text:
Talk:Amae

quick query
If this 'amae' is so crucial to Japanese society and not just something that exists in all societies then why hasn't it been translated into Japanese yet? Maybe it's just westerners who find these kind of matter-of-fact concepts that exist in their own society as being so fascinating. Do we have an English page for the concept of 'amae' as well?

So is this the reason that in WWII Japanese soldiers killed by Chinese soldiers muttered "mother" before they died? and why the Japanese name of the video game Earthbound is called Mother? lysdexia 01:02, 18 Oct 2004 (UTC)
 * The World War II thing may very well be so. The title of the Mother series, however, is more likely a complete non sequitur. Kairos 5 July 2005 08:17 (UTC)

-Japanese soliders cried 'mother' when they died as did the US soldiers. You can find that reported in Okinawa: The Last Battle of World War II by Robert Leckie

 * Yeah there's something a bit fringe about "The behavior of children towards their parents is perhaps the most common example of amae, but it has been suggested that child-rearing practices in the Western world seek to stop this kind of dependence in children, while it continues into adulthood in close relationships in Japan.[1]"  It almost seems to imply that Japanese peopel remain dependent throughout their entire lives, as if Japan isn't a functioning First World nation. -WikiSkeptic (talk) 17:57, 12 May 2008 (UTC)

 * That is a fair summary of what Doi says. He doesn't claim Japanese are more dependent (that I remember, anyway), only that such overt behavior is more accepted in adults (especially women) than in the West. After all, we're all dependent throughout our adult lives. Independence is pathological in a social species. kwami (talk) 22:55, 13 May 2008 (UTC)

 * Confucian cultures encourage children to not be independent, as it places a stronger emphasis on children owing their parents. They view the parent-child relationship as being a form of sovereign-subject, unlike Western cultures where the child is expected to make his/her own way through society once an adult -- to become independent, no longer having to rely upon the patron-parent to navigate society.  Meanwhile, the West traditionally places a stigma on indulging children & behaving like an indulged child; consider how many of the terms for such behavior in English are uncomplimentary, both by the patron/parent and the client/child.71.76.234.76 (talk) 17:59, 16 June 2008 (UTC)

Citation style. July 2006
Should give full name, title of report, year, publisher. See Citing sources. Skinnyweed 00:53, 1 July 2006 (UTC)

 * Using the limited information available (last name and date), I think I have found the proper sources. I would encourage anyone familiar with this topic to review the sources I found and make sure I didn't make a mistake. --Ginkgo100 talk · contribs · e@ 22:25, 14 July 2006 (UTC)

Doi didn't coin
Deleted comments Doi coined the word. The verbal form amaeru is more common, but the nominal amae is frequent enough to make it into the dictionaries. kwami 00:43, 8 September 2007 (UTC)
 * Doi coined the substantive amae. Unless you have earlier examples of the noun, refrain from removing the note.Nishidani (talk) 18:43, 16 June 2008 (UTC)
 * No, he did not. As I said above, it's common enough to make it into dictionaries. — kwami (talk) 20:12, 5 June 2012 (UTC)

Merge
Merged into The Anatomy of Dependence. Please help finish the merge. --Uncle Ed (talk) 17:06, 5 June 2012 (UTC)

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Talk:Amae


text:
Park West station

Park West is a Metromover station in the Park West neighborhood of Downtown, Miami, Florida.

This station is located at the intersection of Northeast Second Avenue and Eighth Street. It opened to service May 26, 1994, and is two blocks northwest of the Miami-Dade Arena.

Places of interest

 * Kaseya Center
 * Museum Park
 * Marinablue
 * Ten Museum Park
 * Paramount Miami Worldcenter
 * 900 Biscayne Bay
 * One Thousand Museum

title: Park West station


text:
USS Tillman (DD-135)

The first USS Tillman (DD–135) was a Wickes-class destroyer in the United States Navy. She was named for Senator Benjamin Tillman. Transferred to the United Kingdom in World War II, she was commissioned in the Royal Navy as HMS Wells (I 95).

United States Navy
Tillman was laid down on 29 July 1918 by the Charleston Navy Yard; launched on 7 July 1919; sponsored by Miss Mary Y. Tillman the granddaughter of Senator Tillman; re-classified DD-135 on 17 July 1920, during the Navy-wide assignment of alphanumeric hull numbers; and commissioned on 10 April 1921.

Following shakedown, Tillman operated out of Charleston Navy Yard with Division 20, Squadron 9, Destroyer Flotilla 1, U.S. Atlantic Fleet, until the summer of 1921. Operating with half of her normal complement by the following winter, the destroyer trained and cruised with Division 33, Squadron 8, Atlantic Fleet Destroyer Squadrons into the spring of 1922. Soon thereafter, Tillman was decommissioned on 3 July 1922 and laid up at the Philadelphia Navy Yard.

After almost eight years of inactivity, Tillman was placed back in commission at Philadelphia on 1 May 1930. Returning to Charleston, the destroyer operated with Division 23, Squadron 7, of the Scouting Fleet Destroyer Squadrons. Transferred to Division 48 by 1 January 1931, Tillman conducted training cruises for naval reserve trainees and NROTC midshipmen until late in the spring of 1933, when she shifted to Boston to train reservists and NROTC midshipmen of the 1st Naval District.

As part of the Scouting Fleet Training Squadron, Tillman eventually returned to the Charleston Navy Yard and alternated tours of active training duty with periods moored in "rotating reserve." On 1 January 1934, she returned to full-time active duty with the Training Squadron and resumed training cruises. The destroyer continued to alternate periods in the rotating reserve with assignments to training duty into the late 1930s. Later assigned to Destroyer Division (DesDiv) 29 of Destroyer Squadron (DesRon) 10, she worked out of Charleston and Boston, training reservists and NROTC midshipmen, participating in Fleet landing exercises in the Caribbean; conducting battle practices and drills; and showing the flag at ports along the eastern seaboard and in the Caribbean. She continued this schedule until she was again decommissioned on 15 June 1939.

Two and one-half months later, German forces attacked Poland, triggering World War II in Europe. Early in the spring of 1940, the tide turned against the Allies, as Germany launched a devastatingly successful blitzkrieg. In addition, German U-boats terrorized transatlantic convoys and took heavy tolls of merchantmen and escorts alike. By summer, the United Kingdom was the last country in Europe still at war with Hitler, with only the English Channel between her and the Germans.

The Royal Navy's destroyer forces had suffered losses in the Atlantic, as well as in the Norwegian debacle and the evacuation of Dunkirk. At this point, the newly installed prime minister, Winston Churchill, appealed to President Franklin D. Roosevelt for help. Accordingly, on 23 July 1940, the two leaders reached the Destroyers for Bases Agreement, whereby the United States would transfer 50 overaged flush-decked destroyers to the British in return for 99-year leases on sites for strategic bases in the Western Hemisphere.

As one of the 50 ships, Tillman was recommissioned at Philadelphia on 24 August 1940. About three months later, she moved up the coast to Halifax, Nova Scotia, the transfer point for the "50 ships that saved the world." On 21 November 1940, she arrived at that port with the remainder of her division, DesDiv 72, the last group of ships to be turned over to the Royal and Royal Canadian Navies.

Royal Navy
Decommissioned on 26 November 1940, Tillman's name was struck from the US Navy list on 8 January 1941. Commissioned in the Royal Navy as HMS Wells (I 95) on 5 December 1940, the destroyer suffered damage on the 9th in a collision with sister ship HMS Newmarket (G47). She was thus unable to sail for the British Isles until 4 February 1941. Getting underway on that date in company with HMS Newark (G08), Wells encountered a heavy gale in which she lost her topmast. Newark soon suffered engine failure and had to be towed back to Halifax.

Wells eventually arrived in the United Kingdom and was soon assigned to the 17th Destroyer Division, which provided escorts for the 1st Minelaying Squadron. During this time, she carried out a number of mining operations off the western coast of Scotland.

Between these operations, Wells escorted convoys to and from Iceland. On 10 June 1941, while operating south of this strategic isle, she attacked a U-boat but without success. Two days later, she encountered another U-boat and went to the attack, but the explosion of her own depth charges damaged her and forced her to give up the search.

Following refitting at Hull, England, in the autumn of 1941, Wells returned to convoy escort duty. Wells was modified for trade convoy escort service by removal of three of the original 4"/50 caliber guns and one of the triple torpedo tube mounts to reduce topside weight for additional depth charge stowage and installation of Hedgehog anti-submarine mortars. On 16 January 1942, she intercepted an SOS from SS R. J. Cullen—an American merchantman which had run aground on the southeast side of Barra Island, in the Outer Hebrides, west of Scotland. Heavy seas initially made launching a boat a virtual impossibility, but Wells stood by until lifeboats and tugs arrived and transported the steamer's crew safely ashore.

While escorting two transports later that spring, Wells and HMS Brighton (I08) were bombed by German aircraft west of the Faroe Islands, but escaped damage. During November, Wells conducted convoy escort operations with Convoy KX-6, supporting Operation "Torch", the invasion of North Africa, and returned to the United Kingdom in December with Convoy MKF-3 to resume escort duties with Iceland-bound convoys.

After serving another tour of convoy escort and minelaying escort duties, Wells was transferred to Rosyth in August 1943 and operated with the Rosyth Escort Force, screening coastwise convoys between the Firth of Forth and the Thames estuary. Early in 1945, after refitting at the Clyde in late 1944, she became a target ship for aircraft training with the Western Approaches Command, a role in which she served until reduced to reserve status at Greenock after World War II, in mid-1945. Decommissioned in July 1945, Wells was subsequently scrapped at Troon, on 24 July 1945.

title: USS Tillman (DD-135)


text:
New Democrat Network

The New Democrat Network (NDN) was an American think tank that promoted centrist candidates for the Democratic Party. NDN was a 501(c)(4) membership organization that functioned in collaboration with two subsidiary organizations, the NDN Political Fund, a non-federal political organization (527), and NDN PAC, a federal political action committee. The organization was dissolved by Rosenberg in March 2024.

The group was officially named the New Democrat Network from 1996 to 2004 and NDN from 2004 to 2024.

Founding
NDN was led and founded by Simon Rosenberg in 1996, after his split with the Democratic Leadership Council (DLC), for which he worked.

Before founding NDN, Rosenberg worked as a television news writer and producer and a political strategist for the Michael Dukakis and Bill Clinton presidential campaigns and the Democratic National Committee. NDN has offices in Washington, D.C., New York City, San Francisco, and Miami.

In 2000, the NDN was characterized as "a group of pro-business Capitol Hill Democrats who borrow freely from the metaphors and values of the New Economy in their quest to modernize their party and wean it away from the labor unions and old-line liberals." Simon described the group as "a venture capital fund for the Democratic Party."

Involvement in the 2004 presidential election
The NDN, while not supporting or embracing 2004 Democratic presidential primary candidate Howard Dean, pointed to his online network of small donors, volunteers, and bloggers as the model to emulate for the Democratic Party. In 2003, the NDN was described as challenging the DLC and becoming an increasingly influential player in the party's politics.

In the 2004 United States presidential election, NDN led an effort to turn out Hispanic voters for John Kerry. Also in 2004, Rosenberg announced his candidacy for Chairman of the Democratic National Committee, but eventually withdrew from the race after it became clear that he would lose to eventual Chairman Howard Dean. Rosenberg then supported Dean's campaign.

title: New Democrat Network


text:
User talk:Queerwiki

Hello and welcome to Wikipedia! Hope you like it here, and stick around.

Here are some tips to help you get started:
 * Try the Tutorial, and feel free to experiment in the test area.
 * If you need help, post a question at the Help Desk
 * Eventually, you might want to read the Manual of Style and Policies and Guidelines.
 * Remember Neutral point of view
 * Explore, be bold in editing pages, and, most importantly, have fun!

Good luck! [[User:Meelar|Meelar (talk)]]

P.S. One last helpful hint. To sign your posts like I did above (on talk pages, for example) use the '~' symbol. To insert just your name, type ~~~ (3 tildes), or, to insert your name and timestamp, use ~~~~ (4 tildes).

Race comment
Hello there, when you notice vandalism like you did on Race you can revert it yourself quite easily, take a look here: How to revert a page to an earlier version. Regards, [[User:Solitude|Solitude\talk]] 17:21, Oct 26, 2004 (UTC)

Raposo
The article has been deleted eight times in the past, dating as far back as July 5th, 2005. As such, it was protected from recreation. However, if you can come up with an article that is worthy of staying up, then please by all means make it. Linuxbeak (drop me a line) 05:49, 7 March 2006 (UTC)

Hi there - I've removed the protection from Greg Raposo, so it is now possible to recreate the article again if you wish. Let me know if you need any advice on how to go ahead with this. — sjorford (talk)  12:33, 28 March 2006 (UTC)
 * That sounds great - I'll be happy to look at the formatting if you want, as I like that kind of nitpicking :) — sjorford (talk)  08:07, 29 March 2006 (UTC)

Male Pregnancy
You removed the citation needed template from the article saying refer to the talk page but I cannot see where you mean. Can you point me in the right direction. Viridae Talk 06:10, 30 June 2006 (UTC)
 * Thanks for that. Viridae Talk 06:21, 30 June 2006 (UTC)

Alumni
I read your entry on the school page about having wanted the GSA to exist. I always wondered about the makeup of the student body myself when I used to attend, I left in 2004, yourself? Tyciol 12:32, 25 May 2007 (UTC)

Response at Talk:Male pregnancy
Good job. I liked your response very much. Photouploaded (talk) 18:43, 8 December 2007 (UTC) Thanks! I'm the one who added the initial trans & intersex info so I check in every once in a while. Queerwiki (talk) 18:45, 8 December 2007 (UTC)

Moved my request for citation
My request for citation did not belong at the end of the sentence where you placed it in the "male pregnancy" article, it was exactly where it belonged. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 67.34.148.26 (talk) 19:44, 7 April 2008 (UTC) It is inherent in the concept of a female-to-male trans person that they are physiologically female (or were at some point in time), and holding a male identity. No citation is needed. Queerwiki (talk) 22:54, 8 April 2008 (UTC) Notice also that this is previously addressed on the discussion page. Queerwiki (talk) 22:55, 8 April 2008 (UTC)

AfD nomination of Spencer Herbert
I have nominated Spencer Herbert, an article you created, for deletion. I do not think that this article satisfies Wikipedia's criteria for inclusion, and have explained why at Articles for deletion/Spencer Herbert. Your opinions on the matter are welcome at that same discussion page; also, you are welcome to edit the article to address these concerns. Thank you for your time. Nick—Contact/Contribs 19:14, 27 September 2008 (UTC)

Invitation
From your username and edits, I thought you might be interested in WP:LGBT, the LGBT WikiProject. Take a look around, and if you are interested, sign up! :) -- SatyrTN (talk / contribs) 03:21, 18 October 2008 (UTC)

title: User talk:Queerwiki


text:
All-inclusive resort

An all-inclusive resort is a holiday resort that generally includes, in the price of booking a stay, lodging, unlimited food and drink, alcoholic drinks, entertainment, and other recreational activities like sports or watersports. They are often located in warmer regions of the world, particularly in Mexico and the Caribbean.

Though some Butlin's holiday camps in the U.K. had offered a similar concept in the 1930s, the modern all-inclusive resort has its origins in the 1950s with the foundation of the Club Med company by Belgian entrepreneur Gérard Blitz. Their first resort was opened in Alcúdia, Majorca, Spain in 1950, where guests stayed in tents and basic straw huts along the beach.

The concept has evolved over the decades. All-inclusives in the 1980s and 1990s were generally marketed towards singles, later on becoming more popular with couples and families.

Those geared toward families may have facilities like craft centers, game rooms, and water parks to keep children of all ages entertained. All-inclusive resorts geared towards couples are also popular locations for weddings and honeymoons.

All-inclusive resort
An all-inclusive resort, in addition to all the amenities of a resort, charges a fixed price that includes most or all items offered. At a minimum, most inclusive resorts include lodging, drinks (both alcoholic and non-alcoholic), food (three meals: breakfast, lunch, and dinner), indoor and outdoor activities, and entertainment for a fixed price.

Destination resorts
They generally are called "all-inclusive destination resorts". These facilities provide food, drink, lodging, sports, fitness programs and spas, entertainment, and shopping, with the advantage that guests do not have to leave the resort after arriving.

Adults-only all-inclusive resorts
In most cases, "Adults Only" means that resorts in this category do not admit children. The minimum age of admission varies from resort to resort but is usually 18 years of age or older.

Criticisms
It has been noted that, depending on the fine print, and the traveller's individual interests - especially with respect to out-of-resort-trips - that an "all-inclusive" offer may eventually turn out more costly than a regular offer.

Also, ambiguity about what "all-inclusive" means sometimes leads to travelers being disappointed that services which they expected are not available or require payment of additional fees. For example, guests are often disappointed to learn that only "cheap" (i. e., "well" or "bottom shelf") liquor is included, and that they must pay an upcharge for "top-shelf" alcohol.

title: All-inclusive resort


text:
Prime Minister of Iran

The prime minister of Iran was a political post that had existed in Iran (Persia) during much of the 20th century. It began in 1906 during the Qajar dynasty and into the start of the Pahlavi dynasty in 1923 and into the 1979 Iranian Revolution before being abolished in 1989.

Qajar era
In the Qajar era, prime ministers were known by different titles. The post itself was mainly known as ataabak or ataabak-e a'zam (grand ataabak), or sometimes sadr-e a'zam (premier) at the beginning, but became ra'is ol-vozaraa (head of ministers) at the end. The title of nakhost vazir (prime minister) was rarely used. The prime minister was usually called by the honorific title hazrat-e ashraf. Reza Khan Sardar Sepah became the last prime minister of the Qajar dynasty in 1923.

For a list of Iranian 'prime ministers' prior to 1907 see List of grand viziers of Persia.

Pahlavi era
In 1925, Reza Shah became the Shah of Iran. He installed Mohammad Ali Foroughi as the prime minister. In 1941 his son Mohammad Reza Pahlavi became Shah. He installed Mohammad-Ali Foroughi as the prime minister too. In 1951, Mohammad Mosaddegh became Prime Minister but was overthrown in a counter-coup d'état in 1953. Amir-Abbas Hoveyda became Prime minister of Iran in 1965 and remained in office until 1977. Shapour Bakhtiar was the last Prime Minister of the Pahlavi era.

Islamic Republic of Iran
After the Iranian Revolution of 1979, Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini installed Mehdi Bazargan as the Prime Minister of an interim government, which served until November 1979. The government resigned during the Iran hostage crisis, but mentioned that it has not been the sole reason, and the decision for mass resignation had been reached one day before the invasion of the United States embassy by the Iranian students.

The post was left empty until Abolhassan Banisadr became president in January 1980 and chose Mohammad-Ali Rajai as his prime minister, mainly because of pressures imposed by Majlis representatives, especially those close to the Islamic Republic Party. Rajai served in the post until Banisadr's impeachment in June 1981, and was elected as president in the elections of July 24, 1981. Rajai chose Mohammad Javad Bahonar as his prime minister, but they were assassinated together in the Prime Minister's office only a few weeks later on August 30, 1981.

When Ali Khamenei became president in the elections of October 1981, he first introduced right-leaning Ali Akbar Velayati to the Majlis as his prime minister, but he was voted down by the then left-leaning majority of the parliament, which then forced their preferred prime minister to Khamenei, namely Mir-Hossein Mousavi. The dispute finally ended following intervention by the Supreme Leader, Ayatollah Khomeini, who advised the president to accept Mousavi.

Mousavi served under the title until 1989, when the constitution was amended to abolish the title of Prime Minister and divide his responsibilities between the president and a newly created title of first Vice President.

title: Prime Minister of Iran


text:
Central Authentication Service

The Central Authentication Service (CAS) is a single sign-on protocol for the web. Its purpose is to permit a user to access multiple applications while providing their credentials (such as user ID and password) only once. It also allows web applications to authenticate users without gaining access to a user's security credentials, such as a password. The name CAS also refers to a software package that implements this protocol.

Description
The CAS protocol involves at least three parties: a client web browser, the web application requesting authentication, and the CAS server. It may also involve a back-end service, such as a database server, that does not have its own HTTP interface but communicates with a web application.

When the client visits an application requiring authentication, the application redirects it to CAS. CAS validates the client's authenticity, usually by checking a username and password against a database (such as Kerberos, LDAP or Active Directory).

If the authentication succeeds, CAS returns the client to the application, passing along a service ticket. The application then validates the ticket by contacting CAS over a secure connection and providing its own service identifier and the ticket. CAS then gives the application trusted information about whether a particular user has successfully authenticated.

CAS allows multi-tier authentication via proxy address. A cooperating back-end service, like a database or mail server, can participate in CAS, validating the authenticity of users via information it receives from web applications. Thus, a webmail client and a webmail server can all implement CAS.

History
CAS was conceived and developed by Shawn Bayern of Yale University Technology and Planning. It was later maintained by Drew Mazurek at Yale. CAS 1.0 implemented single-sign-on. CAS 2.0 introduced multi-tier proxy authentication. Several other CAS distributions have been developed with new features.

In December 2004, CAS became a project of the Java in Administration Special Interest Group (JASIG), which is as of 2008 responsible for its maintenance and development. Formerly called "Yale CAS", CAS is now also known as "Jasig CAS". In 2010, Jasig entered into talks with the Sakai Foundation to merge the two organizations. The two organizations were consolidated as Apereo Foundation in December 2012.

In December 2006, the Andrew W. Mellon Foundation awarded Yale its First Annual Mellon Award for Technology Collaboration, in the amount of $50,000, for Yale's development of CAS. At the time of that award CAS was in use at "hundreds of university campuses (among other beneficiaries)".

In April 2013, CAS Protocol specification 3.0 was released.

Apereo CAS Implementation
The Apereo CAS server that is the reference implementation of the CAS protocol today supports the following features:

 * CAS v1, v2 and v3 Protocol
 * SAML v1 and v2 Protocol
 * OAuth Protocol
 * OpenID & OpenID Connect Protocol
 * WS-Federation Passive Requestor Protocol
 * Authentication via JAAS, LDAP, RDBMS, X.509, Radius, SPNEGO, JWT, Remote, Trusted, BASIC, Apache Shiro, MongoDB, Pac4J and more.
 * Delegated authentication to WS-FED, Facebook, Twitter, SAML IdP, OpenID, OpenID Connect, CAS and more.
 * Authorization via ABAC, Time/Date, REST, Internet2's Grouper and more.
 * HA clustered deployments via Hazelcast, Ehcache, JPA, Memcached, Apache Ignite, MongoDB, Redis, Couchbase and more.
 * Application registration backed by JSON, LDAP, YAML, JPA, Couchbase, MongoDB and more.
 * Multifactor authentication via Duo Security, SAASPASS, YubiKey, RSA, Google Authenticator (TOTP) and more.
 * Administrative UIs to manage logging, monitoring, statistics, configuration, client registration and more.
 * Global and per-application user interface theme and branding.
 * Password management and password policy enforcement.

Django CAS Server

 * django-mama-cas: A Django Central Authentication Service (CAS) single sign-on server

Django CAS Client

 * django-cas-ng: Django CAS 1.0/2.0/3.0 client authentication library, support Django 2.0, 2.1, 2.2, 3.0 and Python 3.5+

title: Central Authentication Service


text:
Talk:List of house types

Farmhouse
Is there any reason why farmhouse (which would need disambiguating) is missing?  01:09, Oct 18, 2004 (UTC)

If someone would like to add farmhouse, please use Farmhouse (building) as I have made Farmhouse a disambig page. There is currently no article, but hopefully now that there is a clear page for it, someone will fix that. CyborgTosser (Only half the battle) 06:05, 1 Nov 2004 (UTC)

 * Oh, I see there is already a description for farmhouse. I will link it. CyborgTosser (Only half the battle) 06:10, 1 Nov 2004 (UTC)

Merger discussion
User:Michael Hardy has suggested a merge of List of house styles amd List of house types. As written now, there is some duplication between the lists. But look at the corresponding house types and house styles category, they are quite different. The types category includes the general types of houses like cottages, igloos, huts, etc. while the styles category includes specific architectural styles... Italianate, California Bungalow, McMansion. The corresponding list for house types doesn't perfectly reflect this distinction, while the list for house styles, in my opinion, does.

I don't think merging is a good idea. List of house types could possibly be rewritten to be a more general list of the basic types of houses seen in various cultures, and house styles should remain a list of specific architectural styles and philosophies seen in single-family homes of industrialized countries, perhaps being retitled to something more to that effect. But a merge would be a bad idea.

Hopefully some discussion can occur here to gather a consensus. --W.marsh 21:44, 30 November 2005 (UTC)

 * Sorry, I missed this section when I wrote the above note on organizational categories. I agree, there is a problem with merging 'types' and 'styles', since one of the important functions of an encyclopaedia is to clarify the distinctions between such categories. I suspect it'll become very complex if the primary division is along cultural lines. It'd be easier to do it along typological lines on the basis of a) function and b) spatial arrangement, and then note in which cultures or places each functional or spatial type is known to have occurred. Then, each type could also be aggregated again via the category system to answer the questions of someone wanting to know what types of housing occur in any givern place or culture - though perhaps there will need to be a historic dimension here as well. Seems like no-one has been concerned about this for 18 months!!! CheersEyedubya 02:16, 11 May 2007 (UTC)

Shack
YES! Shacks are awesome. 24.17.32.26 18:15, 8 May 2006 (UTC)

Stilt House
I was looking for the English translation of "palafita" and ended up here, but I couldn't find it. Then I've continued looking for it, and found it somewhere else. So, here is a suggestion for the list: Stilt House (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stilt_house).

underground houses and earth sheltered houses
Would underground houses and earth sheltered houses be a type of house listed on this page?

 * Igloo is in this list, so the list includes ice sheltered houses. So, to be logical, this type should also include earth sheltered houses ;-) Samokk

Travel trailer
On this list "Travel trailer" is listed as an alternative to "Caravan" in "British English". I have to say that despite being a Brit all my life this is the first time I have ever encountered this term, which sounds (to a British ear) to be utterly American, and is most definitely not in common usage among us Brits!

Front House
The acticle should say more about what a Front House is.

Organisational categories
This list is amazing! I never knew there were so many types. I guess I need to get out more. However, there are some serious problems to do with the way this list is organised. Its my intention to attempt a major revamp of this page when I have time, but before I do so, I'd like to justify my rationale and obtain some feedback from others.

I believe the page needs to have a more logical and consistent system for organising it so that it is not only more user-friendly, but also, makes a genuine contribution to the way users understand the topic at hand. At the moment, it is premised on a primary division between 'detached housing' and all other forms of housing (which it calls flats etc), but this is not the way it actually works - i.e. some forms of attached housing are in the former category. Moreover, some of the housing types listed would be better referred to as 'styles' rather than types, since they refer to decorative elements rather than morphological or spatial aspects of housing. In architecture and urban design, the word 'type' has fairly specific meanings = it refers to either the function of a building or its spatial arrangement, not what it looks like (its style). Also, scale is an issue, but this is blurred by the current ordering system. A peasant's cottage is a detached house, and so is an English stately home (usually, frequently, but not always). Another issue is a blurring of forms of tenure with spatial/functional issues. Rental housing ('project homes/public housing/private rental/community housing/social housing etc.) can be any type of housing, detached, semi-attached, fully attached, low-, medium- or high-rise. I guess there's a problem with title of this page as well - not all of the entries are houses (i.e. its a list of 'house types'), though they are all forms of dwelling.

Please let me know what you think. Cheers. Eyedubya 01:32, 11 May 2007 (UTC)

So, how do you plan to refactor the page ? Will you extract the architectural styles out of this page ? Or in some specific section ? If you explain the main sections/philosophy, I can help by reading the specific articles and sorting the types into your categories. Also, is it possible to find the list of architectural styles + types used in the world today Samokk

 * Good questions. Is there a single list of architectural styles in the world today? No, there are a number of lists that would need to be drawn on as the basis for a WP list of styles. There are styles that can be applied across different types of buildings (such as 'international style', 'British Hi-Tech', 'postmodern classical' or 'Victorian Gothic revival', and there are styles which are usually limited to certain building types (such as 'Queen Anne' or 'Brownstone', which only apply to housing as far as I am aware). But there is a big difference between types of building in terms of their function/use (factory, theatre, hospital, residential, entertainment etc), the style in which those buildings are designed, and the type of shape (or 'formal'/'morphological/spatial type etc) that the building is. So I guess, I'd be suggesting 3 categories: a) Architectural styles b) Types of buildings by function/use; c) types of building by spatial arrangement. Each of these 3 broad categories would have sub-categories of course, and there would be overlaps, but it ought to be clearer than what is currently there. Eyedubya 12:50, 13 May 2007 (UTC)

 * In terms of architectural styles, there are historic styles (see Banister Fletcher's 'a history of architecture for example), and then there are a range of styles that are in contemporary use: not all of the current styles are contemporary, many are revivalist or (prejoratively) pastiche styles. In terms of building functions, it might be useful to base it on a standard classification used by planning schemes (maybe ...), with a big group for 'mixed use/hybrid' buildings. As for the spatial types - there is a big distinction to be made between the architectural type and the urban typology. The former may be applied to buildings regardless of their setting, the latter in terms of the way their configuration contributes to the creation of urban space. Is this helping move this along? Eyedubya 13:01, 13 May 2007 (UTC)

Should haussmanian be listed here ?
I'm not sure whether haussmanian buildings are a type or a style, but shouldn't it be listed somewhere ? Samokk

 * yes and no: Baron Haussmann reorganized the urban design of Paris in a major way that goes beyond mere matters of 'style' and 'type' in terms of housing - there is a whole WP page devoted to him already. However, from a typological point of view, 'Haussmannian' housing is a form of Perimeter block (yes, I note there is no page yet for this). So, whether Haussmann gets a mention in this list or not depends on how it ends up being re-organized (see above) Eyedubya 12:39, 13 May 2007 (UTC)

 * I see there is no page for Perimeter block, but there is one for city block. Is that the same thing ? Samokk

A city block is land in an urban ara bounded by circulation routes, typically one or more allotments surrounded by streets. A perimeter block is a form of development of a city block, where the buildings are sited on or close to the street boundary, creating a street wall and leaving the centre of the block largely open.Natalex (talk) 08:44, 3 March 2008 (UTC)

 * Perimeter blocks are an important component of urban design, and they are not the same as a 'city block', and so I'd agree, there needs to be an article called Perimeter block. Eyedubya (talk) 09:24, 3 March 2008 (UTC)

Category:Urban studies and planning Category:Architecture Category:Housing Category:Urban design

Link-detached
I'm not sure where it should go, but I think link-detached should be on here somewhere.

I'm not sure about anywhere else, but the house I grew up in, and which is not unfamiliar around the UK, is a row of houses with the garages being the link between them. —Preceding unsigned comment added by Tequilatrinity (talk • contribs) 08:51, 4 September 2008 (UTC)

Define the word type
I find the word type here needs a definition. What is the difference between a house type and style? Because a building has a roof shape such as a hip or saltbox does that make it a certain type of house? Does it's use define it as a type such as farmhouse? In my study of historic barn types my peers and I treat the word type as only something which is widely used and persists for generations, not the work of a particular builder or his apprentice(s), there are many barns of no specific type. Thanks. Jim Derby (talk) 15:25, 19 January 2013 (UTC)

"Barndominium"
This is a rare local word -Texican, to be precise, associated with a limited number of pole-barn and steel frame barn builders who fit them out partially as housing. Throughout the rest of Anglophone North America, the term isn't used much, although similar buildings are in evry rural spot I've seen in the US and Canada. It has a linked article; a very poor, equivocating rotten little article that lumps together high-end properties which share, in condominium, trails and a stable, on the one hand, with metal sheds with a house inside of 'em, on the other. This is a minor, regional usage, and close to commercial spam. It should go, and probably so should the article. Anmccaff (talk) 17:43, 26 January 2016 (UTC)

External links modified
Hello fellow Wikipedians,

I have just modified 2 one external links on List of house types. Please take a moment to review my edit. If you have any questions, or need the bot to ignore the links, or the page altogether, please visit this simple FaQ for additional information. I made the following changes:
 * Added archive http://web.archive.org/web/20080704165918/http://www.ridgehistoricalsociety.org/Arch_Styles/19th_Century.html to http://www.ridgehistoricalsociety.org/Arch_Styles/19th_Century.html
 * Added archive http://web.archive.org/web/20071012160800/http://apartmentchicagoweb.com:80/ to http://www.apartmentchicagoweb.com

When you have finished reviewing my changes, please set the checked parameter below to true or failed to let others know (documentation at ).

Cheers.—cyberbot II  Talk to my owner :Online 20:49, 26 May 2016 (UTC)

External links modified
Hello fellow Wikipedians,

I have just modified one external link on List of house types. Please take a moment to review my edit. If you have any questions, or need the bot to ignore the links, or the page altogether, please visit this simple FaQ for additional information. I made the following changes:
 * Added archive https://web.archive.org/web/20120526035722/http://thesaurus.english-heritage.org.uk/thesaurus_term.asp?thes_no=1&term_no=91523 to http://thesaurus.english-heritage.org.uk/thesaurus_term.asp?thes_no=1&term_no=91523

When you have finished reviewing my changes, you may follow the instructions on the template below to fix any issues with the URLs.

Cheers.— InternetArchiveBot  (Report bug) 20:36, 30 December 2017 (UTC)

Stilt houses
Hello - I am wondering if a new section on the stilt house type is relevant to this article. Netherzone (talk) 23:33, 29 May 2020 (UTC)

Colonial house
Should a Colonial house architecture be listed here. Examples include Dutch Colonial, Spanish Colonial,etc Jared L 9999 (talk) 18:06, 9 October 2020 (UTC)

Four-plus-one
https://drloihjournal.blogspot.com/2016/12/the-facts-about-four-plus-one-41-mid.html I'm looking for this Chicago housing style in here, but can't find it? Victor Grigas (talk) 23:52, 3 October 2021 (UTC)
 * You could add it to the article yourself, if you have reliable sources to support the information. Unfortunately, the website you linked is a blog, which, as a self-published source, is generally not accepted as a reliable source. Are you aware of any other sources discussing the four plus 1 style? - Donald Albury 00:40, 4 October 2021 (UTC)

Type vs. style
House, like any building, can only be categorized by type, never by style; style is something which can be applied to any type of house and building - this is what they teach you in arch school. However, I noticed that this common mistake in categorization is prevalent online, sometime even in some official org. lingo. (There is entire Guide for house style printed by historical preservation office at Longbeach.org - and since they, historical preservation office, must have bunch of experts in art and arch with them, it is mindboggling.) ౪ Santa ౪  99°  18:29, 16 October 2022 (UTC)

title: Talk:List of house types


text:
Category:Radio stations in Alabama

This category is for AM and FM broadcast radio stations in the U.S. state of Alabama.

title: Category:Radio stations in Alabama


text:
Category:Radio stations in Alaska

This category is for AM and FM broadcast radio stations in the U.S. state of Alaska.

title: Category:Radio stations in Alaska


text:
Al Hubbard

Al Hubbard is the name of:

 * Al Hubbard (baseball) (1860–1930), American baseball player
 * Al Hubbard (LSD pioneer) (1901–1982), American proponent for LSD during the 1950s
 * Al Hubbard (comics) (1913–1984), American illustrator who helped create several Disney Duck family characters
 * Al Hubbard (activist) (born 1936), African-American veteran of Air Force service and anti-war activist

title: Al Hubbard


text:
Category:Radio stations in Arizona

This category is for AM and FM broadcast radio stations in the U.S. state of Arizona.

title: Category:Radio stations in Arizona


text:
RapidCAD

RapidCAD is a specially packaged Intel 486DX and a dummy floating point unit (FPU) designed as pin-compatible replacements for an Intel 80386 processor and 80387 FPU. Because the i486DX has a working on-chip FPU, a dummy FPU package (the "RapidCAD-2") is supplied to go in the Intel 387 FPU socket. The dummy FPU is used to provide the FERR signal, necessary for compatibility purposes.

Despite being able to execute instructions in the same number of cycles as an i486DX, integer performance on RapidCAD suffers due to the absence of level 1 cache and the bottleneck of the 386 bus. RapidCAD offers minimal improvement in integer performance over a 386DX (typically 10%, at most 35%), but provides substantial improvement in floating point operations (up to 80% faster) for which it was marketed. Floating point performance is mostly improved by moving the FPU onto the CPU core.

Technical specifications
Intel RapidCAD-1
 * Package: 132-Pin CPGA
 * CPU clock: 25/33 MHz
 * Transistors: 800,000
 * Process: CHMOS 0.8 μm
 * Voltage: 5 V
 * sSpec: SZ624

Intel RapidCAD-2
 * Package: 68-Pin CPGA
 * CPU clock: 25/33 MHz
 * Transistors: 275,000
 * Process: CHMOS
 * Voltage: 5 V
 * sSpec: SZ625

title: RapidCAD


text:
Antimycin

Antimycins are produced as secondary metabolites by Streptomyces bacteria, a soil bacteria. These specialized metabolites likely function to kill neighboring organisms in order to provide the streptomyces bacteria with a competitive edge.

Chemical structures

Biosynthesis
Antimycins are produced by a non-ribosomal peptide synthetase (NRPS)/polyketide synthase (PKS) assembly complex which acts as an assembly line for antimycin production. The assembly is genetically coded for by the ant gene family. The assembly requires 14 proteins, AntBCDEFGHIJKLMNO, which shuttle the intermediates along the assembly line through a series of transesterifications, keto reductions, thiolations (addition of a sulfur containing group), condensations, and adenylations. The last two steps involving AntB and AntO are tailoring steps. The following steps describe chemically what the Ant Enzymes do in order to synthesize Antimycin. Synthesis begins with tryptophan, an amino acid.

1. The indole ring of tryptophan, an amino acid, is opened by a pathway-specific tryptophan-2.3-dioxygnease, AntN, to make N-formyl-L-kynurenine.

2. N-formyl-L-kynurenine is converted to anthranilate by the pathway-specific kynureninase, AntP.

3. Anthranilate is activated by the acyl-CoA ligase protein, AntF and loaded onto its cognate carrier protein, AntG, for further processing.

4. Anthranilate is converted to 3-aminosalicylate by a multicomponent oxygenase, AntHIJKL.

5. 3-Aminosalicylate is presented to the NRPS, AntC. AntC has two modules which are organized Condensation1 (C1) -Adenylation1 (A1) -Thiolation1 (T1) -Condensation2 (C2) -Adenylation2 (A2) -Ketoreduction (KR) -Thiolation2 (T2). The A1 domain activates and loads threonine, an amino acid, onto T1, followed by a C1 promoted condensation of 3-aminosalicylate and threonine. The A2 domain activates and loads pyruvate onto T2. Pyruvate is reduced by the KR domain and condensed with threonine by C2

6. The Ketosynthase domain of PKS catalyses the decarboxylative condensation between the aminoacyl thioester attached to AntC T2 domain and the 2-carboxy-acyl moiety attached to AntD Acetyl Carrier Protein domain.

7. AntM catalyses the reduction of the β-keto group, which precedes the AntD TE domain – promoted release of the nine-membered dilactone

8. A lipase homologue, AntO, and acyltransferase homologue, AntB, catalyze the installation of the N-formyl group and the transesterification of the C-8 hydroxyl group, respectively, resulting in the backbone for the Antimycin family.

title: Antimycin


text:
Talk:Prime Minister of Iran

TODO
Write about Prime Ministers of Qajar era, including the last one, Reza Pahlavi, about Nayeb os-Saltanehs, about the government in exile during World War I, and list the many prime ministers possibly using Mohammad Taghi Bahar's book, Tarikh-e Mokhtasar-e Ahzab-e Siasi-e Iran.

Also write about Prime Ministers of Pahlavi era, specially Mossadegh and Zahedi, not forgetting early prime ministers of both Reza and Mohammad Reza Pahlavi. Also don't forget the short-lived prime minsiters of 1978 and 1979, possibly using Bazargan's book, Enghelab-e Iran Dar Do Harekat.

roozbeh 01:12, Oct 18, 2004 (UTC)

title: Talk:Prime Minister of Iran


text:
Talk:Project Liberty Ship

[Untitled]
I am the author of this article. I am the webmaster for Project Liberty Ship. Oldfarm 01:12, 18 Oct 2004 (UTC)

 * Could you supply a photo of the ship for the SS John W. Brown article? Gdr 12:58, 2004 Oct 19 (UTC)

Mission statement
The following is the official stated mission of Project Liberty Ship:

 * Project Liberty Ship is a non-profit organization dedicated to the preservation of the Liberty ship SS John W. Brown as a living memorial to the men and women of American industry who built the great Liberty Fleet and to the merchant seamen and Naval Armed Guards who sailed the ships across all the oceans of the world.

this was edited to:

 * Project Liberty Ship is a non-profit organization dedicated to the preservation of the Liberty ship SS John W. Brown as a memorial to the men and women who built the Liberty Ships and to the sailors who served in them.

The problem is that there are now a couple of subtle differences in the mission statement. The word living was used to emphasis that the JWB is a fully operation ship - not a static display. Replacing the phrase merchant seamen and Naval Armed Guards with word sailors would lead most readers to think that these ships were manned by all Navy crews. As for the other edits - no problem, but they are not the official stated mission.

I would like to revert the first paragraph, and maybe add that this is the stated mission. Regards Oldfarm 00:38, 31 Oct 2004 (UTC)

 * Yes, it should be fine to quote the mission statement. Gdr 01:02, 2004 Nov 2 (UTC)

title: Talk:Project Liberty Ship


text:
Wikipedia:Articles for deletion/LindsayGoogleLabPart1

LindsayGoogleLabPart1
 * The following discussion is an archived debate of the proposed deletion of the article below. Please do not modify it. Subsequent comments should be made on the appropriate discussion page (such as the article's talk page or in a deletion review).  No further edits should be made to this page.

The result of the debate was speedy delete.

Writer has been contacted regarding non-relevant content and has subsequently been removed from page. Now it's just an obstacle. Barneyboo 01:13, 18 Oct 2004 (UTC)
 * Delete the redirect to user page. jni 11:43, 18 Oct 2004 (UTC)
 * Delete', redirect to user page Sietse 14:32, 18 Oct 2004 (UTC)
 * In case that comment wasn't clear, I meant: delete this article because it is a redirect to a user page and we shouldn't have those in the article namespace. Sietse 13:31, 19 Oct 2004 (UTC)
 * Delete. Why should this redirect to the user page? Nadavspi 18:39, 18 Oct 2004 (UTC)

Speedily deleted because it had no content and merely redirected to a userpage. Andre ( talk )A| 14:13, Oct 19, 2004 (UTC)


text:
Southpark Village

Southpark Village is a housing estate in the Darnley area of the Scottish city of Glasgow. The northwestern area was built during the mid to late 1980s, but the southeastern part was built in the late 2010s. It is located on the south-western edge of the city, close to the towns of Barrhead and Newton Mearns in East Renfrewshire. Nearby areas within Glasgow itself are the rest of Darnley to the north, Deaconsbank to the east, and Parkhouse to the northwest, although Southpark is physically separated from all but the rest of Darnley by the Dams to Darnley Country Park and M77 motorway.

History
The entire area was once owned by Lord Darnley, who ran linen works in the area. The remains of a large house can be found a few miles south of the village, and this appears to have belonged to Lord Darnley himself.

In later years the surrounding area was extensively quarried for limestone and mined for coal; During the late stages of the life of the mine, a catastrophic explosion occurred killing many local miners. A monument to those lost in the disaster currently sits on the Nitshill Road (A726) beside the train station at Nitshill, north west of Southpark. The consequences of this disaster and the subsequent abandonment of the mine have been felt as recently as the late 1990s when a mine shaft collapsed in an area near the estate, leading to a massive landfill operation which successfully prevented the land around the shaft from collapsing any further.

Characteristics
Most homes in the area are occupied by private owners who are within working class or lower/medium-middle class income brackets. The neighbourhood is conveniently located for commuting to work by car via the M77 motorway and is also fairly close to suburban railway stations (Nitshill and Priesthill & Darnley).

Like much of Glasgow since the mid-20th century, the area is ethnically diverse. Southpark falls under the council tax bracket of Glasgow City Council, within its Greater Pollok ward. The area has many communal landscaped areas that are maintained through financial contributions by the residents of the estate.

There is a retail park to the north of the housing, consisting of large Sainsbury's, fast food outlets and a pub/restaurant. It was built on the site of the Darnley Mains farm. To the southeast of this retail area there is a large B&Q store.

Land to the east of B&Q - directly adjacent to the motorway - was designated for further retail for some years, but failed to attract investors for this use (likely due in part to the busy Silverburn Centre at the next junction north.) so was reallocated to new housing in the late 2010s. At that time another residential development between the existing Southpark neighbourhood and the Darnley Mains site, Glenmill (320 houses) was also constructed by Persimmon Homes and Bellway.

title: Southpark Village


text:
Green lane (road)

A green lane is a type of road in the United Kingdom, usually an unmetalled or unpaved rural route.

England and Wales
In particular, a green lane is unmetalled, and may be so infrequently used that there is no wearing of the surface, allowing vegetation to colonise freely, hence "green". Many green lanes are ancient routes that have existed for millennia, such as hollow ways, drover's roads, ridgeways and even ancient trackways.

Under modern public rights-of-way (PROW) law, the expression "green lane" has no legal meaning. Instead, there are four different types of public right of way, listed below, in addition to public roads:

 * A footpath has pedestrian rights only.
 * A bridleway allows pedestrians, horse traffic and cyclists.
 * A byway open to all traffic (BOAT, or just 'byway') is open to all users and all types of traffic. However, as they are unsurfaced, they are often only passable in a 4×4 or on a trail motorbike, as well as by pedestrians and horse riders.
 * A restricted byway (RB) allows pedestrians, horse traffic and vehicles other than mechanically propelled vehicles (e.g. bicycles, horse-drawn carriages). Restricted byways replaced the older road used as a public path (RUPP) classification.

An unclassified county road (UCR) is an obsolete expression and is no indication of a right of way, although they may be maintained and repaired at public expense by local highway authorities. The surfaces of these routes can vary from broken tarmac and gravel to only grass, often having the appearance of byways. As these routes are maintained at public expense, along with the rest of the highway network, it is presumed that these routes are open to all traffic. They are not shown on the definitive map.

The Countryside Act 1968 required all highway authorities to reclassify RUPPs in their area—occasionally as footpaths but in practice generally as bridleways, unless public vehicular rights were demonstrated to exist, in which case the road was classified as a byway open to all traffic. This process involved extensive research into historic usage and often public enquiries. Section 47 of the Countryside and Rights of Way Act 2000 set a time limit of 2026 for every highway authority to complete the reclassification exercise. The Natural Environment and Rural Communities Act 2006 (NERC) changed the deadline to 2 May 2006.

This change is significant as RUPPs allowed motorised vehicular access, while restricted byways do not. This change resulted in some conflict between user groups. Some highway authorities neglected to carry out their responsibilities under the National Parks and Access to the Countryside Act 1949. This has meant that some counties, e.g. Somerset, have minimal off-road rights of way available to motorised vehicles, while other counties, e.g. Kent and Wiltshire, have a considerably more extensive network still available to vehicular users. It is calculated that before the CRoW Act approximately 5% of the national rights of way network was open to vehicular use, while post-CRoW this has halved to around 2 to 3%.

The various users of rights of way disagree (often passionately) about the other users' rights. Walkers' groups (such as the Ramblers' Association) advocate the removal of vehicular rights on BOATs. Cyclists' and equestrians' groups fear for their rights, while vehicular use of public rights of way is increasingly being seen as unacceptable and has been targeted for further restrictions. The rights of vehicle users are represented by the Green Lane Association, also known as GLASS, All Terrain UK and the Trail Riders Fellowship, who oppose these restrictions on the basis that a road is just that, regardless of the type of surface.

Jersey

In Jersey, a Green Lane is a road designated as priority for pedestrians, cyclists and horse-riders to which a 15 mph speed limit applies. The first Green Lanes were introduced in St Peter in 1994. All parishes, except St Saviour and Trinity, have since joined the Green Lane network, but since St Saviour and Trinity adjoin across the Island the Green Lanes in the West and in the East do not link up.

title: Green lane (road)


text:
Category:Radio stations in Colorado

This category is for AM and FM broadcast radio stations in the U.S. state of Colorado.

title: Category:Radio stations in Colorado


text:
Wikipedia:Articles for deletion/P. serraticauda images

P. serraticauda images
The article is just 2 images related to the Flat-tailed day gecko.--Lucky13pjn 01:16, Oct 18, 2004 (UTC)
 * Delete. Absolutely, unnecessary - this isn't Commons. A speedy delete candidate perhaps?
 * keep don't care or merge (done) to main article there seems to be no other working image. I already made one image the default for the article.  Plus, the two images shown sufficently different to be worth having. Mozzerati
 * Comment. The images are not what are being debated here, I am VfDing the page they are on.--Lucky13pjn 22:32, Oct 21, 2004 (UTC)
 * I've now put the images on the main page. Vote changes to don't care. Mozzerati 18:08, 2004 Oct 23 (UTC)
 * No Vote. Hmmm, what is the proper means of providing useful but not crucial image, without swamping low-bandwidth users? --Jerzy(t) 14:10, 2004 Oct 22 (UTC)
 * IMHO small thumbnails with links back to bigger ones + good captions / alt tags for the really bandwidth deprived surfing with no images and visually impaired. There's still a place for dedicated image galleries. For example Gallery of Socialist Realism.  Mozzerati 17:56, 2004 Oct 23 (UTC)
 * Why couldn't these images be shrunk and put in the Flat-tailed gecko article? Fishal 17:06, 23 Oct 2004 (UTC)  Oh, andI vote delete.
 * done Mozzerati 18:08, 2004 Oct 23 (UTC)
 * I guess it would be preferable to have two separate images, with a thumbnail for each, rather than 3 pages for 2 photos. It might be best to provide an "additional image" link. Delete  Cacophony 17:19, Oct 23, 2004 (UTC)


text:
Colt Buntline

The Colt Buntline Special was a long-barreled variant of the Colt Single Action Army revolver, which Stuart N. Lake described in his best-selling but largely fictionalized 1931 biography, Wyatt Earp: Frontier Marshal. According to Lake, the dime novelist Ned Buntline commissioned the production of five Buntline Specials. Lake described them as extra-long Colt Single Action Army revolvers, with a 12-inch (300 mm)-long barrel, and stated that Buntline presented them to five lawmen in thanks for their help in contributing local color to his western yarns.

Lake attributed the gun to Wyatt Earp, but modern researchers have not found any supporting evidence from secondary sources or in available primary documentation of the gun's existence prior to the publication of Lake's book. After its publication, various Colt revolvers with long (10-inch or 16-inch) barrels were called Colt Buntlines or Buntline Specials. Colt manufactured the pistol among its second-generation revolvers produced after 1956. A number of other manufacturers, such as Uberti, Navy Arms, and Cimarron Arms, have made their own versions of this long-barreled revolver.

Origin
The revolver was first described by Stuart Lake in his highly fictionalized 1931 biography Wyatt Earp: Frontier Marshal. The extremely popular book turned Wyatt Earp into a "Western superman". Lake's creative biography and later Hollywood portrayals exaggerated Wyatt's profile as a western lawman.

Lake wrote that dime novelist Edward Zane Carroll Judson Sr., writing under the pseudonym of Ned Buntline, commissioned the guns in repayment for "material for hundreds of frontier yarns." Although Ned Buntline wrote somewhere between twenty and twenty-four western novelettes and dime novels, the most sensational about William "Buffalo Bill" Cody, who Buntline made nationally famous, none mentions Wyatt Earp. Lake claims that Ned Buntline traveled to Dodge City and made the presentations there, then went on up to North Platte, Nebraska, where he made a similar presentation to Cody. But Buntline traveled west of the Mississippi only once in his life, in 1869, in fact, and at the time of the supposed presentation to Earp in Dodge City, Wyatt and his brother were actually in Deadwood, Dakota Territory, mining for gold. Actually Earp was under indictment for murder in Dodge City at the time. As for Cody, he wasn't in North Platte, either, but was in Wyoming scouting for the US Cavalry in pursuit of Sitting Bull and the Cheyenne and Sioux bands that had wiped out Custer at the Little Bighorn the previous summer. According to descendants of Wyatt Earp's cousins, he owned a Colt .45-caliber and a Winchester lever-action shotgun.

There is no conclusive evidence as to the kind of pistol that Earp usually carried though, according to some sources, on the day of the Gunfight at the O.K. Corral, October 26, 1881, he carried a Smith & Wesson Model 3 with an 8-inch (200 mm) barrel. Earp had received the revolver as a gift from Tombstone mayor and newspaper editor John Clum of The Tombstone Epitaph. Lake later admitted that he had "put words into Wyatt's mouth because of the inarticulateness and monosyllabic way he had of talking".

The book later inspired a number of stories, movies, and television programs about outlaws and lawmen in Dodge City and Tombstone, including the 1955–1961 television series The Life and Legend of Wyatt Earp.

Description
Lake conceived the idea of a revolver that would be more precise and could be easily modified to work similarly to a rifle. According to Lake, the Colt Buntline was a single-action revolver chambered for .45 Long Colt cartridge. However, it had a 12-inch-long (305 mm) barrel, in comparison to the Colt Peacemaker's 7.5-inch (190 mm) barrel. A 16-inch (406 mm) barrel was available, as well. According to Lake, it had a removable stock that could be easily affixed through a combination of screws and lead-ins. This accessory gave the revolver better precision and range, Lake claimed, and allowed the user to fire it like a rifle. The Colt Buntline was further popularized by The Life and Legend of Wyatt Earp television series.

Alleged presentation to lawmen
Lake wrote that Ned Buntline commissioned the revolvers in 1876 and that he presented them to Wyatt Earp and four other well-known western lawmen — Bat Masterson, Bill Tilghman, Charlie Bassett, and Neal Brown. However, neither Tilghman nor Brown were lawmen at that time. According to Lake, Earp kept his pistol at the original 12-inch length, but the four other recipients of the Specials cut their barrels down to the standard $7 1/2$ inches, or shorter.

Lake spent much effort trying to track down the Buntline Special through the Colt company, Masterson, and contacts in Alaska. Lake described it as a Colt Single Action Army model with a long, 12 in barrel, standard sights, and wooden grips into which the name “Ned” was ornately carved. Researchers have never found any record of an order received by the Colt company, and Ned Buntline's alleged connections to Earp have been largely discredited.

Colt records
The revolver could have been specially ordered from the Colt factory in Hartford, Connecticut, as extra-long barrels were available from Colt at a dollar an inch over 7.5 in. Several such revolvers with 16-inch barrels and detachable stocks were displayed at the 1876 Centennial Exposition, but these were marketed as "Buggy rifles". There are no company records for the Buntline Special, nor a record of any orders from or sent to Ned Buntline. This does not absolutely preclude the historicity of the revolvers, however. Massad Ayoob writing for Guns Magazine cited notes by Josie Earp in which she mentioned an extra-long revolver as a favorite of Wyatt Earp. He cited an order by Tombstone, Arizona, bartender Buckskin Frank Leslie for a revolver of near-identical description. This order predated the O.K. Corral fight by several months.

Replicas
In the 1950s, Colt resumed manufacture of the Single Action Army and made a Buntline version, due to customer demand. The barrels are marked on the left side "COLT BUNTLINE SPECIAL .45". A few third-generation Buntlines were manufactured in the late 1970s, as well. Colt manufactured 70 New Frontier Buntline Specials from 1962 to 1967 with 12-inch barrels and folding target sights, chambered in .45 Colt.

The 1873 Buntline Target is an Italian 6-shot single-action revolver chambered for the .357 Magnum or the .45 Colt cartridges, manufactured by A. Uberti, Srl. The revolver has an 18-inch barrel with no muzzle brake or ports. It comes with a walnut grip and a dark blue finish.

The Navy Arms Frontier Buntline Model is a 6-shot single-action revolver chambered for the .357 Magnum or the .45 Colt cartridges, manufactured for Navy Arms. The revolver has a 16.5-inch barrel with no muzzle brake or ports. It comes with a walnut grip and a detachable shoulder stock.

Cimarron Firearms offers a version called the Wyatt Earp Buntline styled after the one used by Kurt Russell in the 1993 movie "Tombstone" with a 10-inch barrel and a silver badge inlaid on the right grip panel.

title: Colt Buntline


text:
William Rockefeller Sr.

William Avery "Devil Bill" Rockefeller Sr. (November 13, 1810 – May 11, 1906) was an American businessman, lumberman, herbalist, salesman, and con artist who went by the alias of Dr. William Levingston. He worked as a lumberman and then a traveling salesman who identified himself as a "botanic physician" and sold elixirs. He was known to buy and sell horses, and was also known at one point to have bought a barge-load of salt in Syracuse. Land speculation was another type of his business, and the selling of elixirs served to keep him with cash and aided in his scouting of land deals. He loaned money to farmers at twelve percent, but tried to lend to farmers who could not pay so as to foreclose and take the farms. Two of his sons were Standard Oil co-founders John Davison Rockefeller Sr. and William Avery Rockefeller Jr.

Family
William Avery Rockefeller was born in Ancram, New York. He was the eldest son of businessman/farmer Godfrey Lewis Rockefeller (September 24, 1783 in Albany, New York – September 28, 1857 in Richford, New York) and Lucy Avery (February 11, 1786 in Great Barrington, Massachusetts – April 6, 1867). Godfrey and Lucy had married on September 20, 1806, in Amwell, Hunterdon County, New Jersey. Bill had two elder sisters—Melinda and Olympia—as well as seven younger siblings; Norman, Sally, Jacob, Mary, Miles, Mary Miranda, and Egbert.

Ancestry
The Rockefellers trace their patrilineal line to Goddard Rockefeller (born Gotthard Rockenfeller) (1590) of Fahr, today part of Neuwied, Germany, and the now deserted village of Rockenfeld as namesake. The first Rockefeller to emigrate to America (1723) was Johann Peter Rockenfeller (1710 in Segendorf, Neuwied – 1787 in Amwell Township, New Jersey), who changed his name to Rockefeller. Godfrey Lewis Rockefeller was a son of distant cousins William Rockefeller (1750–1793) and Christina Rockefeller (1754–1800). Lucy Avery was born to Miles Avery and Melinda Pixley, New England Yankees of mostly English descent, being a descendant of James Avery.

Marriage and children
Rockefeller married his first wife, Eliza Davison, on February 18, 1837 in Niles, Cayuga Co., New York. Rockefeller met Eliza on one of his business trips in Upstate New York. It is said that Rockefeller pulled out a slate and chalk to communicate when he arrived at the Davison residence, as he often pretended to be deaf and dumb on his selling trips. Eliza is to have supposedly remarked, "If that man were not deaf and dumb, I'd marry him."

The couple had three sons and three daughters:
 * Lucy Rockefeller (1838–1878), married Pierson Briggs
 * John Davison Rockefeller Sr. (1839–1937), married Laura Celestia "Cettie" Spelman
 * William Avery Rockefeller Jr. (1841–1922), married Almira Geraldine Goodsell
 * Mary Ann Rockefeller (1843–1925), married William Cullen Rudd Sr.
 * Franklin "Frank" Rockefeller (1845–1917) [twin]
 * Frances Rockefeller (1845–1847) [twin]

Bill once bragged, "I cheat my boys every chance I get. I want to make 'em sharp." Although Bill abandoned the family while Lucy, John, and William Jr. were teenagers, he remained legally married to Eliza until her death. In 1856, having assumed the name Dr. William Levingston, he married Margaret Allen in Norwich, Ontario, Canada. Bill and Margaret had no children together. Before leaving his first wife, he also had two daughters with his mistress and housekeeper Nancy Brown:
 * Clorinda Rockefeller (c. 1838–?, died young)
 * Cornelia Rockefeller (c. 1840–?)

Before marrying Eliza, Bill had been in love with Nancy. However, he ended up marrying Eliza since her father was to give her $500 when she married, and Nancy was poor.

When John D. Rockefeller started his own produce commission business with Maurice B. Clark in 1859, Clark initiated the idea of the partnership and offered $2,000 towards the goal. John D. Rockefeller had only $800 saved up at the time and so borrowed $1,000 from his father, "Big Bill" Rockefeller, at 10 percent interest.

Bill visited with his grandchildren at the Forest Hill estate in Cleveland and at Pocantico Hills in Tarrytown. He taught his grandchildren how to shoot and played fiddle in the evenings for them. Prior to Bill's visits, John D. would invite some of Bill's Upstate New York relatives and friends.

Scandal
On July 26, 1849, in the city of Auburn, New York, William was indicted for a rape which had occurred at gunpoint. His victim had worked in the Rockefeller household; her name was Ann Vanderbeak. In the 1905 book Memoirs of an American Citizen, Robert Herrick says an improper relationship had been rumoured to exist.

The court document reads, "That William A. Rockefeller late of the Town of Moravia in the County of Cayuga, on the first day of May in the year of the Lord one thousand eight hundred and forty eight, with force and arms at the Town of Moravia in said County, in and upon one Ann Vanderbeak in the Peace of God with the People of the State of New York then and there being, violently did make an assault on her, the said Ann Venderbeak, then and there make violently and against her will feloniously did ravish and carnally know […]". William Cooper, the Rockefeller family doctor, was also indicted for assault and battery with the intention of raping Ann Vanderbeak.

Because of the allegations, William sold the Moravia home and moved to Owego, New York, possibly to avoid trial, under the pretence of providing better opportunities for the boys. Four days later, Eliza's father sued Bill in the Supreme Court of Cayuga for failure to pay a $1,175 debt. His plea states that Bill had asked him for help with his bail for the rape charges, but that Eliza's father had not seen Bill since. Eliza also informed authorities that her husband had "absconded and cannot now be found within the state." William assumed the title Doctor Bill Levingston and worked as a travelling snake oil specialist. Although nothing came of the charges, William left the family penniless.

After hearing rumours that John D. Rockefeller—then the richest man in the world at the height of his fame—had a shameful family secret, the press went into a frenzy. Joseph Pulitzer offered a reward of $8,000 for information about "Doc Rockefeller," who was known to be alive and living under a false name, but whose whereabouts were a family secret. Despite slender clues picked up from interviews with family members and an 18-month search, the journalists failed to track him down before he died. The full story was not exposed until two years later.

Death
Rockefeller had spent some time in Park River, North Dakota under the Levingston alias. He died on May 11, 1906, in Freeport, Illinois, at the age of 95. He was buried there in Oakland Cemetery. John D. Rockefeller never publicly acknowledged the truth about his father's life as a bigamist, and the cost for Bill's grave marker was paid by the second wife's estate.

title: William Rockefeller Sr.


text:
Samuel Ward (Rhode Island politician)

Samuel Ward (May 25, 1725 – March 26, 1776) was an American farmer, politician, Rhode Island Supreme Court justice, governor of the Colony of Rhode Island and Providence Plantations, and delegate to the Continental Congress where he signed the Continental Association. He was the son of Rhode Island Governor Richard Ward, was well-educated, and grew up in a large family in Newport, Rhode Island. He and his wife received property in Westerly, Rhode Island from his father-in-law, and the couple settled there and took up farming. He entered politics as a young man and soon took sides in the hard money vs. paper money controversy, favoring hard money or specie. His primary rival over the money issue was Providence politician Stephen Hopkins, and the two men became bitter rivals; the two also alternated as governors of the colony for several terms.

During this time of political activity, Ward became a founder and trustee of Brown University. The most contentious issue that he faced during his three years as governor involved the Stamp Act, which had been passed by the British Parliament just before he took office for the second time. The Stamp Act placed a tax on all official documents and newspapers, infuriating the American colonists by being done without their consent. Representatives of the colonies met to discuss the act, but when it came time for the governors to take a position, Ward was the only one who stood firm against it, threatening his position but bringing him recognition as a great Patriot.

Ward's final term as governor ended in 1767, after which he retired to work on his farm in Westerly. On August 5, 1769, he was baptized at the age of 44 in the old church of Westerly as a Seventh Day Baptist.

He was called back into service in 1774 as a delegate to the Continental Congress. War was looming with England, and to this end he devoted all of his energy. After hostilities began, Ward stated, "'Heaven save my country,' is my first, my last, and almost my only prayer." He died of smallpox during a meeting of the Congress in Philadelphia, three months before the signing of the Declaration of Independence, and was buried in a local cemetery. His remains were later re-interred in the Common Burying Ground in Newport.

Ancestry and early life
Ward was born in Newport in the Colony of Rhode Island and Providence Plantations in 1725, the son of Rhode Island Colonial Governor Richard Ward. His mother Mary Tillinghast was the daughter of John Tillinghast and Isabel Sayles, and a granddaughter of Pardon Tillinghast who had come from Seven Cliffs, Sussex, England. She was a granddaughter of John Sayles and Mary Williams, and a great-granddaughter of Rhode Island founder Roger Williams, making Ward the great-great-grandson of the colony's founder. Ward's great-grandfather John Ward was born in Gloucester, England and had been an officer in Oliver Cromwell's army, but he came to the American colonies following the accession of King Charles II.

Ward was the ninth of 14 children. He grew up in a home of liberal tastes and cultivated manners, and he was trained under the discipline and instruction of a celebrated grammar school in his home town. He may also have been tutored by his older brother Thomas, who had graduated from Harvard College in 1733. As a young man, Ward married Anne Ray, the daughter of a well-to-do farmer on Block Island, from whom the couple received land in Westerly where they settled as farmers. He devoted much effort to improving the breeds of domestic animals, and he raised a breed of racehorse known as the Narraganset Pacer.

Family and legacy
Samuel and Anna Ward had 11 children. Their second son Samuel Ward, Jr. served as the lieutenant colonel of the 1st Rhode Island Regiment in the Continental Army. A great-granddaughter was Julia Ward Howe who composed the "Battle Hymn of the Republic". Ward's aunt Mary Ward married Sion Arnold, a grandson of Governor Benedict Arnold.

In 1937, the town of Westerly honored Ward's memory by dedicating its high school to him. It was renamed Westerly High School in the late 20th century, but the main auditorium was given his name.

Political life
Ward first became active in politics in 1756 when he was elected as a deputy from Westerly. The divisive political issue of the day was the use of hard money (or specie) versus paper money, and Ward sided with the specie group. His chief rival was Stephen Hopkins of Providence who sided with paper money. So bitter was the animosity between these two men that Hopkins commenced an action for slander against Ward. The case was moved to Massachusetts for a fair trial, and the judgment went against Hopkins by default in 1759.

For ten years, the two men went back and forth as governor of the colony, each at the head of a powerful party. Josias Lyndon was elected as a compromise candidate in 1768, and the constant butting heads stopped. Hopkins won the election as governor in 1758 and beat Ward again in the following three elections. In 1761, the Assembly named Ward to the office of chief justice of the Rhode Island Supreme Court, but he only served in this capacity for a year, finally being elected governor in 1762. During his first year in office, Ward supported the idea of establishing a college in Rhode Island Colony, and he took an active part in the establishment of "Rhode island College," later Brown University. The school was incorporated in 1765 and he was one of the trustees and one of its most generous supporters.

Stamp Act

In 1763, Hopkins once again beat out Ward in the election for governor, serving for the next two years. However, in 1765, Ward won the contest for the second time. During this term, one of the most contentious issues of the age arose, uniting the divided elements into a common cause when both houses of the British Parliament passed the Stamp Act. This act was a scheme for taxing the colonies, directing that all commercial and legal documents must be written on stamped paper sold at fixed prices by governmental officers, and also directing that a duty be applied to newspapers. Parliament assumed the right to tax the colonies and put additional duties on sugar, coffee, and other articles. The government also required that lumber and iron from the colonies be exported solely to England.

The news of the act infuriated the colonists. Samuel Adams of Massachusetts invited all the colonies to a congress of delegates to meet in New York to discuss relief from the unjust taxes. In August 1765, the Rhode Island General Assembly passed resolutions following the lead of Patrick Henry of Virginia. Rhode Island's appointed stamp distributor was Attorney General Augustus Johnson, but he refused to execute his office "against the will of our Sovereign Lord the People." The Rhode Island General Assembly met again at East Greenwich in September 1765, choosing delegates to the New York congress and appointing a committee to consider the Stamp Act. The committee reported six resolutions that pointed to the absolution of allegiance to the British Crown unless the grievances were removed.

The day before the act was to become effective, all of the royal governors took an oath to sustain it. Among the colonial governors, only Samuel Ward of Rhode Island refused the act. In so doing, he forfeited his position and was threatened with a huge fine, but this did not deter him. The act was ultimately repealed, with news reaching the colonies in May 1766 to public rejoicing. The conflict for independence was delayed but not abandoned.

Continental Congress
In the 1767 election, Ward once again lost to his nemesis, but Hopkins would not seek re-election after 1768. Eventually, the two great rivals established friendly relations. The famous controversy was replaced by a more momentous struggle soon to involve the colony. Governor Ward retired to his estate in Westerly but became active again in 1774. At a town meeting in May of that year, the freemen of Providence formally proposed a Continental Congress for the union of the colonies, the first such act in favor of this measure, though the idea had already been circulating in several of the colonies. As plans solidified, the General Assembly met the following month in Newport and elected Ward and Hopkins as delegates.

Ward served on several important committees, including the Committee on Secrets, and he was a delegate when the Congress met as a committee of the whole. He devoted all of his energy to the Continental Congress, until his untimely death from smallpox at a meeting of the convention in Philadelphia. Ward died a little more than three months before the Declaration of Independence was signed. He was originally buried in Philadelphia but was reinterred in the Common Burying Ground in Newport, Rhode Island in 1860.

title: Samuel Ward (Rhode Island politician)


text:
User:Piglet Ying

I am new to Wikipedia.

title: User:Piglet Ying


text:
USS Boggs

USS Boggs (DD–136) was a Wickes-class destroyer in the United States Navy, later redesignated as AG-19 and then as DMS-3, and back again to AG-19. She was the first ship named for Admiral Charles Boggs.

Construction and commissioning
Boggs was launched on 25 April 1918 by Mare Island Navy Yard, sponsored by Miss Ruth Hascal. The ship was commissioned on 23 September 1918.

Pre-World War II
Boggs departed San Diego in March 1919 for a six-month cruise along the United States East Coast, in the North Atlantic, and in the Caribbean Sea. Upon her return she served with the Pacific Fleet until being placed out of commission on 29 June 1922. Redesignated a miscellaneous auxiliary (AG-19) on 5 September 1931, she was re-commissioned on 19 December 1931 and assigned to Mobile Target Division 1, Battle Force, for high-speed radio control tests, target towing, and minesweeping. Except for a cruise to the U.S. East Coast from January to October 1934, she served off the United States West Coast until 1940. She arrived at Pearl Harbor on 11 September 1940. Late in 1940, she was reclassified a high-speed minesweeper and received the new hull classification symbol DMS-3.

World War II
The Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor on 7 December 1941 found Boggs at sea, but she returned later in the day to sweep the approaches and anchorage. She remained at Pearl Harbor on minesweeping, patrol, and training duty until January 1943 when she made a run to Canton Island, Phoenix Islands, with supplies. She returned to Pearl Harbor on 2 March 1943, and for the next year served in the vicinity as a patrol vessel, minesweeper, and towboat. She served as a target towing vessel with the Operational Training Command out of San Diego (12 April 1944-March 1945).

Following overhaul at San Pedro, California, from March through June 1945, she was stripped of her sweeping gear and reclassified AG-19, 5 June 1945. Fitted for high-speed target towing, Boggs arrived at Eniwetok, Marshall Islands, via Pearl Harbor, on 15 August 1945. She remained at Eniwetok until 6 October 1945 and then returned to the United States, arriving in early 1946. Boggs was decommissioned on 20 March 1946 and sold for scrap on 27 November 1946.

title: USS Boggs


text:
LiveText

LiveText was an American browser-based e-portfolio and assessment management web application. Founded in 1997, LiveText served over 500 national and international colleges and universities.

In 2016 LiveText launched a new platform for academy and self-discovery called Via. The platform captures and records events and the user's learning experiences both inside and outside of the classroom to let users reflect on their study processes.

In September 2017 LiveText announced they were merging with TaskStream-Tk20.

title: LiveText


text:
Jean-François Papillon

Jean-François Papillon (died in the early 1800s) was one of the principal leaders in the Haitian Revolution against slavery and French rule. He led the initial uprising of enslaved workers and later allied with Spain against the French.

He was born in Africa but enslaved and taken in captivity to the North Province of Saint-Domingue (the future nation of Haiti). There he worked in the plantation of Papillon in the last decades of the 18th Century. He escaped from that plantation and became a maroon, so when the revolution started in August 1791 he had already enjoyed a direct experience of freedom.

Ascent to power
Right after the tragic death of Boukman Dutty, the insurgent slaves’ first leader, Jean-François Papillon imposed his authority over the other black generals, especially Georges Biassou, Jeannot Bullet, and Toussaint Bréda (later Toussaint Louverture), and became commander-in-chief of the Haitian former slaves. By late 1791, some weeks after the revolutionary outbreak, Jean-François and Biassou set their rivalry aside in order to oppose Jeannot, who not only massacred the French but also all the black soldiers that contested his authority. For that reason, Biassou and Jean-François arrested and executed him by November 1791. It has often been assumed that Jean-François and his men rose up in rebellion to win universal freedom, but their real intention was to gain as much power as possible and return the rest of the slaves to the plantations when the revolution was over and the generals had already achieved power. Jean-François confessed his convictions to the North American agents in Le Cap Français: “[...] that General told us that he had not created himself General of the negroes, that those who had that power had confered [sic] upon him that title; that in taking up arms, he never pretended to fight for General Liberty, which he knew to be an illusion."

Relation with Spain
There are many reasons that the Spaniards backed the Haitian revolution from the beginning, providing the insurgents with food and weapons: they knew that the episode would cause chaos in Saint-Domingue, giving Spain the chance to send troops to that territory and re-annex it, since it had been a Spanish possession taken by the French in the Peace Treaty of Ryswick (1697). In October 1791, the black General Toussaint Bréda admitted his contacts with the Spaniards, who had promised them provisions. As Spain was officially neutral towards the French Revolution, of which Saint-Domingue’s revolution was regarded as a mere echo, it kept its contacts with the black leaders in secret.

Spain’s attitude changed from late January 1793, when the French National Convention executed Louis XVI. From then on, the Spanish government considered that it was unnecessary to stay officially neutral towards France and both countries declared war on each other in March 1793. As a consequence, Charles IV of Spain issued his instructions to the Dominican authorities, which needed to begin official dealings with Saint-Domingue’s black generals to persuade them to join the Dominican army.

Negotiations, which were carried out by the mulatto priest José Vázquez, finished on May 6, 1793 with Jean-François’ oath of loyalty to the Spanish King in his name and in the name of his soldiers. The said oath was confirmed by Jean-François some days later, in an official letter addressed to the Dominican Archbishop, Fernando del Portillo y Torres. Nevertheless, the slave leaders made it clear that they did not support the Spanish King as an end in itself, but as a means of avenging the French King, the Spanish sovereign’s cousin.

Triumphs and problems at the service of Spain
Jean-François and his collaborators became Carlos IV’s black auxiliary troops, since the colour of their skin prevented the Spaniards from considering them part of the colonial regular army. Their alliance to Spain was crucial for the Spanish army to make important progress in Hispaniola against the French, conquering important positions like Gonaïves, Gros-Morne, Plaisance, Acul, Limbé, Port-Margot, Borgne, Petit-Saint-Louis and Terre-Neuve.

Nevertheless, there had always existed a strong tension between Jean-François and Biassou that led to an armed confrontation in September 1793. Both generals confronted each other and the French took advantage of the instability within the black auxiliaries to re-conquer the Tannerie fort, recently occupied by Jean-François’ troops. That episode convinced the Dominican government of the necessity to put an end to the internal tension of the black army, which was achieved thanks to the intervention of the Dominican Brigadier Matías de Armona, who persuaded them to meet in Dondon and come to an agreement by late November 1793.

In the following weeks, the black auxiliaries achieved many other victories at the service of Spain, especially the conquest of Port Margot at the beginning in 1794, which earned them several golden and silver medals given by the Spanish Crown.

Bayajá
The prestige of the black auxiliaries started to decay in July 1794, after the massacre of Bayajá. This place had been a French possession (Fort Dauphin) until the Spaniards conquered it in January 1794. At that moment, the authorities of the village asked the Spaniards to not let Jean-François’ troops enter the place in the future, because they were afraid that the latter would massacre them, provided that most of its inhabitants were the former owners of Jean-François’ collaborators, and also that one of the officers that surrendered the city to Spain was the mulato Candy, Jean-François’ former subordinate that had deserted to the French camp.

Despite the described circumstances, on July 7, 1794 Jean-François entered the place with his troops and massacred the French inhabitants, mostly, though many Spaniards died also in the episode. The Spanish garrison of the place did not interfere to stop the killing, for which they were criticised by other foreign governments that even accused Spain of supporting the killing from the shadow.

From that moment on, not only did the Spaniards realise that the black auxiliaries were dangerous, but they also prevented them from taking part in any other important campaign in the future, so that such abuses would not occur again.

Basel and the diaspora of the auxiliaries
The Spaniards’ awareness of the black auxiliaries’ “natural savagery” as well as Santo Domingo’s cession to France in the Peace Treaty of Basel, persuaded them to get rid of Jean-François and his troops, since the circumstances that had justified their alliance to the former slaves, that is, Spain’s plan to conquer the western part of Hispaniola, had failed.

First, Jean-François and his main collaborators were taken to Havana. But the Cuban governor, Luis de las Casas, was so afraid that their presence there would provoke a massive black insurrection in that island, that he pressured the Spanish government to throw them out of his colony.

In March 1796 they arrived to the Spanish city of Cádiz, where they were kept almost as prisoners. Their situation in that city was dramatic: the generals lost their military ranks and their right to any economic compensation after their retirement and, in addition, Jean-François had to use the few resources he had to assist his family and his companions.

In 1813, the Spanish Council of Regency decided to throw them out of that city and take them to the Coast of the Flies. Unfortunately, Jean-François never saw the resolution of the conflict that concerned his troops, as he had already died in the early days of the 19th Century, maybe in 1805, totally forgotten by the Spanish government, which “rewarded” him for his loyal services by denying any official link with him or any other slave general in the past.

title: Jean-François Papillon


text:
Category:Tunnels in Switzerland

This category covers all tunnels in Switzerland, including road, rail and water tunnels.

title: Category:Tunnels in Switzerland