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Orson Pratt

Orson Pratt Sr. (September 19, 1811 – October 3, 1881) was an American religious leader and mathematician who was an original member of the Quorum of the Twelve Apostles of the Church of Christ (Latter Day Saints). He became a member of the Quorum of the Twelve of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (LDS Church) and was a leading Mormon theologian and writer until his death.

Church membership and service
Pratt was born in Hartford, New York, the son of Jared Pratt and Charity Dickenson. He was the younger brother of Parley P. Pratt, who introduced him to the LDS Church and baptized him on Orson's nineteenth birthday, September 19, 1830, in Canaan, New York.

Pratt was ordained an Elder several months later, on December 1, 1830, by Joseph Smith and immediately set out for Colesville, New York, his first mission. This was the first of a number of short missions in which Pratt visited New York, Ohio, Missouri, and the Eastern States. On February 2, 1832, he was ordained a High Priest by Sidney Rigdon, then he continued his missions, preaching in Pennsylvania, New York, New Jersey, Vermont, New Hampshire, Connecticut, and Massachusetts.

Pratt was a member of the original Quorum of the Twelve Apostles, called in 1835 under the direction of Joseph Smith. He was ordained to this position on April 26, 1835. He served as a member of the mission of the Twelve Apostles to the British Isles between 1839 and 1841. He contributed to the mission by preaching in Scotland, and producing an early missionary tract, "An Interesting Account of Several Remarkable Visions and the Late Discovery of Ancient American Records." This tract contains the earliest known public printing of an account of Smith's First Vision and also contains material similar to that later published as the 1842 Articles of Faith.

On his return to America in 1841, Pratt found the church membership in contention over several issues. Rumors and gossip were rife in Nauvoo, Illinois, and Pratt found the religious principle of plural marriage difficult to accept. He rebelled against Joseph Smith when a report by disaffected Mormon John C. Bennett accused Smith of proposing marriage to Pratt's wife, Sarah Pratt, which Smith denied. Sarah also claimed that Smith had proposed, and Pratt believed his wife. After days of Smith and the other members of the Twelve remonstrating with Pratt, they decided that he would not yield, and thus Pratt was excommunicated on August 20, 1842. Pratt reconciled with Smith a few months after their falling out and requested re-baptism. Pratt was reinstated in the Quorum of the Twelve Apostles on January 20, 1843. Sources claim that Pratt returned to fellowship in the LDS Church because he was able to reconcile Smith's human weakness with his divine revelations, and others point to Smith's explanation that he was only trying to test Sarah's obedience, though Joseph's conclusion was that Sarah had failed the test of obedience by not accepting his proposal.

Conflict with Brigham Young
Pratt's brief period of disassociation with the church had long-term consequences. When dealing with seniority in the council after the death of Joseph Smith, Brigham Young ruled that if a council member had been disciplined and removed from the council, his seniority was based on the date of readmission. By this ruling, both apostle Orson Hyde and Pratt were moved down in seniority in June 1875. This ensured that neither would become president of the LDS Church.

After the death of Joseph Smith, Pratt was among the apostles that supported the leadership of Brigham Young, who determined to move his followers from Nauvoo to the Salt Lake Valley, where the LDS Church became established. Not only did Pratt support Brigham Young’s leadership after Smith’s death, but he was also instrumental in gaining the support of the general body of the church.

As an apostle under Young's leadership, Pratt tended to disagree with him on a variety of topics and found little support from the other apostles. Young expressed an appreciation for Pratt's ability to preach but added regrettably that Pratt preached "false doctrine" more often than not. A few examples of conflicts with Brigham Young include opposition on Orson Pratt's part to reestablishing a First Presidency in 1847, the legalization of slavery in Utah Territory in 1852, and Brigham Young's Adam-God teachings. Young also opposed Pratt's teachings that the One God of the Bible was a matrix of attributes shared by many individuals who had achieved exaltation to godhood.

Young attempted to minimize Pratt's influence. He did so by sending him away on numerous missions and reorganizing how seniority was established in the Quorum of the Twelve. Even with these conflicts, Brigham Young refused to try Pratt for his fellowship in the Church, an indication of how Young was willing to tolerate differences of opinion on theological issues. After Young's death, Pratt's interpretations and opinions held more influence over the other apostles and later church leaders.

Missionary service
After settling in the Salt Lake Valley with the Mormon pioneers, Pratt was called to return to Europe as a mission administrator between 1848 and 1851, during which time he also served as editor of the Millennial Star. In 1850, as mission president of the British Mission, Pratt told his missionaries his strategy for spreading the gospel in an article titled, "How to Warn the Whole British Nation in One Year!" Although this goal was not achieved, by the end of the year there were twice as many LDS Church members residing in Britain as in the United States. As a mission president, Pratt was admired by the missionaries for the many logical and well-written pamphlets he wrote and published while he was there and the way he communicated with British intellectuals to discuss theology.

While presiding over this mission, Pratt received a pamphlet from Lorenzo Snow entitled "The voice of Joseph" that Snow wanted translated into French to advance his missionary efforts in northern Italy. Pratt managed to make contacts with people in Paris who were willing to do this translation.

In 1865, Pratt was one of the first Mormon missionaries to work in Austria. Traveling with William W. Ritter, he was there for nine months, but did not baptize anyone. The missionaries were eventually expelled by the Austrian government.

Migration west
When news reached Pratt that the LDS Church was moving westward, he said, "We do not want one saint to be left in the United States." He helped lead the Saints "out of Babylon." Pratt was a member of Young's initial pioneer company, the "Vanguard Company", that crossed the plains to select a western site for Mormon colonization. His journals of this trip are an important Mormon history resource. As the group made their way from Missouri to Utah, Pratt acted as the company's scientific observer. He made regular readings with the company's scientific instruments, took notes on geological formations and mineral resources, and recorded information on plants and animals. He described snow on Laramie Peak on June 7, and noted that rock found on June 10, "would make excellent grindstones, being of fine grit sandstone."

As a mathematician, Pratt assisted company scribe William Clayton in the design and invention of a version of the modern odometer. Intended to compute the distance traveled per day, the design consisted of a set of wooden cog wheels attached to the hub of a wagon wheel, with the mechanism "counting" the revolutions of the wheel. The apparatus, called the "roadometer", was built by carpenter Appleton Milo Harmon, and was first used on the morning of May 12, 1847.

With Erastus Snow, Pratt entered the Salt Lake Valley on July 21, 1847, three days ahead of the main body of the Vanguard company. Several days later, he preached the first sermon in the Salt Lake Valley and formally dedicated the valley to the Lord.

Family and polygamy
Some sources agree that Pratt married seven women and was the father of forty-five children, though other sources, including his first wife Sarah, claim that he married ten women. At age 57 Orson Pratt married his tenth wife, sixteen-year-old Margaret Graham.

Pratt and all of his wives and children struggled with poverty, likely because Brigham Young constantly sent Pratt on missions to minimize his influence in the Quorum of the Twelve. Still, Pratt was able to support himself and his family by writing and publishing pamphlets on Mormon theology. Some of his wives also earned money by selling hats, fabrics, and other goods.

On August 29, 1852, Orson Pratt delivered a sermon that taught the principle of polygamy, discussing the blessings of raising many children up in the LDS Church. This was the first time the practice was discussed openly in the church. In June 1870, Pratt participated in a debate against John P. Newman on whether or not the Bible supported polygamy. He defended the practice in his writings for The Seer and throughout his ministry, gaining the title "the apostle of polygamy."

List of wives

 * Sarah Marinda Bates
 * Charlotte Bishop
 * Adelia Ann Bishop
 * Mary Ann Merrill
 * Sarah Louisa Chandler
 * Marion Ross
 * Juliette Ann Phelps
 * Eliza Crooks
 * Sarah Louise Lewis
 * Margaret Graham

1842 polygamy scandal and relationship with Sarah Pratt
In 1886, Pratt's wife Sarah Pratt claimed in an interview that, while in Nauvoo, Illinois, that Joseph Smith was attracted to her and intended to make her "one of his spiritual wives" while Pratt was in England on missionary service. To Smith's proposal, Sarah replied that she would never break her marriage covenant with Orson and that she did not believe in Smith's revelation regarding plural marriage. She issued an ultimatum to Smith: "Joseph, if you ever attempt any thing of the kind with me again, I will tell Mr. Pratt on his return home."

After Pratt returned from England, Sarah later claimed another incident occurred between her and Smith at her home. Sarah Pratt's neighbor, Mary Ettie V. Smith, reported that "Sarah ordered the Prophet out of the house, and the Prophet used obscene language to her," claiming that he had found John C. Bennett in bed with her. According to Bennett, another incident where Joseph Smith tried to kiss Sarah caused her to tell her husband about the whole incident. Pratt was torn between believing his wife or Smith; he wrote, "My sorrows are greater than I can bear!" Pratt then took Sarah's side and confronted Smith, who denied Sarah's allegation and responded that she was John C. Bennett's lover. The resulting estrangement between Smith and Pratt, who stood by Sarah in preference to the denials of Smith, led to Smith warning his disciple that "if [Pratt] did believe his wife and follow her suggestions he would go to hell".

In the local and Mormon press, Sarah Pratt was accused of having had an adulterous relationship, not with Smith, but with John C. Bennett, and several affidavits were printed in local and pro-Mormon Nauvoo publications, including the leading councils of the church and from others such as Jacob B. Backenstos, a relative of the sheriff of Hancock County, though many of these allegations are believed to be falsified. Orson Pratt attempted to commit suicide in 1842. At the time, apostle Wilford Woodruff stated that "Dr. John Cook Bennett was the ruin of Orson Pratt."

A public meeting was held where a resolution supporting Smith's character was proposed; Pratt stated that he was unable to support the resolution, to which Smith replied, "Have you personally a knowledge of any immoral act in me toward the female sex, or in any other way?" Pratt answered no, but he became estranged from the church and Smith. Brigham Young, Heber C. Kimball, and George A. Smith spent several days trying to get Pratt to believe Smith, but Pratt continued to side with his wife. Finally, the three apostles excommunicated Pratt from the church. According to Van Wagoner's article "Sarah M Pratt: The Shaping of an Apostate", Sarah was not excommunicated at this time. Additionally, The Joseph Smith Papers, Documents found there was no record of ecclesiastical action taken against Sarah in January 1843. Both Orson and Sarah were rebaptized by Joseph Smith when they returned to the church in 1843. Orson did not ever consider himself truly excommunicated, and neither, it seems, did Smith.

Bennett claimed that Pratt and his wife were planning to leave Nauvoo and help him "expose Mormonism," but Pratt would later publish a statement in the Nauvoo Expositor to deny this claim. Pratt soon returned to the church and denounced Bennett. Van Wagoner cites a letter written by Pratt's brother Parley P. Pratt which said that Orson was a part of the church and that Bennett's book, The History of the Saints (1842), was written solely to get vengeance on those who had excommunicated him and barely worth mentioning. Pratt wrote a postscript to his brother's letter: "J.C. Bennett has published lies concerning myself & family & the people with which I am connected".

Smith and Pratt directly discussed Pratt's wife, with Smith stating to him, "She lied about me: I never made the offer which she said I did," after which Joseph suggested he divorce Sarah and start a new family. Pratt did not divorce Sarah at that time, though one source does report that Orson came to believe that Sarah had lied about Smith's proposal. This event would impact the couple for the rest of their lives; they eventually did divorce, though decades later. Sarah secretly encouraged her children not to believe in Mormon teachings. She and her son, Orson Pratt Jr., eventually apostatized from the church.

Writer, historian and philosopher
While in Illinois, Pratt acted as an instructor of mathematics at the University of Nauvoo. In Utah, Pratt's strong skills in analysis and writing led Young to assign him to produce sermons and pamphlets dealing with religious topics. Pratt wrote sixteen pamphlets in defense of LDS Church doctrines, drawing on the works of Joseph Smith and his brother Parley P. Pratt. These include "Divine Authority, or the Question, Was Joseph Smith Sent of God?" in 1848 and "Divine Authenticity of the Book of Mormon" in 1850 and 1851. His pamphlet "An Interesting Account of Several Remarkable Visions" was the first published account of the First Vision and included a list of beliefs that is similar to Smith's 1842 "Articles of Faith". In "Absurdities of Immaterialism", Pratt defended the Mormon doctrine of materiality, with reference to science, philosophy, and theology. As part of his system of Mormon theology, Pratt embraced the philosophical doctrine of hylozoism.

Although these materials were primarily used in the mission field, Pratt was also a church spokesman on the topic of plural marriage. At a special conference in Salt Lake City in August 1852, Pratt publicly preached a sermon announcing the doctrine of plural marriage. He later published an essay in defense of the practice in 12 monthly installments in the church periodical The Seer, which provides the most complete defense of the Mormon doctrine during this period. Pratt himself is considered one of the most influential early apologists for the LDS Church.

Pratt's views were not always without controversy. In 1865, a majority of the First Presidency and the Quorum of the Twelve Apostles of the LDS Church officially condemned some of Pratt's doctrinal writings, including some of his articles from The Seer. They considered it to be misleading and questionable in relation to the actual doctrine of the Church. Though his many controversial beliefs have been rejected by Brigham Young and other Church leaders, Pratt's writings have nevertheless influenced many modern Mormon beliefs, including their concept of God and the doctrine of the gathering of Israel.

In 1869, Pratt transliterated a portion of the Book of Mormon into the Deseret Alphabet.

Pratt acted as Church Historian and Recorder from 1874 until his death. He edited many church periodicals and helped divide editions of the Book of Mormon and Doctrine and Covenants into verses and provided footnoted cross references. He served seven terms as Speaker of the House in the Utah legislature.

Science publications and lectures
Pratt was known as an accomplished mathematician and had a strong interest in astronomy. The disciplines combined with others to form in his mind a philosophy of what might be called 'early' Mormon cosmology. He offered science-based lectures on these topics to early Mormon audiences in Utah and published two related books. New and Easy Method of Solution of the Cubic and Biquadratic Equations was published in 1866, and Key to the Universe was published in 1879. The former is claimed to have been used as a textbook in England, Germany, and France, as Pratt was known as a talented mathematician even outside of Mormon circles.

In October 1851, Orson Pratt taught mathematics in the 'Parent School' of the University of Deseret. The Thirteenth Ward School House was used for a classroom. On December 15, 1851, he commenced a series of lectures on astronomy and its religious implications, in the Council House. These educational efforts technically were part of an adult educational program.

List of published works

 * An Interesting Account of Several Remarkable Visions (1842) Project Gutenberg Kindle, epub, html, and text editions
 * Absurdities of Immaterialism (1849) Project Gutenberg Kindle, epub, html, and text editions
 * Cubic and Biquadratic Equations (1866)
 * Key to the Universe (1866)
 * The Bible and Polygamy (1870)

Death
At age 70, Pratt died of complications from diabetes in Salt Lake City. He was buried in the Salt Lake City Cemetery. He continued to be a leading Mormon theologian and writer until his death. When he died, he was the last member of the LDS Church's Quorum of the Twelve who had been an original member of the 1835 Quorum.

title: Orson Pratt


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Fonovisa Records

Fonovisa Records is an American Spanish language record label founded in 1984 by Guillermo Santiso as a subsidiary of Televisa. Its former name before being acquired by Televisa in 1984 was Profono Internacional, which was founded in 1978. Fonovisa mainly produces Mexican style music. It is well known for its signing with artists such as Los Tigres Del Norte, Los Bukis, Los Temerarios, Enrique Iglesias, Lucero and Thalía.

In late 2002, Fonovisa was acquired from Televisa by the Univision Music Group. Fonovisa was owned by the Univision Music Group until May 2008 when it was bought by Universal Music Group. It is now part of Universal Music Latin Entertainment. Fonovisa headquarters are now in the Capitol Records Building, in Hollywood, California.

Lawsuits
On January 25, 1996, Fonovisa was allowed to proceed with its copyright infringement lawsuit against Cherry Auction (which is known for operating the Cherry Avenue Auction in Fresno, CA) for allowing vendors to sell unlicensed records.

Fonovisa itself, however, became the subject of controversy in 1999 when the record label admitted to paying radio stations millions of dollars in payola to play songs from Fonovisa artists. Santiso was also charged with tax evasion during the process.

Artists

 * Alacranes Musical
 * Alicia Villarreal
 * Alejandro Fernández
 * Grupo Aroma
 * Avenida 6
 * After Party
 * Alfredo Olivas
 * Banda El Recodo
 * Banda Pequeños Musical
 * Bronco
 * Chiquis
 * Conjunto Primavera
 * Cristina
 * Crecer Germán
 * Conjunto Azabache
 * Cuisillos
 * Enrique Iglesias
 * El De La H
 * El Potro de Sinaloa
 * El Tigrillo Palma
 * Grupo Exterminador
 * Grupo Bryndis
 * Graciela Beltrán
 * German Montero
 * Hechizeros Band
 * Industria Del Amor
 * Ivan
 * Jesús Chaparro
 * Juan Gabriel
 * Juan Rivera
 * Julión Álvarez
 * Jazmín López
 * Joan Sebastian
 * José Huerta
 * Lorenzo Antonio
 * Los Acosta
 * Los Bondadosos
 * Los Baron de Apodaca
 * Los Temerarios
 * Los Tigres del Norte
 * Los Tucanes de Tijuana
 * Los Canelos de Durango
 * Larry Hernandez
 * Marco Antonio Solis
 * Patrulla 81
 * Pedro Fernández
 * Roberto Tapia
 * Saul El Jaguar
 * Sparx
 * El Trono de Mexico
 * Vikilo

Former artists

 * Ana Bárbara
 * Anahí
 * Chavela Y Su Grupo Express
 * Cristian Castro
 * Crooked Stilo
 * Elsa García
 * Enrique Iglesias
 * La Mafia
 * La Sombra
 * Los Bukis
 * Los Palominos
 * Lucero
 * Menudo
 * Noelia
 * Thalía
 * Timbiriche
 * Tropa F
 * Los Acuario De Mexico
 * Jenni Rivera

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Fonovisa Records


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Talk:2004 Slovenian parliamentary election

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Credits: A part of the content of this article comes from the equivalent Slovenian language Wikipedia article Volitve 2004 (retrieved 10:26, 1 mar. 2005).

The original request:

Slovene(Slovenian)-to-English
Click here to check for available translators

 * Article: sl:Volitve 2004
 * Corresponding English-language article: Slovenia parliamentary elections, 2004
 * Worth doing because:
 * Material to incorporate into English-language article
 * Originally Requested by: Mateo SA | talk 18:37, Oct 13, 2004 (UTC)
 * Status: "Translation completed Eleassar777 07:16, 28 Apr 2005 (UTC)".
 * Other notes: The English-language version is just a stub, but is featured on Current events.


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List of presidents of the United States by military service

Of the 45 individuals who have served as president of the United States, 31 had prior military service, and 14 had none. Their service ranks range from private in a state militia to general of the army.

History
Though the president of the United States is commander-in-chief of the United States Armed Forces, prior military service is not a prerequisite for holding the office.

Civil War-veteran presidents
After the American Civil War, public perception of an individual's appropriateness for the presidency was influenced by their combat history. After a spate of such veteran-presidents, that influence diminished before disappearing entirely.

World War II-veteran presidents
So great was the influence of World War II on US politics, Dwight D. Eisenhower won the 1952 presidential election without any political experience. This halo effect of the war benefited the successful political campaigns of John F. Kennedy, Richard Nixon, Lyndon B. Johnson, Ronald Reagan, and Jimmy Carter. However, after the 1988 presidential election, the shine had dulled on military-veteran politicians, and through 2012, "the candidate with the better military record lost." , George H. W. Bush was the most recent president to have served in combat (as an aircraft carrier-based bomber pilot in World War II).

Lack of Vietnam-veteran presidents
The 48-year tenure of veteran presidents after World War II was a result of that conflict's "pervasive effect […] on American society." In the late 1970s and 1980s, almost 60 percent of the United States Congress had served in World War II or the Korean War, and it was expected that a Vietnam veteran would eventually accede to the presidency. Yet, in the chronology of "major conflicts" involving the United States, the Vietnam War is the first to not produce a veteran president, an event that veteran and author Matt Gallagher called "no small feat for a country spawned in armed revolution." By 2017, a "bamboo ceiling" was described as holding down and preventing those who served in Vietnam from becoming president.

Barack Obama's 2006 book The Audacity of Hope argues that baby boomers never left behind the anti-military psychodrama of the 1960s, and that played out in national politics. During Bill Clinton's 1992 presidential campaign, James Carville succeeded in releasing Clinton's 1969 letter that "outlined his opposition to the [Vietnam] war and his decision to try his chances with the draft." The positive effects of this release proved the diminished cachet of military service in presidential politics. Donald Trump's 2016 campaign further cemented this; Trump was elected that November despite bragging about evading the draft, slandering Senator John McCain and other prisoners of war, and publicly feuding with Gold Star parents Khizr and Ghazala Khan. Of this, Gallagher said, "What'd once been sacred territory in American politics is now anything but."

In 2015, journalist James Fallows described the contemporary American's attitude toward their military as "we love the troops, but we’d rather not think about them". That same year, Ken Harbaugh (veteran and chief operating officer of Team Rubicon) claimed to speak on behalf of veterans when expressing his dismay, and argued that all voters should be concerned, that the 2016 United States presidential election had no likely candidates with military experience. In 2018, Gallagher noted that when given the opportunity to elect Vietnam veterans (Al Gore, McCain, and John Kerry), the US electorate did not do so. He called this emblematic of the public's "vague sense of gratitude for service members" that eschews interest or understanding: Thank you for your service,' but spare the details, please."

Future
With the all-volunteer United States Armed Forces of 2018 comprising 0.5 percent of the US populace, and "the inherent politicization of the wars [current and future politicians] fought in", Gallagher doubted the viability of future veteran-presidents; "If a Global War on Terror veteran does someday lead the White House, it’ll be in spite of their time in uniform, not assisted by it."

Asset
George Washington, William Henry Harrison, Ulysses S. Grant, and Dwight D. Eisenhower were all career soldiers who benefited from their popularity as successful wartime general officers. Áine Cain of Military.com called veteran presidents "fitting", given their responsibility at the head of the military's command hierarchy.

Detriment
Military service has also been a political millstone for individuals seeking the presidency.

George W. Bush's service with the Air National Guard was a point of political contention in his 2000 and 2004 campaigns. Kerry's tours in Vietnam were similarly questioned. McCain's 2000 and 2008 presidential campaigns saw the retired captain's service used against him. Donald Trump's five deferments from conscription during the Vietnam War dogged his first presidential campaign. Joe Biden received criticism during his 2020 presidential campaign for his five student draft deferments.

Presidents Bill Clinton, George W. Bush, and Donald Trump all received criticism for deploying the armed forces in combat while having not served in that capacity themselves.

Policy
As noted in The Atlantic, presidents' military histories influence their policy-making in office.


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User:Wolfychan

Wolfychan's Talk Page

Wolfychan's Contributions

title: User:Wolfychan


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Talk:Ribart de Chamoust

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Is this the one that is referenced in Moulin Rouge!? The Recycling Troll 02:56, 4 Oct 2004 (UTC)

title: Talk:Ribart de Chamoust


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Café del Mar

Café del Mar (, ; "Sea Café") is a bar located in Sant Antoni de Portmany, Ibiza, established in 1980. In 1999, it founded the record label Café del Mar Music, known for its series of chillout CDs.

History
The Café del Mar was founded on 20 June 1980. The look of the Café del Mar was designed by architect Lluis Güell. He was in charge of the design, decoration and architecture.

DJ José Padilla who became famous for his sunset sets that began in 1991 at Café del Mar also created the first six volumes of the Café del Mar compilation albums between 1994 and 1999. He died on 22 October 2020 of colon cancer.

Today, Café del Mar is a bar brand that includes a bar in Ibiza and seven bars elsewhere in the world, including Cartagena de Indias.

Café del Mar Music
Café del Mar Music releases Balearic ambient, easy listening music. The collections of the music played at the café were first sold on cassette at the end of the 1980s. Starting circa 1994, Café del Mar compilation CDs have been released by various labels. In 1999, the owner of the café founded the Café del Mar Music label. As of April 2017, a total of 22 volumes of the main compilation series have been published.

Café Del Mar hosted the DJs Phil Mison, Jim Breese, and Chris Coco who recorded a few songs as 3 Balearos in 2012, including the single "Summer breezin'".

Artists
Café del Mar compilations contain music by Pat Metheny, A. R. Rahman, Moby, Jean Michel Jarre, Chicane, Underworld, Rhian Sheehan, Afterlife - Steve Miller, Gary B., Luminous, Linda Di Franco, Triangle Sun and Thomas Newman.

Other labels

 * Café Del Mar, (January 1993) Eye Q Records
 * Café Del Mar - Volumen Cuatro, (1999) Manifesto Records (UK)

Café del Mar Music releases

 * Aria, (1999) produced by Paul Schwartz, (originally released in 1997 by Astor Place)
 * Aria 2 - New Horizons, (1999) produced by Paul Schwartz
 * Café Del Mar - Chillhouse Mix 5, (2007)

Radio and livestreaming
Café del Mar began live streaming via their YouTube channel on 28 September 2020. The live stream is titled "Café del Mar Ibiza Live Chillout Radio & Webcam 24/7" and streams purely chillout music without any vocal activity from a DJ. Common artists featured include Everything but the Girl, Groove Armada, Afterlife, Nightmares on Wax, Cathy Battistessa and Sade.

title: Café del Mar


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Combat (video game)

Combat is a 1977 video game by Atari, Inc. for the Atari Video Computer System (later renamed the Atari 2600). In the game, two players controlling either a tank, a biplane, or a jet fire missiles at each other for two minutes and sixteen seconds. Points are scored by hitting the opponent, and the player with the most points when the time runs out wins. Variations on the gameplay introduce elements such as invisible vehicles, missiles that ricochet off of walls, and different playing fields.

The game was being made while the Atari 2600 was still in development. Combat was based on Atari's popular arcade game Tank. It was initially developed by Steve Mayer and Ron Milner. Joe Decuir later tested it on the developing Atari Video Computer System hardware, and Larry Wagner completed the game while adding the two plane variations to the game. The game was released as a pack-in game with the Atari Video Computer System.

By the early 1980s, reception towards Combat commented on its graphics and game play as being out-of-date. A sequel titled Combat Two was planned for the Atari 2600, but never completed. A prototype of the sequel was later released in various formats. Retrospective reception by publications such as Classic Gamer Magazine and AllGame have praised the game, while PCMag and Flux included it on their list of Best Atari 2600 games and Best Game of all time lists respectively.

Gameplay
Combat uses two four-directional joysticks, one for each player. The game has several modes of gameplay: "Tank", "Biplane" and "Jet" and with variations of the above models. The tank and jet modes are viewed from a top-down perspective while biplane games are side view. In all forms of the game, pushing the button fires a missile. Hitting the other player with a missile scores a point. The player with the most points at the end of a two minutes and sixteen second round wins. Variations of the gameplay in Tank mode include adding obstacles to maneuver around, having the missiles rebound off of walls (referred to as Tank-Pong) and a mode where the tanks are invisible except when they are firing a missile or are hit by one. In the other two modes, Jet and Biplane, there are no obstacles, and both aircraft continuously move forward. These levels have options for obscuring clouds that the planes can hide behind. The original 1977 Atari VCS (Video Computer System) has six switches in front, including left and right difficulty switches and a game select switch. The difficulty switches change the range of fire of the missiles and in the plane-based games also changes the speed of flight.

In his article "Combat in Context", Nick Montfort stated it was difficult to place the game genre to Combat as assigning one to it would be considered anachronistic. AllGame would later categorize it as a shooter game.

Development
Combat was programmed while the Atari 2600 hardware was still under development. Steve Mayer was developing the game by late 1975. The original version was a tank game made on the early prototype Atari 2600 hardware engineered by Mayer and Ron Milner from Cyan Engineering, a consulting firm that Atari purchased in 1975. The VCS hardware was designed to be capable of playing Atari's popular arcade games Pong (1972) Pong Doubles (1973), Quadrapong (1974), Gran Trak 10 (1974), Tank (1974), and Jet Fighter (1975). Combat was based on the Tank.

Combat was made to fit into a two Kilobyte cartridge's ROM. In his academic journal article Combat in Context, Nick Monfrot stated that the game was coded in assembly language by Joe Decuir, who was working on the final VCS hardware with Jay Miner. Decuir has deferred much of the credit on the game, stating that "Ron Milner and Steve Mayer conceived of what became Combat, I was an implementer [...] I worked on it mostly as a test case for the hardware". After Decuir completed his work on the game, the code was finished by Larry Wagner, the head of Atari's new VCS programming team. Wagner refined the tank games and added both the aircraft modes. Decuir later proclaimed that Wagner "made the Combat display engine a lot more fun."

Release
Combat was bundled with most Atari 2600 consoles from 1977 to 1982. The only systems not bundled with the game were those marketed by Sears under its Telegames label, which were sold with Air-Sea Battle (1977) under the title Target Fun as the pack-in game. The Sears release of Combat was known as Tank Plus.

According to Weekly Television Digest from October 17, 1977 the Atari VCS was shipped to all major market areas by August 1977. The system became known as the Atari 2600 only after the release of the Atari 5200 in 1982. The cover art of Combat was drawn by Cliff Spohn. Spohn commented he was not happy with the cover, noting that as the graphic was cut up into four areas that the jet trail is cut and it "always really bothered [him]."

Combat was re-released in various compilation formats, such as the Atari 80 in One for Windows in 2003 and the Atari Anthology for PlayStation 2 and Xbox in 2004. It was also released on portable devices as part of Atari Classics Evolved (2007) for the PlayStation Portable and Atari Greatest Hits (2011) for iOS. In 2010, it was made available as part of Microsoft's Game Room for the Xbox 360.

Reception
From contemporary reviews, Video compared the Atari VCS's launch titles, and gave tank pong the highest rating of the variations on Combat with a seven-and-one-half rating for Tank-Pong and Invisible Tank Pong, six-and-one-half for invisible tank game, and six for all the other variations. In comparison, Blackjack and Video Olympics received a ten and eight-and-one-half rating each, while Basic Math, Surround, Street Racer, and Star Ship all received lower ratings. By 1982, the game was receiving negative reception. Walter Lowe, Jr. ranked the game with a one-and-a-half star rating in Playboy's Guide to Rating Video Games while Ken Uston in Buying and Beating the Home Video Games declared "It's not fair to be too critical because, after all, this cartridge is nearly five years old; an in this age of rapid computer technology, that makes it almost an antique." Craig Kubey's The Winners' Book of Video Games simply described it as "adequate" with both Lowe, Jr. and Kubey both only finding the saving grace that it came included with the console. In the British publication TV Gamer from August 1983, Sonya Bradford found the controls took time to get used to and that the game "becomes a bit monotonous, which is not helped by the poor graphics."

From retrospective reviews, Brett Alan Weiss of the online video game database AllGame gave the game a four-and-a-half-star rating out of five, declaring that the simple graphics and sound fail to give a true impression of the game, noting its high replay value and "highly entertaining cat-and-mouse action." In the first issue of Classic Gamer Magazine (1999) D.B. Caufield declared Combat as "still an outstanding two-player game", finding that what it lacked in graphics it made up for in gameplay.

In 1995, Flux magazine ranked Combat #48 on their list of "Top 100 Video Games". The article stated that despite what the publication described as poor-quality graphics, the gameplay made Combat earn its position on the list. In 2012, PCMag included Combat in their "The Greatest Atari Games of All Time" list, with writer Eric Griffith noted the dated graphics by 2012 standards, while finding that the game felt "pretty magical in the 70s."

Legacy
A sequel to Combat went into development for the Atari 2600 and was to be titled Combat Two. It was announced by Atari in 1982. The game would have included landscape elements such as water, forests and bridges as well as a level editor. The game was officially announced but was never officially released for the system. An incomplete prototype of the game surfaced in 1999 by former Atari Age magazine editor Steve Morgenstern.

Physical copies of the game were made for sale in limited quantity at the 2001 Classic Gaming Expo. The prototype was released as part of the Atari Flashback 2 dedicated console in 2005. Combat Two was included as part of the Atari 50: The Anniversary Celebration (2022) compilation for Nintendo Switch, PlayStation 4, Steam, and Xbox One.

title: Combat (video game)


text:
Volcae

The Volcae were a Gallic tribal confederation constituted before the raid of combined Gauls that invaded Macedonia c. 270 BC and fought the assembled Greeks at the Battle of Thermopylae in 279 BC. Tribes known by the name Volcae were found simultaneously in southern Gaul, Moravia, the Ebro valley of the Iberian Peninsula, and Galatia in Anatolia. The Volcae appear to have been part of the late La Tène material culture, and a Celtic identity has been attributed to the Volcae, based on mentions in Greek and Latin sources as well as onomastic evidence. Driven by highly mobile groups operating outside the tribal system and comprising diverse elements, the Volcae were one of the new ethnic entities formed during the Celtic military expansion at the beginning of the 3rd century BC. Collecting in the famous excursion into the Balkans, ostensibly, from the Greek point of view, to raid Delphi, a branch of the Volcae split from the main group on the way into the Balkans and joined two other tribes, the Tolistobogii and the Trocmi, to settle in central Anatolia and establish a new identity as the Galatians.

The Tectosagii were a group of the Volcae who moved through Macedonia into Anatolia c. 277 BC. Strabo says the Tectosagii came originally from the region near modern Toulouse, in France.

Name
They are mentioned as Volcis and Volcarum by Caesar (mid-1st c. BC), as Ou̓ólkai (Οὐόλκαι) by Strabo (early 1st c. AD) and Ptolemy (2nd c. AD), and as Volce on the Tabula Peutingeriana (4–5th c. AD).

Most modern Celtologists regard the tribal name Uolcae ( sing. Uolcos) as stemming from a Gaulish noun uolcos, uolca ('hawk, falcon'), which can be compared with the Welsh gwalch ('hawk, rascal' > 'fighter'). In particular, the Gaulish personal name Catu-uolcos has an exact parallel in the Welsh cadwalch ('hero, champion, warrior'), itself from an earlier Old Brittonic *katu-wealkos ('battle-hawk'). The Gaulish stem uolc- can also be found in the personal names Uolcius, Uolcenius, Uolcenia, Uolcinius, Uolcacius, Uolciani, and Uolcanus. The Old English wealc- ('hawk'), which has no known cognate in other Germanic languages, was most likely borrowed from Old Brittonic *wealkos. The etymology of those forms remains obscure. Xavier Delamarre has proposed to derive Gaulish uolcos – alongside Latin falcō ('falcon') and falx, falcis ('hook, sickle') – from a stem *ǵhwol-k-, itself based on the Proto-Indo-European (PIE) root *ǵʷhel- ('bend, curve'). In this view, the animal may have been named after the shape of his beak, just like the Ancient Greek harpē designates both a sickle and a bird of prey.

Alternatively, the name Uolcae has been derived by some scholars from the PIE name of the wolf, *wḷkʷos. According to Ranko Matasović, however, this is unlikely since the Gaulish form would have preserved the o-grade *wolkʷo-; he argues that descendants of Proto-Celtic *ulkʷos ('bad, evil' < PIE *wḷkʷos 'wolf') rather include Lepontic Ulkos and Old Irish olc ('bad, evil'). Delamarre finds it doubtful since *wḷkʷos would have given **flech (rather than olc) in Old Irish and **ulipos in Gaulish (after the P-Celtic sound shift). John T. Koch derives Old Irish olc from a Proto-Celtic form *elko- ~ *olko-, which may be compared with Old Norse illr (from Proto-Germanic *elhja- < Pre-Germanic *elkyo-; cf. the Finnish loanword elkiä 'mean, malicious'); he proposes that reflexes of PIE *wḷkʷos ('wolf') include Old Irish foilc (from a 9th-century poem) and Old Welsh gueilc[h] (from the poem Y Gododdin).

After Volcae Tectosages settled in the Hercynian forest (Central Europe), neighbouring Germanic tribes designated them by the name *walhaz, a loanword from Gaulish uolcos that came to refer more generally to Celtic and Romance speakers in medieval Germanic languages (e.g. Welsh, Waals, Vlachs).

Volcae of the Danube

Julius Caesar was convinced that the Volcae had originally been settled east of the Rhine, for he mentioned the Volcae Tectosages as a Gaulish tribe which still remained in western Germany in his day (Gallic War 6.24): "And there was formerly a time when the Gauls excelled the Germans in prowess, and waged war on them offensively, and, on account of the great number of their people and the insufficiency of their land, sent colonies over the Rhine.

Accordingly, the Volcae Tectosages, seized on those parts of Germany which are the most fruitful [and lie] around the Hercynian forest, (which, I perceive, was known by report to Eratosthenes and some other Greeks, and which they call Orcynia), and settled there. Which nation to this time retains its position in those settlements, and has a very high character for justice and military merit; now also they continue in the same scarcity, indigence, hardihood, as the Germans, and use the same food and dress; but their proximity to the Province and knowledge of commodities from countries beyond the sea supplies to the Gauls many things tending to luxury as well as civilization. Accustomed by degrees to be overmatched and worsted in many engagements, they do not now even compare themselves to the Germans in prowess."

Caesar related a tradition associating the Celtic tribe of the Volcae to the vast Hercynian Forest, although they were possibly located in the eastern range of the České Středohoří; yet, Volcae of his time were settled in Moravia, east of the Boii. Their apparent movement may indicate that the Volcae were newcomers to the region. Caesar's remark about the wealth of this region may have referred not only to agriculture but also to the mineral deposits there, while the renown attributed to the Volcae "in peace and in war" resulted from their metallurgical skills and the quality of their weapons, both attracting the attention of their northern neighbors. Together with the Boii in the upper basin of the Elbe river to the west and the Cotini in Slovakia to the east, this area of Celtic settlement in oppida led to the exploitation of natural resources on a grand scale and the concentration of skilled craftsmen under the patronage of strong and wealthy chieftains. This culture flourished from the mid second to the mid-1st century BCE, until it buckled under the combined pressure of the Germanic peoples from the North and the Dacians from the East.

Allowance must be made for Julius Caesar's usual equation of primitive poverty with admirable hardihood and military prowess and his connection of luxurious imports and the proximity of "civilization", meaning his own, with softness and decadence. In fact, long-established trading connections furnished Gaulish elites with Baltic amber and Greek and Etruscan wares.

Caesar took it as a given that the Celts in the Hercynian Forest were emigrant settlers from Gaul who had "seized" the land, but modern archeology identifies the region as part of the La Tène homeland. As Henry Howarth noted a century ago, "The Tectosages reported by Caesar as still being around the Hercynian forest were in fact living in the old homes of their race, whence a portion of them set out on their great expedition against Greece, and eventually settled in Galatia, in Asia Minor, where one of the tribes was called Tectosages."

Volcae Arecomici
The Volcae Arecomici (Οὐόλκαι Ἀρικόμιοι of Ptolemy's Geography ii), according to Strabo, dwelt on the western side of the lower Rhône, with their metropolis at Narbo (Narbonne): "Narbo is spoken of as the naval-station of these people alone, though it would be fairer to add 'and of the rest of Celtica', so greatly has it surpassed the others in the number of people who use it as a trade-centre." They were not alone in occupying their territory, with its capital at Nemausus (Nîmes).

The Volcae Arecomici of their own accord surrendered to the Roman Republic in 121 BC. They occupied the district between the Garonne (Garumna), the Cévennes (Cebenna mons), and the Rhône. This area covered most of the western part of the Roman province of Gallia Narbonensis. They held their assemblies in the sacred wood of Nemausus, the site of modern Nîmes.

In Gaul they were divided into two tribes in widely separated regions, the Arecomici on the east, living among the Ligures, and the Tectosages (whose territory included that of the Tolosates) on the west, living among the Aquitani; the territories were separated by the Hérault (Arauris) or a line between the Hérault and the Orb (Orbis).

Volcae Tectosages
West of the Arecomici the Volcae Tectosages (whose territory included that of the Tolosates) lived among the Aquitani; the territories were separated by the Hérault (Arauris) or a line between the Hérault River and the Orb (Orbis). Strabo says the Volcae Tectosages came originally from the region near modern Toulouse and were part of the Volcae.

The territory of the Volcae Tectosages (Οὐόλκαι Τεκτόσαγες of Ptolemy's Geography ii) in Gaul lay outside the Roman Republic, to the southwest of the Volcae Arecomici. From the 3rd century BC, the capital city of the Volcae Tectosages was Tolosa (Toulouse). When the Cimbri and Teutones invaded Gaul, the Tectosages allied themselves with them, and their town Tolosa was sacked in retribution by Quintus Servilius Caepio in 106 BC. Tolosa was incorporated into the Roman Republic as part of the province of Gallia Aquitania with the conquest of Gaul by Julius Caesar in 52 BC. The Roman conquest of Tolosa ended the cultural identity of the Volcae Tectosages.

According to Ptolemy's Geography, their inland towns were Illiberis, Ruscino, Tolosa colonia, Cessero, Carcaso, Baetirae, and Narbo colonia.

The Volcae Tectosages were among the successful raiders of the Delphi expedition and were said to have transported their booty to Tolosa. A significant part of these raiders however did not return and crossed the Bosporus instead. As a result, Tectosages was also the name of one of the three great communities of Gauls who invaded and settled in Anatolia in the country called after them "Galatia".

Venceslas Kruta suggests that their movement into this region was probably motivated by a Carthaginian recruiting post situated close by, a main attraction of the region for Celtic mercenaries eager for more campaigning. Indeed, after crossing the Pyrenees in 218 BC, Hannibal in travelling through southern Gaul was greeted by warlike tribes: the Volcae, the Arverni, the Allobroges, and the Gaesatae of the Rhône Valley, who rose to prominence around the middle of the 3rd century BC. From around that time, this part of Gaul underwent a process of stabilization buttressed by the formation of new and powerful tribal confederations as well as the development of new-style settlements, such as Tolosa and Nemausus (Nîmes), resembling the urban centers of the Mediterranean world.

In 107, the Volcae, allies of the Tigurini, a branch of the Helvetii who belonged to a coalition that formed around the Cimbri and the Teutons, defeated a Roman army at Tolosa. In 106-5, Q. Servilius Caepio was sent with an army to put down the revolt, and as a result, Tolosa was sacked, and thereafter the town and its territory were absorbed into Gallia Narbonensis, thereby establishing firm control over the western Gallic trade corridor along the Carcassonne Gap and the Garonne.

The Volcae were highly influential in Moravia, and together with the Boii and the Cotini and other Danubian tribes, they controlled a highly active network of trade routes connected to the Mediterranean and the German lands.

title: Volcae


text:
User talk:Lorenzobivens

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User talk:Maverick-jin8

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Techtonic

Techtonic isn't an official word with an official spelling. You may be looking for one of the following terms.

Techtonic can refer to:

 * Tecktonik, a frenetic and quirky form of street dance which is typically performed to electro house music.

Or, it may also be a misspelling of Tectonic, in reference to:
 * Tectonics, a field of study within geology concerned generally with the structures within the lithosphere of the Earth or other planets.
 * Plate tectonics, a scientific theory which describes the large scale motions of Earth's lithosphere.

title: Techtonic


text: User talk:68.199.92.102

title: User talk:68.199.92.102


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User talk:Caitmc

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Lists of Liberty ships

These lists of Liberty ships are sortable lists, allowing ships to be looked up by hull number. Liberty ships were a type of mass-produced cargo ship built to meet inexpensively the United States's World War II maritime transport needs.

 * List of Liberty ships (A-F)
 * List of Liberty ships (G–Je)
 * List of Liberty ships (Je–L)
 * List of Liberty ships (M–R)
 * List of Liberty ships (S–Z)

title: Lists of Liberty ships