text:
Cytochalasin B

Cytochalasin B, the name of which comes from the Greek cytos (cell) and chalasis (relaxation), is a cell-permeable mycotoxin. It was found that substoichiometric concentrations of cytochalasin B (CB) strongly inhibit network formation by actin filaments. Due to this, it is often used in cytological research. It inhibits cytoplasmic division by blocking the formation of contractile microfilaments. It inhibits cell movement and induces nuclear extrusion. Cytochalasin B shortens actin filaments by blocking monomer addition at the fast-growing end of polymers. Cytochalasin B inhibits glucose transport and platelet aggregation. It blocks adenosine-induced apoptotic body formation without affecting activation of endogenous ADP-ribosylation in leukemia HL-60 cells. It is also used in cloning through nuclear transfer. Here enucleated recipient cells are treated with cytochalasin B. Cytochalasin B makes the cytoplasm of the oocytes more fluid and makes it possible to aspirate the nuclear genome of the oocyte within a small vesicle of plasma membrane into a micro-needle. Thereby, the oocyte genome is removed from the oocyte, while preventing rupture of the plasma membrane.

This alkaloid is isolated from a fungus, Helminthosporium dematioideum.

1960s
Cytochalasin B was first described in 1967, when it had been isolated from moulds by Dr W.B. Turner. Smith et al. found that CB causes multinucleation in cells and significantly affects cell motility. The multinucleated cells probably arise from failure of mitotic control, leading to variations in size and shape of interphase nuclei.

1970s
In the 1970s, research on the mitosis of polynucleated cells was done. It appeared that these cells were created through progressive nuclear addition instead of nuclear division. The process by which this occurs is called pseudomitosis, which is the synchronous mitosis resulting in the division of just one nucleus. The separate nuclei are bound by a nuclear bridge and in binucleated cells the centrioles are doubled. Furthermore, it was found that CB causes the disorganization of the 50Å microfilaments of mouse epithelial cells which causes the cells to lose their shape. It also affects the appearance of young glands in cells and new gland formation in other cells. Another group found that CB inhibits the ability of HeLa cells to undergo cytokinesis by decomposition of the contractile ring. Research from 1971 showed that CB interferes with the release of iodine derived from thyroglobulin and blocks colloid endocytosis. Moreover, it was found that CB has an inhibitory effect on the uptake of sucrose-3H by chang-strain human liver cells and in CB-treated cells alterations in the appearance and location of microfilaments were observed. Furthermore, it was found that CB reversibly inhibits melanin granule movement in melanocytes. One year later, research on the influence of cytochalasin B on chloroplasts was done. It was found that the light-oriented movement of chloroplasts is reversibly inhibited by cytochalasin B. In 1973 researches found that cytochalasin B is a powerful non-competitive inhibitor of glucose transport. One of the major electrophoretic identifiable erythrocyte membrane proteins may be the cytochalasin B binding site of erythrocytes.

From 1980
In the following years, the knowledge concerning cytochalasin B was broadened. As the more general knowledge had been elucidated, more detailed analysis of e.g. the mechanism of action took place.

Production
Cytochalasins can be isolated from the fungi in which they naturally occur. Originally, they were isolated from Helminthosporium dematioideum. Other producers include Phoma spp., Hormiscium spp. and Curvularia lunata. Additionally, it can be synthesized in the laboratory. There are several approaches to do so. Firstly, it is possible to form the six-membered ring of the isoindolone core and the larger macrocyclic ring simultaneously in a late-stage intramolecular Diels-Alder cyclization. Secondly, it is possible to first form the isoindolone core in an intermolecular Diels-Alder reaction and in a second step append the macrocycle in a stepwise fashion.

Properties
Cytochalasin B contains several highly polar keto- and hydroxyl groups and one peripheric lipophilic benzyl unit.

Mechanism
It is suggested that the predominant mechanism of cytochalasin B is the inhibition of actin filament polymerization through binding to the fast-growing (barbed) end of F-actin filaments. An alternative could involve capping proteins. By doing so, CB not only inhibits actin polymerization but also consecutive processes such as filament network build-up. This inhibition can affect all three major steps of actin polymerization
 * 1) Nucleation: A core of minimal 3 actin monomers is formed.
 * 2) Elongation: The core is used for elongation by addition of actin monomers.
 * 3) Steady state/Annealing: A balance between polymerisation and depolymerisation is reached (steady-state). The F-actin filament stops growing and two barbed ends fuse to create one filament.

Nucleation is essential for filament build-up. The oligomerization is the rate-determining step, considering actin filament formation as a whole. The so-called lag phase of actin polymerization originates from this step. It takes quite a while until polymerization starts, but once it has, the process is autocatalytic until the physiological maximum of the polymerization rate is reached.

Elongation is favored at the barbed end of the growing filament. Here, the influence of cytochalasin B strongly depends on the overall conditions for elongation. If ideal physiological conditions are present, the inhibitory influence of cytochalasin B is minuscule. If the conditions are less optimal, elongation can be inhibited by up to 90 percent.

Annealing is the last step in polymerization. Cells treated with cytochalasin B and control group cells could not be distinguished. This indicated, that CB has no significant effect at this stage.

CB contains a beta-unsaturated ester which can undergo a Michael-type conjugation with nucleophiles. If this is the case, DNA-adduction might be a plausible reaction afterwards. A more suitable reaction seems to be the one with thiol-groups of several biomolecules. The thiol-groups would then no longer be available for disulfide bonds for further actin polymerization and thus a crucial step in actin polymerization is inhibited as the barbed ends of the filaments are blocked. An analogue principle is used by the well-studied capping proteins which are responsible for a natural limiting factor of actin polymerization. The first step in actin polymerization, after polymerization is initiated, is the deprotonation of the thiol group of G-actin. This renders the sulfur atom charged and makes it available for actin polymerization. If cytochalasin B is present in the cell, the deprotonation of thiol is competed. The reactive beta-unsaturated ester group of cytochalasin B reacts with the thiol group of actin via a nucleophilic attack of the charged sulfur onto the beta-carbon atom. This forces the π-bond to get dislocated on the left site of the beta-carbon. Consequently, mesomerism occurs, dislocating the negative charge between the alpha-carbon and the oxygen atom. This step is followed by a protonation step to counteract the negative charge. The hydronium ion needed to do so was produced during the activation of the sulfur atom in an earlier step.

Metabolism
There are ten possible sites for the in vitro degradation of cytochalasin B. There is not yet any evidence that the same sites are used for degradation in vivo, but evidence has confirmed the in vitro sites. Degradation is initialized by a periodate cleavage of the compound, taking place at carbon 14 and 21. As a result, carbonic acid (A), formaldehyde (B), 5-methylhexane-1,1,6-triol (C) and a large remaining molecule (D) are released. Molecules C and D are then oxidized via Kuhn Roth reaction, leading to the formation of 7-hydroxyheptanal (F), acetic acid (G) and benzoic acid (I). Again, a larger molecule remains (J). F, G and I can undergo Schmidt reaction, if not degraded via acidic degradation by alcohol dehydrogenase (ADH) to methylamine and carbon dioxide (H). 7-hydroxyheptane is oxidized to 3-methylheptanedioic acid (K). Further metabolism leads to the formation of several smaller organic molecules such as amines (M), carbon dioxide (N) and acetic acid (O). The latter is again metabolized by ADH to methylamine and carbon dioxide (Q). Molecule J is cleaved into a number of small compounds such as acetic acid (L), methylamine and carbon dioxide (P), and a series of small methylated compounds.

Interactions
When adding cytochalasin B and the beta-andrenergic agonist (-)-isoproterenol, prostaglandin E1 or cholera toxin to wild type S49 lymphoma cells, cAMP accumulates. Cytochalasin B is unable to transform 3T3-like tumor cells, but it did increase the frequency of cell transformation by the polyoma virus 8-40 fold. Furthermore, CB can intensify pinocytosis, which is induced by concanavalin A in amoeba proteus. Cytochalasin B can also interact with the auxin indole-3-acetic acid which occurs in wheat coleoptile segments and maize roots. This interaction leads to the inhibition of vesicle transport and secretion of cell wall components and thereby blocks elongation and growth.

Efficacy
In vitro studies showed that a concentration of 30 μM of cytochalasin B significantly reduces the relative viscosity of a 20 μM normal actin filament solution as well as it has decreased in a 20 μMm glutathionyl-actin filament solution. In vivo the effective concentration is even lower. It seemed that a 2 μM concentration is sufficient in living cells to accomplish a measurable influence on the actin polymerization. The nucleation phase took 2-4 times as long as in the control groups. On elongation, the effects were minimal; on annealing negligible. This might be due to an actual difference in molecular interactions of cytochalasin B during those three steps or simply due to the fact that the lag phase is the rate-determining step in the overall polymerization.

Actin polymerization studies
As cytochalasin B inhibits actin filament polymerization, many cellular processes depending on actin filament functions are affected. Cytokinesis is inhibited, however, mitosis is unaffected. Due to the effects on several cellular functions but lack of general toxicity, cytochalasin B is applied in actin polymerization studies, cell imaging methods, cell cycle studies and can possibly be used as anticancer drug.

Inhibits cell division
Cytochalasin B is used for testing of the genotoxicity of substances. In order to do so, cytokinesis-block micronucleus assay (CBMN assay) with human lymphocytes is applied. This works in vitro. During anaphase of mitosis of meiosis, micronuclei can be detected. These are small nuclei containing one chromosome or part of a chromosome which did not get to one of the cell poles during cell division. The CBMN test is based on the fact that only dividing cells can express micronuclei, which means that only in those cells, chromosome damage can be detected. Because genotoxicity causes abnormalities in cell division, micronuclei can be detected in binucleated cells. Cytokinesis, which is the next stage, is inhibited by cytochalasin B. A key advantage of this method is that it allows simultaneous detection of multiple molecular events leading to chromosome damage and chromosomal instability. The CBMN assay has successfully been applied to normal human lymphocytes, mouse spleen lymphocytes, mouse fibroblasts and Chinese hamster fibroblasts.

Inhibits cell movement
Cytochalasin B can decrease the number of motile cells when it is added to Yoshida Sarcoma Cells. It can also decrease the motility of the cells and dose-dependently inhibits their growth. Since cytochalasin B unevenly penetrates cells it promotes focal contractions of the broken cortical actin filament network by myosin. This causes superprecipitation which requires active contractions and thus an active energy metabolism. The disorganized cortical contractions disrupt the assembly of pseudopodia which are involved in cell movement.

Induces nuclear extrusion
Nuclear extrusion induced by cytochalasin B begins with the movement of the nucleus to the plasma membrane, followed by bulge formation in the membrane. The nucleus then moves to the outside of the membrane, but stays connected to the cell by a thread-like cytoplasmic bridge. If the cells are kept in cytochalasin B containing medium for several hours, the process becomes irreversible. Extrusion could be assisted by the CB-induced weakening of the plasma membrane.

Inhibits glucose transport
It has been shown that cytochalasin B binds covalently to mammalian glucose transporter proteins when irradiated with UV light. It bound tighter to AraE and GalP than their usual substrates. Cytochalasin B has been shown to inhibit GLUT1, 2, 3 and 4. Binding to GLUT1 occurs at the inside as cytochalasin B acts as it acts as a competitive inhibitor of glucose exit. Additional evidence comes from photolabeling studies in which the Trp388 and Trp412 in TM10 and TM11 of the purified protein are labeled upon exposure to labeled cytochalasin B. Since mutating Trp388 and Trp412 does not completely reduce inhibition of GLUT1, it is assumed that other sites are involved in CB binding as well.

Therapeutic uses
For therapeutic purposes, research on cytochalasin B is done. In order to do so, the effects of cytochalasin B on tumor cells by BCG (Bacillus Calmette-Guerin)-activated macrophages were examined. It showed that cytochalasin B enhances tumor cell lysis and stasis due to activated macrophages at a concentration of 10−7 M. Cytochalasin B does not act on the macrophage itself, but does exert its effect predominantly on the tumor cell. A reason for this could be, that the actin filament formation, which could be important for the destruction of tumor cells by activated macrophages, is inhibited by cytochalasin B.

Further effects
Cytochalasin B has an effect on thyroid hormone and growth hormone secretion. Phosphatidylcholine and phosphatidylethanolamine biosynthesis is inhibited by cytochalasin B, as shown by George et al. It does so by inhibiting the conversion of phosphoethanolamine to cytidinediphosphate-ethanolamine. It was proposed that the mechanism is associated with alterations of intracellular calcium ions. Cytochalasin B also has effects on bacteria. For example, the growth and differentiation of E. histolytica is inhibited.[56] Furthermore, cytochalasin B has been shown to have an inhibitory effect on tumor cell growth without causing prolonged and/or profound immunosuppressive effects.

Natural context
In nature, cytochalasin B is involved in fungal virulence, food spoilage and the maintenance of the symbiosis between host and symbiont.

title: Cytochalasin B


text:
Thorny devil

The thorny devil (Moloch horridus), also known commonly as the mountain devil, thorny lizard, thorny dragon, and moloch, is a species of lizard in the family Agamidae. The species is endemic to Australia. It is the sole species in the genus Moloch. It grows up to 21 cm in total length (including tail), with females generally larger than males.

Taxonomy
The thorny devil was first described by the biologist John Edward Gray in 1841. While it is the only species contained in the genus Moloch, many taxonomists suspect another species might remain to be found in the wild. The thorny devil is only distantly related to the morphologically similar North American horned lizards of the genus Phrynosoma. This similarity is usually thought of as an example of convergent evolution.

The names given to this lizard reflect its appearance: the two large horned scales on its head complete the illusion of a dragon or devil. The name Moloch was used for a deity of the ancient Near East, usually depicted as a hideous beast. The thorny devil also has other nicknames people have given it such as the "devil lizard", "horned lizard", and the "thorny toad".

Description
The thorny devil grows up to 21 cm in total length (including tail), and can live for 15 to 20 years. The females are larger than the males. Most specimens are coloured in camouflaging shades of desert browns and tans. These colours change from pale colours during warm weather to darker colours during cold weather. The thorny devil is covered entirely with conical spines that are mostly uncalcified.

An intimidating array of spikes covers the entire upper side of the body of the thorny devil. These thorny scales also help to defend it from predators. Camouflage and deception may also be used to evade predation. This lizard's unusual gait involves freezing and rocking as it moves about slowly in search of food, water, and mates.

The thorny devil also features a spiny "false head" on the back of its neck, and the lizard presents this to potential predators by dipping its real head. The "false head" is made of soft tissue.

The thorny devil's scales are ridged, enabling the animal to collect water by simply touching it with any part of the body, usually the limbs; capillary action transports the water to the mouth through channels in its skin. The thorny devil is also equipped to harvest moisture in the dry desert following nighttime's extremely low temperatures and the subsequent condensation of dew. The process involves moisture contact, their hydrophilic skin surface structures with capillaries, and an internal transport mechanism.
 * The lizard rubs its body against the moist substrate and shovels damp sand onto its back, the outer epidermis layer equipped to draw in cutaneous moisture.
 * The keratinous fibered epidermis is hydrophilic with hexagonal microstructures on the scale surfaces. When trace amounts of water contact its skin (pre-wetting) these microstructures fill with water, the skin surface becoming superhydrophilic. This allows moisture to spread across wider surface areas, yielding faster uptake, as water is collected via capillary action in small channels located between its scales.
 * Captured water is transported passively via capillary action in semi-tubular channels located beneath the partially overlapping scales, in an asymmetric and interconnected system that extends over the lizard's entire body surface. The channels terminate at the mouth where active ingestion (drinking) is observable by jaw movements when moisture is plentiful, e.g. water puddles.

The same hydrophilic moisture-harvesting physiology is characteristic in the Texas horned lizard (Phrynosoma cornutum), roundtail horned lizard (Phrynosoma modestum), desert horned lizard (Phrynosoma platyrhinos), Arabian toad-headed agama (Phrynocephalus arabicus), sunwatcher toadhead agama (Phrynocephalus helioscopus), Phrynocephalus horvathi, yellow-spotted agama (Trapelus flavimaculatus), Trapelus pallidus and desert agama (Trapelus mutabilis).

Distribution and habitat
The thorny devil usually lives in the arid scrubland and desert that covers most of central Australia, sandplain and sandridge desert in the deep interior and the mallee belt.

The habitat of the thorny devil coincides more with the regions of sandy loam soils than with a particular climate in Western Australia.

Self-defense
The thorny devil is covered in hard, rather sharp spines that dissuade attacks by predators by making it difficult to swallow. It also has a false head on its back. When it feels threatened by other animals, it lowers its head between its front legs, and then presents its false head. Predators that consume the thorny devil include wild birds and goannas.

Diet
The thorny devil mainly subsists on ants, especially Ochetellus flavipes and other species in the Camponotus, Ectatomma, Iridomyrmex (especially Iridomyrmex rufoniger), Monomorium, Ochetellus, Pheidole, or Polyrhachis genera. Thorny devils often eat thousands of ants in one day.

The thorny devil collects moisture in the dry desert by the condensation of dew. This dew forms on its skin in the early morning as it begins to warm outside. Then the dew is channeled to its mouth by gravity and capillary action via the channels between its spines. During rainfalls, capillary action allows the thorny devil to absorb water from all over its body. Capillary action also allows the thorny devil to absorb water from damp sand. Absorption through sand is the thorny devil's main source of water intake.

Reproduction
The female thorny devil lays a clutch of three to ten eggs between September and December. She puts these in a nesting burrow about 30 cm underground. The eggs hatch after about three to four months.

Popular reference
The popular appeal of the thorny devil is the basis of an anecdotal petty scam. American servicemen stationed in Southwest Australia decades ago (such as during World War II) were supposedly sold the thorny fruits of a species of weeds, the so-called "double gee" (Emex australis), but those were called "thorny devil eggs" as a part of the scam. Thorny devils have been kept in captivity.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Thorny devil


text:
Talk:Betty Crocker

Wiki Education Foundation-supported course assignment
This article was the subject of a Wiki Education Foundation-supported course assignment, between 4 September 2019 and 19 December 2019. Further details are available on the course page. Student editor(s): Snapple212.

Above undated message substituted from Template:Dashboard.wikiedu.org assignment by PrimeBOT (talk) 08:42, 18 January 2022 (UTC)

homestuck?
Is it worth mentioning the brand's role in the plot of Homestuck? It is a fairly significant pop cultural literary work, after all.2601:642:C481:4640:0:0:0:2346 (talk) 19:30, 14 August 2022 (UTC)
 * No. It is non notable and has been repeatedly removed from the entry. Bangabandhu (talk) 22:37, 14 August 2022 (UTC)
 * how exactly is it not notable. articles regularly mention places in which their subjects have been mentioned in literature. 2601:642:C481:4640:0:0:0:7A4E (talk) 08:01, 20 August 2022 (UTC)
 * I agree, the entry in its current form is very short. Adding the blurb back would not clutter the article and is demonstrably consistent with wikipedia practices on other topics. Given the company is out of business, there is unlikely to be any additional developments on this topic. The homestuck reference literally postdates every single event and reference on the article. Naga the third (talk) 02:59, 30 March 2024 (UTC)
 * You just a hater tbh ¯\_(ツ)_/¯ 2607:EA00:107:200C:BCA2:4CFC:2E07:CF3 (talk) 03:42, 7 October 2022 (UTC)
 * Yes. The media section could use some content about Betty Crocker's notable cultural impact, that's what it's for. LesbianTiamat (talk) 04:35, 2 July 2023 (UTC)

Wiki Education assignment: Women and Art
— Assignment last updated by Librarygirl13 (talk) 21:28, 31 October 2022 (UTC)

title: Talk:Betty Crocker


text:
Muhammad II of Córdoba

Muhammad II al-Mahdi (محمد المهدي بالله) was the fourth Caliph of Córdoba of the Umayyad dynasty in Al-Andalus (Moorish Iberia). After disbanding his army of 7,000 troops, he became the source of opposition to many of his subjects. Al-Mahdi sought to defend his title as Caliph after the rise of Suleiman II as a political opponent. After a turbulent rule, in which many warring factions rose to power in an attempt to supplant al-Mahdi, he was eventually deposed. After his death, many Muslim historians accused him of destroying the sanctity of the Amirid Harem.

title: Muhammad II of Córdoba


text:
Shaded-pole motor

The shaded-pole motor is the original type of AC single-phase motor, dating back to at least as early as 1890. A shaded-pole motor is a small motor with either two or four poles, in which the auxiliary winding is composed of a copper ring or bar surrounding a portion of each pole to produce a weakly rotating magnetic field. When single phase AC supply is applied to the stator winding, due to shading provided to the poles, a rotating magnetic field is generated. This auxiliary single-turn winding is called a shading coil. Currents induced in this coil by the magnetic field create a second electrical phase by delaying the phase of magnetic flux change for that pole (a shaded pole) enough to provide a 2-phase rotating magnetic field. The direction of rotation is from the unshaded side to the shaded (ring) side of the pole. Since the phase angle between the shaded and unshaded sections is small, shaded-pole motors produce only a small starting torque relative to torque at full speed. Shaded-pole motors of the asymmetrical type shown are only reversible by disassembly and flipping over the stator, though some similar looking motors have small, switch-shortable auxiliary windings of thin wire instead of thick copper bars and can reverse electrically. Another method of electrical reversing involves four coils (two pairs of identical coils).

The common, asymmetrical form of these motors (pictured) has only one winding, with no capacitor or starting windings/starting switch, making them economical and reliable. Larger and more modern types may have multiple physical windings, though electrically only one, and a capacitor may be used. Because their starting torque is low, they are best suited to driving fans or other loads that are easily started. They may have multiple taps near one electrical end of the winding, which provides variable speed and power by selection of one tap at a time, as in ceiling fans. Moreover, they are compatible with TRIAC-based variable-speed controls, which often are used with fans. They are built in power sizes up to about 1/4 hp output. Above 1/3 hp, they are not common, and for larger motors, other designs offer better characteristics. A main disadvantage is their low efficiency of around 26%. A major advantage is that the motor's stall current is only slightly higher than the running current, so there is low risk of severe over-heating or tripping the circuit protection if the motor is stalled for some reason.

Types

 * Squirrel-cage asynchronous: The most common type of shaded-pole motor in fractional horsepower use has a squirrel-cage rotor that consists of a laminated steel cylinder with conductive copper or aluminum bars embedded lengthwise in its surface, connected at the ends.

 * Synchronous permamagnetized uses a magnetized rotor, e.g. a permanent magnet. This rotor rotates synchronously with the rotating magnetic field: if the rotor begins to lag behind the rotating field, driving torque increases and the rotor speeds up slightly until the rotor's position within the rotating field is a point where torque = drag; similarly, if the rotation of the field slows down, the rotor will advance relative to the field, torque will decline, or even become negative, slowing the speed of the rotor until it again reaches a position relative to the field where torque = drag. Because of this, these motors are often used to drive electric clocks and, occasionally, phonograph turntables. In these applications, the speed of the motor is as accurate as the frequency of the mains power applied to the motor. These motors are also used in electric shavers. Frequently, the rotor and its associated reduction geartrain are encased in an aluminium, copper, or plastic enclosure; the enclosed rotor is driven magnetically through the enclosure. Such geared motors are commonly available with the final output shaft or gear rotating from 600 RPM down to as low as 1/168 revolutions per hour (1 revolution per week!).

 * Synchronous squirrel-cage combines the two, in that the magnetized rotor is provided with a squirrel cage, so that the motor starts like an induction motor, once the rotor is pulled into synchronism with its magnet, the squirrel cage has no current induced in it and so plays no further part in the operation.

Starting issues and torque limitations
Even by the standards of shaded pole motors, the power output of these motors is usually very low. Because there is often no explicit starting mechanism, the rotor of a motor operating from a constant frequency mains supply must be very light so that it is capable of reaching running speed within one cycle of the mains frequency. A further development dispenses with the shading rings altogether. The application of power gives the magnetised rotor enough of a 'flick' to move it fast enough to establish synchronism. A mechanical means prevents the rotor from starting in the wrong direction. This design will only work satisfactorily if the standstill load is near to zero and has very little inertia. This is similar to the motor used in quartz-timed mechanical clocks. In more recent times, the use of variable frequency controls permits synchronous motors to start slowly and deliver more torque.

title: Shaded-pole motor


text:
User:Philip J. Rayment

I was born and raised in Victoria (Australia) (apart from a short while as a very young child in Tasmania) by Christian parents. I gave my life to God before my teens, and have attended a number of evangelical Protestant churches. (I currently attend a Baptist church.)

I am married but have no children.

My interests include railways, computers, and Christian apologetics, primarily the creation/evolution debate.

I am an occasional volunteer on the Puffing Billy Railway, and I am actively involved as a volunteer with the Melbourne Support Group of Creation Ministries International, Australia's, and one of the world's, leading creationist organisation.

 Editing stuff

Terminology
One of my concerns is the biased use that sceptics make of terms. Just as Christians often use "spiritual language" that may be obscure to non-Christians (e.g. salvation, redemption, repentance, eschatology), sceptics use words that have a meaning to them that is not used by others. However, whilst Christians often make an effort to avoid "spiritual language" when talking to non-Christians (albeit with limited success at times), sceptics appear to expect others to accept their terminology as correct and non-negotiable.

Words frequently have multiple meanings. Although one word can sometimes have two or more totally unrelated meanings (such as lead, which can be both a metal and the opposite of follow), normally these meanings are related in some way. Thus computer was something generally that computed, but a derived (and now more common) meaning is an electronic programmable device. Another category is metaphorical meanings. An example is day, which means a single rotation of the earth, but metaphorically also means a period of time. Literal meanings come before metaphorical meanings; that is, metaphorical meanings are derived from literal meanings, not the other way around. The normal manner of distinguishing which meaning is intended is from the context. Thus there is no confusion about the meanings of the word "day" in the following sentence, that actually uses it in three different ways: "In my grandfather's day, it took six days to travel across the country, travelling only during the day".

"Religion"
Religion can mean (this is not intended to be exhaustive):
 * 1) A set of beliefs on which one bases one's life
 * 2) Belief in a deity or deities (e.g. Christianity is a religion)
 * 3) A particular set of rituals (e.g. He is practising his religion)
 * 4) A particular broad set of beliefs (e.g. Which religion are you?  Christian, Muslim, or Hindu?)
 * 5) A particular narrower set of beliefs (e.g. Which religion are you?  Methodist, Baptist, or Catholic?)

I never use No. 5, preferring to use denomination for that (My religion is Christian, my current denomination is Baptist)

No. 2 is, in my opinion, an arbitrary subset of No. 1. People believe in multiples gods (polytheism), everything-is-god (pantheism), one god (monotheism) or no god (atheism). Pantheism and atheism don't fit into definition No. 2, yet to consider them somehow "different" is arbitrary and self-serving (see more below). Thus I use definition No. 1 in preference to No. 2, and argue that atheism (and related views such as secular humanism) are religions, every bit as much as Christianity is. The difference is simply how many gods one believes in.

Both Christianity and atheism (along with others beliefs) are (a) beliefs, and (b) worldviews. I have a worldview that presumes God. An atheist has a worldview that presumes no god. The claim of many atheists that their worldview is somehow superior simply because it presumes no god is self-serving nonsense, and the term "religion" is frequently used in this way, i.e. to misleadingly imply a qualitative distinction between atheistic and theistic worldviews.

Objection: Your use is an invented one
 * Not at all. I didn't make up this use of the word; it is also used that way by many others, and that use is found in dictionaries.

Objection: It is not fair to use a term of atheists that they don't use of themselves
 * If the term is accurate and appropriate, why not? There are many instances of people not using particular terms of themselves, but where it is still an accurate and appropriate term to use.  And if that objection were to be allowed, then people ought to stop using the term religion of Christians, because many Christians don't use the term of themselves (probably because they are Protestants who have in mind definition No. 3).

"Belief"
Belief is assent to an idea. Thus I believe that the world is round*, that gravity exists, and that God created the world as described in the Bible.

However, the word often has connotations of accepting an idea without evidence, or without good reason. Thus I have come across evolutionists who object to being described as believing in evolution. I (generally) do not use the word "belief" this way; if I say that someone "believes in evolution", I mean that they agree with the idea; that is what they think occurred/occurs. I will continue to use the word in that context because I don't know of another way of putting it that is not wordy or awkward.

*—To answer an objection that was actually raised to this on my talk page, I'm not claiming that the world is perfectly spherical; I'm merely stating that I understand it to be round rather than flat, as does something like 99.99% of the world's population.

"Evolution"
Two meanings of Evolution (from a dictionary) are as follows:
 * Any process of formation or growth; development
 * Biol. the continuous genetic adaptation of organisms or species to the environment by the integrating agencies of selection, hybridisation, inbreeding, and mutation.

It should be clear that the first meaning is not limited to life, and we can thus (and do) talk of, for example, the evolution of stars or the evolution of cars.

However, going beyond those dictionary definitions, creationists point out that biological evolution can be subdivided according to the mechanisms involved. Many people use the terms macroevolution and microevolution to distinguish these categories, although leading creationists these days discourage the use of those terms. The distinctions are:
 * A sorting or loss of genetic information results in modified characteristics of living things. Thus fish living in unlit caves might lose some of the genetic information for making eyes, leading to a variety of eyeless (or at least sightless) fish.
 * A gain of genetic information adds new capabilities to living things. Thus some dinosaurs gained the genetic information for wings and feathers and became birds (over a long time and in small steps, of course).

Evolutionists generally don't make the distinction between the two, and thus usually end up offering evidence of the first and then consider that the second has been demonstrated. They also accuse creationists of making up a distinction that doesn't exist (and of coining the terms "microevolution" and "macroevolution", but this is wrong; see here). But whilst it may be true that creationists highlight the distinction and evolutionists don't, it is also clear that there is a distinction. Losing and adding genetic information are two different things.

Creationists deny that the second (the gain in genetic information) occurs, and deny that it has been observed. Unfortunately many lay creationists fail to make the distinction when discussing the topic, but similarly many evolutionists (and not just lay evolutionists) fail to appreciate the distinction when responding to creationists. Thus they (a) offer evidence for a loss of genetic information when challenged on the lack of evidence for a gain, and (b) misrepresent creationists as rejecting all evolution when they in fact only reject the second category (although it is true that creationists do reject the use of the term "evolution" for the second category).

"Evolutionist"
I was surprised to find that many people who believe in evolution object to being described as evolutionists. As far as I am concerned, that is an accurate and appropriate use of the word. That is, an evolutionist is simply someone that agrees with the idea of evolution. Again, as for "belief", I will continue to use the word because I don't know of another way of putting it that is not wordy or awkward.

"Fundamentalist"
A fundamentalist was originally one who accepted the fundamental truths of the Bible. Since the coinage of the term in the early 20th century, however, the semantic range of the word has expanded to include other meanings:
 * One who strongly believes the basic teachings of any religion
 * A literalist
 * A legalist
 * An extremist, sometimes with connotations of a terrorist.

In fact the original meaning of the word almost seems to be lost these days.

I, along with many other Christians, object to being called a "fundamentalist" on the grounds that the word has meanings and connotations that we disagree with. I have no objection to being described as a fundamentalist if it is clear that the original meaning is intended, but this is hardly ever the case.

Also, I have frequently seen creationists described as fundamentalists simply because they are creationists. That is, the word is used as if creationists are fundamentalists by definition. In this case, there is no merit in saying "creationists are fundamentalists who...". It is both redundant, and, given the connotations that the word carries, little more than an attempt to caricature and abuse creationists.

Consistent with this, Wikipedia's own NPOV policy cautions against using the term inappropriately.

Apologetics
My parents raised me to believe that the Bible could be logically and rationally defended from sceptical criticism. This was mainly in the area of archaeology, but later I learnt of the overwhelming evidence consistent with the Bible's records of creation and the flood, and related events. Without this evidence, I likely would have still believed in creation and the flood, but I would never have dared debate the matter with sceptics. Armed with the evidence, however, I have considerable confidence that the Biblical record is rationally defensible.

Creation Ministries International
I have found Creation Ministries International (formerly Answers in Genesis) to be an organisation of great integrity and enormous passion. I therefore have no hesitation in recommending their materials to others.

Creation Ignorance
I find it quite annoying and frustrating that there are so many sceptics that argue vehemently against the Biblical record of creation and the flood, yet are so grossly ignorant of the idea that they argue so strongly against. Yet they often have the gall to call a creationist ignorant because the creationist supposedly doesn't understand evolution!

As a creationist living in a secular country, I get uniformitarian and evolutionary ideas thrown at me every day, whether that be via the education system, television, the Internet, newspapers, general magazines, or science magazines and journals. Being a creationist, I also read lots of books, magazines, and Internet articles supporting creation, watch videos and DVDs, and hear speakers on the topic of creation. Thus I learn about the debate from both sides.

Evolutionists, on the other hand, generally get to see and read very little creationary material, so most evolutionists (there are exceptions of course) do not have a balanced education on the topic. Probably 99% of their knowledge on the debate is from the evolutionary side, including what little knowledge they have of the creationary case. This is understandable, but what is not understandable is how they then make out they know enough about creation to be able to reject it!

The following are some aspects of the creation model that many anti-creationists get wrong. I have not attempted to substantiate them (they can put in the effort for that themselves) but in the future I may at least provide links to where they can learn more.

 * Noah's flood did not cover Everest and similar high mountains
 * Noah's flood did not last 40 days and 40 nights
 * The water of Noah's flood did not come solely from rain
 * Creationists (as a whole) do not reject plate tectonics
 * Creationists do not reject science
 * Creationists do not reject natural selection
 * Creationists do not reject speciation
 * Creationary scientists do hold real qualifications in all areas of science (i.e. including biology and geology)
 * Creationists do not deny that there are beneficial mutations.

Wikipedia bias
Whilst I find Wikipedia very useful in many respects, it is severely biased when it comes to Christianity and creation in particular. Despite the NPOV policy, many editors seem unable to accept a neutral point of view when discussing creation, and the enforcement is totally inadequate.

I spent a great deal of time editing articles to do with creation, only to find that anticreationists would butcher them. In one particular case, I listed some beliefs of creationists, carefully wording it to make it clear that they were creationists beliefs, not something accepted by all, and referenced the information to on-line sources. An anticreationist deleted my edits and replaced them with his own views on what creationists believe, without reference sources. This was just one small portion of the butchering. I attempted mediation, but no mediator offered themselves, so no mediation occurred. The anticreationist continued unchecked. He subsequently successfully put the article up for deletion. Some people who voted for deletion openly admitted that they did so on the ground that they considered creation nonsense, not on the merits of the article itself. The fact that they felt free to do so speaks volumes. No moderator bothered enforcing the rules, and the improper negative votes of the anticreationists were counted along with all other votes. See here.

Meanwhile, an anonymous creationist editor found himself in an edit war, and was prevented from editing articles by them being locked. How were his opponents able to get action, and I wasn't? One of his opponents was a sysop! See here

I came to realise that editing creation articles was a waste of time, as there are more anticreationists trying to undermine creation than there are people willing to write such articles from a neutral point of view, and totally inadequate moderation to control the situation.

Consequently, I have no intention of returning to edit such articles until and unless I learn that the situation has improved markedly.

Update January 2007: I did actually venture back into this arena recently, deciding to confine myself to one article (Noah's Ark) that looked like it had some sensible editors. No sooner had I done so, and two other editors arrived, pushing their POV, using strawman arguments, etc. It took too much time, and when the discussion about the validity of the Ark and Flood were moved to an archive page, I took the opportunity to take my leave.

Safeworking background
In connection with my posts on talk:railway signalling, here is my relevant background:

For my job, I was required to qualify in a safeworking system of my choice, in the then VR. I learnt Staff and Ticket, which also required me to know Two Position Signalling. However, my position did not require me to maintain proficiency in it, although I needed to be familiar with the basics of all the safeworking systems in use in Melbourne. I am also an enthusiast, and work as a safeworking-qualified volunteer on the Puffing Billy Railway (working as a guard (US:conductor) and signalman), for which I qualified in what is now the standard Staff and Ticket system for tourist railways in Victoria (a system based on the VR one). Required reading for this course was L. T. C. Rolt's Red for Danger, about the history of railway accidents and development of signalling.

title: User:Philip J. Rayment


text:
Muhammad III of Córdoba

Muhammad bin 'Abd ar-Rahman bin 'Obayd Allah (محمد بن عبد الرحمن بن عبيد الله), known as Muhammad III (محمد الثالث) was an Umayyad Caliph of Cordoba in Al-Andalus (Moorish Iberia).

Muhammad III ruled after the death of Abd ar-Rahman V from 1024 to 1025 but the people of Córdoba revolted against him and fearing the march of Yahya ibn Ali ibn Hammud al-Mu'tali, he was forced to flee the city. It is believed that he died after being poisoned when he was 50 years old. He was also the father of the famous poet Wallada bint al-Mustakfi, whom he had with an Iberian Christian slave.

title: Muhammad III of Córdoba


text:
Talk:Capture of Fort Ticonderoga

Location etc
I think the article should mention where Fort Ticonderoga was. —The preceding unsigned comment was added by 24.178.187.222 (talk) 04:58, 14 April 2007 (UTC).

 * The location of the Fort Ticonderoga was Ticonderoga, Essex, New York. Fort Ticonderoga was high up in the mountains.Allied Rangoons (talk) 23:11, 11 April 2014 (UTC)

Significance?
This article claims in the first sentence that this battle "was the first significant action of the American Revolutionary War." Why? What does that make Lexington & Concord -- insignificant? Do tell. --Kevin Myers 12:32, 21 Nov 2004 (UTC)
 * Wow, this article is a POV mess. Honestly, how can anyone seriously call this a "decisive victory"? The 47 men inside Fort Ticonderoga were all unarmed and engaged in non-military duties when the Americans arrived. The fort was guarded by a mighty one (read: one) sentry. Not a single shot was fired. There were no casualties.'''also did you know that wikipedia can be edited and is not a safe resource?

'''
 * Some "victory".

 * Indeed, it seems that the author(s) has taken a relatively insignificant event and tried to spin it into some grand and praiseworthy achievement. Pretty thin gruel. The only significance that I can attribute to the loss of Ticonderoga was that it opened the road to Canada - where real battles did occur. --Albrecht 21:53, 18 Dec 2004 (UTC)

 * I've made a few changes, and others have modified the article independently. It is now NPOV to my satisfaction. Albrecht 20:48, July 18, 2005 (UTC)

It's quite amazing that two colonels managed so much on their own too HHEHEEHEHEHE. Did they have any troops with them, what the heck do you think?

Battle of Crown Point merged into this article?
I expanded that article, but it doesn't say much more than this article does. Should be merged or perhaps that section taken out of this article? --AW 18:40, 3 April 2007 (UTC) I don't know!. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 65.183.134.20 (talk) 18:30, 12 March 2014 (UTC)

fort ticconderoga
how do you prononce it? —Preceding unsigned comment added by 206.174.175.72 (talk) 01:56, 26 August 2008 (UTC)
 * tie-con-da-row-gah The Goat (talk) 00:29, 28 August 2008 (UTC)

Minor but important difference
Other editors keep listing Ethan Allen and the Green Mountain Boys as colonials. Vermont was never a colony. So it is 100% factually inaccurate to call people from Vermont colonials. The Goat (talk) 00:38, 28 August 2008 (UTC)
 * The area in question was actually a part of the colony of New York, or am I mistaken. Even if it wasn't Vermont was not a sepearte entity from the colonies, it must have laid in some British colony. So calling them colonials is technically correct. Arnold wasn't even from Vermont, but was born in Connecticut. So he was a colonial no matter how you look at it.--Jojhutton (talk) 19:59, 1 October 2008 (UTC)
 * The people living in Vermont had not recognized the authority of the colony of New York, the colony of New Hampshire or the King of England for several years prior to the Declaration of Independence. In fact after a petition for statehood in the USA was declined, Vermont declared itself an independent Republic in 1777.

 * Who is Arnold? Certainly Ethan Allen was born in Connecticut.  Does that make him a colonial for the rest of his life?  I would say no.The Goat (talk) 15:23, 2 October 2008 (UTC)

Merge Battle of Crown Point

 * The following discussion is an archived discussion of the merger proposal. Please do not modify it. Subsequent comments should be made in a new section on the talk page. No further edits should be made to this section.

The result of the discussion was to merge.

The Battle of Crown Point article is basically a stub. The action at Crown Point is not even properly a battle. In the context of the capture of Ticonderoga, it merits little more than one paragraph of mention.

Discuss.  Magic ♪piano 17:36, 15 December 2008 (UTC)

 * Unless there is substantially more content that can be written about the Battle of Crown Point, since the Battle for Fort Ticonderoga and this battle are basically one and the same, I support this merge. -- btphelps (talk) (contribs) 23:38, 21 December 2008 (UTC)

 * Based on the sources I've seen (3-4), I'm having a hard time imagining writing more than two paragraphs about it. It figures in a fairly small way in the disputes between Allen and Arnold, but most sources devote only about a paragraph to the main "action".  Magic ♪piano 03:41, 22 December 2008 (UTC)

 * Seeing no objection here or elsewhere, Battle of Crown Point has been changed to redirect here.  Magic ♪piano 19:20, 22 December 2008 (UTC)

 * The above discussion is preserved as an archive of the proposal. Please do not modify it. Subsequent comments should be made in a new section on this talk page. No further edits should be made to this section.

prostitutes?
"Within its walls was a collection of heavy artillery including cannons, howitzers, prostitutes,and mortars, armaments that the Americans had in short supply. "

While it is hard to downplay the role of prostitutes, I am not aware of any artillery by this name, so I presume that this is only a humorous addition.

Filbertius (talk) 16:52, 12 November 2010 (UTC)

 * Being on the main page will bring those sorts of, umm, contributions to an article.  Magic ♪piano 17:44, 12 November 2010 (UTC)
 * Mercifully, the use of prostitutes as artillery has since been outlawed by the Geneva Conventions. —Kevin Myers 02:57, 13 November 2010 (UTC)

Also...
...when Benedict Arnold rode into the Green Mountain Boy's camp, he had orders from George Washington. The problem was the Green Mountain Boys mocked Benedict Arnold. The Green Mountain Boy's leader, Ethan Allen stopped the mocking and said only he gave orders to the Green Mountain Boys.
 * Evidence:

 * Historic Valley Forge
 * Allthingsliberty — Preceding unsigned comment added by Crab rangoons (talk • contribs) 23:29, 11 April 2014 (UTC)

Listing the other Militias
The other militias did not actually participate in the capture of either Fort, so why are they listed? -Anon

title: Talk:Capture of Fort Ticonderoga


text:
File:Music for Airports.jpg

Summary
Cover of the Brian Eno album Ambient 1/Music for Airports, 1978.

title: File:Music for Airports.jpg


text:
Tomas Tranströmer

Tomas Gösta Tranströmer (15 April 1931 – 26 March 2015) was a Swedish poet, psychologist and translator. His poems captured the long Swedish winters, the rhythm of the seasons and the palpable, atmospheric beauty of nature. Tranströmer's work is also characterized by a sense of mystery and wonder underlying the routine of everyday life, a quality which often gives his poems a religious dimension. He has been described as a Christian poet.

Tranströmer is acclaimed as one of the most important Scandinavian writers since the Second World War. Critics praised his poetry for its accessibility, even in translation. His poetry has been translated into over 60 languages. He was the recipient of the 1990 Neustadt International Prize for Literature, the 2004 International Nonino Prize, and the 2011 Nobel Prize in Literature.

Early life
Tranströmer was born in Stockholm in 1931 and raised by his mother Helmy, a schoolteacher, following her divorce from his father, Gösta Tranströmer, an editor. He received his secondary education at the Södra Latin Gymnasium in Stockholm, where he began writing poetry. In addition to selected journal publications, his first collection of poems, 17 Poems, was published in 1954. He continued his education at Stockholm University, graduating as a psychologist in 1956 with additional studies in history, religion and literature. Between 1960 and 1966, Tranströmer split his time between working as a psychologist at the Roxtuna centre for juvenile delinquents (sv) and writing poetry. He also worked as a psychologist at the Labor Market Institute in Västerås from 1965 to 1990.

Poetry
Tranströmer is considered to be one of the "most influential Scandinavian poet[s] of recent decades". Tranströmer published 15 collected works over his extensive career, which have been translated into over 60 languages. An English translation by Robin Fulton of his entire body of work, New Collected Poems, was published in the UK in 1987 and expanded in 1997. Following the publication of The Great Enigma, Fulton's edition was further expanded into The Great Enigma: New Collected Poems, published in the US in 2006 and as an updated edition of New Collected Poems in the UK in 2011. He published a short autobiography, Minnena ser mig (The Memories see me), in 1993.

By the mid-1960s, Tranströmer became close friends with poet Robert Bly. The two corresponded frequently, and Bly would translate Tranströmer's poems into English. In 2001 Bonniers, Tranströmer's publisher, released Air Mail, a work consisting of Tranströmer's and Bly's day-to-day correspondence on personal, contemporary and literary matters c. 1965–1991 – in a style that vividly conveyed how close friends the two had soon become. Bly also helped arrange readings for his fellow poet in America. The Syrian poet Adunis helped spread Tranströmer's fame in the Arab world, accompanying him on reading tours.

In the 1970s, other poets accused Tranströmer of being detached from his own age, since he did not deal overtly with social and political issues in his poems and novels. His work, though, lies within and further develops the Modernist and Expressionist/Surrealist language of 20th-century poetry; his clear, seemingly simple pictures from everyday life and nature, in particular, reveals a mystic insight to the universal aspects of the human mind. A poem of his was read at Anna Lindh's memorial service in 2003.

Tranströmer went to Bhopal immediately after the gas tragedy in 1984, and alongside Indian poets such as K. Satchidanandan, took part in a poetry reading session outside the plant.

Tranströmer suffered a stroke in 1990 that left him partially paralyzed and unable to speak; however, he continued to write and publish poetry through the early 2000s. One of his final original volumes of poetry, Den stora gåtan, was published in 2004, and translated into English in 2006 as The Great Enigma.

Music
Tranströmer played the piano throughout his life; after his stroke, which paralyzed the right side of his body, he taught himself to play only with his left hand. He often said that the playing was a way for him to continue living after the stroke.

Tranströmer's daughter Emma is a concert singer. In 2011 she released the album Dagsmeja, containing songs based on Tranströmer's poems.

Many composers and musicians have worked with his poems. Among these are Jan Garbarek, Ulf Grahn, Madeleine Isaksson, Margareta Hallin, Lars Edlund, Sven-David Sandström, Jan Sandström and Anders Eliasson.

Death
Tranströmer died in Stockholm on 26 March 2015 at 83.

List of works

 * Books of poetry
 * 17 Poems (17 dikter), Bonniers, 1954
 * Secrets on the Way (Hemligheter på vägen), Bonnier, 1958
 * The Half-Finished Heaven (Den halvfärdiga himlen), Bonnier, 1962
 * Bells and Tracks (Klanger och spår), Bonnier, 1966
 * Seeing in the Dark (Mörkerseende), Författarförlaget, 1970
 * Paths (Stigar), Författarförlaget, 1973, ISBN 978-91-7054-110-0
 * Baltics (Östersjöar), Bonnier, 1974
 * The Truthbarrier (Sanningsbarriären), Bonnier, 1978, ISBN 978-91-0-043684-1
 * The Wild Market Square (Det vilda torget) Bonnier, 1983, ISBN 978-91-0-046048-8
 * For the Living and the Dead (För levande och döda), Bonnier, 1989
 * The Sorrow Gondola (Sorgegondolen), Bonnier, 1996, ISBN 978-91-0-056232-8
 * Prison (Fängelse), Edition Edda, 2001 (from 1959), ISBN 978-91-89352-10-0
 * The Great Enigma (Den stora gåtan), Bonnier, 2004, ISBN 978-91-0-010310-1

 * Other
 * Memories Look at Me (Minnena ser mig), Bonnier, 1993, prose memoir ISBN 978-91-0-055716-4
 * Air Mail: Brev 1964-1990, Bonnier, 2001, correspondence with Robert Bly ISBN 978-91-0-057384-3
 * Galleriet: Reflected in Vecka nr. II (2007), an artist book by Modhir Ahmed

Translations of his work

 * in English
 * Twenty Poems tr. Robert Bly, Seventies Press, 1970
 * Night Vision: Mörkerseende tr. Robert Bly, London Magazine Editions, 1972, SBN 900626 74 7
 * Windows and Stones tr. May Swenson & Leif Sjoberg, University of Pittsburgh Press, 1972; ISBN 978-0-8229-3241-3
 * Selected Poems, Tomas Tranströmer, tr. Robin Fulton, (included with Paavo Haavikko), Penguin Modern European Poets, 1974; ISBN 978-0140421576
 * Baltics: Östersjöar, tr. Samuel Charters, Oyez, Berkeley, 1975 ISBN 978-0-903375-51-1; new edition Tavern Books 2012, ISBN 978-1-935635-14-7
 * Baltics: Östersjöar, tr. Robin Fulton, Oasis Books, London, 1980; ISBN 0-903375-51-6
 * Selected Poems, translator Robin Fulton, Ardis Publishers, 1981, ISBN 978-0-88233-462-2
 * The Blue House: Prose Poems, Thunder City Press, 1983
 * The Wild Market Square: Det vilda torget tr. John F. Deane, Dedalus Press, Dublin, 1985; ISBN 0-948268-05-0
 * Collected Poems, Translator Robin Fulton, Bloodaxe Books, 1987, ISBN 978-1-85224-023-3
 * Tomas Tranströmer: Selected Poems, 1954–1986, Editor Robert Hass, Publisher Ecco Press, 1987 ISBN 978-0-88001-113-6
 * Sorrow Gondola: Sorgegondolen, tr. Robin Fulton, Dufour Editions, 1994, ISBN 978-1-873790-48-9; Dufour Editions, Incorporated, 1997, ISBN 978-0-8023-9070-7
 * For the Living and the Dead: För levande och döda, tr. John F. Deane; The Dedalus Press, Dublin, 1994; ISBN 1-873790-48-1
 * New Collected Poems tr. Robin Fulton, Bloodaxe Books, 1997, ISBN 978-1-85224-413-2
 * Selected Poems Transtromer, Translator May Swenson, Eric Sellin, HarperCollins, 1999, ISBN 978-0-88001-403-8
 * The Half-Finished Heaven tr. Robert Bly, Graywolf Press, 2001, ISBN 978-1-55597-351-3
 * The Deleted World tr. Robin Robertson, Enitharmon Press, 2006, ISBN 978-1-904634-48-5; Enitharmon Press, 2006, ISBN 978-1-904634-51-5
 * ; republished 2011
 * The Sorrow Gondola tr. Michael McGriff and Mikaela Grassl, Green Integer, 2010, ISBN 978-1-933382-44-9
 * The Deleted World tr. Robin Robertson, Farrar, Straus and Giroux USA, Enitharmon Press UK, 2011; ISBN 978-0374533533
 * New Collected Poems tr. Robin Fulton, expanded edition Bloodaxe Books, 2011, ISBN 978-1-85224-413-2
 * Inspired Notes, tr. John F. Deane, Dedalus Press, Dublin, 2011 (combining his 1985 and 1994 translations above); ISBN 978-1906614539
 * Bright Scythe: Selected Poems by Tomas Tranströmer, tr. Patty Crane, Bilingual edition, Sarabande Books, 2015; ISBN 978-1941411216
 * The Blue House: Collected Works of Tomas Tranströmer, tr. Patty Crane, Bilingual edition, Copper Canyon Press, 2023; ISBN 978-1556596858

 * in other languages
 * Hanns Grössel has translated several works of Tranströmer into German.
 * Roberto Mascaró has translated Tranströmer's work into Spanish.
 * Morteza Saghafian has translated Tranströmer's work into Persian.
 * Maria Cristina Lombardi translated some works of Tranströmer into Italian.
 * Jacques Outin translated them into French.
 * Milan Richter has translated the collected poems of Tranströmer into Slovak (Medzi allegrom a lamentom, 2001)

Awards and honours

 * 1966: Bellman Prize (Sweden)
 * 1981: Petrarca-Preis (Germany)
 * 1990: Neustadt International Prize for Literature (US)
 * 1990: Nordic Council Literature Prize, for For the Living and the Dead (Nordic countries)
 * 1991: Swedish Academy Nordic Prize (Sweden)
 * 1992: Horst Bienek Prize for Poetry (Germany)
 * 1996: Augustpriset, for Sorgegondolen (Sweden)
 * 1998: Jan Smrek Prize (Slovakia)
 * 2003: Struga Poetry Evenings Golden Wreath (Macedonia)
 * 2004: International Nonino Prize (Italy)
 * 2007: The Griffin Trust, Lifetime Recognition Award (Griffin Poetry Prize) (Canada)
 * 2011: Title of Professor (Professors namn), granted by the Cabinet of Sweden (Sweden)
 * 2011: Nobel Prize in Literature (Sweden)

Other awards include the Övralid Prize and the Swedish Award from the International Poetry Forum.

title: Tomas Tranströmer


text:
X10

X10 may refer to:

 * North American X-10, an unmanned technology demonstrator for advanced missile technologies
 * SL X10, a Swedish suburban train
 * X10 industry standard, communication over wired power line or wireless used for home automation
 * X10 Wireless Technology, a vendor of home automation products
 * X-10, a code name for the Metallurgical Project
 * X-10 Graphite Reactor, one of the world's first nuclear reactors
 * Sony Ericsson Xperia X10, a smartphone using the Android operating system
 * X10 (video game), a video game by Warthog Games Limited
 * X Ten, a gene-sequencing machine in the HiSeq series produced by the San Diego-based biotech firm Illumina
 * Fujifilm X10, a digital compact camera from 2011
 * Skydio X10 or X10D autonomous drone

Computer related

 * X10 programming language
 * Microsoft X10 Event, a Microsoft conference demonstrating Xbox 360 games/technologies for 2010 on 11 February 2010
 * X Window System, 10th protocol version from 1986 to 1988

title: X10


text:
Von Mises yield criterion

In continuum mechanics, the maximum distortion energy criterion (also von Mises yield criterion ) states that yielding of a ductile material begins when the second invariant of deviatoric stress $$J_2$$ reaches a critical value. It is a part of plasticity theory that mostly applies to ductile materials, such as some metals. Prior to yield, material response can be assumed to be of a linear elastic, nonlinear elastic, or viscoelastic behavior.

In materials science and engineering, the von Mises yield criterion is also formulated in terms of the von Mises stress or equivalent tensile stress, $$\sigma_\text{v}$$. This is a scalar value of stress that can be computed from the Cauchy stress tensor. In this case, a material is said to start yielding when the von Mises stress reaches a value known as yield strength, $$\sigma_\text{y}$$. The von Mises stress is used to predict yielding of materials under complex loading from the results of uniaxial tensile tests. The von Mises stress satisfies the property where two stress states with equal distortion energy have an equal von Mises stress.

Because the von Mises yield criterion is independent of the first stress invariant, $$I_1$$, it is applicable for the analysis of plastic deformation for ductile materials such as metals, as onset of yield for these materials does not depend on the hydrostatic component of the stress tensor.

Although it has been believed it was formulated by James Clerk Maxwell in 1865, Maxwell only described the general conditions in a letter to William Thomson (Lord Kelvin). Richard Edler von Mises rigorously formulated it in 1913. Tytus Maksymilian Huber (1904), in a paper written in Polish, anticipated to some extent this criterion by properly relying on the distortion strain energy, not on the total strain energy as his predecessors. Heinrich Hencky formulated the same criterion as von Mises independently in 1924. For the above reasons this criterion is also referred to as the "Maxwell–Huber–Hencky–von Mises theory".

Mathematical formulation
Mathematically the von Mises yield criterion is expressed as:
 * $$J_2 = k^2\,\!$$

Here $$k$$ is yield stress of the material in pure shear. As shown later in this article, at the onset of yielding, the magnitude of the shear yield stress in pure shear is √3 times lower than the tensile yield stress in the case of simple tension. Thus, we have:
 * $$k = \frac{\sigma_y}{\sqrt{3}}$$

where $$\sigma_y$$ is tensile yield strength of the material. If we set the von Mises stress equal to the yield strength and combine the above equations, the von Mises yield criterion is written as:
 * $$\sigma_v = \sigma_y = \sqrt{3J_2} $$

or
 * $$\sigma_v^2 = 3J_2 = 3k^2$$

Substituting $$J_2$$ with the Cauchy stress tensor components, we get
 * $$\sigma_\text{v}^2 = \frac{1}{2}\left[(\sigma_{11} - \sigma_{22})^2 + (\sigma_{22} - \sigma_{33})^2 + (\sigma_{33} - \sigma_{11})^2 + 6\left(\sigma_{23}^2 + \sigma_{31}^2 + \sigma_{12}^2\right)\right] = \frac{3}{2}s_{ij}s_{ij}$$,

where $$s$$ is called deviatoric stress. This equation defines the yield surface as a circular cylinder (See Figure) whose yield curve, or intersection with the deviatoric plane, is a circle with radius $$\sqrt{2}k$$, or $\sqrt{\frac{2}{3}} \sigma_y$. This implies that the yield condition is independent of hydrostatic stresses.

Uniaxial (1D) stress
In the case of uniaxial stress or simple tension, $$\sigma_1 \neq 0, \sigma_3 = \sigma_2 = 0$$, the von Mises criterion simply reduces to
 * $$\sigma_1 = \sigma_\text{y}\,\!$$,

which means the material starts to yield when $$\sigma_1$$ reaches the yield strength of the material $$\sigma_\text{y}$$, in agreement with the definition of tensile (or compressive) yield strength.

Multi-axial (2D or 3D) stress
An equivalent tensile stress or equivalent von-Mises stress, $$\sigma_\text{v}$$ is used to predict yielding of materials under multiaxial loading conditions using results from simple uniaxial tensile tests. Thus, we define

 * $$\begin{align}

\sigma_\text{v} &= \sqrt{3J_2} \\ &= \sqrt{\frac{(\sigma_{11} - \sigma_{22})^2 + (\sigma_{22} - \sigma_{33})^2 + \left(\sigma_{33} - \sigma_{11})^2 + 6(\sigma_{12}^2 + \sigma_{23}^2 + \sigma_{31}^2\right)}{2}} \\ &= \sqrt{\frac{(\sigma_1 - \sigma_2)^2 + (\sigma_2 - \sigma_3)^2 + (\sigma_3 - \sigma_1)^2} {2}} \\ &= \sqrt{\frac{3}{2} s_{ij}s_{ij}} \end{align} \,\!$$

where $$s_{ij}$$ are components of stress deviator tensor $$\boldsymbol{\sigma}^\text{dev}$$:

 * $$\boldsymbol{\sigma}^\text{dev} = \boldsymbol{\sigma} - \frac{\operatorname{tr}\left(\boldsymbol{\sigma}\right)}{3} \mathbf{I}\,\!$$.

In this case, yielding occurs when the equivalent stress, $$\sigma_\text{v}$$, reaches the yield strength of the material in simple tension, $$\sigma_\text{y}$$. As an example, the stress state of a steel beam in compression differs from the stress state of a steel axle under torsion, even if both specimens are of the same material. In view of the stress tensor, which fully describes the stress state, this difference manifests in six degrees of freedom, because the stress tensor has six independent components. Therefore, it is difficult to tell which of the two specimens is closer to the yield point or has even reached it. However, by means of the von Mises yield criterion, which depends solely on the value of the scalar von Mises stress, i.e., one degree of freedom, this comparison is straightforward: A larger von Mises value implies that the material is closer to the yield point.

In the case of pure shear stress, $$\sigma_{12} = \sigma_{21}\neq0$$, while all other $$\sigma_{ij} = 0$$, von Mises criterion becomes:

 * $$\sigma_{12} = k = \frac{\sigma_y}{\sqrt{3}}\,\!$$.

This means that, at the onset of yielding, the magnitude of the shear stress in pure shear is $$\sqrt{3}$$ times lower than the yield stress in the case of simple tension. The von Mises yield criterion for pure shear stress, expressed in principal stresses, is

 * $$(\sigma_1 - \sigma_2)^2 + (\sigma_2 - \sigma_3)^2 + (\sigma_1 - \sigma_3)^2 = 2\sigma_y^2\,\!$$

In the case of principal plane stress, $$\sigma_3 = 0$$ and $$\sigma_{12} = \sigma_{23} = \sigma_{31} = 0$$, the von Mises criterion becomes:

 * $$\sigma_1^2 - \sigma_1\sigma_2 + \sigma_2^2 = 3k^2 = \sigma_y^2\,\!$$

This equation represents an ellipse in the plane $$\sigma_1 - \sigma_2$$.

Physical interpretation of the von Mises yield criterion
Hencky (1924) offered a physical interpretation of von Mises criterion suggesting that yielding begins when the elastic energy of distortion reaches a critical value. For this reason, the von Mises criterion is also known as the maximum distortion strain energy criterion. This comes from the relation between $$J_2$$ and the elastic strain energy of distortion $$W_\text{D}$$:

 * $$W_\text{D} = \frac{J_2}{2G}\,\!$$ with the elastic shear modulus $$G = \frac{E}{2(1 + \nu)}\,\!$$.

In 1937 Arpad L. Nadai suggested that yielding begins when the octahedral shear stress reaches a critical value, i.e. the octahedral shear stress of the material at yield in simple tension. In this case, the von Mises yield criterion is also known as the maximum octahedral shear stress criterion in view of the direct proportionality that exists between $$J_2$$ and the octahedral shear stress, $$\tau_\text{oct}$$, which by definition is

 * $$\tau_\text{oct} = \sqrt{\frac{2}{3}J_2}\,\!$$

thus we have

 * $$\tau_\text{oct} = \frac{\sqrt{2}}{3} \sigma_\text{y}\,\!$$
 * Strain energy density consists of two components - volumetric or dialational and distortional. Volumetric component is responsible for change in volume without any change in shape. Distortional component is responsible for shear deformation or change in shape.

Practical engineering usage of the von Mises yield criterion
As shown in the equations above, the use of the von Mises criterion as a yield criterion is only exactly applicable when the following material properties are isotropic, and the ratio of the shear yield strength to the tensile yield strength has the following value:

 * $$\frac{F_{sy}}{F_{ty}} = \frac{1}{\sqrt 3} \approx 0.577\!$$

Since no material will have this ratio precisely, in practice it is necessary to use engineering judgement to decide what failure theory is appropriate for a given material. Alternately, for use of the Tresca theory, the same ratio is defined as 1/2.

The yield margin of safety is written as

 * $$MS_\text{yld} = \frac{F_y}{\sigma_\text{v}} - 1$$

title: Von Mises yield criterion


text: User talk:64.161.24.47

title: User talk:64.161.24.47


text:
Ryhope

Ryhope is a coastal village along the southern boundary of the City of Sunderland, in Tyne and Wear, North East England. With a population of approximately 14,000, measured at 10.484 in the 2011 census, Ryhope is 2.9 miles to the centre of Sunderland, 2.8 miles to the centre of Seaham, and 1.2 miles from the main A19.

The older village section is centred on a triangular 'green', which contains a war monument. The newer 'Colliery' area of Ryhope flanks the Ryhope Street/Tunstall Bank road, which lead toward the Tunstall and Silksworth areas of Sunderland.

Geography and administration

The A1018 'Southern Radial Route', which opened in 2008, bypasses Ryhope along the clifftops and takes traffic toward the Port of Sunderland in Hendon and other routes to the centre and north of Sunderland.

The B1287 Sea View Road links Ryhope with the town of Seaham to the south.

Ryhope is surrounded by farmland meaning it is a relatively isolated suburb of Sunderland. A number of cycle routes run through the village, including the National Cycle Network Route number 1 which is looked after by a local team of Sustrans Rangers.

Located to the south-west of the village is Cherry Knowle Hospital which is part of the South of Tyne and Wearside Mental Health NHS Trust. It has long been the main mental health services complex for the Wearside area. The Ryhope Engines Museum is also located in this area.

Ryhope was part of the Houghton and Washington East (UK Parliament constituency)Houghton and Washington East constituency until its abolition at the 2010 general election. Since then, it has formed part of the Sunderland Central constituency.

History
Ryhope (from the Old English reof hoppas, meaning "rough valley" ) is first mentioned in 930 AD when king Athelstan granted the land of Bishopwearmouth (including the township of Ryhope) to the Bishop of Chester-le-Street. The land had been reclaimed from the Vikings who had captured it in 918 AD.

Ryhope has a strong history of farming; in 1183 there were 22 recorded villeins who provided the landowner with cattle and crops. In 1380 the population had swelled to approximately 150. In 1860 common grazing land was split into plots, which radiated out in strips from the village green. Ryhope's proximity to the sea has allowed it to serve as a seaside destination for centuries. The beach is said to have been a favourite sea-bathing spot for the Bishop of Durham.

Located on the Durham coalfield, Ryhope followed the path of many other villages in the area, and abandoned agriculture as the main employer in favour of coal. In 1859 a colliery was opened, causing huge changes in the geography of the village. The settlement of Ryhope extended west toward the area of Tunstall, creating two distinct areas of Ryhope; the 'Village' and the 'Colliery' (the post-World War II, council-built estate of 'Hollycarrside' forms a third section.) Railway lines were introduced to the area, linking Ryhope to Sunderland, Seaham and other Durham Coalfield mining villages. Now only a single railway line runs through the village, and there is no longer a station. The colliery was closed in 1966.

A bronze statue of a pit pony was erected on a plinth on the Stockton Road entrance to Ryhope in 2009 by the Ryhope Development Trust. The statue was stolen for a second time in October 2021; its subsequently replacement with toys, teddy bears and rocking horses gained viral popularity online in 2023.

World War II
In March 1944 Ryhope was the scene of the conclusion of the epic last flight of the Handley Page Halifax bomber LK797 from RAF Bomber Command's raid on Nuremberg, which crash-landed in Ryhope, resulting in Pilot Officer Cyril Barton being posthumously awarded the Victoria Cross.

Sport
There are two football clubs in the town, Ryhope Colliery Welfare and Sunderland Ryhope Community Association, both members of the Northern League.

Notable people

 * Mick Buxton, former Sunderland AFC manager
 * Ronald Radd, actor
 * Nicola Sturgeon, First Minister of Scotland from 2014 into the 2020s, has family connections to the area, her paternal grandmother having been born in Ryhope.
 * Simon Fenton, actor and columnist

Tourism
Ryhope Engines Museum, which is based on the Ryhope Pumping Station, was built in 1868 to supply water to the Sunderland area.

Among natural features, Ryhope adjoins Tunstall Hills which have views of the city of Sunderland and beyond (on a clear day, down the coast almost to Whitby). The Tunstall Hills are located on the southern outskirts of Sunderland between (New) Silksworth and Ryhope. The disused quarries and cuttings at Tunstall Hills provide exposure through part of the Magnesian Limestone succession of Permian age. The slopes on the "Maiden Paps" section support species such as blue moor-grass, common rock-rose, perennial flax and locally uncommon plants such as Frog Orchid, Autumn Gentian and Purple Milk-Vetch. These areas have been designated a "site of special scientific interest" (SSSI).

Ryhope is also home to the world's first (and so far only) listed Pigeon Cree.

title: Ryhope