text:
Court Martial (Star Trek: The Original Series)

"Court Martial" is the twentieth episode of the first season of the American science fiction television series Star Trek. It was written by Don M. Mankiewicz and Steven W. Carabatsos, directed by Marc Daniels, and first aired on February 2, 1967.

In the episode, Captain Kirk stands trial on charges of criminal negligence after jettisoning an occupied research pod during an emergency.

Plot
The USS Enterprise is at Starbase 11 for repairs after an ion storm. During the storm, Captain James T. Kirk was forced to eject a research pod containing Lieutenant Commander Benjamin Finney to prevent the destruction of the ship. A search party was unable to find Finney. Commodore Stone, commander of the base, reviews the ship's records and discovers that Kirk ejected the pod while the ship was at Yellow Alert and not Red Alert as Kirk claimed. Stone accuses Kirk of perjury and warns him that he may be subject to court martial.

Stone first interviews Kirk privately, asking about his history with Finney. Kirk had served with Finney aboard the USS Republic and reported a mistake Finney had made, causing Finney to be reprimanded and sent to the bottom of the promotion list. Ever since, Finney has blamed Kirk for hindering his advancement. Stone asks Kirk to voluntarily step down as captain of the Enterprise, but Kirk disputes the allegations and demands a trial.

At the trial, both Spock and Dr. McCoy defend Kirk's character, but testify to the facts that Kirk had reason to resent Finney and it is impossible for the ship's computer log to be wrong. Finney's daughter Jame looks on. Samuel T. Cogley, Kirk's attorney, puts him on the stand, but again, Kirk's testimony contradicts the computer logs, which include a visual recording that shows Kirk ejecting the pod while the ship was on Yellow Alert. During a recess, Kirk tells Spock that he might be able to beat his next captain at chess, giving Spock an idea.

Mr. Spock discovers that he is able to beat the Enterprise computer several times at three dimensional chess, despite having given the computer all his knowledge of the game. He concludes that the computer has been tampered with as his best outcome should have been a draw. Spock arrives with his findings before the court-martial verdict can be handed down, and Cogley makes an impassioned speech on the rights of man versus the machine, demanding that the court reconvene aboard the Enterprise. Once there, Spock notes only three people could have altered the computer records aboard the Enterprise: Kirk, himself, and Finney. Cogley suggests that Finney is not dead.

After most of the crew is beamed down to Starbase 11, Dr. McCoy uses a sensitive auditory device tied into the computer that can detect a human heartbeat aboard the ship, and masks out those of all known to remain aboard. One heartbeat remains, coming from Engineering. Kirk goes there to find Finney, who draws a phaser and informs him that he has sabotaged the ship so she will drop out of orbit, killing everyone aboard. Kirk reveals that Finney's daughter Jame is also aboard, confusing him and giving Kirk time to wrestle the weapon away. After Finney is secured, Kirk repairs the damage.

Captain Kirk is cleared of all charges and restored to duty.

Production
The script was originally entitled "Court Martial on Star Base 11." Star Trek commentator Keith DeCandido, writing for Tor.com, observed, "This episode was originally commissioned by producer Gene L. Coon as a cheap single-set episode, and Don M. Mankiewicz gave him a court martial story, intending it to take place entirely in the courtroom. However, the final version of the script required several new sets to be built, not to mention a matte painting of Starbase 11." For the final version four new sets were built: Kirk's quarters on the starbase, Commodore Stone's office, the starbase bar, and the courtroom itself.

Actor Richard Webb plays the character of Lt. Cdr. Ben Finney, the officer Kirk is charged with killing. Despite the character being referred to throughout the episode as ‘Lt. Commander’, the insignia on the uniform he wears is of a full ‘Commander’.

Elisha Cook Jr. had difficulty memorizing his long dramatic appeals to the court. Many of his speeches in the script are not present in the aired version, and some of those that were filmed frequently cut away from him to court and spectator reactions.

This is the first episode to refer to the organization the main characters are part of as Starfleet and the top of the hierarchy being Starfleet Command. It is also the first appearance of a starbase in the series. Previously, the name of the Enterprise 's service had varied, such as in "The Conscience of the King", where it was referred to as "the Star Service."

Reception
Zack Handlen of The A.V. Club gave the episode a "B−" rating, stating that the potential of holding Kirk to high standards in the story is lessened as his "fallibility is never really the issue".

DeCandido found many of the episode's actions to be procedurally incorrect.

Reviewer Darren Mooney had mixed feelings about "Court Martial" as the first episode in the Star Trek universe to serve up a courtroom story: "While its influence is absolutely massive, Court Martial is still a problematic episode." Among its flaws, Mooney wrote, is the "mess" of a script which had to be rewritten.

Michelle Erica Green wrote that the episode "won't win any Emmys for legal drama, but it holds up quite well."

Io9's 2014 listing of the top 100 Star Trek episodes placed "Court Martial" as the 89th best episode of all series up to that time, out of over 700 episodes.

In 2019, Nerdist included this episode on their "Best of Kirk" binge-watching guide.


text:
Monteiro Lobato, São Paulo

Monteiro Lobato is a municipality in the state of São Paulo in Brazil. It is part of the Metropolitan Region of Vale do Paraíba e Litoral Norte. The population is 4,696 (2020 est.) in an area of 332.74 km2.

History
The municipality was created by state law in 1948. The municipality was named in honor of Brazilian writer José Bento Monteiro Lobato, who was born in the nearby city of Taubaté, and had a farm in the area of the municipality.

Geography
The municipality contains part of the 292000 ha Mananciais do Rio Paraíba do Sul Environmental Protection Area, created in 1982 to protect the sources of the Paraíba do Sul river.

Media
In telecommunications, the city was served by Companhia de Telecomunicações do Estado de São Paulo until 1975, when it began to be served by Telecomunicações de São Paulo. In July 1998, this company was acquired by Telefónica, which adopted the Vivo brand in 2012.

The company is currently an operator of cell phones, fixed lines, internet (fiber optics/4G) and television (satellite and cable).

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Monteiro Lobato, São Paulo


text:
.460 Weatherby Magnum

The .460 Weatherby Magnum is a belted, bottlenecked rifle cartridge, developed by Roy Weatherby in 1957. The cartridge is based on the .378 Weatherby Magnum necked up to accept the .458 in bullet. The original .378 Weatherby Magnum parent case was inspired by the .416 Rigby. The .460 Weatherby Magnum was designed as an African dangerous game rifle cartridge for the hunting of heavy, thick skinned dangerous game.

Prior to the Weatherby's arrival, the .600 Nitro Express had been the most powerful cartridge but the .460 Weatherby Magnum eclipsed this, and was the world's most powerful commercially available sporting cartridge for 29 years until the advent of the .700 Nitro Express.

The .460 launches a 500 gr bullet at a chronographed velocity of 2700 ft/s from a 26 in barrel, measuring 8100 ftlbf of muzzle energy.

Cartridge history
Roy Weatherby had expected the .378 Weatherby Magnum to make some headway in the African continent but believed that his cartridge was being bypassed for low-velocity, big-bore cartridges by professional hunters who he felt were resistant to change. Furthermore, new regulations prohibiting the hunting of heavy, thick skinned, dangerous game with sub-.40 caliber (10.16 mm) cartridges were being enacted in some African countries. These regulations would essentially ban the use of all previous Weatherby cartridges for the hunting of elephant, African Cape buffalo and rhinoceros.

In response to these factors, Weatherby believed that it was necessary to provide hunters a Weatherby cartridge that could be used to hunt African dangerous game in the countries which had legislated against hunting with sub-.40 caliber rifles. He accomplished this by necking up the .378 Weatherby Magnum case to accept a .458 caliber bullet. He named the new cartridge the ".460 Weatherby Magnum". The first rifles for the .460 Weatherby Magnum were built on Brevex Magnum Mauser action.

However, Weatherby was not the first cartridge designer to neck up the .378 Weatherby Magnum to .45 caliber (11.6 mm). That distinction belongs to John Buhmiller, a gunsmith and hunter from Montana. Buhmiller named his cartridge the ".45 Weatherby". He had success with the cartridge in Africa shooting Cape buffalo  and rogue elephants in 1956, a year before Weatherby began work on his own .45-caliber cartridge.

Norma Precision of Sweden was the first and only manufacturer of .460 Weatherby Magnum cases and ammunition which carried the Weatherby name and has done so under contract from Weatherby. During Weatherby's partnership with J.P. Sauer/Dynamit-Nobel, production at Norma ceased and shifted to RWS, a wholly owned subsidiary of Dynamit-Nobel. However, RWS did not tool up in time to produce the .460 Weatherby Magnum cartridge and in the end only produced substandard .300 Weatherby ammunition before production once again moved to Norma.

DuPont at one time shipped DuPont No. 4350 powder to Norma Projektilfabrik for the reloading of Weatherby ammunition. But some time later Norma was able to source a powder with similar burn characteristics locally which was used instead of DuPont's IMR 4350. Norma would later purchase the company and rename the powder Norma 204.

Design and specifications
The .460 Weatherby Magnum is no longer considered a proprietary cartridge as the Sporting Arms and Ammunition Manufacturers' Institute (SAAMI) established voluntary specifications for the cartridge in January 1994. The Commission Internationale Permanente pour l'Epreuve des Armes à Feu Portatives (CIP) has also provided specifications for the cartridge to which all member states must comply when exporting, importing or manufacturing ammunition.

Cartridge design
The .460 Weatherby Magnum case uses a necked up .378 Weatherby Magnum case. Although the .378 Weatherby Magnum case was inspired by the .416 Rigby case, it is considered a unique case which has gone on to serve as the parent cartridge of several high performance cartridges. The .460 Weatherby Magnum requires a case with the large propellant capacity necessary to propel a 500 gr bullet at 2700 ft/s. To accomplish this design goal, the cartridge case has a capacity able to hold 141.1 gr. of water (9.17 cm3). Frequently the powder charges for the .460 Weatherby Magnum can weigh well in excess of 120 gr; in comparison a powder charge for the .458 Winchester Magnum rarely weighs over 80 gr.

The .460 Weatherby Magnum is designed to headspace on its belt. The close chamber tolerance of Weatherby rifles indicate that these rifles do indeed headspace on the belt rather than the shoulder, unlike most modern belted cartridges which headspace on the shoulder regardless of the belt; the few exceptions being the .375 H&H Magnum and the .300 H&H Magnum. SAAMI recommended chamber dimensional tolerance range does allow for the headspacing to take place on the shoulder if need be.

Cartridge dimensions and specifications

 * [[Image:SAAMI-460WbyMag04.png|700px|alt=460 Weatherby Magnum Cartridge Schematic|.460 Weatherby Magnum SAAMI cartridge dimensions - all dimensions in inches (mm)]]
 * SAAMI compliant .460 Weatherby Magnum cartridge schematic: All dimensions in inches [millimeters].

Diagram reflects SAAMI dimensions for the .460 Weatherby Magnum. CIP dimensions for the r1 (inside shoulder radius), r2 (outside shoulder radius), L1 (height from base to shoulder), L2 (height from base to neck), S (shoulder angle intercepts the center line) and the α dimensional value (shoulder angle) conflict with SAAMI dimensions. This is due to how the L1 and L2 values are defined in relation to the centers of the r1 and r2 dimensional values by CIP. The following table provides the conflicting values provided by SAAMI and CIP.

 * {| class="wikitable" border="1"

 * + Cartridge dimension and specification value conflicts between SAAMI and CIP
 * style="background: #eeeeee" width="200pt" | Dimension / specification
 * style="background: #eeeeee" width="180pt" | CIP dimension index
 * style="background: #eeeeee" width="180pt" | SAAMI value
 * style="background: #eeeeee" width="180pt" | CIP value
 * style="background: #eeeeee" | Body to shoulder radius || r1 || .130 in || 3.30 mm
 * style="background: #eeeeee" | Neck to shoulder radius || r2 || .1848 in || 4.72 mm
 * style="background: #eeeeee" | Base to shoulder length || L1 || 2.345 in || 60.39 mm
 * style="background: #eeeeee" | Base to neck length || L2 || 2.494 in || 62.17 mm
 * style="background: #eeeeee" | Angle between shoulder || α || Does not provide || 56°15'56"
 * style="background: #eeeeee" | Length to shoulder vertex || S || Does not provide || 73.71 mm
 * style="background: #eeeeee" | Pressure || Pmax || 65000 psi || 4400 bar
 * }
 * style="background: #eeeeee" | Base to neck length || L2 || 2.494 in || 62.17 mm
 * style="background: #eeeeee" | Angle between shoulder || α || Does not provide || 56°15'56"
 * style="background: #eeeeee" | Length to shoulder vertex || S || Does not provide || 73.71 mm
 * style="background: #eeeeee" | Pressure || Pmax || 65000 psi || 4400 bar
 * }
 * style="background: #eeeeee" | Pressure || Pmax || 65000 psi || 4400 bar
 * }
 * }

Like all Weatherby cartridges, the .460 Weatherby Magnum cartridge has a double radius shoulder where the body and the neck are connected with a continuously curving shoulder; the curve of which reverses at the point of tangency. SAAMI defines the length to the shoulder as the demarcation point where the bottom of inside curvature radius (corresponding roughly to CIP's r1) of the shoulder begins and the length to the neck as where the outside curvature radius (approximating CIP's r2) meets the neck. However, CIP does not define the location of the centers of the r1 and r2 whereas SAAMI provides this as being in inline with the length to the shoulder (inside radius) and length to neck (outside radius). This is due to the CIP treatment of r1 and r2 values as fillet radii as they do with many other cartridges.

Chamber dimensions and specifications

 * [[Image:SAAMI-460WbyMagChamber03.svg|800px|alt=460 Weatherby Magnum Chamber Schematic|.460 Weatherby Magnum SAAMI chamber dimensions - all dimensions in inches (mm)]]
 * SAAMI compliant .460 Weatherby Magnum chamber schematic: All dimensions in inches [millimeters].

SAAMI recommends a maximum chamber pressure rating of 65000 psi while CIP provides a maximum chamber pressure rating of 4400 bar.

Weatherby no longer provides a long leade (freebore) for the cartridge. Currently Weatherby provides .756 in of freebore for the .460 Weatherby in the Weatherby Mark V rifle. CIP recommends that rifling commence at .975 in from the case mouth reflecting the longer leade provided by Weatherby in the early 1960s. SAAMI recommends the present leade provided by Weatherby of .756 in.

Twist rate is given as 1 in 16 by Weatherby which would stabilize bullets up to 600 gr and mono-metal bullets. Weatherby provides a six-groove contour No. 4 barrel for the .460 Weatherby Magnum. Ø land is given at .450 in and Ø groove is .458 in. The recommended land arc width by both SAAMI and CIP is .175 in.

Performance
The .460 Weatherby Magnum cartridge is very accurate despite its size. Weatherby guarantees a 1.5 MOA (44mm/100m) accuracy for this cartridge in a Weatherby rifle. Typically a full-metal-jacketed or monolithic solid type bullet will penetrate more than 40 in when impacting a dangerous game animal such as the Cape buffalo or African elephant. The .460 Weatherby Magnum has few peers for stopping dangerous African game.

Compared to its contemporaries, the 460 Weatherby Magnum has more energy at 150 yards than the .458 Winchester Magnum does at the muzzle and at 100 yards more energy than the .458 Lott with factory ammunition. The .460 Weatherby Magnum provides a significant step up in performance over other production .458 caliber (11.6 mm) cartridges. The increased performance is realized in terms of both remaining energy and extended range.

The .460 Weatherby Magnum, like the .375 H&H Magnum, is a relatively flat shooting cartridge. The maximum point blank range (MPBR) for the 450 gr Weatherby load is 258 yd. The 500 gr Weatherby factory ammunition has a maximum point blank range of 245 yd. These trajectories compare well with those of the .375 H&H Magnum. At 200 yd Hornady's Interlock .375 H&H Magnum's 270 gr bullet drops 11.3 in while Hornady's DGX 300 gr bullet drops 13.8 in. In contrast the .460 Weatherby Magnum's 450 gr (B460450TSX) drops 12.3 in and the 500 gr (H460500FJ) drops 12.7 in. The .460 Weatherby Magnum, however, averages over 75% greater energy than the .375 H&H Magnum.

Compared to the more popular .458 Winchester Magnum and the .458 Lott, the .460 Weatherby Magnum provides a flatter trajectory, dropping less than 10 in at 300 yd when sighted in at 200 yd with the 450 gr. Barnes TSX Weatherby ammunition. With the 500 gr FMJ or RN Weatherby ammunition bullet drop is 11 in at the same range. The .458 Winchester Magnum and the .458 Lott have a 206 yd and 220 yd MPBR respectively in comparison. The 500 gr FMJ or RN Weatherby ammunition shoot to the same point of impact, which is necessary in a dangerous game cartridge as hunters may need to switch from solids to soft round nose rounds depending on the circumstances and game being hunted. This is due to Weatherby's (Norma) factory loaded ammunition using Hornady's DGS and DGX bullets which have identical G1 ballistic coefficients of .295.

The ability of the .460 Weatherby to carry the energy and velocity required to take heavy, tough skinned dangerous game combined with the flatter trajectories it provides, gives the shooter the ability to take game species at longer ranges than its competition. The stand-off ability assures a greater margin of safety when hunting dangerous game species as the hunter need not get as close to the game as with other cartridges. Furthermore, this lessens the need to compensate for bullet drop and target size. However, for practical reasons, most dangerous game are shot at close ranges of less than 60 yd.

Bullets available for the .460 Weatherby Magnum range from 300 - 600 gr. Velocities with these bullets vary from 2500 ft/s with the 600 gr bullet to 3100 ft/s with the 300 gr bullet. The good sectional density and ballistic coefficients of these bullets, particularly spitzer bullets available, give the cartridge the ability to conserve velocity in flight and provide deep penetration on game. The wide range of bullet weights available and the ability tailor the performance the .460 Weatherby Magnum gives the cartridge a performance envelope unmatched by most cartridges. The combination of velocity and bullets of very good sectional density contributes to the .460 Weatherby Magnum's excellent penetration on game provided the toughest bullets are employed for the task.

As with other most other cartridges, the Weatherby's performance with mono-metal bullets is slightly poorer than with conventional bullets. Mono-metal bullets tend to be longer for a given bullet weight than conventional lead core bullets. For this reason, the mono-metal bullets similar to the Barnes TSX may have to be seated more deeply into the case displacing volume which could be filled with the propellant. A loss of velocity of 50 - 100 ft/s can be expected with these mono-metal bullets. Likewise bullets which have a higher specific gravity than lead, such as the tungsten core Speer African Grand Slam solids being shorter than conventional FMJ bullets will allow for more powder capacity and therefore a higher velocity.

The performance level of the Weatherby cartridge comes at a cost: recoil. The recoil of the .460 Weatherby Magnum is severe. The cartridge generates close to 100 ftlbf of energy. This is in keeping with Newton's Third Law of Motion: Every action has an equal and opposite reaction. As performance levels rise, so does the recoil. Put into perspective the recoil of the .460 Weatherby is 120% greater than the .375 H&H Magnum, 50% greater than the .458 Winchester Magnum and 20% greater than the .458 Lott.

The .460 Weatherby Magnum compares well with the classic English big bore cartridges; it exceeds all these cartridges in velocity, energy, trajectory and penetration. Cartridges such as the .500 Jeffery, .500 Nitro Express, .505 Gibbs, .577 Nitro Express, .600 Nitro Express do however provide a larger diameter bullet while the latter two cartridges are also capable of launching heavier bullets than the .460 Weatherby Magnum. At present only the modern classic .700 Nitro Express exceeds the performance of the .460 Weatherby and then in only a single category: energy. Cartridges such as the .475 A&M Magnum, .500 A-Square, and the .550 Magnum which are based on the .460 Weatherby Magnum can exceed the performance of the parent cartridge, however, these are considered wildcat and proprietary cartridges.

Sporting use
The .460 Weatherby Magnum is primarily a thick skinned dangerous game cartridge designed to provide the ultimate in stopping power against African elephant, African buffalo, hippopotamus and the rhinoceros. When loaded to its full potential has little use outside this primary use - although it can be used to hunt any species, there are far better cartridge choices for other game animals.

Thick-skinned big game
When loaded to its full potential it has more than the required energy necessary to drive 450 – bullets into the elephant's vital organs from any angle provided that the bullet is up to the task. Generally, elephants require solid bullets especially when head-shots are taken. Monolithic bullets such as the A-Square Monolithic Solid, Barnes Banded Solid, Supreme Nosler Solid and more conventional tougher FMJ bullets such as the Hornady DGS are good choices as they are able to withstand stresses placed on the bullets by the velocity of the .460 Weatherby Magnum. At the 250 yd mark, the .460 Weatherby has enough remaining energy and velocity to make quick kills on elephant. At this range its impact energy is comparable to that of the .458 Winchester Magnum at 65 yd However, as elephant hunting is usually a close range affair where 90% of the shooting situations fall within 60 yd the fact that the .460 Weatherby can fell an elephant at long ranges is mostly an academic argument at best.

Bullets in the 400 - 500 gr range are excellent for African cape buffalo and rhinoceros. A combination of solids and expanding bullets may be used against these big game. Expanding bullets should be of the controlled expansion variety. Rapidly expanding bullets are to be avoided. A-Square Dead Tough, Barnes TSX, Hornady DGX and similar toughly constructed expanding bullets are recommended. As with the solid bullets, expanding bullets for the cartridge should be rated to perform well at .460 Weatherby velocities.

The .460 Weatherby is one of the very few rifle cartridges approved by the International Whaling Commission for the harvesting of whales. The cartridge was deemed to have the penetration necessary to penetrate to the brain stem to provide a quick kill on whales. The Makah people of the Pacific Northwest have used this rifle cartridge for decades hunting whales.

Other big game
The .460 Weatherby is overly powerful for lion or leopard. Lion are thin skinned and weigh no more than 600 lb while leopards weigh no more than 250 lb. When the .460 Weatherby is used for hunting leopard or lion, a rapidly expanding bullet is normally used. Bullets ideal for lion or leopard begin with the 300 gr bullets. A-Square's Lion Load, a fragmenting 465 or soft point is one such load appropriate for the big cats. Apart from the A-Square Lion Load bullets ranging in weight from 300 - 400 gr are better used on lion and leopard. Since the .460 Weatherby can drive these bullets at over 3000 ft/s, and the large felidae are susceptible to hydrostatic shock, these lighter weight bullets in relation to the caliber may provide the best option if the .460 is chosen for the big cats. However, as no mainstream ammunition manufacturer loads these bullets, tailoring such loads for lion or leopard is strictly an option available only to the handloader or for those willing to have custom ammunition made to order.

The capability of the .460 Weatherby Magnum to hold flatter trajectories with appropriate bullets provides the cartridge the ability to take African plains game at distances beyond 250 yd with no holdover adds to the versatility of .460 Weatherby Magnum as an all round African game cartridge. However, while the .460 Weatherby has the capacity to take such game species, there can be little doubt of the fact that there are more suitable cartridge choices for these species with far less recoil.

North American big game also does not require the full power of the .460 Weatherby Magnum. Harvesting of bison, elk, moose and brown bear can however be accomplished by reducing the performance of the cartridge to match the requirements. The .460 Weatherby Magnum cartridge has the flexibility to be loaded to duplicate the performance of the .45-70 Government to the .450 Rigby - and have significantly lower recoil.

Rifles and ammunition
Due to the recoil energy and recoil velocity of the cartridge rifles designed for the .460 Weatherby Magnum and other cartridges in its class demand particular attention with regard to their design. Most modern rifles designed for cartridges of this class incorporate design features that reduce the felt recoil to the shooter and improve durability. Rifles chambered for the .460 Weatherby Magnum require close mating of metal to stock. This can be accomplished by properly bedding the action to the stock. Recoil lugs and crossbolts serve the purpose of preventing a movement differential between the action and the stock which could lead to further loosening between the action and the stock or splitting the stock. Proper bedding and properly installed recoil lugs and crossbolts can go a long way in preserving the integrity of the firearm chambered in cartridges such as the .460 Weatherby Magnum as functional implements.

The Weatherby Mark V is the most popular rifle chambered for the .460 Weatherby Magnum cartridge. The rifle stock is engineered to minimize the felt recoil of heavy recoiling cartridges. The California Style Monte Carlo stock's slanting comb will under recoil push away from the shooter's face. The rifle stock is also designed with a generous cast off to help tame the heavy recoil of the .460 Weatherby Magnum. The rifle uses an aluminum bedding block and recoil lugs to prevent any movement between the stock and the action. At a point of time the .460 Weatherby Magnum was offered for sale as an over the counter item in a few Mark V rifle lines, however, at present it is only available in the Mark V Deluxe. The Weatherby Custom Shop does offer the rifle in a few lines such as the Crown Custom, Dangerous Game Rifle (DGR) and the Safari Custom. All the over the counter and custom shop rifles are built on the Mark V action which is regarded by many as one of the strongest rifle actions available. The first .460 Weatherby's were built on Magnum Mauser actions but these were found wanting due to the higher pressures generated by Weatherby cartridges. The Mark V action is able to contain 200000 psi pressure.

A-Square currently offers rifles chambered .460 Weatherby Magnum in the Hannibal (right handed) and Caesar (left handed) lines. The rifles are based on the Enfield P14 design and like the Weatherby's are designed to minimize felt recoil. The rifles are ruggedly build to perform well with hard recoiling cartridges such as the .460 Weatherby Magnum, .500 A-Square, .577 Tyrannosaur. Dumoulin Herstal of Belgium manufactures rifles for the cartridge in their proprietary A2000/LM Long Magnum Mauser action White Hunter rifle line. The Dumoulin White Hunter is also available in .416 Rigby, .500 Jeffery and 505 Gibbs. Apart from these companies, several custom rifle maker such as Ballard Arms and Empire Rifles provide custom rifles in this chambering.

Weatherby ammunition is billed as Ultra Velocity Ammunition by Weatherby. Typically, Weatherby cartridges exhibit velocities greater than 200 - 300 ft/s over the more popular similar caliber cartridges. Early Weatherby ammunition was loaded to near maximum pressures. Since then, however, Weatherby has backed off from these pressures. The resulting factory ammunition is about 100 ft/s slower than early Weatherby Ammunition.

 * {| class="wikitable" border="1"

† Discontinued
 * + .460 Weatherby Magnum Ammunition
 * style="background: #eeeeee" width="180pt" | Ammunition
 * style="background: #eeeeee" width="210pt" | Bullet
 * style="background: #eeeeee" width="140pt" | Muzzle velocity
 * style="background: #eeeeee" width="140pt" | Muzzle energy
 * style="background: #eeeeee" width="200pt" | MPBR/zero
 * style="background: #eeeeee" width="180pt" | Notes
 * style="background: #eeeeee" valign="top"| Weatherby H460500FJ ||  valign="top"|Hornady 500 gr DGS ||  valign="top"|2600 ft/s ||  valign="top"|7505 ftlbf ||  valign="top"|245 yd/209 yd || Load used Hornady FMJ†, FMJ-IB† now DGS
 * style="background: #eeeeee" valign="top"| Weatherby H460500RN ||  valign="top"|Hornady 500 gr DGX ||  valign="top"|2600 ft/s ||  valign="top"|7505 ftlbf ||  valign="top"|245 yd/209 yd || Load used Hornady RN†, RN-IB† now DGX
 * style="background: #eeeeee" | Weatherby B460450TSX || Barnes 450 gr TSX || 2660 ft/s || 7072 ftlbf || 258 yd/219 yd || Currently in production
 * style="background: #eeeeee" | A-Square Triad || A-Square 500 gr MS, DT, LL || 2580 ft/s || 7390 ftlbf || 251 yd/213 yd || Currently in production
 * style="background: #eeeeee" | Conley Precision || Barnes 350 gr TSX || 2950 ft/s || 6762 ftlbf || 273 yd/233 yd || Currently in production
 * style="background: #eeeeee" | Conley Precision || Swift 400 gr A-Frame || 2780 ft/s || 6863 ftlbf || 256 yd/218 yd || Currently in production
 * style="background: #eeeeee" | Conley Precision || Barnes 450 gr BS || 2700 ft/s || 7283 ftlbf || 261 yd/222 yd || Currently in production
 * style="background: #eeeeee" | Conley Precision || Barnes 450 gr TSX || 2700 ft/s || 7283 ftlbf || 262 yd/222 yd || Currently in production
 * style="background: #eeeeee" | Conley Precision || Swift 450 gr A-Frame || 2700 ft/s || 7283 ftlbf || 257 yd/219 yd || Currently in production
 * style="background: #eeeeee" | Conley Precision || Barnes 500 gr BS || 2660 ft/s || 7854 ftlbf || 260 yd/221 yd || Currently in production
 * style="background: #eeeeee" | Conley Precision || Barnes 500 gr TSX || 2660 ft/s || 7854 ftlbf || 261 yd/222 yd || Currently in production
 * style="background: #eeeeee" | Conley Precision || Hornady 500 gr FMJ-RN || 2650 ft/s || 7795 ftlbf || 250 yd/213 yd || Currently in production
 * style="background: #eeeeee" | Conley Precision || Hornady 500 gr IL-RN || 2650 ft/s || 7795 ftlbf || 249 yd/212 yd || Currently in production
 * style="background: #eeeeee" | Conley Precision || Swift 500 gr A-Frame || 2650 ft/s || 7795 ftlbf || 256 yd/218 yd || Currently in production
 * colspan="6" align="center" | Temperature: 59 F Altitude: 500 ft
 * style="background: #eeeeee" | Conley Precision || Barnes 450 gr TSX || 2700 ft/s || 7283 ftlbf || 262 yd/222 yd || Currently in production
 * style="background: #eeeeee" | Conley Precision || Swift 450 gr A-Frame || 2700 ft/s || 7283 ftlbf || 257 yd/219 yd || Currently in production
 * style="background: #eeeeee" | Conley Precision || Barnes 500 gr BS || 2660 ft/s || 7854 ftlbf || 260 yd/221 yd || Currently in production
 * style="background: #eeeeee" | Conley Precision || Barnes 500 gr TSX || 2660 ft/s || 7854 ftlbf || 261 yd/222 yd || Currently in production
 * style="background: #eeeeee" | Conley Precision || Hornady 500 gr FMJ-RN || 2650 ft/s || 7795 ftlbf || 250 yd/213 yd || Currently in production
 * style="background: #eeeeee" | Conley Precision || Hornady 500 gr IL-RN || 2650 ft/s || 7795 ftlbf || 249 yd/212 yd || Currently in production
 * style="background: #eeeeee" | Conley Precision || Swift 500 gr A-Frame || 2650 ft/s || 7795 ftlbf || 256 yd/218 yd || Currently in production
 * colspan="6" align="center" | Temperature: 59 F Altitude: 500 ft
 * style="background: #eeeeee" | Conley Precision || Hornady 500 gr FMJ-RN || 2650 ft/s || 7795 ftlbf || 250 yd/213 yd || Currently in production
 * style="background: #eeeeee" | Conley Precision || Hornady 500 gr IL-RN || 2650 ft/s || 7795 ftlbf || 249 yd/212 yd || Currently in production
 * style="background: #eeeeee" | Conley Precision || Swift 500 gr A-Frame || 2650 ft/s || 7795 ftlbf || 256 yd/218 yd || Currently in production
 * colspan="6" align="center" | Temperature: 59 F Altitude: 500 ft
 * style="background: #eeeeee" | Conley Precision || Swift 500 gr A-Frame || 2650 ft/s || 7795 ftlbf || 256 yd/218 yd || Currently in production
 * colspan="6" align="center" | Temperature: 59 F Altitude: 500 ft
 * colspan="6" align="center" | Temperature: 59 F Altitude: 500 ft
 * colspan="6" align="center" | Temperature: 59 F Altitude: 500 ft
 * }

Currently ammunition is available from A-Square, Conley Precision Cartridge and Weatherby (Norma) among others. Factory ammunition is loaded with 350 to 600 gr bullets. Factory ammunition are relatively expensive costing between $6.00 and 8.50 per cartridge.

Accessories
Although most elephant guns are equipped with open sights the typical Weatherby Mark V rifle chambered for the .460 Weatherby Magnum does not come equipped with open sights. Instead they are drilled and tapped for scope mounts. The cartridge's performance even at 200 yd leaves enough energy necessary to bring down large dangerous thick skinned game. At these ranges, telescopic sights have a greater advantage than open sights. The stock itself is designed for with the intent of providing the shooter a higher line of sight which is consistent with the use of telescopic sights.

Weatherby rifles such as the Dangerous Game Rifle and other Weatherby factory custom offerings are provided with open sights. Open sights tend to sight in quicker than scoped rifles and for this reason open sighted rifles are preferred by hunters for back-up work —when the hunter or guide must mount and discharge their firearm to ensure a charging game animal does not injure a client or to deliver a killing blow to a wounded game animal. It also has the added benefit of preventing the hunter from getting their eyebrow cut by the scope, which is not uncommon with a firearm with as much recoil as the .460 Weatherby Magnum.

The recoil of the .460 Weatherby Magnum presents a problem for many shooters when shooting a cartridge of this size. Even with a 12 lb rifle (scope, base, rings and cartridges included) the recoil against the shooter's shoulder is measured at 100 ftlbf. Most rifles chambered in .30-06 Springfield develop an average of 20 ftlbf of free recoil. Recently Weatherby has offered some reduced loads in the 7500 ftlbf range, in order to be more forgiving to shooters. The recoil of the full-power loads is very punishing and if the gun has a scope, scope cuts on the forehead are common. A factory powder charge for this cartridge is about 115 gr.

For many years the Weatherby Mark V rifles chambered in .460 Weatherby were equipped with Pendleton muzzle brakes to help alleviate the effects of recoil. The Pendleton muzzle brake is an integral braking system installed by porting the rifle barrel and once cut into the barrel cannot be reversed. All current Weatherby Mark V rifles chambered for the .378 Weatherby Magnum and its derivatives are provided with the Accubrake as a standard accessory with the rifle package. The Accubrake reduces felt recoil by about 53%. Unlike the earlier Pendleton muzzle brake, the Accubrake is a removable, screw-on type brake. The use of muzzle brakes is frowned on by the hunting community in particularly in guided hunting situations involving dangerous game. Since the Accubrake is a removable accessory, it can be reserved for sighting in. According to Weatherby, the removal of the Accubrake will not change the point of impact.

Handloading
As factory loaded ammunition for the .460 Weatherby Magnum is optimized for only heavy dangerous game, reloaders gain a great benefit from reloading for the .460 Weatherby Magnum. Reloading the .460 Weatherby Magnum is no more difficult than reloading any other belted magnum cartridges. The reloader has a wide variety of components, bullets and powders available.

Among bullet manufacturers Barnes, Hornady and Lyman provide reloading data in their manuals for the .460 Weatherby Magnum. Powder manufacturers Accurate Arms, Hodgdon and Norma have also provide reloading data for the cartridge.

Bullets

The .460 Weatherby Magnum accepts .458 in bullets. There are a large variety of bullets manufactured which are suited for the .460 Weatherby. Bullets weighing between 250 - 600 gr are acceptable although the cartridge performs best with bullets weighing between 450 - 600 gr. The 250 - 400 gr bullets are optimized for use with the .45-70 Government cartridge. Such bullets are used with reduced loads. All major bullet manufacturers produce bullets that can be used in the .460 Weatherby.

 * {| class="wikitable" border="1"

† indicates discontinued bullet.
 * + Table of bullets available for reloading the .460 Weatherby Magnum
 * style="background: #eeeeee" | Manufacturer
 * style="background: #eeeeee" | Bullet
 * style="background: #eeeeee" | A-Square || 465 gr and 500 gr Triad (Monolithic, Dead Tough & Lion Load) bullets
 * style="background: #eeeeee" | Barnes || 250 gr TSX FN†; 300 gr TSX FN, TSX FB, SP & FNSP; 350 gr TSX FB; 400 gr SP & FNSP; 450 gr TSX FB & solid; 500 gr TSX FB and solid and 600 gr original†
 * style="background: #eeeeee" | Hornady || 300 gr HP; 350 gr RN and FP; 480 gr DGS & DGX; 500 gr RN-IB†, FMJ-RN†, DGS & DGX
 * style="background: #eeeeee" | Nosler || 300 gr Partition; 500 gr PP partition & solid
 * style="background: #eeeeee" | Speer || 350 gr SPFN†; 400 gr SPFN†; 500 gr AGS(SP)†, AGS-T†, TBBC† & TBSS†
 * style="background: #eeeeee" | Swift || 400 gr A Frame; 450 gr A Frame; 500 gr A Frame
 * style="background: #eeeeee" | Woodleigh || 400 gr PP-SN; 480 gr RN-SN & FMJ; 500 gr PP-SN, RN-SN & FMJ; 550 gr RN-SN & FMJ
 * colspan="2" align="left" |
 * style="background: #eeeeee" | Nosler || 300 gr Partition; 500 gr PP partition & solid
 * style="background: #eeeeee" | Speer || 350 gr SPFN†; 400 gr SPFN†; 500 gr AGS(SP)†, AGS-T†, TBBC† & TBSS†
 * style="background: #eeeeee" | Swift || 400 gr A Frame; 450 gr A Frame; 500 gr A Frame
 * style="background: #eeeeee" | Woodleigh || 400 gr PP-SN; 480 gr RN-SN & FMJ; 500 gr PP-SN, RN-SN & FMJ; 550 gr RN-SN & FMJ
 * colspan="2" align="left" |
 * style="background: #eeeeee" | Woodleigh || 400 gr PP-SN; 480 gr RN-SN & FMJ; 500 gr PP-SN, RN-SN & FMJ; 550 gr RN-SN & FMJ
 * colspan="2" align="left" |
 * colspan="2" align="left" |
 * colspan="2" align="left" |
 * }

In addition bullets there are several hard cast .458 in diameter bullets that are compatible with the .460 Weatherby Magnum. Such bullets, unlike jacketed bullets, are designed to be driven at reduced velocities. Driving these bullets at .460 Weatherby velocities can cause lead to be deposited in the barrel. Regular cast bullets are not recommended with the .460 Weatherby as the upper end of the permissible velocities for these cast bullets is lower than the lowest velocities obtainable from the .460 Weatherby Magnum.

Powders
The .460 Weatherby performs at its best with medium slow burning powders especially with heavier bullets. Usual powder charges start in excess of 100 gr. Due to the large capacity case, charges less than 90% load density are not usually recommended. Hangfires with cartridges such as the .460 Weatherby are extremely unpleasant. Powder charges with higher load densities provide more reliable burn performance than lighter charges.

 * {| class="wikitable" border="1"

 * + Powders' suitability for the .460 Weatherby Magnum
 * style="background: #eeeeee" | Powder brand
 * style="background: #eeeeee" | Lighter bullets - 250 - 400 gr
 * style="background: #eeeeee" | Heavier bullets - 400 - 600 gr
 * style="background: #eeeeee" | Accurate Arms || AA2520, AA2700 & AA4350 || AA2700, AA4350 & AA3100
 * style="background: #eeeeee" | Alliant || RL-15 & RL-17 || RL-17 & RL-19
 * style="background: #eeeeee" | Hodgdon || H380, H414, Varget, H4895 & H4350 || H4350 & H4831
 * style="background: #eeeeee" | IMR || IMR 3031, IMR 4320, IMR 4064 & IMR 4350 || IMR 4350 & IMR 4831
 * style="background: #eeeeee" | Norma || 203-B & 204 || 204 & MRP
 * style="background: #eeeeee" | Vihtavuori || N-140 & N-150 || N-150, N-160 & N-560
 * style="background: #eeeeee" | Winchester || WW760 || WW760
 * colspan="5" align="center" |
 * }
 * style="background: #eeeeee" | Norma || 203-B & 204 || 204 & MRP
 * style="background: #eeeeee" | Vihtavuori || N-140 & N-150 || N-150, N-160 & N-560
 * style="background: #eeeeee" | Winchester || WW760 || WW760
 * colspan="5" align="center" |
 * }
 * style="background: #eeeeee" | Winchester || WW760 || WW760
 * colspan="5" align="center" |
 * }
 * }

For reduced velocity reloads powders such as Accurate Arms' AA8700 and Hodgdon's H870 have performed well. With AA8700 and H870 there remains a large quantity of un-burnt powder. Faster powders occupy less volume; so a filler such as Dacron is used to hold the powder charge against the primer to provide shot to shot consistence and reliable ignition.

Cases
At present there is one single manufacturer of .460 Weatherby Magnum brass: Norma Precision. Norma Precision manufactured brass is headstamped as Weatherby (as opposed to Norma) as they are under contract by Weatherby to manufacture Weatherby Ammunition. Weatherby brass is available from Weatherby.

Primers
When Roy Weatherby began working with the .378 Weatherby Magnum, the parent cartridge of the .460 Weatherby Magnum, he found the primers of the day to be unreliable. Roy Weatherby contacted Charles L. Horn, the founder of Federal Cartridge Company and explained his problem. Horn's reply was "We'll make you a primer that, by God, will set your powder ablaze". The Federal 215 primer was developed for the .378 Weatherby Magnum cartridge and is the only primer which is generally recommended for use with the .460 Weatherby Magnum cartridge. This primer was created specifically to provide reliable ignition for compressed powder charges in large capacity cases. All reloading manuals provide loading data using only this particular primer to develop reloading data for the .460 Weatherby Magnum.

In a pinch the Winchester WLRM primer or primers with similar brisance may be substituted. The Federal 216 primer is not available for sale to the reloader at present but should the primer become available it may be substituted for the Federal 215 primer. This primer was developed for the .470 Nitro Express and is currently used by Federal to load the cartridge.

Dies
Full length and neck sizing dies are available from RCBS and Redding. A full-length die set is available from Hornady Manufacturing. Most two-die set includes a bullet seating die and either a full-length resizing die or a neck sizing die. A full-length sizing die reforms the complete body of the case to specification. The neck sizing die reforms only the neck so that it can hold the bullet in place. Neck-sizing cases rather than full length sizing cases can extend the case life of cartridges. On the downside, cases that are only neck sized may not feed through some actions reliably especially when used in semi-automatic rifles. Cartridges which are intended for semi-automatics should be full length resized. Most Weatherby manufactured rifle chambers are machined to very tight tolerances making full length resizing has little effect on extending the case life as the cartridge brass does not have to be worked as much to reform it. If once fired cases are to be used in a rifle in other than one it which it had been previously fired full length resizing the cases is the norm.

Criticism
On paper the .460 Weatherby Magnum has better penetration than most other rifle cartridges including the .577 Tyrannosaur, .585 Nyati, .600 Overkill and the Nitro Express line of cartridges. However, the .460 Weatherby Magnum was beset by penetration issues from the beginning. Safari hunters had variously reported the 500 gr round nose bullets' fragmenting and the solids' deforming and core separation which lead to poor terminal performance on heavily boned animals. In such cases, the energy of the bullet is expended through the work performed deforming or disintegrating the bullet rather than directed towards the more productive penetration which is the sole reason for the use of these solid bullets.

Early Norma factory ammunition loaded for Weatherby used Hornady 500 gr RN and FMJ. Norma had been loading these bullets to a velocity of 2700 ft/s. Norma dropped the velocity of the cartridge to 2650 ft/s while Hornady introduced the mechanically locked-in lead core InterLock bullets in 1980 to improve the terminal ballistics of their bullets. Subsequently, Hornady introduced the 500 gr InterBond FMJ (IB-FMJ) and RN (IB-RN) bullets which featured a brass jacket with a welded lead core. The IB-FMJ and IB were loaded by Norma for the Weatherby cartridge. These Hornady .458 caliber round nose and solid bullets were later found to have a performance envelope of not exceeding 2300 ft/s in the .458 caliber.

Hornady has since developed the copper-clad steel-encased bonded core DGX and DGS bullets rated for a velocity of 2600 ft/s. The new Hornady DGX and DGS bullets are now being loaded by Norma at the reduced velocity of 2600 ft/s to coincide with the velocity rating of the tougher DGS and DGS 500 gr bullets. Hornady's performance envelope for the .458 caliber 500 gr DGX and DGS bullets are between 2600 ft/s and 1600 ft/s the same rating they had assigned earlier to the more lightly constructed InterLock bullet.

While poor penetration due to bullet construction was not limited to the .460 Weatherby Magnum, the issue was more magnified in this cartridge than others due to the additional stress imposed on the bullet by the higher velocity of the cartridge as is the case with the .375 H&H Magnum cartridge firing the 300 gr solids at 2530 ft/s. Using premium, stoutly constructed premium solid bullets similar to the Barnes Banded Solid, Hornady DGS, Nosler Solid, Speer African Grand Slam Solid and others have resolved this problem.

Parent cartridge
The large case capacity of the .460 Weatherby Magnum lends itself to various forms of conversion and experimentation. The .460 Weatherby Magnum has served as the immediate parent cartridge of several proprietary and wildcat cartridges. It is, however, also correct to list the .378 Weatherby Magnum as the parent cartridge for these cartridges as the .460 Weatherby Magnum itself was based on the .378 Weatherby Magnum case. The following are some of the better known cartridges based on the .460 Weatherby where the .460 acted as the direct parent cartridge:

 * .460 A-Square Short
 * The cartridge is a proprietary cartridge designed by Arthur Alphin of A-Square. This .458 caliber (11.6 mm) cartridge is based on a shortened .460 Weatherby Magnum case which can be used in a standard length action rifle. The cartridge is capable of developing 6670 ftlbf when firing a 500 gr bullet at 2450 ft/s.

 * .465 H&H Magnum

 * The cartridge was designed by Russell Wilkins and Holland & Holland and released in 2003. The cartridge is capable of firing a .46 caliber (11.7 mm) 480 gr bullet at 2385 ft/s. This cartridge is designed to work at moderate pressures.

 * .475 A&M Magnum

 * The .475 A&M Magnum is a .47 caliber (12 mm) wildcat cartridge designed by the Atkinson & Marquart Rifle Company of Prescott AZ. It is based on the .460 Weatherby Magnum necked up to accept a .475 in diameter bullet. The .475 A&M Magnum is capable of launching a 500 gr at 2980 ft/s for 9860 ftlbf energy.

 * .500 Whisper

 * The .500 Whisper was disigned by J.D. Jones of SSK Industries. It is based on a shortened .460 Weatherby Magnum case which is then necked up to accept a .510 in VLD bullet. It is capable of firing a 750 gr at 1050 ft/s.

 * .50 Peacekeeper
 * This cartridge is another one of J.D. Jones' designs. It is essentially a .460 Weatherby Magnum necked up to accept a 750 gr, .510 in diameter VLD bullet which it is capable of firing at 2205 ft/s for 8100 ftlbf energy.

 * .500 A-Square

 * The .500 A-Square is another proprietary cartridge designed by Arthur Alphin of A-Square based on the .460 Weatherby Magnum necked up to accept a .510 in diameter bullet. The .500 A-Square is capable of achieving 8127 ftlbf energy with a 600 gr bullet launched at 2470 ft/s.

title: .460 Weatherby Magnum


text:
Talk:Echo Hill Ranch

Untitled
What's the Ranch's signifiance?

I noticed the article b/c it was already on my watchlist from the last time it was created - a VfD ensued because of copyright violations... never did find out the signifiance of the ranch. Krupo 18:58, Oct 12, 2004 (UTC)

How long the Friedman's ran the camp
i went to the camp from 1955 thru 1957 so the camp did not close in 1954. Madreddog (talk) 21:45, 27 June 2024 (UTC)

title: Talk:Echo Hill Ranch


text:
Renaissance Latin

Renaissance Latin is a name given to the distinctive form of Literary Latin style developed during the European Renaissance of the fourteenth to fifteenth centuries, particularly by the Renaissance humanism movement. This style of Latin is regarded as the first phase of the standardised and grammatically "Classical" Neo-Latin which continued through the 16th–19th centuries,  and was used as the language of choice for authors discussing subjects considered sufficiently important to merit an international (i.e., pan-European) audience.

Ad fontes
Ad fontes ("to the sources") was the general cry of the Renaissance humanists, and as such their Latin style sought to purge Latin of the medieval Latin vocabulary and stylistic accretions that it had acquired in the centuries after the fall of the Roman Empire. They looked to golden age Latin literature, and especially to Cicero in prose and Virgil in poetry, as the arbiters of Latin style. They abandoned the use of the sequence and other accentual forms of metre, and sought instead to revive the Greek formats that were used in Latin poetry during the Roman period. The humanists condemned much of the large body of medieval Latin literature as "Gothic"—for them, a term of abuse—and believed instead that ancient Latin from the Roman period had to form the basis for judging what was a grammatical and accurate style of Latin.

Some 16th-century Ciceronian humanists also sought to purge written Latin of medieval developments in its orthography. They insisted, for example, that ae be written out in full wherever it occurred in classical Latin; medieval scribes often wrote e instead of ae. They were much more zealous than medieval Latin writers that t and c be distinguished; because the effects of palatalization made them homophones, medieval scribes often wrote, for example, eciam for etiam. Their reforms even affected handwriting; Humanists usually wrote Latin in a humanist minuscule script derived from Carolingian minuscule, the ultimate ancestor of most contemporary lower-case typefaces, avoiding the black-letter scripts used in the Middle Ages. This sort of writing was particularly vigilant in edited works, so that international colleagues could read them more easily, while in their own handwritten documents the Latin is usually written as it is pronounced in the vernacular. Therefore, the first generations of humanists did not dedicate much care to the orthography till the late sixteenth and seventeenth century. Erasmus proposed that the then-traditional pronunciations of Latin be abolished in favour of his reconstructed version of classical Latin pronunciation, even though one can deduce from his works that he himself used the ecclesiastical pronunciation.

The humanist plan to remake Latin was largely successful, at least in education. Schools taught the humanistic spellings, and encouraged the study of the texts selected by the humanists, to the large exclusion of later Latin literature. On the other hand, while humanist Latin was an elegant literary language, it became much harder to write books about law, medicine, science or contemporary politics in Latin while achieving the higher standards of grammatical accuracy and stylistical fluency. Scholar Jürgen Leonhardt noted how these high standards changed speakers' relationship with the language: "Whereas during the Middle Ages, Latin had an instrumental function in human communications and in peoples' understanding of the world, for the humanists, the act of mastering the language became a measure of human self-perfection. In the end, the most important difference between medieval and humanist Latin may well have been the time and effort to learn it."

14th century

 * 1359. Epistolæ familiares by Petrarch (1304–1374)
 * 1360. Genealogia deorum gentilium by Giovanni Boccaccio (1313–1375)

15th century

 * 1409. ''Flos Duellatorum by Fiore dei Liberi
 * 1425. Hermaphroditus by Antonio Beccadelli (1394–1471)
 * 1441. De elegantiis Latinæ linguæ by Lorenzo Valla (1406–1457)
 * 1442. Historia Florentini populi by Leonardo Bruni (c. 1370–1444)
 * 1444. Historia de duobus amantibus by Æneas Sylvius Piccolomini, Pope Pius II (1405–1464)
 * 1452. De re ædificatoria by Leone Battista Alberti (1404–1472)
 * 1471. Contra amores by Bartolomeo Platina (1421–1481)
 * 1479. De inventione dialectica by Rodolphus Agricola (1444–1485)
 * 1481. Introductiones Latinæ by Antonio de Nebrija (1441–1522)
 * 1486. De hominis dignitate by Giovanni Pico della Mirandola (1463–1494)
 * 1491. Nutricia by Poliziano (1454–1494)
 * Theologia Platonica de immortalitate animæ by Marsilio Ficino (1433–1499)
 * Francesco Filelfo (1398–1481)

16th-century

 * 1517. Marko Marulić (1450-1524) Davidiad, Psichiologia de ratione animae humanae

History of Latin

 * Churchill, Laurie J., Phyllis R. Brown, and Jane E. Jeffrey, eds. 2002. Women Writing in Latin: From Roman Antiquity to Early Modern Europe. Vol. 3, Early Modern Women Writing Latin. New York: Routledge.
 * Churchill, Laurie J., Phyllis R. Brown, and Jane E. Jeffrey, eds. 2002. Women Writing in Latin: From Roman Antiquity to Early Modern Europe. Vol. 3, Early Modern Women Writing Latin. New York: Routledge.

Neo-Latin overviews

 * IJsewijn, Jozef with Dirk Sacré. Companion to Neo-Latin Studies. Two vols. Leuven University Press, 1990–1998.
 * Ford, Philip, Jan Bloemendal, and Charles Fantazzi, eds. 2014. Brill's Encyclopaedia of the Neo-Latin World. Two vols. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill.
 * Ford, Philip, Jan Bloemendal, and Charles Fantazzi, eds. 2014. Brill's Encyclopaedia of the Neo-Latin World. Two vols. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill.
 * Ford, Philip, Jan Bloemendal, and Charles Fantazzi, eds. 2014. Brill's Encyclopaedia of the Neo-Latin World. Two vols. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill.

title: Renaissance Latin


text:
Morro Agudo

Morro Agudo (Portuguese for "Sharp Hill") is a municipality in the state of São Paulo in Brazil. The population is 33,288 (2020 est.) in an area of 1388 km². The elevation is 546 m. The city is the biggest Brazilian sugar-cane producer.

title: Morro Agudo


text:
Morungaba

Morungaba is a municipality in the state of São Paulo in Brazil. It is part of the Metropolitan Region of Campinas. The population is 13,781 (2020 est.) in an area of 146.75 km2. The elevation is 765 m.

Media
In telecommunications, the city was served by Telecomunicações de São Paulo. In July 1998, this company was acquired by Telefónica, which adopted the Vivo brand in 2012. The company is currently an operator of cell phones, fixed lines, internet (fiber optics/4G) and television (satellite and cable).

title: Morungaba


text:
B'nai Brith Canada

B'nai Brith Canada (BBC; from בני ברית) is a Canadian Jewish service organization and advocacy group. It is the Canadian chapter of B'nai B'rith International and has offices in Toronto, Winnipeg, Montreal, and Vancouver.

Mission
The organization presents the following mission statement, as stated in the preamble to its constitution:

"B'nai Brith has taken upon itself the mission of uniting person of the Jewish faith in the work of promoting their highest interest and those of humanity; of developing and elevating the mental and moral character of the people of our faith; of inculcating the purest principles of philanthropy, honour and patriotism; of supporting science and art; alleviating the wants of the poor and needy; visiting and caring for the sick; coming to the rescue of the victims of persecution; providing for, protecting and assisting the aged, the widow and the orphan on the broadest principles of humanity."

Early history
In 1875, Lodge No. 246, located in Toronto, was the first lodge founded in Canada, followed soon after by another in Montreal. Many community leaders were associated with these lodges. Over time, a team of dedicated volunteers and professional staff emerged.

20th century to present
In September 2014, Ontario lawyer and former Conservative Party candidate Michael Mostyn was appointed CEO of B'nai Brith Canada, succeeding Frank Dimant upon his retirement after 36 years with the organization.

Role in the 2007 by-election
During the 2007 by-election in Outremount the group accused Jocelyn Coulon of being anti-American and anti-Israel because of his views on the Hamas-Israel-Lebanon conflict. The Quebec-Israel Committee however, stated that B'Nai Brith's statements were exaggerated and that Coulon had every right to be the Liberal candidate. These issues were thought to be important because the Jewish community in Outremont made up 10% of the riding population.

Criticism of the Manitoba Human Rights Commission
In January 2004, Shahina Siddiqui, executive director of the Islamic Social Services Association, filed a formal complaint against B'nai Brith Canada under the "discriminatory signs and statements" section of the Manitoba Human Rights Code. After speaking with several people who attended a Winnipeg conference on terrorism hosted by B'nai Brith Canada in October 2003, she wrote that the event was biased against Muslims and would encourage the response teams in attendance to engage in racial profiling. The Manitoba Human Rights Commission (MHRC) accepted the complaint and began an investigation that would last five years. In 2009, the MHRC issued a report that dismissed the complaint due to a lack of evidence. MHRC vice-chairwoman Yvonne Peters subsequently wrote that "the full investigation of the complaint that took place was warranted" and that "the decision was based solely on the insufficiency of the evidence with respect to this particular section of the Human Rights Code."

In 2008, David Matas, B'nai Brith's senior counsel, sharply criticized the MHRC for its conduct during the investigation, stating that: "The [Manitoba] Human Rights Commission itself is supposed to be promoting human rights, but in our view in this process it's violating some pretty basic rights: a secret proceeding, a faceless accuser, failure to disclose documents. These are basic procedural rights that are being violated." Writing in the National Post, Joseph Brean made several criticisms of the investigation: The MHRC accepted the complaint despite the fact that the complainant, Shahina Siddiqui, did not actually attend the event. B'nai Brith Canada was never told of the identity of the individuals whose claims Shahina Siddiqui based her complaint on. It has never been revealed what exactly is alleged to have been said at the conference. Tracy Lloyd, an MHRC investigator, spoke with seven anonymous witnesses, including one as late as November 2006. However, only one, a City of Winnipeg employee, shared Siddiqui's criticism that the conference was "one-sided." One of the witnesses, a diversity relations officer, stated that it was "pretty professional," and said police in general are capable of putting almost anything they hear into proper context. The MHRC commissioned a "secret expert report" but refused B'nai Brith's request to know the expert's identity, mandate or material provided. The secret report has not been made public.

Following the release of the MHRC report, Matas accused MHRC vice-chairwoman Yvonne Peters of taking a contradictory position, stating that: "So what they're saying is that a full investigation is warranted even when there's no evidence, as long as the accusation is within the jurisdiction of the board. There's a lot of problems with this. What basically happened is that Siddiqui heard a rumor. She makes a complaint, as a result of which the commission goes on a five-year fishing expedition. They don't find anything. We're co-operating with them. And then they dismiss the complaint. That's not a proper procedure, in my view." Matas also criticized the procedures of the MHRC, stating that they will "take an allegation, without evidence, and just run with it to see if it's true." The previous year, Matas in a submission in a Moon Report on Internet hate speech, Matas charged that Canada's human rights commissions have demonstrated "a disastrous combination of investigative zeal and substantive ignorance." Although Matas stated that he does not believe Siddiqui acted in bad faith, he added that: "The people who run these procedures have to have a more objective viewpoint than the people who make the complaint."

Hassan Diab complaint
In July 2009, B'nai Brith Canada issued a press release denouncing Carleton University for hiring Hassan Diab, who was alleged by French authorities to have been responsible for the 1980 Paris synagogue bombing. Diab was living under virtual house arrest at the time (he had been granted bail but under very strict conditions) due to an extradition request from France. Within a few hours of the B'nai Brith Canada complaint, Carleton University announced that it would "immediately replace the current instructor, Hassan Diab" in order to provide students "with a stable, productive academic environment that is conducive to learning." B'nai Brith executive vice-president Frank Dimant later stated that "the university did the right thing." In November 2014, Hassan was extradited from Canada to France where he was imprisoned for 3 years and two months while the investigation continued. Since then, four French anti-terrorism judges have uncovered testimony from several individuals stating that Diab was in Lebanon at the time of the bombing as well as university records which show he wrote and passed exams in Beirut then and couldn't have been in Paris. In January 2018, French authorities dropped all charges against Hassan Diab, citing lack of evidence.

Lesley Hughes lawsuit and settlement
In 2008, the Liberal Party of Canada dropped as a candidate and revoked the membership of Winnipeg Centre candidate Lesley Hughes after she was accused on antisemitism by the group, the Canadian Jewish Congress and Conservative MP Peter Kent over a 2002 article about the 9/11 attacks. Hughes later filed a lawsuit for defamation against B'nai Brith, the Canadian Jewish Congress and Peter Kent. In 2013 the aforementioned parties issued a public statement stating that Hughes is not an antisemite, stating that Hughes “does not condone the use of anti-Semitic conspiracy theories by racist groups to support antisemitism of any nature". The suit was settled out of court for an undisclosed settlement amount.

Hassan Guillet Controversy
In 2019, B'nai Brith unearthed a series of controversial comments and social media posts made by Hassan Guillet, a parliamentary candidate for the Liberal Party in that year's Canadian federal election. When B'nai Brith went public with its findings, the Liberal Party dropped Guillet as a candidate.

Lobbying against Islamophobia Bill
B'nai Brith lobbied against certain wording in the non-binding parliament bill M103. Bill M103 denounces Islamophobia and other type of hates. The bill was introduced after the killing of 6 Muslims at a Quebec mosque by an extreme-right sympathizer

Free speech conference
Continuing on with the free speech advocacy, B'nai Brith organized a free-speech conference with free-speech advocacy and alt-right groups. The conference was scheduled to be hosted at a synagogue, but some Jewish groups asked the synagogue to cancel the events after concerns about alt-right and Islamophobic groups taking part.

The conference was moved to another venue. One topic of discussions was about Islamophobia Bill M103. A Muslim female journalist was physically assaulted after asking questions by a security guard employed by the conference organizers.

Members
According to an article in The Forward, B'nai Brith Canada had 4,000 full-dues paying members in 2007. Membership is restricted to those of the Jewish faith.

Governance and financial issues
In 2007, a group calling itself Concerned Members of B'nai Brith Canada charged that a new constitution had been passed despite a majority of members having voted against it at a general meeting. Henry Gimpel, a former Toronto lodge president, told The Forward that "[t]here's too much of [B'nai Brith Canada] being run by one person." Frank Dimant, CEO of BBC, responded to the criticism over the constitution by saying that BBC followed proper governance procedures and that B'nai Brith International's Court of Appeal determined that the constitution was properly enacted. Gimpel and seven other BBC members were expelled in June 2008 for what a disciplinary committee determined to be "conduct unbecoming a member." Gimpel referred to the committee as a kangaroo court.

On July 8, 2015, the Toronto Star reported that Dimant has demanded an annual retirement payout of $175,000, representing 75% of his former salary, which the B'nai Brith believes is too lucrative and will require the struggling charity to direct fundraising dollars to pay for Dimant's pension. Dimant has stated that the payout was approved by the organization's board, however, the Star cites an unnamed source as stating that the deal was arranged with little oversight while Dimant was still in charge. In the year following Dimant's retirement, B'nai Brith Canada put its "state of the art" care facility for Alzheimer's patients under insolvency protection while also trying to sell it. The project, initiated and led by Dimant, is a $16 million facility opened in 2013 but that been unable to attract enough patients, due to high fees for patients of $7,500 a month and the fact that it was not designed to be wheelchair accessible; the facility is losing $50,000 a month and owes $11 million to creditors.

The Toronto Star article also claimed that other issues left by Dimant's former management of B'nai Brith are a lack of records and record keeping and failure to always issue charitable tax receipts and poor corporate governance with approximately 50 people who had believed they were on various boards of B'nai Brith organizations learning that this is not the case, as Dimant's management had failed to file the correct paperwork with government agencies.

Due to financial difficulties, including a decline in charitable donations in recent years, B'nai Brith also ceased publication of its newspaper, Jewish Tribune in 2015, and is selling its headquarters which carries two mortgages totalling nearly $4 million, though the building itself is assessed at slightly over $3 million. It was reported by The Forward in 2007 that the organization was struggling financially and mortgaged its head office in order to raise $850,000 to meet expenses. In 2015, the organization indefinitely suspended publication of Jewish Tribune and announced the sale of its heavily mortgaged headquarters at 15 Hove Street.

Publications
B'nai Brith Canada owned and operated the weekly Jewish Tribune as a subsidiary publication. The newspaper claimed a circulation of over 62,000 copies a week which would make it the largest Jewish publication in Canada. Publication was suspended in early 2015.

Hezbollah terror designation
On November 29, 2002, B'nai Brith Canada sued the Canadian government for "failing to crack down on the fundraising efforts of Hezbollah", by not adding Hezbollah's charity wing to the list of banned terrorist organizations; the paramilitary wing of Hezbollah, the Jihad Council, was already listed, but not its political wing. About a week later, the Canadian government made the decision to designate all of Hezbollah as a terrorist organization.

Anti-Hate Hotline
B'nai Brith Canada operates a 24-hour-a-day, seven-day-a-week 'Anti-Hate Hotline'. The hotline receives calls from those who feel they have suffered from antisemitism or discrimination and is one of the sources of the organisation's statistics for its Annual Audit of Antisemitic Incidents.

Radical Islam Advertisement
On November 9, 2009, B'nai Brith Canada ran a full page ad in the National Post comparing radical Islam with Nazism. Frank Dimant, CEO of B'nai Brith, said "overall, feedback from the ad has been very positive." At the same time, the ad drew the ire of the group Canadian Jewish Holocaust Survivors and the Canadian Association of Jews and Muslims, and has also led to accusations of racism and Islamophobia against the organization.

Investigations of Antisemitism in the Media
In February 2016, the organization revealed that the Windsor, Ontario newspaper 'al-Forqan' called for terrorist attacks against Israeli civilians as "sacred duty of jihad". In July 2016, B'nai Brith Canada, organization with the London Police Services, investigated 'al-Saraha,' a London, Ontario newspaper for Holocaust denial.

Agencies and programs of B'nai Brith Canada
Source:

 * 24-hour, 7-day-a-week Anti-Hate Hotline
 * Affordable Housing
 * Alzheimer's Residence, Toronto
 * Annual Audit of Antisemitic Incidents
 * Campus Outreach Program
 * Canadian Israel Public Affairs Committee (CIPAC)
 * Centre for Community Action
 * Communications Department
 * Community Volunteer Service Programs
 * Government Relations Office
 * Institute for International Affairs
 * Jewish Canada Information Service
 * League for Human Rights
 * Legal Desk
 * National Task Force on Holocaust Education, Remembrance and Research
 * Network of B'nai Brith Lodges
 * Operation Thank You: Educational Initiative Honouring Canadian Troops in Afghanistan
 * Sports Leagues
 * Young Leadership Development Groups

Awards
Canadian Prime Minister Stephen Harper was awarded B'nai B'rith International's Presidential Gold Medal after being nominated by B'nai Brith Canada to honor what it described as his commitment to the Jewish people and the State of Israel.

Canadian film producer Robert Lantos has been a long-time supporter of B'nai Brith Canada and in 2008 was awarded the organization's Award of Merit. Among other notable Canadians to have received the Award of Merit are Lindsay Gordon, Blake Goldring, Frank Stronach, Tony Comper, Al Waxman, Wallace McCain, Lloyd Axworthy, Gordon F. Henderson, Mayor Jean Drapeau, George Cohon, Leo Kolber, former Liberal Prime Minister of Canada Paul Martin, hockey legend Jean Béliveau, Paul Tellier, former Ontario Premier Bill Davis, Ambassador Allan Gotlieb, Monty Hall, Izzy Asper, Guy Charbonneau, former Manitoba Premier Gary Filmon, former Liberal Deputy Prime Minister of Canada Herb Gray, former Alberta Premier Peter Lougheed, Edward Samuel "Ted" Rogers, former Alberta Premier Ernest Manning, and Calin Rovinescu.

Archives
There is a B'nai Brith Canada fond at Library and Archives Canada. The archival reference number is R6348, former archival reference number MG28-V133. The fond covers the date range 1887 to 1999. It includes 45.92 meters of textual records, 1,622 photographs, audio-visual material and other graphic material.

title: B'nai Brith Canada


text:
JBIG

JBIG is an early lossless image compression standard from the Joint Bi-level Image Experts Group, standardized as ISO/IEC standard 11544 and as ITU-T recommendation T.82 in March 1993. It is widely implemented in fax machines. Now that the newer bi-level image compression standard JBIG2 has been released, JBIG is also known as JBIG1. JBIG was designed for compression of binary images, particularly for faxes, but can also be used on other images. In most situations JBIG offers between a 20% and 50% increase in compression efficiency over Fax Group 4 compression, and in some situations, it offers a 30-fold improvement.

JBIG is based on a form of arithmetic coding developed by IBM (known as the Q-coder) that also uses a relatively minor refinement developed by Mitsubishi, resulting in what became known as the QM-coder. It bases the probability estimates for each encoded bit on the values of the previous bits and the values in previous lines of the picture. JBIG also supports progressive transmission, which generally incurs a small overhead in bit rate (around 5%).

Patents
Doubts about patent licence requirements for JBIG1 implementations by IBM, Mitsu-bishi and AT&T prevented the codec from being widely implemented in open-source software. For example, as of 2012, none of the commonly used web browsers supported it. Since 2012, there are now no more JBIG1 patents in force – the last ones to expire were Mitsubishi's patents in Canada and Australia (on 25 February 2011) and in the United States (on 4 April 2012).

title: JBIG


text:
Motuca

Motuca is a municipality in the state of São Paulo, Brazil. The population is 4,795 (2020 est.) in an area of 229 km2. The elevation is 618 m. The municipality was created on January 20, 1990.

History
The first records of settlement in Motuca date back to 1892, with the construction of the Rincão/Bebedouro Railway by the Companhia Paulista de Estrada de Ferro.

The area, abundant in water resources, received cattle drivers and their herds from distant regions. The junction of the railway with the cattle trail was natural, as both cattle and coffee were unloaded there. Coffee, after traveling a long way to the port of Santos, was destined for the European market.

Like many other areas in the state of São Paulo, Motuca had its golden period with coffee cultivation and cattle raising. Around 1908, Japanese and Portuguese immigrants settled and developed activities related to horticulture and coffee farming.

The effective agricultural growth spurred political and administrative development, and on December 31, 1925, it became a district of the municipality of Araraquara. After the 1950s, other crops were replaced by sugarcane cultivation, which gradually took over small farms and sites, leasing land and attracting migrants from the northeastern region.

From that period onwards, there was slow economic development, and only on January 9, 1990, did it gain political and administrative autonomy with the creation of the municipality. The municipality's name comes from a type of fly of the same name, common in the region due to the large amount of water there.

Football
Founded on January 5, 1971, Motuca Futebol Clube is the main local football club.

Geography
Motuca has an area of 228.7 km².

Demography
Data from the 2010 Census:

Total Population: 4,290

 * Urban: 3,108
 * Rural: 1,182
 * Men: 2,162
 * Women: 2,128
 * Population Density (inhabitants/km²): 18.76

Hydrography

 * Mojiguaçu River

Highways

 * SP-326

Media
In telecommunications, the city was served by Telecomunicações de São Paulo. In July 1998, this company was acquired by Telefónica, which adopted the Vivo brand in 2012. The company is currently an operator of cell phones, fixed lines, internet (fiber optics/4G) and television (satellite and cable).

Administration

 * Mayor: João Ricardo Fascineli (PT)
 * Vice-Mayor: Maria do Carmo Mendes de Oliveira (PRB)
 * President of the Council: Gabriel Muniz da Silva (SD)

Catholic Church
The municipality belongs to the Diocese of São Carlos.

title: Motuca


text: User talk:24.159.83.79

title: User talk:24.159.83.79


text:
Talk:Levi Lincoln Sr.

Untitled
Any relation to Abraham Lincolin

Are you sure he was Acting Secretary of State? His AG Bio does not mention this. Mike Friedman 16:18, 26 Dec 2004 (UTC)

"Enoch" and "Levi" seem prety jewish to me,dont take me wrong,im not a racist or anything,id just like to know if Lincoln's (both Levi and Abraham) ancestors were jewish or not,because ive never come across such information.

New Babylon 2 08:31, 29 August 2007 (UTC)
 * Well, they're Biblical names. So is Abraham. Cheers! bd2412  T 19:32, 29 August 2007 (UTC)

title: Talk:Levi Lincoln Sr.


text:
4 mm caliber

This is a list of firearm cartridges which have bullets in the 4 mm to 4.99 mm caliber range.

All measurements are in mm (in).

title: 4 mm caliber


text:
Talk:Pulse-width modulation

Untitled
See also, Error Diffusion?

I have the impression that this article is somewhat messy. applications, methods and principle are mixed together. Maybe we could organize this : principle (make the average value of a rectangular signal vary by modifying its duty cycle), applications (I'm a power electronics guy, so I only know applications in this field), methods to generate the pwm (like in the figure I added, but there are other)

What do you think?CyrilB 09:43, 24 March 2006 (UTC)

I was looking for an information I have not get. Is the PWM used for both AC-DC converter and DC-AC inverter or just the latter one? I know it is not the proper place to ask this kind of questions. But it should be intereting that this article describe this point in the future.

-- -M-ric 02:44, 7 May 2006 (UTC)

PWM Controllers
This article needs to be extended especially voltage regulation section. PWM controller can be used in AC-DC as well as DC-DC conversion.I'll add some text in the voltage regulation and u can get some idea Kundojjala 17:32, 24 May 2006 (UTC)

Distributed PWM
Should we include distributed pulse width modulation, in which the pulse is broken up into a series of small pulses? This might not fall under pulse density modulation since a known duty cycle is output. Furthermore, there is no sigma-delta modulation going on. 128.151.161.49Iain (imarcuso@mail.rochester.edu)

Natural and Uniform Sampling?
There is no mention of natural and uniform sampling. A complete discussion of PWM would include these two different methods of implementing PWM (and information, perhaps, about the frequency-domain consequences). --TedPavlic | talk 18:35, 18 February 2008 (UTC)

= Pulse Width Modulation vs Duty Cycle Modulation = The introductory statement is misleading: "Pulse-width modulation uses a square wave whose duty cycle is modulated". If you modulate the duty cycle (ie. freedom to move both the positive and negative edges, only ensuring that the ratio pulse width to pulse period matches the modulated signal) then you have duty cycle modulation. Pulse width modulation fixes one of the edges so you have a fixed period, and varies only the pulse width. The correct statement should be "Pulse-width modulation uses a square wave whose pulse width is modulated", but my change keeps getting reverted... —Preceding unsigned comment added by 129.215.215.162 (talk) 15:20, 1 April 2008 (UTC)

In my experience, a square wave is specifically a pulse with a 50% duty cycle; if you adjust the ratio of the time axis to the amplitude axis in a display or diagram, you can make each half cycle a square. I changed "square" to "pulse" throughout, because duty cycle varies. "Square" does not refer to the shape of the corners of the waveform! Including "rectangular" would be a good idea, but doing so increases verbal clutter. Perhaps my strong feeling is partially influenced by spending years with analog music synthesizers, in which a square wave definitely has a 50% dufy cycle. (You might want to remove the bit about setting 50% duty cycle by ear.) Regards, Nikevich (talk) 09:30, 26 July 2009 (UTC)

 * Try to use edit summaries, and mention that you'll be adding your reasoning to the talk page. As far as I could see, you were removing valuable context from the article with no clear explaination. Yngvarr (c) 15:22, 1 April 2008 (UTC)

This needs an mp3 sample
What's the point of learning about synths if you can't hear it? —Preceding unsigned comment added by 75.57.186.23 (talk) 20:41, 27 November 2008 (UTC)

Servos?
Almost all the servos I've seen are controlled by a PWM signal. Why is it, then, that this article doesn't even mention the word "servo" once? Salvar (talk) 14:01, 6 June 2009 (UTC)

Thats because most hobby servos are controlled by pulse position modulation, not pulse width modulation http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pulse-position_modulation

97.65.61.9 (talk) 12:57, 27 October 2010 (UTC)

Afaik that is not true. Servos are controlled by PWM signals. Simpler DC motors translate PWM into voltage by their mechanical inertia acting as LPF. Modern servos have inner electronics, such that a certain pulse width and duty cycle PWM keeps them in the still position, a lower duty cycle causes rotation in one direction (with speed corresponding to the difference in duty cycle) while a higher duty cycle results in the other direction for rotation.

See Servo_motor,. I've used a servo and it also works on PWM. Hoemaco (talk) 17:12, 27 February 2011 (UTC)

= Power Delivery =

Should the line: "In this case the PWM duty cycle is defined by the frequency of the AC line voltage (50 Hz or 60 Hz depending on the country)" actually refer to period rather than duty cycle? —Preceding unsigned comment added by 134.225.210.40 (talk) 14:17, 3 July 2009 (UTC)

Class D amplifiers used in cell. phones?
I strongly suspect that PWM amplifiers are used for the earphone/speaker in a cell. phone, to economize on battery power. However, I'm not sure, so I didn't add such a comment. Nevertheless, if true (likely), this must be the most commonplace application of PWM technology.

Regards, Nikevich (talk) 09:38, 26 July 2009 (UTC)

Lamp dimmers at 2x power line frequency
They work on both half-cycles, unless I'm quite-badly misinformed. (Fairly sure a typical triac dimmer switches on at a variable point, and switches off when the load current comes close to zero.)

Regards, Nikevich (talk) 09:38, 26 July 2009 (UTC)

Deprecated title?
According to this source pulse-width modulation is deprecated terminology, preferring pulse-duration modulation. Does anyone know if this is officially deprecated and by whom? The term pulse-width was certainly standard in my day but pulse-duration certainly now seems to have growing popularity.  Sp in ni ng  Spark  16:53, 31 January 2011 (UTC)

inertial electrical devices
Inertial electrical devices; Explanation needed. I don't see an example of an inertial elecrical device in wiki. We should explain. I couldn't find anything. Could anyone help? Longinus876 (talk) 16:50, 1 September 2012 (UTC)
 * It's a simple concept, although I've not heard it described in this literal term before. It could certainly benefit from explanation.
 * PWM is applied to load device that have "inertia", either mechanical inertia such as a motor driving a flywheel, or thermal inertia such as a heating element housed in firebricks. This means that the time constant for their response (which depends on the ratio between the power of the motor or heater, vs. the inertia effects of the load) is longer than the pulse rate of the PWM signal. They thus respond slowly to the average of the PWM signal, rather than a fast response device (like a meter needle) that might flutter visibly through the PWM cycle time. Andy Dingley (talk) 18:41, 1 September 2012 (UTC)

Main Graphic demonstrating PWM
In my opinion, the main graphic demonstrating PWM is dangerously vague. The sine wave is obvious, but its application to AC induction motors requires arguably advanced understanding of how AC induction motors work, and on its surface seems invalid.

I attempted to add a sentence explicitly confirming the validity of the graph in regards to ideal AC induction motors. However, my modification was reverted.

I would like to find a simple, concise way to give a hint to the reader regarding the validity of the graph as a description of an idealized AC induction motor.

Any suggestions?

I may take the time to attempt to simplify my proposed addition to the caption, in order to save others time who may also be confused - just to have something in there clarifying that this isn't a meaningless diagram specifically in relation to AC motors.

Daniel347x (talk) 21:07, 6 December 2014 (UTC)

 * Your addition to the caption read: Note that in this idealized plot, the current (and hence magnetic field) in the corresponding coil of the motor remain essentially constant when the voltage over the coil is zero (i.e., there is no significant energy drain); but this idealization is roughly correct if the switching frequency of the PWM is high enough. As an EE who knows a bit about magnetics, I still find this roughly uninterpretable in this context, as there's no info in the lead saying anything about the motor, or what the idealization is, or anything about energy transfer.  I didn't understand how to interpret the "but" introducing the second part.  In general, I think that as a clarification, this is a failure.  I agree there's a problem.  Probably it could be addressed better by making a section about motor control and moving the figure into it, so that some context for understanding the figure could be established.  Dicklyon (talk) 22:38, 6 December 2014 (UTC)

 * How about: Note that the plot shown is idealized for the case of a motor that is drawing no power (so that the motor's internal magnetic fields remain constant when voltage is switched off during the PWM cycle).? — Preceding unsigned comment added by Daniel347x (talk • contribs) 22:55, 6 December 2014 (UTC)

 * I don't think that note is helpful in the context of a lead image that most people will not understand; it adds complexity without clarity. Make a section about motor control if you think more needs to be said.  Dicklyon (talk) 01:47, 7 December 2014 (UTC)

 * I found the current caption confusing and lost time confirming that it was valid. If it is impossible to add anything to the caption to clarify the validity of the image, I suggest removing the image or replacing it with another.  Do you think there is any addition to the caption that would satisfy both the need for clarity and the need for accuracy? — Preceding unsigned comment added by Daniel347x (talk • contribs) 02:55, 7 dec 2014 (UTC)

 * I think it's a poor choice of lead image; not fixable by saying more. Perhaps say less?  Or replace it.  Dicklyon (talk) 04:58, 7 December 2014 (UTC)

 * I like the idea of saying less. What is your opinion of this simplification of the caption: An example of PWM in an idealized inductor driven by a voltage source: the voltage source (blue) is modulated as a series of pulses that results in a sine-like current/flux (red) in the inductor. The smoothness of the resultant waveform can be controlled by the width (number) of modulated impulses (per given cycle).?  — Preceding unsigned comment added by Daniel347x (talk • contribs) 05:03, 7 December 2014 (UTC)
 * Yes, that's better. For the sake of those who don't know about inductors and flux, mentioning that the red is the integral of the blue might be useful.  I'd omit the last sentence.  Dicklyon (talk) 05:27, 7 December 2014 (UTC)
 * I think the sentence regarding "smoothness of the resulting waveform" is key: A common instinct, I think, when first looking at this image, is to wonder how it's possible for a (blocky) square wave to emulate a smooth curve (sine wave). The key is the number of modulations per second.  How about this: An example of PWM in an idealized inductor driven by a voltage source: the voltage source (blue) is modulated as a series of pulses that results in a sine-like current/flux (red) in the inductor. The blue rectangular pulses nonetheless result in a smoother and smoother red sine wave as the switching frequency increases.  Note that the red waveform is the (definite) integral of the blue waveform.  — Preceding unsigned comment added by Daniel347x (talk • contribs) 19:27, 7 December 2014 (UTC)
 * I'll go ahead and make the change. Please let me know if you have objections or further suggestions.  Thanks!Daniel347x (talk) 19:43, 10 December 2014 (UTC)
 * I'm not clear exactly the change you made, but I like the way it reads now! Thanks!  — Preceding unsigned comment added by Daniel347x (talk • contribs) 06:54, 13 October 2016 (UTC)

Carrier frequency?
I am confused about the use of the term "carrier frequency" in this section: "Pulses of various lengths (the information itself) will be sent at regular intervals (the carrier frequency of the modulation)." My understanding of the term "carrier frequency" is that it is the frequency at which a transmission is broadcast, e.g. tuning your radio dial to 88.5 MHz. The carrier frequency is typically much higher than the frequency of the frequency of the transmitted information. The regular intervals the article refers to seems to me to correspond more to a "pulse repetition frequency", or the inverse of the frame rate or update rate. I do not understand how the two concepts (frame rate and carrier frequency) are analogous or related. Jfalesi (talk) 02:58, 13 October 2016 (UTC)

MPPT and the term "PWM" as used by the solar industry
I noticed this quote in the PWM article:

"Along with maximum power point tracking (MPPT), it is one of the primary methods of reducing the output of solar panels to that which can be utilized by a battery.[1]"

It strikes me as problematic.

1) MPPT is not a method of reducing the output of solar panels. It is a method of maximizing power from a solar panel. MPPT charge controllers do have battery protection and sometimes multi-stage, programable charging options. However, these function and are implemented in similar ways as in "PWM" solar charge controllers. MPPT is not limited to use in battery charge controllers. It can also be used to match solar panels to other kinds of loads. I believe that in all cases it used, as the name suggests, to maximize power output from a solar panel.

2) The solar industry uses "PWM" to mean "not MPPT" in the context of battery charge controllers. So, PWM is used for controllers that do not use PWM at all, at least in the sense that PWM has to be modulated, eg. for systems based on Schmidt triggers, state machines, etc. And, MPPT is used for controllers that use do use PWM in their implementations.

All in all, I'm not sure that the sentence is helpful.

I haven't edited a Wikipedia page. So, I'm reluctant to just remove the MPPT sentence that I believe to be incorrect. Is this something that should be edited and if so what's the right way to do it?

Also, I'm not sure how useful or appropriate it would be to add a section discussing how PWM is used in relation to solar charge controllers.

NO mention of modern types of PWM ???
I did not find any section mentioning modern types od PWM e.g. "Selective Harmonic Elimination PWM" or "Space Vector Modulation" used everywhere in high power motors nowadays... 95.105.237.40 (talk) 08:53, 18 September 2022 (UTC)

title: Talk:Pulse-width modulation


text:
Murutinga do Sul

Murutinga do Sul is a municipality in the state of São Paulo in Brazil. The population is 4,506 (2020 est.) in an area of 251 km2. The elevation is 409 m.

Media
In telecommunications, the city was served by Companhia de Telecomunicações do Estado de São Paulo until 1975, when it began to be served by Telecomunicações de São Paulo. In July 1998, this company was acquired by Telefónica, which adopted the Vivo brand in 2012.

The company is currently an operator of cell phones, fixed lines, internet (fiber optics/4G) and television (satellite and cable).

title: Murutinga do Sul


text:
.17 Remington

The .17 Remington is a rifle cartridge introduced in 1971 by Remington Arms Company for their model 700 rifles.

Overview
The .17 Remington is based on the .223 Remington case necked down to .172 in (4.37 mm), with the shoulder moved back.

Extremely high initial velocity (over 4,000 ft/s 1,200 m/s), flat trajectory and very low recoil are the .17 Remington's primary attributes. It has a maximum effective range of about 440 yd on prairie dog-sized animals, but the small bullet's poor ballistic coefficients and sectional densities mean it is highly susceptible to crosswinds at such distances.

The smaller .172 bullet typically has a much lower ballistic coefficient than other typical varmint calibers, such as that of the .223 Remington. Because of this, the .172 bullet loses velocity slightly sooner and is more sensitive to wind; but by no means does this render the cartridge useless. The tiny entrance wound and usual lack of exit wound on coyote-sized animals make it an ideal round for fur bearing animals from which the hunter intends to collect a pelt. A significant disadvantage is the rapid rate at which such a small-caliber rifle barrel can accumulate gilding metal fouling, which is very detrimental to accuracy and may also eventually result in increasing pressures caused by the fouling's constriction of the bore. Many .17 Remington shooters have reported optimum accuracy when the bore is cleaned after every 10 - 20 shots, though more modern metallurgy used in both barrels and bullets has largely mitigated the fouling issue.

The .17 Remington is also one of the few cartridges in which powder charge weight is often greater than bullet weight. Though this condition has been known to degrade accuracy, the .17 Remington is noted for exceptional accuracy.

title: .17 Remington


text:
Talk:Avenue D (Manhattan)

Comment
someone should probably disambiguate these two. Pacian 19:06, 12 Oct 2004 (UTC)

Grand Street
There is no intersection of Avenue D with Grand Street and the Avenue does not continue. --Daniel C. Boyer (talk) 05:16, 5 January 2017 (UTC)

Notables
I was just researching the claim of James Cagney being born on Ave D. This book instead states the he was born on East Eighth. Thus removing claim from the article. Will (talk) 20:32, 30 March 2017 (UTC)
 * It says clearly that he wa sborn on the corner of Easth 8th and Avenue D, so restoring it. Beyond My Ken (talk) 03:07, 31 March 2017 (UTC)
 * The direct quote from the book is (emphasis mine): "It has been reported that James Cagney Jr. Was born in an apartment over his father's saloon at the corner of East Eighth and Avenue D, New York. This is not so. Cagney was born - on July 17, 1899 - in a small apartment on the top floor of a conventional brownstone at 391 East Eighth. His father would aquire the saloon years later..." Will (talk) 16:42, 5 April 2017 (UTC)
 * I stand corrected. Beyond My Ken (talk) 19:39, 5 April 2017 (UTC)

title: Talk:Avenue D (Manhattan)