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Max Bodenheimer

Max Isidor Bodenheimer (מקס בודנהיימר; 12 March 1865 – 19 July 1940) was a lawyer and one of the main figures in German Zionism. An associate of Theodor Herzl, he was the first president of the Zionist Federation of Germany and one of the founders of the Jewish National Fund. After his flight in 1933 from Nazi Germany, and a short sojourn in Holland, he settled in Palestine in 1935.

Biography
Max Bodenheimer was born on 12 March 1865 in Stuttgart to an assimilated Jewish family. He studied at Tübingen, Strassburg, Berlin and Freiburg universities from 1884 to 1889.

In 1890 he moved to Cologne to start a law practice. In 1891 he published his first Zionist article in the weekly "Die Menorah" (Hamburg). In Cologne he met David Wolffsohn and the two became close friends. Bodenheimer and Wolffsohn participated in various Zionist groups and activities in Cologne and also established a Zionist group named “Zion”. At that time Bodenheimer began correspondence with Theodor Herzl. In 1893 he helped found the Jüdische Humanitätsgesellschaft.

In 1896 he married Rosa Dalberg and had three children: Simon Fritz, a professor of zoology at the Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Henrietta Hannah, who wrote a biography of her father, and Ruth, a lawyer.

When Bodenheimer died, the national institutions flew flags at half staff and a eulogy was delivered by Ussishkin, president of the Jewish National Fund.

Zionist activity
Bodenheimer participated at the 1st Zionist Congress and was elected to be a member of the Inner Actions Committee. In 1898 he visited Palestine as a member of the delegation which accompanied Herzl to meet the German Emperor, Wilhelm II. Bodenheimer took part in the Zionist Congresses, helped to write the constitution of the Zionist movement and the Jewish National Fund (JNF), and was the chairman of the Board of Directors of the JNF in Germany. When the First World War broke out, he moved the JNF offices from Cologne to The Hague.

It seems like he was the author of the conception of the establishment of the League of East European States - a German client state with autonomous Jewish cooperation, later referred also as Judeopolonia.

Like other veterans from the Herzl period, Bodenheimer's status declined after the First World War, and he was not re-elected as a member of the Board of Directors of the JNF. In August 1929, joins the Revisionist party led by Ze'ev Jabotinsky. Bodenheimer attended the 17th Zionist Congress as a representative of the Revisionist party. During the Congress, a sharp controversy arose between the majority and the Revisionist party concerning the "ultimate goal" of Zionism, and the Revisionists left the Congress. This was the last Zionist Congress in which Bodenheimer participated.

In 1935 Bodenheimer immigrated to Palestine and settled in Jerusalem, where he began writing his memoirs. He died in July 1940.

Writings

 * Prelude to Israel. The Memoirs of M. I. Bodenheimer. edited by Henriette Hannah Bodenheimer, New York, London, Thomas Yoseloff, 1963.
 * Bodenheimer, Max I. and Bodenheimer, Henriette Hannah, Die Zionisten und das Kaiserliche Deutschland, Bensbert, Schaeube Verlag, 1972.
 * M.I. Bodenheimer, So wurde Israel: Aus der Geschichte der zionistischen Bewegung: Erinnerungen (herausgegeben von Henriette Hannah Bodenheimer), Frankfurt a.M.: Europäische Verlagsanstalt, 1958.
 * Syrien ein Zufluchtsort der russischen Juden. Hamburg, Verlag des Deutsch-Israelitischen Familienblattes 'Die Menorah', 1891.

title: Max Bodenheimer


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Bunka shishu

Bunka shishu (文化刺繍), in English often shortened to bunka, is a form of Japanese embroidery originating in the early 19th century that became more widespread around the turn of the 20th century, before then being introduced to the US after World War II. Bunka artists use a specialized embroidery needle and rayon threads (originally silk) to create very detailed pictures that some liken to oil paintings. Typical subjects include people, living things (traditionally fish), landscapes and traditional Japanese scenes.

Bunka is considered a form of punch needle technique, and the rayon threads used are woven in a chainette format, which, when opened, gives a boucle texture to the yarn. Unlike other embroidery techniques, however, bunka is worked from the front of the fabric rather than the back.

Unlike some other forms of embroidery, bunka is fragile and is usually presented as artwork rather than as clothing adornment. Bunka has gained in popularity since the advent of numbered kits (similar to paint-by-number), which provide a step-by-step guide to producing artwork.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Bunka shishu


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Slab City, California

Slab City, also called The Slabs, is an unincorporated, off-the-grid alternative lifestyle community consisting largely of snowbirds in the Salton Trough area of the Sonoran Desert, in Imperial County, California. It took its name from concrete slabs that remained after the World War II Marine Corps Camp Dunlap training camp was torn down. Slab City is known for attracting people who want to live outside mainstream society.

History

Prior to the United States' official entry into World War II, the United States Marine Corps planned a training ground for field and anti-aircraft artillery units in an area accessible by aircraft taking off from carriers near San Diego. To create the training base, 631.345 acre were obtained. The government announced that the base was to be named after Marine Corps Brigadier General Robert Henry Dunlap. After construction of Camp Dunlap was completed, it was commissioned on October 15, 1942. The camp had fully functioning buildings, water, roads, and sewage collections. The base was used for three years during the war. By 1949, military operations at Camp Dunlap had been greatly reduced, but a skeleton crew continued on until the base was dismantled. By 1956, all buildings had been dismantled, but the slabs remained.

The area that is now Slab City was the artillery training range for the Camp. It was first settled by a few veterans who had worked at the Marine base, followed later by drifters – then recreational vehicle owners, searching for free camping spots outside Palm Springs. Current residents refer to themselves as Slabbies while tourists are called Normies.

As of October 6, 1961, a quitclaim deed conveying the land to the State of California was issued by the Department of Defense as it was determined the land was no longer required. The deed did not contain any restrictions, recapture clauses, or restoration provisions. All of the former Camp Dunlap buildings had been removed. The remaining slabs were not proposed for removal. Later, legislation required that revenue generated from this property would go to the California State Teachers' Retirement System.

Slab City's popularity surged after an article was printed in Trailer Life and RV Magazine around 1984. A 1988 San Diego Reader reports there were no more than 600–700 RVs around 1983, and one resident estimated there were about 2000 trailers when he was interviewed in March, 1988.

Leonard Knight, an early settler who created the Salvation Mountain art installation, was featured in Sean Penn's Into the Wild, released in 2007. An obituary of Knight stated that he "spent almost 30 years building the colorful mountain ... Built out of adobe and donated paint, Knight worked on the mountain all day, every day. He even slept at the mountain's base in the back of a pick-up truck, with no electricity or running water".

An article in Smithsonian magazine in October 2018 referred to the community as a "Squatters’ Paradise" which locals consider to be "one of America's last free places." The article said of the population: "There are clearly people there who don’t want to be found, so there’s something about disappearing, and the desert offers that kind of opportunity."

Geography
Slab City is located on roughly 640 acre of public land, near the east shore of the Salton Sea. It is 100 mi northeast of San Diego, 169 mi southeast of Los Angeles and about 50 mi from Mexico. To the east of Slab City is Coachella Canal, which is fenced, but the fence gets cut open periodically, especially at Slab City, according to the Coachella Valley Water District.

Climate
The area has a large amount of sunshine year round, due to its stable descending air and high pressure. According to the Köppen climate classification system, Slab City has a hot desert climate, BWh on climate maps.

Demographics
The Washington Post reported in 2020 that population is seasonal, and balloons up to about 4,000 during the winter, by some estimates, and dwindles to about 150 in the summer. Since the 1950s, Slab City has drawn a variety of people, such as anarchists, artists, eccentrics, outcasts, retirees, and the impoverished. A 1990 Chicago Tribune article by a journalist who stayed in the camp for a week estimated that winter residents (at the time) were mostly senior citizens over 60 years old. It is a "popular winter destination for transients." Slab City is used by recreational vehicle owners, travellers, and squatters from across North America, including Canada.

Economy
According to the San Diego Union-Tribune's Fred Dickey in 2012, the most common source of income among the permanent residents is "probably" SSI checks. In 2020, Ranker indicated that Slab City's income mainly comes from tourists and donations. In 1995, almost every resident of Slab City collected disability benefits, social security or unemployment. Another steady source of income at the time was selling salvaged goods to visitors.

Many residents use generators or solar panels to generate electricity. Clean water is dispensed from a tank at the community church. The closest body of civilization with proper law enforcement is approximately 4 mi southwest of Slab City, in Niland, where residents often went for basic shopping as of 1990. Residents were still obtaining essentials from Niland, a town of about 1,000, 30 years later in 2020.

During the 2020 COVID-19 pandemic, most tourist destinations were closed. This had economic ramifications for Slab City, as well as its availability of food and water, which relied in part on tourist donations. Residents are divided on whether to follow or defy government guidelines, complicated by a lack of health infrastructure and insurance. In May 2020, Imperial County had 55 confirmed cases of the coronavirus, out of 417 tests.

Tourism
Slab City has a free lending library, an outdoor music venue called The Range.

The settlement also has an internet cafe, a hostel, and a skatepark built inside what remains of the military base swimming pool.

During the 2020 pandemic, most tourist destinations, including Salvation Mountain, The Range, and Slab City's Library, have been closed.

Salvation Mountain
Located just east of California State Route 111, the entrance to Slab City is easily recognized by the colorful Salvation Mountain, which is a small hill approximately three stories tall and entirely covered in latex paint, concrete and adobe, and festooned with Bible verses. It was a project built over two decades by Slab City resident Leonard Knight. The work is a 50 ft-tall piece of religious folk art, "an unofficial centrepiece for the community and [cementing] the area’s anarchic creative identity," according to a 2020 report.

In 2002, Salvation Mountain was named a Congressional National Folk-Art Treasure.

The current Salvation Mountain is actually the second construction to occupy the site; Knight began the first Salvation Mountain in 1984, using highly unstable construction methods that allowed the mountain to collapse in 1989. Knight was not discouraged; he rebuilt the structure using better materials and engineering, including adobe mixed with straw.

Before his death on February 10, 2014, Knight had been living in a nursing home. He was able to visit Salvation Mountain for the last time in May 2013; the visit was recorded by KPBS (TV).

East Jesus
East Jesus is an experimental and habitable art installation located in the Slab City area. There is no religious connotation in the name East Jesus – it is a colloquialism for a place in the middle of nowhere beyond the edge of serviceability. The off-grid facility operates with no municipal utilities.

In early 2007, Charlie Russell left his job in the technology industry, packed all his belongings into a shipping container, and sent it to a trash-strewn field, where he began to surround his two cars with sculptures. Russell, often called Container Charlie, renamed this settlement site East Jesus. He died in May 2011. The Chasterus Foundation, a 501(c)(3) non-profit formed after his death in 2011, has since guided the curation and expansion of East Jesus.

East Jesus features a variety of experimental art, such as live events, performance art, music, photography, and most prominently sculptures. Works are continually added, and degrade quickly in the desert climate, despite the presence of caretakers. One such volunteer referred to it, and Slab City as a whole, as a ‘salvagepunk’ ethos. East Jesus pieces are described as decaying, or growing, but always in a state of transformation, unlike traditional galleries; due both to the intense climate, and the thousands of contributing artists who have added to the installation. In 2014, live-in staff were giving dozens of free tours, and hosted visiting artists and overnight guests.

The Range
The Range is an open-air nightclub complete with stage, lights, amplifiers, and speakers, with tattered couches and old chairs for seating. Every Saturday night at around dusk, locals and visitors meet for a talent show that features permanent resident musicians and anyone else who wants to get on stage and perform. The venue is run by old-time resident William Ammon, known as "Builder Bill." Ammon's wife, Robin Ammon, collected old prom dresses for people to wear; these are used when the community puts on a prom, because many residents have never been able to actually attend one.

Government
Dirt roads are graded by Imperial County and are regularly patrolled by the Imperial County Sheriff's Office, as well as by Border Patrol agents searching for illegal immigrants; Slab City is about 50 miles from Mexico. Fire service for Slab City is provided by the Niland Fire Department. School buses come from nearby communities to pick up the few children there.

Community
Slab City is divided into a handful of neighborhoods with different characteristics. As of 2020, the community is largely divided into two: East Jesus and Slab City. Thousands of campers and RV owners, many retired, use the site during the winter months. The "snowbirds" stay only for the winter before migrating north in spring, to cooler climates. Despite the high temperatures, there are about 150 permanent residents of Slab City. Some of these "Slabbers" or "Year-Rounders" derive their living from government programs and have been driven to Slab City by poverty or job loss. Others have voluntarily moved, to learn how to live off the grid, or otherwise be isolated. "Builder Bill" Ammon described "a kind of segregation" between the older residents, who would exchange goods and services, and young residents, who are sometimes "ill-equipped" for self-sufficiency, or turn to petty theft and drug use.

As of a January 2020 report, Slab City is composed of "more than a dozen individual neighborhoods ... small camps of people with their own particular rules and culture." Amenities include The Range, a makeshift library, RV rental units, an internet cafe, and establishments which sell food; though most shopping is done at the town of Niland. One resident is reported to have run a weekly self-help group for women in the community. Residents talked about using CB radio as a bulletin board and adopting radio handles when they spoke to the Chicago Tribune in 1990. In 2005, a resident told a Los Angeles Times correspondent for the On The Streets documentary how he can just live however he wants.

During the COVID-19 pandemic, residents were heavily impacted by the loss of tourist income, which also provided food and water. Social distancing was also a difficulty, as many residents work closely to trade and maintain services. The pandemic was complicated by the elderly population, no health infrastructure within Slab City (the nearest hospital is 40 minutes away, in Brawley), a lack of insurance, a lack of running water and sanitation, and anti-governmental or conspiratorial beliefs. Residents raised concerns over a past failure to contain an outbreak of canine parvo. As of April 2020, Imperial County had not provided any specific assistance for vulnerable communities.

Crime
Crystal meth is fairly common and accounts for much of the crime in Slab City. In 2015, the New York Times reported that the usual cause for police response to Slab City is over camping boundary disputes, sometimes burglary, but that methamphetamine use is a recurrent problem. In December 2019, during the two-day Imperial Valley fugitive-seeking effort named Operation Valley Grinch, four fugitives hiding in Slab City were apprehended. The locals also cut the fence to unlawfully use Coachella Canal as a swimming spot.

Future plans
Some reports claim that the land is owned by the State of California, while others from 1993 report that the land was purchased by a building contractor. As of 2021, California had not yet decided to sell the land, but the Lands Commission is considering having the land appraised, and, if needed, allow for cleanup due to military waste from the 1950s.

In 2015, several residents formed the Slab City Community Group in an effort to prevent a sale. The group explored obtaining 450 acre of Slab City in a trust, though this was contentious with other residents. A May 2020 article confirmed that the state was hoping to sell the land. "A sale could potentially go to energy companies ... Many residents worry that a deal could leave them without a community or place to live, as the lawless Slab City has become the last resort for so many."

title: Slab City, California


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Category:HAL Laboratory games

Video games developed by Japanese company HAL Laboratory, a second-party developer for Nintendo.

title: Category:HAL Laboratory games


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Bunka

Bunka (文化) was a Japanese era name (年号) after Kyōwa and before Bunsei. The period spanned the years from January 1804 to April 1818. The reigning emperors were Kōkaku-tennō (光格天皇) and Ninkō-Tennō (仁孝天皇).

Change of era

 * February 11, 1804 (Bunka gannen (文化元年)): The new era name of Bunka ( meaning "Culture" or "Civilization") was created to mark the start of a new 60-year cycle of the Heavenly Stem and Earthly Branch system of the Chinese calendar which was on New Year's Day, the new moon day of 2 November 1804. The previous era ended and a new one commenced in Kyōwa 4.

Events of the Bunka era

 * 1804 (Bunka 1): Daigaku-no-kami Hayashi Jussai (1768–1841) explained the shogunate foreign policy to Emperor Kōkaku in Kyoto.
 * June 1805 (Bunka 2): Genpaku Sugita (1733–1817) is granted an audience with Shōgun Ienari to explain differences between traditional medical knowledge and Western medical knowledge.
 * September 25, 1810 (Bunka 7, 27th day of the 8thmonth): Earthquake in northern Honshū (Latitude: 39.900/Longitude: 139.900), 6.6 magnitude on the Surface wave magnitude scale. ...Click link for NOAA/Japan: Significant Earthquake Database
 * December 7, 1812 (Bunka 9, 4th day of the 11th month): Earthquake in Honshū (Latitude: 35.400/Longitude: 139.600), 6.6 magnitude.
 * 1817 (Bunka 14): Emperor Kōkaku travelled in procession to Sento Imperial Palace, a palace of an abdicated emperor. The Sento Palace at that time was called Sakura Machi Palace. It had been built by the Tokugawa Shogunate for former-Emperor Go-Mizunoo.

title: Bunka


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Ross Barnett Reservoir

The Ross Barnett Reservoir, often called the Rez, is a reservoir of the Pearl River between Madison and Rankin counties in the U.S. state of Mississippi. The 33000 acre lake serves as the state's largest drinking water resource, and is managed by the Pearl River Valley Water Supply District. The lake features 105 mi of shoreline impounded on the south by a 3.5 mi man-made dam and spillway. The western shore is bounded by the historic Natchez Trace Parkway.

History
Construction on the Ross Barnett Reservoir began in 1960 by MWH Engineering (now MWH Global) under the direction of the Pearl River Valley Water Supply District. The main purpose of the infrastructure project was to create a permanent water source to supply drinking water for the Mississippi capital city of Jackson. Flooding of the Jackson section of the Pearl River had been studied by the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers since 1930 and city leaders envisioned commercial and industrial benefits from land reclamation associated with flood control. The Jackson Chamber of Commerce prior to the completion of the reservoir promoted riparian land reclamation with industrial development, a new bypass for U.S. Highway 49 constructed upon a levee, straightening the Pearl River channel and potential navigation. Construction on the lake was completed in 1963, and the water level reached average capacity in 1965. The August 17, 1969 passage of Hurricane Camille over the reservoir caused the surface to tilt and created a one foot level increase at the dam. As part of a national survey the federal government sampled five Mississippi reservoirs in 1973 and determined the Ross Barnett waters to be eutrophic, ranking second among the Mississippi reservoirs in overall trophic quality. In the 1980s two power companies including the local electricity producer, Mississippi Power and Light Company, made applications to the federal government authorities to modify the dam to produce hydropower.

The 1979 Easter flood at Jackson initiated planning to create additional levees below the reservoir and studies of a 68 foot high, dry dam called Shoccoe above the reservoir.

Waterspouts occurred in the reservoir on April 15, 2011, August 19, 2012 and July 23, 2014.

Planning began to provide parks and recreation areas in conjunction with the newly formed lake. Today, the Ross Barnett Reservoir serves as a significant water source, a major recreational area, and a catalyst for residential and economic development. There are 4,600 homes along the reservoir in Madison and Rankin counties.

Name controversy
The reservoir is named for Ross R. Barnett, the 53rd governor of Mississippi, who was known nationwide for his vigorous support for segregation. This has led to multiple petitions  and other calls for the name to be changed.

Management
The Ross Barnett Reservoir is managed by the Pearl River Valley Water Supply District (PRVWSD), an agency of the State of Mississippi. In addition to recreation, the reservoir serves as the primary source of drinking water for the City of Jackson's O. B. Curtis Water Treatment Plant. Water released into the Pearl River is monitored and controlled from an electrical/mechanical spillway and gate system that is part of a man-made earthen dam comprising most of the lake's southern shore. The maximum output of the 10-gate spillway is 170,000 cuft/s. The guaranteed minimum flow was not included in the statute creating the reservoir, but the 173 cuft/s flow was included in the operational permit. The final design of the reservoir could not be purposed as a flood control project. The target elevation for the lake is 297.5 ft above sea level in the summer; 297.0 ft in the winter. The average depth is 11 feet, water clarity is 2 feet with occasions of 8 feet, and the water color is stained. The lowest pool level in the last eight years was 294 feet MLS according to a 1996 boating map, but the lowest pool was 293.68 feet according to federal data for 2000. Drought conditions occurred in 2007 prompting local concerns. Seismic tests were performed 80 feet below the surface of the reservoir in the fall of 2012 by an energy company.

Recreation
Each year over two million people visit the Ross Barnett Reservoir for outdoor recreation: types include boating, fishing, water-skiing, and camping. There are five campgrounds, 16 parks, 22 boat launches, three handicapped-accessible trails, two multi-purpose trails, and a mountain bike trail which meanders near Mule Jail Lake. Two state records come from the reservoir: Smallmouth buffalo (57 lbs 12 oz) and Bowfin (18 lbs 14 oz). In 1974, a state record Paddlefish of 65 lbs was caught at the spillway. In 1978 the Bassmaster Classic World Championship was held at the reservoir. In late March 2019 fishermen reported abundant and large Black crappie when normally White crappie are the main catch.

title: Ross Barnett Reservoir


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Yarralumla, Australian Capital Territory

Yarralumla is a large inner south suburb of Canberra, the capital city of Australia. Located approximately 3.5 km south-west of the city, Yarralumla extends along the south-west bank of Lake Burley Griffin from Scrivener Dam to Commonwealth Avenue.

In 1828, Henry Donnison, a Sydney merchant, was granted a lease on the western side of West Ridge part of which is now Western Park. In 1832 he named his property Yarralumla adopted from the name for an area some 35km to the west surrounding the Goodradigbee River. It is thought the area, spelt 'Yarrowlumla', was so named by local Aboriginal people, translated to English as "echo mountain". In 1881, the estate was bought by Frederick Campbell, grandson of Robert Campbell who had built a house at nearby Duntroon. Frederick completed the construction of a large, gabled, brick house on his property in 1891 that now serves as the site of Government House, the official residence of the Governor-General of Australia. Campbell's house replaced an elegant, Georgian-style homestead, the main portions of which were erected from local stone in the 1830s. Among the old Yarralumla homestead's most notable occupants were Sir Terence Aubrey Murray, who owned Yarralumla sheep station from 1837 to 1859, Augustus Onslow Manby Gibbes, who owned the property from 1859 to 1881, and Augustus' father Colonel John George Nathaniel Gibbes (1787–1873).

The modern suburb of Yarralumla was gazetted by the government in 1928 and was home to approximately 3,120 people and many diplomatic missions. Notable locations include Lennox Gardens, the Albert Hall and the Hotel Canberra. Parliament House and The Lodge lie just outside its boundary.

Geography
Yarralumla is located in the central Canberra district of South Canberra in the Australian Capital Territory, a federal territory. It is bordered by Lake Burley Griffin to the north, Commonwealth Avenue and Capital Hill to the east, Adelaide Avenue and the Cotter Road to the south, and Scrivener Dam, Lady Denman Drive and part of the Molonglo River to the west. Its southeast corner abuts Capital Hill, the location of Parliament House. The Lodge lies across Adelaide Avenue near its eastern end.

The streets in Yarralumla are named after Australian governors and botanists. Most of the older streets in the suburb are laid out on an approximately rectangular grid with some curved sections, while the more hilly eastern end of the suburb, including the embassy district, is set out with contour-guided roads. Major roads in Yarralumla include Banks Street, Novar Street and Hopetoun Circuit in a north–south direction and Schlich Street, Loftus Street and Weston Street running east–west. Being a dormitory suburb, there are no major through roads. Access to the rest of the city can be made from Adelaide Avenue, Commonwealth Avenue, Lady Denman Drive and Cotter Road, all of which run along the borders of the suburb. From these roads, entry to the suburb can be gained by turning into roads such as Coronation Drive, Hopetoun Circuit and Novar Street. Yarralumla has wide, tree-lined streets, most of which have been planted with exotic trees such as atlas cedars and cherry plums on Banks Street, claret ashes on Loch Street, pin oaks on Schlich Street and English oaks and hawthorns on Weston Street, along with the indigenous white brittle gums on Empire Circuit and river oaks on Solander Place.

Much of the area of Yarralumla consists of open space or non-residential development, including Weston and Stirling Parks, the Royal Canberra Golf Club, and the grounds of Government House. Many houses are occupied by diplomatic missions. The embassy area of Yarralumla is located towards the eastern end of the suburb next to Stirling Park. It is the hilliest area of Yarralumla. The Parliamentary Triangle is located to its east.

The residential areas of Yarralumla are located in the central and western areas of the suburb. The Yarralumla shops at the corner of Novar and Bentham Streets are in the centre of the western residential area, which has typically flat terrain and streets laid out in a rectangular grid, typically lined by exotic trees. This area has a blend of original weatherboard, monocrete and brick dwellings as well as some recently rebuilt detached houses, dual occupancies and units. Minimbah Court at the corner of Banks and Schlicht Streets is an example of Canberra’s earlier medium-density unit buildings. It was constructed in the 1950s and originally named Solander Court in line with nearby streets named after First Fleet botanists. There is an elongated reserve with a walking and bicycle path running in a southwards direction of the Yarralumla Oval, and to the east of this is the central area of the suburb, where the blocks are larger and the streets are more contoured due to the hilly terrain. There is a mixture of housing types in this region, with some larger two-storey houses, and more expansive gardens. The streets in this part of the suburb are typically lined with native trees.

Yarralumla is located on the Yarralumla Formation which is a mudstone/siltstone formation that was formed around 425 million years ago during the Silurian Period. The formation extends from Red Hill and Woden in the South to Lake Burley Griffin in to the north, passing under the suburb of Yarralumla. The formation is evidence of the last major marine sedimentary period when eastern Australia was still covered by shallow seas. It shows fossil evidence of trilobites, coral and primitive crinoids. The Yarralumla brickworks quarry and the Deakin anticline are places where the formation is exposed and easily studied.

European settlement
Like the rest of Canberra, Yarralumla forms part of the traditional lands of the Nymuddy people. The area now called Yarralumla is part of two original land grants made to free settlers for the establishment of farms. In 1828 Henry Donnison, a Sydney merchant who had arrived on the brig Ellen with his wife and family on 29–30 July 1828, was granted an allotment on the western side of West Ridge. He gave it the name Yarralumla which was taken from the Aboriginal name for a steep-sided valley of the Murrumbidgee River near Mount Stromlo. Sometimes spelled Yarrowlumla, the name 'Yarralumla' was first used on a map by the surveyor Robert Dixon in 1829. Donnison's land was named Yarralumla in a survey of the area conducted in 1834, and was a name used by the local people for the Mount Stromlo ridge, which lies to the west of the current suburb, and is said to mean "echo mountain". An area to the west of what is now the suburb was the Yarrolumla parish. A second grant was made to William Klensendorlffe (a German who had served in the British Navy and arrived free in the Colony in 1818), who bought the land from John Stephen on 7 March 1839.

The prominent New South Wales parliamentarian Sir Terence Aubrey Murray (1810–1873) purchased Yarralumla in 1837. He lived there with his wife Mary (née Gibbes, 1817–1858), the second daughter of the Collector of Customs for New South Wales, Colonel John George Nathaniel Gibbes (1787–1873), MLC. Murray settled Yarralumla and part of Winderradeen (near Collector) on his wife in trust so that they would have some property if he became bankrupt. On his wife's death in 1858 Yarralumla passed in trust to her father and her brother Augustus Onslow Manby Gibbes (1828–1897). In May 1859, Augustus' parents came to live with him at Yarralumla homestead.

Augustus Gibbes improved the estate and acquired additional land by purchase and lease. In 1881, he sold Yarralumla for 40,000 pounds to Frederick Campbell, a descendant of Robert Campbell, to travel overseas. Frederick Campbell erected a new, three-storey, brick house on the site of the former Yarralumla homestead at the beginning of the 1890s. Campbell's house would later form the basis of what is now the Governor-General of Australia's official Canberra residence, known colloquially as "Yarralumla" or "Government House". Campbell also built the large wooden Yarralumla Woolshed nearby in 1904.

In 1908, the Limestone Plains area, including Yarralumla, was selected as the site for the capital city of the newly established Commonwealth of Australia and in 1913 the Commonwealth Government purchased the property. Tenant farmers were allowed to stay on the land on annual leases, some remaining until 1963 when the Molonglo River was dammed to form Lake Burley Griffin.

Development
With the construction of Australia's capital city underway, the Yarralumla brickworks were established in 1913 to supply building material. The bricks were used for many of Canberra's buildings, including the provisional Parliament House. The Brickworks tramway, a 3 ft 6 in (1,067 mm) goods railway, was constructed for the transportation of bricks to some of the major building sites in central Canberra. This linked the brickworks to places such as Parliament House, and the Kingston Power House.

Construction on the Commonwealth nursery and Westbourne Woods arboretum was started in 1914, and a temporary camp was built near the brickworks to accommodate the workers. Thomas Charles Weston was Officer-in-Charge (Afforestation Branch) in the years 1913 to 1926, and later became Director of City Planting and the Superintendent of Parks and Gardens. Weston was responsible for testing and selecting plant species at the arboretum for their suitability to Canberra's environment; from 1913 through to 1924 Weston oversaw the propagation of more than two million trees which were then planted in the Canberra area. Most of the original Westbourne Woods arboretum is now leased to the Royal Canberra Golf Club, with the remainder forming part of Weston Park. The Yarralumla nursery is still active, albeit on a smaller scale and functioning as a retail nursery selling both wholesale and direct to the public.

In 1917, the designer of Canberra, Walter Burley Griffin, named the area surrounding the brickworks "Westridge". It was part of the original Griffin plan, and the objective was to provide a 'horticultural suburb' and a 'society suburb'. In Griffin's 1918 document Canberra: Plan of City and Environs, the suburb is shown as an isosceles triangle with two equal length roads leading from Capital Hill to Yarralumla Bay and Clianthus Centre respectively. The latter road is now to location of the arterial Adelaide Avenue, and Yarralumla Bay and Clianthus Centre was to be joined along a north-south axis by Novar Avenue (originally to be named Mountain Way), extending all the way to the future lake bearing Griffin's name. Griffin's vision was for Westridge to become a business centre with an urban waterfront and promenade, complemented by the bush surroundings. Griffin's design was based on a strict hierarchy with core services such as housing, communal space and facilities such health and education, and commercial space. These would be connected outward by boulevards linking to transport routes and trams. By 1928, there were over 130 people on the electoral roll for Westridge. The majority of the population consisted of men working at the brickworks and nursery. The suburb was gazetted as Yarralumla on 20 September 1928.

In 1922, a workers' tent camp was erected on the eastern side of Stirling Ridge to house the men working on the main intercepting sewer. The following year saw the start of the construction of 62 small, four-room, unlined timber cottages, to be used as housing for the married tradesmen involved in the construction of the provisional Parliament House. Other camps were established at the eastern end of Stirling Park on the hills opposite modern Lotus Bay. The first of these was contractor John Howie's settlement (1922–1930), consisting of 25 timber cottages for his married men and timber barracks (Hostel Camp) for his single men. Two other single men's tent camps were established nearby—Old Tradesmen's Camp (1923–1927) and No 1 Labourers Camp (1924–1927). The men from Howie's worked on the Hotel Canberra and the others on the construction of the provisional Parliament House and nearby administrative buildings. The Stirling Park camps were known as Westlake to their new inhabitants, and previously "Gura Bung Dhaura" (stony ground) to the local Aboriginal people. In 1925, the population of this temporary suburb was 700. This represented roughly one-fifth of the total population of the Federal Capital Territory at the time. In 1956, the Department of Interior decided to clear the settlement so that embassies could be built. In 1960, the member of parliament for the ACT, Jim Fraser, described Westlake as one of two "hidden valleys of disgrace, which are never shown to tourists and are seen by visitors only by chance".

The Commonwealth and the states agreed in 1911 that Australia needed adequately-trained foresters, although they did not agree to establish a forestry school until 1920. Prime minister Stanley Bruce promised to fund it during the 1925 election campaign and construction of the Commonwealth Forestry School commenced in 1926 at Westridge near the brickworks and Westbourne Woods. The now heritage-listed Forestry School and the associated principal's residence Westridge House are located on Banks Street, Yarralumla. The school was initially established in March 1926 at the University of Adelaide under the leadership of Charles Lane Poole. After the move to Canberra Lane-Poole acted as principal until 1944. Its permanent building in Yarralumla was designed by Federal Capital Commission architects J.H. Kirkpatrick, and H.M. Rolland. It is built in the Inter-War Stripped Classical style as a single storey rendered brick building with a parapet and a hipped tiled roof. Various Australian woods, including Queensland maple and walnut (Cryptocarya palmerstonii), red cedar, red mahogany, hoop pine and mountain ash, were used throughout the building. It opened in April 1927 and it was completed in June. Due to financial stringency during the Great Depression and other priorities during the Second World War, it had few students in its first years. The Forestry School was absorbed by the Australian National University in 1965 and forestry courses are now carried out at its main campus in Acton. The Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation (CSIRO) Forestry and Forestry Products subsumed the school in 1975. Westridge House, an impressive Tudor-style structure, was completed in January 1928. It underwent a A$500,000 refurbishment and was later used as a residence for the chief officer of the CSIRO. The former Forestry School and Westridge House are now leased out by the CSIRO.

After World War II

The current geographical boundary of Yarralumla was finalised in the early 1960s with the construction of Scrivener Dam, over which Lady Denman Drive passes, allowing for the Molonglo River to be dammed, creating Lake Burley Griffin. Construction began in September 1960 and the dam was locked on 20 September 1963. The lake reached the planned level on 29 April 1964. On 17 October 1964, Prime Minister Sir Robert Menzies commemorated the filling of the lake. Yarralumla was expanded to include Westlake, which had up until then been part of Acton.

After the Second World War, the suburb began to expand rapidly with the construction of many private homes. Yarralumla's image as a lower-class suburb would persist into the 1960s and 1970s. This general perception began to alter once Lake Burley Griffin had been created and its surrounds landscaped into parklands; the area soon gained a reputation for its attractive lakeside location. During the 1980s, house prices began to rise coincident with a rejuvenation of the suburb. Many of the original government-built monocrete, brick, and weatherboard houses have been demolished and replaced by larger dwellings of a variety of more modern styles and materials, although this process was more advanced in the central part of the suburb than in its east in 2004.

Demographics
The population of the Westridge area on the 1928 electoral roll numbered over 130. At the, Yarralumla had a population of 3,120 people. Of these 47.9% were male. The suburb had only 0.9% indigenous Australians, below the national average of 3.2%. The percentage of married people in the suburb was 12 points higher than the national average, and the proportion of residents who had never married was 10 points lower. The higher level of marriage did not translate into a higher level of children; 49.6% of families consisted of a couple without children in the household, compared to the national average of 38.8%. Yarralumla residents had a median age of 50, compared to a Canberra average of 35. The suburb had an older population for a city of young people; the median national age is 38 and 43.5% of Yarralumla residents were 55 or over, compared to the national figure of 29.1%.

Yarralumla is a comparatively wealthy suburb with a 2021 median weekly personal income of $1,591; this compares to the figure of $1,203 for the entire Australian Capital Territory (ACT) and $805 for all of Australia. The public service or defence force employed around 20.8% of the workforce, somewhat less than the ACT average of 22.9%. This compared to 1.8% for Australia as a whole. The higher incomes were derived from the suburb's white-collar base; 68.0% of Yarralumla's workforce was employed as professionals or in managerial posts, compared to 37.7% nationally. In contrast, only 2.9% were engaged in blue-collar occupations, compared with 15.3% for the nation as a whole. The proportion of the population working as tradesmen and technicians was almost four times lower than average across Australia. The proportion of people with a university degree, 57.0%, is higher than the ACT and national averages of 42.9% and 26.3% respectively.

The median monthly housing loan repayments in Yarralumla in 2021 were $3,425, compared to the ACT figure of $2,080 and a federal average of $1,863. At $547, the weekly rent was more than 40% higher than the national average. Yarralumla's median house price was about $1.5m in 2020 versus $1.2m for the inner south and $720,000 for the whole of the ACT. The rate of home ownership in the suburb was 47.8%—much higher than the national average of 31.0%. 23.0% of the households rented. Accommodation was mostly separate houses (65.1%), although the number of residences in the suburb has been increasing through conversion of blocks to dual occupancy and other medium-density-type developments. Despite this, only 7.5% of residences were apartments or units, slightly more than half of the national average.

The population of Yarralumla in 2021 was predominantly Australian-born, with some 67.8% of its residents being born in Australia. The second most prevalent birthplace was England at 5.1%, followed by India and the United States with 2.2% and 2.1% respectively. The suburb was more oriented towards the Anglo-Celtic majority than the rest of Australia; English was spoken at home by 79.3% of the population, compared to the national average of 72.0%. Every other language was spoken by less than 3% of the population. Mandarin, Italian, Hindi, Spanish and Vietnamese were all spoken by at least 0.8% of the population. The most popular religious affiliations in descending order were no religion, Roman Catholic, Anglican and Hindu. The proportion of the population professing to having no religion was 42.5%, higher than the national average of 38.4%, but below the ACT average of 43.5%.

Suburb amenities
The Yarralumla local shopping centre is located on the corner of Bentham and Novar Streets. It contains a supermarket, dry-cleaners, chemist, gift shop, restaurants and speciality shops.

Weston Park is situated on a peninsula near the western end of Lake Burley Griffin. The park includes swimming areas, children's play equipment and wading pools, and a miniature railway, and is a popular barbecue spot on weekends. Weston Park forms part of a string of parks that line the southern shore of Lake Burley Griffin; other parks include Yarralumla Bay, Lennox Gardens (incorporating a Japanese garden named Canberra Nara Park) and Stirling Park. With its waterfront location on Lake Burley Griffin, Yarralumla Bay is the base of the Canberra Rowing Club, ANU Sailing Club, the Australian Institute of Sport Rowing Centre and the YMCA Sailing Club, while the Southern Cross Yacht Club is based at Lotus Bay opposite Lennox Gardens. Yarralumla Neighbourhood Oval is adjacent to the suburb's primary school as well as a community hall and some tennis courts.

Yarralumla's only scheduled public transport is provided by ACTION buses. Route 57 from Woden Interchange to City Interchange operates along Novar Street, Schlich Street and Hopetoun Circuit. The business case for the proposed second stage of the Capital Metro light rail system that was released in 2019 included stops at Albert Hall on Commonwealth Avenue on the eastern edge of Yarralumla and at the intersections of Adelaide Avenue with Hopetoun Circuit and with Novar and Kent streets on the southern edge.

Yarralumla is home to three places of worship: St Peter Chanel's on the corner of Weston and Loch Streets, Yarralumla Uniting Church on Denman Street, and the Canberra Mosque on Empire Circuit.

Education
Yarralumla's first school, the Catholic St Peter Chanel's Primary School, opened in 1956; it closed in the 1990s. Yarralumla Primary School, a public school, opened in 1957. The Montessori preschool on Loftus Street is a preschool and Little Lodge on Macgillivray Street is a day care facility. There are no secondary schools in Yarralumla. The zoned government high school (Years 7–10) is Alfred Deakin High School in the adjoining suburb of Deakin to the south and the zoned senior secondary college (Years 11–12) is Narrabundah College, several kilometres to the southeast. Nearby private schools are Canberra Girls Grammar School and Canberra Grammar School in Deakin and Red Hill respectively.

The Canberra Japanese Supplementary School Inc., a Japanese weekend educational programme established in 1988, has its school office in the Japanese Embassy Consular Section in Yarralumla, and holds classes at Alfred Deakin High School.

Politics
Yarralumla is located within the federal electorate of Canberra, which has been represented by Alicia Payne of the Labor Party in the House of Representatives since the 2019 election. In the ACT Legislative Assembly, Yarralumla is part of the electorate of Murrumbidgee, which elects five members on the basis of proportional representation; as of 2020, the members are two Labor, two Liberal and one Greens. Polling place statistics are shown to the right for the Yarralumla polling place at Yarralumla Primary School at the 2022 federal election and 2020 ACT elections. Only 655 votes were cast at the Yarralumla polling place in 2020 due to early voting at centralised polling places to avoid crowding in response to the COVID-19 pandemic.

Notable places
Yarralumla has a large number of landmarks and places of historical interest. The Governor-General's residence Government House, which shares the name Yarralumla, is located at the western end of the suburb in 53 ha of parkland. It sits alongside Lake Burley Griffin, next to the Royal Canberra Golf Club and Scrivener Dam. The house was built in 1891 as the headquarters for the Yarralumla property. Also located alongside Scrivener Dam is the National Zoo & Aquarium. The nearby Yarralumla woolshed is available for event hire, often playing host to parties and bush dances. The land surrounding the woolshed has been developed as an equestrian park, including areas for showjumping, eventing and endurance riding.

The Yarralumla brickworks were the first industrial manufacturing facility in the ACT; they were closed temporarily several times due to the Great Depression and both World Wars. Proposals to modernise the brickworks were rejected by the National Capital Development Commission in the early 1970s and they closed permanently in 1976; the site is closed to the public and is in a state of disrepair. The unfenced parkland around the brickworks is a popular recreation area for Yarralumla residents. As of 2020, residential development is proposed for the site, which is 42 ha, to initially include 1,800 new dwellings, although the project has been scaled down.

The eastern end of Yarralumla is home to many of the diplomatic missions in Canberra, many of which are built in a traditional style reflecting that of their respective home countries. Examples of regionally styled chanceries include the embassies of Saudi Arabia and Thailand, and the High Commissions of India and Papua New Guinea. The United States embassy was the first embassy built in Canberra, with the foundation stone laid on the Fourth of July, 1942. The embassy compound was built in a "typically American" Georgian style, using Australian materials, and was inspired by several buildings designed by Christopher Wren for Virginia at the beginning of the 18th century. The French embassy includes the French-Australian War Memorial opened in 1961, which has a sculpture by André Bizette-Lindet called Winged Victory. Canberra tourist drives take tourists on a car-based tour past many of Canberra's embassies including those located in Yarralumla, zig-zagging through the eastern side of Yarralumla past many of the missions.

The Lennox Gardens, Yarralumla Yacht Club, Albert Hall and the Hotel Canberra are located in the eastern end of the suburb. Located on Commonwealth Avenue, the Hotel Canberra opened in 1924 to accommodate politicians when Parliament was in session; Prime Minister James Scullin stayed there to avoid the running costs of the official residence, The Lodge during the Great Depression. It has been heritage listed as an example of the distinctive Garden-Pavilion style of architect John Smith Murdoch in line with the garden city design of Burley Griffin. The hotel was closed in 1974 and the buildings served as an annexe for Parliament House between 1976 and 1984. The Hyatt Hotel Group re-opened the hotel in 1987. Adjacent to the Canberra Hotel is the Canberra Croquet Club. The only croquet club in Canberra, it was opened in 1928 and was restricted to females until 1975. As with the hotel, the clubhouse was built in federation-style architecture and has been heritage-listed along with the croquet lawns. Immediately to the north of Canberra Hotel on Commonwealth Avenue is Albert Hall, built in 1927, which was in the early years of Canberra, one of the main centres of social, musical, theatrical, ceremonial and artistic activity in the capital. It was opened by Prime Minister Stanley Bruce and the subject of royal visits. Although its functionality has been superseded by more specialised entertainment and cultural institutions built in modern times, it is still frequently used for community events. It has been heritage listed for its social and historical value, and as an example of early Canberra architecture.


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Craftsman (tools)

Craftsman is a line of tools, lawn and garden equipment, and work wear. Originally a house brand established by Sears, the brand is now owned by Stanley Black & Decker.

As with all Sears products, Craftsman tools were not manufactured by Sears during that company's ownership, but made under contract by various other companies. While Sears did not directly manufacture tools and equipment in most cases, they did have ownership in some of their suppliers. An example of this was the joint venture that they established with Western Forge in 1965 and their partial ownership of Roper for a number of years. Both companies supplied products to Sears for many years. They were first sold in 1927 through the Sears catalog and in Sears retail stores. After the Sears–Kmart merger, the tools were also for sale in Kmart stores and through several other retailers.

In March 2017, Stanley Black & Decker acquired the Craftsman brand from Sears Holdings, which retained a limited license for Craftsman products.

History

The Craftsman trademark was registered by Sears on May 20, 1927. Arthur Barrows, head of the company's hardware department, liked the name Craftsman and reportedly bought the rights to use it from the Marion-Craftsman Tool Company for $500. The brand's early customers were mostly farmers. Barrows' successor, Tom Dunlap, upgraded the quality of the tools and added chrome plating to them as America moved into the automobile age.

Sears's tool line, like many of its other product lines, used a "good, better, best" pricing structure, with the Craftsman brand as the middle tier and Craftsman Professional or Craftsman Industrial as the highest tier. Craftsman Professional and Craftsman Industrial are marketed as being comparable to brands like Cornwell Quality Tools, SK, Snap on, Proto, Mac, and Matco. The standard Craftsman line is marketed as being comparable in quality to other mid-price brands including UltraPro (NAPA), Westward, Husky, and Kobalt.

The lowest tier was originally branded "Sears". The company also used the "Dunlap" name for its lesser quality tools from the late 1930s until the late 1950s. The Sears tool line was discontinued in the late 1980s and replaced by the "Companion" tool line. The Companion tool line was itself discontinued and replaced by the "Evolv" tool line in 2008 designed by Ellen Tave Glassman, VP Hardines Design Craftsman, with a focus on homeowners and DIYers. Evolv tools also have a lifetime warranty but require that the customer have the original dated receipt to make a claim.

From 1991 until its demise, Sears ran the Craftsman Club customer loyalty program, one of the oldest such programs by a retailer.

Craftsman tools are sold in Sears and sister store Kmart, as well as US military Army and Air Force Exchange Service stores, Navy Exchange stores, Summit Racing Equipment, Blain's Farm & Fleet, Menards, W. W. Grainger, Ace Hardware, Montgomery Ward, Lowe's, and Amazon.

On January 5, 2017, Stanley Black & Decker announced its intent to acquire the Craftsman brand in a deal with a total value of $900 million (with an up-front payment of $525 million, and a payment of $250 million after three years). Sears will hold a royalty-free license to the Craftsman brand for a 15-year period after the completion of the sale, and will receive a royalty on all new Craftsman sales over this period. Afterwards, Sears will pay Stanley Black & Decker a 3% licensing fee. The deal was closed on March 9, 2017. Sears maintains the right to manufacture and sell tools using existing supply channels under the Craftsman name for 15 years.

Lowe's announced in October 2017 that it would start carrying Craftsman tools beginning in the late half of 2018.

Sourcing
Sears has never manufactured Craftsman products itself, instead relying on other manufacturers to make the products for them following Sears designs and specifications, and then applying the Craftsman brand name. Sometimes, the Craftsman branded items include exclusive features or functions that separate them from the manufacturer's own brand or other brands that the manufacturer produces. At other times, Craftsman products are identical to models of other brands with a different name on them.

The hardline mechanic's tools (such as socket wrenches) that make up the core of the brand have been made by a variety of manufacturers over the years, including New Britain, Moore Drop Forging, Stanley, Easco Hand Tools, Danaher Corporation, and most recently Apex Tool Group. Screwdrivers have been manufactured by Pratt-Read and Western Forge, but until around 2017-2018 were supplied mostly by the latter company, which also had supplied pliers and adjustable wrenches. , Western Forge no longer supplies Craftsman tools.

Beginning in 2010, hand tools manufactured for Craftsman by Apex Tool Group (formerly known as Danaher) such as ratchets, sockets, and wrenches began to be sourced overseas (mainly in China, although some are produced in Taiwan), while tools produced for Craftsman by Western Forge such as adjustable wrenches, screwdrivers, pliers and larger mechanic tool sets were still made in the United States, although, most if not all of the production for these products has moved to Asia. Sears still has an "Industrial" line which is sold through various authorized distributors. These tools are US-made, appearing identical to their previous non-industrial US-made counterparts, save for the "Industrial" name stamped on them. They are manufactured by Apex on the US production lines that previously produced the US-made standard Craftsman product before production switched overseas to Asia.

Shortly after Stanley acquired the Craftsman brand, Stanley announced the construction of a factory in northern Fort Worth, Texas to bring Craftsman tool manufacturing back to the US. This arrangement was short-lived, however, as the plant produced some ratchets and sockets, but due to equipment problems, could not produce the needed volume that was originally expected. The plant closed shortly thereafter.

Many Craftsman portable power tools have been manufactured by Techtronic Industries who acquired the prior supplier - Diehl Motor Company (a one time division of Singer) and Ryobi. Sears hand power tools have also been produced by DeWalt under the "900" model prefix. Some, such as the corded and cordless drills, were indistinguishable, other than the color and decal labels. Many Craftsman bench and stationary power tools were manufactured by Emerson Electric Company under the "113" model prefix (previously under the "103" model prefix which was King-Seeley, but Emerson bought them out in the 1960s) and DeWalt. Air compressors were manufactured by DeVilbiss Air Power (formerly part of Dewalt. DeVilbiss is now owned by MAT Holdings who made compressors for Sears under the "921" model prefix), and formerly by Campbell Hausfeld under the "106" model prefix.

Tool storage has typically been manufactured by Waterloo Industries ("706" model prefix), however as of 2017, they were acquired by Stanley, Black and Decker, and, Waterloo no longer manufactures tool storage for the Sears line of Craftsman. It is now supplied under the "714" model prefix by Montezuma Tool Storage, but the Craftsman tool storage sold in Lowes is still Waterloo made. The Craftsman-branded garage door openers are manufactured by The Chamberlain Group ("139" model prefix). Hammers have been produced by Vaughan-Bushnell (coded "M" on the tool). Many of the automotive specialty tools such as feeler gauges and gap gauges have been made by A&E Tool Company of Racine, Wisconsin (these tools will have an "S" logo in a circle). Ullman Devices of Ridgefield, Connecticut makes many of the magnetic pick up tools, picks, and inspection mirrors for Sears.

Some tools have codes on them that correspond to the manufacturer that produced the product for Sears (see Alloy Artifacts website reference below). For example, on hand tools, codes on them will indicate who made them for Sears. For example, Western Forge sourced tools will have a "WF" stamped on the tool. Tools produced by Moore Drop Forge/Easco (1968 and after) will have a "V" on them, later tools by Easco will have "VV" or "G", tools from Pratt-Reed will have "PR" on them, Stanley/National Hand Tool will have an "E" or "EE", and later Danaher made tools (US-made) will have a "VV" (carried over from Easco in 1990) or a "VɅ" (inverted second "V"), upside down "G", GK, G1, G2, and G2D. Pliers have been sourced by a few vendors including the aforementioned Western Forge "WF" tools and Wilde Industries which have a "P" on the tool. Some sockets (notably the 3/4-inch drive US-made units) were made by S-K (coded "X" on the tool). Many major Sears Craftsman items as noted above also have a vendor prefix, which is typically the first three digits before the period or dash in the model number. These first three digits correspond to the vendor code, or the actual manufacturer contracted to make the product for Sears.

Consumers may find different versions of Craftsman products at the different outlets that sell them, because after the sale of the Craftsman brand to SBD, the entities are free to source Craftsman from the suppliers of their own choosing. For example, a Craftsman screwdriver sold at Sears is currently typically sourced from a vendor in China, an equivalent model at Lowe's is sourced from a supplier in Taiwan, and one sold at Ace may still be the original Western Forge US-made product that was sold by Sears for many years prior to the sale of Craftsman to SBD.

Sears has sold outdoor equipment under the Craftsman name for many years. Sears had several suppliers of this equipment such as Roper, David Bradley, Lawn-Boy, American Yard Products, and Electrolux.

Quality and reputation
In 2007, a Harris Interactive poll gave Craftsman the highest score for both "Brand Expectations" and "Trust". In 2009, the readers of Popular Mechanics named Craftsman their favorite brand of hand tools in their Reader's Choice Awards.

Sponsorships
Under Sears ownership, Craftsman was the first title sponsor of the NASCAR Truck Series from 1996 to 2008, which was branded as the NASCAR Craftsman Truck Series. In 2022, Stanley Black & Decker acquired the sponsorship rights beginning in the 2023 season, replacing Camping World. Owing to its present ownership of the brand, it was announced that Craftsman would return as the title sponsor of the series.

Warranty
Most Craftsman hand tools are advertised as having an unlimited lifetime warranty. This lifetime warranty program was instituted by Sears when they began selling the Craftsman line in 1927. This warranty program requires no receipt or dated proof of purchase. If the owner takes the item into a local retail store, it may be replaced or repaired free of charge.

The full text of the warranty is as follows:

Sears has reduced the warranty in effect on many Craftsman non-powered lawn and garden products including rakes, shovels, clippers, brooms, trowels, pruners, hoses, sprinklers, hose nozzles, and other small gardening hand tools. Previously it was a lifetime warranty which on August 2, 2012, was reduced to 25 years with receipt required. The lifetime warranty does not include precision hand tools, such as calipers and torque wrenches.

Many consumers have also been reporting problems when attempting to obtain warranty repair or replacement on tools that are covered by the full lifetime warranty. Sears' official position is that the warranty should be honored, and much of the problem may lie with individual sales associates. In some cases Sears no longer sells particular Craftsman tools (tape measures, and wood clamps are two examples), making it impossible to replace a tool sold with a lifetime warranty with a similar Craftsman tool that will continue the warranty.

Some Sears stores limit the number of hand tools that can be exchanged per day, in an effort to reduce the abuse of the lifetime warranty. Stanley Black & Decker has stated that all previous warranties on Craftsman products will be honored after the purchase of Craftsman in 2017. Some of the newer packaging ( onward) on some Craftsman products does indicate that there may be a limit on returning warranty tools. , the "non-Sears" Craftsman does not have "open stock" in the stores as Sears does to replace individual items from a set that may require warranty. Stanley Black and Decker has indicated that they are working on introducing more individual tools to stores.

Power tools have a one-year warranty.

Customers are able to exchange any version of the Sears Craftsman product at the stores that sell Sears Craftsman products such as Sears, Kmart, Ace, etc. Stores such as Lowes that sell Stanley Black & Decker Craftsman products will exchange replacement items at Stanley Craftsman supplied stores if they have the item. Lowes Corp stated, "We will honor all lifetime warranties no matter where the Craftsman hand tool was purchased. ".

Legal disputes
In 1963, Sears employee Peter M. Roberts developed a quick release feature for socket wrenches. The feature allowed a person using such a ratchet to remove the socket from the wrench with one hand, freeing the second hand from grabbing the socket while the other hand held the ratchet.

Roberts developed a prototype and applied for a patent in 1964. While the patent was pending he approached Sears and introduced the idea to them. Sears, which sold millions of sockets every year, saw the potential in the invention and asked for the prototype so it could be tested. After testing revealed the quick release would not weaken the ratchet, Sears began market testing the new ratchet and received favorable feedback. Sears then incorporated the quick release into a new line of ratchets, projecting sales of up to 750,000 units in the first year alone.

In January 1965, Roberts received a phone call from a Sears attorney asking for the name of Roberts' patent lawyer. Without Roberts's knowledge, Sears hired the patent lawyer, Charles Fay, and Fay ended up representing both Roberts and Sears regarding the patent. Around this time, Roberts's patent was approved, but Fay did not reveal this to Roberts. Negotiations for use of the quick release commenced, with Roberts being told that the quick release wasn't new and that any patent issued would be limited. Sears's lawyers also said that because of the cost (44 cents per wrench) of adding the quick release to the wrenches, a license was worth only $10,000. What Sears didn't tell Roberts was that it planned to make 50,000 of the new wrenches per week. Roberts sued Sears in 1969 after seeing his quick release on a wrench prominently displayed in a Sears catalog, but it wasn't until 1989 that the case was finally settled. Neither side revealed the amount of the settlement.

In August 2002, Sears sued Emerson for using Sears-owned manufacturing equipment to create power tools for Home Depot. Upon the expiration of Emerson's 30-year contract to make Craftsman tools, Emerson was required to return the Sears-owned equipment. Instead, Emerson kept the equipment, claiming it to be obsolete and of little value. Emerson denied the allegations when the suit was filed, but paid Sears $10.8 million and returned all the equipment, while admitting no wrongdoing.

In 2004 a class action by customers accused Sears of false advertising and consumer fraud for questionable use of the slogan "Made in the USA" for Craftsman tools. Sears lost, but the court awarded no damages, finding that the mislabeling did not damage customers.

In 2012 Sears was sued by LoggerHead Tools, makers of the Bionic Wrench, after Sears released a competing product, the MaxAccess. Sears had sold the Bionic Wrench in its stores, but decided to not talk to LoggerHead about licensing the patent. Instead, Sears had its tool manufacturer, Apex Tools, create the MaxAccess wrench under the Craftsman name, claiming that the MaxAccess was designed not to infringe the Bionic Wrench patent. Other than coloring, the only substantial difference between the two wrenches was that the Bionic Wrench had the head at a 45-degree angle while the MaxAccess head was straight. LoggerHead was subsequently awarded $6 million in damages, but the verdict to be set aside because the judge misinterpreted the LoggerHead patent.

In April 2017, Sears sued Western Forge, its former supplier of hand tools, for abruptly ending the contract to supply the tools. Western Forge violated the contract by demanding more money because of Sears's financial problems.

On March 6, 2019, Sears was sued by Stanley Black & Decker, which accused it of breach of contract and trademark infringement over its new line of professional-grade mechanics tools under the Craftsman Ultimate Collection brand. According to the complaint, Sears breached the license agreement by launching its new tool line and touting its stores as "the real home of the broadest assortment of Craftsman".

Sponsorships
From 1995 to 2008, Craftsman sponsored the NASCAR Craftsman Truck Series, a deal which began with the inception of the Truck Series. After the 2008 season, Craftsman withdrew from sponsoring the series and was replaced by Camping World. In 2016, Craftsman returned to motorsports sponsorship, serving as the title name for the World of Outlaws, renaming the Sprint Car Series and Late Model Series to the World of Outlaws Craftsman Sprint Car Series and World of Outlaws Craftsman Late Model Series, respectively.

In 2023, Stanley Black & Decker acquired the title sponsorship rights to NASCAR's Truck Series, for which it would reinstate the Craftsman branding.

Licensee
The main licensees for Craftsman in the UK were Focus DIY (beginning in 2001) and B&Q (beginning in 1993). The main licensees for Craftsman in the rest of Europe were Bosch, and selling product at retailers and Amazon.

title: Craftsman (tools)


text:
Jacques-Henri Bernardin de Saint-Pierre

Jacques-Henri Bernardin de Saint-Pierre (also called Bernardin de St. Pierre) (19 January 1737, in Le Havre – 21 January 1814, in Éragny, Val-d'Oise) was a French writer and botanist. He is best known for his 1788 novel, Paul et Virginie, a very popular 18th-century classic of French literature.

Biography
At the age of twelve he had read Robinson Crusoe and went with his uncle, a skipper, to the West-Indies. After returning from this trip he was educated as an engineer at the École des Ponts. Then he joined the French Army and was involved in the Seven Years' War against Prussia and England, but was dismissed for insubordination. After travels around Europe he returned to Paris in 1765.

He received a small inheritance on his father's death, and in 1768 he traveled to Mauritius where he served as engineer and studied plants. On his return in 1771 he became friendly with and a pupil of Jean-Jacques Rousseau. Together they studied the plants in and around Paris, and Rousseau helped form his character and style.

His Voyage à l'Île de France (2 vols., 1773) gained him a reputation as a champion of innocence and religion, and in consequence, through the exertions of the bishop of Aix, a pension of 1000 livres a year. The Études de la nature (3 vols., 1784) was an attempt to prove the existence of God from the wonders of nature; he set up a philosophy of sentiment to oppose the materializing tendencies of the Encyclopaedists. His masterpiece, Paul et Virginie, appeared in 1789 in a supplementary volume of the Études, and his second great success, less sentimental and showing some humour, the Chaudière indienne, not until 1790.

In 1795 he was elected to the Institut de France, in 1797 became manager of the Botanical Gardens (Jardin des plantes) in Paris and in 1803 was elected a member of the Académie française.

Saint-Pierre was an avid advocate and practitioner of vegetarianism, and although he was a devout Christian was also heavily influenced by Enlightenment-era intellectuals like Voltaire and his mentor Rousseau.

In 1792 he married a very young girl, Félicité Didot, who brought him a considerable dowry. After his first wife's death he married in 1800, when he was sixty-three, another young girl, Desirée Pelleport.

Legacy

 * "Barye's predators devouring their living prey indulge the emotions in a Romantic way of course, but they also embody a romantically moralizing point of view like those held by Bernardin de Saint-Pierre, Mme de Staël, and Victor Hugo. The Oeuvres complètes of Bernardin de Saint-Pierre appeared in Paris in 1834 and was surely known to Barye, for the author was the former director of the zoo in the Jardin des Plantes and one of the "masters of genuine poetry" for the archromantic Mme de Staël. Bernardin de Saint-Pierre maintained that a carnivorous animal in devouring its prey alive committed a sin against the laws of its own nature."

Alexander von Humboldt, next to Charles Darwin the best known naturalist of the nineteenth century, belonged to the admirers of Bernardin de Saint-Pierre and cherished the novel Paul et Virginie.

Works

 * Voyage à l’Île de France, à l’île Bourbon et au cap de Bonne-Espérance (1773)
 * L’Arcadie (1781)
 * Études de la nature (1784)
 * Paul et Virginie (1788)
 * La Chaumière indienne (1790)
 * Le Café de Surate (1790)
 * Les Vœux d’un solitaire (1790)
 * De la nature de la morale (1798)
 * Voyage en Silésie (1807)
 * La Mort de Socrate (1808)
 * Harmonies de la nature (1815)

title: Jacques-Henri Bernardin de Saint-Pierre


text:
Talk:Ford Cologne V6 engine

Usage
What cars still use this engine? Certainly not any of Ford's European products. -- stewacide —Preceding undated comment added 03:43, 7 October 2004

 * It seems, reading the article, like it almost reads that TVRs were the only users of each engine type -- some info on original Ford usage would be nice. I don't know it well enough. —Morven 08:29, Dec 15, 2004 (UTC)

 * I agree - in fact I just added the 2.6L info last night (based on a 1972 issue of Road and Track!) to rectify this situation! This article needs work! --SFoskett 16:35, Dec 15, 2004 (UTC)

 * I think the original engine was the 2.3 L followed by the 2,6 L. For racing fans the most mythical was the 2,6 L used in the Capri RS.
 * Ericd 23:53, 23 Dec 2004 (UTC)

 * No kidding - When I read about the two 2.6es, I just had to add the info to the page. Awesome engine!  --SFoskett 16:23, Dec 24, 2004 (UTC)

 * Why are the Cosworth versions of the 2.9 not included? (e.g engine codes BOA and BOB). — Preceding unsigned comment added by Jeroen1974 (talk • contribs) 15:08, 13 December 2005 (UTC)

 * The 4.0 SOHC is still used (for now) in the Ranger, Explorer, and Mustang. Last I heard it was to be discontinued after 2007, but I don't know what they'll use after that. They say it'll be the Duratec, but that engine seems to be too high-strung for a truck application. Sable232 02:34, 18 March 2006 (UTC)

 * The Ford Mondeo used the 4.0 liter version? It seems odd to me because all the other applications were RWD trucks. Undeuxtroiskid 04:18, 14 April 2006 (UTC)

 * Did the Mark IV Ford Cortina not have a 2.3 Cologne V6? http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ford_Cortina#Mk_IV_.281976.E2.80.931979.29 Mixino1 23:20, 10 May 2007 (UTC)

Note from a TVR enthusiast.....

The 2.3 Cologne was used in the Mark IV Cortina in Europe, and also in the German Built Capri (but not in UK models, which went from the 2.0 OHC L4 straight to 2.8 V6). I have seen a 2.3 Capri import, so I know this is true.

The European Ford Granada had 2.3, 2.8 and the later 2.4 and 2.9 engines intalled, and later on the Cosworth 24v 2.9 version (but only with automatics I think). Ford Sierras also had the 2.3 engine with type 9 5 speed box, as well as 2.8 and 2.9 engines.

The Wiki main article goes on about poor flow through the 2.8 because of siamesed ports, but this is likely not really true, as the 2.9 didn't manage any increase in BHP output with 6 exhaust ports, and the 'K' series inlet manifold was supposed to be restrictive as well, but it has been shown that a 'K' 2.8 can get up to 200BHP with only a mild gas flowing, so it's not that bad. Turbo kits were available with 240BHP and kept the siamesed ports..... — Preceding unsigned comment added by 219.89.130.44 (talk) 23:23, 3 January 2015 (UTC)

Wrong year
The starting year for the Cologne V6 on List_of_Ford_engines ia shown as 1977. That's way off. The 2.8 liter version first appeared in the USA in the 1974 Mustang II and the imported Capri used the 2.6 before that. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 4.227.205.86 (talk) 08:52, 9 March 2006 (UTC)

 * The engine started in 1964 in the Ford Taunus 20M P5. The original size was 2.0 litres. 84.140.31.160 21:02, 25 December 2006 (UTC)

Discontinued?
If the Cologne will be killed in 2007, then why did Ford go to the trouble of installing it in the new-for-'07 Sport Trac? It seems to me it would be a waste of money to develop the tooling. Ford claims it to have less emissions that some hybrids. This makes it sound like the Cologne will be with us for a few more years. --Sable232 22:25, 29 April 2006 (UTC)

Bore & Stroke
Does anyone know the bore & stroke figures? Are they originally in inches or SI metric system?

By my calculation, it looks like the stated bore and stroke may be slightly off:

1872cc Stroke est.: 6.008 - 6.009 cm

1998cc Stroke est.: 6.008 - 6.009 cm

2293cc Stroke est.: 6.008 cm

2637cc Stroke est.: 6.908 - 6.909 cm North wiki 04:32, 13 June 2007 (UTC)

 * bore and stroke in the article are from Werner Oswald, Deutsche Autos (German cars) 1945 - 1975, ISBN 3-87943-391-7. Normally, Werner Oswald is a very reliable source. However, there may be some roundings. Please note: displacement of the 1.8 litre is only 1812 cc! 84.140.57.5 17:04, 14 July 2007 (UTC)

External links modified
Hello fellow Wikipedians,

I have just added archive links to 2 one external links on Ford Cologne V6 engine. Please take a moment to review my edit. If necessary, add after the link to keep me from modifying it. Alternatively, you can add to keep me off the page altogether. I made the following changes:
 * Added archive https://web.archive.org/20081203072612/http://www.fordpowerproducts.com:80/FordPowerProducts/pdf/SOHC_640Leaflet_4_2003.pdf to http://www.fordpowerproducts.com/FordPowerProducts/pdf/SOHC_640Leaflet_4_2003.pdf
 * Added archive https://web.archive.org/20081203072612/http://www.fordpowerproducts.com:80/FordPowerProducts/pdf/SOHC_640Leaflet_4_2003.pdf to http://www.fordpowerproducts.com/FordPowerProducts/pdf/SOHC_640Leaflet_4_2003.pdf

When you have finished reviewing my changes, please set the checked parameter below to true to let others know.

Cheers.—cyberbot II  Talk to my owner :Online 17:32, 8 January 2016 (UTC)

First mass-produced V6s?
"arguably the first two mass produced V6 engines" ??? The GMC V6 Engine predated it by at least two years. Zapping the "first two" and replacing with "one of the first". -- Badtux (talk) 22:30, 27 January 2016 (UTC)

 * It would seem that both the GMC and Buick V6s predate it. The UK Essex probably should not be mentioned at all since it apparently came after all three, but that brings me to another point (see section below). --Sable232 (talk) 17:06, 27 January 2019 (UTC)
 * The Lancia V6 engine predates all of these, having been introduced in 1950. It was definitely mass-produced, with more than 18,000 examples of the Aurelia built between 1950 and 1962, and the same V6 also used in the Lancia Flaminia from 1957 onwards. I'd suggest that the Ford Cologne V6, coming in a full 12 years after the Lancia V6 and the other V6 engines described, is just too late in the piece for the epithet, "among the first mass-produced V6 engines in the world" to be appropriate. 58.7.107.142 (talk) 01:55, 5 December 2023 (UTC)
 * Seconded. Zap.  Mr.choppers |   ✎  02:53, 5 December 2023 (UTC)

Introduction date?
The infobox gives an introduction date of 1962, while the lead says 1965, and the 2.0 section says it was first used in 1964. None are sourced - does anyone know which is correct? I haven't been able to find any solid references but 1964 would be logical as it matches the introduction of the Taunus P5. --Sable232 (talk) 17:06, 27 January 2019 (UTC)

Sierra Estate
The 2.9i was also used in the Sierra 4x4 Ghia Estate until 1990. Prior to that the 2.8i was available in the same model. 31.124.102.67 (talk) 18:50, 10 March 2023 (UTC)
 * Added, thanks.  Mr.choppers |   ✎  02:52, 7 December 2023 (UTC)

title: Talk:Ford Cologne V6 engine


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Taiwan Times

The Taiwan Times is a newspaper based in Taiwan. The newspaper began publishing on 25 August 1971. Wang Hsing-ching worked as one of its notable reporters.

title: Taiwan Times


text:
Kiyoshi Shiga

Kiyoshi Shiga (志賀 潔) was a Japanese physician and bacteriologist. He had a well-rounded education and career that led to many scientific discoveries. In 1897, Shiga was credited with the discovery and identification of the Shigella dysenteriae microorganism which causes dysentery, and the Shiga toxin which is produced by the bacteria. He conducted research on other diseases such as tuberculosis and trypanosomiasis, and made many advancements in bacteriology and immunology.

Personal life
Shiga was born in Sendai, Miyagi Prefecture. His original surname was Satō, but he changed it to his mother's maiden name, Shiga, after being brought up by his maternal family. Shiga was raised during Japan's Industrial age and restoration. The changing times put financial troubles on his family. In 1900, Kiyoshi Shiga married Ichiko Shiga and in the following years had eight children. He faced many family hardships. Shiga lost his wife in 1944 to stomach cancer, his eldest son to turbulent seas during a voyage, and another son to tuberculosis.

Career
Kiyoshi Shiga attended the Medical School of Tokyo Imperial University in 1896, after his high school studies. It was at the University when he was introduced to Kitasato Shibasaburō, one of Robert Koch's successors, who was a world famous Japanese scientist studying the bacteriology and immunology of deadly disease at the time. Shiga's fascination with Kitasato and his work lead him to pursue a career at the Institute for the Study of Infectious Diseases directed by Kitasato Shibasaburō. While working for the Institute, Shiga became famous for the discovery of Shigella dysenteriae, the organism that causes dysentery, in 1897, during a severe epidemic in which more than 90,000 cases were reported, with a mortality rate approaching 30%. The bacterium Shigella was thus named after him, as well as the Shiga toxin, which is produced by the bacterium. After the discovery of Shigella, Shiga worked with Paul Ehrlich in Germany from 1901 to 1905. When he returned to Japan, he resumed the study of infectious diseases with Kitasato. Shiga became a professor at Keio University in 1920. From 1929 to 1931, Shiga was the president of Keijō Imperial University in Keijo (Seoul) and was senior medical advisor to the Japanese Governor-General of Korea. Shiga was a recipient of the Order of Culture in 1944. He was also awarded the Order of the Sacred Treasure, 1st class, on his death in 1957. Along with many of his accomplishments, Shiga had written textbooks on bacteriology and immunology that were widely popular, even after his death in 1957.

Discovery of Shigella dysenteriae
After graduating from the Tokyo Imperial University school of medicine, Kiyoshi Shiga began his career as an assistant to Kitasato Shibasaburō at the Institute for the Study of Infectious Diseases. While studying many infamous diseases at the time, Kitasato and his colleagues, including Shiga, turned their focus to discovering the microorganism that caused the dysentery outbreak in 1897. In 1898, Shiga was able to isolate and identify the microorganism causing the infectious disease by studying patients who had dysentery and following Koch's Postulates. Using gram staining methods, Shiga was able to further deduce that the microorganism causing dysentery was a gram-negative bacillus. Kiyoshi Shiga initially called the bacteria Bacillus dysenteriae, but the name was later changed to Shigella dysenteriae as a tribute to Kiyoshi Shiga. The discovery of the gram-negative bacillus led to the identification of other species of bacteria with similar characteristic. These species of bacteria are classified under the Shigella genus. Species of Shigella are further separated by serogroups that represent different serotypes. Through further studies of the S. dysenteriae bacteria, Shiga was able to discover the Shiga toxin that is produced by the organism. With this new discovery, Shiga attempted to make a vaccine from the toxin. He tested his first attempt, a heat-killed S. dysenteriae strain vaccine, on himself which proved to be ineffective and caused severe complications. Kiyoshi Shiga continued his efforts and created a passive immunization vaccine that was based on horse serum. Test trials for the passive immunization vaccine showed no beneficial results or immunity to the infection. These setbacks led Shiga to stop any further trials or production of a Shiga toxin-based vaccine.

Research
Shiga had done research on other topics aside from Shigella dysenteriae including tuberculosis, leprosy, and beriberi throughout his career and grew an interest in chemotherapy and immunology. After the Shigella dysenteriae discovery, Kiyoshi Shiga worked with Paul Ehrlich in Europe on discovering chemotherapy methods for a blood diseases called trypanosomiasis which was caused by a protozoan microorganism. Paul Ehrlich is known for his work with dyes and their ability to distinguish and kill certain bacteria and tissues. Ehrlich's previous research, before working with Shiga, lead to the discovery of chemotherapy. Shiga and Ehrlich's research into chemotherapy dyes lead them to the discovery of trypan red, a drug that was proven to have an effect on trypanosomiasis. In 1905, after the discovery of trypan red, Shiga returned to Japan with an international reputation and continued his work at Kitasato's laboratory.

Kiyoshi Shiga also played a role in the development of the BCG vaccine for tuberculosis. In 1924, Shiga delivered a strain of tuberculosis called BCG Tokyo 172 strain from Paris, France to Japan. It was his transportation of the samples that lead scientist to culture and produce a vaccine and tuberculin to fight the disease. Shiga was a supporter of vaccines, but also an advocate for public health prevention and awareness. He participated in many Chinese writings about the education and prevention of diseases such as tuberculosis.

title: Kiyoshi Shiga


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New Zealand Speleological Society

New Zealand Speleological Society is a national organisation for recreational cavers in New Zealand.

It was formed in 1949 by Henry Lambert and had approximately 300 members in 2010.

Mission
Their stated mission is:
 * To be the national speleological body
 * To conserve caves and karst
 * To represent the interests of its members

By:
 * The collection and appropriate dissemination of information on caves, karst and caving
 * Advocating conservation and awareness to cave owners and managers
 * Negotiating access to caves for members
 * The promotion of safe cave use
 * Operating a national cave search and rescue system
 * Encouraging cave users to join NZSS
 * Monitoring the effects of cave use

Through: The society also maintains the library at the Waitomo Caves Museum.
 * Education and training
 * Development and assessment of techniques and equipment
 * Liaison with other groups and agencies
 * Exploration and study of caves

title: New Zealand Speleological Society


text: Category:Chinese journalists

title: Category:Chinese journalists


text:
Black River (New York)

The Black River is a 125 mi blackwater river that empties into the eastern end of Lake Ontario on the shore of Jefferson County, New York in the United States. The origin of the name is not clear, but it may stem from the natural tannic acid that darkens the water in places. The river flows in a generally northwest direction, with its valley dividing the Adirondack Mountains on the east from the Tug Hill region to the west.

Course
The Black River originates at North Lake in the foothills of the Adirondacks, in Herkimer County, about 25 mi east of Boonville. The river flows west into Oneida County then north, past Forestport and Boonville into Lewis County. At Lyons Falls, it is joined by the Moose River from the east just above the eponymous waterfall, where the river drops 70 ft over a gneiss cliff.

Near Glenfield the Black River receives the smaller tributaries of Otter Creek and the Independence River, also from the east. Further north, it passes Lowville, then receives the Beaver River from the east, then the Deer River, its only major western tributary. Starting above Carthage the river briefly divides Lewis and Jefferson Counties before crossing entirely into Jefferson County, where it turns sharply west toward Lake Ontario, flowing past Great Bend, Black River and Watertown. Below Watertown it enters a canyon, well known for its challenging rapids.

The river ends at Lake Ontario in the village of Dexter, about 10 mi west of Watertown, where it empties into the Black River Bay and Marsh, which are parts of the Golden Crescent. For the last few miles it forms the boundary between the Towns of Brownville and Hounsfield.

Dams
There are at least 17 dams on the Black River, with eight in the upper part above Lyons Falls, and nine below Watertown. The upper and lower reaches of the river have a steep gradient and were originally developed to provide mechanical power for mills, such as the old Georgia-Pacific paper mill (which now sits abandoned and falling into disrepair) in Lyons Falls, and later hydroelectricity. In contrast the middle 40 mi of the river have practically no gradient and are not suitable to the development of head for industrial or hydropower projects.

The three uppermost dams, forming North Lake, Kayuta Lake and the smaller Forestport Reservoir are the only structures forming significant impoundments. The other dams are run-of-the-river, with no appreciable storage capacity, so power generation is entirely dependent on the natural flow of the river combined with releases from upstream reservoirs, which is relatively consistent except for drought years.

Sporting activities
Abundant trout, salmon, bass, and pike are present in the stream, and salmon is the most favored.

Whitewater rafting and kayaking are popular on some stretches of the river, notably the Black River Canyon, which begins in Watertown and ends in Brownville. The Black River Canyon is one of few whitewater streams which have reliable flows throughout the summer. The "Canyon" itself is not actually present until you reach Brownville and ends in the Dexter Reservoir.

Environmental issues
A number of streams and lakes in the watershed have been impaired as a result of acid rain. Elevated levels of mercury have led to restrictions on the consumption of fish in some areas.

In August 2005, the Black River was contaminated by a spill from a manure lagoon on Marks Dairy Farm (a concentrated animal feeding operation near Lowville) when a retaining wall gave way, allowing the contents of a waste holding pond to spill. About 3 e6USgal of pollution flowed into the river. An estimated 280,000 to 375,000 fish were killed. As of August 3, 2006, a settlement has been reached and Marks Dairy Farm, originator of the spill, was ordered to pay $2.2 million.

Tributaries

 * Left
 * South Branch Black River
 * Twin Lakes Stream
 * Little Black Creek
 * Kent Creek
 * Mill Creek
 * Sugar River
 * Mill Creek
 * Douglas Creek
 * House Falls Creek
 * Whetstone Creek
 * Roaring Brook
 * Rainbow Creek
 * Mill Creek
 * Negro Creek
 * Stony Creek
 * Deer River
 * Felts Mills Creek

 * Right
 * Otter Brook
 * Indian Creek
 * Cold Brook
 * Cummings Creek
 * Mile Creek
 * Fall Brook
 * Miller Brook
 * Cold Brook
 * Moose River
 * Fish Creek
 * Otter Creek
 * Independence River
 * Harvey Creek
 * Hodge Creek
 * Crystal Creek
 * Capidon Creek
 * Beaver River
 * Potash Creek
 * Swiss Creek
 * Kelsey Creek
 * Philomel Creek
 * Trout Creek

title: Black River (New York)


text:
Reciprocity (international relations)

In international relations and treaties, the principle of reciprocity states that favors, benefits, or penalties that are granted by one state to the citizens or legal entities of another, should be returned in kind.

For example, reciprocity has been used in the reduction of tariffs, the grant of copyrights to foreign authors, the mutual recognition and enforcement of judgments, and the relaxation of travel restrictions and visa requirements.

The principle of reciprocity also governs agreements on extradition.

Specific and diffuse reciprocity
Several theorists have drawn a distinction between specific forms of reciprocity and "diffuse reciprocity" (Keohane 1986). While specific reciprocity is exemplified by international trade negotiations, as suggested above, diffuse reciprocity points to a wider institutionalisation of trust. Through consistent cooperation in an international society, states are seen as building generally accepted standards of behaviour. These general standards exert their own normative pressure on state action, contributing to the development of long-term obligations between states which stress cooperation. Thus in a system of diffuse reciprocity, states need not seek the immediate benefit guaranteed by specific reciprocity, but can act in the confidence that their cooperative actions will be repaid in the long run.

Reciprocity (International Relations)
Reciprocity being the foundation for many bonds of trust between people can be applied in various ways and within various topics. When thinking of reciprocity in relation to international relations, it is clear to see that exchanges play a big role. An example of international relations reciprocity would be trade agreements. Trade agreements make it easier for countries to trade with one another as even big and small countries can end up trading with one another, leading to it benefitting both countries. There is also room for negotiation with the trades being made, as the small counties, usually being at the disadvantage, can now have that power over the bigger countries that can offer more. Security alliances can also be seen as an example of reciprocity within international relations as both countries are in agreement to help one another in a time of military need. NATO is one of those organizations where countries come together to come up with different policies that help the countries in it, with one of those being a type of security agreement where they will aid one another in a time of military conflict. Again, reciprocity can be used within many topics as gift giving is universal within all.

title: Reciprocity (international relations)