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Immigration to Australia

The Australian continent was first settled when ancestors of Indigenous Australians arrived via the islands of Maritime Southeast Asia and New Guinea over 50,000 years ago. European colonisation began in 1788 with the establishment of a British penal colony in New South Wales. Beginning in 1901, Australia maintained the White Australia policy for much of the 20th century, which forbade the entrance in Australia of people of non-European ethnic origins. Following World War II, the policy was gradually relaxed, and was abolished entirely in 1973. Since 1945, more than 7 million people have settled in Australia.

Between 1788 and the mid-20th century, the vast majority of settlers and immigrants came from Britain and Ireland (principally England, Ireland and Scotland), although there was significant immigration from China and Germany during the 19th century. In the decades immediately following World War II, Australia received a large wave of immigration from across Europe, with many more immigrants arriving from Southern and Eastern Europe than in previous decades. Since the end of the White Australia policy in 1973, Australia has pursued an official policy of multiculturalism, and there has been a large and continuing wave of immigration from across the world, with Asia being the largest source of immigrants in the 21st century. In 2019–20, immigration to Australia came to a halt during the COVID-19 pandemic, which in turn saw a shrinkage of the Australian population for the first time since World War I, though in the following period 2021–22 showed a very strong recovery of migrant arrivals.

Net overseas migration has increased from 30,042 in 1992–93 to 178,582 persons in 2015–16. The largest components of immigration are the skilled migration and family re-union programs. A 2014 sociological study concluded that: "Australia and Canada are the most receptive to immigration among western nations." In 2023, BCG ranked Australia as the top country destination for individuals seeking to work and live a high-quality life based on global assessments.

Australia is a signatory to the Convention relating to the Status of Refugees and has resettled many asylum seekers. In recent years, Australia's policy of mandatory detention of unauthorised arrivals by boat has attracted controversy.

Immigration history of Australia
The first migration of humans to the continent took place around 65,000 years ago via the islands of Maritime Southeast Asia and Papua New Guinea as part of the early history of human migration out of Africa.

Penal transportation
European migration to Australia began with the British convict settlement of Sydney Cove on 26 January 1788. The First Fleet comprised 11 ships carrying 775 convicts and 645 officials, members of the crew, marines, and their families and children. The settlers consisted of petty criminals, second-rate soldiers and a crew of sailors. There were few with skills needed to start a self-sufficient settlement, such as farmers and builders, and the colony experienced hunger and hardships. Male settlers far outnumbered female settlers. The Second Fleet arrived in 1790 bringing more convicts. The conditions of the transportation was described as horrific and worse than slave transports. Of the 1,026 convicts who embarked, 267 (256 men and 11 women) died during the voyage (26%); a further 486 were sick when they arrived of which 124 died soon after. The fleet was more of a drain on the struggling settlement than of any benefit. Conditions on the Third Fleet, which followed on the heels of the Second Fleet in 1791, were a bit better. The fleet comprised 11 ships. Of the more than 2000 convicts brought onto the ships, 173 male convicts and 9 female convicts died during the voyage. Other transport fleets bringing further convicts as well as freemen to the colony would follow. By the end of the penal transportation in 1868, approximately 165,000 people had entered Australia as convicts.

Bounty Immigration
The colonies promoted migration by a variety of schemes. The Bounty Immigration Scheme (1835-1841) boosted emigration from the United Kingdom to New South Wales. The South Australia Company was established to encourage settlement in South Australia by labourers and skilled migrants.

Gold rush and population growth

The Gold rush era, beginning in 1851, led to an enormous expansion in population, including large numbers of British and Irish settlers, followed by smaller numbers of Germans and other Europeans, and Chinese. This latter group were subject to increasing restrictions and discrimination, making it impossible for many to remain in the country. With the Federation of the Australian colonies into a single nation, one of the first acts of the new Commonwealth Government was the Immigration Restriction Act 1901, otherwise known as the White Australia policy, which was a strengthening and unification of disparate colonial policies designed to restrict non-White settlement. Because of opposition from the British government, an explicit racial policy was avoided in the legislation, with the control mechanism being a dictation test in a European language selected by the immigration officer. This was selected to be one the immigrant did not know; the last time an immigrant passed a test was in 1909. Perhaps the most celebrated case was Egon Erwin Kisch, a left-wing Austrian journalist, who could speak five languages, who was failed in a test in Scottish Gaelic, and deported as illiterate.

The government also found that if it wanted immigrants it had to subsidise migration. The great distance from Europe made Australia a more expensive and less attractive destination than Canada and the United States. The number of immigrants needed during different stages of the economic cycle could be controlled by varying the subsidy. Before federation in 1901, assisted migrants received passage assistance from colonial government funds. The British government paid for the passage of convicts, paupers, the military and civil servants. Few immigrants received colonial government assistance before 1831. However, young women were receiving assisted passages from state governments to migrate to Australia in the early years of federation.

With the onset of the Great Depression, the Governor-General proclaimed the cessation of immigration until further notice, and the next group to arrive were 5000 Jewish refuge families from Germany in 1938. Approved groups such as these were assured of entry by being issued with a Certificate of Exemption from the Dictation Test.

Post-war immigration to Australia

After World War II Australia launched a massive immigration program, believing that having narrowly avoided a Japanese invasion, Australia must "populate or perish". Hundreds of thousands of displaced Europeans migrated to Australia and over 1,000,000 British subjects immigrated under the Assisted Passage Migration Scheme, colloquially becoming known as Ten Pound Poms. The scheme initially targeted citizens of all Commonwealth countries; after the war it gradually extended to other countries such as the Netherlands and Italy. The qualifications were straightforward: migrants needed to be in sound health and under the age of 45 years. There were initially no skill restrictions, although under the White Australia Policy, people from mixed-race backgrounds found it very difficult to take advantage of the scheme.

In 1973, multiculturalism largely displaced cultural selectivity in immigration policy.

Migration program

There are a number of different types of Australian immigration, classed under different categories of visa:
 * Skilled Occupation visas - Australian working visas are most commonly granted to highly skilled workers. Candidates are assessed against a points-based system, with points allocated for certain standards of education. These visas are often sponsored by individual States, which recruit workers according to specific needs. Visas may also be granted to applicants sponsored by an Australian business. The most popular form of sponsored working visa was the 457 visa set in place in 1996 which has now been abolished by the Turnbull government.
 * Student visas - The Australian Government actively encourages foreign students to study in Australia. There are a number of categories of a student visa, most of which require a confirmed offer from an educational institution.
 * Family visas - Visas are often granted on the basis of family ties in Australia. There are a number of different types of Australian family visas, including Contributory Parent visas and Spouse visas.
 * Working holiday visa - This visa is a residence permit allowing travelers to undertake employment (and sometimes study) in the country issuing the visa to supplement education.

Employment and family visas can often lead to Australian citizenship; however, this requires the applicant to have lived in Australia for at least four years with at least one year as a permanent resident.
 * Investor visas - Foreign investors could invest the business or fund in Australia to acquire the Permanent Residential of Australia, after 4 years (including the year which acquire the visa), they need to take the exam and make a declaration in order to be a citizen of Australia.

Claims have been made that Australia's migration program is in conflict with anti age-discrimination legislation and there have been calls to remove or amend the age limit of 50 for general skilled migrants.

Humanitarian program
Australia grants two types of visa under its humanitarian program:

 * Refugee-category visas for refugees under the Convention relating to the Status of Refugees
 * Special Humanitarian Programme (SHP) visas for persons who are subject to substantial discrimination amounting to gross violation of their human rights in their home country

The cap for visas granted under the humanitarian program was 13,750 for 2015–16, plus an additional 12,000 visas available for refugees from the conflicts in Syria and Iraq.

Migration and settlement services
The Australian Government and the community provide a number of migration-assistance and settlement-support services:
 * The Adult Migrant English Program, available to eligible migrants from the humanitarian, family and skilled-visa streams, provides free English-language courses for those who do not have functional English. Up to 510 hours of English language courses are provided during the first five years of settlement in Australia.
 * The Department of Home Affairs operates a 24-hour, seven-days-a-week telephone-based interpreting service called the Translating and Interpreting Service National, which facilitates contact between non-English speakers and interpreters, enabling access to government and community services.
 * The Settlement Grants Program provides funding to assist humanitarian entrants and migrants settle in Australia and to participate equitably in Australian society as soon as possible after arrival. The program is targeted to deliver settlement services to humanitarian entrants, family migrants with low levels of English proficiency and dependants of skilled migrants in rural and regional areas with low English-proficiency.
 * The Australian Cultural Orientation program provides practical advice and the opportunity to ask questions about travel to and life in Australia to refugee and humanitarian visa holders who are preparing to settle in Australia. The program is delivered overseas over five days before the visa holder begins his or her journey.
 * Refugee and humanitarian visa holders are also eligible to receive on-arrival settlement support through the Humanitarian Settlement Services program, which provides intensive settlement-support and equips individuals with the skills and knowledge to independently access services beyond the initial settlement period.
 * The Immigration Advice and Application Assistance Scheme provides professional assistance, free of charge, to disadvantaged visa-applicants, to help with the completion and submission of visa applications, liaison with the department, and advice on complex immigration matters. It also provides migration advice to prospective visa-applicants and sponsors.
 * In response to the needs of asylum seekers, the Asylum Seeker Assistance Scheme was established in 1992 to address Australia's obligations under the Convention relating to the Status of Refugees. The Australian Red Cross administers the scheme under contract to the Department of Immigration and Citizenship. It provides financial assistance to asylum seekers in the community who satisfy specific eligibility criteria, and also facilitates access to casework assistance and to other support services for asylum seekers through the Australian Red Cross.
 * A variety of community-based services cater to the needs of newly-arrived migrants, refugees, and asylum seekers. Some of these services, such as Migrant Resource Centres, receive funding from the Commonwealth Government.

Country of birth of Australian residents
, 30% of the Australian resident population, or 7,529,570 people, had been born overseas.

The following table shows Australia's population by country of birth as estimated by the Australian Bureau of Statistics in 2020. It shows only countries or regions or birth with a population of over 100,000 residing in Australia.

The separate Australian States show some differences in settlement patterns, as demonstrated in the statistics compiled during the 2006 Census:
 * New South Wales had the largest population, and the largest foreign-born population, in Australia (1,544,023). Certain nationalities concentrated notably in this state: 74.5% of Lebanese-born, 63.1% of Iraqi-born, 63.0% of South Korean-born, 59.4% of Fijian-born, and 59.4% of Chinese-born Australian residents lived in New South Wales.
 * Victoria, the second-most populous state, also had the second-largest number of overseas-born persons (1,161,984). 50.6% of Sri Lankan-born, 50.1% of Turkish-born, 49.4% of Greek-born and 41.6% of Italian-born Australian residents lived in Victoria.
 * Western Australia, with 528,827 overseas-born residents, had the highest proportion of foreign-born population. The state attracted 29.6% of all Singaporean-born Australian residents, and narrowly trailed New South Wales in having the largest population of British-born Australian residents.
 * Queensland had 695,525 overseas-born residents, and attracted the greatest proportion of persons born in Papua New Guinea (52.4%) and in New Zealand (38.2%).

Impacts and concerns
There are a range of views in the Australian community on the composition and level of immigration, and on the possible effects of varying the level of immigration and population growth.

In 2002, a CSIRO population study commissioned by the former Department of Immigration and Multicultural Affairs, outlined six potential dilemmas associated with immigration-driven population growth. These included: the absolute numbers of aged residents continuing to rise despite high immigration off-setting ageing and declining birth-rates in a proportional sense; a worsening of Australia's trade balance due to more imports and higher consumption of domestic production; increased greenhouse gas emissions; overuse of agricultural soils; marine fisheries and domestic supplies of oil and gas; and a decline in urban air quality, river quality and biodiversity.

Environment
Some environmental movements believe that as the driest inhabited continent, Australia cannot continue to sustain its current rate of population growth without becoming overpopulated. The Sustainable Population Australia (SPA) argues that climate change will lead to a deterioration of natural ecosystems through increased temperatures, extreme weather events and less rainfall in the southern part of the continent, thus reducing its capacity to sustain a large population even further. The Australia Institute has concluded that Australia's population growth has been one of the main factors driving growth in domestic greenhouse gas emissions. It concluded that the average emissions per capita in the countries that immigrants come from is only 42 percent of average emissions in Australia, finding that as immigrants alter their lifestyle to that of Australians, they increase global greenhouse gas emissions. The Institute calculated that each additional 70,000 immigrants will lead to additional emissions of 20 million tonnes of greenhouse gases by the end of the Kyoto target period (2012) and 30 million tonnes by 2020.

Housing and infrastructure
A number of economists, such as Macquarie Bank analyst Rory Robertson, assert that high immigration and the propensity of new arrivals to cluster in the capital cities is exacerbating the nation's housing affordability problem. According to Robertson, Federal Government policies that fuel demand for housing, such as the currently high levels of immigration, as well as capital gains tax discounts and subsidies to boost fertility, have had a greater impact on housing affordability than land release on urban fringes.

The Productivity Commission in its 2004 Inquiry Report No. 28, First Home Ownership, concluded: "Growth in immigration since the mid-1990s has been an important contributor to underlying demand, particularly in Sydney and Melbourne." The Reserve Bank of Australia in its submission to the same Productivity Commission report stated that "rapid growth in overseas visitors such as students may have boosted demand for rental housing". However, the Commission found that "the ABS resident population estimates have limitations when used for assessing housing demand. Given the significant influx of foreigners coming to work or study in Australia in recent years, it seems highly likely that short-stay visitor movements may have added to the demand for housing. However, the Commissions are unaware of any research that quantifies the effects."

Some individuals and interest groups have also argued that immigration causes overburdened infrastructure.

Employment
Australia maintains a list of skilled occupations that are currently acceptable for immigration to Australia.

In 2009, following the global financial crisis, the Australian government reduced its immigration target by 14%, and the permanent migration program for skilled migrants was reduced to 115,000 people for that financial year. In 2010–2011, the migration intake was adjusted so that 67.5% of the permanent migration program would be for skilled migrants, and 113,725 visas were granted.

According to Graduate Careers Australia, there have been some declines in full-time employment between 2012–2015 for recent university graduates of various degrees, including dentistry, computer science, architecture, psychology, and nursing. In 2014, a number of the professional associations for some of these fields criticised the immigration policy for skilled migrants, contending that these policies have contributed to difficulties for local degree holders in obtaining full-time employment. In 2016, the Department of Health forecast a shortfall in nurses of approximately 85,000 by 2025 and 123,000 by 2030.

In 2016, Monash University academics published a report which contended that Australia's immigration program is deeply flawed. The government's Medium to Long-Term Strategic Skill List allows immigration by professionals who end up competing with graduates of Australian universities for scarce positions. On the other hand, Australia's shortage of skilled tradespeople is not being addressed.

Economic growth and aging population
Another element in the immigration debate is a concern to alleviate adverse impacts arising from Australia's ageing population. In the 1990s, the former Federal Treasurer Peter Costello stated that Australia is underpopulated due to a low birth rate, and that negative population growth will have adverse long-term effects on the economy as the population ages and the labour market becomes less competitive. To avoid this outcome the government increased immigration to fill gaps in labour markets and introduced a subsidy to encourage families to have more children. However, opponents of population growth such as Sustainable Population Australia do not accept that population growth will decline and reverse, based on current immigration and fertility projections.

There is debate over whether immigration can slow the ageing of Australia's population. In a research paper entitled Population Futures for Australia: the Policy Alternatives, Peter McDonald claims that "it is demographic nonsense to believe that immigration can help to keep our population young." However, according to Creedy and Alvarado (p. 99), by 2031 there will be a 1.1 per cent fall in the proportion of the population aged over 65 if net migration rate is 80,000 per year. If net migration rate is 170,000 per year, the proportion of the population aged over 65 would reduce by 3.1 per cent. As of 2007 during the leadership of John Howard, the net migration rate was 160,000 per year.

According to the Commonwealth Treasury, immigration can reduce the average age of the Australian population: "The level of net overseas migration is important: net inflows of migrants to Australia reduce the rate of population ageing because migrants are younger on average than the resident population. Currently, around 85 per cent of migrants are aged under 40 when they migrate to Australia, compared to around 55 per cent for the resident population." Ross Gittins, an economics columnist at Fairfax Media, has said that the Government's focus on skilled migration has in fact reduced the average age of migrants. "More than half are aged 15 to 34, compared with 28 per cent of our population. Only 2 per cent of permanent immigrants are 65 or older, compared with 13 per cent of our population." Because of these statistics, Gittens claims that immigration is slowing the ageing of the Australian population and that the "net benefit to the economy is a lot more clear-cut."

Robert Birrell, director of the Centre for Population and Urban Research at Monash University, has argued: "It is true that a net migration intake averaging around 180,000 per year will mean that the proportion of persons aged 65 plus to the total population will be a few percentage points lower in 2050 than it would be with a low migration intake. But this ‘gain’ would be bought at the expense of having to accommodate a much larger population. These people too, will age, thus requiring an even larger migration intake in subsequent years to look after them."

In July 2005 the Productivity Commission launched a commissioned study entitled Economic Impacts of Migration and Population Growth, and released an initial position paper on 17 January 2006 which states that the increase of income per capita provided by higher migration (50 percent more than the base model) by the 2024–2025 financial year would be $335 (0.6%), an amount described as "very small." The paper also found that Australians would on average work 1.3 percent longer hours, about twice the proportional increase in income.

Using regression analysis, Addison and Worswick found in a 2002 study that "there is no evidence that immigration has negatively impacted on the wages of young or low-skilled natives." Furthermore, Addison's study found that immigration did not increase unemployment among native workers. Rather, immigration decreased unemployment. However, in 2005 the Productivity Commission concluded that higher immigration levels would result in lower wage growth for existing Australian residents. On the impact of immigration on unemployment levels, the Commission said: "The conclusion that immigration has not caused unemployment at an aggregate level does not imply that it cannot lead to higher unemployment for specific groups. Immigration could worsen the labour market outcomes of people who work in sectors of the economy that have high concentrations of immigrant workers."

Gittins claims there is considerable opposition to immigration in Australia by "battlers" because of the belief that immigrants will steal jobs. Gittins claims though that "it's true that immigrants add to the supply of labour. But it's equally true that, by consuming and bringing families who consume, they also add to the demand for labour – usually by more." Overall, Gittins has written that the "economic case for rapid population growth though immigration is surprisingly weak," noting the diseconomies of scale, infrastructure costs and negative environmental impacts associated with continued immigration-driven population growth.

Robert Birrell has asserted that high immigration levels are being used by the Federal Government to stimulate aggregate economic growth, but that per capita growth is more important to Australians. Birrell concluded that high migration does not benefit existing residents, because it dilutes the benefit that can accrue from the export of non-renewable resources which form a large part of the Australian economy. As well, Birrell argues that a slowdown in labour force growth would require employers to pay greater attention to training, wages and conditions of workers.

Social cohesion
The impact that immigration has on social cohesion in Australia is not clear. According to a 2018 report by the Scanlon Report, between 80 and 82% of Australians felt that immigration had a positive impact on Australian society. Australians under the age of 30 were twice as likely to feel positively about immigration as Australians over the age of 60 were. A follow-up report in 2019 found that 85% of Australians polled felt that multiculturalism had made a positive impact on Australia, but 40% admitted negative or very negative feelings towards Muslims.

Politics and public debate
Over the last decade, leaders of the major Federal political parties have demonstrated support for high level immigration (including John Howard, Peter Costello and Kim Beazley ). There was, overall, an upward trend in the number of immigrants to Australia over the period of the Howard Government (1996–2007). The Rudd Labor Government (elected 2007) increased the quota again once in office. In 2010, both major parties continue to support high immigration, with former Prime Minister Kevin Rudd advocating a 'Big Australia'; and Opposition Leader Tony Abbott stating in a 2010 Australia Day speech that: "My instinct is to extend to as many people as possible the freedom and benefits of life in Australia". On 7 August 2018, the Australian Bureau of Statistics population clock reached 25 million 33 years ahead of predictions, with 62% of the growth in the last ten years being a result of immigration.

In 2003, economist Ross Gittins, a columnist at Fairfax Media, said former Prime Minister John Howard had been "a tricky chap" on immigration, by appearing "tough" on illegal immigration to win support from the working class, while simultaneously winning support from employers with high legal immigration. In 2006, the Labor Party under Kim Beazley took a stance against the importation of increasingly large numbers of temporary skilled migrant workers by employers, arguing that this is simply a way for employers to drive down wages.

In 2019, a Lowy Institute poll found that 49% of Australians say that ‘the total number of migrants coming to Australia each year is too high’, while a minority said it is ‘too low’ (13%), representing a 10-point rise in opposition to immigration since 2014. Furthermore, 67% say that 'overall, immigration has a positive impact on the economy’, while 65% say that ‘immigrants strengthen the country because of their hard work and talents’, and 62% believe that ‘accepting immigrants from many different countries makes Australia stronger’.

Senator Pauline Hanson has called for a national plebiscite asking voters if they think immigration is too high. The Australian Senate voted the proposal down 54 votes to 2.

title: Immigration to Australia


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Nguyễn Viết Thanh

Nguyễn Viết Thanh (1931–2 May 1970) was born in Long An, French Indochina. He served in the Vietnam National Army and the Army of the Republic of Vietnam, rising to the Major General.

==Military Career ==

Vietnam National Army
Toward the end of March 1951, he was drafted to join the Army and enlisted in the Đà Lạt Military Academy. On 1 April 1951, he joined the Lý Thường Kiệt class which was the 4th class of the academy. He graduated on 1 December 1951, with the rank of second lieutenant.

After graduation, he was appointed platoon commander of the 12th Platoon of the 51st Company of the 15th Battalion of Vietnam which was stationed in Rạch Giá. In late 1952, he was appointed commander of the 51st Company of the 15th Battalion. In June 1953, he was promoted to lieutenant.

In December 1953, he assumed a battalion commander of the 707th Local Battalion.

In early 1955, he was promoted to captain. In April of the same year, he attended the Regiment Commander training at the Center for Military Studies in Sài Gòn.

Army of the Republic of Vietnam
In late 1955, Prime Minister Ngo Dinh Diem changed the name of the Vietnam National Army to the Army of the Republic of Vietnam. He retained the same position in a new military structure.

In early 1956, moving to the field of Military Training, he assumed the Chief of Staff position of the Đà Lạt Military Academy. In the middle of 1956, he left South Vietnam to attend senior infantry training at the United States Army Infantry School at Fort Benning, Georgia, USA.

In early 1957, after completing the training in the US, he was transferred to Thủ Đức Military Academy to hold the position of battalion commander of the 6th class of The Reserve Officer Cadet. On 26 October 1959, National Day of The First Republic, he was promoted to major.

In early 1960, he was transferred to the headquarters to take on the position of Chief of the Defense Planning Department.

In February 1961, transferring to the field of Military Administration, he was appointed major of Long An province.

In mid-1962, he left Long An province to assume the position of Regiment Commander of the 12th Regiment, 7th Infantry Division.

On 20 December 1963 he moved back to the administrative field to be the major of a newly re-established Gò Công province. In February 1964, he was promoted to lieutenant colonel.

In April 1965, he handed over Gò Công province to his successor. Returning to the infantry, he was promoted to Colonel, and he was appointed to be commander of the 7th Infantry Division. Colonel Sidney Bryan Berry, senior adviser to the 7th Division in 1965, had described Thanh as an "aggressive" commander with "sound tactical sense" who "knows when to commit his reserve" and "has a deep understanding of the war and his division." On June 19, 1966, Armed Forces Day, he was promoted to Brigadier General.

In October 1966, he was appointed head of the delegation along with Brigadier General Phạm Quốc Tâm, commander of the 5th Infantry Division, to guide the delegation on an official visit to Taiwan.

In 1967 he was rated by COMUSMACV General William Westmoreland as the best ARVN division commander. However, Civil Operations and Revolutionary Development Support (CORDS) advisers differed and in 1967 found "his personal cautiousness and reluctance to push the battalions [those in securing missions] into more offensive activities... difficult to understand," claiming that he discouraged the initiative and aggressiveness of his subordinates." CORDS chief Robert Komer agreed and in 1968 described Thanh as unaggressive, unimaginative, and "rather a xenophobe."

On 19 June 1968, he was promoted to Major general. In early July, he was appointed commander of IV Corps and Fourth Corps Tactical Zone.

Major general George S. Eckhardt, a senior IV Corps adviser in 1968 and 1969, related Thanh's popularity when the two generals flew to My Tho, Thanh's previous 7th divisional headquarters, for a quiet lunch. When people learned of their presence, they crammed into the restaurant to welcome his return. For over half an hour, "Thanh bowed and shook hands with the stream of well-wishers." Brigadier General George Wear commented, "When the ARVN troops were well-led they fought as well as anyone's soldiers." Thanh was one such commander.

On 2 May 1970, Thanh flew in a helicopter to direct the Cửu Long (Mekong) offensive operation over the Cambodian border to destroy communist sanctuaries. His helicopter collided in midair with a U.S. AH-1 Cobra attack helicopter 10 mi inside Cambodia. Thanh was killed aged 39.

According to COMUSMACV General Creighton Abrams, on 20 May 1970 tape, "The handling of the forces and the tactics by all the forces in IV Corps can only be described as brilliant." Thanh planned the Parrot's Beak, Cambodia operation himself and he kept his plan secret from his staff. He only revealed the plan to General Hal D. McCown, senior adviser of Delta Regional Assistance Command. One day before the start of the Cửu Long (Mekong) operation, 1 May 1970, he instructed the 9th division commander on what he wanted him to execute. "It was really beautifully done."

Awards and citations

 * Silver Star Medal ribbon.svg Silver Star Medal
 * Us_legion_of_merit_officer_rib.png Officer of the Legion of Merit
 * Bronze Star Medal ribbon.svg Bronze Star Medal

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Nguyễn Viết Thanh


text: User talk:63.225.85.66

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Wikipedia:Articles for deletion/Ben sack

Ben sack was proposed for deletion. This page is an archive of the discussion about the proposed deletion. This page is no longer live. Further comments should be made on the article's talk page rather than here so that this page is preserved as an historic record. The result of the debate was delete. Apparently he's not even notable enough to have a capitalised last name, let alone an encyclopedia entry. Shane King 03:38, Oct 25, 2004 (UTC) This page is now preserved as an archive of the debate and, like other '/delete' pages is no longer 'live'. Subsequent comments on the issue, the deletion or on the decision-making process should be placed on the relevant 'live' pages. Please do not edit this page.
 * Delete. Looks bogus. Can't find him in the Harvard directory. --Michael Snow 04:57, 25 Oct 2004 (UTC)
 * Delete, vanity or hoax, doesn't much matter which. No Google hits for `"ben sack" entrepreneur', twenty for `"ben sack" harvard', most of which seem to refer to someone who plays baseball for MIT. Can't find a single reference to this (purported) Ben Sack, which is odd if he's "taken political circles by storm" and "known for his critical writings" which are "met with academic acclaim". Pnot 05:14, 25 Oct 2004 (UTC)
 * Delete. NeoJustin 05:28 Oct 25, 2004 (UTC)
 * Delete: Vanity article. I had heard that Harvard students received a little talk about not bragging.  Guess Ben didn't listen.  Geogre 13:43, 25 Oct 2004 (UTC)
 * Delete. Sack this guy for not being notable enough. --Improv 07:34, 26 Oct 2004 (UTC)


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Talk:Roe effect

Untitled
see also Autopoiesis?

 * maybe survival of the fittest is more appropriate? - Omegatron 13:11, Apr 18, 2005 (UTC)

This article is ridiculous, its just idle speculation by ONE columnist, which doesn't make it much of a fact...there are a lot of little theories columnists and thinkers come up with. That doesn't make them notable. In fact, I just came up with one now. The condom effect. Condom users are going to become less frequent, therefore... sigh. I don't have the energy to really challenge this article, but i can't imagine it will last long protohiro 23:51, 13 February 2006 (UTC)

 * Right on. One phrase in particular seems ridiculous - "Children usually follow their parents' political leanings." Ron Reagan, Maya Keyes, I could go on. --Josh Atkins (talk - contribs) 21:22, 31 January 2009 (UTC)

I'd like to put out another call for improvements. Has anyone seen an article that refutes this theory? Obviously it has some pretty serious flaws. (like, how heritable are voting patterns? how common are abortions among republican voters, etc) protohiro 21:51, 12 June 2006 (UTC)

Afd failed
Per Articles_for_deletion/Roe_effect. --Woohookitty(cat scratches) 16:40, 4 November 2005 (UTC)

New version
After User:BCSWowbagger pointed out (in this edit's summary) that the external links were poorly formatted, I tried to improve them and ended up rewriting the whole article. (The are no problems with the external links section in my version, mainly because it doesn't have one!). The Roe effect is a theory about the long-term effect of abortion on the political balance of the United States. It is named after Roe v. Wade, the court case which effectively legalized abortion nationwide. Its best-known proponent is James Taranto of the Wall Street Journal who named this theory in Best of the Web Today, his OpinionJournal.com column.

Put simply, the theory states that A similar argument suggests that political groups which oppose abortion will tend to have more supporters in the long run than those who support it. See "The Roe Effect: The right to abortion has diminished the number of Democratic voters" by Taranto (Wall Street Journal, July 6 2005) for a detailed explanation and statistical evidence that supports the theory.
 * those who favor legal abortion are much more likely to get one than those who oppose it,
 * since children usually follow their parents' political leanings,
 * therefore pro-choice parents will tend to have fewer children
 * so support for legal abortions will decline over time.

Taranto first mentioned this idea in January 2003, and named it in December 2003. He later suggested that the Roe effect helps explain (and is confirmed by) the fact that the fall in teen birthrates is "greatest in liberal states, where pregnant teenagers would be more likely to [have abortions] and thus less likely to carry their babies to term."

The Journal has also published articles about this this topic by Larry L. Eastland ("The Empty Cradle Will Rock", June 28 2004) and Arthur C. Brooks ("Liberal/Conservative Fertility Gap", August 22 2006).

See also

 * Legalized abortion and crime effect
 * William Bennett, especially his Radio show comment on abortion

Category:Abortion One of my aims was to make the link to Taranto's main article about the effect more prominent, given that earlier commenters on this page seem to missed it.

I thought I'd seek comments and improvements from other editors before making such a major change to the article. Thanks in advance, CWC (talk) 02:19, 30 August 2006 (UTC)

 * I think you're too modest. The article as is barely survived an AfD last year, and I doubt it would do so today.  I'm going to be bold and post your version.  Hope you don't mind. --BCSWowbagger 03:23, 30 August 2006 (UTC)
 * I still don't like the way the links are placed, and I think there's more history to the theory than Taranto, though he definitely coined the phrase. And we could stand to discuss the validity of the theory, scientifically speaking.  So, there's still improvement to be made, but you just had us leap forward.  Thanks.  --BCSWowbagger 03:44, 30 August 2006 (UTC)

 * sigh* I hate how everyone always assumes that Pro-Choice is equivelant to "Pro Death" or "Anti Life". A Pro-Choice woman doesn't invariably choose to have an abortion whenever she finds herself pregnant. While she might have one at a point in life when it's unsuitable, she might go on to have three children later in life. She could be Pro-Choice and never have an abortion, and have kids. It's Pro-Choice. Graaaargh. Darien Shields 02:54, 23 November 2006 (UTC)

 * I'm not sure what this has to do with anything. There doesn't have to be a one-to-one correspondence between being pro-choice and having abortions, merely that someone who is pro-choice is more likely to have an abortion than someone who is not. Over the whole population, that disparity has an impact. Follow the links and look at the data, you see that there is a "fertility gap". Calling it a fertility gap highlights the point, also, in the hypothetical you present: delaying childbirth reduces the number of suitable childbearing years that a woman is fertile, so a woman who waits until later is less likely to have three, or four, or five, children than a woman who has them starting earlier.Tommythegun 07:28, 10 April 2007 (UTC)

Wall Street Journal, The Biology of Ideology, Studies Suggest Many of Our Political Choices May Be Traced to Genetic Traits, Sep 4, 2008. Quote:
 * The hereditary aspects of political behavior questioned above are only a part of the issue but there is new research in the area, e.g.:
 * Last week, at the annual meeting of the American Political Science Association in Boston, (Dr. Fowler) presented research with colleagues at Harvard Medical School and Virginia Commonwealth University suggesting a link between variations of one gene affecting the neurochemical dopamine, which can help sensitize us to new experiences, and a tilt toward liberal political ideology.

The science is in its infancy but there is biological research into changes in socio-political patterns. The Roe Effect theory describes one of them. Longhorncross (talk) 08:07, 6 September 2008 (UTC)

Deletion
Narrow focused article about a belief that is not widely held. There are college theses with broader and more notable scope than this. Propose deletion. —The preceding unsigned comment was added by 64.14.85.2 (talk) 14:33, 1 May 2007 (UTC).

 * Agreed, this theory doesn't seem to have much popular support. Perhaps merge with James Taranto?  Joie de Vivre 16:54, 1 May 2007 (UTC)

 * No! No! No!
 * See Consensus.
 * 2 minutes is not enough time to establish consensus, and 0 supports (anons don't count) is not enough consensus. (See also the Straw polls guidelines.)
 * Another problem: James Taranto is only one of the OpinionJournal writers who've supported this theory, and Brooks and Eastland are much more intellectually prominent.
 * Worse still, whether a theory has popular support is irrelevant. (We have an article on White supremacy, you know.)
 * I've reverted the merge. Please do not repeat this mistake. CWC 17:45, 1 May 2007 (UTC)

Its been here for years now and it is still narrow and lacks widespread support. Propose deletion 207.109.138.40 (talk) 01:06, 22 August 2012 (UTC)

New study
There's a new study from sociologists at Northwestern University about whether attitudes on abortion are correlated with fertility. It concluded that pro-life women do indeed have more children on average, which seems to support the Roe effect hypothesis (as one of the objections is that a pro-choice woman, although more likely to abort an unintended pregnancy than a pro-life woman, will nevertheless aim for the same family size and not have significantly fewer births). This should probably be worked into the article.

http://www.bostonglobe.com/ideas/2014/08/09/big-pro-life-families-are-shifting-abortion-debate/V4BrITabQNHVkXZgMOsSoK/story.html http://paa2012.princeton.edu/papers/122289

128.233.4.247 (talk) 21:05, 12 August 2014 (UTC)

title: Talk:Roe effect


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Carnival of Souls

Carnival of Souls is a 1962 American psychological horror film produced and directed by Herk Harvey and written by John Clifford from a story by Clifford and Harvey, and starring Candace Hilligoss. Its plot follows Mary Henry, a young woman whose life is disturbed after a car accident. She relocates to a new city, where she finds herself unable to assimilate with the locals, and becomes drawn to the pavilion of an abandoned carnival. Director Harvey also appears in the film as a ghoulish stranger who stalks her throughout. The film is set to an organ score by Gene Moore.

Filmed in Lawrence, Kansas, and Salt Lake City, Carnival of Souls was shot on a budget of $33,000, and Harvey employed various guerrilla filmmaking techniques to finish the production. The film is loosely based on the French short An Occurrence at Owl Creek Bridge (1961), an adaptation of the 1890 story of the same name by Ambrose Bierce, and Harvey was inspired by the visual style of filmmakers such as Ingmar Bergman and Jean Cocteau. Carnival of Souls was Harvey's only feature film, and did not gain widespread attention when originally released as a double feature with the now mostly forgotten The Devil's Messenger in 1962.

Since the 1980s, the film has been noted by critics and film scholars for its cinematography and foreboding atmosphere. The film has a large cult following and is occasionally screened at film and Halloween festivals.

Plot
In Kansas, Mary Henry is riding in a car with two other young women when two men challenge them to a road race. During the race, the women's car is nudged by the boys’ and plunges off a bridge into a muddy river. Three hours after the police start dredging the water to look for them, Mary miraculously surfaces on the river bank, but cannot remember how she survived. Mary moves to Salt Lake City, where she has been hired as a church organist. While driving near an abandoned pavilion on the shores of the Great Salt Lake, Mary begins experiencing visions of a ghoulish, pale-faced figure (referred to as "The Man" in the credits). A gas station attendant tells her the pavilion was first a bathhouse, then a dance hall, and finally a carnival before it was abandoned. In town, Mary rents a room and visits the church where she will be playing the organ. Mary takes a ride out to the pavilion at the lake with the church's minister who stops her from entering, warning that it is against the law.

Mary continues experiencing visions of The Man and also rejects the repeated advances of John, a neighboring lodger. Mary goes to the pavilion by herself to investigate but does not find anything. Later, Mary begins experiencing terrifying interludes when she becomes invisible and inaudible to the rest of the world, as if she were not there. During one of these episodes, Mary meets Dr. Samuels who offers to help her while acknowledging he is not a psychiatrist. Mary returns to the church by herself to practice the organ and finds herself shifting from a hymn to eerie music. In a trance, she sees visions of The Man and other ghouls dancing at the pavilion. The minister, hearing the strange music, denounces it as sacrilege and insists that Mary resign.

That night, Mary accompanies John to a bar. Terrified of being alone with her nightmares, Mary tells John she wants his company. When they return home, John tries to convince Mary to let him stay the night, however Mary becomes hysterical when she sees The Man in the mirror. John leaves, believing Mary to be insane. The following morning, Mary returns to the pavilion where she encounters The Man and his fellow ghouls. She tries frantically to escape, however the locals do not acknowledge her and she only encounters more ghouls until she wakes up, revealing the previous scene to be merely a nightmare. She is later drawn back to the pavilion once again, where she finds the ghouls dancing, with a ghoul version of herself paired with The Man. She tries to run away but is chased by the ghouls onto the beach, where she collapses as they close in.

The following day, Dr. Samuels, the minister, and the police go to the pavilion to look for Mary. They find her footprints but note that she has otherwise vanished. Back in Kansas, the submerged car is finally pulled from the river. Mary's body is seen in the front seat alongside the other two women.

Development
Harvey was a director and producer of industrial and educational films based in Lawrence, Kansas, where he worked for the Centron Corporation. While returning to Kansas after shooting a Centron film in California, Harvey developed the idea for Carnival of Souls after driving past the abandoned Saltair Pavilion in Salt Lake City. "When I got back to Lawrence, I asked my friend and co-worker at Centron Films, John Clifford, who was a writer there, how he'd like to write a feature," Harvey recalled. "The last scene, I told him, had to be a whole bunch of ghouls dancing in that ballroom; the rest was up to him. He wrote it in three weeks."

The screenplay is loosely based on the French short film An Occurrence at Owl Creek Bridge (1961), an adaptation of the 1890 story of the same name by Ambrose Bierce.

Casting
In New York City, Harvey discovered then-twenty six year-old actress Candace Hilligoss, who had trained with Lee Strasberg, and cast her in the lead role of Mary Henry. Hilligoss had been offered a role in the Richard Hilliard-directed horror film Violent Midnight (1963), but opted for the role in Carnival of Souls. She stated that at the time, she took the role as a "take-the-money-and-run type of situation"; she was paid approximately $2,000 for her work in the film.

Filming
Harvey shot Carnival of Souls in three weeks on location in Lawrence and Salt Lake City, after taking three weeks off from his job at Centron in order to direct the film, and starting with an initial production budget of $17,000. He raised the $17,000 cash budget by asking local businessmen if they were willing to invest $500 in his production. The other $13,000 of the total $30,000 budget was deferred. Harvey was able to secure the rental of the Saltair Pavilion for $50, and several other scenes, such as the scene featuring Mary in the department store, were shot guerrilla style, with Harvey paying off locals to allow the crew to quickly film. Hilligoss described the filming process as brisk, with the cast and crew working seven days a week.

Harvey aimed for the film to have "the look of Bergman and the feel of Cocteau," and employed techniques he had learned in his work on industrial films in order to limit production costs. There was not enough money for a process screen to create a rear projection effect, which was the method typically used at that time to create the impression that a scene was taking place inside a moving car, by combining footage shot inside a static car with separate footage of a moving background. Instead, Harvey used a battery-powered hand-held Arriflex camera to film the shots inside moving cars, removing the need for compositing. The Arriflex, which was at that time more often used by cameramen filming newsreel footage, also allowed them to use a moving camera in other scenes without the need for gear like dollies or cranes.

Harvey's assistant director was Reza Badiyi, a young Iranian immigrant who was just beginning his film work in the States. At this time, Badiyi had been second-unit director on one other film, Robert Altman's directing debut, The Delinquents, but would go on to make (amongst other notable work) some of the best-known, iconic television series openings and montages, including Hawaii Five-O, Get Smart, and The Mary Tyler Moore Show. The shot in which the face of The Man appears in the car window was accomplished through the use of an angled mirror placed on the far side of the window. The scene at the start of the film in which the car goes off the bridge and into the river was filmed in Lecompton, Kansas. The town did not charge a fee for the use of the bridge, only requiring the film crew to replace the bridge's damaged rails once they were done filming. This was done, at a cost of $12 for the repair.

Musical score
Carnival of Souls features an original organ score by local Kansas City organist and composer Gene Moore. Film and music scholar Julie Brown comments on the score, noting: "The organ is one of the spectral presences in Carnival of Souls, summoning up, or being summoned up by, the various allusions in the film to cinema's past." Screenwriter John Clifford has stated that the locations Harvey chose for the film (particularly the Saltair Pavilion, and the grand church organ) influenced the decision to use an organ score. The onscreen depiction of the organ played by Mary was implemented by Harvey to add to the film's "Gothic look."

An original soundtrack album for Carnival of Souls was released in 1988, featuring Gene Moore's original musical score.

In 2023, Waxwork Records released "Carnival Of Souls" as part of the Rob Zombie Presents soundtrack series. It was pressed on coloured vinyl and housed in special packaging featuring artwork by Graham Humphreys.

Release
Carnival of Souls had its world premiere at the Main Street Theatre in Lawrence, Kansas, in September 1962. While the US release of Carnival of Souls failed to include a copyright on the prints, automatically placing them in the public domain, the foreign release marketed by Walter Manley did contain a copyright card and was protected for overseas sales. The 35 mm theatrical prints were cut by Herz-Lion to 78 minutes which trimmed the camera original. However, the 16 mm television copies were printed complete and individually cut by each station to fit their time slot, which is why they vary in length.

WOR-TV in New York City used to broadcast the film intact in a late night timeslot in the 1960s. The scenes cut by the theatrical distributor include a scene where Mary stops at a gas station and discusses the carnival building with the attendant, a longer dialogue sequence between the organ factory boss and a carpenter and an extra scene where the doctor talks to the landlady. In 1989, the film was screened at festivals across Europe and the United States, affording it renewed public interest, and it has subsequently appeared at numerous Halloween film festivals.

Prints of Carnival of Souls vary in length from 78 minutes in theatrical release to 84 minutes in the original cut. While some sources have erroneously listed the film at a 91-minute-runtime, Michael Weldon stated in The Psychotronic Video Guide to Film that the original theatrical cut of the film ran approximately 80 minutes. He also stated that the director's cut, which runs 84 minutes, is "the best and most complete version we'll ever see."

Reception and legacy
Carnival of Souls went largely unnoticed by critics upon its initial release and received "delayed acclaim" in the ensuing decades, with numerous arthouse screenings in 1989 in conjunction with the Halloween season. It has since become regarded by many film schools as a classic, often praised for its lighting and sound design, in which "sight and sound come together... in a horrifying way." Some scholars, such as S. S. Prawer, consider Carnival of Souls more an art film than a straightforward horror film. The Time Out film guide commended the film's "striking black-and-white compositions, disorienting dream sequences and eerie atmosphere," adding that the film "has the feel of a silent German expressionist movie. Unfortunately, so does some of the acting, which suffers from exaggerated facial expressions and bizarre gesturing. But the mesmerising power of the carnival and dance-hall sequences far outweighs the corniness of the awkward intimate scenes."

Leonard Maltin gave Carnival of Souls a score of two-and-a-half out of four stars, calling the film an "eerie" and "imaginative low budget effort." Critic Roger Ebert, possibly referring to the similarly-themed "The Hitch-Hiker" episode aired two years earlier, likened the film to a "lost episode of The Twilight Zone," and noted that it possessed an "intriguing power." Joe Brown of The Washington Post remarked upon the film's cinematography, writing: "Harvey's camerawork gives a new twist to the word 'deadpan,' making the most mundane places and people imaginable seem like ghastly hallucinations, and the director shows a flair for elegantly employing existing locations and lighting for maximum disorientation value." Stephen Holden of The New York Times saw the 1989 screening at the Fantasy Festival and wrote: "What has earned Carnival of Souls its reputation is the director's knack for building a mood of fatalistic angst." The Los Angeles Times' Peter Rainer perceived the film's cinematography to be inconsistent in merit, called the acting "fairly amateurish to begin with, [and] has a one-take-only quality", and noted the "inept post-dubbing"; however, he wrote that "these rinky-dink elements only add to the horror."

TV Guide gave Carnival of Souls a score of three stars out of four, praising the film's atmosphere, acting, and eerie score, calling it, "A chilling ghost story with artistic pretensions." Film Reel.com gave Carnival of Souls a positive review, praising the film's atmosphere, slow-building tension, and disturbing visuals.

On Rotten Tomatoes, the film has an approval rating of 87% based on 67 reviews, with a rating average of 7.2/10. The site's consensus states that the film "offers delightfully chilling proof that when it comes to telling an effective horror story, less can often be much, much more".

Home media
Due to its public domain status in the United States, Carnival of Souls has been released in a significant number of formats through numerous distributors, which, according to film scholars Chris Vander Kaay and Kathleen Fernandez-Vander Kaay, has ensured it "a constant presence in the video market and [contributed to] its enduring cult popularity." The Criterion Collection issued a 2-disc DVD set of the film in 2000, featuring both a 78-minute theatrical version and an extended 84-minute director's cut. In 2009, Legend Films released the film on DVD featuring both the black-and-white and a colorized version of the directors cut, including an audio commentary track by comedian Michael J. Nelson, a former writer and host of Mystery Science Theater 3000. In 2016, the Criterion Collection reissued the film on DVD, as well as premiering it on Blu-ray, featuring a new restoration.

Carnival of Souls has gradually developed a cult following since its release and is now considered a low-budget classic. The film has since been included in multiple lists by various media outlets as one of the greatest horror films ever made. Complex magazine ranked Carnival of Souls number 39 on its list of the 50 scariest movies ever made. Slant Magazine placed the film at #32 on its "100 Best Horror Movies of All Time". Paste magazine ranked the film at #85 in its list of "100 Best Horror Movies of All Time".

In 2012, the Academy Film Archive restored Carnival of Souls. The film has been named as a precursor to the works of various filmmakers, including David Lynch, George A. Romero, Lucrecia Martel and James Wan.

The film was used for a RiffTrax Live event in October 2016, where former Mystery Science Theater 3000 cast members Bill Corbett, Kevin Murphy and Michael J. Nelson riffed the film for a live audience and broadcast to other theaters through NCM Fathom. Rifftrax's website offers the video downloads of the live performance as well as a studio-recorded riff of the film.

A novelization of the film titled Nightmare Pavilion written by Andrew J. Rausch was released by Happy Cloud Media in October 2020.

Remakes
Negotiations with the writer of Carnival of Souls, John Clifford, and the director Herk Harvey led in 1998 to a remake directed by Adam Grossman and Ian Kessner and starring Bobbie Phillips. The remake has little in common with the 1962 film, borrowing little more than the revelation at the end. Sidney Berger, who had appeared in the original film as John Linden, appeared in a cameo in the remake. The remake followed the story of a young woman (Phillips) and her confrontation with her mother's murderer. The filmmakers had asked for Candace Hilligoss, the star of the first film, to also appear, but she declined, feeling that Clifford and the filmmakers of the remake had shown disrespect to her in initiating the film without consulting her or considering her treatment for a sequel to the 1962 version. The remake was marketed as Wes Craven Presents 'Carnival of Souls'. It received negative appraisals from most reviewers and did not manage to secure theatrical release, going direct-to-video.

An unofficial remake of Carnival of Souls was released in 2008 under the title Yella, directed by Christian Petzold. This film is based loosely on the original.

In popular culture
When Mary is speaking to the manager of the organ factory at the beginning of the film, he says to her: "It takes more than intellect to be a musician. Put your soul into it. OK?" This sample was used on the 1998 song "Church of Noise" by the Northern Irish rock band Therapy?.

Mary laments towards the end of the film: "I don't belong in the world, that's what it is. Something separates me from other people. Everywhere I turn, there's something blocking my escape." A sample of this line was used at the beginning of the Lana Del Rey song "13 Beaches" on her album Lust for Life (2017).

Clips of the film were used throughout the Drake video "Knife Talk".

Clips of the film were also used by the band Why These Coyotes for their song Dance Around the Fire.

The dancehall scenes featured at the end of the film were referenced in the music video for Phoebe Bridgers' "Smoke Signals".

Critical essays

 * Introduction to Carnival of Souls an essay by John Clifford at the Criterion Collection
 * Carnival of Souls an essay by Bruce Kawin at the Criterion Collection

title: Carnival of Souls


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Wilson Airport

Wilson Airport is an airport in Nairobi, Kenya. It has flights to many regional airports in Kenya while Nairobi's main airport, Jomo Kenyatta International Airport, serves domestic and many international destinations.

Location
Wilson Airport, is in Nairobi County, in the city of Nairobi, the capital of Kenya and the largest metropolitan centre in that country. It lies approximately 4 km, by road, south of the central business district. Nearby suburbs include Langata, South C, and Kibera.

This location is approximately 18 km, by road, west of Jomo Kenyatta International Airport, the largest civilian airport in the country.

Overview
The airport serves domestic and international traffic. It is used mostly by general aviation traffic. Industries that use Wilson Airport extensively include tourism, health care and agriculture. Wilson Airport averages traffic of around 120,000 landings and take-offs annually.

Airkenya and other small airlines use Wilson Airport for scheduled domestic passenger services, instead of Jomo Kenyatta International Airport. Missionary aviation operators AMREF, Mission Aviation Fellowship (MAF) and AIM AIR use Wilson Airport as their airport base on the African continent. It is used also for flight training. The airport is under the supervision of Kenya Airports Authority (KAA). As a result of faster check-in times and fewer flight delays, as compared to Jomo Kenyatta International Airport, Wilson Airport is commonly used by business executive aircraft for domestic and international travel. Common domestic destinations from Wilson Airport include Kisumu Airport, Mombasa International Airport and Eldoret International Airport.

At 5546 ft above sea level, Wilson Airport has two asphalt runways: Runway 1 (heading 07/25) measures 4798 ft long and 72 ft wide; Runway 2 (heading 14/32) measures 5052 ft long and 76 ft wide.

History
The airport was established as Nairobi West Aerodrome in 1929 by Florence Kerr Wilson, a wealthy widow. Built at a cost of £50,000 (£3.2 million in 2020), Mrs Wilson hired pilot Tom Campbell Black to run the airport. After the outbreak of World War II in 1939, the airport, its aircraft fleet and its pilots were taken over by the then colonial government and made a Royal Air Force base until after the war when it continued functioning as a civilian airport. In 1962, it was named Wilson Airport in honour of its founder who died in 1968.

Accidents and incidents

 * On 24 December 1968, a Douglas C-47A 5Y-ADI of the Kenya Police Air Wing crashed shortly after takeoff. The incident was attributed to inadequately secured cargo. All three people on board were killed.
 * On 11 October 2019, a Silverstone Air Services Fokker 50 registration 5Y-IZO operating flight 620 to Mombasa, Kenya, overran the runway on takeoff from Wilson. The aircraft was extensively damaged but there were no fatalities.
 * On 5 March 2024, a Safarilink Aviation de Havilland Dash 8-300, registration 5Y-SLK, shortly after takeoff from Wilson collided with a Cessna 172, registration 5Y-NNJ, operated by a local flying school. The Cessna crashed and the two occupants were killed. The Dash 8 had minor damage and landed back at Wilson with no casualties.

title: Wilson Airport


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Eric Rohmann

Eric Rohmann (born 26 October 1957) is an American author and illustrator of children's books. He is a graduate of Illinois State University and Arizona State University. He won the 2003 Caldecott Medal for U.S. picture book illustration, recognizing My Friend Rabbit, and he was a runner-up in 1995 for Time Flies. He created a popular series based on a bulldozer that began with Bulldozer’s Big Day.

Picture books

 * Time Flies (1994)
 * The Cinder-Eyed Cats (2001)
 * My Friend Rabbit (2002)
 * Pumpkinhead (2003)
 * Clara and Asha (2005)
 * A Kitten Tale (2008)
 * Last Song (2010)
 * Bone Dog (2011)
 * Oh, No! (2012) (Illustrator)
 * A Kitten Tale (2012)
 * Bless This Mouse (2015) (Illustrator)
 * Bulldozer's Big Day (2015) (Illustrator)
 * Bulldozer Helps Out (2017) (Illustrator)

Personal life
Rohmann was raised one of three children and currently lives and works in Illinois. He was not a big reader as a child, instead seeing the world in images. Rohmann is married to Candace Fleming and the couple have collaborated on projects including Oh, No!. He is partial to coffee, popcorn, and Delacroix’s The Death of Sardanapalus.

title: Eric Rohmann


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Oscar F. Holcombe

Oscar Fitzallen Holcombe (December 31, 1888 – June 18, 1968) was an American businessman who served as the mayor of Houston, Texas, for 22 years, in 11 non-consecutive terms.

Biography
Holcombe was born in Mobile, Alabama, and raised in San Antonio, Texas. He moved to Houston when he was 18, and founded his own construction business, the O. F. Holcombe Company, at age 26. His business acumen and contacts eventually made Holcombe a millionaire.

Six years after founding his business, in 1921, Holcombe won his first term as mayor. He served as mayor from 1921 to 1929. Holcombe was defeated in the 1929 election by Walter Monteith, who supported a more fiscally conservative approach. Holcombe ran for mayor again in 1931, promising to do more for the unemployed, but Monteith was elected again.

Holcombe served subsequent mayoral terms from 1933 to 1937, 1939 to 1941, 1947 to 1953, and 1956 to 1958. His administrations were considered to be conservative and pro-business, though Holcombe was also aggressive about expanding the city's boundaries and improving public services (such as libraries, a municipal auditorium, and an improved sewage system).

Holcombe married Mary Grey Miller on May 3, 1912. They had one daughter, Elisabeth, who married Henry Markley Crosswell, Jr.

Honors
During the early 1960s, Houston renamed the stretch of Bellaire Boulevard east of Southside Place, which runs through the Texas Medical Center, as Holcombe Boulevard. In the late 1980s, the municipality of West University Place also renamed Bellaire Boulevard as Holcombe Boulevard within its jurisdiction.

title: Oscar F. Holcombe


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Talk:Criticality accident

Blue flash section needs a rewrite
While it's accurate enough at the moment - explaining both processes - it's obvious that some of it's left over from an overzealous attempt to explain how Cherenkov radiation "couldn't" be responsible, and it should therefore be reworded. If someone wants to take a shot at it, feel free; else I'll have a go myself. Magic9mushroom (talk) 14:39, 24 August 2020 (UTC)

Confusion
Tōkai incident: 'not designed to dissolve this type of solution' reads oddly to me. Isn't it solids that are dissolved not solutions? 109.158.118.221 (talk) 13:27, 26 September 2020 (UTC)

scale
For a bomb, with the neutron mean-free-path about the size of the fissioning sphere, it might be that one number is about right. But in the case of reactors, reactivity can, and does, vary throughout the reactor. This is one of the design complications of the RBMK. Operators had to work hard to keep reactivity close to 1 throughout the reactor. But then the article says: "accumulates in a small volume". The size of such volume depends on the mean free path of neutrons, so the volume can't be too small. Gah4 (talk) 03:45, 4 May 2021 (UTC)

Contradicting number of deaths
There are contradicting numbers of deaths in article: 14 fatalities in the lead, 21 in known incidents summary and 23 listed total in the incident table fatalities column. MKFI (talk) 19:44, 21 May 2021 (UTC)

 * I've had a go at fixing this, although I'm really not an expert in the field. Most of the numbers seem to come from the McLaughlin et al report published in 1999, but the table also includes a nuclear submarine incident (Vladivostok 1985) not included in that report.  21 is the number synthesised from two different parts of the report, whereas the 23 fatalities in the table represent a subset of the report plus the submarine, so I think the "true" number is over 30.  I can't figure out where 14 might have come from.  And I'm sceptical of the implication that there have been no criticality incidents in the 21st century, but I'll let someone with more expertise address that one.  Jowa fan (talk) 23:29, 17 March 2022 (UTC)
 * Chernobyl is also not included, because that was promt criticality. I suppose people just do not play with U anymore to get this. Valery Zapolodov (talk) 01:29, 14 April 2022 (UTC)

title: Talk:Criticality accident


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Talk:Spin quantum number

Electron spin analogy
A spinning zero diameter electron has zero angular momentum, because no part of the electron’s mass extends beyond a radius of zero. The angular momentum L of a particle about a given origin is defined as:

 * $$\mathbf{L}=\mathbf{r}\times\mathbf{p}$$

where r is the position vector of the particle relative to the origin, p is the linear momentum of the particle, and × denotes the cross product.

Including electron ‘spin quantum number’ within the Spin (physics) article, w/o identifying the conflict between the zero diameter and non-zero angular momentum gives the impression that a spinning electron with zero diameter indeed has momentum, and the impression that (zero diameter) electron spin is the cause of magnetic moment.

“… an angular momentum and a magnetic moment could indeed arise from a spinning sphere of charge, but this classical picture cannot fit the size or quantized nature of the electron spin. The property called electron spin must be considered to be a quantum concept without detailed classical analogy. ” http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/spin.html

“The term "electron spin" is not to be taken literally in the classical sense as a description of the origin of the magnetic moment described above. To be sure, a spinning sphere of charge can produce a magnetic moment, but the magnitude of the magnetic moment obtained above cannot be reasonably modeled by considering the electron as a spinning sphere. High energy scattering from electrons shows no "size" of the electron down to a resolution of about 10-3fermis, and at that size a preposterously high spin rate of some 1032 radian/s would be required to match the observed angular momentum.” http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/spin.html    Vze2wgsm1 (talk) 23:28, 16 February 2011 (UTC)

What's the spin quantum number?
The start of the article says $$m_s$$ is the spin quantum number. Later at some point it calls $$s$$ the spin quantum number. They are different things. Is there a standard definition of "spin quantum number", or do experts freely call both of these things the "spin quantum number"? If there's a standard definition, let's only call one of $$m_s$$ and $$s$$ the spin quantum number, not both. If there's not a standard definition, we should warn the reader. John Baez (talk) 19:49, 1 December 2021 (UTC)

 * I attempted to answer this question in the intro in June-July 2021, especially by adding the third paragraph: "At an elementary level, $m_{s}$ is described as the spin quantum number, and $s$ is not mentioned since its value 1/2 is a fixed property of the electron. At a more advanced level where quantum mechanical operators are introduced, $s$ is referred to as the spin quantum number, and $m_{s}$ is described as the spin magnetic quantum number or as the z-component of spin $s_{z}$." (plus references). This warns the reader that there are indeed two definitions depending on the level of the textbook. Dirac66 (talk) 00:54, 2 December 2021 (UTC)

Too technical?
@Lingonberry 666 you added the Template:Technical but you did not open a corresponding Talk to explain why. What are your suggestions? Johnjbarton (talk) 16:26, 18 February 2024 (UTC)

 * Sorry, I'm new to Wikipedia and didn't know I had to. Anyways, I think it jumps into too much technical detail too soon. My suggestions are that more of the basic concepts should be explicitly defined and briefly explained as the article introduces spin quantum numbers at the beginning of the article. I think that since most of this article's readers are probably students, the article would attract more readers if it explained spin quantum numbers one step at a time. Lingonberry 666 (talk) 18:42, 18 February 2024 (UTC)
 * Ok thank you. I will take try. Johnjbarton (talk) 19:02, 18 February 2024 (UTC)

Most of this material belongs in Spin (physics)
The majority of the material in this article is about the physical phenomenon, not about the quantum number. Johnjbarton (talk) 21:58, 18 February 2024 (UTC)

title: Talk:Spin quantum number


text: Category:1474 births

title: Category:1474 births


text: File:Optigansongbook.gif

title: File:Optigansongbook.gif


text:
Category:Scottish painters

 * Painters from Scotland.

title: Category:Scottish painters


text:
Talk:Voodoo Glow Skulls

InfoBox
I added an info box but it needs some more details added. —Preceding unsigned comment added by Buck09 (talk • contribs) 22:25, 6 February 2008 (UTC)

Boosterism
''When "Steady As She Goes" hits the streets, Voodoo Glow Skulls do the same! They celebrate the release of "Steady As She Goes" with shows across the United States and Canada from July though September. The hard-working men of Voodoo Glow Skulls have made it their personal mission to expose audiences to what they describe as California street music. "Steady As She Goes" is a perfect primer for the uninitiated, while continuing to thrill longtime fans.''

Perhaps someone would like to distill any tangible information there is in all this boosterism and re-add it to the article.

Band Members
can we get an accurate listing of band members over the years? i can't seem to find one anywhere. Chud50 05:27, 30 November 2006 (UTC)

MAke it an acutal music page
Im am about to do some research find out info and make this a proper artist article.

Religion?
Someone threw a line about band members' religious views in the Hickey Controversy section. Poorly formatted and unsubstantiated. Delete, yes? McFlynnTHM 16:44, 14 November 2007 (UTC)

Casing etc
I fixed some casing, some wording and removed the VGS acronym and put in the long version to make the article consistent cheers, Rebecca 210.54.6.17 (talk) 01:15, 7 May 2009 (UTC)

title: Talk:Voodoo Glow Skulls


text: File:Genesis - We Can't Dance.jpg

title: File:Genesis - We Can't Dance.jpg


text:
Pedro Moraes Trindade

Pedro Moraes Trindade, commonly known as Mestre Moraes, (born February 9, 1950, in Ilha de Maré in Salvador, Brazil) is a master of capoeira.

He lives in Salvador, Bahia, teaching at a public school and overseeing GCAP, which serves as a cultural outreach project, training both older visiting students and children who lack direction for channeling their energies.

Meste Moraes was student of João Grande and the teacher of Cobra Mansa.

Biography
Moraes was born on the island of Maré in the Bay of All The Saints, one of the legendary locations celebrated in capoeira songs, and was raised in Salvador.

His father was also a practitioner of capoeira Angola, the traditional style of Bahia.

In Pastinha's academy
At the age of eight, he started to train at the academy of Mestre Pastinha. By that time Pastinha was blind with and no longer taught classes, so academy was run by his students João Grande and João Pequeno. He states that he is truly the student of João Grande due to the impression made on the young Moraes by the inspiring way that João Grande played capoeira.

Rio years
Moraes joined the Marines and was relocated to Rio de Janeiro in the early 1970s. By 1974, he had already begun instructing capoeira Angola in the northern suburb of Belfort Roxo. He also led the Modá-Ruê group, which taught residents of Rio de Janeiro about 'Northeastern folklore,' encompassing practices like maculelê, samba de roda, puxada de rede, and even lamento africano. To preserve and transmit his mentors' teachings, he founded Grupo Capoeira Angola Pelourinho (GCAP) in 1980.

What set Moraes apart from many other Bahians in Rio was his unwavering commitment to playing Angola, even when faced with practitioners of different styles, whether they were ring fighters or swift athletes from Senzala. According to Mestre Marco Aurélio, word spread about "an African was visiting the rodas of the city, who played a different capoeira". Salvadorian capoeiristas visiting Rio often found themselves facing aggressive opponents focused on efficiency rather than ritualistic, playful games. When Moraes played, he didn't rely on high-kick sequences but consistently adhered to the inner game of Angola, known as jogo de dentro. Moraes not only skillfully avoided kicks but sometimes even 'slapped the guy on his bottom’.

Back to Salvador
In 1982, Moraes and his top student, Cobra Mansa, relocated to Salvador. Following Pastinha's passing in 1981, capoeira Angola appeared to be heading towards extinction, as many older mestres had retired or significantly embraced the regional style.

Moraes and Cobrinha Mansa's return revitalized the Salvador capoeira community. At the time, capoeira Angola was often seen as an art for elderly men. However, their youthful presence challenged this notion and showcased potential of capoeira angola. Mestre João Grande even agreed to teach again for GCAP after a six-year absence.

The group not only focused on capoeira but also capoeira history and black culture. His aim was to return to capoeira's African, specifically Angolan roots. Moraes is a strong advocate of the Angola style of capoeira, and believes that the source of capoeira is the n'golo, ritual combat performed by Bantu people in southwestern Angola.

Moraes codified the Angolan musical style, and defined its basic instrumental ensemble, and requires GCAP's members to be versed in all aspects of capoeira Angola's music.

Moraes on capoeira
Moraes has stated his idea of capoeira Angola's basic philosophy:

"The capoeira ring, whose geometric form facilitates the propagation of energy, is one of the symbolic representations of the 'macro' world. The movements we make inside this ring symbolise the adversities we encounter in life, which we often don't know how to deal with. In the game of life, our opponents, in most cases, know nothing of capoeira, but have movements peculiar to their own game, which we should be able to interpret and understand in their context, taking the capoeira ring as a point of reference. Playing in the ring, we succeed in establishing a fusion between playful elements and respect for the other person. But the ring isn't reality: the world is. If we win in this ring, we can take the other one too!"

title: Pedro Moraes Trindade


text:
User:Falsifian

My name is James Cook. Personal web page.

In Fall 2011 I started the article LizardTech, Inc. v. Earth Resource Mapping, Inc. as part of a course on intellectual property law at UC Berkeley (participating in WikiProject_Intellectual_Property_law). Scratch page I used while preparing the article.

title: User:Falsifian


text:
VU meter

A volume unit (VU) meter or standard volume indicator (SVI) is a device displaying a representation of the signal level in audio equipment.

The original design was proposed in the 1940 IRE paper, A New Standard Volume Indicator and Reference Level, written by experts from CBS, NBC, and Bell Telephone Laboratories. The Acoustical Society of America then standardized it in 1942 (ANSI C16.5-1942) for use in telephone installation and radio broadcast stations.

Consumer audio equipment often features VU meters, both for utility purposes (e.g. in recording equipment) and for aesthetics (in playback devices). The original VU meter is a passive electromechanical device, namely a 200 μA DC d'Arsonval movement ammeter fed from a full-wave copper-oxide rectifier mounted within the meter case. The mass of the needle causes a relatively slow response, which in effect integrates or smooths the signal, with a rise time of 300 ms. This has the effect of averaging out peaks and troughs of short duration, and reflects the perceived loudness of the material more closely than the more modern and initially more expensive PPM meters. For this reason many audio practitioners prefer the VU meter to its alternatives, though the meter indication does not reflect some of the key features of the signal, most notably its peak level, which in many cases, must not pass a defined limit.

0 VU is equal to +4 dBu, or 1.228 volts RMS, a power of about 2.5 milliwatts when applied across a 600-ohm load. 0 VU is often referred to as "0 dB". The meter was designed not to measure the signal, but to let users aim the signal level to a target level of 0 VU (sometimes labelled 100%), so it is not important that the device is non-linear and imprecise for low levels. In effect, the scale ranges from −20 VU to +3 VU, with −3 VU right in the middle (half the power of 0 VU). Purely electronic devices may emulate the response of the needle; they are VU-meters in as much as they respect the standard.

In the broadcast industry, loudness monitoring was standardized, in 2009 in the United States by the ATSC A/85, in 2010 in Europe by the EBU R-128, in 2011 in Japan by the TR-B32, and in 2010 in Australia by the OP-59.

Lead
The original designers of the VU meter were tasked with finding a way to measure complex audio signals with a simple technology.

Since a VU meter is a mechanical device, it can never reflect the instantaneous signal peaks of complex audio signals. The designers of the VU meter therefore took a different approach. They created a meter that did not measure peaks, but simply inferred them. A real VU meter has a very specific "ballistic characteristic". This means that it responds to changing audio signals at a very precise speed, rising from no signal to 99% of "0 VU" when a 1 kHz sine wave tone is applied for 300 milliseconds.

When using a VU meter, the audio system is calibrated with a sine wave tone at a "reference level" for the system. At the reference level, the VU meter shows "0" for a sine-wave tone, but the engineer must know that, with music or speech, to always infer that peak levels are always between 6 dB and 10 dB higher than the reference level. The usefulness of the VU meter comes from the fact that for most types of audio sources the system engineer can count on these peaks being within this range and can design the audio system with confidence. Good engineering practice is to always build in a little extra "headroom", as it is called, to cover the strange conditions where an audio signal might exceed normal peak levels or the equipment operator fails to adjust the levels correctly. Typically the levels considered when designing systems using a VU meter are:
 * Reference level (typically +4 dBu, valid with tones only);
 * Standard output level (10 dB above reference, typical peak levels);
 * Clip level (6 dB above standard output level, "headroom" to allow for unusual conditions)

Standard characteristics
The behaviour of VU meters is defined in ANSI C16.5-1942, British Standard BS 6840, and IEC 60268-17.

Rise time

The rise time, defined as the time it takes for the needle to reach 99% of the distance to 0 VU when the VU-meter is submitted to a signal that steps from 0 to a level that reads 0 VU, is 300 ms.

The overshoot must be within 1 to 1.5%.

The fall time is the same as the rise time, 300 ms.

Frequency response
The level specification is meant at 1000 Hz. The reading should not depart from the reading at 1000 Hz by more than 0.2 dB from 35 Hz to 10 kHz or more than 0.5 dB between 25 Hz and 16 kHz.

Note that the specification mentions only sinusoid waveforms. Given the electromechanical principle of the meter, the deviation of the needle is actually approximately proportional to the average of the part of the signal with more than approximately 0.4 V instantaneously because of the two copper-oxide rectifiers always in series, which transfer function curve has a knee around 0.2 V. Signals generally do not have a sinusoidal waveform by far, even if they all fall within the VU-meter bandpass. The reading is the average of the voltage, and is not an indication of the power of the signal, which is proportional to the average of the square of the voltage, or the root-mean-square (RMS) value. As a conventional VU reading, however, it served its purpose as an indication a) of the overall level and dynamics of the signal and b) of the proximity to the maximum admitted level, to the operators of recording and broadcasting equipment. Maintenance staff could also use it as a measurement apparatus, to check for losses in transmissions and level alignment, provided that they used exclusively sine waves as test signals.

Impedance
The VU meter and its attenuator should present a 7,500-ohm impedance to the circuit it is applied to, measured with a sinusoid signal that sets the indicator to 0 dB.

History
The VU-meter was originally developed in 1939 by the combined effort of Bell Labs and broadcasters CBS and NBC. In the 1970s–80s, neon-filled, planar dual displays with up to 201 segments per stereo channel were popular among broadcasters as fast bar graph VU meters.

Other level meters
The consumer audio industry often uses volume indicators that do not comply with any standard.

BBC sound engineers would refer to the VU meter as the "Virtually Useless" meter, preferring the PPM.

Academic research has shown that an SVI or VU meter behaves differently to the average value and RMS meters. The ballistics shown by this instrument, in response to signals with a large crest factor, position its readings halfway between both. For example, an increment of 3 dB in the crest factor of an audio signal gives approximately a fall of −3 dB in a RMS meter, −6 dB in an average meter, and −4 dB in a VU meter.

title: VU meter


text:
Absolute idealism

Absolute idealism is chiefly associated with Friedrich Schelling and G. W. F. Hegel, both of whom were German idealist philosophers in the 19th century. The label has also been attached to others such as Josiah Royce, an American philosopher who was greatly influenced by Hegel's work, and the British idealists.

According to Hegel, being is ultimately comprehensible only as an all-inclusive whole (das Absolute). Hegel asserted that in order for the thinking subject (human reason or consciousness) to be able to know its object (the world) at all, there must be in some sense an identity of thought and being. Otherwise, the subject would never have access to the object and we would have no certainty about any of our knowledge of the world.

The absolute idealist position dominated philosophy in nineteenth-century Britain and Germany, while exerting significantly less influence in the United States. The absolute idealist position should be distinguished from the subjective idealism of Berkeley, the transcendental idealism of Kant, or the post-Kantian transcendental idealism (also known as "critical idealism") of Fichte and of the early Schelling.

Schelling and Hegel's concepts of the absolute
According to the scholar Andrew Bowie, Hegel's system depends upon showing how each view and positing of how the world is really has an internal contradiction: "This necessarily leads thought to more comprehensive ways of grasping the world, until the point where there can be no more comprehensive way because there is no longer any contradiction to give rise to it."

For Hegel, the interaction of opposites generates, in a dialectical fashion, all concepts necessary to comprehend what is.

For Kant, reason was only for us, and the categories only emerged within the subject. However, for Hegel, reason is fully immanent. Spirit emerges from nature in history and, in art, religion, and philosophy, knows itself in its truth.

Hegel shows that the world is not other than self. With the realization that mind and world are, by logical necessity, meaningfully coherent, our access to the world is made secure, a security that was lost in Kant's proclamation that the thing-in-itself was ultimately inaccessible.

Hegel's position is a critical transformation of the concept of the absolute advanced by Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph von Schelling (1775–1854), who argued for a philosophy of Identity:

"‘Absolute identity’ is, then, the link of the two aspects of being, which, on the one hand, is the universe, and, on the other, is the changing multiplicity which the knowable universe also is. Schelling insists now that “The I think, I am, is, since Descartes, the basic mistake of all knowledge; thinking is not my thinking, and being is not my being, for everything is only of God or the totality” (SW I/7, p. 148), so the I is ‘affirmed’ as a predicate of the being by which it is preceded."

For Schelling, the absolute is a causeless 'ground' upon which relativity (difference and similarity) can be discerned by human judgement (and thus permit 'freedom' itself) and this ground must be simultaneously not of the 'particular' world of finites, but also not wholly different from them (or else there would be no commensurability with empirical reality, objects, sense data, etc. to be compared as 'relative' or otherwise).

In both Schelling and Hegel's systems (especially the latter), the project aims towards a completion of metaphysics. As Redding describes it: "While opinions divide as to how Hegel's approach to logic relates to that of Kant, it is important to grasp that for Hegel logic is not simply a science of the form of our thoughts. It is also a science of actual content as well, and as such has an ontological dimension."

For Schelling, reason was an organic 'striving' in nature, and this striving was one in which the subject and the object approached an identity. Schelling saw reason as the link between spirit and the phenomenal world, as Lauer explains: "For Schelling [...] nature is not the negative of reason, to be submitted to it as reason makes the world its home, but has since its inception been turning itself into a home for reason."

Hegel's doubts about intellectual intuition's ability to prove or legitimate that the particular is in identity with whole led him to progressively formulate a speculative dialectic in which concepts like Aufhebung came to be articulated. Beiser summarizes the early formulation as follows:

a) Some finite concept, true of only a limited part of reality, would go beyond its limits in attempting to know all of reality. It would claim to be an adequate concept to describe the absolute because, like the absolute, it has a complete or self-sufficient meaning independent of any other concept.

b) This claim would come into conflict with the fact that the concept depends for its meaning on some other concept, having meaning only in contrast to its negation. There would then be a contradiction between its claim to independence and its de facto dependence upon another concept.

c) The only way to resolve the contradiction would be to reinterpret the claim to independence, so that it applies not just to one concept to the exclusion of the other but to the whole of both concepts. Of course, the same stages could be repeated on a higher level, and so on, until we come to the complete system of all concepts, which is alone adequate to describe the absolute.

Hegel's innovation in German Idealism was to theorize a historical mode of self-consciousness self-reflection capable of generating a more inclusively holistic understanding of what it ultimately means to be rational in the grand scheme of things.

Absolute idealism in Britain
By the beginning of the 19th century, German idealist philosophy, particularly that of Kant, Hegel, and Fichte, was being read by British philosophers. Figures such as Samuel Taylor Coleridge, Thomas Carlyle, and J. F. Ferrier, found in idealism an alternative and a response to the then-dominant empiricist views in Britain. Early authors such as James Hutchison Stirling not only attempted to introduce German idealist thought to Britain, but sought to present their own version of absolute idealism in an English medium.

Edward Caird and T.H. Green were of the first generation of British idealists who took the work of Hegel and some of his successors and, from their positions as professors at the universities of Glasgow and Oxford, respectively, influenced generations of students. Absolute idealism was more fully developed in a second generation by their students, especially F.H. Bradley and Bernard Bosanquet. Bradley's 1893 Appearance and Reality and Bosanquet's two volumes of Gifford lectures, The Principle of Individuality and Value (1912) and The Value and Destiny of the Individual were the most influential volumes of absolute idealism of the period. British absolute idealism had an influence not only within philosophy, but in theology, politics, and social and public policy. Moreover, many of the students of the idealists, in turn, introduced absolute idealism to Canada, southern Africa, and India.

Reactions
Absolute idealism has greatly altered the philosophical landscape. This influence is mostly felt in the strong opposition it engendered. Both logical positivism and analytic philosophy grew out of a rebellion against Hegelianism prevalent in England during the 19th century. Continental phenomenology, existentialism, and postmodernism also seek to 'free themselves from Hegel's thought'.

Martin Heidegger, one of the leading figures of Continental philosophy in the 20th century, sought to distance himself from Hegel's work. One of Heidegger's philosophical themes in Being and Time was "overcoming metaphysics," aiming to distinguish his book from Hegelian tracts. After the 1927 publication, Heidegger's "early dismissal of them [German idealists] gives way to ever-mounting respect and critical engagement." He continued to compare and contrast his philosophy with Absolute idealism, principally due to critical comments that certain elements of this school of thought anticipated Heideggerian notions of "overcoming metaphysics."

title: Absolute idealism