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Lorraine Kelly

Lorraine Smith (née Kelly; born 30 November 1959) is a Scottish television presenter. She has presented various television shows for ITV and STV, including Good Morning Britain (1988–1992), GMTV (1993–2010), This Morning (2003–2005, 2016), Daybreak (2012–2014), The Sun Military Awards (2016–present), STV Children's Appeal (2016–present), and her eponymous programme Lorraine (2010–present).

Between 2004 and 2007, Kelly was Rector of the University of Dundee. She was appointed Officer of the Order of the British Empire (OBE) in the 2012 New Year Honours for services to charity and was promoted to Commander of the Order of the British Empire (CBE) in the 2020 Birthday Honours for services to broadcasting, journalism and charity.

Early life
Kelly was born on 30 November 1959 and lived in the Gorbals area of Glasgow until she was two. She has Irish ancestry. Her father, John, worked as a television repairman. She spent the first few years of her life in Glasgow before the family moved to East Kilbride where she attended Claremont High School. She turned down a university place to study English and Russian in favour of a job on the East Kilbride News, her local newspaper, and then joined BBC Scotland as a researcher in 1983. She moved to TV-am as an on-screen reporter covering Scottish news in 1984.

1984–1993: TV-am and Good Morning Britain
In early October 1984, Kelly joined TV-am as Scotland Correspondent. On the back of her coverage of the Pan Am Flight 103 disaster in Lockerbie, in July 1989, Kelly presented TV-am's Summer Sunday programme with chief reporter Geoff Meade.

Throughout the rest of 1989, Kelly provided cover for the presenters on the main weekday programme. On 31 January 1990, she became a main presenter of Good Morning Britain alongside Mike Morris.

1993–2010: GMTV, Talk Radio
In January 1993, Kelly helped launch GMTV by presenting a range of programmes. Her first job was presenting the new Top of the Morning. In March, when Fiona Armstrong walked out of the main GMTV show, Kelly moved to the main breakfast show with Eamonn Holmes. In June 1994, Kelly went on maternity leave, but shortly afterwards she was sacked from the main presenting roles, she returned in November 1994 to do a mother and baby slot. This led to her becoming the presenter of Nine O'Clock Live. The show proved so popular that it was moved to the earlier 08:35 slot, retitled Lorraine Live.

Kelly also had a stint in radio, with her own daily program broadcast on air by then new British phenomenon of Talk Radio (precursor of TalkSport) around 1997-99. In Autumn 2000, as GMTV rebranded to GMTV Today, Kelly's show changed its name to LK Today. As part of the later rebrand that took place in 2009, the show again changed its title to GMTV with Lorraine, to coincide with GMTV Today changing back to GMTV. Lorraine moved for the first time into the main GMTV studio, instead of Kelly having her own part of the studio to host from. In April 2010, to make GMTV's programming more consistent, GMTV with Lorraine began airing all year round, instead of breaking during school holidays, with guest presenters.

According to the Sunday Mirror, in 2007, Kelly was prevented from appearing in an advertising campaign for Asda as GMTV managing director Clive Crouch felt that such a move would create more bad publicity for GMTV, which had recently been fined £2 million by broadcasting regulator Ofcom for its misuse of premium-rate phone lines. On 9 July 2010, as well as the announcement that GMTV had been axed to make way for Daybreak, it was also revealed that Kelly's new programme Lorraine would replace GMTV with Lorraine. On 15 July 2010, Kelly presented her last show before leaving.

2010–present: Lorraine, Daybreak and other projects

On 6 September 2010, GMTV ended with ITV Breakfast taking over. Lorraine launched with a brand new look, alongside Daybreak. In 2011, Kelly presented the ITV series Children's Hospital, and was a guest presenter on the BBC Two series Never Mind the Buzzcocks in series 25. She provides voice-over and narration on the CBeebies show Raa Raa the Noisy Lion.

On 4 May 2012, it was confirmed that Kelly would take over from Christine Bleakley as presenter on Lorraine's sister programme Daybreak. She debuted on 3 September 2012. She co-hosted the programme with Aled Jones from Monday to Thursday, with Kate Garraway co-hosting on Fridays.

In February 2014, Kelly announced that she would leave Daybreak to focus on Lorraine which she began hosting five days a week from 28 April 2014. Daybreak was replaced by Good Morning Britain in April 2014. Lorraine would occasionally report for GMB whenever her show wasn't aired. In 2024, Kelly has come under significant scrutiny on social media for her frequent absence of her show, Lorraine, which she leaves in the hands of Christine Lampard and Ranvir Singh. An account on X, tracking her attendance of her own show, has gained more than 10,000 followers. In 2014, Kelly made a cameo appearance in an episode of Birds of a Feather. On 19 September 2014, Kelly reported from Dundee on Good Morning Britain on the Scottish independence result. On 13 April 2016, Kelly guest presented an episode of This Morning with Rylan Clark-Neal.

Kelly presented a four-part series for Channel 5 called Penguin A&E with Lorraine Kelly. The series began airing on 10 May 2016. In 2018, Kelly co-presented Wedding Day Winners with Rob Beckett. The show aired on Saturday nights on BBC One. In May 2019, she made a cameo in Coronation Street. During the COVID-19 pandemic, she hosted her programme in the Good Morning Britain studio. "Good Morning Britain with Lorraine" had a more news-focused style to it, yet still featured interviews with celebrities, Hollywood updates from Ross King, and medical advice on the pandemic with Dr Hilary Jones. She returned to the Lorraine studio on 13 July.

2005–present: STV
Kelly hosted the annual Glenfiddich Spirit of Scotland Awards in 2005 and 2006 for STV.

Since 2011, Kelly has hosted STV's Children's Appeal annually with Sean Batty, she also hosts STV Appeal Stories on the channel and her 2016 Show Lorraine & Friends. Kelly hosted the Lorraine Kelly's Hogmanay in 2016, welcoming viewers into the New Year from HM Frigate Unicorn in Dundee in a pre-recorded show. In 2019 she presented the gameshow The Cash Machine. Lorraine made two appearances of the STV Glasgow talk show The Riverside Show and one appearance on the late-night talk show The Late Show with Ewen Cameron which runs across all STV channels.

Other television roles
During 1994/1995 Kelly also presented Carlton magazine programme After 5. She appeared on Lily Savage's Blankety Blank in 2001. Kelly presented Liquid News, the spin-off Liquid Eurovision and became the national spokeswoman for the United Kingdom during the collation of votes at the Eurovision Song Contest, in both 2003 and 2004, replacing the long-serving Colin Berry.

She was parodied by Dawn French in the TV sitcom Absolutely Fabulous as a stereotypical daytime TV news reporter for series 1 in 1992, this role was reprised for the film in 2016. She has made several appearances on Have I Got News for You including appearances as guest presenter. From 2004, Kelly co-presented This Morning with Phillip Schofield, on Mondays and Fridays, to allow Fern Britton to spend more time with her family, but she left in March 2006.

Kelly guest hosted an episode of The Friday Night Project on Channel 4. She also guest hosted The New Paul O'Grady Show and returned three other times from 2006 to 2008, owing to sheer popularity. Kelly also hosted the annual Glenfiddich Spirit of Scotland Awards in 2005 and 2006 for STV. In 2006, Kelly filmed an ITV documentary programme Secrets Revealed – DNA Stories, made by STV Productions, and broadcast on Sky Real Lives. A second series was shown on the channel in 2008.

In 2010, Kelly filmed a six-part documentary series Lorraine Kelly's Big Fat Challenge shown on Bio. The series featured Kelly and a team of experts putting 'Britain's fattest family', the Chawner family through their paces to lose weight and transform their lives. Daughter Emma Chawner is best known for her unsuccessful appearances on The X Factor. In 2010, in conjunction with the Missing People charity, Sky and STV produced a new documentary series hosted by Kelly, about missing mothers. This series followed the success of Sky's previous successful missing person series Missing Children: Lorraine Kelly Investigates.

Kelly has also made acting appearances in the Scottish sitcom Still Game and the soap opera River City. In 2021, Kelly interviewed Gurdeep Pandher. In 2024, Kelly appeared on the fifth series of The Masked Singer. She was unmasked as "Owl" in the fifth episode, and later appeared a guest panellist in the seventh episode.

Writing
Kelly writes weekly columns for The Sun and The Sunday Post. She was announced as the first Agony Aunt for the Royal Air Force's fortnightly RAF News on 7 October 2009.

Charity work
Kelly is a celebrity patron of Worldwide Cancer Research.

Kelly is also a patron of the Human Rights advocacy, information and advice charity POhWER. About being a patron, Kelly commented: 'I am proud to be a Patron of POhWER, a charity which helps people to find their voice, make their case, get the care and support they need and see wrongs put right'. Kelly is also a patron of the British charity Help for Heroes. Kelly is an Honorary Patron of The Courtyard, Herefordshire's Centre for the Arts.

In 2011, Kelly was among the celebrities to take part in the BT Red Nose Desert Trek which took place in the Kaisut Desert for Comic Relief and raised £1,375,037. She has been an ambassador and presenter for STV Children's Appeal since its creation in 2011. Kelly also became an ambassador for the charity Sightsavers in 2011.

Awards and honours
In April 1991, Kelly was awarded the TRIC Diamond Jubilee Award for New Talent of the Year. In 2004, she was elected as the first female rector of the University of Dundee, being formally installed to office on 28 April 2004. She held this position until 2007. On 20 June 2008 she was awarded an honorary Doctor of Laws from the university for her services to charity. On 28 June 2018 She was awarded the Honorary degree of Doctor of Arts from Edinburgh Napier University.

Kelly was appointed Officer of the Order of the British Empire (OBE) in the 2012 New Year Honours for services to charity and the armed forces and was promoted to Commander of the Order of the British Empire (CBE) in the 2020 Birthday Honours for services to broadcasting, journalism and charity.

On 16 November 2014, Kelly received a special Scottish BAFTA award honouring her 30-year television career.

Kelly has been described by Attitude as "one of Britain's cult gay icons". In 2015, she was given the "Honourary [sic] Gay Award" at the 2015 Attitude Awards for her support for the LGBT community.

Since June 2009 she has been an Honorary Colonel in the Black Watch battalion Army Cadet Force. Since November 2019, she has been National Honorary Colonel of the Army Cadet Force.

Scholastic

 * Chancellor, visitor, governor, rector and fellowships

Personal life
Between 1993 and 2005, Kelly lived at Cookham Dean in Berkshire, on the Thames west of London, with her husband, Steve Smith, a television cameraman, whom she married in 1992. Kelly previously lived in Broughty Ferry, Dundee, until she moved to Bourne End, Buckinghamshire, in December 2017 as she found commuting back and forth was not working. Kelly and her husband then decided to sell their Broughty Ferry home to be closer to Lorraine's work, and so they could spend more time together. Kelly has described herself as an 'adopted Dundonian' and despite moving away, she considers Dundee to be a place that she will always call home.

They have one daughter, Rosie, born in 1994, who teamed up with Lorraine on The Cube in December 2021, playing for MS Therapy Centre which supports Steve's sister. Kelly's second pregnancy ended in miscarriage (2000). Kelly was born to a Catholic mother and a Protestant father, but she is an outspoken critic of Catholic schools in Scotland and has called for an end to them saying they were a cause of trouble in society, and prolonged the "scandal of sectarianism".

Kelly has been a fan of the Scottish football team Dundee United since 1987 after being taken to a game by her now-husband. She was made an honorary patron of the club in 2018.

In 2018, Kelly spoke of her experiences with the menopause, and encouraged other women to speak about it.

Television

 * Guest appearances
 * Cluedo (1992)
 * Surprise Surprise (1993–1995)
 * The Mrs. Merton Show (1995)
 * Shooting Stars (1997)
 * Timmy Towers (1997)
 * An Audience with the Spice Girls (1997)
 * Harry Hill (1998)
 * Late Lunch (1999)
 * It's Only TV ... But I Like It (1999)
 * Lily Savage's Blankety Blank (2001)
 * The Weakest Link: Celebrity Special (2001)
 * Who Wants to Be a Millionaire? (2003)
 * The Xtra Factor (2006)
 * Alan Carr's Celebrity Ding Dong (2008)
 * The Marriage Ref (2011)
 * The Real Housewives of New York City (2012)
 * Piers Morgan's Life Stories (2013)
 * Birds of a Feather (2014)
 * Tipping Point: Lucky Stars (2014)
 * The Jonathan Ross Show (2014)
 * Mel and Sue (2015)
 * Harry Hill's Alien Fun Capsule (2017)
 * Murder in Successville (2017)
 * Catchphrase: Celebrity Special (2017)
 * The Cube (with daughter Rosie) (2021)
 * The One Show (2023), (2024)
 * Mary Makes It Easy (2023)
 * Ant & Dec's Saturday Night Takeaway (2024)
 * Late Night Lycett (2024)

title: Lorraine Kelly


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Berehove

Berehove (Берегове; Beregszász) is a city in Zakarpattia Oblast, western Ukraine. It is situated near the border with Hungary.

It is the cultural centre of the Hungarian minority in Ukraine, and Hungarians constitute roughly half (a plurality) of its population.

The city serves as the administrative center of Berehove Raion. It has a population of

Name
The city has many different variations of spelling its name: Bereg, Берегово (translit. Berehovo), Берегово (translit. Beregovo), Берагава (Łacinka Bierahava), Czech and Slovak: Berehovo, בערעגסאז, Beregsaz, Bergsaß, Bereg Saski.

Residents of Berehove voted on October 31, 2010, in a referendum on renaming the town to Beregszász, its Hungarian-language name. Voter turnout was less than 52%, with 4,688 voting for renaming, 4,358 against, and 1,016 invalid ballots.

Administrative division
Part of the city is also a near adjacent village of Zatyshne of 504 people that has its representation in the city's council.

Hungarian was made a regional language in Berehove in September 2012; meaning it would be used in the town's administrative office work and documents. This was made possible after new legislation on languages in Ukraine was passed in the summer of 2012.

As of December 2020, all decisions of Zakarpattia's local councils on the functioning of regional languages, including Hungarian in Berehove, were cancelled.

Climate
Berehove has an oceanic climate (Köppen: Cfb).

History
In 1824, Berehove received the right to hold fairs 12 times a year. With the abolition of serfdom, the industrial development of the city began. Enterprises appeared, banks, savings banks, and credit institutions were opened.

In 1910, out of 12,933 inhabitants 12,432 were Hungarians (96.1%), 221 Ukrainians (Ruthenians) and 140 Germans. On April 27, 1919, the city was occupied by Czechoslovak and Romanian troops. At the end of 1919, according to the Saint-Germain Peace Treaty, it became part of Czechoslovakia.

It was the capital of the Kingdom of Hungary's Bereg County until 1920 and between 1940 and 1945.

From 1920 until 1938 it was part of Czechoslovakia. Prior to World War II, the city had a significant Jewish population, estimated at 8,000 persons. Only four returned following the war.

A local newspaper has been published here since December 1945.

In January 1989 the population was 30,157 people.

In 2001, ethnic groups included:
 * 48.1% Hungarians 12.8 thousand
 * 38.9% Ukrainians 10.3 thousand
 * 6.4% Romani 1.7 thousand
 * 5.4% Russians 1.5 thousand

The first Hungarian-language college in Ukraine is in Berehove, the II. Rákoczi Ferenc College.

Notable people

 * Rabbi Hugo Gryn (1930–1996) was born here on June 25, 1930, and became well known as a broadcaster in Britain.
 * The parents of Nobel Prize–winning economist Milton Friedman lived there before emigrating to the United States.
 * Julius Rebek (born April 11, 1944), American chemist and expert on molecular self-assembly was born here.
 * Csaba Czébely (born December 3, 1975), the drummer of Hungarian heavy metal band Pokolgép.
 * Géza Kalocsay (born May 30, 1913, died September 26, 2008), former Hungarian and Czechoslovak footballer, football manager e.g. Standard Liège, FK Partizan, Górnik Zabrze.
 * Aranka Siegal (born June 10, 1930) is a writer, Holocaust survivor, and recipient of the Newbery Honor and Boston Globe-Horn Book Award, both awarded to her in 1982.
 * Andrea Bocskor (born August 11, 1978 ), politician who in the 2014 European Parliament election in Hungary was elected into the European Parliament. Hence, Bocskor became the first elected Ukrainian citizen in the European Parliament.
 * Sári Fedák (1879–1955), Hungarian actress and singer was born here.
 * Nandor Fodor (1895–1964), parapsychologist, psychoanalyst, author and journalist.
 * Alen Panov (1978), Ukrainian diplomat, lawyer and professor of Uzhhorod National University

Twin towns — Sister cities
Berehove is twinned with:

 * 🇵🇱 Przeworsk, Poland
 * 🇷🇴 Satu Mare, Romania
 * 🇭🇺 Gödöllő, Hungary
 * 🇳🇱 Maassluis, Netherlands

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Berehove


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Anglo-Scottish war (1650–1652)

The Anglo-Scottish war (1650–1652), also known as the Third Civil War, was the final conflict in the Wars of the Three Kingdoms, a series of armed conflicts and political machinations between shifting alliances of religious and political factions in England, Scotland and Ireland.

The 1650 English invasion of Scotland was a pre-emptive military incursion by the English Commonwealth's New Model Army, intended to allay the risk of Charles II invading England with a Scottish army. The First and Second English Civil Wars, in which English Royalists, loyal to Charles I, fought Parliamentarians for control of the country, took place between 1642 and 1648. When the Royalists were defeated for the second time the English government, exasperated by the duplicity of Charles I during negotiations, set up a High Court of Justice which found the King guilty of treason and executed him on 30 January 1649. At the time, England and Scotland were separate independent kingdoms, joined politically through a personal union; Charles I was, separately, both the King of Scotland, and the King of England. The Scots had fought in support of the English Parliamentarians in the First English Civil War, but sent an army in support of Charles I into England during the Second English Civil War. The Parliament of Scotland, which had not been consulted before the execution, declared his son, Charles II, King of Britain.

In 1650 Scotland was rapidly raising an army. The leaders of the English Commonwealth government felt threatened and on 22 July the New Model Army under Oliver Cromwell invaded Scotland. The Scots, commanded by David Leslie, retreated to Edinburgh and refused battle. After a month of manoeuvring, Cromwell unexpectedly led the English army out of Dunbar in a night attack on 3 September and heavily defeated the Scots. The survivors abandoned Edinburgh and withdrew to the strategic bottleneck of Stirling. The English secured their hold over southern Scotland, but were unable to advance past Stirling. On 17 July 1651 the English crossed the Firth of Forth in specially constructed boats and defeated the Scots at the Battle of Inverkeithing on 20 July. This cut off the Scottish army at Stirling from its sources of supply and reinforcements.

Charles II, believing that the only alternative was surrender, invaded England in August. Cromwell pursued, few Englishmen rallied to the Royalist cause and the English raised a large army. Cromwell brought the badly outnumbered Scots to battle at Worcester on 3 September and completely defeated them, marking the end of the Wars of the Three Kingdoms. Charles II was one of the few to escape. This demonstration that the English were willing to fight to defend the republic and capable of doing so effectively strengthened the position of the new English government. The defeated Scottish government was dissolved and the kingdom of Scotland was absorbed into the Commonwealth. Following much in-fighting Cromwell ruled as Lord Protector. After his death, further in-fighting resulted in Charles II being crowned King of England on 23 April 1661, twelve years after being crowned by the Scots. This completed the Stuart Restoration.

Terminology
Some historians have referred to the conflict, which followed the First and Second English Civil Wars, as the Third Civil War. This view has been criticised: John Philipps Kenyon and Jane Ohlmeyer noted that the conflict was not an exclusively English affair, so cannot be considered part of the English Civil War; the historian Austin Woolrych observed that it was almost entirely a conflict between Scottish and English forces, involving very few English soldiers fighting on behalf of the King at the final battle at Worcester, so it was "seriously misleading" to refer to it as a civil war. Although the conflict was certainly a part of the wider Wars of the Three Kingdoms, rather than being a continuation of the English Civil War, it was by this stage a war between Scotland, ruled by the Covenanting government under Charles II, and the English Commonwealth.

Bishops' Wars and English Civil Wars
In 1639, and again in 1640, Charles I, who was king of both Scotland and England in a personal union, went to war with his Scottish subjects in the Bishops' Wars. These had arisen from the Scots' refusal to accept the attempts of Charles I to reform the Scottish Kirk to bring it into line with English religious practices. Charles I was not successful in these endeavours, and the ensuing settlement established the Covenanters' hold on Scottish government, requiring all civil office-holders, parliamentarians and clerics to sign the National Covenant, and giving the Scottish Parliament the authority to approve all the King's councillors in Scotland. After years of rising tensions the relationship between Charles I and his English Parliament broke down, starting the First English Civil War in 1642.

In England the supporters of Charles I, the Royalists (Cavaliers), were opposed by the combined forces of the Parliamentarians (Roundheads) and the Scots. In 1643 the latter pair formed an alliance bound by the Solemn League and Covenant, in which the English Parliament agreed to reform the English church along similar lines to the Scottish Kirk in return for the Scots' military assistance. After four years of war the Royalists were defeated and Charles I surrendered to the Scots at their camp near Newark-on-Trent on 5 May 1646. The Scots agreed with the English Parliament on a peace settlement which would be put before the King. Known as the Newcastle Propositions, it would have required all the king's subjects in Scotland, England and Ireland to sign the Solemn League and Covenant, brought the church in each kingdom into accordance with the Covenant and with Presbyterianism, and ceded much of secular authority of Charles I as king of England to the English Parliament. The Scots spent some months trying to persuade Charles I to agree to these terms, but he refused to do so. The Scottish army had remained in England after the war, pending payment of the large subsidy the Parliamentarians had promised. A financial settlement was reached, the Scots handed Charles I over to the English Parliamentary forces and they left England on 3 February 1647.

Charles I now engaged in separate negotiations with different factions. Presbyterian English Parliamentarians and the Scots wanted him to accept a modified version of the Newcastle Propositions, but in June 1647, Cornet George Joyce of the New Model Army seized Charles I, and the army council pressed him to accept the Heads of Proposals, a less demanding set of terms which, crucially, did not require a Presbyterian reformation of the church. He rejected these as well and instead signed an offer known as the Engagement, which had been thrashed out with the Scottish delegation, on 26 December 1647. Charles I agreed to confirm the Solemn League and Covenant by Act of Parliament in both kingdoms, and to accept Presbyterianism in England, but only for a trial period of three years, in return for the Scots' assistance in regaining his throne in England.

When the delegation returned to Edinburgh with the Engagement, the Scots were bitterly divided on whether to ratify its terms. Its supporters, who became known as the Engagers, argued that it offered the best chance the Scots would get of acceptance of the Covenant across the three kingdoms, and that rejecting it risked pushing Charles I to accept the Heads of Proposals. It was opposed by those who believed that to send an army into England on behalf of the King would be to break the Solemn League and Covenant, and that it offered no guarantee of a lasting Presbyterian church in England; the Kirk went so far as to issue a declaration on 5 May 1648 condemning the Engagement as a breach of God's law. After a protracted political struggle, the Engagers gained a majority in the Scottish Parliament, by which time war had again broken out in England between Royalists and Parliamentarians. The Scots sent an army under the command of the Duke of Hamilton into England to fight on behalf of the King in July, but it was heavily defeated at Preston and then Winwick in August 1648 by a force led by Oliver Cromwell. The rout of the Engager army led to further political upheaval in Scotland, and the faction opposed to the Engagement was able to gain control of the government, with the assistance of a group of English Parliamentary cavalry led by Cromwell.

Accession of Charles II

Exasperated by the duplicity of Charles I and by the English Parliament's refusal to stop negotiating with him and accept the demands of the New Model Army, the Army purged Parliament and established the Rump Parliament, which appointed a High Court of Justice to try Charles I for treason against the English people. He was convicted and on 30 January 1649 beheaded. On 19 May, with the establishment of the Commonwealth of England, the country became a republic. The Scottish Parliament, which had not been consulted before the king's execution, declared his son Charles II, King of Britain. Before they would permit him to return from exile in the Dutch Republic to take up his crown, they demanded he sign both Covenants: recognising the authority of the Kirk in religious matters, and that of Parliament in civil affairs. Charles II was initially reluctant to accept these conditions, but after Cromwell's campaign in Ireland crushed his Royalist supporters there, he felt compelled to accept the Scottish terms, and signed the Treaty of Breda on 1 May 1650. The Scottish Parliament set about rapidly recruiting an army to support the new king, and Charles II set sail to Scotland, landing on 23 June.

English invasion of Scotland (1650–1652)
The leaders of the English Commonwealth felt threatened by the Scots reassembling an army. They pressed Thomas Fairfax, lord general of the New Model Army, to launch a pre-emptive attack. Fairfax accepted the commission to lead the army north to defend against the possibility of a Scottish invasion, but was unwilling to strike the first blow against his former allies, believing England and Scotland were still bound by the Solemn League and Covenant. When a formal order to attack came on 20 June 1650, Fairfax resigned his commission. A parliamentary committee which included Cromwell, his close friend, attempted to dissuade him, pleading with him over the course of a whole night to change his mind, but Fairfax remained resolute, and retired from public life. Cromwell succeeded to his office as lord general, becoming commander-in-chief of the New Model Army. He received his commission on 28 June, and set out for Scotland the same day, crossing the Tweed at the head of 16,000 men on 22 July.

Once the Treaty of Breda had been signed, the Scottish Parliament started levying men to form a new army, under the command of the experienced general David Leslie. Their aim was to increase their forces to more than 36,000 men, but that number was never achieved; by the time Cromwell entered Scotland, Leslie had fewer than 10,000 infantry and 3,000 cavalry, although these numbers fluctuated during the course of the campaign. The government instituted a commission to purge the army of anyone suspected of having supported the Engagement, as well as men considered sinful or undesirable. This was opposed, unsuccessfully, by much of the Scottish nobility and most of the experienced military leaders, including Leslie. The purge removed many experienced men and officers, and the bulk of the army was composed of raw recruits with little training or experience.

Leslie prepared a defensive line of earthworks between Edinburgh and Leith, and employed a scorched earth policy between this line and the English border. He then allowed Cromwell to advance unopposed. Lack of supplies, and the hostility of the local people towards the English invaders forced Cromwell to rely on a seaborne supply chain, and he captured the ports of Dunbar and Musselburgh to facilitate this. Operations were hampered by persistent bad weather. These adverse conditions caused a shortage of food and much sickness in the English army, substantially reducing its strength.

Cromwell attempted to bring the Scots to battle at Edinburgh. He advanced on Leslie's lines on 29 July, capturing Arthur's Seat and bombarding Leith from Salisbury Crags. Cromwell was not able to draw Leslie out, and the English retired to their camp at Musselburgh, where they were subjected to a night raid by a party of Scottish cavalry. Cromwell's attack coincided with a visit by Charles II to the Scottish army, where he was warmly received. Members of the Covenanter government, concerned that their godly war would be corrupted by feelings of personal loyalty to the King, asked Charles II to leave. They then ordered a new purge, which was quickly enacted in early August, removing 80 officers and 4,000 of Leslie's men. This damaged morale as well as weakening the army's strength.

Throughout August Cromwell continued to try and draw the Scots out from their defences to enable a set piece battle. Leslie resisted, ignoring pressure from the secular and religious Scottish hierarchy to attack Cromwell's weakened army. He reasoned that the persistent bad weather, the difficult English supply situation, and the dysentery and fever that had broken out in the English camp would force Cromwell to withdraw back into England before winter set in.

On 31 August Cromwell did withdraw; the English army reached Dunbar on 1 September, having taken two days to march the 17 mi from Musselburgh, harassed day and night by the pursuing Scots. The road was left littered with abandoned equipment and the men arrived hungry and demoralised. The Scottish army outflanked the English, blocking the road to Berwick and England at the easily defended Cockburnspath Defile. Their main force encamped on the 177 m Doon Hill, 2 mi south of Dunbar, where it overlooked the town and the coastal road running south west from the town. The hill was all but invulnerable to direct assault. The English army had lost its freedom of manoeuvre, although they could supply themselves by sea and, if need be, evacuate the army the same way. On 2 September Cromwell surveyed the situation, and wrote to the governor of Newcastle warning him to prepare for a possible Scottish invasion.

Battle of Dunbar

Believing the English army was in a hopeless situation and under pressure to finish it off rapidly, Leslie moved his army off the hill and into a position to attack Dunbar. On the night of 2-3 September Cromwell manoeuvred his army so as to be able to launch a concentrated pre-dawn attack against the Scots' right wing. Whether this was part of a plan to decisively defeat them, or part of an attempt to break through and escape back to England is debated by historians. The Scots were caught by surprise, but put up a stout resistance. Their cavalry were pushed back by the English, and Leslie was unable to deploy most of his infantry into the battle because of the terrain. The battle was undecided when Cromwell personally led his cavalry reserve in a flank attack on the two Scottish infantry brigades that had managed to come to grips with the English and rolled up the Scottish line. Leslie executed a fighting withdrawal, but some 6,000 Scots, from his army of 12,000, were taken prisoner, and approximately 1,500 killed or wounded. The prisoners were taken to England; many died on the march south, or in captivity. At least some of those who survived were deported to become indentured workers on English possessions in North America.

Scottish retreat

When the news of the defeat reached Edinburgh, many people fled the city in panic, but Leslie sought to rally what remained of his army, and established a new defensive line at the strategic choke point of Stirling. There he was joined by the bulk of the government, clergy, and Edinburgh's mercantile elite. Major-general John Lambert was sent to capture Edinburgh, which fell on 7 September, while Cromwell marched on the port of Leith, which offered much better facilities for landing supplies and reinforcements than Dunbar. Without Leslie's army to defend them, both were captured with little difficulty. Cromwell took pains to persuade the citizens of Edinburgh that his war was not with them; he promised their property would be respected, and allowed them to come and go freely, hold markets, and observe their usual religious services, although the latter were restricted as most of the clergy had removed to Stirling. He also took steps to secure food for the city, which by this point was short on supplies. Edinburgh Castle held out until December, but since it was cut off from reinforcement and supplies and offered no threat, Cromwell did not assault it, and treated its commander with courtesy. Austin Woolrych described the behaviour of the occupying troops as "exemplary", and observed that after a short time many fugitives returned to the city, and its economic life returned to something akin to normality.

The defeat at Dunbar caused great damage to Leslie's reputation and authority. He attempted to resign as head of the army, but the Scottish government would not permit it, largely because of a lack of any plausible replacement. Several of his officers refused to take orders from him, and left Leslie's forces to join a new army being raised by the Western Association. Divisions already present in the Scottish government were widened by the new situation. The more practical blamed the purges for Leslie's defeat, and looked to bring the Engagers back into the fold; the more dogmatic thought God had deserted them because the purges had not gone far enough, and argued that too much faith had been put in a worldly prince who was not sufficiently committed to the cause of the Covenant. These more radical elements issued the divisive Western Remonstrance, which castigated the government for its failure to properly purge the army, and further widened the rifts between the Scots. The Remonstrants, as this group became known, took command of the Western Association army, and attempted to negotiate with Cromwell, urging him to depart Scotland and leave them in control; Cromwell rejected their advances and comprehensively destroyed their army at the Battle of Hieton (near the centre of modern Hamilton) on 1 December.

Battle of Inverkeithing

During December 1650 Charles II and the Scottish government reconciled with the Engagers and those Highland chiefs who had been excluded due to their refusal to sign the Covenant. These competing factions were poorly coordinated and it was not until the late spring of 1651 that they were fully integrated into the Scottish army. In January 1651 the English attempted to outflank Stirling by shipping a force across the Firth of Forth, but this was unsuccessful. In early February the English army advanced against Stirling, then retreated in dreadful weather, Cromwell falling ill.

In late June the Scottish army advanced south. The English moved north from Edinburgh to meet them, but Leslie positioned his army north of Falkirk, behind the River Carron. This position was too strong for Cromwell to assault; Leslie resisted every provocation to fight another open battle and eventually withdrew. Cromwell followed and attempted to bypass Stirling, but was unable to. He then marched to Glasgow and sent raiding parties into Scottish-held territory. The Scottish army shadowed the English, moving south west to Kilsyth on 13 July.

Early on 17 July, an English force of 1,600 men under Colonel Robert Overton crossed the Firth of Forth at its narrowest point in 50 specially constructed flat-bottomed boats, landing at North Queensferry on the isthmus leading from the port to the mainland. The Scottish garrison at Burntisland moved towards the English landing place and sent for reinforcements from Stirling and Dunfermline. The Scots dug in and awaited their reinforcements, and for four days the English shipped the balance of their own force across the Forth and Lambert took command.

On 20 July the Scots, more than 4,000 strong and commanded by Major-general James Holborne advanced against the English force of approximately 4,000 men. After a ninety-minute hiatus the cavalry of both forces engaged on each flank. In both cases the Scots initially had the better of it, but failed to exploit their advantage, were counter-charged by the English reserves, and routed. The previously unengaged Scottish infantry attempted to retreat, but suffered heavy casualties in the running battle that ensued, losing many men killed or captured.

After the battle, Lambert marched 6 mi east and captured the deep-water port of Burntisland. Cromwell shipped most of the English army there, assembling 13,000 to 14,000 men by 26 July. He then ignored the Scottish army at Stirling and on 31 July marched on the seat of the Scottish government at Perth, which he besieged. Perth surrendered after two days, cutting off the Scottish army from reinforcements, provisions and materiel. Cromwell deliberately left the route south clear, reckoning that if the Scots abandoned their defensive positions, then once in the open they could be destroyed. Charles II and Leslie, seeing no hope of victory if they stayed to face Cromwell, marched south on 31 July in a desperate bid to raise Royalist support in England. By this time they had only around 12,000 men, who were very short of firearms. Cromwell and Lambert followed, shadowing the Scottish army while leaving Lieutenant-general George Monck with 5,000 men in Scotland to mop up what resistance remained.

Mopping up

By the end of August, Monck had captured Stirling, Alyth, and St Andrews. Dundee and Aberdeen were the last major towns not under English control. The strength of Dundee's fortifications meant many Scots had deposited money and valuables there, to keep them safe from the English. Monck drew up his full army outside the town on 26 August and demanded its surrender. The governor, believing the town walls and the local militia strong enough to withstand the English, refused. Infuriated at having to risk his men's lives with an assault when the war was all but over, Monck gave permission for the town to be sacked once it was captured. After a three-day bombardment the English stormed the west and east ports on 1 September. They broke into the town and thoroughly sacked it; several hundred civilians, including women and children, were killed. Monck admitted to 500, but the total may have been as high as 1,000. Monck allowed the army 24 hours to pillage and a large amount of booty was seized. Subsequently, strict military discipline was enforced. Shortly afterwards Aberdeen, whose council saw no benefit in resisting an inevitable and costly defeat, surrendered promptly when a party of Monck's cavalry arrived. The English army campaigned in the western Highlands to subdue the clans through early 1652, and three significant but isolated fortresses held out for a time. Brodick Castle surrendered on 6 April, and the Bass Rock fell a few days later. Dunnottar Castle, where the Honours of Scotland were being held, was the last major Scottish stronghold to surrender, on 24 May 1652, after the Honours had been smuggled out of the castle.

Scottish invasion of England (1651)
The army which Leslie and Charles II led into England in August 1651, despite being 12,000 strong, was desperately short of supplies and equipment. The lack of muskets meant many men were equipped with bows. The Scots marched rapidly south and were outside Carlisle by 8 August. The town refused Charles II entry and the Scots marched further into England. Cromwell sent two forces, each of about 4,000 mounted men to harass the Scots and followed with his main force of 10,000 men. On 13 August the Parliamentarians attempted to hold the bridge at Warrington, but when the Scots attacked in force the English withdrew. Twenty-two days after leaving Stirling the Scottish army reached Worcester, having marched some 330 mi. The exhausted Scots paused in Worcester and hoped Royalist recruits would join them from Wales, the Welsh Marches and the West Country, but few did.

Charles II had hopes of a major Royalist uprising, but very few Englishmen joined the army, partly because they found the prospect of a renewed monarchy bound by the Covenant unedifying. Little military support existed for Charles II and this was rapidly suppressed by the Parliamentarians. A force of 1,500 from the Isle of Man gathered in Lancashire under the Earl of Derby and attempted to join the Royalist army, but they were intercepted at Wigan on 25 August by Parliamentarian troops and defeated. The largest single English contingent to join the army was only 60 strong. The English Council of State called up all the troops it could. Large musters took place at Northampton, Gloucester, Reading and Barnet. The London trained bands assembled 14,000 strong on 25 August and Fairfax secured Yorkshire. Parliamentarian forces concentrated around the Scottish army, where by the end of August Cromwell had 31,000 men against the 12,000 in the Scottish army. .

Battle of Worcester

The English not only far outnumbered the Scots, but were better trained, better equipped, better supplied and cut the Scots' line of retreat. Worcester was a naturally strong defensive position and was well fortified, and so Cromwell moved his forces into position deliberately. On 3 September 1651 he attacked from the south. The Scots attempted a desperate counter attack, but Cromwell moved his reserves to reinforce the threatened sector and the Scots were beaten back. The Parliamentarians broke into Worcester and captured it after fierce house-to-house fighting. The historian Barry Coward wrote "It was a divided enemy that Cromwell fought after Dunbar and decisively defeated at Worcester".

The defeated army lost more than 2,000 killed, and more than 6,000 Royalists were captured that day, nearly all Scots. The prisoners were either sent to work on drainage projects in the Fens or transported to North America to work as forced labour. Leslie, along with most of the Royalist commanders, was captured. Charles II managed to escape to the continent. In the aftermath of the battle, Worcester was looted by the Parliamentarian army. Around 3,000 Scottish cavalry escaped northwards; en route back to Scotland they were harried by the English and most were captured or killed.

Aftermath
The Battle of Worcester was the last significant pitched battle in the Wars of the Three Kingdoms. Before Worcester, the Commonwealth faced widespread international hostility evoked by the execution of Charles I. The victory strengthened their position, since it was clear the English people were willing to fight to defend the republic and capable of doing so effectively. The reliance of Charles II on a Scottish army in his attempts to regain the English crown had cost him support: Charles II realised he would need to win over the English if he wished to regain the throne. On arrival in France, he declared he would rather be hanged than ever to return to Scotland. The conquest of Scotland, and that of Ireland, won the Commonwealth respect among its continental neighbours: by early 1652 its legitimacy had been recognised by the French, Spanish, Dutch and Danes, and its navy had been able to assert its control over the Channel and Scilly Isles, as well as England's possessions in Barbados and North America. The threat of imminent Royalist invasion had been nullified.

The defeated Scottish government was dissolved, and the English Parliament absorbed the kingdom of Scotland into the Commonwealth. Military rule was imposed, with 10,000 English troops garrisoned across the country to quell the threat of local uprisings. Negotiations between commissioners of the English Parliament and the deputies of Scotland's shires and burghs began to formalise the incorporation of Scottish legal and political structures into the new British state. By 1653 two Scottish representatives were invited to take seats in the English Barebone's Parliament.

After in-fighting between factions in Parliament and the army, Cromwell ruled over the Commonwealth as Lord Protector from December 1653 until his death in September 1658. On Oliver Cromwell's death, his son Richard became Lord Protector, but the Army had little confidence in him. In May 1659, seven months after Oliver Cromwell's death, the Army removed Richard and re-installed the Rump; military force shortly dissolved this as well. General George Monck, by then commander-in-chief of the English forces in Scotland, marched south with his army, crossing the Tweed on 2 January 1660 and entering London on 3 February, where he called new parliamentary elections. These resulted in the Convention Parliament which on 8 May 1660 declared that Charles II had reigned as the lawful monarch since the execution of Charles I. Charles II returned from exile and was crowned King of England on 23 April 1661, completing the Restoration.

title: Anglo-Scottish war (1650–1652)


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Dictamnus albus

Dictamnus albus is a species of flowering plant in the family Rutaceae. It is also known as burning bush, dittany, gas plant or fraxinella. This herbaceous perennial has several geographical variants. It is native to warm, open woodland habitats in southern Europe, north Africa and much of Asia.

Description
This plant grows about 40 cm to 100 cm high. Its flowers form a loose pyramidal spike and vary in colour from pale purple to white. The flowers are five-petalled with long projecting stamens. The leaves resemble those of an ash tree.

Cultivation
Several varieties and cultivars have been selected for garden use. The variety D. albus var. purpureus in which the violet-purple is confined to veining of white petals with a slight blush, has gained the Royal Horticultural Society's Award of Garden Merit. Dictamnus is tap-rooted, making mature plants difficult to establish and resistant to division; young plants often need three years before they begin to flower, and since it is late to break into leaf in spring, even quite mature clumps may be harmed with vigorous soil-working in spring. For all these reasons, added to toxicity of the foliage, Dictamnus is rarely seen in American gardens.

Toxicity
The leaves have a bitter and unpalatable taste. Despite the lemon-like smell, the plant is acrid when eaten. All parts of the plant may cause mild stomach upset if eaten, and contact with the foliage may cause phytophotodermatitis.

Volatile oils
The name "burning bush" derives from the volatile oils produced by the plant, which can catch fire readily in hot weather, leading to comparisons with the burning bush of the Bible, including the suggestion that this is the plant evolved there. The daughter of Swedish botanist Carl Linnaeus is said to have ignited the air once, at the end of a particularly hot, windless summer day, above Dictamnus plants, using a simple matchstick. The volatile oils have a reputed component of isoprene.

Chemistry
More than 100 chemical constituents have been isolated from the genus Dictamnus, including alkaloids, limonoid triterpenoids, flavonoids, sesquiterpenoids, coumarins, and Phenylpropanoids.

title: Dictamnus albus


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Lyle Vanclief

Lyle Vanclief, (born 19 September 1943) is a former politician who served as Canada's Minister of Agriculture from 1997 to 2003.

Early life
Vanclief was born in Ameliasburg, Ontario. He graduated in the class of 1967 from the University of Guelph with a Bachelor of Science in Agriculture degree.

Political career
Vanclief was first elected to the House of Commons of Canada as a Liberal Member of Parliament representing the rural Ontario riding of Prince Edward—Hastings in 1988.

In October 1993, Vanclief was re-elected to the 36th Canadian Parliament.

In June 1997, Vanclief was named Canadian Minister of Agriculture and Agri-Food after his election to the 36th Canadian Parliament.

Paul Martin became prime minister in 2003 and did not include Vanclief in Cabinet. Vanclief did not run for re-election in the 2004 election.

Vanclief supported Stéphane Dion for the leadership of the Liberal Party.

Family
Vanclief married Sharon, with whom he has two children.

title: Lyle Vanclief


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Vynohradiv

Vynohradiv (Виноградів, Nagyszőlős, Seleușu Mare, Vinohradov) is a city in western Ukraine, in Zakarpattia Oblast. It was the center of Vynohradiv Raion and since 2020 it has been incorporated into Berehove Raion. Population:

Names
There are multiple alternative names used for this city due to its location and history: Nagyszőlős, Seleușu Mare, Cивлюш (Syvlyush), Cивлюш (Syvlyush), Виноградов (Vinogradov), Вінаградаў (Vinahradaŭ), סעליש (Seylesh, Selish), Vinohradov (Veľká Sevljuš during Czechoslovak rule), Wynohradiw, Wynohradiw (hist. Sewlusz).

Location
The city lies near the river Tisza on the border with Romania. It is 35 km from Berehove.

History
It was first mentioned in 1262 by the name Zceuleus. Its Hungarian name, Nagyszőlős ("Great Vineyard"), stems from the area being an important wine district. The city was called Sevlush (the Rusyn transliteration of the Hungarian word szőlős, meaning vineyard.

The town was one of the oldest in Ugocsa county, and was inhabited by winemakers of the royal court. In 1329, Hungarian King Charles Robert granted privileges to the town, which became the seat of the Comitatus (the city held this rank until the Treaty of Trianon was signed in 1920).

In 1717, most of the citizens of the town were killed by an invading Tatar horde. By 1880, the population was about 4,400 (with 500 native Romanians). In 1881 a secondary school was opened.

In 1910 it had a population of 7,811 (5,943 or 76% Hungarians, 1,266 or 16% Ruthenians (Rusyns) and 540 or 7% Germans). The religious make-up was 3,311 Greek Catholics (42.5%), 2,237 Jews (28.6%) and 1,124 Calvinists (14.4%).

This city had a Jewish ghetto in 1944. At its height from May to June 1944, most of the Jews of this section of northern Transylvania were deported to the Auschwitz concentration camp to be gassed shortly after arrival. Jews from the area typically spent about two weeks in the ghetto before being deported. Conditions were extremely cramped with many families housed in a single room, a deliberate arrangement meant to cause suffering and disease.

In 1944, Carpathian Ruthenia was occupied by Soviet Union and was formally incorporated into Ukrainian SSR in 1946. The city name became Vinogradovo (Russian), Vynohradiv (Ukrainian), or Vynohradovo (Rusyn). All mean "Grape Town."

A local newspaper is published here since December 1945.

Demographics
According to the 2001 census, the population included:
 * Ukrainians (82.13%)
 * Hungarians (13.54%)
 * Russians (3.82%)
 * Roma (0.6%)

Tourist sights

 * Ugocsa Castle "Kankó" (ruins; 13th century). It was first mentioned in 1308. In 1315 King Charles Robert attacked and destroyed it. In the 15th century the area was given to monks of the Franciscan order, they built a monastery there, which was inhabited until 1558. There is a small 14th century chapel south of the ruins.
 * Perényi Castle. It was built by the Perényi noble family from 1399, later rebuilt in baroque style into a mansion.
 * Franciscan church and monastery (built in 1744, rebuilt in 1889).
 * Our Lady's Church (13th century, rebuilt in the 15th century in Gothic style, restored in the early 20th century. Its furniture was destroyed after 1945. The Church got it back in 1989.
 * Franciscan monastery (founded in the 15th century). In 1556 local Protestants attacked the monastery, killed the monks and threw the body of St. John Capistrano into a well. The Perényi family invited monks of the order to the town again, but the monastery burnt down in 1747. Its current building was erected in 1889.
 * Protestant church (Neoclassical, 1828).
 * Old county hall (now the building of the Zsigmond Perényi Secondary School) and statue of Perényi (1906).

Notable people
In alphabetical order:
 * Composer Béla Bartók (born 1881) lived in the house opposite the mansion in 1889–92; his mother worked as a teacher. Bartók held his first recital here in the county hall.
 * Ethella Chupryk, pianist and assistant professor of piano at the Mykola Lysenko National Music Academy
 * József Csorba, doctor and physicist, was born here in 1789.
 * Gábor Döbrentei, philologist and antiquarian, was born here in 1786.
 * Mykhaylo Koman, footballer and coach of Dynamo Kyiv, was raised here.
 * János Majos (died 1810), Kuruc captain, was born here.
 * Edvin Marton, born Lajos Csűry in 1974, composer and violinist.
 * Endre Nagy, writer and stage director, was born here in 1877.
 * Eleanor Perenyi, American author, lived here in 1937–40 as the wife of a Hungarian nobleman.
 * Imre Révész, painter, was born here in 1859 and is buried in the local cemetery.

Economy
One of the biggest employers in Vynohradiv is the Gentherm.

Twin towns — Sister cities
Vynohradiv is twinned with:
 * 🇭🇺 Nyírbátor in Hungary
 * 🇭🇺 Fehérgyarmat in Hungary
 * 🇵🇱 Dynów in Poland
 * 🇸🇰 Vranov nad Topľou in Slovakia
 * 🇪🇸 Celadas in Spain

title: Vynohradiv


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Gulshan Rai

Gulshan Madhosh Rai (2 March 1924 – 11 October 2004) was an Indian film producer and distributor. He produced successful films in the 1970s and 1980s directed by Vijay Anand, Yash Chopra and Subhash Ghai and thereafter directed by his son Rajiv Rai.

Rai was born in Lahore, Punjab, British India (now in Pakistan) in 1924. Following the partition of India he moved to Bombay (now Mumbai) in 1947. He started off his career in the Hindi film industry as a distributor. In 1970, he started his production company Trimurti Films and the first film produced was Dev Anand starrer Johny Mera Naam (Johny is my name), directed by Vijay Anand which was a success.

In the 1970s, his Yash Chopra-directed films made Amitabh Bachchan a superstar and launched successful careers for script writers Salim–Javed. The notable films were Deewaar (The Wall) (1975) and Trishul (The Trident) (1978).

In the 1980s he produced Dilip Kumar starrer Vidhaata, directed by Subhash Ghai later he produced films in the action genre directed by his son Rajiv Rai. A majority of his films were notable for their music composed by Kalyanji-Anandji & later by Viju Shah. They were Johny Mera Naam, Vidhaata, Tridev (The three gods), Vishwatma, Mohra (The Pawn) and Gupt (Secret).

He released more than 180 films in Bombay territory, 40 of which have celebrated silver jubilees. Besides Mumbai, he also opened distribution offices in West Bengal, Punjab, Delhi and Uttar Pradesh.

However, Trimurti Films suffered failures with Rajiv's movies in 2000s, Pyaar Ishq Aur Mohabbat (Love, Amour and Romance) and Asambhav (Impossible), both were attempts to launch Arjun Rampal as a hero but flopped and were unable to make Rampal, a successful hero.

Rai died in Mumbai on 11 October 2004 after a prolonged illness, aged 80. He was a recipient of Padma Shri.

title: Gulshan Rai


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Carei

Carei (Nagykároly, ; Grosskarol/Großkarl,, ) is a city in Satu Mare County, northwestern Romania, near the border with Hungary. The city administers one village, Ianculești (Szentjánosmajor).

Geography
The municipality of Carei is situated in the north-west of Romania, 99 km away from Oradea. Carei is situated in the south-western part of Satu-Mare County, in a plain region, and it is 35 km away from the county seat, Satu-Mare. Communes that are near Carei include Căpleni, Urziceni, Foieni, Sanislău, Petrești, Tiream, Căuaș, and Moftin.

History
The first mention of the city under the name of "Karul" dates from 1320, and as "Károly" in 1325, however, the city is known to have existed since 1264, as it was the domain of the Kaplony clan and the center of the Károlyi family's personal domain that settled in the region shortly after the arrival of the Hungarians. The name of the city comes from the word "karul" (in modern Hungarian "karvaly"). The etymology of the word can be traced back to the ancient Turkish language, the word meaning sparrow. Another theory is that the city was named after the Károlyi family.

King Louis I of Hungary permitted the organization of weekly market gatherings on Saturdays in Carei in 1346, as a result of the military achievements of the Károlyi family. The development of regional trade in the region stimulated the development of the town, and in 1387, King Sigismund elevates the town to county center, while also granting it independent jurisdiction.

In 1482, Ladislaus Károlyi, with the permission of King Matthias, begins the construction of a stone residence. Over the course of the following decades, due to fears of an Ottoman attack, the residence will gradually get transformed into a fortification outfitted with a moat, four corner bastions and shooting niches for cannons.

After the Battle of Mohács in 1526, the town falls under the Eastern Hungarian Kingdom, a vassal state of the Ottoman Empire, and in the ensuing struggle between the Habsburg Ferdinand I and John Zápolya for the crown of Hungary, the Karolyi family initially sides with Zápolya, and Ferdinand confiscates their holdings in 1558, however, he reinstates them to power later. By 1554, the city was converted to Protestantism, and by 1567 it adhered to the Calvinist faith. In 1590, a synod takes place in the city, protesting the adoption of the Gregorian calendar in Hungary. Additional synods take place in 1591 and 1594, and the city is the birthplace of Gáspár Károli, who is the first person to translate the Bible into Hungarian in 1586.

In 1592, the baron, Mihály Károlyi, further expands the fortifications of the city, these being made out of predominantly dirt. However, after an Ottoman response, the city is forced to keep paying tribute. Thanks to its strategic position, the city becomes part of a series of fortifications built against the Ottomans, and to be able of repelling the eventual attacks, the fortifications are enlarged again between 1661 and 1666, as well as a German garrison with artillery being assigned. However, after a series of attacks, the city is burned and suffers grave damage, but is eventually rebuilt by the year 1678.

The city will once again come under fire during Francis II Rákóczi's uprising, and the city will be depopulated and left impoverished. The city will have a resurgence after Treaty of Szatmár is signed and the Károlyi family is elevated to the status of counts. Count Alexander Karolyi, shortly after the war, begins colonizing the region with Swabians, inviting 124 families from Württemberg. Eventually Slovaks, Jews, and Rusyns also get settled in the regions. The colonization efforts become more significant during Francis Károlyi tenure, an additional 132 families are settled in 1762, with the total number reaching an estimated 466 Swabian families, forming two districts in the town. Effects on cultural and social life began to show: in 1727 the Piarist Gymnasium was established, in 1754 the first typography was built, and in 1756 a pharmacy was opened.

In 1780, the city became the seat of Szatmár County, and in 1828 the population reached 11,000. The town was hit by an earthquake in 1834, and the majority of the city was destroyed the next year during a great fire, which destroyed 350 houses. The city was hit by a similar great fire on 6 May 1887, causing similar damage to the fire from 1835. The rebuilding of the houses and the organizing of the streets were done according to the planning regulations adopted by the town's council, and they still define the physiognomy of the city's center today. In 1871, the railway connecting Carei to Satu Mare and Debrecen was opened, and it was further expanded in 1887 with the line Tășnad-Sărmășag-Zalău, and in 1905 the railway towards Mátészalka was built. Over the course of the 19th century, the colonized families started adopting the Hungarian language but kept their religion, differentiating them from the reformed majority of the county.

In 1845, with help from count György Károlyi, a hospital was built and opened. With the new railway built in 1887, the light industry and the food industry in the city started blooming, and a new paper mill was also built. Between the years 1893 and 1896, at the behest of count Stephen Károlyi, the castle underwent change once more, according to the plans of the architect Arthur Meinig, and it reached its current form. In 1904, electricity was introduced in the city, and until 1914, multiple elementary and general schools were opened, the most renowned being the Piarist school, today known as Școală Gimnazială Vasile Lucaciu (the Vasile Lucaciu school). In 1910, the train station was built, and it still exists today.

After the collapse of Austria-Hungary at the end of World War I, and the declaration of the Union of Transylvania with Romania, the Romanian Army took control of Carei on April 19, 1919, during the Hungarian–Romanian War. The city officially became part of the territory ceded to the Kingdom of Romania in June 1920 under the terms of the Treaty of Trianon. In August 1940, under the auspices of Nazi Germany, which imposed the Second Vienna Award, Hungary retook the territory of Northern Transylvania (which included Carei) from Romania. Towards the end of World War II, however, the city was taken back from Hungarian and German troops by Romanian and Soviet forces on 25 October 1944, during the Battle of Carei. In memory of this battle, the "Monument of the Romanian Soldier" was erected in the center of Carei; inaugurated in 1964, it is the work of the sculptor Gheza Vida. The 25th of October has been celebrated since 1959 as the Day of the Romanian Armed Forces.

Although between 1760 and 1920 the town was the seat of Szatmár County, the industrial development was not significant and it basically preserved its agricultural specificity until about 1960. In 1926 Carei was attached to Sălaj County. After 1950, Carei was included in the Baia Mare Region, while after 1968, along with the administrative-territorial reorganization of the country, it returned to Satu Mare County.

Until World War II, the industry of the town consisted of mills, the oil factory Ardealul, a station for collecting and fermenting tobacco, and some small workshops. During the Communist period, Carei gradually turned into an industrial town.

The Károlyi Castle
The most important historical building in the city is the Károlyi Castle, Carei. Built originally as a fortress around the 14th century, it was converted to a castle in 1794, undergoing further transformations during the 19th century. The manor is surrounded by an arboretum, covering a surface of about 30 acre and containing a great variety of species of trees and plants.

The Theater
Carei's theater was built in 1907 and was inspired by a project of architect György Kopeczek. The theater was first named after the writer József von Gaal, until the 1920s, when it was renamed Teatrul Carmen Sylva. After 1945 it was renamed again, to Teatrul Popular. In 1953, the theater received a complete overhaul and it was "modernized" both inside and outside.

The Vasile Lucaciu School
The "Vasile Lucaciu" school became a Romanian high-school in 1919. Prior to that, it was a Hungarian high-school. Nowadays it serves as a secondary school.

The Monument of the Romanian Soldier
The Monument of the Romanian Soldier, which commemorates the Battle of Carei of October 1944, is situated in the center of the city. The monument was built by the sculptor Gheza Vida and the architect Anton Dâmboianu. It was inaugurated in 1964, in the presence of the Defense Minister, Leontin Sălăjan. The monument was built with white stone and has impressive dimensions, with a frontal opening of 18 m, a depth of 5 m, and a height of 12 m. The monument has the following inscription: "Glory to the soldiers of the Romanian Army, fallen in the struggles for the liberation of the homeland".

The Train Station
The first train station was built in 1871, when the Debrecen–Satu Mare railway was built. The Carei–Zalău railway was inaugurated on 23 December 1887. The building of today's train station was built between 1910 and 1912. During World War II the train station was heavily bombarded, but the damage it suffered was rapidly repaired.

Demographics
According to the 2021 census, Carei had a population of 18,957, marking a decrease from the figure recorded at the 2011 census (20,775 inhabitants).

Politics

 * Sándor Károlyi de Nagykároly (1668–1743), Hungarian aristocrat, statesman and Imperial Feldmarschall
 * Salvator Cupcea (1908–1958), Romanian psychologist, physician, and political figure
 * Oszkár Jászi (1875–1957), Hungarian Jewish social scientist, historian, and politician

Religion

 * Gáspár Károli (1529–1591), Hungarian Calvinist pastor, translator (first translation of the Bible to Hungarian in 1586)
 * Jenő Schönberger (1959–), Hungarian cleric, bishop of the Roman Catholic Diocese of Satu Mare
 * Vasile Hossu (1919 – 1997), Romanian Greek Catholic hierarch
 * Alexander Ratiu (1916–2002), Romanian-American priest of the Romanian Greek-Catholic Church
 * Yosef Leifer (1891–1966), founder and first Rebbe of the Pittsburg Hasidic dynasty
 * Avraham Abba Leifer (1918–1990), second Rebbe of the Pittsburg Hasidic dynasty
 * Joel Teitelbaum (1887–1979), founder and first Grand Rebbe of the Satmar dynasty

Sports

 * Miklós Bródy (1877–1949), Hungarian-Romanian chess master
 * Eric Bicfalvi (1988–), Hungarian-Romanian footballer
 * Adrian Sălăgeanu (1983–), Romanian footballer
 * Dionisiu Bumb (1973–), Romanian footballer
 * Szabolcs Perényi (1982–), Romanian-born Hungarian footballer
 * Silviu Lung (1956–), Romanian footballer
 * Florin Fabian (1974–), Romanian footballer
 * Cornel Pavlovici (1942–2013), Romanian footballer
 * István Kovács (1984 –), Hungarian-Romanian football referee
 * Iosif Budahazi (1947–), Romanian fencer
 * Tünde Vaszi (1972–), Hungarian-Romanian long jumper

Others

 * Margit Kaffka (1880–1918), Hungarian female writer and poet
 * Antal Ligeti (1823–1890), Hungarian landscape painter
 * Ferdinánd Barna (1825–1895), Hungarian linguist, translator and librarian of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences

Twin towns – Sister cities
Carei is twinned with:
 * 🇵🇱 Dębica, Poland
 * 🇭🇺 Orosháza, Hungary since 1991
 * 🇭🇺 Mátészalka, Hungary
 * 🇭🇺 Nyírbátor, Hungary since 2000

Climate
Carei has a continental climate, characterized by hot warm and rainy summers, and cold and snowy winters. As the city is in the far north of the country, winter is colder than the national average. The average annual temperature is 9.6 C.

title: Carei


text:
Sacheverell Sitwell

Sir Sacheverell Reresby Sitwell, 6th Baronet, (15 November 1897 – 1 October 1988) was an English writer, particularly on baroque architecture, and an art and music critic. Sitwell produced some 50 volumes of poetry and some 50 works on art, music, architecture, and travel.

Early life and education
Sitwell was the youngest child of Sir George Sitwell, 4th Baronet, of Renishaw Hall. His mother was the former Lady Ida Emily Augusta Denison, a daughter of the William Denison, 1st Earl of Londesborough and a granddaughter of Henry Somerset, 7th Duke of Beaufort. She claimed a descent through female lines from the Plantagenets. Dame Edith Sitwell and Sir Osbert Sitwell were his older siblings.

Born in Scarborough, North Yorkshire, he was brought up in Derbyshire and educated at Eton College. In World War I he served from 1916 in the British Army, in the Grenadier Guards.

After the war he went to Balliol College, Oxford but did not complete a degree, and was heavily involved in Osbert and Edith's projects.

Writing
Sitwell's poetry collection A Hundred and One Harlequins attracted some attention in 1922, but the first works to gain more widespread notice and acclaim were three prose studies of painting, architecture and music: Southern Baroque Art (1924), German Baroque Art (1927) and Spanish Baroque Art (1931). Cyril Connolly called Southern Baroque Art "a milestone in the development of our modern sensibility". A series of books on music and musicians - including Mozart (1932), Liszt (1934) and shorter essays on Scarlatti, Offenbach and Tchaikovsky (Valse des Fleurs, 1941) - were also highly influential.

The Dance of the Quick and the Dead (1936) established a new strand of his work, evoking "outcast and vagabond societies; their music, their dress, their customs and rituals". This was the first of a series of lengthy autobiographical, travel and art-based "fantasias" that are among his most original works. Later examples include The Hunters and the Hunted (1947) and For Want of the Golden City (1973). Although most often associated with exotic art, culture and foreign travel, Sitwell also established himself as a connoisseur of English art and architecture, with the publication of British Arts and Craftsmen (1945), concluded by his final publication, the anthology Sacheverell Sitwell's England (1986).

Poltergeists (1940) reviewed poltergeist cases over the centuries. Sitwell concluded that many, though not all, cases could be explained by human trickery (conscious or unconscious) and hysteria. Journey to the Ends of Time (1959), was "a kaleidoscopic series of meditations on death and the possibility of survival".

As his poetry was so severely criticised, particularly by those who disliked the Sitwells in general, and although Canons of Giant Art (1933, including the highly praised poem 'Agamemnon's Tomb') was a work of considerable impact, he refused to publish any of his poems for many years. Constant Lambert's setting of his early poem The Rio Grande for chorus and orchestra (taken from The Thirteenth Caesar, and other Poems, 1924) was first performed and broadcast in 1928 and has retained its popularity. In 1967 Derek Parker published a selection of his poems in the summer edition of Poetry Review, including 'Serenade to a Sister', an elegy for his sister Edith. An Indian Summer (1982), with a preface by Peter Quennell, collecting together 100 of his best most recent poems, was his final volume of poetry.

Marriage and children
On 12 October 1925 Sitwell married the daughter of a wealthy Canadian banker, Georgia Doble (1905–1980). They had two sons:

 * Sir Sacheverell Reresby Sitwell, 7th Baronet (15 April 1927 – 31 March 2009)
 * Francis Trajan Sacheverell Sitwell (17 September 1935 – 14 January 2004), father of Sir George Sitwell, 8th Baronet. He was also a member of White's and St James's clubs.

Georgia Doble had difficulty adapting to married existence and missed the social life in London. Despite affairs on both sides, they remained deeply attached to each other until the end and never officially separated. The personal correspondence of Doble, preserved at the Harry Ransom Center at the University of Texas, include letters with David Stuart Horner and Frank Magro, Osbert Sitwell's partners, and friends like Lawrence Audrain, John Lehmann, Loelia Lindsay, René Massigli, Evelyn Waugh, and Mae West.

Later life
Sitwell was an early member of the New Party, a group established in 1931 by Oswald Mosley and containing former members of the major British political parties.

In his later life he withdrew from the publicity that attached to the Sitwells collectively, instead preferring to travel and concentrate on writing. He succeeded to the baronetcy on the death of his elder brother Osbert in 1969. He was made a Member of the Order of the Companions of Honour (CH) in 1984. His main residence was Weston Hall, Northamptonshire, the family home and he served as High Sheriff of Northamptonshire for 1948.

Death
Sitwell died in October 1988 at the age of 90 and is buried in the churchyard of Weedon Lois, Northamptonshire, next to his wife Georgia, who predeceased him, and near his sister Edith. He was succeeded in the baronetcy by his elder son Reresby.

Works

 * The People's Palace (1918; poems)
 * The Hundred and One Harlequins (1922; poems)
 * Southern Baroque Art: a Study of Painting, Architecture and Music in Italy and Spain of the 17th & 18th Centuries (1924)
 * The Thirteenth Caesar (1924; poems; contains The Rio Grande, the basis of Constant Lambert's The Rio Grande)
 * German Baroque Art (1927)
 * The Cyder Feast (1927; poems)
 * All at Sea: A Social Tragedy in Three Acts for First-Class Passengers Only (1927) with Osbert Sitwell
 * The Gothick North: A Study of Mediaeval Life, Art, and Thought (1929)
 * Dr. Donne and Gargantua (1930; poems)
 * Spanish Baroque Art, with Buildings in Portugal, Mexico, and Other Colonies (1931)
 * Mozart (1932)
 * Canons of Giant Art: Twenty Torsos in Heroic Landscapes (1933; poems), containing "Agamemnon's Tomb"
 * Liszt (1934)
 * Conversation Pieces: a Survey of English Domestic Portraits and their Painters (1936)
 * Dance of the Quick and the Dead (1936)
 * Selected Poems (1936)
 * Narrative Pictures: a Survey of English Genre and its Painters (1938)
 * German Baroque Sculpture (1938)
 * Roumanian Journey (1938)
 * The Romantic Ballet (1938; with C. W. Beaumont)
 * Old Fashioned Flowers (1939)
 * Poltergeists: An Introduction and Examination Followed By Chosen Instances (1940)
 * Sacred and Profane Love (1940)
 * Valse des Fleurs (1941; new limited edition (400 copies, 20 of which signed and accompanied by a Henry Moore lithograph) published by The Fairfax Press in 1980; new edition published by Eland in 2008)
 * The Homing of the Winds: and other passages in prose. Faber & Faber, London (1942)
 * Primitive Scenes and Festivals Faber & Faber, London (1942)
 * Splendours and Miseries (1944)
 * British Architects & Craftsmen: survey taste, design, styles 1600-1830 (1945)
 * The Hunters and the Hunted (1948)
 * Selected Poems (1948)
 * The Netherlands; A Study of Some Aspects of Art, Costume and Social Life (1948, revised 1952)
 * Tropical Birds (1948)
 * Spain (1950)
 * Cupid and the Jacaranda (1952)
 * Fine Bird Books (1953) with Handasyde Buchanan and James Fisher
 * Truffle Hunt with Sacheverell Sitwell (1953)
 * Portugal and Madeira (1954)
 * Denmark (1956)
 * Arabesque & Honeycomb (1957)
 * Journey to the Ends of Time, etc. (1959)
 * The Bridge of the Brocade Sash: Travels and Observations in Japan (1959)
 * Golden Wall and Mirador: Travels and Observations in Peru (1961)
 * Great Houses of Europe (1964)
 * Monks, Nuns and Monasteries (1965)
 * Southern Baroque Revisited (1967)
 * Gothic Europe (1969)
 * A Background for Domenico Scarlatti, 1685-1757: Written for His Two Hundred and Fiftieth Anniversary (1970)
 * Tropicalia (1971; poems)
 * For Want of the Golden City (1973)
 * Battles of the Centaurs (1973)
 * Les Troyens (1973)
 * Look at Sowerby's English Mushrooms and Fungi (1974)
 * A Notebook on My New Poems (1974)
 * All Summer in a Day : An Autobiographical Fantasia (1976)
 * Placebo (1977)
 * An Indian Summer: 100 recent poems (1982; poems)
 * Hortus Sitwellianus (1984) with Meriel Edmunds and George Reresby Sitwell
 * Sacheverell Sitwell's England (1986) edited by Michael Raeburn

title: Sacheverell Sitwell


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Józef Dąbrowski

Józef Dąbrowski (January 27, 1842 – February 15, 1903) was a Polish Catholic priest. He founded the SS. Cyril and Methodius Seminary in 1887 and was the first rector there.

Early life and ordination
Józef Dąbrowski was born in Zoltance, Poland at a time when it was held by Russia. He was born into a family of minor gentry and studied at the Lublin gimnazjum, then the University of Warsaw. He participated in the Polish January Uprising of 1863, and fled to Dresden in 1864, then to Lucerne and Berne where he continued his studies in mathematics. He then went to Rome and came under the direction of well-known Resurrectionist priest Father Peter Semenenko. He was ordained a priest in Rome on August 1, 1869.

Pastoral work in America
In 1870, Dąbrowski was appointed pastor of Polonia, Wisconsin and moved there to do pastoral work among Polish Americans. In a letter from St. Francis Seminary to Father Semenenko dated 22 January 1870, he expressed concern about demoralized conditions among the Poles in the United States.

Dąbrowski was gifted 20 acres (81,000 m²) of land by an Irishman for the erection of new parish buildings. In 1879 the rectory was destroyed by fire. The following year fire destroyed the new rectory and the church. Father Dąbrowski rebuilt the buildings.

Schools
In 1874 he introduced the Felician Sisters from Kraków into the United States to open and run a school for Polish immigrants. Their community multiplied throughout the country, welcoming the immigrants, teaching thousands of Polish children, and caring for a multitude of Polish orphans and working girls. They were to staff more than 40% of all Polish parochial schools in the United States by the mid-twentieth century.

He published several school textbooks including Calendar (Kalendarz), Polish Readings (Czytanki Polskie), Arithmetic (Arytmetyka), Polish Geography (Geografia Polska), Gardening (Ogrodnictwo). In 1891 he started publishing the illustrated weekly newspaper Sunday (Niedziela), which ran until 1907.

Father Dąbrowski also worked with the indigenous peoples in Wisconsin. He learned their language and published an Indian-Polish dictionary for the Felician sisters. He worked to convert them to Christianity and there are records of native baptisms in parish registers.

Dąbrowski urged the Resurrectionists to come to Chicago or Milwaukee and establish schools of higher education where they might send out missionaries to the scattered Poles.

SS. Cyril and Methodius Seminary
Dąbrowski founded the SS. Cyril and Methodius Seminary in Detroit (1887), becoming its first rector.

In 1882 failing health forced him to resign his post in Wisconsin and leave for Detroit, Michigan.

At that time Cardinal Ledóchowski was unable to meet the appeals of American bishops for Polish priests and ecclesiastical students. At his request, Father Leopold Moczygemba, a Franciscan who had worked in America and was then at St. Peter's, Rome, went, with papal approval, to America and collected funds ($8000) for a Polish seminary.

Father Moczygemba felt unable to complete the work and entrusted the task to Father Dąbrowski, who began building the seminary in 1884. On 24 July 1885, Bishop Stephen V. Ryan of the Roman Catholic Diocese of Buffalo blessed the cornerstone in the presence of Bishop Borgess of Detroit.

The seminary was opened in 1887, and for nineteen years Father Dąbrowski served as its rector. In 1902 it was enlarged, and in 1909 it moved to Orchard Lake, Michigan.

Death
A few days before his death, Father Dąbrowski expelled 29 students from the seminary for open rebellion. On 9 Feb., 1903, he suffered a paralytic stroke. He died at Detroit, February 15, 1903.

title: Józef Dąbrowski


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Lough Mask

Lough Mask is a limestone lake of about 83 km2 in Counties Mayo and Galway, Ireland, north of Lough Corrib. Lough Mask is the middle of the three lakes, which empty into the Corrib River, through Galway, into Galway Bay. Lough Carra flows into Lough Mask, which discharges through the Cong Canal and underground passages in the limestone bedrock of the district. The flows from the underground passages and the Cong Canal come together at the village of Cong to form the River Cong which flows into Lough Corrib.

Lough Mask is the fourth largest lake, by area, in Ireland and the sixth largest lake in the island of Ireland. The eastern half of Lough Mask is shallow and contains many islands. The other half (Upper Lough Mask) is much deeper, sinking to a long trench with depths in excess of 50 metres. Lough Mask has a mean depth of 15 m, and a maximum depth of 58 m. Its water volume of 1.3 km3 is the largest in the Republic of Ireland and the second largest on the island of Ireland (after Lough Neagh).

History
In 1338 Sir Edmond de Burgh was drowned in the lake by his cousin Sir Edmond Albanach Bourke of County Mayo, at the end of the Burke Civil War (1333–1338). He was captured at Ballinrobe and taken to Oilean-an-lara (the Earls Island) where he was killed.

According to a side-note on the manuscript containing the oldest copy of 'Tóruigheacht Dhiarmada agus Ghráinne' ("The Pursuit of Diarmuid and Gráinne") (Royal Irish Academy Ms. 24.P.9), Irish scribe Dáibhídh Bacach ("lame David") Ó Duibhgeannáin was living and working on Oileán Ruadh ('Red Island') on Lough Mask in the house of Tadhg Og O Flaherty on 1 April 1651.

The "Lough Mask Murders" of 1882 were a notorious incident in the Land War in which a grandfather and grandson acting as bailiffs were killed by tenant farmers and their bodies dumped in the lake.

Legend
According to local legend, a banshee haunts Bly Island, a small island in the lough. There have also been rumored sightings of a banshee around the shore of the lough as well as other forms of paranormal activity.

Fishing and recreation
The lake is popular for its trout fishing. The World Cup Trout Fly Fishing Championship takes place annually on Lough Mask at Cushlough Bay near Ballinrobe.

Petersburg Outdoor Education Center is situated on the shore of the lough, close to Bly Island. The center uses the lake for numerous water sports including kayaking, canoeing and sailing.

Other
"Loch Measca" was taken as the pen-name of Séan Seoighe (John Joyce) in Eachtra múinteóra an Irish-language memoir published in 1929.

title: Lough Mask


text:
User:Alhazred~enwiki

www.chezzter666.gportal.hu

title: User:Alhazred~enwiki


text: Template:Germany districts Schleswig-Holstein


text:
Zalău

Zalău (, unofficial and former official name: Zalău (Zillenmarkt or Waltenberg, Zilah, Zile) is the seat of Sălaj County, Romania. In 2021, its estimated population was 52,359.

Ancient times
Zalău is situated in the area inhabited by "Free Dacians", 8 km away from the historical landmark of Porolissum, a well-preserved Roman Castrum with an imposing fortress, an amphitheater, temples, houses and a customs house in the ancient Roman province of Dacia. Zalău was the crossing point between Central Europe and Transylvania, along the so-called "Salt Route". Archaeological discoveries revealed evidence of human existence in this area since the Neolithic, approx. 6500 years ago. Dacian coins found in archaeological perimeters of the city central area and on the Valea Mâții, west of the city, plus important items belonging to Roman culture, are evidence of free Dacian continuity in this area and of developing economic relations with the Roman ancient city of Porolissum.

After the conquest of Dacia by Trajan (106), the Roman Empire border stood atop the Meseș Mountains, just 5 km away from the city. Just north from the border, on the actual Zalău city area were the free Dacians tribes, and to the east, south-east (of Meseș Mountains) were Roman border fortifications, towers, walls, ditches and defense sides.

Middle Ages
The first written mention about Zalău, was in the "Gesta Hungarorum", also called the "Chronicle of Anonymous" (probably notary of the King Béla III of Hungary), published around year 1200. According to this source, Zalău settlement would have been there as early as around 900. Later, Zalău is referred to as Villa Ziloc in 1220, Zylac in 1246, Zylah in 1282, Zyloh and oppidum Zylah in 1318, Zila in 1601, Zilahu in 1808, Sziláj / Szilágyi in 1839, Szilaju in 1850, and Zalău / Sziláju / Walthenberg in 1854. After the great Mongol invasion, which destroyed the city in 1241, Zalău came in 1246 under the administration of the Catholic Bishopric of Nagyvárad. The trusteeship was maintained until 1542, when Zalău became part of Principality of Transylvania.

On 1 August 1473, Matthias Corvinus, King of Hungary and Bohemia, acknowledged Zalău as a market town for the first time (called oppidum Zilah – Zilah fort), a privilege that freed the city from the county domination, granted its citizens the right of free trade and gave it a larger degree of economic autonomy. At the end of the 16th century, the city had an independent administrative leadership, composed of 33 elected senators (one of whom was the mayor), a notary, a registrar and a treasurer.

Other important events in the development of the city occurred in 1571 during the reign of Prince Istvan Bathory and in 1600 under the reign of Michael the Brave. After Transylvania had been annexed to the Habsburg Empire, the city experienced an economic decline due to the infusion of products from Western Europe. After Michael the Brave's victory in the Battle of Guruslău on 3 August 1601, Zalău received administrative, legislative, fiscal and military own rules, which provided real autonomy freedoms to citizens. A chronicle from the 17th century, first mentioned the main crafts of city residents: belt-makers, potters, wheelwrights, shoemakers, butchers, tailors, blacksmiths, carpenters, hat makers and armorers.

The city was under the rule Principality of Transylvania between 1526 and 1660. It was also controlled by the Ottomans between 1660 and 1692, the city being part of Varat Eyalet. The Calvinist college was formed in the first half of the 17th century.

On 9 November 1714, Charles XII of Sweden rested for a night in a building on Király street (now named after Corneliu Coposu) with an acquaintance György Zoványi as is indicated by a notice still on the house. Until the administrative reform of 1876, the city was the seat of Közép-Szolnok County for centuries.

Modern times
Zalău is one of the most important urban centers in the region. It had a Reformed college (Wesselényi College), a township school for civil service (for boys only), and a national civil school (for girls only). It had the largest hospital in the region and a tax revenue office.

In 1850, it held a population of 4,294 and, in 1910–8,062 (7,477 Hungarians, 19 Germans, 529 Romanians and 23 belonging to other ethnic groups). By religion, there were 1,333 Roman Catholics, 873 Greek Catholics, 5,363 members of the Reformed Church, and 415 Jews. The city had 1,427 households, and most of its inhabitants were employed by the manufacturing industry. The Reformed Church was built in 1246. It is one of the city's oldest buildings and one of the largest in Eastern Europe.

In 1876, Zalău became the seat of the Szilágy County. After the proclamation of the Union of Transylvania with Romania (1 December 1918), by the Treaty of Trianon Zalău has been part of Romania – except between 1940 until the end of World War II, when Northern Transylvania became part of Hungary as a result of the Second Vienna Award. On 8 September 1940, upon arrival in Zalău, the Hungarian Army killed 10 people just outside the city; in the following days, the Nușfalău, Treznea, and Ip massacres were perpetrated in nearby villages.

Between 1892 and 1896, one of the most famous Hungarian poets Endre Ady attended the Protestant school in Zalău (since 1957, there has been a statue of Endre Ady in front of the school). The poet also published his first poem in the local newspaper "Szilágy" on 22 March 1896. A memorial plaque on the frontage of the building where he lived reminiscents of Ady Endre's time spent there.

At the end of the 19th century, Lajos Szikszai donated his private collection to the municipality and the first museum in Zalău was created. An exhibition was also organized in 1926, but the Zalău County Museum was officially inaugurated in 1951. On 9 July 1981, a new section of the Zalău County Museum was inaugurated and was named the "Ioan Sima" Arts Gallery.

The Battle of Zalău took place in 1919, during the Hungarian–Romanian War.

The Central Library, owning 7,000 Romanian and Hungarian books, was opened on the 23 August 1950. In 1952 it became the Raion Library, coordinating all the Zalău Raion libraries. In 1957 it took the name of Ioniță Scipione Bădescu. It became the County Library with the administrative reform of February 1968.

As of the end of the 1960s, the city became a regional industrial center for the first time, which was heavily impacted by the Systematization process. Industrial factories like Armătura Zalău, Silcotub Zalău, and Anvelope Silvania (recently bought by Michelin) hired thousands of workers, which sparked an increase in population as a result. The population influx gradually led to changes in the ethnic structure with the Romanians being now the majority and the Hungarians reduced to a minority. However, in many of the surrounding communes, the ethnic structure still remained unchanged (for example Vârșolț) are still populated by Hungarians; on the other hand, nearby villages such as Marin have a 100% ethnic Romanian population, basically unchanged for more than a century. In the 1970s with the working-class population expanding, housing estates of high-rise blocks of flats were built in both the centre and the outskirts of the town.

In 2007, due to the negligence of the local natural gas distributor, a gas accumulation produced an explosion that led to casualties and significant material damage.

Today Zalău is crossed by European road E81 and the national road DN1F. A new motorway (the Transylvania Highway) is being built to connect Zalău to Western Europe. The town has two nationally accredited University colleges, a public library, one museum, an art gallery, more than four hotels, a motel, and two student halls of residence.

Geography
Zalău is the county seat and the largest city in Sălaj County. The city lies in the Zalău Valley, at the junction of the Apuseni Mountains and the Eastern Carpathians, at 47.2°N, 23.05°W. It is located in the central part of Sălaj County, in the Zalău River watershed, between three narrow valleys in the Meseș Mountains.

It neighbours Țara Maramureșului and Satu Mare County, in the northwestern part of the historical region of Transylvania, which in the past was a mainly independent small state but since 1918 has belonged to Romania (except between September 1940 and October 1944, when it was under the administration of Hungary following the Second Vienna Award). Whether Zalău lies in Crișana or Transylvania is still a matter of debate because, geographically, Zalău lies on the eastern border of Crișana.

The city includes a total surface of 90.09 km2. This includes the one village it administers, Stâna (Felsőnyárló), situated south-east of Meseș, in the hydrographic basin of the Agrij River. Măgura Stânii is at an altitude of 716 m.

Sights
The most important of the 24 monuments and buildings in the county capital of Zalău are: "Transilvania" (theatre in 1895), the city hall (court and seat of the prefects office in 1889), the Roman Catholic Church (1878), the reformed church (1904–1907), the Greek Catholic "Dormition of the Theotokos Church" (1930–1934), the Orthodox deanery (built in the late 19th century), the Historical Museum (built about 1900 – casino of the artisans fellowship), the primary school "Simion Bărnuțiu" (girls' school in 1895) and the National College Silvania (Reformed College in 1860), all these being valuable urbanistic elements for the historical and cultural patrimony of the land. The famous statuary group Wesselényi Monument of the heroic Hungarian nobleman with the same name (1902) by János Fadrusz, and the bust made in the honour of Simion Bărnuțiu by Romul Ladea are worth visiting as well.

Zalău hosts lively pageants each year, including a summer festival known as the "Zalău Days". There is a statue of Baron Wesselényi in Iuliu Maniu Square of the town center; the Tuhutum Memorial (both made by János Fadrusz in 1902); the Zalău County Museum of History and Art displays artifacts ranging from neolithic times to modern times, with a focus on the Roman period and hosts works of modern art. There are several churches, including the Calvinist Cathedral, which is one of the most beautiful and largest in Transylvania.

Population
The population of Zalău went through important evolutions through time. At the 2021 census, Zalău had a population of 52,359. At the 2011 census it had 56,202 inhabitants; of those, 76.5% were Romanians, 15.4% Hungarians, 1.4% Romani, and for 6.5% no ethnicity information was available. According to the census in 2002, the population had the following structure: 80.89% Romanians, 17.50% Hungarians, 1.36% Romani, 0.25% others.

Etymology
The location had various names: "Ziloc" in 1220, "Oppidum Zilah" in 1473, "Zila" in 1601, and "Zilahu" and "Zalahu" in the 19th century, or forms of German toponimy "Waltenberg" and "Zillenmarkt".

Politics
At the end of the 16th century, the town had an independent administrative rule made of 33 elected senators, from whom one of them was the mayor. There were also a notary, an archivist and a treasurer.

Formed by 21 members, the Local Council has the following attributes: to approve the local budget, loans, credit transfers and the means of the use of the budgetary reserve; it establishes local taxes as well as special taxes; to elect the vice-mayors, to decide on the staff of attendants number.

2012 election
The Zalău Council, elected in the 2012 local government elections, was made up of 21 councilors, with the following party composition: 3-Democratic Alliance of Hungarians in Romania, 12-Social Liberal Union, 3-Democratic Liberal Party, 3-People's Party – Dan Diaconescu. Mayor Radu Căpîlnășiu was re-elected.

2008 elections
Mayor Radu Căpîlnășiu was elected first time in 2004 as member of Democratic Party (PD) and re-elected in 2008 and 2012 as member of National Liberal Party (PNL).

The Zalău Municipal Council, elected in the 2008 local government elections, was made up of 21 councilors, with the following party composition:

2004 elections
The Zalău Municipal Council, elected in the 2004 local government elections, was made up of 21 councillors, with the following party composition:

Sports
The city has a women's handball team, named HC Zalău, that is coached by Gheorghe Tadici, the former head coach of Romania's national handball team.

Media
Graiul Sălajului, Magazin Sălăjean, Sălajeanul, Țara Silvaniei (1940, 1989), Năzuința (1960–1989), Sălajul Orizont, Gazeta de Duminică, Glasul copilăriei, Repere transilvane, Sălajul european, Acta mvsei porolissensis, Caiete silvane, Limes, Árkád, Szilágy, Szilágyság.

Online media

 * Zalau24.ro On scene news reports happening in Zalău and in Sălaj County.

Notable natives and residents

 * Endre Ady (1877–1919), Hungarian poet
 * Dacian Cioloș (born 1969), politician, Prime Minister of Romania
 * Alexandru Dragomir (1916–2002), Romanian philosopher
 * Ramona Farcău (born 1979), Romanian handball player
 * Virgil D. Gligor (born 1949), Romanian-American professor of electrical and computer engineering
 * Eduard Hellvig (born 1974), director of the Romanian Intelligence Service
 * Iuliu Maniu (1873–1953), Romanian politician
 * Florian Pop (born 1952), Romanian-American mathematician
 * Codruț Șereș (born 1969), Romanian engineer and politician
 * Gheorghe Tadici (born 1952), Romanian handball coach
 * Talida Tolnai (born 1979), Romanian handball player
 * Miklós Wesselényi (1796–1850), Hungarian statesman
 * Gyula Zilahy (1859–1938), Hungarian stage and film actor

Twin towns – Sister cities
Zalău is twinned with:

 * 🇮🇹 Imola, Italy (2005)
 * 🇬🇧 Sandwell, United Kingdom (2006)
 * 🇺🇦 Kamianets-Podilskyi, Ukraine (2003)
 * 🇭🇺 Szentendre, Hungary (1990)

Climate
Zalău has a humid continental climate (Dfb in the Köppen climate classification).

Works

 * János Kovács Kuruc, Zilah vallási életéről, In: Limes, 2000, 3, nr. 1–2, p. 138–143.
 * Éva Lakóné Hegyi; Wagner, Ernő. A zilahi kalandosok, In: EM, 2001, 63, nr. 1–2, p. 30–41.
 * Florin Mirgheșiu, Modernitatea Zalăului. In: AMPZ, 2001, 2, nr. 4, p. 11–19.
 * Moroti, Elisabeta. Scurtă privire istorică asupra dezvoltării economice a orașului Zalău. In: AMPZ, 2001, 2, nr. 4, p. 36–39.
 * Municipiul Zalău. Prezentare. In: AMPZ, 2002, 3, nr. 7–8, p. 154–161.
 * Elena Muscă, Meșteșugari zălăuani și locul lor în structurile administrației publice locale, In: AMP, 2003, 25, p. 325–332.
 * L. Nicoară; Pușcaș, Angelica. Rolul municipiului Zalău în zona de contact dintre depresiunea Transilvaniei și Dealurile de Vest. In: Studia geogr., 1999, 44, nr. 1, p. 99–112.

title: Zalău


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User talk:Bijoux

Welcome to the Wikipedia
AnotBe Bold!

Sam [Spade] 11:35, 12 Oct 2004 (UTC)

Anon Comments
i think the staleness of this page indicates that bijoux has no greater purpose here than to vandalize the Protest Warrior article.
 * Have anything to back this up? --Bijoux 13:24, 26 February 2006 (UTC)

title: User talk:Bijoux