text:
Horned helmet

Horned helmets were worn by many people around the world. Headpieces mounted with animal horns or replicas were also worn since ancient history, as in the Mesolithic Star Carr Frontlets. These were probably used for religious ceremonial or ritual purposes, as horns tend to be impractical on a combat helmet. Much of the evidence for these helmets and headpieces comes from depictions rather than the items themselves.

Prehistoric Middle East & Cyprus
Horned hats have been used to signify deities in Mesopotamia and Cyprus, and later, as seen on the Victory Stele of Naram-Sin, kings as well. More horns signified higher importance.

Prehistoric Europe
Two bronze statuettes dated to the early 12th century BC, the so-called "horned god" and "ingot god", wearing horned helmets, found in Enkomi, Cyprus. In Sardinia warriors with horned helmets are depicted in dozens of bronze figures and in the Mont'e Prama giant statues, similar to those of the Shardana warriors (and possibly belonging to the same people) depicted by the Egyptians.

A pair of bronze horned helmets, the Veksø helmets, from the later Bronze Age (dating to c. 1100-900 BC) were found near Veksø, Denmark, in 1942. Another early find is the Grevensvænge hoard from Zealand, Denmark, (c. 800–500 BC, now partially lost).

The Waterloo Helmet, a Celtic bronze ceremonial helmet with repoussé decoration in the La Tène style, dating to c. 150–50 BC, was found in the River Thames, at London. Its abstracted 'horns', different from those of the earlier finds, are straight and conical. Late Gaulish helmets (c. 55 BC) with small horns and adorned with wheels, reminiscent of the combination of a horned helmet and a wheel on plate C of the Gundestrup cauldron (c. 100 BC), were found in Orange, France. Other Celtic helmets, especially from Eastern Europe, had bird crests. The enigmatic Torrs Pony-cap and Horns from Scotland appears to be a horned champron to be worn by a horse.

European Migration Period
Depicted on the Arch of Constantine, dedicated in 315 CE, are Germanic soldiers, sometimes identified as "Cornuti", shown wearing horned helmets. On the relief representing the Battle of Verona (312) they are in the first lines, and they are depicted fighting with the bowmen in the relief of the Battle of the Milvian Bridge.

A depiction on a Migration Period (5th century) metal die from Öland, Sweden, shows a warrior with a helmet adorned with two snakes, or dragons, arranged in a manner similar to horns. Decorative plates of the Sutton Hoo helmet (c. 600 CE) depict spear-carrying dancing men wearing horned helmets, similar to a figure seen on one of the Torslunda plates from Sweden. Also, a pendant from Ekhammar in Uppland, features the same figure in the same pose and an 8th century find in Staraya Ladoga (a Norse trading outpost at the time) shows an object with similar headgear. An engraved belt-buckle found during excavations by Sonia Chadwick Hawkes in a 7th century grave at Finglesham, Kent in 1964 bears the image of a naked warrior standing between two spears wearing a belt and a horned helmet; a case has been made that the much-repaired chalk figure called the "Long Man of Wilmington", East Sussex, repeats this iconic motif, and originally wore a similar cap, of which only the drooping lines of the neckguard remain. This headgear, of which only depictions have survived, seems to have mostly fallen out of use with the end of the Migration period. Some have suggested that the figure in question does not portray actual headgear, but a mythological object of a god like Odin. A one-eyed figure with similar headgear was found at the site of Uppåkra temple, an alleged center of an Odinic-cult activity. A similar figurine from Levide, Gotland, lacked an eye, apparently removed after its completion. This would link the headgear as a mythological representations rather than depictions of actual helmets. Note that the similar crests to the animal figures on the helmets of the warrior's depicted on the Sutton Hoo helmet has been demonstrated on helmets from Valsgärde, but the depicted crests where grossly exaggerated.

European Middle Ages
During the High Middle Ages, fantastical headgear became popular among knights, in particular for tournaments. The achievements or representations of some coats of arms, for example that of Lazar Hrebeljanovic, depict them, but they rarely appear as charges depicted within the arms themselves. It is sometimes argued that helmets with large protuberances would not have been worn in battle due to the impediment to their wearer. However, impractical adornments have been worn on battlefields throughout history.

In Asia
In pre-Meiji Restoration Japan, some Samurai armor incorporated a horned, plumed or crested helmet. These horns, used to identify military commanders on the battlefield, could be cast from metal, or made from genuine water buffalo horns.

Indo-Persian warriors often wore horned or spiked helmets in battle to intimidate their enemies. These conical "devil masks" were made from plated mail, and usually had eyes engraved on them.

Popular association with Vikings

Viking warriors are often associated with horned helmets in popular culture, but this is merely a modern association starting in the 1800s, initially popularized by the Norse operas of Richard Wagner, which depicted horns and wings on the helmets of the vikings.

Contemporary Viking Age texts and stories regularly mention helmets, but never mentions horned such, even though recorded by Christians, who were keen to portray the Vikings as barbaric and uncivilized. It is surprising, therefore, that the Christian writers should have omitted to mention the horns, if they really existed. The few period helmet finds thus far does not feature horns, instead coinciding with the construction of earlier Vendel Period spectacle helmets. The helmet descriptions found in the period epic poem Beowulf also coincides with the Vendel era helmets, as well as earlier Germanic boar helmets, which also lacks horns. The only find of Scandinavian horned helmets are the Bronze Age Veksø Helmets and depictions of ceremonial "bird horned" headgear on Migration Period trinkets – see. Historians generally believe that if horned headgear existed during the Viking Age, it was not worn regularly.

A 20th-century example is the Minnesota Vikings American football team, whose logo carries a horn on each side of the helmet. The comic strip character Hägar the Horrible and all male Vikings in the animated TV series Vicky the Viking are always depicted wearing horned helmets, as are numerous characters in the DreamWorks How to Train Your Dragon franchise and in The Lost Vikings video game series. Another popular culture depiction is the riff on Wagner's Der Ring des Nibelungen by Merrie Melodies in the Chuck Jones-directed cartoon What's Opera, Doc?, which depicts Elmer Fudd wearing a magical horned Viking helmet as he chases Bugs Bunny.

title: Horned helmet


text: User talk:213.31.11.57

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: User talk:213.31.11.57


text:
Prime Minister of Uzbekistan

This is a list of prime ministers of Uzbekistan (O‘zbekiston bosh vaziri), from the establishment of the office in 1925 as the chairman of the Council of Ministers of the Uzbek SSR to the present day.

The current prime minister is Abdulla Aripov. He assumed the office on 14 December 2016. The Government House on Mustakillik Square in Tashkent serves as the Prime Minister's primary workplace and residence.

Powers and tasks
The Prime Minister of the Republic of Uzbekistan serves as the leader of the Cabinet of Ministers, overseeing and managing its operations. This individual holds personal accountability for the Cabinet's effectiveness, presides over its meetings, endorses decisions, and represents the Cabinet in international relations on behalf of the President of Uzbekistan. The Prime Minister engages in negotiations, signs intergovernmental treaties, agreements, and memoranda, subject to the president's approval. Responsibilities also include the allocation of duties among deputy prime ministers, making decisions on non-Cabinet meeting matters related to state and economic management, and proposing Cabinet members to the president after Legislative Chamber approval.

Additionally, the Prime Minister suggests appointments and dismissals of regional governors to the president, coordinates the activities of government bodies, resolves disagreements, and presents an annual report to both chambers of the Oliy Majlis on socio-economic development and priorities. The Prime Minister issues orders and recommendations within their purview, keeps the president informed, and temporarily assumes presidential duties within Uzbekistan when the president is abroad. In the Prime Minister's absence, the First Deputy Prime Minister or, by consensus, one of the Deputy Prime Ministers temporarily fulfills their responsibilities.

Chairman of the Council of People's Commissars

 * Fayzulla Xoʻjayev (17 February 1925 – 17 June 1937)
 * Abdullah Karimov (26 July – 1 October 1937)
 * Sultan Segizbayev (2 October 1937 – July 1938)
 * Abdudzhabar Abdurakhmanov (23 July 1938 – 15 March 1946)

Chairmen of the Council of Ministers

 * Abdudzhabar Abdurakhmanov (15 March 1946 – 21 August 1950)
 * Abdurrazak Mavlyanov (21 August 1950 – 18 May 1951)
 * Nuritdin Mukhitdinov (18 May 1951 – 7 April 1953) (1st time)
 * Usman Yusupov (7 April 1953 – 18 December 1954)
 * Nuritdin Mukhitdinov (18 December 1954 – 22 December 1955) (2nd time)
 * Sobir Kamolov (22 December 1955 – 30 December 1957)
 * Mansur Mirza-Akhmedov (30 December 1957 – 16 March 1959)
 * Arif Alimov (16 March 1959 – 27 September 1961)
 * Rahmankul Kurbanov (27 September 1961 – 25 February 1971)
 * Narmakhonmadi Khudayberdyev (25 February 1971 – 3 December 1984)
 * Gayrat Kadyrov (3 December 1984 – 21 October 1989)
 * Mirakhat Mirkasimov (21 October 1989 – 24 March 1990)
 * Shukrullo Mirsaidov (24 March – 1 November 1990)

title: Prime Minister of Uzbekistan


text:
Harvey Glance

Harvey Edward Glance (March 28, 1957 – June 12, 2023) was an American sprint runner. He won gold medals in tandem with his teammates at the 4 × 100 m relay at the 1976 Summer Olympics, 1979 and 1987 Pan American Games, and 1987 World Championships.

Track and field career
Glance equaled the then 100 m world record of 9.9 twice in 1976: first on April 3 in Columbia, South Carolina and then a month later in Baton Rouge, Louisiana. As an Auburn University student, Glance won the NCAA 100 m championships in 1976 and 1977 and 200 m championships in 1976. In 1976, he also recorded the automatic timings of 10.12 s and 10.11 s that were world junior records for 100 m.

Glance finished first in the 100 m at the 1976 U.S. Olympic Trials. At the 1976 Montreal Olympics, Glance was a disappointing fourth in 100 m, as the United States failed to win a medal in the event. He then ran the opening leg in the gold medal winning American 4 × 100 m relay team. At the 1979 Pan American Games, Glance was second in 100 m and won the gold medal as a member of American 4 × 100 m relay team. He was also second in 4 × 100 m relay at the 1979 Athletics World Cup. Glance was also in line to replace James Sanford in the individual 100 m race if Sanford had not recovered in time from a muscle injury.

Glance again qualified for the team for the Olympic team for the 1980 Moscow Olympics, finishing second in the 100 m. However, due to the boycott, he did not compete at the Olympics but competed in the Liberty Bell Classic (Olympic Boycott Games) instead, winning silver in the 100 m and gold in the relay. He was a recipient of one of 461 Congressional Gold Medals created especially for the spurned athletes.

Track coach career
Glance worked first as assistant coach at Auburn University (1990–91) and then became their head coach.

In 1997, he became head Men's track and field coach at the University of Alabama. While there, he established the 'Crimson Tide' as one of the USA's best college teams, and was able to attract many top athletes to the university including Kirani James (World 400 m champion in 2011 and Olympic 400 m champion in 2012).

At the national level, Glance assumed the following roles:

 * 1994 – World Junior Team in Lisbon, Portugal;
 * 1997 – World University Games in Sicily, Italy;
 * 1999 – Pan American Games in Winnipeg, Canada;
 * 2003 – assistant coach for Team USA at the 2003 World Championships in Paris, France;
 * 2006 – World junior Team in Beijing, China;
 * 2008 – assistant coach for Team USA at the 2008 Olympic Games;
 * 2009 – men's head coach for Team USA at the 2009 World Championships in Berlin, Germany.

In recognition of his achievements, in 1996 he was inducted into the Alabama Sports Hall of Fame, and, most notably, he received in 2008 the Congressional Gold Medal of Freedom.

In April 2011, Glance announced he was to retire from his role at Alabama at the end of the season. Following his retirement, Glance continued to work as the personal coach of Kirani James, assisting in his journey to become an Olympic champion.

Personal life
Glance was born in Phenix City, Alabama, the son of Wheeler and Ella Glance, and was educated at Central High School in Phenix City. There he was mentored in track by coach Joe Henderson, who had recognized Glance's special talent.

After high school, he earned a degree in Health & Human Performance at Auburn University.

Glance always recognized his potential as a coach and volunteered to work as one in Arizona whilst still an athlete. Always aware of the importance of public relations and civic responsibility, Glance was a regular visitor as a student to a veterans hospital and was selected as one of five student-athletes from the 1976 Olympics team to be invited to an NCAA Honors Luncheon with the President of the United States. His coach, Mel Rosen, was proud to state "Harvey's what I call world-class – as an athlete and as a man."

Glance died of cardiac arrest at a hospital in Mesa, Arizona, on June 12, 2023, at age 66.

Rankings
Glance was ranked among the best in the U.S. and the world in both the 100 and 200 m sprint events over the incredible spread of 12 seasons from 1976 to 1987, according to the votes of the experts of Track & Field News.

title: Harvey Glance


text:
User:Lin0927~enwiki

The Henderson-Hasselbalch equation is:

$$pH=pKa+log\frac{[A^-]}{[AH]}$$

title: User:Lin0927~enwiki


text: User talk:193.172.19.20

title: User talk:193.172.19.20


text: Category:1204 deaths

title: Category:1204 deaths


text: Category:1204 births

title: Category:1204 births


text: Category:1200s births

title: Category:1200s births


text:
Category:Warren County, New Jersey

Articles and categories related to Warren County, New Jersey.

title: Category:Warren County, New Jersey


text: Category:1200s deaths

title: Category:1200s deaths


text:
Nugatti

Nugatti is a Norwegian brand of chocolate spread made from hazelnuts and nougat. It comes in ordinary or economy-sized plastic tubs, or the latest addition, a small red tube, similar to toothpaste tubes, and is produced by Stabburet.

It was introduced for sale in Finland in the autumn of 2020.

Types
There are 8 different types of Nugatti.

 * Nugatti The original
 * Nugatti Crisp Has small crispy granules added to it
 * Nugatti Max Has 33% less sugar than the original
 * Nugatti Air Is made by adding air bubbles to the chocolate spread, making it softer and with lighter texture
 * Nugatti Krønsjy Has small salty corn chips in it
 * Nugatti Melkesjoko Is made with milk chocolate
 * Nugatti Salt karamell Has caramel, salt added to it
 * Nugatti Twist Is a swirl of milk and white chocolate spread

title: Nugatti


text:
Lam Jones

John Wesley "Lam" Jones (April 4, 1958 – March 15, 2019) was an American athlete who won a gold medal in the 4×100 meter relay at the 1976 Summer Olympics in Montreal and played professional football in the National Football League (NFL) as a wide receiver for the New York Jets and Dallas Cowboys. Prior to that, he played college football and ran track at the University of Texas.

Early life
Jones attended Lampasas High School. In football, he became a regular starter at running back in a wishbone offense as a junior. He posted 9 carries for 197 yards (21.9-yard avg.) and 4 touchdowns against Fredericksburg High School. He had 12 carries for 154 yards (12.8-yard avg.) and 4 touchdowns against Llano High School. He finished the season with 1,330 rushing yards, an 11.6-yard average, 159 scored points and was named second-team Class AAA All-state.

As a senior, he tallied 257 yards and 4 touchdowns against Gainesville High School and was named All-state. He scored 45 touchdowns in 2 seasons.

In track as a junior, he was the state champion in the 440-yard dash with a time of 47.6 seconds.

He is considered legendary in Texas high school sports history for his performance in the mile relay at the 1976 U.I.L. State Track and Field Meet. Running anchor for Class 3A Lampasas High School, Jones took the baton in last place, reportedly 40 to 60 yards behind the leaders, and passed the entire field for victory. The run has taken on near-mythical status among those who saw it — or claim to have seen it. In 2015, CBS affiliate KEYE broadcast a segment on the existence of a film of the legendary event including Jones' reaction when he learned of it.

1976 Olympics
Before enrolling at the University of Texas, at the age of 18, Jones qualified for the 4 × 100 metres relay, becoming the youngest athlete from Texas to earn a berth on the U.S. Olympic track and field team. At the 1976 Summer Olympics in Montreal, he won a gold medal running the second leg of the 4 x 100 m team that set a world record with a time of 38.33 seconds. Jones also replaced an injured Houston McTear in the 100 meters, finished sixth, and returned home as a national celebrity.

College career
Jones accepted a football scholarship from the University of Texas to play under head coach Darrell Royal. In order to differentiate between two players named Johnny Jones on the team, Royal gave them nicknames based on their hometowns — Johnny “Lam” Jones from Lampasas, Texas, and Johnny “Ham” Jones from Hamlin, Texas.

As a freshman running back, Jones posted 118 carries for 624 yards (second on the team to Earl Campbell) with a 5.3-yard average and five touchdowns, and three receptions for 79 yards (third on the team). As a sophomore, new head coach Fred Akers changed the offense and Jones was moved to wide receiver. He led the team with 21 receptions for 543 yards (25.9-yard average) with seven touchdowns, and nine carries for 30 yards (3.3-yard average).

As a junior, Jones led the team with 25 receptions for 446 yards (17.8-yard average) with five touchdowns, and 15 carries for 128 yards (8.5-yard average) with one rushing touchdown. As a senior, he led the team with 36 receptions for 535 yards (14.9-yard average) with two touchdowns, and 14 carries for 68 yards (4.9-yard average).

Jones played wide receiver in run oriented offenses, usually being double-teamed and some times triple-teamed by opposing defenses. In his football career, he averaged 28 receptions per season and 18.9-yards per catch with 14 touchdowns. He ranks 10th on the school's all-time all-purpose yardage list (3,042). He also is one of only three players in Longhorn history to rush for 100 yards in a game and also have a 100-yard receiving game.

Track
In his freshman track season, Jones won the 100 metres in 9.85 seconds, which would have been a world record if it hadn't been hand-timed. When converted into automatic timing (10.14 seconds) it ranked as the fastest 100 metres in school history. His times of 9.21 seconds for the 100-yard dash and 20.14 seconds for 220-yard dash set records for Memorial Stadium. He also won four events (100, 220, 440 relay and mile relay) at the Southwest Conference meet. At the NCAA championships, Jones completed a grueling 16-month season by finishing second in the 100 metres with 10.27 seconds and seventh in the 200 metres in 20.85 seconds, with track observers noting he looked worn out.

As a sophomore in track, football injuries began to impact his performances. He ran a hand-timed 10.1 seconds in the 100 metres. He won his first-round heat at the NCAA championships in 10.14 seconds, but he failed to qualify for the NCAA final.

In 1994, he was inducted into the Texas Athletics Hall of Honor. He is considered to be one of the greatest athletes in school history.

New York Jets
In the 1980 NFL Draft, the New York Jets were targeting offensive tackle Anthony Muñoz with the second overall pick they obtained from the San Francisco 49ers, but settled for Jones after their team physician recommended not to take Munoz, who failed a physical exam because he had undergone reconstructive knee surgery. The selection was acquired by trading two 1980 first round draft picks (#13-Earl Cooper and #20-Jim Stuckey). Jones was ranked as the best wide receiver in the draft.

The $2.1 million contract he received was the first in the NFL worth over a million dollars. There were reports in the media that the actual contract numbers may have been lower, which included a $250,000 signing bonus, plus a $200,000 loan, and a $300,000 deferred bonus, for a total package of $1.4 million.

As a rookie, he started 13 games, making 25 receptions for 482 yards (19.3-yard avg.) and 3 touchdowns. Since Jones was a world-class sprinter with elite speed, he could beat any coverage, but had trouble catching the football. He was viewed more as an athlete than a football player.

In 1981, he was a backup behind Derrick Gaffney, starting only 3 out of 15 games, while collecting 20 receptions for 342 yards (17.1-yard avg.) and 3 touchdowns.

In 1982, the season was reduced from a 16-game schedule to 9 contests because of the players' strike. He started 7 out of 8 games, finishing with 18 receptions for 294 yards (16.3-yard avg.) and 2 touchdowns.

In 1983, he had his best season with 7 starts out of 14 games, along with 43 receptions for 734 yards (17.1-yard avg.) and 4 touchdowns. He caught 31 of his career-high 43 passes in the final 8 contests.

In 1984, he was placed on the injured reserve list on August 28, spending 11 weeks there with a broken collarbone he suffered in the first preseason game against the Cincinnati Bengals. He was activated on October 26, starting 8 out of 8 games, but was platooned with Gaffney communicating plays from the sideline to quarterback Ken O'Brien. He made 32 receptions for 470 yards (14.7-yard avg.) and one touchdown.

In 1985, he re-injured his right index finger during a practice and was lost for the year after being placed on the injured reserve list on August 15. In 1986, he sat out the season with a hamstring injury after being placed on the injured reserve list on August 19.

On July 23, 1987, he was traded to the San Francisco 49ers in exchange for a 1988 fifth round draft pick (#131-Dennis Price). He left after playing in 61 games (37 starts), recording 138 receptions for 2,322 yards and 13 touchdowns. During his career, he was considered a first round disappointment, criticized for his inconsistency and inability to make catches across the middle of the field.

San Francisco 49ers
In 1987, the San Francisco 49ers acquired Jones to try him at both split end and flanker, looking to replace Dwight Clark and find a receiver to play alongside Jerry Rice. He was released on August 18.

Dallas Cowboys
On August 25, 1987, he was signed as a free agent by the Dallas Cowboys, who were experiencing multiple injuries in the receiving corps.

After the players went on strike in the third week of the 1987 season, those contests were canceled (reducing the 16 game season to 15) and the NFL decided that the games going forward would be played using replacement players. He crossed the picket line off the injured reserve to be a part of the Dallas replacement team that was given the mock name "Rhinestone Cowboys" by the media. On October 21, he was released after the strike ended. He didn't appear in any game or record any stat during his time with the team.

Personal life
After his football career, Jones battled drug and alcohol addiction. Jones never had a drink of alcohol until his time in college. A hazing incident as an NFL rookie was an omen of things to come when veterans took him out drinking. The group started downing shots. Unbeknownst to Jones, the vets were drinking soft drinks while pouring him liquor. His troubles with drugs continued after his NFL career until a sexual molestation incident caused him to go to rehab. He recovered and went on to speak about addiction to high school athletes to help them avoid the same problems.

The once shy Jones became a motivational speaker for high school athletes, sharing his story of hardship as part of his message. He donated part of his speaking fees to the Texas Special Olympics, to which he also donated his Olympic medal in the late 1970s.

In 2005, Jones was diagnosed with myeloma, a cancer that affects bone marrow throughout the body. He died of myeloma March 15, 2019.

Legacy
In 2008, he was inducted into the Texas High School Football Hall of Fame. In 2013, he was inducted into the Texas Track and Field Coaches Hall of Fame.

title: Lam Jones


text: Category:La Salle County, Texas

title: Category:La Salle County, Texas


text:
User:Seingo

The coolest ninja ever

title: User:Seingo


text:
Ajayan (director)

Ajayan, also known as Thoppil Ajayan, (8 April 1950 – 13 December 2018) was a Malayalam film director who is of note for his only feature film Perumthachan (The Master Carpenter). The film received positive reviews from critics worldwide. For this film, Ajayan won the Indira Gandhi Award for Best Debut Film of a Director and Kerala State Film Award for Best Debut Director in 1990. The film also won the Kerala State Film Award for Best Popular Film in 1990 and was nominated for the Golden Leopard award at the Locarno International Film Festival in 1992.

In the afterword to his book The Master Carpenter, author M. T. Vasudevan Nair wrote that Ajayan first approached him for a screenplay of his story Manikkakkallu. That did not materialise and later he approached with another dream project Perumthachan. In the end of the afterword, M. T. thanks Ajayan for persuading him to write the screenplay for Perumthachan.

He died on 13 December 2018.

Early life and career
Ajayan was the eldest son of film director and playwright Thoppil Bhasi. He secured a diploma in film technology from the Adayar film institute. He started as a camera assistant and later worked as an associate director with Thoppil Bhasi, Bharathan, and Padmarajan.

Awards
National Film Awards
 * 1) 1990: Indira Gandhi Award for Best Debut Film of a Director - Perumthachan

Kerala State Film Award
 * 1) 1990: Kerala State Film Award for Best Film with Popular Appeal and Aesthetic Value - Perumthachan
 * 2) 1990: Kerala State Film Award for Best Debut Director

title: Ajayan (director)


text:
Diasystem

In the field of dialectology, a diasystem or polylectal grammar is a linguistic analysis set up to encode or represent a range of related varieties in a way that displays their structural differences.

The term diasystem was coined by linguist and dialectologist Uriel Weinreich in a 1954 paper as part of an initiative in exploring how to extend advances in structuralist linguistic theory to dialectology to explain linguistic variation across dialects. Weinreich's paper inspired research in the late 1950s to test the proposal. However, the investigations soon showed it to be generally untenable, at least under structuralist theory. With the advent of generative theory in the 1960s, researchers tried applying a generative approach in developing diasystemic explanations; this also fell short.

According to some leading sociolinguists, the diasystem idea for incorporating variation into linguistic theory has been superseded by William Labov's notion of the linguistic variable. As such, the concept has not been part of any substantial linguistic theory and the term has limited currency in linguistics.

Origin of the concept
first suggested comparing accents by their synchronic states, rather than by comparing their different historical developments. He classified sound differences between dialects into three types:
 * Phonological: the inventory phonemes and contextual restrictions, which may vary between dialects. For example, speakers of Castilian Spanish have the phonemes  and, whereas Western Hemisphere dialects of Spanish have just the latter.
 * Phonetic: how phonemes are realized phonetically. For example, most dialects of English have strongly aspirated  in words like park, tool, and cat, but some Northern English accents do not feature such aspiration.
 * Etymological distribution: the distribution of phonemes among member words in an interdialectal lexical correspondence set. For example, most English varieties contrast  and, but some use the former in words like bath and grass and others use the latter.

Despite Trubetzkoy's proposal, linguists continued to consider variation between varieties outside of the scope of inquiry of grammar construction; each variety, in their thinking, should only be studied on its own terms.

Inspired by Trubetzkoy, proposed a synthesis of linguistic geography and descriptive linguistics by applying the structuralist concept of grammar to the description of regular correspondences between different varieties; a resulting supergrammar, which he called a diasystem, would  be consistent with the individual grammars of all the member dialects. A diasystem is a higher order system and its component units of analysis would accordingly be abstractions of a higher order than the units of analysis of the individual systems. That is, just as the phones present within an individual variety are grouped together into abstract phonemes, the phonemes present within a group of varieties could be grouped together into even more abstract diaphonemes. Weinreich exemplified the diasystemic approach by a formulaic arrangement of phoneme correspondences in three dialects of Yiddish, focusing on the vowels but arguing that the principle could work for other aspects of language.

Although Weinreich did not elaborate the diasystemic approach, he did consider some theoretical pitfalls to be avoided. He recognized that phonemic mergers and splits with dissimilar results across dialects would pose a difficult challenge for the construction of a diasystem; he cautioned against positing a diasystem when the work of creating all the member systems (e.g. the work of phonemicization) was yet incomplete; and, following the lead of, he noted that the differences in phonological inventory and etymological distribution might prove problematic in the construction of diasystems.

Subsequent investigation
A few linguists took up Weinreich's challenge and quickly found it to be inadequate. Some of the failures had been anticipated by Weinreich himself, as described above.

found an extreme example of divergent incidence in a study of two dialects of Swiss German, Luzerner and Appenzeller, which evolved independently of each other. Although each dialect had the same set of eleven short vowel phonemes, only one pair ( ~ ) was shown to have a common parent vowel in earlier stages of German. The remaining phonetic similarities between the Luzerner and Appenzeller phoneme sets were fortuitous results of multiple mergers and splits that each dialect underwent separately.

, examining and, noted the need for refinements in the original proposal; different researchers did not seem to agree on definitions, disciplines of study, or objects of inquiry. The research and debate concluded that multiple dialects could not be described by a common grammar, at least not under structuralist theory. That is, it would be unfeasible to construct a single grammar for multiple dialects unless their differences were very minor or if it incorporated only a small number of dialects.

Related to Weinreich's proposal were efforts in both American dialectology and generative phonology to construct an "overall system" that represented the underlying representation for all dialects of English.

An example of this was the diaphonemic analysis, made by, that presumably all American varieties could fit.

Six of the nine simple vowels in this diasystem are common across most dialects: occurs in pit,  in pet,  in pat,  in putt,  in put, and  in pot. The other three are found in specific dialects or dialect groups: represents the vowel of road in New England varieties;  represents a vowel that often appears in stressed syllables in words like just (when it means 'only'); and  represents the vowel of pot in Southern British and New England dialects.

These nine simple vowels can then be combined with any of three offglides to make 36 possible complex nuclei. This system was popular amongst American linguists (despite criticism, particularly from Hans Kurath ) until demonstrated its inadequacy.

The most salient criticism of these broad diasystems was the issue of how cognitively real they are. That is, whether speakers actually have competence in using or understanding the grammatical nuances of multiple varieties. In certain sociolinguistic circumstances, speakers' linguistic repertoire contains multiple varieties. For example, argues that Modern Literary Arabic is a diasystem of various interference phenomena occurring when speakers of different Arabic varieties attempt to speak or read Literary Arabic.

More concretely, Peter Trudgill put forth what he considered to be a cognitively real diasystem in, a book-length sociolinguistic study of Norwich. As a critic of Weinreich's original proposal, he approached the concept as a generativist, putting forth a series of rules that could generate any possible output reflected in the diversity and variability of sociologically conditioned linguistic variables. Because most speakers of Norwich could vary their pronunciation of each variable depending on the circumstances in which they are speaking, the diasystem's rules reflected speakers' actual linguistic abilities.

Cognitively real diasystems are not limited to humans. For example, crows are able to distinguish between different calls that prompt others to disperse, assemble, or rescue; these calls show regional variation so that French crows do not understand recorded American calls. Although captive birds show difficulty understanding the calls of birds from nearby regions, those allowed to migrate are able to understand calls from both, suggesting that they have mentally constructed a diasystem that enables them to understand both call systems.

Still, these sorts of "idiosyncratic" grammars differ in degree from broader diasystems, which are much less likely to be part of speakers' linguistic competence. Even Trudgill has argued against their cognitive reality, deeming the concept of a broad diasystem to be a "theoretical dead-end." Although the concept did not withstand scrutiny by research linguists, it nevertheless triggered a surge of academic work that used it in applied linguistics (e.g. for ESL education materials, composition texts for native speakers, basic linguistics texts, and in the application of linguistics to literary criticism). Diasystemic representations are also possible in dictionaries. For example, the Macquarie Dictionary reflects the pronunciation of four phonetically distinct sociolects of Australian English. Because these sociolects are the same phonemically, readers (at least, those from Australia) can interpret the system as representing their own accent.

title: Diasystem


text:
Millard Hampton

Millard Frank Hampton Jr. (born July 8, 1956) is an American former athlete, winner of gold medal in 4 × 100 m relay and the individual silver medal in the 200 meters at the 1976 Summer Olympics.

Born in Fresno, California, Millard Hampton was an AAU champion in 200 m in 1976. His father, Millard Hampton Sr. was a top sprinter in his own right, placing as high as second in the CIF California State Meet 220 yards in 1952.

Millard Hampton attended Silver Creek High School in San Jose, California, where he was coached by former San Jose State great Bobby Poynter, graduating in 1974 and continues to hold the school record in the 100 m at 10.4 sec. and the 200 m record at 20.8 sec. While at Silver Creek, in 1974 he won the CIF California State Meet title that had eluded his father.

Next Hampton went to San Jose City College (SJCC) where he was coached by Bobby Poynter and Bert Bonanno. While at SJCC, Hampton won the 1976 Olympic Trials and at the Montreal Olympics, Hampton won silver medal in the 200 meters and ran the third leg in the gold medal winning American 4 x 100 metres relay team.

Hampton continued his education at UCLA and was considered a favorite for another Olympic team before the 1980 Summer Olympics boycott.

Another Silver Creek graduate, Andre Phillips won the gold medal in the 400 metres hurdles at the 1988 Summer Olympics, making for a rare instance when two Olympic Gold medalists have come from the same high school. The high school website claims eight schools. The school has honored both by hosting the "Hampton Phillips Classic" named in their honor.

He currently resides in Elk Grove, CA

title: Millard Hampton


text:
Burgundian Wars

The Burgundian Wars (1474–1477) were a conflict between the Burgundian State and the Old Swiss Confederacy and its allies. Open war broke out in 1474, and the Duke of Burgundy, Charles the Bold, was defeated three times on the battlefield in the following years and was killed at the Battle of Nancy in 1477. The Duchy of Burgundy and several other Burgundian lands then became part of France, and the Burgundian Netherlands and Franche-Comté were inherited by Charles's daughter, Mary of Burgundy, and eventually passed to the House of Habsburg upon her death because of her marriage to Maximilian I, Holy Roman Emperor.

Background
The dukes of Burgundy had succeeded, over a period of about 100 years, in establishing their rule as a strong force between the Holy Roman Empire and France. The consolidation of regional principalities with varying wealth into the Burgundian State brought great economic opportunity and wealth to the new power. A deciding factor for many elites in consolidating their lands was the relatively safe guarantee of making a profit under the economically stable Duchy of Burgundy. Their possessions included, besides their original territories of the Franche-Comté and the Duchy of Burgundy, the economically-strong regions of Flanders and Brabant as well as Luxembourg.

The dukes of Burgundy generally pursued aggressive expansionist politics, especially in Alsace and Lorraine, seeking to unite their northern and southern possessions geographically. Having already been in conflict with the French king, Burgundy had sided with the English in the Hundred Years' War but then the Yorkists in the Wars of the Roses, when Henry VI sided with France. The conflict had left the regional powers of France and England in a weakened state and allowed for the rise of the Burgundian power, alongside its fierce French rivals. The repercussions of the Black Death also continued to affect Europe and assisted in maintaining a diminished society. According to some historians, the extremely profitable region of the Low Countries supplied the Duchy of Burgundy with sufficient funds to support their ambitions internally but especially externally. In this period of expansion, treaties of trade and peace were signed with Swiss cantons, and would benefit the security of each power against Habsburg and French ambitions. Charles's advances along the Rhine brought him into conflict with the Habsburgs, especially Emperor Frederick III.

According to a Cambridge publication on Swiss history, both the Swiss and the Burgundians had made aggression a significant impact on the region's foreign affairs. In the effort of consolidating the Swiss Confederacy and for independence from Habsburg rule, Swiss forces gained control of the Habsburg town of Thurgau in an effort to expand its borders and influence. The Bernese people were more frequently being attacked by Charles the Bold's Lombard mercenaries. That raised concern to the Bernese as they began to call on their Swiss allies for assistance in the conflict with Burgundy. The aggressive actions of Charles the Bold would eventually culminate in the Swiss giving him the nickname, "the Turk in the West", and make Burgundy as fierce a rival as the Ottomans in the East.

Conflict
Initially in 1469, Duke Sigismund of Habsburg of Austria pawned his possessions in the Alsace in the Treaty of Saint-Omer as a fiefdom to the Duke of Burgundy for a loan or sum of 50,000 florins, as well as an alliance with Charles the Bold, to have them better protected from the expansion of the Eidgenossen (the Old Swiss Confederacy). Charles's involvement west of the Rhine gave him no reason to attack the confederates, as Sigismund had wanted, but his embargo politics against the cities of Basel, Strasbourg and Mulhouse, directed by his reeve Peter von Hagenbach, prompted them to turn to Bern for help. Charles's expansionist strategy suffered a first setback in his politics when his attack on the Archbishopric of Cologne failed after the unsuccessful Siege of Neuss (1474–75).

In the conflict's second phase, Sigismund sought to achieve a peace agreement with the Swiss confederates, which eventually was concluded in Konstanz in 1474 (later called the Ewige Richtung or Perpetual Accord). He wanted to buy back his Alsace possessions from Charles, who refused. Shortly afterwards, von Hagenbach was captured and executed by decapitation in Alsace, and the Swiss, united with the Alsace cities and Sigismund of Habsburg in an anti-Burgundian league, conquered part of the Burgundian Jura (Franche-Comté) by winning the Battle of Héricourt in November 1474. King Louis XI of France joined the coalition by the Treaty of Andernach in December. The next year, Bernese forces conquered and ravaged Vaud, which belonged to the Duchy of Savoy, which was allied with Charles the Bold. Bern had called out to its Swiss allies for expansion into the Vaud region of Savoy to prevent future aggression by Charles near Bernese lands that were geographically closer to Burgundy than those of the rest of the Swiss Confederation. However, the other Swiss cities had become displeased at the ever-growing expansionist and aggressive Bernese foreign policy and so initially did not support Bern. The Confederacy was a collective defense agreement between the Swiss members and ensured that if one city were attacked, the others would come to its aid. Because the military actions by Bern in Savoy were an invasion, the other Confederacy allies had no legal obligation to come to the aid of the Bernese.

In the Valais, the independent republics of the Sieben Zenden, with the help of Bernese and other confederate forces, drove the Savoyards out of the lower Valais after a victory in the Battle on the Planta in November 1475. In 1476, Charles retaliated and marched to Grandson, which belonged to Pierre de Romont of Savoy but had recently been taken by the Swiss. There, he had the capitulated garrison hanged or drowned in the lake. When the confederate forces arrived a few days later, Charles was defeated in the Battle of Grandson and was forced to flee the battlefield, leaving behind his artillery and many provisions and valuables. Having rallied his army, he was dealt a devastating blow by the confederates at the Battle of Morat. As Burgundian losses continued, Charles the Bold lost the support of his lords, who were losing men and profit, and a rebellion soon began, led by René II, Duke of Lorraine. As the revolt continued, René used his land's strategic location between northern and southern Burgundy to cut off communication and to disrupt war capabilities. The internal conflict only made the war with the Swiss more difficult and pulled Charles's attention away from the Confederacy to deal with the more pressing matter of René's revolt. Charles the Bold raised a new army but fell during the Battle of Nancy in 1477 in which the Swiss fought alongside an army of René. The military failures of Charles the Bold are summarized by a common contemporary Swiss quote: "Charles the Bold lost his goods at Grandson, his bravery at Morat and his blood at Nancy."

Near the end of 1476, the Swiss Confederacy began receiving orders from Pope Sixtus IV, who called for an end of the war and the signing of peace between the Swiss and Charles. Although that seemed to be a peaceful resolution to the war, the Pope's aspirations for Charles to divert his attention away from the Swiss and onto the Muslims in a crusade began to show. The papal pressure was eventually ignored by the Swiss, who refused to end the war unless Charles left the Duchy of Lorraine, whose lands were controlled by René II. It is evident through contemporary writings that espionage and censorship played an influential role in both Swiss and Burgundian actions throughout the war. Professional spies were hired by both sides to recover information of enemy movements and weak points. However, this profession proved to be extremely lethal, as some Swiss cities suffered heavy losses, and obtaining information of the opposing side continued to be a difficult task throughout the war.

The Burgundian Wars also assisted in the shift of military strategy across Europe after the Swiss victories over the numerically-superior Burgundians. The Gewalthaufen proved to be an effective Swiss military strategy against the superior Burgundian forces. Until that point, battles had been dominated by cavalry, which could easily overpower infantry troops on the battlefield. However, the Gewalthaufen tactic used long spears to counter cavalry with remarkable success. That marked a key shift in military history and tipped the balance in favour of infantry troops over mounted soldiers.

Aftermath
The results of the conflict would prove to have significant repercussions for the future of the Duchy of Burgundy and for the regional stability of Western Europe. With the death of Charles the Bold, the Valois dynasty of the dukes of Burgundy died out, and widespread revolts engulfed the Duchy, which soon collapsed under those pressures. The northern territories of the dukes of Burgundy became a possession of the Habsburgs when Archduke Maximilian of Austria, who would later become Holy Roman Emperor, married Charles's only daughter, Mary of Burgundy. The duchy proper reverted to the crown of France under King Louis XI. The Franche-Comté initially also became French but was ceded to Maximilian's son Philip in 1493 by Charles VIII at the Treaty of Senlis in an attempt to bribe the emperor to remain neutral during Charles's planned invasion of Italy.

The victories of the Eidgenossen (Swiss Confederation) over what was one of the most powerful military forces in Europe gained it a reputation of being nearly invincible, and the Burgundian Wars marked the beginning of the rise of Swiss mercenaries on the battlefields of Europe. Although Bern and other Swiss cities invaded and controlled large swathes of Savoyard territories, the Confederacy maintained only Grandson, Morat and Echallens as notable cities. Inside the Confederacy itself, however, the outcome of the war led to internal conflict since the city cantons insisted on having most of the proceeds as they had supplied the most troops. The country cantons resented that, and the Dreizehn Orte disputes almost led to war. They were settled by the Stanser Verkommnis of 1481.

title: Burgundian Wars


text: Talk:Battle of Bléneau

title: Talk:Battle of Bléneau


text:
Trade unions in Malaysia

Trade unions in Malaysia are regulated by the Trade Unions Act of 1959 and the Industrial Relations Act of 1967.

Membership
While the Malaysian constitution guarantees the rights of all Malaysians to form and join a trade union, there are several restrictions imposed by the laws relating to trade unions, i.e., the Trade Unions Act of 1959 and the Industrial Relations Act of 1967.

The restrictive Trade Unions Act does not allow general unions for workers. Membership of any trade union is confined to only those who are employees of a particular industry, establishment, trade and occupation. For example, a bank employee could only be a member of a banking union, but cannot be a member of an airline union or teachers union while a hotel employee, a timber worker or a labourer could not be members of the same union.

For enterprise or in-house union, membership is confined to employees of that particular establishment or company - employees of the company’s subsidiary or an associate company could not join that union. Temporary workers, contract workers including foreign workers could join union as members. However, most of the workers were reluctant to join a union for fear that their contract might not be renewed or work permit cancelled, making it difficult for a union to represent them.

Generally managerial, executive, confidential and security employees cannot be members of a non-executive union, nor can they be represented by a union for the purpose of collective bargaining.

The Trades Unions Act protects workers from being victimised by an employer for joining a union. However, the same section of an act states explicitly that an employer may dismiss, demote, transfer or refuse to promote a worker on other grounds. However, it has not stopped employers form dismissing trade union officials for writing Union circulars (Industrial Court Award Trienekens Sarawak Sdn Bhd)

The Industrial Relations Act allows employers to prohibit management, executives and those who work in a confidential or security capacity from joining a union. The definitions of these terms are left to the employers' discretion. In practice, some employers classify all clerical staff as working in a confidential capacity and production workers as working in a security capacity since they oversee their machines.

Should the Director General of Industrial Relations fail to get both parties to reach an agreement, the matter is referred to the Human Resources Minister. The minister will investigate and make a decision which may not be overturned by a Malaysian court.

The government policy of segregating trade unions and promoting enterprise unions over national and industry unions has, stifled the trade unions movement. Only 3% of private sector workers are trade union members, and less than 2% are covered by collective agreements. While the number of trade unions has increased most of the unions are in-house unions with less than 100 members.

Agreements
Collective Agreements are governed under the Industrial Relations Act 1967.

Trade union effectiveness in securing decent collective agreements and to protect workers are restricted because Unions must obtain recognition from the employer after it can prove by secret ballot that the majority of the eligible employees are its members.

After that, the employer has 21 days in which to recognise the union. If the employer does not provide recognition within the stipulated period the matter will be taken to the Director General of Industrial Relations for arbitration. This is a very cumbersome process and disputes normally take years to resolve.

Even if the union finally obtains the necessary recognition to represent the workers, the ability to negotiate for better benefits is further restricted as it is virtually impossible for a union to strike.

A deadlock here is referred to the Director General of Industrial Relations for conciliation. Failure to obtain compromise results in the case being referred to the minister who shall refer it to the Industrial Court for arbitration at his discretion. All industrial actions, including picketing and strikes must stopped once the minister makes the reference.

Unions may submit collective agreements on behalf of their members but the Industrial Relations Act (Part IV) forbids such agreements to deal with any matter pertaining to promotion, transfers, termination of service, dismissal and retrenchments.

Decisions of the Industrial Court may be challenged further in the high court, the appeals court and the federal court.

The law allows for duration of collective agreements to be at least three years,

Strikes
The Industrial Relations Act defines a "strike" in a sufficiently broad manner to include work-to-rule and go-slow actions. "Any act or omission by a body of workers, which is intended or which does result in any limitation, restriction, reduction, delatoriness in the performance of their duties connected to their employment"

Illegal strikes have consequences such as fines or imprisonment.

A legal strike requires that the union have a trade dispute. A secret ballot with not less than two thirds of the workers involved is required. The Director General has to be informed next. After that, the employer must be informed of the date of the strike. This is all required to prepare for a strike.

If the Minister should refer the case to the Industrial Court before the strike occurs then the strike must not be carried out.

If it is a public sector union then the Minister refers the disputed matter to the Industrial Court only with the consent of the Agong (King) or the state ruler, if it is a state body in question.

The last major strike in Malaysia occurred in 1962. 9,000 railway workers went on strike to demand conversion of daily wages be changed to monthly salaries. The strike lasted 22 days and all government workers were converted to monthly wages. The railway belonged to and was operated by the government at the time, but has since been corporatised.

title: Trade unions in Malaysia


text:
Swansea and Mumbles Railway

The Swansea and Mumbles Railway was the venue for the world's first passenger horsecar railway service, located in Swansea, Wales, United Kingdom.

Originally built under an act of Parliament of 1804 to move limestone from the quarries of Mumbles to Swansea and to the markets beyond, it carried the world's first fare-paying railway passengers under an agreement effective from 25 March 1807. It later moved from horse power to steam locomotion, and was finally converted to electric power, using the largest tram cars ever built for service in Britain, before closing in January 1960, in favour of motor buses.

At the time of the railway's closure, it was claimed to have been the world's longest serving railway, although this distinction has to be qualified because other railways which were used solely for goods traffic (e.g. the Middleton Railway in Leeds, Yorkshire, dating from 1758) had been operating for longer.

History
In 1804 the British Parliament approved the laying of a railway line between Swansea and Oystermouth in South Wales, for the transport of quarried materials to and from the Swansea Canal and the harbour at the mouth of the River Tawe, and later that year the first tracks were laid. At this stage, the railway was known as the Oystermouth Railway and controlled by the Committee of the Company of Proprietors of the Oystermouth Railway or Tramroad Company, which included many prominent citizens of Swansea, including the copper and coal magnate John Morris (later Sir John Morris, Bart.). In later years it became known as the Swansea and Mumbles Railway (although the original company was not wound up until 1959), or just the Mumbles Railway, but to local people it was simply the Mumbles Train.

Early days
There was no road link between Swansea and Oystermouth at the beginning of the nineteenth century and the original purpose of the railway was to transport coal, iron ore and limestone. Construction seems to have been completed in 1806 and operations began without formal ceremony, using horse-drawn vehicles. As constructed, the line ran from the Brewery Bank adjacent to the Swansea Canal in Swansea, around the wide sweep of Swansea Bay to a terminus at Castle Hill (near the present-day Clements Quarry) in the tiny isolated fishing village of Oystermouth (known as Mumbles). There was also a branch from Blackpill which ran up the Clyne valley for nearly a mile to Ynys Gate which was intended to promote the development of the valley's coal reserves.

In February 1807, approval was given to carry passengers along the line, when one of the original proprietors, Benjamin French, offered to pay the company the sum of twenty pounds in lieu of tolls for the right to do so for twelve months from the following quarter day, 25 March 1807. This is usually cited as the date when the first regular service carrying passengers between Swansea and Oystermouth began, thus giving the railway the claim of being the first passenger railway in the world. Passenger services operated from The Mount, the world's first recorded railway station. The venture was evidently a success because the following year French joined with two others in offering the increased sum of twenty five pounds to continue the arrangement for a further year, but the construction of a turnpike road parallel to the railway in the mid-1820s robbed it of much of its traffic and the passenger service (by that time in the hands of one Simon Llewelyn) ceased in 1826 or 1827, ironically just as events elsewhere in the United Kingdom (particularly in the north east of England) were paving the way for the development of railways as a truly national and international transport system for both goods and passengers.

In its early days the line operated in the same manner as the contemporary canals and turnpike roads. Tolls and charges were laid down in the enabling Act of Parliament and any trader could use the line on provision of a suitable waggon and after paying the appropriate toll to the owning Company. The railway was laid in the form of a plateway, with the rails being approximately apart.

After cessation of the passenger service the line became derelict and the original company of proprietors virtually moribund. The Clyne valley branch was relaid in 1841/2 and extended for a further mile (as a private line) to the Rhydydefaid colliery where George Byng Morris, the son of one of the original proprietors, had started to exploit the coal and iron reserves of the valley. From about 1855, George Byng Morris took the line in hand, relaid it with edge rails (i.e. as a conventional railway) to the standard gauge of and reintroduced a horse-drawn passenger service between Swansea and a terminus at The Dunns in Oystermouth.

Introduction of steam
Steam power first replaced the horses in 1877 when trials were undertaken with one of Henry Hughes's patent tramway locomotives, aptly named Pioneer. These were successful and two further locomotives of the same type were obtained, although a dispute between the Swansea Improvements & Tramways Company (which owned the locomotives) and the line's then owner, John Dickson (who had come into possession following the death of George Byng Morris) meant that horses continued to operate certain services until 1896. At this time there was a junction between the Mumbles Railway and the Swansea town tramway system at the Slip, allowing S.I. & T. cars to run through from Swansea town centre to Oystermouth. The nature of the dispute was such that the Swansea & Mumbles company demanded that the S.I. & T. horse cars should follow their own steam-hauled services on the line. In 1889, a new company, the Mumbles Railway & Pier Company, was incorporated to extend the railway beyond Oystermouth to a new pier close to Mumbles Head. The first section, to Southend, was opened in 1893 and the remainder, including the pier, in 1898.

The Clyne valley branch continued to be used for coal traffic from Rhydydefaid pit until its closure in 1885 after which the entire branch fell into disuse. In 1896 the promoters of the Gower Light Railway proposed incorporating it into their scheme but nothing came of it. The original branch to Ynys Gate (as authorised in 1804) was relaid in connection with the Clyne Valley slant (opened 1903) and used for coal traffic until the colliery closed in 1915. The extension of 1841/2 remained abandoned until 1920 when a narrow-gauge tramway was laid on its formation to carry coal from Ynys slant to Ynys Gate. This was used only until 1921 when the slant closed. There was then no further traffic on the branch, although the track remained in situ and was still usable as late as 1936 when it is recorded that a diesel locomotive made a trip up the branch as far as Ynys Gate.

A somewhat motley collection of steam locomotives was used to maintain services between 1877 and 1929, beginning with the Hughes tramway locomotives mentioned above (which were actually owned by the S.I. & T. and therefore not able to be used on the railway after 1878). Dickson had purchased two saddle tank locomotives of more conventional outline from the Falcon Engine & Car Works (successor to Hughes's Locomotive and Tramway Engine Works), and two more from Manning Wardle & Co of Leeds in the early 1880s. A further locomotive (originally numbered 5, later 3) came from the Hunslet Engine Company of Leeds in 1885. When the new Swansea & Mumbles Railway Company took over operations in 1890 it ordered two 0-4-0 saddle tank locomotives from Black, Hawthorn & Co of Gateshead. These were delivered in 1891 and numbered 1 and 2; they worked on the line until after the First World War. Two larger 0-6-0 side tank locomotives were obtained from the Hunslet Engine Company in 1898; numbered 4 and 5, they bore the brunt of the passenger service until well into the 1920s. The nominally independent Mumbles Railway & Pier Co. ordered a 0-4-0 saddle tank from the Brush Electrical Engineering Co of Loughborough (successor to the Falcon Engine & Car Works) in 1906 and this carried plates reading "MR & P No. 3" to denote its ownership. Finally, a second-hand Avonside 0-6-0ST was obtained and named Swansea. All were tank locomotives of 0-4-0 or 0-6-0 wheel arrangement. Ownership was vested variously in the Swansea & Mumbles Railway Company or the Mumbles Railway & Pier Company (and sometimes transferred between the two for accounting purposes) and as early as the 1890s there is evidence that the railway was having to hire in locomotives to supplement its own fleet. By the 1920s, locomotives were regularly being hired from a local dealer, Charles Williams of Morriston, and frequently appear in photographs of the railway taken at that time.

Centenary – royal visit
The line celebrated its centenary in 1904, producing a special commemorative brochure for the occasion. Two years previously, a notable experiment had been carried out, namely the introduction of battery-powered 'accumulator' cars. These were not a success, but one of the cars was retained after the electrical equipment had been stripped out and used to convey parties of visiting dignitaries, including King Edward VII when he and his consort, Queen Alexandra, visited Swansea for the ceremonial cutting of the first sod of the King's Dock in July 1904. The car was used again for the visit of King Edward's successor, King George V, in 1920, when he officiated at the opening of the Queen's Dock.

Electrification
The line was electrified in 1928 at 650 V DC using overhead transmission – giving it the distinction of having used three forms of regular locomotive power over the years (i.e. horse, steam and electricity). Trials began on 6 July 1928 and full electric services were introduced on 2 March 1929, using a fleet of eleven double-deck cars built by the Brush Electrical Engineering Co of Loughborough, in Leicestershire. These were the largest ever built for service in Britain and each could seat 106 passengers. Furthermore, they were frequently operated in pairs, giving a total seating capacity of 212 per train.

Two further cars were added later, bringing the fleet strength up to thirteen. A four-wheeled petrol-mechanical locomotive was acquired from Hardy Railmotors of Slough, then in Buckinghamshire, to handle the residual goods traffic on the railway, but this proved to be underpowered and was replaced after a few years by a diesel-mechanical locomotive from John Fowler & Co, of Leeds. The Hardy locomotive was retained for a few years and used for shunting the cars in the depot, which was on the site of the former carriage sheds, adjacent to the Rutland Street terminus, and for inspection of the overhead line equipment, but it had been dismantled by 1954, when parts were used in the construction of a replica horse-drawn car to celebrate the line's 150th anniversary.

Sale
In 1958, The South Wales Transport Company (the principal operator of motor bus services in the Swansea town area and predecessor of the modern-day First Cymru company) purchased the railway from the old owning companies (the Swansea & Mumbles Railway Limited and the Mumbles Railway & Pier Company), having previously been the lessee in succession to the Swansea Improvements & Tramways Company since the 1930s, and the following year went to Parliament with an abandonment bill. Despite vociferous local opposition, the bill became law as the South Wales Transport Act 1959 (7 & 8 Eliz. 2. c. l).

Closure
The railway was closed in two stages. The section from Southend to the pier was closed on 11 October 1959 to facilitate the construction of a special road to the Pier for the buses that were to replace the trains. Then, at 11.52 on Tuesday 5 January 1960, the last train (a ceremonial special, carrying local dignitaries) left Swansea for Mumbles driven by Frank Dunkin, who had worked on the railway since 1907. Within a very short time of the train returning to the Rutland Street depot, work began on dismantling the track and cars.

Preservation
One car (no. 2) was saved for preservation by members of Leeds University in Yorkshire and stored for a while at the Middleton Railway in that city, but it was heavily vandalised and eventually destroyed by fire. The front end of car no. 7 was also saved for preservation at Swansea Museum; following many years of neglect it was initially restored in the early 1970s by members of the Railway Club of Wales and is now on display in the Tram Shed alongside the National Waterfront Museum in Swansea's Maritime Quarter.

A Mumbles Railway Society was formed in 1975 to formally archive material and to maintain the hope that one day the line would re-open.

Stations
The railway had a multitude of stopping places over the years, but at the time of electrification in 1929 the officially recognised stations from Swansea to Mumbles (as published in Bradshaw) were:

 * Rutland Street
 * St Helen's (frequently known as "The Slip")
 * Brynmill
 * Ashleigh Road

(Between Ashleigh Road and Blackpill stations the railway was crossed by the LM&SR Central Wales line from Swansea Victoria to Shrewsbury, at a point close to the LM&SR Mumbles Road station. There was a Mumbles Road name board under the bridge on the Mumbles Railway line, but if this was an official stopping place for Mumbles Railway cars it was not recognised as such by Bradshaw.)

 * Blackpill
 * West Cross
 * Norton Road
 * Oystermouth
 * Southend
 * Mumbles Pier (name board read simply "Pier")

Railway versus tramway
The railway is frequently referred to as a tramway, but the original name of the company of proprietors was the Oystermouth Railway or Tramroad Company, the word tramroad being used in its pre-railway context. The original right of way was unique and it was only after the construction of the turnpike road in the 1820s that the line assumed its roadside character. The introduction of steam locomotion in the 1870s was facilitated by a clause in the original act which authorised the "haling or drawing" of waggons by "men, horses, or otherwise" and owed nothing to the Tramways Act 1870 (33 & 34 Vict. c. 78).

The passenger rolling stock used in steam days bore little resemblance to conventional railway carriages, employing open-top, "toast-rack" and "knifeboard" seating, and being built by companies more commonly associated with the construction of urban tramcars, such as G.F. Milnes & Co., Starbuck & Falcon, etc. After electrification the resemblance to an urban tramway became more marked with the introduction of the huge Brush-built electric cars and because of the style of operation (the signalling was used only to regulate entry to the passing loops and not to control the actual running of cars). The track was always laid with conventional railway-type rail and not grooved tram-rail and the railway also handled conventional goods wagons (exchanged with the London & North Western Railway (the London Midland & Scottish Railway after January 1923) at Mumbles Road station and with the Great Western Railway at the Swansea terminus). In the early nineteenth century a tramway was a line for mineral wagons (trams), the term railway being used when edge rails replaced plates. The term tramway did not become almost exclusively associated with urban transport systems until after the passing of the Tramways Act 1870 (33 & 34 Vict. c. 78).

Suggested re-opening
On 16 February 2009, the City & County of Swansea started the process of looking at the feasibility of trams for the Swansea bay area again. The ERC (Environment, Regeneration and Culture) Overview Board, which is a policy making committee chaired by Councillor Rob Speht, discussed the options for feasibility work and scheduled tasks to assess the technical, financial and social feasibility of bringing trams back to Swansea.

In 2016 the group were working through a formal constitution and going through the steps to register as a Charitable body.

title: Swansea and Mumbles Railway


text: Category:Union County, New Jersey

title: Category:Union County, New Jersey


text:
Steve Riddick

Steven Earl Riddick (born September 18, 1951) is an American athlete and winner of the gold medal in 4×100 meter relay at the 1976 Summer Olympics.

Personal life
Riddick was raised in Hampton, Virginia. His father was a Church of Christ minister there.

Riddick was a late starter in track, concentrating on team sports until his junior year at high school.

After high school, Riddick attended at Norfolk State University, having been recruited by coach Dick Price. There he met his wife Theresita Renee Coleman.

For the last year of his psychology degree course he ran for the Philadelphia Pioneers track club because his college eligibility had ended. It was a move engineered by Coach Price who put Riddick in contact with the Philadelphia Pioneers coach Alex Woodley.

After graduation in 1975, Riddick moved first to Washington D.C. and then Philadelphia and continued to run for the Philadelphia Pioneers club.

Track career
Riddick attempted to qualify for the 1972 Munich Olympics but was eliminated at the semi-final stage in both the 100 and 200 m at the U.S. Olympic Trials.

In 1975, in Zurich, he ran the fastest automatically timed 100 m of the year at 10.05 s, a time that remained his personal best. He had started that year by causing some amazement and amusement when he ran and won an indoor race in his sweat pants. The reason: he had forgotten his shorts. He won the final in borrowed shorts.

At the 1976 Montreal Olympics, Riddick was eliminated in the semi-final of the 100 m race, but ran the anchor leg for the gold medal-winning American 4 × 100 m relay team (with Harvey Glance, Johnny 'Lam' Jones, and Millard Hampton). Riddick had finished third in the 100 m final at the U.S. Olympic Trials. He just missed another medal in the 200 m and finished fourth, narrowly passed in the closing stages of the final by Mark Lutz.

Riddick was a member of American 4 × 100 m relay team, which won the 1977 IAAF World Cup with a new world record of 38.03 s (with Cliff Wiley, Bill Collins and Steve Williams). He was also a member of American 4 × 100 m relay team, which won the 1979 Pan American Games(with Mike Roberson, Harvey Glance and Cliff Wiley) and placed second in 1979 IAAF World Cup (with Mike Roberson, Harvey Glance and Mel Lattany).

In 1978, he won the 100 m and anchored the United States 4 × 100 m relay team to victory in the USA versus USSR meet at the University of California's Edwards Stadium, and so helping the United States to its first overall victory in the dual meet series since 1969.

Riddick attempted to qualify for the 100 m at the 1984 Los Angeles Olympics, but was eliminated at the quarter-final stage at the U.S. Olympic Trials.

Surprisingly, Riddick never achieved much success at the USA National Championships outdoors during his career - his best was fourth in the 100 m (in 1974, 1977, 1978 and 1979) and fifth in the 200 m (in 1977 and 1979) - he was, however, twice United States champion indoors at 60 y in 1977 and 1979. His indoor successes in 1977 led him to being voted Track and Field News's indoor athlete of the year.

Riddick ran for his college Norfolk State University until 1974 winning NCAA division titles. He then joined the Philadelphia Pioneers track club. The Philadelphia Pioneer Educational Athletic Development Club, the proper name for the Philadelphia Pioneers, were the brainchild of Alexander J. Woodley. During the period 1977–1981, when Riddick was a member, they were the premier track club in the United States.

In 1980, Riddick was inducted into the Athletic Hall of Fame of The Lower Virginia Peninsula.

In 1997, Riddick was inducted into the Hampton Roads African American Sports Hall of Fame.

Rankings
Riddick was ranked among the best in the US and the world in both the 100 and 200 m sprint events from 1973 to 1979, according to the votes of the experts of Track and Field News.

Coaching career
After his athletics career, Riddick was a coach at Norfolk State University.

Riddick enjoyed some early success in the role, but his reputation was tarnished when he was embroiled in a scandal over the misappropriation of university travel funds for which he was sacked.

Money laundering and bank fraud scandal
In 2006, Riddick was indicted and arrested on fraud charges for his alleged involvement in a money laundering scheme. His former student, Tim Montgomery, was also a defendant in the case and Montgomery's former girlfriend, 5-time Olympic medalist sprinter Marion Jones, was also found to have been involved in the operation.

In 2008, Riddick was sentenced to five years and three months in federal prison for counterfeiting checks.

title: Steve Riddick


text:
Saturn Award for Best Supporting Actress on Television

The Saturn Award for Best Supporting Actress on Television is presented annually by the Academy of Science Fiction, Fantasy and Horror Films, honoring the work of actresses in science fiction, fantasy, and horror fiction on television.

The Walking Dead holds the record for the most wins in the category with six (from 18 total nominations), with four different actresses receiving the award, including Danai Gurira and Melissa McBride who, along with Star Trek actress Jeri Ryan, are the only people to have won the award twice. Laurie Holden was the first actress from the series to receive the award, and Lauren Cohan currently holds the network/cable version of the award. Emily Kinney and Tovah Feldshuh also received nominations.

As of the 47th Saturn Awards in 2022, the award is known as Best Supporting Actress in a Network or Cable Television Series and features a sister category: Saturn Award for Best Supporting Actress in a Streaming Television Series.

(NOTE: Year refers to year of eligibility, the actual ceremonies are held the following year.).

The winners are listed in bold.

Multiple nominations

 * 8 nominations
 * Melissa McBride

 * 7 nominations
 * Jennifer Carpenter

 * 5 nominations
 * Elizabeth Mitchell
 * Amanda Tapping

 * 4 nominations
 * Danai Gurira
 * Hayden Panettiere
 * Katee Sackhoff
 * Sophie Skelton

 * 3 nominations
 * Amy Acker
 * Jolene Blalock
 * Alyson Hannigan
 * Candice Patton
 * Beth Riesgraf
 * Jeri Ryan
 * Michelle Trachtenberg

 * 2 nominations
 * Morena Baccarin
 * Kathy Bates
 * Gina Bellman
 * Charisma Carpenter
 * Sarah Carter
 * Gwendoline Christie
 * Erica Durance
 * Dakota Fanning
 * Summer Glau
 * Lena Headey
 * Laurie Holden
 * Allison Mack
 * Danielle Panabaker
 * Adina Porter
 * Rhea Seehorn

Multiple wins

 * 2 wins
 * Danai Gurira
 * Melissa McBride (consecutive)
 * Jeri Ryan