence, arguing that it did not comply with Portuguese law.

The Eurojust tried to distance itself from the scandal involving its head, José da Mota, a Portuguese, who allegedly put pressure on prosecutors in order to stop a corruption probe involving Portuguese Prime Minister José Sócrates. Two magistrates dealing with the so-called Freeport affair accused José Mota of having tried to persuade them to side-line the investigation at the request of the Portuguese premier and the minister of justice. The premier and Mr Mota's relationship goes back to the late nineties, when they worked in the same government as state secretaries for environment and justice respectively. In 2002, when the new EU body was formed (Eurojust), Mr Mota was transferred to The Hague as Portugal's representative to Eurojust. He was elected head of the judicial co-operation body in 2007, at a time when the so-called Freeport case had already started in Portugal.

On 22 May 2012, Alan Perkins, a Freeport manager between 2005 and 2006, said, under oath in court, that illegal payments had been made to the minister of the Environment. At the time, the minister of the Environment was José Sócrates.

Face Oculta scandal
Another corruption case involving Sócrates was the Face Oculta scandal. On 28 October 2009 the police began investigating a business group headquartered in Ovar. Armando Vara, one of the suspects, was reported to have had "talks" with Sócrates. Sócrates denied any involvement, claiming that he was only talking to a friend.

In February 2011 the company TMN, that belongs to Portugal Telecom, claimed that, because of an informatics-related problem, all the information and data about the case and related to Armando Vara (ex-vice-president of BCP), Rui Pedro Soares (ex-manager of PT), Mário Lino (ex-minister) and Paulo Penedos (ex-assistant of PT) had disappeared. David Dinis, editor of the Diário de Notícias newspaper, quit his job because of pressure from the director, João Marcelino, to stop this information being spread by the press.

Sócrates was not indicted as part of the Face Oculta probe, but investigation of corruption charges continued under Operation Marquis.

Corruption investigation
In November 2014, José Sócrates was arrested on suspicions of corruption and money-laundering, it having become apparent that a close friend was holding millions of euros for his benefit. Sócrates claimed that he merely borrowed money from his friend, but there were no records of the amounts loaned, which admittedly funded a luxurious lifestyle in Paris after Sócrates left the government. This came to light during the government's Operation Marquis investigation. He was originally held pending the conclusion of this investigation. Sócrates was imprisoned in the jail at Évora until September 2015 when he was remanded to house arrest at a relative's house in Lisbon. He was freed from house arrest in October 2015, but was constrained to remain in Portugal and prohibited from contacting other suspects in the case, pending completion of the investigation. In 2017, Sócrates was formally indicted on corruption charges including bribery, money laundering and tax fraud.

The charges of document forgery, tax evasion, money laundering and misuse of political office were based upon three transactions:
 * Sonae's takeover black knight bid for Portugal Telecom and the subsequent white knight takeover defense through a proposed merger with Brazilian telecom operator Oi involving Portugal Telecom's CEO Zeinal Bava,
 * the Vale do Lobo expansion project, and
 * the development of a high-speed railway line.

On 9 April 2021, a Portuguese judge dismissed the corruption charges against Sócrates, upholding lesser charges of money laundering and falsifying documents.

title: José Sócrates


text:
Talk:Iron lung

Untitled
https://www.wnyc.org/story/from-polio-to-covid--the-evolution-of-intensive-care — Preceding unsigned comment added by 173.63.90.74 (talk) 10:39, 13 August 2022 (UTC)

Comment 1
The line: 'The use of iron lungs has almost completely ceased' prompted me to go to google to search for who's still using one. How about listing those few living individuals who are still using an iron lung?

I wanted to ask first, since it would be my first post, and I'm unsure of protocols.

 * Negative pressure ventilators are still made (at least two different brands), so I think the sentence you mention is a factual error. --Ekko 11:24, 24 Feb 2005 (UTC)

According to an article in the July 2005 National Geographic, "...about 40 people in the US still depend on iron lungs to give them the oxygen they need to stay alive." More information on polio and iron lungs can be found in the article "The Polio Battles", in the Geographica section of this issue.

Jennifer Duarte Seattle, WA

For a "typical" iron-lung patient, did they need the maching 7x24, or was it a supplementary tool only used part of the time? --TheJeffMiller 01:27, 5 October 2005 (UTC)

 * As far as I know, iron lungs are still used for postoperative ventilaton of children after certain kinds of heart surgery --Ekko 10:56, 5 October 2005 (UTC)

There is one person left with the iron lung, and his name is Paul Alexander. -Anonymous — Preceding unsigned comment added by 205.213.208.72 (talk) 14:46, 9 March 2021 (UTC)

question
Are there any lifestyle alterations required due to treatment or technique?

What would you think? They are stuck in an iron lung with only their head sticking out. Do you think they go down to the bar every night at 9:30? —Preceding unsigned comment added by 92.2.13.83 (talk) 21:23, 3 June 2008 (UTC)

question
For how long are patients required to stay in the apparatus? How do they live in the lung if they are required to stay in it for 24 hours daily. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 151.203.251.58 (talk) 02:03, 29 May 2008 (UTC)

question
Why would anyone be in an iron lung when modern ventilators are available?
 * I cite from the article: the iron lung mimics the physiologic action of breathing: by periodically altering intrathoracic pressure, it causes air to flow in and out of the lungs. The iron lung is a form of non-invasive therapy..The key words are physiologic and non-invasive. --Ekko 08:42, 8 December 2005 (UTC)

However, in certain rare conditions, such as Ondine's curse (in which failure of the medullary respiratory centers at the base of the brain result in patients having no autonomic control of breathing), the machine still finds use. I cite from the article too. Does that answer why? AllStarZ 02:34, 15 January 2006 (UTC)

 * Those who have Ondine's Curse do not need a ventilator when they are awake, only when the sleep. The iron lung works well for them because there are no tubes to insert or remove, and they can sleep lying in the iron lung.--RLent 19:44, 17 August 2007 (UTC)

Could it be helpful to patience of Gullien Barre Syndrom ?

Iron lung is not necessarily an old ventilator
Negative pressure ventilators are still manufactured. So when the article says that they are still used, despite the problems with replacement parts, this is nonsense. And positive pressure ventilators are not a new thing either. Heinrich Dräger patented his Pulmotor (a simple positive pressure ventilator) in 1907. --Ekko 07:39, 19 March 2007 (UTC)
 * The University of Virginia has a great web exhibit on the iron lung that gives documented examples of artificial ventilation dating back to 1782. And at least some models of iron lung have been discontinued in the last years and decades, and here's a source that indicates that at least one patient was advised to buy a new model because replacement parts would become hard to find for her old one.  I do agree with you that the article is misleading on these and other issues, probably wrong on others, and in general unreliable because there are no sources given.  It needs to be revised… please feel free… or I will if I find some time.  EsdnePyaJ 21:06, 19 March 2007 (UTC)
 * So many articles, so few hours.... In my schedule I plan to have my excellent (norwegian) article ready by autumn, so after that perhaps... --Ekko 07:43, 20 March 2007 (UTC)

How'd they "go to the bathroom"?
Just curious about how iron lung patients managed to, well, you know, if they were in the iron lung 24/7... — Rickyrab | Talk 17:12, 29 May 2008 (UTC)
 * Since the diseases that put them in an iron lung often involve paralysis, I would assume they are catheritized like other paralyzed patients.LiPollis (talk) 17:03, 1 June 2008 (UTC)

"Wouldn't work in an iron lung"
Is it worth making mention of this expression for laziness? —Preceding unsigned comment added by 203.37.212.89 (talk) 01:09, 12 October 2009 (UTC)

Possible error "fill" or "fall"
The article states: This, in turn, causes the pressure of the air inside the lungs to fill (it becomes negative, relative to the atmosphere),

Is the meaning really that the air pressure inside the lung falls which causes the lungs to fill up when the air pressure inside the chamber increases. I'm not sure of the meaning of "causes the pressure of the air to fill". I hope someone knowledgable can correct or change if needed. I'm not goning to make any change to the article myself due to a total lack of qualification.

Seki1949 (talk) 19:06, 20 April 2011 (UTC)

Change article title to "iron lung"?
According to WP:CommonName articles should use the most common name for their article titles. For instance, see the Big Dig for the Central Artery/Tunnel Project in Boston, or Bill Clinton for the president (or Mother Teresa, North Korea, the Nazi Party). Therefore shouldn't this article's title be "iron lung" and not "negative pressure ventilator"? --Bruce Hall (talk) 04:30, 29 December 2012 (UTC)

 * Agree completely. Iron lungs in the news a lot recently and none of the mainstream news articles use the term "Negative pressure ventilator." -- Michael Scott Cuthbert (talk) 20:10, 1 December 2013 (UTC)

 * I also concur. Due to the polio epidemic of the 1950s, anyone living at that time probably knows the term all too well.  BMJ-pdx (talk) 01:10, 12 October 2023 (UTC)

Globalize
Entirely US Centric. This article's parochialism is astounding. It has even swiped and obliterated the common name "Iron Lung"! Eddaido (talk) 21:39, 7 March 2013 (UTC)

You're more than welcome to update pages to represent a more global view. Authors, in all countries, tend to focus on their own region. It's basic human nature. Because Wikipedia began in the US, many of the English Wikipedia pages are US-centric. This is because the earliest editors were American and Americans still make up the largest portion of the editor-base, by individual country. The US also happens to be one of the most populous countries in the English-speaking world. However, the ultimate goal of Wikipedia is to have pages which represent a global perspective.

There's even a tag which will categorize a page as needing an expanded perspective. Using this tag will help global users, who are looking to globalize content, discover that the page needs to be updated. If you lack the expertise or the time to research and edit the page, please consider adding to the top of the page. This is much more likely to accomplish this goal than creating a talk page.

Wikipedia relies on a global editor base to globalize articles using their unique expertise of the region. There is no need to create a talk page with a shaming tone which demands that another author invest a great deal of time researching another region. The tone of this talk page to elicit a knee-jerk feeling of "Well why don't YOU do it YOURSELF, if it's so important to you."

It is, however, acceptable to create a talk page discussing the need to globalize and encouraging editors from around the world to contribute. But it is important to use a neutral, non-aggressive tone if you want people to cooperate.

This suggestion goes for every Wikipedian, please try to avoid creating talk pages while angry or frustrated. While isolated negative incidents do exist, the general community of Wikipedia is not intending to ignore or disregard any region of the world.

ParamediCate (talk) 07:50, 20 May 2019 (UTC)

Here is the wikipage explaining how and when to use the globalize tag: https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Globalize

ParamediCate (talk) 07:51, 20 May 2019 (UTC)

Mentioned for historical reasons- not in use today!
Iron lungs are not used today. Its been many decades since they were replaced by more sophisticated devices. However, in the past they saved many lives esp. from Polio. 688dim (talk) 23:17, 8 January 2015 (UTC)
 * There are still some people using them today. About 10 in the US alone. -- Michael Scott Cuthbert (talk) 20:45, 12 August 2015 (UTC)

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Biphasic cuirass ventilation
This article has for Biphasic cuirass ventilation "Main article: Biphasic cuirass ventilation", however that is a redirect to Mechanical ventilation which only mentions it in section 'Negative pressure machines'... which starts with "Main article: Negative pressure ventilator", but that is a redirect back to Iron lung. Batternut (talk) 00:39, 13 October 2016 (UTC)
 * I had in mind mentioning Alexander Graham Bell's prototype cuirass, as historical interest (source ) - but where should it go? Batternut (talk) 00:45, 13 October 2016 (UTC)

Wrongly labelled image
The second image down labelled "Iron lung ward filled with polio patients", widely copied on the Internet, is actually from a staged shot of iron lungs not of a hospital ward according to this page https://amhistory.si.edu/polio/historicalphotos/index.htm Also discussed on a pro-vaccine page. It is illustrative and not referred to in the text, so I propose removing it. --Hartley Patterson (talk) 18:24, 18 October 2017 (UTC)
 * Interesting links. I tend to agree with removal of the image from this article. Batternut (talk) 19:10, 18 October 2017 (UTC)
 * I came here to make the same suggestion and give the same link. Either the picture info should be corrected to reflect the fact that it's a publicity photo, or the photo should be removed completely. Country Wife~enwiki (talk) 05:02, 22 November 2017 (UTC)

Image now removed. Batternut (talk) 09:15, 22 November 2017 (UTC)

As always, feel free to be bold in changing images and their captions if you believe the change is necessary! ParamediCate (talk) 07:53, 20 May 2019 (UTC)

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Clearer lede & new 'Design & function' section
I agree with the flag saying "This article's lead section does not adequately summarize key points of its contents," and so I've overhauled the lede -- adding a simple description of what the device is (why wasn't this there before?), with refs cited for the added material.

Three detailed paragraphs at the end of the lede were moved into their own new subsection: "Design and function," and a more fundamentally descriptive opening two paragraphs were added to that section, with ref cites.

To that section, I've also added info on the powering of the iron lung, and summary paragraphs about large and small variations on the iron lung (again, with ref cites, though I'd like to see some better refs on the small "exovent" / "Cuirass ventilator").

 * ~ Penlite (talk) 12:49, 11 April 2020 (UTC)

Fixed numerous errors in lede, 1st paragraph.
There were numerous errors in the original 1st paragraph of the lede.

The 1st sentence originally read:
 * A negative pressure ventilator, also known as iron lung (colloquialism) or  pulmotor (generic trademark), is a mechanical respirator

This sentence had two fundamental errors:
 * It implied that all "negative pressure ventilators" were "iron lungs," when, in fact, iron lungs are just one type of NPV. There are several others, some itemized in the source (a professional medical journal) cited in my revision of that sentence. (As soon as I can, i'll recreate the "negative pressure ventilator" page, which currently redirects here, and list, on that page, the various types of NPVs, including iron lung, with appropriate wikilinks. But if anyone can get to it before me, go for it. (Strongly recommend looking at the first several refs cited in this article for various NPV devices to list in the NPV article.)
 * Stated that the "pulmotor" was the same thing as an iron lung / negative-pressure ventilator. It is a radically different device, and is more focused on positive pressure ventilation (directly forcing air into the lungs through the airway), than on negative (drawing air from the lungs by negative pressure -- partial vacuum) -- though it does both. Moreover, the Pulmotor works entirely by directly altering pressure and flow on the person's airway, while the iron lung operates by directly altering pressure on the person's torso.

The 2nd sentence in lede also had a couple of major misstatements. It said the patient in an iron lung could...: These two things are essentially the OPPOSITE of what is happening, per several of the cited sources. The iron lung forces the person's body to inhale and exhale, as a result of abnormal external forces that it generates -- as several of the cited refs clearly explain. While the patient may have the ability to contribute to the breathing, through their own physical action, that autonomous act is not made possible by the iron lung, and the patient is not entirely breathing "on his or her own," let alone in a "normal manner."
 * "...breathe on his or her own."
 * "...breathe... in a normal manner"
 * ~ Penlite (talk) 14:50, 14 April 2020 (UTC)

Covid-19
It seems to me, an iron lung would be preferable to a ventilator. It seems a lot less intrusive to the patient. Am I crazy? 108.200.234.93 (talk) 18:44, 18 April 2020 (UTC)

Content dispute
I've fully protected in the WP:WRONG VERSION for 12 hours to give interested editors a chance to talk. Please bring the discussion here: it's really not ripe for ANI at present. If possible, could those of you who have an opinion please point out the key sources relevant to the disputed material, and try to seek some consensus on forms of wording that all could find acceptable. If you reach a conclusion before the 12 hours are up, then please ping me to lift the protection early. Cheers --RexxS (talk) 18:07, 24 April 2020 (UTC)

 * Short-term objective: per WP:ONUS, obtains a consensus here to reinsert the contested material, which, per WP:MEDRS, will be composed of either review articles (especially systematic reviews) published in reputable medical journals; academic and professional books written by experts in the relevant fields and from respected publishers; and guidelines or position statements from national or international expert bodies.  ——  SN  54129  18:26, 24 April 2020 (UTC)

 * Long-term objective: The article will be rewritten so all the sourcing is fully compliant with WP:MEDRS, and will be sourced to either review articles (especially systematic reviews) published in reputable medical journals; academic and professional books written by experts in the relevant fields and from respected publishers; and guidelines or position statements from national or international expert bodies. ——  SN  54129  18:26, 24 April 2020 (UTC)
 * Worth remembering that large parts of the subject are as much mechanical engineering as medical, and particular facts can be legitimately cited to stuff which isn’t handled so much in medical sources. It is also worth noting that medical history is often better in the very short term, and the longer term. In the middle ground, where immediacy is lost, but pecuniary liability isn’t, sourcing often gets sparser. Qwirkle (talk) 19:08, 24 April 2020 (UTC)
 * I agree that short-, middle- and long-term history must all be fully sourced to MEDRS requirements, yes.  ——  SN  54129  09:09, 25 April 2020 (UTC)

Please see my detailed response to this issue, posted in response to the various remarks at:  ~ Penlite (talk) 18:38, 24 April 2020 (UTC)
 * On the advice of RexxS, I'm reposting my reply (previously posted 18:07, 24 April 2020 (UTC) to the remarks in the Administrator's noticeboard). I'm not looking for a fight -- just a practical and constructive solution. ~ Penlite (talk) 23:37, 24 April 2020 (UTC)
 * This section thread is (apparently) mostly about my recent edits to the "Iron lung" article (particularly my last several hours of editing), and the extensive trashing of them by Taresantia, within an hour of their last post (I was in the process of gathering the appropriate major media and medical journal ref cites -- nearly all of them from sources already cited in the article -- for the lists criticized here, while, unbeknownst to me, my edits were being trashed). So I appreciate the notice, that I just received, that I might be interested in this exchange.

 * In attempting to provide useful, relevant, timely and encyclopedic information about this urgently important subject, I admit to some rather poor attention to certain Wikipedia traditions and standards, and was not even aware of some of them, particularly WP:MEDRS, which I stumbled across just in the last few hours. Frankly, if Taresantia had been a little slower on the draw, she would have found, within hours, that every item on the list would have been documented from substantial (mostly medical journal) sources.

 * However, while gathering the ref cites, I referred to a companion article I'd been editing: Negative pressure ventilator.  It was an article that had been incorrectly omitted and redirected to "Iron lung" (as the NPV article now documents clearly, "Iron lung" is merely a subset of "Negative pressure ventilator"). Instead of finding my recent edits intact there, I found that they, too were trashed -- by Taresantia.

 * Reeling from the loss of massive amounts (many hours) of work, I redirected my focus on trying to understand and evaluate those changes, and study up quickly on the relevant Help and WP:MOS pages, and begin to form an appropriate response to them. Eventually, I decided to, instead, get back to finishing the "Iron lung" Advantages/disadvantages list (adding the not-yet-posted reference citations) -- only to find that work trashed, too.

 * And, while trying to make sense of that, I get the late invitation to this roasting.

 * Let's be clear about my objectives: Provide relevant, important, timely, valid, well-documented and comprehensible information, about an important subject, of particularly urgent global importance.

 * I realize, now, that it was unwise to post anything before I had the matching reference citations attached. I will refrain from that in the future. And I've taken care to read much of the other guidance on Medical articles in Wikipedia, and will adjust my work accordingly.

 * I appreciate and respect earnest criticism about the quality of my work, as it pertains to meeting standards of WP:RS, and the new-to-me WP:MEDRS, and -- if given a day or two to re-evaluate EVERYTHING I've posted on both of these articles -- I will fix much of it (probably most) in line with the various shortcomings cited here, and others I've just discovered by reviewing endless mountains of WP protcols.

 * Note that, out of courtesy, and urgency, I have respectfully refrained from trashing most of the other content by prior editors -- instead, simply supplementing it with more relevant and authoritative content. As time and workload permit, I will address those shortcomings, and will start by announcing, on the Talk page, any intent to do major deletions (and some are clearly due). But I will not trash another's extensive, relevant and accurate work within an hour of their delivering it.

 * Lives are at stake: Valid information is most urgent. And I have been scrupulous in providing just that, and that alone (compared, apparently, to editors before me on this topic).

 * I welcome respectful and well-intentioned criticism on the Talk pages of any article I edit, and encourage that they be directed to me with a flag. I will take note.  If I don't respond within 24 hours, on a topic of this urgency and importance, fine. Trash my work.

 * But, for heaven's sake, let me catch a breath before you pull the rug out from under me. I don't have the time to do it over, as I'm currently also dealing with public service duties related to the current crisis. And, clearly, no one else has recently stepped up to the plate to adequately overhaul these important, timely, but previously very poorly produced, inadequate and absent articles.

 * Respectfully,
 * ~ Penlite (talk) 18:07, 24 April 2020 (UTC)

 * While the descriptions of the mechanical processes might not require WP:MEDRS-compliant sourcing (although even that should be available and would be preferable), some statements in the Advantages and Disadvantages sections certainly need MEDRS-quality sourcing. The way to go on the mechanical descriptions is to find the best possible source (not Youtube) for writing those, while some parts of the Advantages/Disadvantages should not be added back unless you have MEDRS sources.    Penlite, my concern at this point is that you are not a new editor, there are past concerns on your talk page about your editing (expressed by  and ), and it is odd to find edits of this quality from a relatively experienced editor. The impression is given that you are experimenting in mainspace, rather than in user sandbox, and using mainspace to collect notes about research.  Specifically, why did you mention "(note detailed reader comment,, April 7, 2020, by Christopher Smith, with clinical application details.), a reader comment on a marginal source? Reminder to look at contribs at resuscitator (where you added a blog), artificial ventilation, mechanical ventilation and negative pressure ventilator.  And you've attached five citations to some statements, when there are old messages on your talk page about Citation overkill. Why do these descriptions require five citations?  I suggest looking instead for one or two highest quality sources.  Wikipedia must take care that we are not advancing commercial interests at a time when all of these types of machines are in demand; the Advantages/Disadvantages of each should be carefully sourced. Your user page mentions an impressive number of professions and contacts in numerous industries; do you have any conflict of interest in this area?   I suggest that it would be helpful for you to review what sources you want to use for what text here on talk before re-adding text, and then to take it slow to make sure you are adding text in the format expected from an experienced editor.  Sandy Georgia  (Talk)  20:02, 24 April 2020 (UTC)
 * Thanks for that very constructive advice, . I'm sure will take note as I've been talking to them on their talk page, where they tell me that they will do further drafting in their sandbox and ask the folks here to review it. Thanks to all who have contributed here, and let's hope that working together you'll be able to make valuable improvements. Cheers --RexxS (talk) 22:23, 24 April 2020 (UTC)
 * Your critiques and advice are noted, and I will reflect carefully upon them. I am attempting, while managing other responsibilities, to make time to reconstruct the lost edits, and correct them to the standards that have been discussed here and elsewhere -- on my sandbox. When finished, I will report that, with a link to the sandbox, for all to review and assess (please, all, refrain from visiting the sandbox until then). Respectfully ~ Penlite (talk) 23:37, 24 April 2020 (UTC)
 * Thanks, Penlite. I am quite busy elsewhere, so am going to unwatch here for now.  Please ping me if/when my feedback is needed.  Regards, Sandy Georgia  (Talk)  23:40, 24 April 2020 (UTC)
 * PS, Penlite, popping back in to give you some tips. The reason we shouldn't be using websites from individual hospitals or individual doctors is that they may be pushing the particular kind of machine they have over others (to recoup their costs and turn a profit).  Take for example, Prostate_cancer.  If a hospital does proton beam therapy and has the machine for that, their literature will push that.  If they are experts at robotic-assisted prostatectomy, they will push that.  If their equipment is geared to external beam radiation therapy, they'll push that. There is no one best therapy, and each hospital/doctor/treatment center will naturally have literature touting the machine or technique they have. That's why we need independent, third-party, peer-reviewed sources, per WP:MEDRS, even when talking about equipment.  This page may help you locate better sources:  Wikipedia Signpost/2008-06-30/Dispatches.  Sandy Georgia  (Talk)  00:17, 25 April 2020 (UTC)
 * (to recoup their costs and turn a profit)...or to simply recoup their costs, or because they have an emotional investment in having made the decision they did, yep. A far larger problem, however, is that iron lungs have been “orphans” so long that there are neither many manufacturers nor medicos intimately familiar with them. The last polio epidemic left so many underutilized machines in its wake that there was little reason to follow up with new machinery, and there is always, in every field, an economic push to explore the new rather than the reinvestigate the old in developed countries which are not facing crisis. Qwirkle (talk) 00:31, 25 April 2020 (UTC)
 * I've discovered, over the decades, that this is exactly the case in virtually all technologies. "Obsolescence" -- whether the result of inherent flaws, improved competing products, or changing economics (e.g.: economic cycles and evolutions, shifting ownership, "planned obsolescence," etc.) -- routinely results in "orphaned" technologies, regardless of inherent merit, whose technical and historic information soon becomes lost to history -- often, ironically, just about the time that circumstances change enough that it becomes relevant again. That has appeared to be the case here, based on news reports, and medical literature I found while following up about the topic.
 * I was trying to simply round up what little information remains, and new developments, and put it here, in Wikipedia language (admittedly imperfectly), and with thorough documentation (though I clearly jumped the gun by posting the Advantages/disadvantages lists before rounding up and attaching the ref cites for the material from which the lists were drawn. My bad. Will try to get this done shortly, in my sandbox. This edit-war distraction, though, has consumed all my available time to wiki-edit, and I've had to step back and attend to other matters.)
 * As someone else has noted, and I concur, there is also the question of cultural relevance in medical R&D: Rich countries -- able to afford the most modern technologies, and the advanced staff needed to utilize them -- have long had no use for the Iron lung and its kin, but poorer nations may still have such need, particularly if their meager "modern" resources are overwhelmed by a surge coming faster than they can purchase newer gear, and train staff.  They need to know what other options may exist (especially now), regardless of how little "relevance" they may have for those of us in the "developed" nations, or our medical journals, focused almost entirely on current medical practices in affluent nations.  Nigeria, Anglophone East Africa, South Africa, Pakistan, India, Bangladesh, Myanmar and Malaysia, for instance, are all English-language Wikipedia consumers, as well (and, combined, far outnumber the population of the "developed" Anglophone nations). This, then, also has relevance for the developed "donor" nations, as well, trying to decide how (or whether) to help those others. And the same is true for Wikipedia -- trying to become fully relevant across the Anglophone world.
 * As to the reference to hospitals, and their documentation, I think I understand the points (sometimes conflicting) that you're both trying to say, and a review of WP:MEDRS has helped me to be more reflective about that. In my ref cites to medical peer-reviewed journals, I had been in the habit of noting hospital affiliations partly because I thought it an important way to reveal any affiliation bias, not hide it.
 * However, in at least two cases (Boston Medical Center & Boston Children's Hospital), citing their material (historic/technical video and current ICU manual) provided mostly background information that summarized the technologies, without being (IMHO) particularly prescriptive or promotional (nor enthusiastic) -- and solidly consistent with the peer-reviewed materials, as well. Moreover (and perhaps I shouldn't think this) Boston-area hospitals (those noted, plus Johns Hopkins and Massachusetts General) have superlative reputation as the experts in medical technology implementation, largely because of their association with the world's pre-eminent medical college: Harvard Medical School.
 * In particular, it is Boston Children's Hospital where the "iron lung" came to first regular use, and their video provided exceptional graphic demonstrations of the iron lung that explained it simply and exceptionally clearly, from a rather dry historic and technical approach, I thought, without really being promotional (it is almost unthinkable that they would ever revive iron lung use there). That information, it seems to me, is ideal for effectively explaining the iron lung to the layperson, compared to the medical journals (with their obtuse jargon and near-total lack of clarifying imagery). That's why I made it the #2 reference citation. Should I have put it in "External links" instead?
 * ~ Penlite (talk) 06:00, 25 April 2020 (UTC)

Seen in The Five Pennies
Is it worth mentioning that a patient in an iron lung is seen in the 1959 biopic The Five Pennies ? It's authentic, being contemporaneous with the polio epidemic of that time. BMJ-pdx (talk) 00:39, 12 October 2023 (UTC)

Can we do better than the MS Paint diagram of how the machine works?
It's pretty obviously just MS Paint, default colors and all, are there no better diagrams or anyone who can make a better diagram to fit this? 96.66.39.9 (talk) 21:26, 27 January 2024 (UTC)

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Talk:Iron lung


text:
Salar Jung Museum

The Salar Jung Museum is an art museum located at Dar-ul-Shifa, on the southern bank of the Musi River in the city of Hyderabad, Telangana, India. It is one of the notable National Museums of India. Originally a private art collection of the Salar Jung family, it was endowed to the nation after the death of Salar Jung III. It was inaugurated on 16 December 1951.

It has a collection of sculptures, paintings, carvings, textiles, manuscripts, ceramics, metallic artefacts, carpets, clocks, and furniture from Japan, China, Burma, Nepal, India, Persia, Egypt, Europe, and North America. It is one of the largest museums in the world.

History
A nobleman of the Salar Jung family of Hyderabad, Nawab Mir Yousuf Ali Khan, Salar Jung III (1889–1949) served as Prime Minister of Hyderabad during the Nizam's rule. He spent a substantial amount of his income, over a period of thirty-five years, collecting artefacts from all across the world. After the Nawab died in 1949, the collections were left behind in his ancestral palace Diwan Devdi. The collection was formerly exhibited there as a private museum, named Salar Jung Museum, which was inaugurated by Jawaharlal Nehru on 16 December 1951.

Old timers believe that the present collection constitutes only half of the original art wealth collected by the Nawab. His employees siphoned off part of it, since the Nawab depended upon his staff to keep a vigil.

The state decided to shift the museum to a new building and after a design competition, Mohammed Fayazuddin was selected as the architect of the new building.

The foundation stone was laid by Jawaharlal Nehru in 1963, and in 1968, the museum shifted to its present location at Dar-ul-Shifa, and is administered by a board of trustees with the governor of Telangana as ex officio chairperson under the Salar Jung Museum Act of 1961. Some more art pieces were lost or stolen during the shifting of the museum from Dewan Devdi to the present site.

In 2003, the museum signed a memorandum of understanding with the National Mission for Manuscripts, and was declared a manuscript conservation centre.

In 2006, a fire broke out in an auditorium in the museum premises. However, it was quickly extinguished and none of the artefacts were damaged. After the incident, fire safety facilities were upgraded.

Collections
Collection at the salar Jung Museum can be broadly classified into Indian Art, Middle Eastern Art, Far Eastern Art, European Art and Children's Section. Other than this a founder gallery is created which is dedicated to Salar Jung Family.

Indian Art
Indian Collection can be categorised into following galleries Indian Bronze, Indian Textile, Indian Sculpture, Minor arts of South India, Miniature Paintings, Ivory Carvings arms and armour, Metal Ware and Jade Carving.

Indian Miniature Painting
The history of miniature painting can be traced to 14th century. Before the invention of paper, the art was practised on cloth or certain kinds of leaves. The museum houses manuscripts on leaves from 15th- and 16th-century Gujrat. It holds a range of miniature paintings from Mughal, Rajasthani, Thanjavur, Malwa and Deccan schools. Notable works of miniature painting are:
 * The Birth of the Prince, which captures the spirit of a significant event and depicts both Persian and Indian influence
 * From the Mughal school, showing European influence is Madonna with Child, from the 16th century
 * An important painting from the Mughal school of the 17th century is Prince with a Hawk. This is among the earliest of Mughal artistic works that depict facial features of Persians
 * A Mughal miniature painting which shows the style in full bloom is King with Nobles

The Deccan school with centres at Golconda, Bijapur, Bidar, Gulbarga and Ahmednagar, also produced some fine pieces of miniature painting which were strongly influenced by Mughal and Persian miniature-painting styles. Some noteworthy examples of both paintings and manuscripts in the museum: Bhog Bal, dated from 16th century, is one of the most prominent of the manuscripts; a painting showing Jamshed Quli and Ibrahim Quli in conversation is a good example of Golconda School; an interesting painting from Bijapur School is Elephants in a Fight. There are several paintings of Yoginis and from Ragamala.

Modern Painting
Salar Jung III hand acquired few Modern Paintings but majority of the paintings in collection were collected by the museum in 1962. In India Ravi Verma was the pioneer of the Modern School, he worked with oil medium depicting Indian mythology and classic themes. The museum has two of his works, Stolen Interview and The Kerela Beauty. Other masters of the Modern School whose works are presented in the museum are Varma and Abdur Rahman Chughtai, M. F. Husain, K.K. Hebbar, Rabindranath Tagore, Abanidranath Tagore Chugtai and Nandalal Bose

Ivory Carving
The Museum contains important examples of ivory carvings in different forms, such as furniture, mats, lamps, handles of daggers, chess and chausars. The chessman and chausar are interesting elements, the pawns being depicted as soldiers, while the king and queen are riding on elephants. These painted pieces belong to North India.

The most notable element is the ivory carved chair gifted to Tipu Sultan by Louis XVI. The backrest of the chair is a fine lattice pattern and the armrest is carved as a lion head. Ivory lamp also deserves a special mention owing to its intricate craftsmanship and is the only ivory carving example from Mysore.

The "Founder's Gallery" houses portraits of Salar Jung III, as well as other members of the Salar Jung family.

The Indian block includes jade-crafted daggers of Jahangir, Nur Jahan and Shah Jahan; and weapons belonging to Aurangzeb, Tipu Sultan, Muhammad Shah, Bahadur Shah and Abul Hasan Qutb Shah.

Indian sculptures from the Gandhara and Chola periods are also displayed.

Jade Collection
Salarjung Museum's Jade Collection is one of the largest collection of jade displayed for public in India. The collection as per a publication from 1979 of Salar Jung Museum suggests that there were 984 objects with varying degree of craftsmanship. Most of the artefacts are from the Mughal Empire and some from the Asaf Jah Dynasty.

Western
In 1876, on a trip to France the unique "double sculpture", Mephistopheles and Margaretta was acquired by Salar Jung I. He also traveled to Rome, where he purchased a marble statue called Veiled Rebecca. The Salar Jung family had a history of collecting art, and eventually the collections of Salar Jung I, II and III all ended up in the Salar Jung Museum.

European art from British, French and Italian artists are displayed. Among works on show are some by the notable artists Canaletto, William-Adolphe Bouguereau and Francesco Hayez. The furniture collection includes pieces from the time of King Louis XIV and Napoleon. Salar Jung III collected about 43,000 artefacts and 50,000 books and manuscripts out of which only few are displayed in today's museum.

Eastern
The Eastern block houses Japanese artworks, porcelain pieces, samurai swords and sculptures from China, Japan, Tibet and Burma.

Quran collections
The museum has a famous Quran collection, from around the world in different fonts and designs, called the Quran Written with Gold and Silver. There are many more collections of religious books, as well as Arabic Quran.

Clocks
A variety and array of clocks are in the clock room. There are ancient sundials in the form of obelisks to huge and modern clocks of the twentieth century. Others in the range vary from miniature clocks which need a magnifying glass to view closely, to stately grandfather clocks from place such as France, Germany, Italy, Switzerland and Britain, including the musical clock Salar Jung bought from Cook and Kelvey of England.

The variety of clocks includes the bird cage clocks, bracket clocks, grandfather clocks, skeleton clocks, etc. The museum also has examples of the clocks of the contemporary period of Louis XV, Louis XVI, and Napoleon 1st of France.

The Indian Parliament has declared the museum an Institution of National Importance.

Coins
There is a collection of about 600 coins the from VijayNagar dynasty to Bahmani empire, Moghul empire and Modern India. Few coins are 2300yrs old. Some Punch Mark coins from Kushan dynasty are also preserved. The coins are made of Silver, copper,lead.

Facilities
The museum building, semicircular in shape with 38 galleries, spread on two floors, displays only a part of the original collection. The ground floor has 20 galleries and the first floor has 18 galleries. The exhibits on different subjects are displayed in separate galleries. Each gallery is huge and has many artefacts on display including ones dating back to the 4th century. There are plans for a new Islamic Gallery, where Islamic artefacts and manuscripts of the Qur'an will be displayed.

Apart from the galleries, there is a reference library, reading room, publication and education section, chemical conservation lab, sales counter, cafeteria etc.

title: Salar Jung Museum


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Variety (universal algebra)

In universal algebra, a variety of algebras or equational class is the class of all algebraic structures of a given signature satisfying a given set of identities. For example, the groups form a variety of algebras, as do the abelian groups, the rings, the monoids etc. According to Birkhoff's theorem, a class of algebraic structures of the same signature is a variety if and only if it is closed under the taking of homomorphic images, subalgebras, and (direct) products. In the context of category theory, a variety of algebras, together with its homomorphisms, forms a category; these are usually called finitary algebraic categories.

A covariety is the class of all coalgebraic structures of a given signature.

Terminology
A variety of algebras should not be confused with an algebraic variety, which means a set of solutions to a system of polynomial equations. They are formally quite distinct and their theories have little in common.

The term "variety of algebras" refers to algebras in the general sense of universal algebra; there is also a more specific sense of algebra, namely as algebra over a field, i.e. a vector space equipped with a bilinear multiplication.

Definition
A signature (in this context) is a set, whose elements are called operations, each of which is assigned a natural number (0, 1, 2, ...) called its arity. Given a signature σ and a set V, whose elements are called variables, a word is a finite rooted tree in which each node is labelled by either a variable or an operation, such that every node labelled by a variable has no branches away from the root and every node labelled by an operation o has as many branches away from the root as the arity of o. An equational law is a pair of such words; the axiom consisting of the words v and w is written as v = w.

A theory consists of a signature, a set of variables, and a set of equational laws. Any theory gives a variety of algebras as follows. Given a theory T, an algebra of T consists of a set A together with, for each operation o of T with arity n, a function oA : An → A such that for each axiom v = w and each assignment of elements of A to the variables in that axiom, the equation holds that is given by applying the operations to the elements of A as indicated by the trees defining v and w. The class of algebras of a given theory T is called a variety of algebras.

Given two algebras of a theory T, say A and B, a homomorphism is a function f : A → B such that
 * $$f(o_A(a_1, \dots, a_n)) = o_B(f(a_1), \dots, f(a_n))$$

for every operation o of arity n. Any theory gives a category where the objects are algebras of that theory and the morphisms are homomorphisms.

Examples
The class of all semigroups forms a variety of algebras of signature (2), meaning that a semigroup has a single binary operation. A sufficient defining equation is the associative law:
 * $$x(yz) = (xy)z.$$

The class of groups forms a variety of algebras of signature (2,0,1), the three operations being respectively multiplication (binary), identity (nullary, a constant) and inversion (unary). The familiar axioms of associativity, identity and inverse form one suitable set of identities:
 * $$x(yz) = (xy)z$$
 * $$1 x = x 1 = x$$
 * $$x x^{-1} = x^{-1} x = 1.$$

The class of rings also forms a variety of algebras. The signature here is (2,2,0,0,1) (two binary operations, two constants, and one unary operation).

If we fix a specific ring R, we can consider the class of left R-modules. To express the scalar multiplication with elements from R, we need one unary operation for each element of R. If the ring is infinite, we will thus have infinitely many operations, which is allowed by the definition of an algebraic structure in universal algebra. We will then also need infinitely many identities to express the module axioms, which is allowed by the definition of a variety of algebras. So the left R-modules do form a variety of algebras.

The fields do not form a variety of algebras; the requirement that all non-zero elements be invertible cannot be expressed as a universally satisfied identity (see below).

The cancellative semigroups also do not form a variety of algebras, since the cancellation property is not an equation, it is an implication that is not equivalent to any set of equations. However, they do form a quasivariety as the implication defining the cancellation property is an example of a quasi-identity.

Birkhoff's Variety theorem
Given a class of algebraic structures of the same signature, we can define the notions of homomorphism, subalgebra, and product. Garrett Birkhoff proved that a class of algebraic structures of the same signature is a variety if and only if it is closed under the taking of homomorphic images, subalgebras and arbitrary products. This is a result of fundamental importance to universal algebra and known as Birkhoff's variety theorem or as the HSP theorem. H, S, and P stand, respectively, for the operations of homomorphism, subalgebra, and product.

One direction of the equivalence mentioned above, namely that a class of algebras satisfying some set of identities must be closed under the HSP operations, follows immediately from the definitions. Proving the converse—classes of algebras closed under the HSP operations must be equational—is more difficult.

Using the easy direction of Birkhoff's theorem, we can for example verify the claim made above, that the field axioms are not expressible by any possible set of identities: the product of fields is not a field, so fields do not form a variety.

Subvarieties
A subvariety of a variety of algebras V is a subclass of V that has the same signature as V and is itself a variety, i.e., is defined by a set of identities.

Notice that although every group becomes a semigroup when the identity as a constant is omitted (and/or the inverse operation is omitted), the class of groups does not form a subvariety of the variety of semigroups because the signatures are different. Similarly, the class of semigroups that are groups is not a subvariety of the variety of semigroups. The class of monoids that are groups contains $$\langle\mathbb Z,+\rangle$$ and does not contain its subalgebra (more precisely, submonoid) $$\langle\mathbb N,+\rangle$$.

However, the class of abelian groups is a subvariety of the variety of groups because it consists of those groups satisfying xy = yx, with no change of signature. The finitely generated abelian groups do not form a subvariety, since by Birkhoff's theorem they don't form a variety, as an arbitrary product of finitely generated abelian groups is not finitely generated.

Viewing a variety V and its homomorphisms as a category, a subvariety U of V is a full subcategory of V, meaning that for any objects a, b in U, the homomorphisms from a to b in U are exactly those from a to b in V.

Free objects
Suppose V is a non-trivial variety of algebras, i.e. V contains algebras with more than one element. One can show that for every set S, the variety V contains a free algebra FS on S. This means that there is an injective set map i : S → FS that satisfies the following universal property: given any algebra A in V and any map k : S → A, there exists a unique V-homomorphism f : FS → A such that f ∘ i = k.

This generalizes the notions of free group, free abelian group, free algebra, free module etc. It has the consequence that every algebra in a variety is a homomorphic image of a free algebra.

Category theory
Besides varieties, category theorists use two other frameworks that are equivalent in terms of the kinds of algebras they describe: finitary monads and Lawvere theories. We may go from a variety to a finitary monad as follows. A category with some variety of algebras as objects and homomorphisms as morphisms is called a finitary algebraic category. For any finitary algebraic category V, the forgetful functor G : V → Set has a left adjoint F : Set → V, namely the functor that assigns to each set the free algebra on that set. This adjunction is monadic, meaning that the category V is equivalent to the Eilenberg–Moore category SetT for the monad T = GF. Moreover the monad T is finitary, meaning it commutes with filtered colimits.

The monad T : Set → Set is thus enough to recover the finitary algebraic category. Indeed, finitary algebraic categories are precisely those categories equivalent to the Eilenberg-Moore categories of finitary monads. Both these, in turn, are equivalent to categories of algebras of Lawvere theories.

Working with monads permits the following generalization. One says a category is an algebraic category if it is monadic over Set. This is a more general notion than "finitary algebraic category" because it admits such categories as CABA (complete atomic Boolean algebras) and CSLat (complete semilattices) whose signatures include infinitary operations. In those two cases the signature is large, meaning that it forms not a set but a proper class, because its operations are of unbounded arity. The algebraic category of sigma algebras also has infinitary operations, but their arity is countable whence its signature is small (forms a set).

Every finitary algebraic category is a locally presentable category.

Pseudovariety of finite algebras
Since varieties are closed under arbitrary direct products, all non-trivial varieties contain infinite algebras. Attempts have been made to develop a finitary analogue of the theory of varieties. This led, e.g., to the notion of variety of finite semigroups. This kind of variety uses only finitary products. However, it uses a more general kind of identities.

A pseudovariety is usually defined to be a class of algebras of a given signature, closed under the taking of homomorphic images, subalgebras and finitary direct products. Not every author assumes that all algebras of a pseudovariety are finite; if this is the case, one sometimes talks of a variety of finite algebras. For pseudovarieties, there is no general finitary counterpart to Birkhoff's theorem, but in many cases the introduction of a more complex notion of equations allows similar results to be derived.

Pseudovarieties are of particular importance in the study of finite semigroups and hence in formal language theory. Eilenberg's theorem, often referred to as the variety theorem, describes a natural correspondence between varieties of regular languages and pseudovarieties of finite semigroups.

title: Variety (universal algebra)