text:
Celts (modern)

The modern Celts (, see pronunciation of Celt) are a related group of ethnicities who share similar Celtic languages, cultures and artistic histories, and who live in or descend from one of the regions on the western extremities of Europe populated by the Celts.

A modern Celtic identity emerged in Western Europe following the identification of the native peoples of the Atlantic fringe as Celts by Edward Lhuyd in the 18th century. Lhuyd and others (notably the 17th century Breton chronologist Pezron) equated the Celts described by Greco-Roman writers with the pre-Roman peoples of France, Great Britain, and Ireland. They categorised the ancient Irish and British languages as Celtic languages. The descendants of these ancient languages are the Brittonic (Breton, Cornish, and Welsh variants) and Goidelic (Irish, Manx, and Gaelic variants) languages, and the people who speak them are considered modern Celts.

The concept of modern Celtic identity evolved during the course of the 19th century into the Celtic Revival. By the late 19th century, it often took the form of ethnic nationalism, particularly within the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, where the Irish War of Independence resulted in the secession of the Irish Free State, in 1922. There were also significant Welsh, Scottish, and Breton nationalist movements, giving rise to the concept of Celtic nations. After World War II, the focus of the Celtic movement shifted to linguistic revival and protectionism, e.g. with the foundation of the Celtic League in 1961, dedicated to preserving the surviving Celtic languages.

The Celtic revival also led to the emergence of musical and artistic styles identified as Celtic. Music typically drew on folk traditions within the Celtic nations. Art drew on the decorative styles of Celtic art produced by the ancient Celts and early medieval Christianity, along with folk styles. Cultural events to promote "inter-Celtic" cultural exchange also emerged.

In the late 20th century, some authors criticised the idea of modern Celtic identity, usually by downplaying the value of the linguistic component in defining culture and cultural connection, sometimes also arguing that there never was a common Celtic culture, even in ancient times. Malcolm Chapman's 1992 book The Celts: The Construction of a Myth led to what archaeologist Barry Cunliffe has called a "politically correct disdain for the use of 'Celt.

Definitions
Traditionally, the essential defining criterion of Celticity is seen as peoples and countries that do, or once did, use Celtic languages and it is asserted that an index of connectedness to the Celtic languages has to be borne in mind before branching out into other cultural domains.

An alternative approach to defining the Celts is the contemporary inclusive and associative definition proposed by Vincent and Ruth Megaw (1996) and Raimund Karl (2010). It holds that a Celt is someone who uses a Celtic language or produces or uses a distinctive Celtic cultural expression (such as art or music) or has been referred to as a Celt in historical materials or has identified themselves or been identified by others as a Celt or has a demonstrated descent from the Celts (such as family history or DNA ancestry).

Since the Enlightenment, the term Celtic has been applied to a wide variety of peoples and cultural traits present and past. Today, Celtic is often used to describe people of the Celtic nations (the Bretons, the Cornish, the Irish, the Manx, the Scots and the Welsh) and their respective cultures and languages. Except for the Bretons (if discounting Norman and Channel Islander connections), all groups mentioned have been subject to strong Anglicisation since the Early Modern period, and hence are also described as participating in an Anglo-Celtic macro-culture. By the same token, the Bretons have been subject to strong Frenchification since the Early Modern period, and can similarly be described as participating in a Franco-Celtic macro-culture.

Less common is the assumption of Celticity for European cultures deriving from Continental Celtic roots (Gauls or Celtiberians). These were either Romanised or Germanised much earlier, before the Early Middle Ages. Nevertheless, Celtic origins are many times implied for continental groups such as the Asturians, Galicians, Portuguese, Swiss, Northern Italians, Belgians and Austrians. The names of Belgium and Aquitaine hark back to Gallia Belgica and Gallia Aquitania, respectively, in turn named for the Belgae and the Aquitani. The Latin name of the Swiss Confederacy, Confoederatio Helvetica, harks back to the Helvetii, the name of Galicia to the Gallaeci and the Auvergne of France to the Averni.

Celtic revival and romanticism
'Celt' has been adopted as a label of self-identification by a variety of peoples at different times. 'Celticity' can refer to the inferred links between them.

During the 19th century, French nationalists gave a privileged significance to their descent from the Gauls. The struggles of Vercingetorix were portrayed as a forerunner of the 19th-century struggles in defence of French nationalism, including the wars of both Napoleons (Napoleon I of France and Napoleon III of France). Basic French history textbooks emphasised the ways in which Gauls ("Nos ancêtres les Gaulois...", 'our ancestors the Gauls') could be seen as an example of cultural assimilation. In the late Middle Ages, some French writers believed (incorrectly) that their language was primarily Celtic, rather than Latin. A similar use of Celticity for 19th-century nationalism was made in Switzerland, when the Swiss were seen to originate in the Celtic tribe of the Helvetii, a link still found in the official Latin name of Switzerland, Confœderatio Helvetica, the source of the nation code CH and the name used on postage stamps (Helvetia).

Before the advance of Indo-European studies, philologists established that there was a relationship between the Goidelic and Brythonic languages, as well as a relationship between these languages and the extinct Celtic languages such as Gaulish, spoken in classical times. The terms Goidelic and Brythonic were first used to describe the two Celtic language families by Edward Lhuyd in his 1707 study and, according to the National Museum Wales, during that century "people who spoke Celtic languages were seen as Celts."

At the same time, there was also a tendency to stress other heritages in the British Isles at certain times. For example, in the Isle of Man, in the Victorian era, the Viking heritage was emphasised, and in Scotland, both Norse and Anglo-Saxon heritage was emphasised.

A romantic image of the Celt as a noble savage was cultivated by the early William Butler Yeats, Lady Gregory, Lady Charlotte Guest, Lady Llanover, James Macpherson, Chateaubriand, Théodore Hersart de la Villemarqué and the many others influenced by them. This image coloured not only the English perception of their neighbours on the so-called "Celtic fringe" (compare the stage Irishman), but also Irish nationalism and its analogues in the other Celtic-speaking countries. Among the enduring products of this resurgence of interest in a romantic, pre-industrial, brooding, mystical Celticity are Gorseddau, the revival of the Cornish language, and the revival of the Gaelic games.

Contemporary Celtic identity
The modern Celtic groups' distinctiveness as national, as opposed to regional, minorities has been periodically recognised by major British newspapers. For example, a Guardian editorial in 1990 pointed to these differences, and said that they should be constitutionally recognised:

"Smaller minorities also have equally proud visions of themselves as irreducibly Welsh, Irish, Manx or Cornish. These identities are distinctly national in ways which proud people from Yorkshire, much less proud people from Berkshire will never know. Any new constitutional settlement which ignores these factors will be built on uneven ground."

The Republic of Ireland, on surpassing Britain's GDP per capita in the 1990s for the first time, was given the moniker "Celtic tiger". Thanks in part to campaigning on the part of Cornish regionalists, Cornwall was able to obtain Objective One funding from the European Union. Scotland and Wales obtained agencies like the Welsh Development Agency, and in the first two decades of the 21st century Scottish and Welsh Nationalists have supported the institutions of the Scottish Parliament and the Senedd (Welsh Parliament). More broadly, distinct identities in opposition to that of the metropolitan capitals have been forged and taken strong root.

These latter evolutions have proceeded hand in hand with the growth of a pan-Celtic or inter-Celtic dimension, seen in many organisations and festivals operating across various Celtic countries. Celtic studies departments at many universities in Europe and beyond, have studied the various ancient and modern Celtic languages and associated history and folklore under one roof.

Some of the most vibrant aspects of modern Celtic culture are music, song and festivals. Under the Music, Festivals and Dance sections below, the richness of these aspects that have captured the world's attention are outlined.

Sports such as hurling, Gaelic football and shinty are seen as being Celtic.

The USA has also taken part in discussions of modern Celticity. For example, Virginia Senator James H. Webb, in his 2004 book Born Fighting: How the Scots-Irish Shaped America, controversially asserts that the early "pioneering" immigrants to North America were of Scots-Irish origins. He goes on to argue that their distinct Celtic traits (loyalty to kin, mistrust of governmental authority, and military readiness), in contrast to the Anglo-Saxon settlers, helped construct the modern American identity. Irish Americans also played an important role in the shaping of 19th-century Irish republicanism through the Fenian movement and the development of view that the Great Hunger was a British atrocity.

Criticism of modern Celticism
In 1996, Ruth Megaw and Emeritus Professor Vincent Megaw of Flinders University in the Antiquity article "Ancient Celts and modern ethnicity" examined ethnic identity particularly in relation to Celtic identity in arguing against critics seemingly motivated by an English nationalist agenda opposed to further integration with Europe who saw modern Celtic identity as a threat.

In 1998, Simon James of the University of Leicester in the Antiquity article "Celts, politics and motivation in archaeology" replied to Ruth and Vincent Megaw's article questioning the suitability of the term Celtic in the historic sense. The core of his argument was that the Iron Age peoples of Britain should be considered not as generic Celts, but as a mosaic of different societies, each with their own traditions and histories. Later in 1998, this line of reasoning came under criticism, being labelled an intellectual extension of modern British cultural colonialism, as well as for simplifying the anthropological correlation between material culture and ethnicity. Ruth and Vincent Megaw in the Antiquity article "The Mechanism of (Celtic) Dreams?': A Partial Response to Our Critics." attacked 'Celt-sceptics' for being motivated by English nationalism or anxieties about the decline of British imperial power.

Simon James, in 1998, wrote a response arguing that the rejection of a Celtic past was not 'nationalist' but partly due to archaeological evidence, and usually by a post-colonial and multi-cultural agenda with recognition that Britain has always been home to multiple identities.

Recently, the Insular Celts have increasingly been seen as part of an Atlantic trading-networked culture speaking Celtic languages of the Atlantic Bronze Age and probably earlier.

In 2003, Professor John Collis of the University of Sheffield wrote a book titled The Celts: Origins, Myths and Invention, itself criticised in 2004 by Ruth and Vincent Megaw in Antiquity.

Celtic nations

Six nations tend to be most associated with a modern Celtic identity, and are considered the "Celtic nations".

 * Brittany
 * Ireland
 * Scotland
 * Wales
 * Isle of Man
 * Cornwall

These six nations alone are considered Celtic by the Celtic League and the Celtic Congress, amongst others. These organisations ascribe to a definition of Celticity-based mainly upon language. Celtic languages have survived (or in some cases been revived) and continue to be used to varying degrees in these six geographical areas. There are also Celtic nomads: Irish Travellers called "Pavee" that speak a language called Shelta that is a creole of Irish Gaelic and other languages, and Indigenous Highland Scottish Travellers called "Tinkers" who speak a language called Beurla Reagaird that is an acrolect of Scottish Gaelic.

A number of activists on behalf of other regions/nations have also sought recognition as modern Celts, reflecting the wide diffusion of ancient Celts across Europe. Notable regions include Galicia, Northern Portugal, Asturias and Cantabria.

A Celtic language did not survive in Galicia / Northern Portugal (together Gallaecia), Asturias nor Cantabria, and as such they fall outside of the litmus test used by the Celtic League, and the Celtic Congress. Nevertheless, many organisations organised around Celticity consider that Galicia / Northern Portugal (Douro, Minho and Tras-os-Montes) and Asturias "can claim a Celtic cultural or historic heritage". These claims to Celticity are rooted in the long historical existence of Celts in these regions and ethnic connections to other Atlantic Celtic peoples (see Celtiberians, Celtici and Castro culture). In 2009, the Gallaic Revival Movement, sponsored by the Liga Celtiga Galaica (the Galician Celtic League), claimed to be reconstructing the Q-Celtic Gallaic language based on the Atebivota Dictionary and Old Celtic Dictionary compiled by Vincent F. Pintado.

Elements of Celtic music, dance, and folklore can be found within England (e.g. Yan Tan Tethera, well dressing, Halloween), and the Cumbric language survived until the collapse of the Kingdom of Strathclyde in about 1018. England as a whole comprises many distinct regions, and some of these regions, such as Cumbria, Lancashire, Northumbria, Western Yorkshire and Devon can claim more Celtic heritage than others. In 2009, it was claimed that revival of the Cumbric language was being attempted in Cumberland, England, however the idea that "Cumbric" was separate from Old Welsh has been criticised as stemming from the difficulty that many English historians have with accepting Old Welsh as the language once spoken all over England. It was suggested by Colin Lewis in Carn magazine that revivalists in the north of England use Modern Welsh to enable use of Welsh's existing rich cultural basis rather than having to "reinvent the wheel" in much the same way as has been done successfully in Derbyshire, another area where elements of Celtic culture survive.

Similarly, in France outside of Brittany, in Auvergne chants are sung around bonfires remembering a Celtic god. There are also modern attempts to revive the polytheistic religion of the Gauls.

Ancestry
A profound interest in genealogy and family history is noted as a feature of the culture of the Celtic nations and regions and people with a Celtic heritage. Historically, some people in Celtic areas could recite their genealogy back though the generations as history, moving rhythmically from one name to another using only Christian names as illustrated by lyrics of the Runrig song Sìol Ghoraidh "The Genealogy of Goraidh".

The genetic disorder hereditary haemochromatosis has by far its highest prevalence rate among people of Celtic ancestry. Other traits far more prevalent among people of Celtic ancestry include lactase persistence and red hair, with 46% of Irish and at least 36% of Highland Scots being carriers of red-head variants of the MC1R gene, possibly an adaptation to the cloudy weather of the areas where they live.

Although they are not usually considered a Celtic nation, the Faroe Islands have a population with a large Celtic heritage in genetic terms. Recent DNA analyses have revealed that Y chromosomes, tracing male descent, are 87% Scandinavian, whereas the mitochondrial DNA, tracing female descent, is 84% Celtic. The same can be said about Icelanders. The founder population of Iceland came from Ireland, Scotland, and Scandinavia: studies of mitochondrial DNA and Y-chromosomes indicate that 62% of Icelanders' matrilineal ancestry derives from Scotland and Ireland (with most of the rest being from Scandinavia), while 75% of their patrilineal ancestry derives from Scandinavia (with most of the rest being from the Irish and British Isles). In addition, there are some areas of the accepted Celtic countries whose population are mostly not of Celtic heritage: for example, the Orkney and Shetland Islands in Scotland have populations of mostly Scandinvanian descent.

Migration from Celtic countries
A significant portion of the populations of the United States, Canada, Australia and New Zealand is composed of people whose ancestors were from one of the "Celtic nations". This concerns the Irish diaspora most significantly (see also Irish American), but to a lesser extent also the Welsh diaspora and the Cornish diaspora.

There are three areas outside Europe with communities of Celtic language speakers:
 * the province of Chubut in Patagonia with Welsh-speaking Welsh Argentines (known as Y Wladfa)
 * Cape Breton Island in Nova Scotia with Scottish Gaelic-speaking Scottish Canadians
 * southeast Newfoundland with Irish-speaking Irish Canadians.

The most common mother-tongue amongst the Fathers of Confederation which saw the formation of Canada was Gaelic. There is a movement in Cape Breton for a separate province in Canada, as espoused by the Cape Breton Labour Party and others.

In some former British colonies, or particular regions within them, the term Anglo-Celtic has emerged as a descriptor of an ethnic grouping. In particular, Anglo-Celtic Australian is a term comprising about 80% of the population.

Music
The claim that distinctly Celtic styles of music exist was made during the nineteenth century, and was associated with the revival of folk traditions and pan-Celtic ideology. The Welsh anthem "Hen Wlad Fy Nhadau" was adopted as a pan-Celtic anthem. Though there are links between Scots Gaelic and Irish Gaelic folk musics, very different musical traditions existed in Wales and Brittany. Nevertheless, Gaelic styles were adopted as typically Celtic even by Breton revivalists such as Paul Ladmirault.

Celticism came to be associated with the bagpipe and the harp. The harp is considered to be the national instrument of Wales and is used to accompany penillion singing (or cerdd dant) where the harpist plays a melody and the singer sings in counterpoint to it. The roots revival, applied to Celtic music, has brought much inter-Celtic cross-fertilisation, as, for instance, the revival by Welsh musicians of the use of the mediaeval Welsh bagpipe under the influence of the Breton binioù, Irish uilleann pipes and famous Scottish pipes, or the Scots have revived the bodhran from Irish influence. Charles le Goffic introduced the Scottish Highland pipes to Brittany.

Unaccompanied or A cappella styles of singing are performed across the modern Celtic world due to the folk music revival, popularity of Celtic choirs, world music, scat singing and hip hop rapping in Celtic languages. Traditional rhythmic styles used to accompany dancing and now performed are Puirt a beul from Scotland, Ireland, and Cape Breton Island, Nova Scotia, Sean-nós singing from Ireland and Kan ha diskan from Brittany. Other traditional unaccompanied styles sung currently are waulking songs and psalm singing or lining out, both from Scotland.

The emergence of folk-rock led to the creation of a popular music genre labelled Celtic music which "frequently involves the blending of traditional and modern forms, e.g. the Celtic-punk of The Pogues, the ambient music of Enya ... the Celtic-rock of Runrig, Rawlins Cross and Horslips." Pan-Celtic music festivals were established, notably the Festival Interceltique de Lorient founded in 1971, which has occurred annually since.

Festivals

The Scottish Mod and Irish Fleadh Cheoil (and Gaelic Céilidh) are seen as an equivalent to the Breton Fest Noz, Cornish Troyl and Welsh Eisteddfod.

The Celtic Media Festival is an annual 3-day event that promotes the languages and cultures of the Celtic Nations and Regions in media. This festival takes place in a different Celtic nation every year and has been running since 1980.

The birthdays of the most important Celtic Saints of Celtic Christianity for each Celtic nation have become the focus for festivals, feasts and marches: Ireland – Saint Patrick's Day, Wales – Saint David's Day, Scotland – Saint Andrew's Day, Cornwall – Saint Piran's Day, Isle of Man – St Maughold's Feast Day and Brittany – Fête de la St-Yves and Grand Pardon of Sainte-Anne-d'Auray Pilgrimage.

Attitudes and customs associated with the routine of the year's work, religious beliefs and practices survived the coming of Christianity in the conservative rural areas of much of the Celtic countries. All over these lands there were sacred places which had earned their status in pre-Christian times and which had only been gingerly adopted by the Christian church and given a garnish of Christian names or dedications, hills, stones, and especially wells which can still be seen festooned with rags in observance of an old ritual.

Certain days in the year were marked as festivals, and time was counted forward and backwards from them without reference to the ordinary calendar. In her fine study of the festival of the beginning of harvest, in Irish Lughnasa, Máire MacNeill has demonstrated the continuity between the myth known from the early Middle Ages and the customs which survive in the 21st century. Lughnasa, called Calan Awst in Welsh, is a summer feast and was dedicated to the god Lug. Of great interest is the use in the Coligny calendar of the word Saman, a word that is still in use in Gaelic refer to Hallowe'en (evening of the saints), an important day and night and feast among the Celts (in Welsh it is called Calan Gaeaf). In Gaelic folklore, it was considered a particularly dangerous time, when magical spirits wandered through the land, particularly at nightfall. The other important feast days that also continued to be celebrated under Christian guise, but often with a pagan spirit were Imbolc (Gŵyl Fair y Canhwyllau in Welsh), the start of lambing, now the feast day of St Brigit and Beltane, the spring feast, now May Day (Calan Mai in Welsh).

In their pilgrimages the people combined the celebration of a holy place and a holy day. Pilgrimages are still an important feature of country life, particularly in Ireland, Brittany and Galicia. The most impressive pilgrimages include Croagh Patrick on the west coast of Ireland on the last Sunday in July (the beginning of harvest) and Santiago de Compostela in Galicia. The inspiration for famous Celtic singer and harpist Loreena McKennitt's million-selling CD The Mask and the Mirror came in part from a visit to Galicia and in particular Santiago de Compostela. Some of her songs are about Celtic feast days such as All Souls Night about Samhain on The Visit CD which featured in the erotic thriller film Jade starring David Caruso and "Huron Beltane Fire Dance" on the Parallel Dreams CD.

Dance
To signal the coming of summer and the return of real warmth, on Beltane (Bel's Fire), the May Day festival time, dances such as the 'Obby 'Oss dance festival at Padstow in Cornwall are held with the maypole as its focus point. The celebrations are tied to the promotion of fertility and a fruitful growing season with the 'Obby 'Oss dancing to the music through streets decked out in flowers, and sycamore, ash and maple boughs. Shortly afterwards, on 8 May, the ancient rites of Spring are celebrated with the Furry Dance procession to an ancient tune made famous in the song "The Floral Dance" through the streets of nearby Helston together with the mystery play Hal an Tow. Fertility festivals like this used to be celebrated all over Britain.

In the early 1980s seven-time world champion step-dancer, Michael Flatley toured the world with The Chieftains and performed five solo dances (including a triple spin) at Carnegie Hall, New York, in a defining moment that led more than a decade later to a show at the Eurovision Song Contest in Dublin that soon developed into the Irish dance extravaganza the world came to know as Riverdance Jean Butler, one of the original leads, also worked with The Chieftains. Flatley later put up his own show, Lord of the Dance. The spectacular success of both shows can certainly take the credit for the revitalised Celtomania of the last half of the 1990s.

Arts and crafts
Revival of Celtic art has been seen in the Celtic jewellery that revived ancient traditions based on the museum pieces that archaeologists had recovered. An example is the Claddagh ring produced in Galway since at least 1700, but popularised in the 1840s.

Textile craft industries based on Celtic fisher designs such as Aran jumpers were developed in the early 1900s by enterprising island women to earn income.

Following the authoritative publications on Celtic Art of the Hallstatt and La Tene periods by Joseph Déchelette (1908–1914) and Paul Jacobsthal (1944), Scottish artist George Bain popularized the revival of Celtic Art with his bestselling book Celtic Art: The Methods of Construction first published in 1951. Irish artist and writer Jim Fitzpatrick started to hold popular attention from the mid-1970s adopting Irish mythology in comic strip form in his series of books and posters Nuada of the Silver Arm. From the 1980s, public fascination with Celtic Art spawned a small industry in Celtic art books and reinterpretations of ancient Celtic art works, such as the works of Welsh artist Courtney Davies.

Literature and mythology
Similarly, there has been a rebirth of interest in fantasy fiction based on Celtic themes inspired by history and the vast body of Celtic myths and legends.

General and cited references

 * Ellis, P. B. (1992) "Introduction". Dictionary of Celtic Mythology. Oxford University Press
 * Davies, Norman (1999) The Isles: a history. Oxford University Press
 * Dietler, Michael (2006). "Celticism, Celtitude, and Celticity: the consumption of the past in the age of globalization". Celtes et Gaulois dans l’histoire, l’historiographie et l’idéologie moderne. Bibracte, Centre Archéologique Européen.
 * Les Écossais du Québec (1999). Montréal: Conseil québécois du Chardon. N.B.: This is primarily a descriptive cultural and commercial directory of the Scottish community of Québec.
 * O'Driscoll, Robert (ed.) (1981) The Celtic Consciousness. George Braziller, Inc, New York City.
 * Patrick Ryan, 'Celticity and storyteller identity: the use and misuse of ethnicity to develop a storyteller's sense of self', Folklore 2006.
 * Dietler, Michael (2006). "Celticism, Celtitude, and Celticity: the consumption of the past in the age of globalization". Celtes et Gaulois dans l’histoire, l’historiographie et l’idéologie moderne. Bibracte, Centre Archéologique Européen.
 * Les Écossais du Québec (1999). Montréal: Conseil québécois du Chardon. N.B.: This is primarily a descriptive cultural and commercial directory of the Scottish community of Québec.
 * O'Driscoll, Robert (ed.) (1981) The Celtic Consciousness. George Braziller, Inc, New York City.
 * Patrick Ryan, 'Celticity and storyteller identity: the use and misuse of ethnicity to develop a storyteller's sense of self', Folklore 2006.

title: Celts (modern)


text:
Bacterial fruit blotch

Bacterial fruit blotch (BFB) affects cucurbit plants around the world and can be a serious threat to farmers because it spreads through contaminated seed. BFB is the result of an infection by Gram-negative Acidovorax citrulli bacteria, which has only been recently studied in detail. Members of A. citrulli are Gram-negative rod shaped bacteria with the dimensions 0.5× 1.7 μm. They move via polar flagella. No known reliable sources of BFB resistance exist today, so seed hygiene and thorough testing of breeding facilities are the best way to control spreading. No known control methods, however, are extremely reliable for reducing BFB infection.

Hosts and symptoms
A. citrulli causes disease in the family Cucurbitaceae, with the most significant losses in melon and watermelon. It also affects pumpkin, zucchini and cucumber but these are not as economically devastated by fruit blotch as the melons. A. citrulli’s economic hosts are cucurbits, but the bacteria can also infect volunteer seedlings of other families. This makes it easier for the pathogen to spread. Symptoms of melon with BFB include water soaked lesions on cotyledons, and hypocotyls, leading to collapse and death. Lesions will look necrotic and may be near veins. On fruit, water soaked lesions will be small and irregular (they average 1 cm diameter and may be sunken) but then progress through the rind. The fruit then decays and cracks when the pathogen causes necrosis. These lesions open the plant to secondary infections as well. A. citrulli then colonizes the pulp, eventually allowing the seed to become contaminated. On adult leaves, the symptoms appear the same as the ones left by other abiotic or biotic stressors so diagnosis is not as straight forward. They include large irregular leaf lesions which are brown to black in watermelon and reddish brown in melon. Bacterial fruit blotch lesions spread along main midrib in adult leaves.

Disease cycle
Acidivorax citrulli is primarily seed transmitted. Seeds containing A. citrulli are difficult to treat, as the bacteria is found deep within the tissue, and can be viable for 35 years or more. There are still some aspects of the epidemiology that are unknown. It has been found that the pathogen initially starts its life as a saprophyte, relying on the seed's degrading action of complex sugars, and switches to a pathogenic growth mode when the seedling emerges. While this is a step forward, there is little knowledge of the pathogen's movement in the plant, how it overwinters, or its alternate hosts. Without this knowledge, its complete mode of reproduction (an important tool in reducing epidemic) is still unknown.

The infection of fruit is better understood. Bacteria typically enter the fruit through their stomata, three to four weeks after fruit set. As the fruit develops, wax fills and blocks stomata, eliminating entry to the bacteria. While the maturation of fruit restricts entry to the bacteria, mature fruits are more susceptible to symptoms of the bacteria than immature fruit. Fruit typically show symptoms in the final weeks of development, leaving a lag period between infection and symptoms. The fruit typically becomes infected early in development, and shows symptoms near harvest, making diagnosis and prevention difficult. The only known way for the bacteria to get into production fields is by introduction of infected seeds. This makes sanitation highly important.

Environment
A. citrulli’s ability to infect hosts depends on environmental factors. It relies on temperature and humidity to thrive. High temperatures and humidity, plus high levels of bacteria on/within the seed are required to see infection. The amount of bacteria on/within seed is based on the intensity of fruit infection in the previous season (the seed is infected when the fruit tissue surrounding it transmits the bacteria). Greenhouses are perfect environments for seed to seedling transfer of A. citrulli because it is warm, humid, and tightly filled with host plants. For this reason, many transplants are infected before they are transplanted to the field. When direct seeded, cucurbits may have a better chance for survival because the environment in the field is more variable and may be cooler/drier than the greenhouse. This makes it more difficult for the pathogen to infect.

Management
If seed is to be transported from country to country, it generally needs to be free of pathogens before the company will accept it. Japan legally restricts the admission of seeds carrying Acidivorax citrulli bacteria. Seed can be cleaned using a dry heat treatment to remove the pathogen with some success. A treatment of 85° for 3–5 days is effective for removing the pathogen. Different cucurbit seeds respond to this treatment in different ways, and some species (large-seeded squash, wax gourd, bottle gourd) have reduced germination following a dry heat treatment. This cleaning method can remove other pathogens found within seeds, but has been found to be especially useful for BFB. Prior to planting, seed should be checked to ensure that it is not infected with BFB. Companies such as Eurofins STA Laboratories and Summit Plant Labs test seed for cleanliness.

Since the pathogen is difficult to eradicate, plant resistance to the pathogen can provide an alternative to removing the pathogen. While research is being carried out to produce cultivars that are resistant, progress has not been quick. Several accessions have been reported to have resistance to BFB in watermelon and melon, but are not widely accepted to date. While these advances are promising, there are still no commercial cultivars with significant resistance to BFB.

Importance
The first plant pathogenic bacteria was determined in 1878 and many more have been identified since. However, research on Bacterial Fruit Blotch began much later than many other plant diseases. It was not until the 1980s that the disease began to impact the fruit industry economically. Since the discovery of BFB, millions of dollars have been lost to crop rot, however no exact dollar amount has been identified. The first report of BFB research came in 1965 when a seed-borne phytobacterium was isolated from diseased plant tissue from Turkey. The USDA originally thought the disease was exclusively in seedlings, however the first BFB outbreak in 1987 proved that entire fields could be lost to fruit decay. Today, many outbreaks in the United States result in 90-100% fruit loss per diseased field, prompting lawsuits by farmers over contaminated seed. In the 1990s, A. citrulli was found to infect most other cucurbit species. During this time, Bacterial Fruit Blotch spread through cucurbit fields around the globe very quickly. It appears to spread only through contaminated seed, however non-economic host plants can carry the disease on seed as well, making it difficult to control. BFB is a unique disease because its late discovery gives scientists an opportunity to track the outbreak from the start. Like all plant diseases, the BFB epidemic is related to the interactions of a triangle of disease components (Pathogen, Host, and Environment). Therefore, BFB provides an opportunity to better understand how to track these interactions in real time while this disease spreads.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Bacterial fruit blotch


text:
Talk:Max Schmeling

Untitled
Amazingly, this article is better than the one on German Wikipedia. Just a few corrections: Schmeling's first fight against Louis in 1936 was no championship fight, simply because none of them was the champion then. You might add that Schmeling was married to Czech actress and producer Anny Ondra, and that he made some -- rather mediocre -- movies and also tried his luck as a singer, recording just one -- awful -- title: "Das Herz eines Boxers [A Boxer's Heart]". Holger, Oct. 04, 2004

Seems that somebody filled up this article with a lot of nonsense: Schmeling wasn't born at Stettin, and his wife Anny Ondra was Austrian born.

 * According to the articles from PBS and NPR  they were friends at least since a 1954 meeting. --Blainster 17:55, 5 Feb 2005 (UTC)

 * Is the "boxing report" external link suppose to link to that website's homepage or a specific page related to Max Schmeling? -- Davidrand

Are there any examples of "suicide missions" that hitler sent him on the become a "very dead hero?"

Of course not, it's all nonsense.

A few days after Schmelling's death I was listening to Paul Harvey, and there was a "rest of the story" segment which said that when Schmeling was in his 80's he was walking down the street with his grandson when a mugger confronted Schmeling and his Grandson and demanded Schmeling's wallet. Schmeling acted like he was reaching for his wallet, but instead made a fist, punched the mugger and knocked him out cold. Unfortunately, I don't feel as if I remember enough of the details accurately to add this to the Wikipedia entry. The Paul Harvey broadcast was either in late 2004 or early 2005. Stilgar 20:25, 15 December 2005 (UTC)

 * This did happen, not to Schmeling, but to a friend of his, Gerhard Brinkmann. Patabongo 16:53, 15 January 2006 (UTC)

Black vs African American vs Negro
"Schmeling was considered a "shot" fighter."(what is a "shot" fighter? this word seems to be some sort of undefined slang)  "In 1936, the situation in Germany had changed.  Schmeling came over to New York to face the up-and-coming Negro American Joe Louis, "('Negro' was the term used at the time of these events, we should prefer the term 'negro' to the term 'black' if we arent going to use the term African-American, the 'Negro' article amplifies the social import and impact of this fight more than does either of the terms African-American or Black )  "who was undefeated and considered unbeatable."
 * We have two Articles that bear on this: Negro and African-American and negro seems to me to fit the cultural perspective of the time and to serve better to amplify the importance placed on the fights at the time. User:Pedant 68.183.79.92 18:16, 24 July 2006 (UTC)
 * In 1936 and right through to the 1960s, Negro was considered to be a term of respect. It is probably just "antique" now. Many great black leaders including Martin Luther King refered to themselve as Negros, as this was the normal word to use when refering to black people. Wallie 21:27, 8 August 2006 (UTC)

Radio Broadcast of the 1938 Fight
Wikipedia's article on Max Schmeling contains the statement:

"Joseph Goebbels ordered that the broadcast of the fight to Germany be cut off."

However, German sports writer with the Associated Press, Roy Kammerer, based in Berlin, wrote for the Chicago Sun-Times, Feb. 5, 2005, that "The fight was a huge event worldwide and left a lasting impression on his era of Germans, who followed blow-by-blow on radio."

And there is this letter to the New York Times:

July 3, 1988 No Knockout Of Broadcast LEAD: To the Sports Editor:

To the Sports Editor:

The Title Fight That Was Bigger Than Boxing (The Times, June 19) was of great interest to me. You write, Part of the postfight lore. . . is that the German broadcast of the bout was cut off before the fight ended. It was not.

As 13-year-old students at the Jewish boarding school Internat Hirsch at Coburg, Germany, and interested in heavyweight boxing, we asked to be awakened at 1 A.M. that day to hear the fight. Some of the kids missed it because it was over before they got to the radio.

I have never forgotten the German announcer's plea: Get up, get up Maxie, please get up - oh no, oh no - stay down - it's over! Weeks before, the German newspapers showed pictures of Louis's right thumb as being overly long as well as other statistics to imply unfair advantage over Schmeling.

We applauded Louis's victory as a ray of hope for us. We had grown up among Nazi pomp and muscle flexing, witnessing repeated accommodations of the West to Hitler and almost believing that they were unbeatable and that all others - including ourselves -were as inferior and weak as they wanted us to believe.

LUDWIG (LARRY) STEIN Chappaqua, N.Y.

Mistake
There's a mistake...Schmelings Manager Joe Jakobs wasn't dead in 1938 ....he was not allowed at the ring during the rematch between Louis and Schmeling. Jacobs died 1940 or 1941. Greatings Friedie

Loaded Glove?
There was an unsupported claim in the article that Louis may have used illegal means (an object in his glove apart from his fist) to win his second fight with Schmeling. Not only is the assertion unsupported and full of weasel words but it is contradicted by the available evidence. At the time there was no suggestion that Louis cheated, he was favoured to win because of his youth, superior speed, greater punching power and the perception that he was more skilled. For a heavyweight boxer to hit someone hard enough to break ribs is not remarkable and does not in and of itself constitute evidence of foul play. I have removed this claim since it has been made with no evidence apart from the contention that Louis was not known for powerful body punches which is contradicted by a number of sources including his wikipedia article. Doc Meroe 04:03, 5 February 2007 (UTC)

Saved two Jewish kids
I think the "dubious - discuss" tag to Schmeling saving two Jewish kids should be removed. Here is evidence:

"He hid two Jewish boys in his Berlin apartment during Kristallnacht (search) in 1938, when the Nazis burned books in a central square and rampaged through the city, setting synagogues on fire."

From: http://www.foxnews.com/story/0,2933,146369,00.html

What do you think?

Here's some more evidence that he helped Jews

"and later reportedly helped some Jewish friends escape death camps."

From: http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_qn4155/is_20050205/ai_n9723789 Did he have any more nicknames? —Preceding unsigned comment added by 76.250.145.21 (talk) 21:54, 28 October 2008 (UTC)

Good. Hitler was a bastard piece of shit paper hanger. Royintexas (talk) 19:37, 20 May 2019 (UTC)

Good. Hitler was a bastard piece of shit paper hanger. Royintexas (talk) 19:37, 20 May 2019 (UTC)

World War 2 section
I think the World War 2 Section needs to be repaired,  I read his biography, and according to Schmeling himself, they paradroped him into Crete without even a rifle, the nazi brass wanted him to die in action.

German paratroops dropped without rifles, just pistols & knives - due to their slightly odd (to the Allies) harness. Other weapons (rifles & Mgs) were dropped in canisters. At least in Crete. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 85.159.128.118 (talk) 08:48, 16 April 2013 (UTC)

date of death
according to the german wikipedia he died on 2/2/2005. can someone please check this? —Preceding unsigned comment added by 77.1.118.217 (talk) 21:37, 15 October 2010 (UTC)

NPOV, and criticisms
I added NPOV tags because of phrases like:
 * "His two fights with Joe Louis in the late 1930s transcended boxing"
 * "In no way was Max Schmeling any of these things. He was a quality prizefighter with respectable boxing technique, a solid right hand punch, and a keen intellect"
 * "His opponents were of an impressive caliber"
 * "he personally saved the lives of two Jewish children by hiding them in his apartment" - this in particular is deeply interesting and should certainly get more attention than his chronology of boxing matches.

And many more. Furthermore, the paragraphs are too long, there's not enough summaries, and there's insufficient wikilinking. Also, please separate the boxing match chronology out from the actual biography. —Preceding unsigned comment added by Njaard (talk • contribs) 08:46, 5 May 2011 (UTC)

Birth
Does anyone know where he was born?Jtyroler (talk) 08:06, 15 December 2011 (UTC)

He was born in the small town of Klein Lucknow, in the district of Uckermark, in the state of Pommern (now Mecklenburg-Vorpommern). http://www.visitberlin.de/en/article/max-schmeling

is it just me or does ...
Max schmeling have an asiatic look to him? — Preceding unsigned comment added by 75.141.117.220 (talk) 06:07, 25 May 2012 (UTC)

External links modified
Hello fellow Wikipedians,

I have just modified one external link on Max Schmeling. Please take a moment to review my edit. If you have any questions, or need the bot to ignore the links, or the page altogether, please visit this simple FaQ for additional information. I made the following changes:
 * Added archive https://web.archive.org/web/20050208144826/http://www.spectator.org/dsp_article.asp?art_id=7734 to http://www.spectator.org/dsp_article.asp?art_id=7734

When you have finished reviewing my changes, you may follow the instructions on the template below to fix any issues with the URLs.

Cheers.— InternetArchiveBot  (Report bug) 20:35, 6 December 2017 (UTC)

'Cultural' ... 'national'
His two fights with Joe Louis in 1936 and 1938 were worldwide cultural events because of their national associations.
 * Both terms are misnomers, perhaps meant as euphemisms. In the nonsensical Nazi worldview, blacks were considered inferior, particularly to the so-called 'Nordic' or 'Teutonic' peoples, which the Nazis referred to erroneously as races. In Nazi Germany, the study of alleged German "racial" superiority was termed Rassenkunde ("racial studies").
 * Suggest dropping cultural and replacing national with either "racial" (in quotes) or perhaps ethnic. Sca (talk) 15:05, 29 December 2017 (UTC)

Succession boxes
As per WikiProject Succession Box Standardization/Guidelines succession boxes are for well-defined office holders. WikiProject_Succession_Box_Standardization/Guidelines lists the typical record types for sports, this does not include being the oldest to win or hold a sporting achievement/title or being the oldest living to have won a title. DerbyCountyinNZ (Talk Contribs) 21:15, 5 October 2022 (UTC)

title: Talk:Max Schmeling


text:
User talk:Cynthiap

Hello and welcome to Wikipedia!

Here are some tips to help you get started:

 * Try the Tutorial, and feel free to experiment in the test area.
 * If you need help, post a question at the Help Desk
 * Eventually, you might want to read the Manual of Style and Policies and Guidelines.
 * Remember Neutral point of view
 * Explore, be bold in editing pages, and, most importantly, have fun!

Good luck!

[[User:Meelar|Meelar (talk)]]

P.S. One last helpful hint. To sign your posts like I did above (on talk pages, for example) use the '~' symbol. To insert just your name, type ~~~ (3 tildes), or, to insert your name and timestamp, use ~~~~ (4 tildes).

Image:919toy1.jpg
Burgundavia (✈ take a flight?) 16:54, May 28, 2005 (UTC)

title: User talk:Cynthiap


text:
User talk:Leifern

Article Rescue Squadron Newsletter
Content

 * News items and announcements
 * Contest

 * Featured editor: Teeninvestor
 * Featured administrator: WereSpielChequers

 * Want ads
 * Feature: FeydHuxtable: Search Techniques

Your e-mail address
Hei,

jeg har lest dine tanker om Wikipedia og vil svært gjerne komme i kontakt med deg.

fihellan@gmail.com

Med vennlig hilsen

Frode Inge Helland

Women in Red World Contest
Hi. We're into the last five days of the Women in Red World Contest. There's a new bonus prize of $200 worth of books of your choice to win for creating the most new women biographies between 0:00 on the 26th and 23:59 on 30th November. If you've been contributing to the contest, thank you for your support, we've produced over 2000 articles. If you haven't contributed yet, we would appreciate you taking the time to add entries to our articles achievements list by the end of the month. Thank you, and if participating, good luck with the finale!

title: User talk:Leifern


text: Talk:Edward Sturgis Ingraham

title: Talk:Edward Sturgis Ingraham


text:
User talk:Prgrmr

Hello and welcome to Wikipedia!

Here are some tips to help you get started:

 * Try the Tutorial, and feel free to experiment in the test area.
 * If you need help, post a question at the Help Desk
 * Eventually, you might want to read the Manual of Style and Policies and Guidelines.
 * Remember Neutral point of view
 * Explore, be bold in editing pages, and, most importantly, have fun!

Good luck!

[[User:Meelar|Meelar (talk)]]

P.S. One last helpful hint. To sign your posts like I did above (on talk pages, for example) use the '~' symbol. To insert just your name, type ~~~ (3 tildes), or, to insert your name and timestamp, use ~~~~ (4 tildes).

USS Pueblo
I saw that you asked about editing the Pueblo article. I say go for it - remember that Wikipedia is all about being bold. If you have any questions about the technical aspects of editing etc don't hestitate to ask. Evil Monkey → Talk 08:04, Dec 15, 2004 (UTC)

title: User talk:Prgrmr


text:
Talk:Edward Sturgis Ingraham/to do

 * Find a source for his life after 1893

title: Talk:Edward Sturgis Ingraham/to do


text:
Wikipedia talk:WikiProject Video games/Collaboration of the month

Current article does not appear to be high-importance
Joust (video game) doesn't seem to meet any of the importance ratings for high video game and I doubt it's even mid as it's entire legacy is based on ports or remakes of the game itself, which qualifies for low-importance (a game is always assumed to have some legacy when it spawns ports/remakes and sequels. The "In Popular Culture" section is trivial information. じん  ない  03:10, 16 February 2009 (UTC)
 * Are you sure it doesn't set any precedents? The article doesn't mention any, and every old game isn't automatically of higher importance. Unless importance is found, it should be rerolled.--ZXCVBNM (TALK) 06:38, 16 February 2009 (UTC)
 * Here's the edit that reassessed the article FYI. Gary King  ( talk ) 15:56, 16 February 2009 (UTC)
 * I rated it before the assessment system changed, I would say it's more of a mid-importance now. --Mika1h (talk) 20:22, 16 February 2009 (UTC)
 * I re-rated to Mid since the original assessor also agrees. I still think it may not be even mid given what info, but I'll give a benefit of the doubt before lowering it to low. じん  ない  22:56, 16 February 2009 (UTC)

I think the process is stuck between a rock and a hard place. If we're going to tackle high-importance articles, which are invariably more difficult to source and complicated, then enough time has to be given to actually do that. If articles are only given a week, then regardless of anything else they must be easy to edit up a grade or two, which invariably means something low or mid importance. Case in point: it's now 3 or 4 days since this convo started, the collaboration has been active at least as long, and all that's happened is a trivia section and fair-use gallery have been nuked and the poster's been uploaded. Which is all good and appreciated, but it's not the most enthusiastic response. We still haven't decided whether this is an appropriate article or not and the collab.'s due to switch in a few days. We really need to sort out what the priorities are with this system. Someoneanother 15:47, 20 February 2009 (UTC)
 * There is really no point in re-rolling. If we don't like the choice, deal with it. I didn't do any more editing because I wasn't sure what people were going to decide, but what's the point? It's only a week. People wanted to re-roll last week, and that turned out to be really awesome. We should re-roll if the article is Xanadu or something, but if we can improve it let's keep it. If you're worried about the selections, go through the High and Top categories beforehand. ~  JohnnyMrNinja  19:10, 20 February 2009 (UTC)
 * Yeah, let's not keep changing things. I think it's pretty good how the collaboration is setup right now. There will be articles that you some won't like, but others will. Gary King  ( talk ) 19:13, 20 February 2009 (UTC)

A franchise whose article is in bad state
I checked the article Tekken recently and it's currently in a bad state. Various paragraphs are unsourced, there is no reception and there is a whole table of characters from each game. Considering how famous is such franchise, I wondered if this article could be part from a following collaboration. Regards.Tintor2 (talk) 03:21, 21 August 2011 (UTC)

Related discussion
Please see WT:VG. czar ♔  01:56, 26 October 2013 (UTC)


text:
Brian Hoskins

Professor Sir Brian John Hoskins, CBE FRS, (born 17 May 1945) is a British dynamical meteorologist and climatologist based at the Imperial College London and the University of Reading. He is a recipient of the 2024 Japan Prize along with Professor John Michael Wallace in the field of "Resources, Energy, the Environment, and Social Infrastructure"  for "Establishment of a scientific foundation for understanding and predicting extreme weather events". He is a mathematician by training, his research has focused on understanding atmospheric motion from the scale of fronts to that of the Earth, using a range of theoretical and numerical models. He is perhaps best known for his work on the mathematical theory of extratropical cyclones and frontogenesis, particularly through the use of potential vorticity. He has also produced research across many areas of meteorology, including the Indian monsoon and global warming, recently contributing to the Stern review and the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report.

In 1996, he and the meteorologist Mark J. Rodwell [ d ], formulated the Rodwell–Hoskins mechanism hypothesis on the climatic teleconnection between the Indian/Asian summer monsoon and the climate of the Mediterranean.

Career
Hoskins gained a B.A. (1st Class Honors) and PhD in mathematics from the University of Cambridge, UK, in 1966 and 1970, respectively. He was then Reader in atmospheric modelling (1976–1981) and professor of meteorology (1981–present) at the University of Reading. He was Head of the Department of Meteorology (1990–1996) at the University of Reading and President of the Royal Meteorological Society (1998–2000). He was a Royal Society council member (1999–present) and research professor (2001–present) and the first Director of the Grantham Institute for Climate Change at Imperial College London (2008–2014).

Hoskins has spoken on behalf for the use of meteorology in government, industry and society. He was also part of establishing the Grantham Institute for Climate Change at Imperial College London, an international centre for climate change research. He has been Council member for the Natural Environment Research Council that funds and supports most of the environmental research in the UK, and has held numerous roles for the Met Office, most recently as non-executive director and Chairman of the Scientific Advisory Board.

He has made contributions to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change scientific assessments. He contributed to the Stern review of the economics of climate change and was also a member of the Royal Commission on Environmental Pollution which recommended that the UK should aim for a 60% reduction in emissions of carbon dioxide by 2050. He was appointed to the UK Committee on Climate Change, which has been influential in the Government's decision to commit to an 80 percent reduction in greenhouse gas emissions by 2050.

Awards

 * Japan Prize 2024
 * Bjerknes Lecture, American Geophysical Union (2014)
 * Knighthood (2007)
 * Symons Gold Medal (2006) of the Royal Meteorological Society
 * Elected to the US National Academy of Sciences (2002)
 * Commander of the Most Excellent Order of the British Empire (1998)
 * Honorary Professor of the Chinese Academy of Sciences (1998)
 * EGS Vilhelm Bjerknes Medallist (1997)
 * Fellow of the Royal Society (1988)
 * Carl-Gustaf Rossby Research Medal (1988) from the American Meteorological Society
 * The Chree Medal and Prize of the Institute of Physics (1987)
 * Fellow of the American Meteorological Society (1985)
 * L.F. Richardson Prize (1972) and Buchan Prize (1976) from the Royal Meteorological Society

Service

 * President, Royal Meteorological Society 1998–2000
 * Member, Royal Commission on Environmental Pollution
 * President, International Association of Meteorology and Atmospheric Sciences 1991–95
 * Chair, Royal Society Global Environmental Research Committee
 * Chair, Meteorological Office Science Advisory Committee and Member, Meteorological Office Board
 * Vice-Chair, Joint Scientific Committee for the World Climate Research Programme
 * Member, Scientific Advisory Committee for European Centre for Medium-Range Weather Forecasts (Chair 1985–88)

title: Brian Hoskins


text:
User talk:Icefyre

Hello and welcome to Wikipedia!

Here are some tips to help you get started:

 * Try the Tutorial, and feel free to experiment in the test area.
 * If you need help, post a question at the Help Desk
 * Eventually, you might want to read the Manual of Style and Policies and Guidelines.
 * Remember Neutral point of view
 * Explore, be bold in editing pages, and, most importantly, have fun!

Good luck!

[[User:Meelar|Meelar (talk)]]

P.S. One last helpful hint. To sign your posts like I did above (on talk pages, for example) use the '~' symbol. To insert just your name, type ~~~ (3 tildes), or, to insert your name and timestamp, use ~~~~ (4 tildes).

title: User talk:Icefyre


text: User talk:80.44.164.235

title: User talk:80.44.164.235


text:
Wikipedia:Articles for deletion/List of Recurring Characters

List of Recurring Characters
Impossible list to maintain. Bad capitalization which was originally correct capitalization but got moved. Break these out into each of their component shows. RickK 21:59, Oct 4, 2004 (UTC)
 * Another stupid list. Delete! --Improv 22:07, 4 Oct 2004 (UTC)
 * Delete. Useless list. Recurring characters in anything?   — Gwalla | Talk 00:49, 5 Oct 2004 (UTC)
 * Can't see any use for this...very little work gone into it too... Delete. Jelly441 00:58, 5 Oct 2004 (UTC)
 * Delete. Must. fight. temptation... Ah, there.  Much better.  I so wanted to edit the article to add "Non-encyclopedic lists - VfD."  SWAdair | Talk  04:16, 5 Oct 2004 (UTC)
 * Delete. Wile E. Heresiarch 05:01, 5 Oct 2004 (UTC)
 * Delete this and many other lists.  ~leif ☺ HELO 07:42, 5 Oct 2004 (UTC)
 * Delete. If we absolutely had to, we could have a category, which would then only list the notable recurring characters (as non-notable ones shouldn't have articles). Average Earthman 08:54, 5 Oct 2004 (UTC)
 * Delete . Lists. Grumble. --Improv 16:52, 5 Oct 2004 (UTC)
 * Oops, silly me. No matter how much I want to, I can't vote twice :) --Improv 19:28, 6 Oct 2004 (UTC)
 * Delete Eeek... how is one supposed to keep track of this? Who will actually look for this? --Asmodai 00:36, Oct 6, 2004 (UTC)
 * Delete, I don't see how this list can ever be complete. Probably belongs on someone's personal homepage (:  — siro  χ  o  04:58, Oct 6, 2004 (UTC)

 * Delete: At this point, these stupid lists are recurrent characters on VfD. Lists are lists.  Anything can be listed.  They tell us nothing.  Geogre 17:00, 8 Oct 2004 (UTC)


text:
User talk:Spendlove

Hello and welcome to Wikipedia!

Here are some tips to help you get started:

 * Try the Tutorial, and feel free to experiment in the test area.
 * If you need help, post a question at the Help Desk
 * Eventually, you might want to read the Manual of Style and Policies and Guidelines.
 * Remember Neutral point of view
 * Explore, be bold in editing pages, and, most importantly, have fun!

Good luck!

[[User:Meelar|Meelar (talk)]]

P.S. One last helpful hint. To sign your posts like I did above (on talk pages, for example) use the '~' symbol. To insert just your name, type ~~~ (3 tildes), or, to insert your name and timestamp, use ~~~~ (4 tildes).

title: User talk:Spendlove


text:
Category:Information architects

Information architects are those who practice in the field of Information architecture.

title: Category:Information architects


text:
Military fork

A military fork is a polearm which was used in Europe between the 15th and 19th centuries. Like many polearms, the military fork traces its lineage to an agricultural tool, in this case the pitchfork. Unlike a trident used for fishing, the military fork was rarely barbed and normally consisted only of two tines (prongs) which were straight compared to the original pitchfork. The pair of tines usually ran parallel or slightly flared. This weapon was relatively easy to use compared to a sword, which could take years to learn how to wield effectively. It was usually used in absence of a spear. Like a spear, the military fork could be used in tight formations and was often made with various minor customizations to improve use; in the example of the image above, the fork has a hook parallel to the prongs intended to "catch" the blow of a weapon, as well as two "hooks" intended to dismount a knight from his horse.

title: Military fork


text:
Wikipedia:Articles for deletion/Language Construction Kit

Language Construction Kit was proposed for deletion. This page is an archive of the discussion about the proposed deletion. This page is no longer live. Further comments should be made on the article's talk page rather than here so that this page is preserved as an historic record. The result of the debate was to keep. Cool Hand Luke  05:34, 4 Dec 2004 (UTC)

This will never be encyclopaedic, and it's completely unnecessary -- there's already a link to Mark Rosenfelder's Language Construction Kit in constructed language, I don't think there's any reason to have an article on the Kit on top of that. The next thing we'll have an article for Mark's Verdurian grammar page, for his Almean Belief Systems page, for his Descent of Lesüasi page, for his Cadhinor grammar page, for his Ismaîn grammar page, for his Elkarîl grammar page, for his Flaidish grammar page, for his... - Cymydog Naakka 22:01, 4 Oct 2004 (UTC)
 * Weak delete. It's a handy resource, and considered the beginners' guide to conlanging by many conlangers, but I don't think it really merits an article.   — Gwalla | Talk 00:47, 5 Oct 2004 (UTC)
 * I agree that the Kit is a handy resource -- it had a huge effect on my own conlanging though I have later abandoned my 'langs of that time, and it was through the Kit that I was introduced to Mark's Almea conworld and thus the ZBB board, so I owe my life to the LCK. The reason I listed it here was simply that I didn't think either that it in itself quite merits an article. - Cymydog Naakka 20:01, 5 Oct 2004 (UTC)

 * Should at least be a redirect; keep would be OK with me. -- Jmabel 01:29, Oct 6, 2004 (UTC)
 * Concur with Jmabel. People looking for the kit should be redirected to the correct article. [[User:MacGyverMagic|Mgm|(talk)]] 09:05, Oct 6, 2004 (UTC)
 * Delete and make it a redirect, I guess. I'm no fan of conlangs of any stripe; too easy, too nebbishy, too private, too transient, too hobbyist.  Geogre 16:59, 8 Oct 2004 (UTC)
 * Keep. Intrigue 18:12, 8 Oct 2004 (UTC)
 * There is a Conlang guide project at Wikibooks. Anything useful should be merged there. Tuf-Kat 18:16, Oct 8, 2004 (UTC)
 * Keep. -- Djinn112 22:10, 10 Oct 2004 (UTC)
 * Keep. This is a very notable document, and it is practically the guidebook for a great deal of the Internet conlanging community. -Branddobbe 05:41, Oct 20, 2004 (UTC)
 * Keep. Wikipedia is not a mere collection of external links.  --[[User:Eequor| η  [[Image:Venus symbol (blue).gif|♀]] [ υωρ ]]] 12:41, 18 Nov 2004 (UTC)

This page is now preserved as an archive of the debate and, like other '/delete' pages is no longer 'live'. Subsequent comments on the issue, the deletion or on the decision-making process should be placed on the relevant 'live' pages. Please do not edit this page.


text:
Talk:Anonymous remailers

This is edited from content that I own the copyright on (except the quote obviously)... is there anywhere I should specify this, as I probably won't be around to point out I own when it is contested. - IC

title: Talk:Anonymous remailers


text:
Cannaiola

Cannaiola is a village of 730 inhabitants in the Italian province of Perugia in east central Umbria in the floodplain of the Clitunno River; altitude 218 m (715 ft) above sea-level. It is a frazione of the comune of Trevi, which lies 3.5 km (about 2 mi) to the east.

History and main sights
The origin of the town's name is, strictly speaking, unknown; but the two most likely possibilities have to do with water: Latin canna, rushes, or Italian cannaviola, canal; an indication of the rôle of water in the town's history.

Cannaiola dates to the 13c when a tributary of the Clitunno, a creek called the Tatarena, was shifted west to its present course and the people who had been living closer to the foot of Trevi's hill, but in an unhealthy location, found a place ready-made for them, a few meters higher than their old homes: the old bed of the Tatarena is now the main street of Cannaiola.

Cannaiola must have been quite small until the 19th or 20th century, since it regularly fails to appear in detailed 17th- and 18th-century maps of the creeks and villages of the plain between Trevi and Montefalco. It did have, however, at least two churches that are now vanished: a chapel of S. Niccolò di Bari, demolished in 1869 in spite of its 15c frescoes; and a church of S. Francesco di Paola, which was at La Cuccia near the Maroggia river about 1 km away — although its precise location is now unknown.

Three churches remain: the parish church of St. Michael, since 1988 also known as the Sanctuary of the Bl. Pietro Bonilli, who was its pastor for many years in the late 19th century; and the two much smaller churches of S. Antonio Abate and of S. Fedele di Sigmaringen.

title: Cannaiola


text:
Achievement gaps in the United States

Achievement gaps in the United States are observed, persistent disparities in measures of educational performance among subgroups of U.S. students, especially groups defined by socioeconomic status (SES), race/ethnicity and gender. The achievement gap can be observed through a variety of measures, including standardized test scores, grade point average, dropout rates, college enrollment, and college completion rates. The gap in achievement between lower income students and higher income students exists in all nations and it has been studied extensively in the U.S. and other countries, including the U.K. Various other gaps between groups exist around the globe as well.

Research into the causes of the disparity in academic achievement between students from different socioeconomic and racial backgrounds has been ongoing since the 1966 publication of the Coleman Report (officially titled "Equality of Educational Opportunity"), commissioned by the U.S. Department of Education. The report found that a combination of home, community, and in-school factors affect academic performance and contribute to the achievement gap. According to American educational psychologist David Berliner, home and community environments have a stronger impact on school achievement than in-school factors, in part because students spend more time outside of school than in school. In addition, the out-of-school factors influencing academic performance differ significantly between children living in poverty and children from middle-income households.

The achievement gap, as reported in trend data collected by the National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP), has become a focal point of education reform efforts by a number of nonprofit organizations and advocacy groups. Attempts to minimize the achievement gap by improving equality of access to educational opportunities have been numerous but fragmented. These efforts include establishing affirmative action, emphasizing multicultural education, and increasing interventions to improve school testing, teacher quality and accountability.

Racial achievement gap
The education of African Americans and some other minorities lags behind those of other U.S. ethnic groups, such as White Americans and Asian Americans, as reflected by test scores, grades, urban high school graduation rates, rates of disciplinary action, and rates of conferral of undergraduate degrees. Indeed, high school graduation rates and college enrollment rates are comparable to those of white Americans 25 or 30 years ago. It should also be noted that the category of African immigrant population (excluding Haitians and other foreign-born black people born outside of Africa) has the highest educational attainment of any group in the United States, but they represent a small group within the larger African American population.

Asian Americans of Indian, Chinese, Japanese, and Korean descent score the highest on average, with the difference primarily on mathematics subtests, in all scholastic standardized tests such as the SAT, GRE, MCAT, USMLE exams and IQ tests followed by White Americans who score in the intermediate range. Hispanic American and African American scores tend to follow White scores. U.S. students as a whole have in general attained average scores on the International PISA test while other wealthy industrialized developed East Asian countries, such as China, Japan, Singapore and South Korea, achieve the highest top scores. However, compared with children in some less developed countries like Benin where some children, especially girls, end their education after the elementary level, education in the United States is compulsory to age 16 regardless of race or class. It is anticipated that over half of public education students will be required to pass standards-based assessments which expect that all students to be at least exposed to algebra by high school and exit prepared for college.

Researchers have not reached consensus about the causes of the academic achievement gap; instead, there exists a wide range of studies that cite an array of factors, both cultural and structural, that influence student performance in school. Sociologist Annette Lareau suggested that students who lack middle-class cultural capital and have limited parental involvement are likely to have lower academic achievement than their better resourced peers. Other researchers suggest that academic achievement is more closely tied to race and socioeconomic status and have tried to pinpoint why.

Gender achievement gap
For the past fifty years, there has been a gap in the educational achievement of males and females in the United States, but which gender has been disadvantaged has fluctuated over the years. In the 1970s and 1980s, data showed girls trailing behind boys in a variety of academic performance measures, specifically in test scores in math and science.

Data in the last twenty years shows the general trend of girls outperforming boys in academic achievement in terms of class grades across all subjects and college graduation rates, but boys scoring higher on standardized tests and being better represented in the higher-paying and more prestigious job fields such as STEM (science, technology, engineering, and math). Male students consistently achieved worse school marks than female students from 1913 to 2011 in all countries for which there is data.

Literacy

Traditionally, girls have outperformed boys in reading and writing. Although this gap may be minimal in kindergarten, it grows as students continue their education. According to the 2004 National Reading Assessment measured by the US Department of Education, the gap between boys and girls, only slightly noticeable in 4th grade, left boys 14 points behind girls during their 12th grade year. On the 2008 test, female students continued to have higher average reading scores than male students at all three ages. The gap between male and female 4th graders was 7 points in 2008. By 12th grade, there was an 11-point gap between males and females.

On the 2002 National Writing Assessment, boys scored on average 17 points lower than girls in 4th grade. The average gap increased to 21 points by 8th grade and widened to 24 points by senior year in high school. In the more recent 2007 National Assessment of Writing Skills, female students continued to score higher than male students, though margins closed slightly from previous assessments. The average score for female eighth-graders was 20 points higher than males, down 1 point from the 2002 score. For twelfth-graders, females outscored males by 18 points as opposed to 21 points in 2002.

All of these assessments were conducted on a 100-point scale.

Math and science
Which gender is disadvantaged by the gap in math and science achievement largely depends on how academic achievement is being measured. Female students generally have better grades in their math classes, and this gap starts off very minimal but increases with age. However, males score higher on standardized math tests, and these score gaps also increase with age. Male students also score higher on measures of college readiness, such as the AP Calculus exams and the math section of the SAT. The differences in National Assessment for Educational Progress (NAEP) math scores between boys and girls nearly double from the 9-year-olds to the 17-year-olds. This inconsistency in which gender shows more achievement could be due to the fact that class grades, especially in middle and high school, usually depend on a student's completion of homework assignments, and studies have shown that girls report spending more time on homework than boys. The gender gap in mathematics is particularly large among the highest-achieving students; for example, there is a 2.1 to 1 male-female ratio among students who score an 800 on the math portion of the SAT.

At least one study has challenged the existence of the gender gap in mathematics. In 2008 Janet Hyde and others published a study showing that male and female students did equally well on No Child Left Behind standardized tests that were administered in second through eleventh grades in ten states. However, Hyde and her team did find gaps that favored males at the upper end of the achievement distribution and tried to examine gaps on more difficult test questions (previous research has shown that males outperform females on more challenging items), but the tests they examined lacked adequately challenging items. This raised questions about whether there is still a gender gap in math achievement.

There is also a large discrepancy between the number of men and women working in STEM fields. Women have been, and continue to be, underrepresented in these fields. This underrepresentation is evident in the distribution of college majors among men and women; from 1997 to 2007, women earned only 18% of engineering bachelor's degrees.

Degree attainment
(Issued August 2003) Educational attainment by race and gender: 2000 Census 2000 Brief Percent of Adults 25 and over in group Men. . . . . . . . . . . . .              80.1 52.5 26.1 10.0 Women. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .   80.7 51.1 22.8  7.8 HS = high school completed SC = some college BA = bachelor's degree AD = advanced degree

According to 2007 data, 55 percent of college students were females and 45 percent were males. From 1995 until 2005, the number of males enrolled in college increased by 18 percent, while the number of female students rose by 27 percent. Males are enrolling in college in greater numbers than ever before, yet fewer than two-thirds of them are graduating with a bachelor's degree. The numbers of both men and women receiving a bachelor's degree have increased significantly, but the increasing rate of female college graduates exceeds the increasing rate for males.

In 2014, the percentage of women with bachelor's degrees was higher than the percentage of men with bachelor's degrees for the first time in America. Women also earn more master's degrees and doctorates than men.

Lifetime earnings
Although more women are graduating with undergraduate degrees, men are still earning disproportionately more in their lifetimes. This could be due to many factors, including different types of jobs for males and females. Females are greatly underrepresented in science and engineering fields, which are typically correlated with high lifetime earnings. Males and females also have vastly different labor market histories based on type of job and time spent in each job.

Teacher interactions
How a student interacts with and is evaluated by his or her teachers is closely correlated with that student's future academic achievement. According to researcher Thomas Good, there are two competing views of how teachers can indirectly impact the achievement of their students. The first is that teachers are more likely to give special attention and extra assistance to students who appear to be struggling in their class. In reading and writing classes, male students are often behind female students in terms of achievement. Therefore, male students are more likely to get more teacher attention, and this extra interaction could give males an advantage in terms of future achievement. The second view is that teachers demand more of and show more respect toward students who they view to be high achievers, which creates a cycle in which only students who are perceived to be intelligent receive extra help and teacher attention.

Teacher evaluations
How teachers perceive students' knowledge and abilities varies by gender and influences classroom processes and student achievement in both reading and math. Teachers usually have higher expectations for students they view as higher achievers and treat these students with more respect. A study by Tach and Farkas has also found that when students are split into reading groups based on their abilities, the students in the higher-ability reading groups are more likely to demonstrate positive learning behaviors and higher achievement.

Teachers are more likely to favor girls when evaluating what types of readers students seem to be. Because studies have shown that teacher perceptions of students can determine how much individualized attention a student receives and can serve as an indicator of future academic progress, if teachers underestimate males' reading abilities and use ability grouping in their classrooms, male students might be put at a disadvantage and have their learning in reading classes be negatively affected. The opposite trend has been found in math classes. Teachers still tend to view math as a "masculine" subject and tend to have higher expectations for and better attitude towards their male students in these classes.

A study by Fennema et al. has also shown that teachers tend to name males when asked to list their "best math students". Females are more likely than males to be negatively impacted by this underestimation of their math abilities. These gender-specific evaluations from teachers are implicit; usually the teachers have no idea that they are favoring one gender over the other until they are shown concrete evidence, such as a video recording of their classroom. However, even though the discrimination is implicit, it still has negative effects on both male and female students.

There is conflicting evidence about whether teacher assessments of student performance and ability are consistent with cognitive assessments like standardized tests. Teacher assessment evidence comes from a relatively small number of classrooms when compared to standardized tests, which are administered in every public school in all fifty states.

Stereotyping
There is speculation that gender stereotyping within classrooms can also lead to differences in academic achievement and representation for female and male students. Math and science are often perceived as "masculine" subjects because they lead to success in "masculine" fields, such as medicine and engineering. English and history, on the other hand, are often perceived as "feminine" subjects because they are more closely aligned with "feminine" jobs, such as teaching or care work. These stereotypes can influence student achievement in these areas.

Research on stereotype threat has shown that gender stereotypes decrease the mathematical self-esteem of many female students, and that this lack of academic confidence leads to anxiety and poorer performance on math exams.

Parent socialization
How a child's parents view his or her skills can also contribute to the gender achievement gap in education. A study by Jacobs and Eccles has shown that adults rate female children as having better social skills than male children, and that girls are more likely to be seen as "good children" than boys. These gender-based stereotypes can perpetuate the gender achievement gap in education by influencing parents' perceptions of their children's skills, and these perceptions can influence the types of activities and subjects parents steer their children toward.

Socio-economic factors
The gender achievement gap, measured by standardized test scores, suspensions, and absences, in favor of female students, is larger at worse schools and among lower-income households. So poverty and school quality are partially responsible for the gap.

Self-regulation and conscientiousness
Girls tend to have better self-regulation skills than boys. Self-regulation skills correlate with time spent on homework and time spent taking notes in class. This contributes to girls getting better grades than boys in all subjects. See Sex differences in psychology.

Biology
The idea that one gender is on average inherently, genetically intellectually inferior is controversial and critics of the idea attribute it to historical or contemporary sexism.

Most researchers have argued for no significant sex differences in g factor or general intelligence,  while others have argued for greater intelligence for males,  and others for females. These results depend on the methodology, tests researchers used for their claims, and the personal performances of the participants.

Assuming there are real gender differences in general intelligence, it is difficult to answer the nature versus nurture question—whether any such differences are inherently genetic, or are caused by environmental factors. Differences in gender roles in a particular culture, as well as sexism, can influence a person's interests, opportunities, and activities in a way that might increase or decrease intellectual abilities for any particular task. For ethical and practical reasons, it is not generally feasible to perform an experiment that raises children without a gender identity or which randomly assigns a gender identity, to distinguish the effects of socialization from genetics.

Researchers concerned with the achievement gap between genders cite biological differences, such as brain structure and development, as a possible reason why one gender outperforms the other in certain subjects. For example, a Virginia Tech Study conducted in 2000 examined the brains of 508 children and found that different areas of the brain develop in a different sequence in girls compared to boys.

The differing maturation speed of the brain between boys and girls affects how each gender processes information and could have implications for how they perform in school.

Implications
It is important to address the gender achievement gap in education because failure to cultivate the academic talents of any one group will have aggregate negative consequences. If women are underrepresented in STEM fields, and if men are underrepresented in the social sciences and humanities, both genders are missing opportunities to develop diverse skill sets that can help them in the workplace.

If the gender achievement gap in education continues to exist, so does the stereotype that medicine, science, and engineering are all "masculine" fields and that women belong in fields like teaching, counseling, or social work. This stereotype can lead to the image that women who pursue careers in the STEM fields are seen as "nerdy" or "geeky", and this can have a detrimental effect on the self-esteem of females who do choose to enter these fields.

Researchers have found that the gender achievement gap has a large impact on the future career choices of high-achieving students. Part of this is a result of the college majors that men and women choose; men are more likely to major in engineering or the hard sciences, while women are more likely to receive degrees in English, psychology, or sociology. Therefore, men are statistically more likely to enter careers that have more potential for higher long-term earnings than women.

The careers that are aligned with these majors have different levels of prestige and different salaries, which can lead to a gender wage gap. U.S. Census data indicates that women who work full-time earn only 77% of what their male counterparts earn. For men and women who are ten years out of college, women earn only 69% of the salaries of their male workers.

Attempts to reduce the gender gap
There have been several studies done of interventions aimed at reducing the gender achievement gap in science classes. Some interventions, such as instituting mentoring programs aimed at women or restructuring the course curriculum, have had limited success. The most successful interventions have been a form of psychological interventions called values affirmation. In a famous study of women's achievement in college science by Miyake et al., values affirmation was successful in reducing the differences between male and female academic achievement in college-level introductory physics classes, and it has been particularly effective at combating the psychological phenomenon known as stereotype threat.

Values affirmation exercises require students to either write about their most important values or their least important values two times at the beginning of the 15-week course. After this intervention, the modal grades of women enrolled in the course increased from a C to a B. Psychological interventions such as this one show promise for increasing women's achievement in math and science courses and reducing the achievement gap that exists between the genders in these subject areas, but further research will need to be done in order to determine whether the positive effects are long-lasting.

LGBT achievement gap
The LGBT achievement gap refers to the difference in academic performance and achievement between LGBT youth and their heterosexual peers. Historically, the circumstance of LGBT youth in education has received little attention from scholars and the media. The term LGBT refers to lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender persons but often is understood to encompass the sexual minority. Before the turn of the century, little research went into the topic of the LGBT population in schools. However, with the Gay, Lesbian and Straight Education Network's (GLSEN) recurring study on school climate in the U.S. for LGBT students, there is now more information indicating the existence of an achievement gap. LGBT students in the U.S. tend to have lower GPAs than their heterosexual peers, as well as higher truancy and dropout rates. There are many supposed causes of this achievement gap, as well as efforts to alleviate the disparity.

In United States secondary schools, LGBT youth often have more difficult experiences compared to their heterosexual peers, leading to observed underachievement, though current data is limited. In Massachusetts, LGBT youth are 12% less likely to make A and B grades than their heterosexual peers. The GLSEN reports that 92.3% of LGBT youth report experienced harassment in 2011, compared to about 25% of the general youth population (as reported by the United States Department of Justice). Among LGBT youth, those who endure more severe harassment report significantly lower GPAs than LGBT youth who endure less harassment (2.9 to 3.2, respectively). Less-harassed LGBT youth are also twice as likely to plan for higher education than their highly victimized peers, indicating a general lack of interest in school among LGBT youth.

Dropping out and absenteeism are also concerns with LGBT youth. According to the National Education Association's report on LGBT students, gay and bisexual students are almost twice as likely to consider dropping out as heterosexual students, and transgendered students are even more likely. High instances of dropping out prevent LGBT students from pursuing higher education. Because most studies focus on students enrolled in school and it is hard to find a sample of student youth out of school, an accurate count of LGBT youth who have dropped out of school is hard to obtain. While many LGBT students do not drop out, they often miss school because they feel unsafe. Nationwide, about 50% of students enduring severe verbal harassment, and 70% of students enduring severe physical harassment miss school once a month out of concern for their safety. Studies in Massachusetts schools indicate that LGBT students are up to six times more likely than heterosexual students to miss school. Likewise, students in California who endure harassment "because of actual or perceived sexual orientation" are three times as likely as non-harassed heterosexual students to miss school, meaning even heterosexual students harassed for suspected sexual orientation endure some of these problems.

Despite such evidence of negative experiences, some LGBT find positive benefits in coming out. Students who are out, while receiving increased harassment from homophobic peers, have lower instances of depression and a greater sense of belonging, a phenomenon well documented in other LGBT studies as well.

Though popular belief attributes homosexuality to higher education levels, more current studies suggest otherwise, at least among women. An extensive nationwide survey conducted by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention indicates that, among women, LGBT identity is inversely related to education level, meaning that for every progressive education level, the percentage of women identifying as LGBT steadily decreases. For instance, while 6.7% of women with no high school diploma identify as lesbian, bisexual, or something else, only 2.9% of women with a bachelor's degree or higher identify that way. The same study showed no statistically significant correlation between LGBT identity and education for men. Studies on LGBT students in college show that LGBT students, while not enduring the same harassment and struggles as LGBT youth in high schools, still have different experiences than their heterosexual peers, sometimes for the better: gay men in college have significantly higher GPAs and are more involved in extra-curricular activities than their heterosexual peers. A study has in fact found a positive correlation between educational attainment and homosexuality and non-exclusive heterosexuality among men. In the study, gay men were significantly less likely to fail to graduate from high school compared to completely heterosexual men (3.94% vs. 9.91%) and were more likely to complete college (43.86% vs. 26.46%). Additionally, about 52% of gay men age 25 and older hold a bachelor's degree, which is higher than the national average. Joel Mittleman, a sociologist from the University of Notre Dame finds that gay men tend to value studying over activities like video games or sports that heterosexual men typically enjoy. Mittleman states that gay men consistently perform better than straight men regardless of race, but the same cannot be said for lesbian women--black gay women perform much worse than their white counterparts. Lesbian and bisexual women, however, report being much less satisfied with their education than heterosexual women in college.

Causes
There are many possible explanations for the LGBT achievement gap. With extensive studies into the personal experiences of LGBT youth by the GLSEN, the Gay and Lesbian Task Force, and other organizations, some issues relevant to LGBT youth stand out as affecting academic outcomes.

The most highly documented and widely studied cause of underachievement by LGBT students is the problem of bullying in schools. Out of students of any sexual identity who feel unsafe at school, 60% feel so because of their sexual orientation. More specifically, a bully's perception of a student's sexual orientation or gender-nonconformity—not necessarily the individual's actual sexual identity—leads to bullying. Because of this, a gender-nonconforming yet heterosexual student could experience some of the same academic outcomes attributed to the LGBT students. 33% of LGBT students nationwide have skipped school at least once in a single month for personal safety, and these students who have missed school are three times more likely to attempt suicide than those who have not missed school.

In addition to their schooling experience, LGBT youth often have negative home environments. LGBT youth have a very unique situation in that the may not find any support from their family. Upon coming out to their parents, 50% of LGBT teens met a negative reaction. Two studies indicate that approximately 30% of LGBT youth encountered physical violence and 26% were kicked out of the house. This risk is higher for transgender teens. Because of these negative home environments, the National Gay and Lesbian Task Force, based on studies in Seattle, estimates that 40% of all homeless youth in the United States are LGBT, compared to roughly 3.5% of the general population. In addition to these homeless youths' higher risk for sexual violence, drug abuse, and prostitution, all of which would affect performance (or general attendance) in school, these youth may not be able to enroll in school at all. Some public schools are either reluctant to or ignorant about enrolling homeless students, significantly thwarting a teen's pursuit of educational opportunities.

Proposed solutions
Government-based as well as independent organizations focusing on education or LGBT issues have proposed solutions to improving the experiences of LGBT youth in schools. One such solution is the inclusion of LGBT-related subjects in a school's curriculum, shown to improve LGBT youths' performance in school. When surveyed, school personnel in California, Massachusetts, and Minnesota ranked lesson plans as the top need in addressing LGBT concerns. The Sexuality Information and Education Council of the United States proposes including LGBT curriculum in school health and sex education classes. Their proposed curriculum would aim to teach students, over the course of their K–12 education, to understand sexual orientation as well as gender roles, and treat others with respect, among other key concepts. However, many states in the U.S. including Alabama, Texas, Arizona, and others, have laws explicitly prohibiting the inclusion of homosexuality in education. Alabama and Texas laws even require teachers to refrain from presenting homosexuality as an acceptable lifestyle. Significant opposition to changing these statutes exist in these states, preventing the inclusion of LGBT curriculum.

The NEA recommends the inclusion of specific school policies protecting LGBT from harassment and bullying. LGBT students in Massachusetts who attend schools with safety policies explicitly regarding LGBT students are 3.5 times more likely to make A and B grades than LGBT youth in other schools. Additionally, student organizations such as gay-straight alliances (GSAs) can improve the experience of LGBT youth in schools. Even when LGBT students do not participate in their school's GSA, the very presence of the organization can reduce threat and injury of LGBT students by one-third, and reduce LGBT suicide attempts by almost 50%. LGBT students in Massachusetts schools with GSAs were twice as likely to earn A and B grades than LGBT students in schools without GSAs.

Immigrant and native-born gap
Educational attainment rates change when it comes to comparing the same races against immigrants or foreign born students. No matter which race is examined, immigrants of that race outperform natives of the same race. For example, Black African and Caribbean immigrant groups to the U.S. report having higher levels of education than any other group. Of all foreign-born U.S. residents, foreign born Africans (those who come from the African continent) nowadays have a higher level of educational attainment than any other racial or ethnic group in the United States. They tend to be highly educated and be fluent in English. This trend was first reported in the 1990s by the Journal of Blacks in Higher Education, and still continues today.

According to data from the 2000 United States Census, "43.8 percent of African immigrants had achieved a college degree, compared with 42.5 of Asian Americans, 28.9 percent of immigrants from Europe, Russia and Canada and 23.1 percent of the U.S. population as a whole." The educational attainment amount varies by group. According to the U.S. Census, out of the African populations, Nigerians reported to having the highest level of education.

Religion
The amount of education completed varies greatly between members of religions in the United States. Hindus and Jews, for example, are more likely than general population to have completed a college education, whereas members of Evangelical churches, historically Black Protestant churches and Jehovah's Witness are less likely (21%, 15% and 12% respectively).

US religions ranked by percentage reporting a college degree:

title: Achievement gaps in the United States


text:
User:Erri4a

Spot the 206 differences:

Spot some differences more:

es:usuario:Erri4a

title: User:Erri4a


text:
1904 Canadian federal election

The 1904 Canadian federal election was held on November 3, 1904 to elect members of the House of Commons of Canada of the 10th Parliament of Canada. Prime Minister Sir Wilfrid Laurier led the Liberal Party of Canada to a third term in government, with an increased majority, and over half of the popular vote.

Sir Robert Borden's Conservatives and Liberal-Conservatives were unable to challenge the Liberals effectively, and lost a small portion of their popular vote, along with four seats, including his own. Borden re-entered parliament the next year in a by-election.

This was the last election until 1949 in which parts of the Northwest Territories were granted representation. Most of the settled regions of the NWT entered Confederation as the provinces of Alberta and Saskatchewan on 1 September 1905, although its MP's continued to sit as representatives of the old ridings until the 10th Parliament's dissolution.

One of the key issues in the election was Imperial Preference.

National results

Note:

* Party did not nominate candidates in the previous election.

Results by province
xx - indicates less than 0.05% of the popular vote.

title: 1904 Canadian federal election


text: Template:PD-USGov-Military-Award

title: Template:PD-USGov-Military-Award