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Astrological age

An astrological age is a time period which, according to astrology, parallels major changes in the development of human society, culture, history, and politics. There are twelve astrological ages corresponding to the twelve zodiacal signs in western astrology. One cycle of the twelve astrological ages is called a Great Year, comprising 25,772 solar years, at the end of which another cycle begins.

Some astrologers believe that during a given age, some events are directly caused or indirectly influenced by the astrological sign associated with that age, while other astrologers believe that astrological ages do not influence events in any way.

Astrologers do not agree upon exact dates for the beginning or ending of the ages, with given dates varying by hundreds of years.

Overview
There are three broad perspectives on the astrological ages:

 * 1) Archeoastronomers do not necessarily believe in astrology as a science, but rather study the cultural traditions of societies that did refer extensively to astrology.
 * 2) Astrologers have been interested in relating world history to the astrological ages since the late 19th century; however, most astrologers study horoscopes, not astrological ages.
 * 3) The pop-culture concept of the Age of Aquarius referring to major societal changes of the 1960s, popularized in the 1967 musical (and subsequent 1979 film) Hair.

The following table of astrological ages was compiled by Neil Mann, giving commonly cited durations for each era, as well as developments in human history typically believed to have been influenced by the vernal equinox sign of their age. He notes that the claims of zodiac influences on human history are biased, relying on widely varying dates for events and selective cherry picking of evidence.

Contentious aspects
Definitive details on the astrological ages are lacking or disputed. The 20th-century British astrologer Charles Carter stated that "It is probable that there is no branch of Astrology upon which more nonsense has been poured forth than the doctrine of the precession of the equinoxes."

Neil Spencer in his 2000 book True as the Stars Above expressed a similar opinion about the astrological ages. Spencer characterizes the concept as being "fuzzy", "speculative", and the least-defined area of astrological lore. Derek and Julia Parker state that it is impossible to state the exact date for the start of any astrological age and acknowledge that many astrologers believe the Age of Aquarius has arrived while many say the world is at the end of the Age of Pisces.

Ray Grasse states in Signs of the Times that "there is considerable dispute over the exact starting and ending times for the different Great Ages." Paul Wright in The Great Ages and Other Astrological Cycles says that much of the uncertainty related to the astrological ages is because many astrologers have a poor understanding of the meaning of the astrological symbolism and "even poorer historical knowledge".

Consensus approach
Though so many issues are contentious or disputed, there are two aspects of the astrological ages that have virtually unanimous consensus—firstly, the theorized link of the astrological ages to the axial precession of the Earth and commonly referred to as precession of the equinoxes; secondly, that, due to the nature of the precession of the equinoxes, the progression of the ages proceeds in reverse direction through the zodiacal signs.

Ages of equal or variable lengths
Astrologers use many ways to divide the Great Year into twelve astrological ages. There are two popular methods. One method is to divide the Great Year into twelve astrological ages of approximately equal lengths of around 2156 years per age based on the vernal equinox (also known as vernal point) moving through the sidereal zodiac. Another method is to significantly vary the duration of each astrological age based on the passage of the vernal equinox measured against the actual zodiacal constellations. Each of those twelve sections of the Great Year can be called either an astrological age, Precessional Age, or a Great Month.

The method based on the zodiacal constellations has a flaw in that from the reckoning of classical-era astronomer/astrologers like Claudius Ptolemy, many constellations overlap, a problem only eliminated in the past 200 years by the adoption of official constellation boundaries. For example, by 2700 CE the vernal point will have moved into Aquarius, but from a classical-era point of view, the vernal point will also point to Pisces due to the pre-boundary overlap.

Age transitions
Many astrologers consider the entrance into a new astrological age a gradual transition called a "cusp". For example, Ray Grasse states that an astrological age does not begin at an exact day or year. Paul Wright states that a transition effect does occur at the border of the astrological ages. Consequently, the beginning of any age cannot be defined to a single year or a decade but blend its influences with the previous age for a period of time until the new age can stand in its own right. In Nicholas Campion's The Book of World Horoscopes there are six pages listing researchers and their proposed dates for the start of the Age of Aquarius indicating that many researchers believe that each age commences at an exact date.

Ages exactly 2,000 years each
Many astrologers find ages too erratic based on either the vernal point moving through the randomly sized zodiacal constellations or sidereal zodiac and, instead, round all astrological ages to exactly 2000 years each. In this approach the ages are usually neatly aligned so that the Aries age is found from 2000 BC to AD 1, Pisces age AD 1 to AD 2000, the Aquarian Age AD 2000 – AD 4000, and so on. This approach is inconsistent with the precession of the equinoxes. Based on precession of the equinoxes, there is a one-degree shift approximately every 72 years, so a 30-degree movement requires 2160 years to complete.

Ages involving the opposite sign
An established school of thought is that an age is also influenced by the sign opposite to the one of the astrological age. Referring back to the precession of the Equinoxes, as the Sun crosses one constellation in the Northern Hemisphere's spring Equinox (21 March), it will cross the opposite sign in the spring Equinox in the Southern Hemisphere (21 September). For instance, the Age of Pisces is complemented by its opposite astrological sign of Virgo (the Virgin); so a few refer to the Piscean age as the 'Age of Pisces-Virgo'. Adopting this approach, the Age of Aquarius would become the Age of Aquarius-Leo. In his writings Ray Grasse also espouses the link between each sign of the zodiac and its opposite sign.

Hipparchus
The great demarcation point in the history of the astrological ages is around 127 BC when the Greek astronomer-astrologer Hipparchus from observation discovered that the great immovable sphere of fixed stars was not fixed but slowly moving eastwards due to what is now known as precession of the equinoxes. It is possible that some other astronomers before Hipparchus had also noticed the phenomenon, but it is Hipparchus who is credited with this discovery (See Ancient Mesopotamian religion.)

Possible pre-Hipparchian recognition of precession
Giorgio de Santillana (1902–1974) became professor of the History of Science in the School of Humanities at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology in 1954, and along with Hertha von Dechend, published Hamlet's Mill, An Essay on Myth and the Frame of Time in 1969. It was an attempt to marry science and mythology that had become separated by the ancient Greeks. Santillana and von Dechend believed that the old mythological stories handed down from antiquity were not random fictitious tales but were accurate depictions of celestial cosmology clothed in tales to aid their oral transmission. The chaos, monsters, and violence in ancient myths are representative of the forces that shape each age. They believed that ancient myths are the remains of preliterate astronomy that became lost with the rise of the Greco-Roman civilization.

Santillana and von Dechend state that ancient myths have no historical basis but a cosmological one based on a primitive form of astrology. They recognized the importance of the heliacally rising constellation as markers for the astrological ages and wrote that knowledge of this phenomenon had been known for thousands of years previously. They state that to understand ancient thinking it is necessary to understand astrology, not the modern sun-sign or horoscopic astrology, but the astrology of ancient times which was the lingua franca of ancient times. Gavin White supports the mythological connection between precession of the equinoxes and some ancient star myths.

They go further and state that our knowledge of the dawn of astrology and its relationship to ancient myths and star names is limited, and only extends back to about 2100 BC, which was during the Renaissance of Sumerian Culture; we are not able, they say, to examine older material on the subject. In Hamlet's Mill it is stated that the ancient Greeks knew of three successive destructions that correlate to three ages, and that since the beginning of history the vernal point has moved through Taurus, Aries, and Pisces. Hesiod in Works and Days refers to five successive ages. White states that the stars and many constellations were first organized in Mesopotamia region in the 5th millennium BCE but many of these constellations had to be reorganized by the middle of the 3rd millennium BCE due to the shift in the heavens caused by precession of the equinoxes. Some ancient constellations were removed from the sky map, and new constellations were added to better align with the seasons.

As early as 1811, modern researchers were examining evidence for knowledge of precession of the equinoxes and astrological ages before Hipparchus. Sir William Drummond published Oedipus Judaicus: Allegory in the Old Testament in 1811. Drummond expounds on his hypothesis that a greater part of the Hebrew Scriptures are merely allegorical writings that hide the true content. Furthermore, the Orientalists were mainly concerned with astronomy and most of their ancient myths are really disguised astronomical records. Drummond believed that the 49th chapter of Genesis contains prophecies allied to astronomy and that the twelve tribes of Israel represented the 12 zodiacal signs.

Drummond makes his case that at the time of Abraham, the Amorites first recorded the shift from the Age of Taurus to the Age of Aries as represented by the year commencing with the Ram (Aries) rather than the bull (Taurus). The Book of Joshua indicates that by the time of Moses the equinoxes had already shifted from Taurus to Aries, as Moses had ordained that the civil year should commence with the month of Nisan (Aries) rather than the month of Taurus. The feast of the Passover is probably a celebration of the Age of Aries with the Paschal Lamb representative of Aries, traditionally associated with the symbol of the ram or sheep.

Drummond also hypothesizes that most number references in ancient texts were coded to hide their real value by multiples of 1,000. For example, in the Old Testament Joshua commanded 30,000 men, and he slew 12,000 inhabitants of the city of Ai. The historian Berosus stated the Babylonians commenced astronomical observations 49,000 years (7 × 7 x 1000) before Alexander the Great. Most early references were related to 7 (Sun, Moon, and five visible planets), 12 (number of zodiacal signs and months per year), 30 (degrees per sign of the zodiac), and higher combinations of these numbers and other numbers associated with astronomical observations and astrology.

The problem of understanding the exact nature of ancient astrology is that it was only partly documented, leaving the question of the extent of their undocumented astrological knowledge. Michael Baigent in From the Omens of Babylon: Astrology and Ancient Mesopotamia suggests that there is evidence that there was probably an older or parallel oral tradition of astrology at the time of publication of Enuma Anu Enlil believed published over the period (1595–1157 BC). The ancient Mesopotamians believed that history repeated itself after a massive cycle of many years.

Trepidation
In the early post-Hipparchus period, two schools of thought developed about the slow shift of the fixed sphere of stars as discovered by Hipparchus. One school believed that at 1 degree shift per 100 years, the sphere of fixed stars would return to its starting point after 36,000 years. The trepidation school believed that the fixed stars first moved one way, then moved the other way – similar to a giant pendulum. It was believed that the 'swinging' stars first moved 8 degrees one direction, then reversed this 8 degrees travelling the other direction.

Theon of Alexandria in the 4th century AD includes trepidation when he wrote Small Commentary to the Handy Tables. In the 5th century AD, the Greek Neoplatonist philosopher Proclus mentions that both theories were being discussed. The Indians around the 5th century AD preferred the trepidation theory but because they had observed the movement of the fixed stars by 25 degrees since ancient times (since around 1325 BC), they considered that trepidation swung back and forth around 27 degrees.

The significant early exponent of the 'circular 36,000' years method was Ptolemy and, due to the status placed upon Ptolemy by later scholars, the Christian and Muslim astronomers of the Middle Ages accepted the Great Year of 36,000 years rather than trepidation. However some scholars gave credence to both theories based on the addition of another sphere which is represented in the Alfonsine tables produced by the Toledo School of Translators in the 12th and 13th centuries. The Alfonsine tables computed the positions of the sun, moon, and planets relative to the fixed stars. The Italian astronomer Cecco d'Ascoli, professor of astrology at the University of Bologna in the early 14th century, continued to have faith in trepidation but believed it swung 10 degrees in either direction. Copernicus refers to trepidation in De revolutionibus orbium coelestium published in 1543.

Mithraism
Hipparchus' discovery of precession of the equinoxes may have created the Mithraic Mysteries, colloquially also known as Mithraism, a 1st – 4th century neo-Platonic mystery cult of the Roman god Mithras. The near-total lack of written descriptions or scripture necessitates a reconstruction of beliefs and practices from the archaeological evidence, such as that found in Mithraic temples (in modern times called mithraea), which were real or artificial caves representing the cosmos. Until the 1970s most scholars followed Franz Cumont in identifying Mithras as a continuation of the Persian god Mithra. Cumont's continuity hypothesis led him to believe that the astrological component was a late and unimportant accretion.

Cumont's views are no longer followed. Today, the cult and its beliefs are recognized as a synthesis of late-classical Greco-Roman thought, with an astrological component even more astrology-centric than Roman beliefs generally were during the early Roman Empire. The details remain debated.

As far as axial precession is concerned, one scholar of Mithraism, David Ulansey, has interpreted Mithras as a personification of the force responsible for precession. He argues that the cult was a religious response to Hipparchus's discovery of precession, which – from the ancient geocentric perspective – amounted to the discovery that the entire cosmos (i.e., the outermost celestial sphere of the fixed stars) was moving in a previously unknown way. Ulansey's analysis is based on the tauroctony: the image of Mithras killing a bull that was placed at the center of every Mithraic temple. In the standard tauroctony, Mithras and the bull are accompanied by a dog, a snake, a raven, a scorpion and two identical young men, with torches.

According to Ulansey, the tauroctony is a schematic star chart. The bull is Taurus, a constellation of the zodiac. In the astrological age that preceded the time of Hipparchus, the vernal equinox had taken place when the Sun was in the constellation of Taurus, and during that previous epoch the constellations of Canis Minor (The Dog), Hydra (The Snake), Corvus (The Raven), and Scorpius (The Scorpion) – that is, the constellations that correspond to the animals depicted in the tauroctony – all lay on the celestial equator (the location of which is shifted by the precession) and thus had privileged positions in the sky during that epoch. Mithras himself represents the constellation Perseus, which is located directly above Taurus the Bull: The same location occupied by Mithras in the tauroctony image. Mithras' killing of the Bull, by this reasoning, represented the power possessed by this new god to shift the entire cosmic structure, turning the cosmic sphere so that the location of the spring equinox left the constellation of Taurus (a transition symbolized by the killing of the Bull), and the Dog, Snake, Raven, and Scorpion likewise lost their privileged positions on the celestial equator.

The iconography also contains two torch-bearing twins (Cautes and Cautopates) framing the bull-slaying image – one holding a torch pointing up and the other a torch pointing down. These torch-bearers are sometimes depicted with one of them (torch up) holding or associated with a Bull and a tree with leaves, and the other (torch down) holding or associated with a Scorpion and a tree with fruit. Ulansey interprets these torch-bearers as representing the spring equinox (torch up, tree with leaves, Bull) and the autumn equinox (torch down, tree with fruit, Scorpion) in Taurus and Scorpius respectively, which is where the equinoxes were located during the preceding "Age of Taurus" symbolized in the tauroctony as a whole.

From this, Ulansey concludes that Mithraic iconography was an "astronomical code" whose secret was the existence of a new cosmic divinity, unknown to those outside the cult, whose fundamental attribute was his ability to shift the structure of the entire cosmos, and thereby to control the astrological forces believed at that time to determine human existence. That gave him the power to grant his devotees success during life and salvation after death (i.e., a safe journey through the planetary spheres and a subsequent immortal existence in the sphere of the stars).

Rate of precession
Though the one degree per hundred years calculated for precession of the equinoxes as defined by Hipparchus and promulgated by Ptolemy was too slow, another rate of precession that was too fast also gained popularity in the 1st millennium AD. By the fourth century AD, Theon of Alexandria assumed a changing rate (trepidation) of one degree per 66 years. The tables of the Shah (Zij-i Shah) originate in the sixth century, but are lost, but many later Arabic and Persian astronomers and astrologers refer to them and also use this value.

These later astronomers-astrologers or sources include: Al-Khwarizmi, Zij al Sindhind or "Star Tables Based on the Indian Calculation Method"(c. 800); "Tabulae probatae" or "az-Zig al-mumtan" (c. 830); Al-Battani, Albategnius, al-Zij (c. 880); and al-Sufi, Azophi (c. 965); Al Biruni (973–1048), "al Canon al Masud" or "The Masʿūdic Canon"; Arabic fixed star catalogue of 1 October 1112 (ed. Paul Kunitzsch); and "Libros del Saber de Astronomía" by Alfonso X of Castile (1252–1284).

Anno Domini
There exists evidence that the modern calendar developed by Dionysius Exiguus in the 6th century AD commencing with the birth of Jesus Christ at AD 1 was influenced by precession of the equinoxes and astrological ages. Dionysius' desire to replace Diocletian years (Diocletian persecuted Christians) with a calendar based on the incarnation of Christ was to prevent people from believing the imminent end of the world. At the time it was believed that the Resurrection and end of the world would occur 500 years after the birth of Jesus. The current Anno Mundi calendar theoretically commenced with the creation of the world based on information in the Old Testament. It was believed that based on the Anno Mundi calendar Jesus was born in the year 5500 (or 5500 years after the world was created) with the year 6000 of the Anno Mundi calendar marking the end of the world.

Anno Mundi 6000 (approximately AD 500) was thus equated with the Second Coming of Christ and the end of the world. Since this date had already passed in the time of Dionysius, he therefore searched for a new end of the world at a later date. He was heavily influenced by ancient cosmology, in particular the doctrine of the Great Year that places a strong emphasis on planetary conjunctions. This doctrine says that when all the planets were in conjunction that this cosmic event would mark the end of the world. Dionysius accurately calculated that this conjunction would occur in May AD 2000. Dionysius then applied another astronomical timing mechanism based on precession of the equinoxes. Though incorrect, some oriental astronomers at the time believed that the precessional cycle was 24,000 years which included twelve astrological ages of 2,000 years each. Dionysius believed that if the planetary alignment marked the end of an age (i.e. the Pisces age), then the birth of Jesus Christ marked the beginning of the Age of Pisces 2,000 years earlier. He therefore deducted 2,000 years from the May 2000 conjunction to produce AD 1 for the incarnation of Christ.

Mashallah ibn Athari
The renowned Persian Jewish astronomer and astrologer Masha'Allah (c.740 – 815 CE) employed precession of the equinoxes for calculating the period "Era of the Flood" dated as 3360 BCE or 259 years before the Indian Kali Yuga, believed to have commenced in 3101 BCE.

Giovanni Pico della Mirandola
The 15th century Italian Renaissance philosopher Giovanni Pico della Mirandola published a massive attack on astrological predictions, but he did not object to all of astrology and he commented on the position of the vernal point in his day. Pico was aware of the effects of precession of the equinoxes and knew that the first point of Aries no longer existed in the constellation of Aries. Pico not only knew that the vernal point had shifted back into Pisces, he stated that in his time, the vernal point (zero degrees tropical Aries) was located at 2 degrees (sidereal) Pisces. This suggests that by whatever method of calculation he was employing, Pico expected the vernal point to shift into (sidereal) Aquarius age 144 years later as a one degree shift takes 72 years.

Isaac Newton
Isaac Newton (1642 – 1726–27 ) determined the cause of precession and established the rate of precession at 1 degree per 72 years, very close to the best value measured today, thus demonstrating the magnitude of the error in the earlier value of 1 degree per century.

Calculation aspects

The Earth, in addition to its diurnal (daily) rotation upon its axis and annual rotation around the Sun, incurs a precessional motion involving a slow periodic shift of the axis itself: approximately one degree every 72 years. This motion, which is caused mostly by the Moon's gravity, gives rise to the precession of the equinoxes in which the Sun's position on the ecliptic at the time of the vernal equinox, measured against the background of fixed stars, gradually changes with time.

In graphical terms, the Earth behaves like a spinning top, and tops tend to wobble as they spin. The spin of the Earth is its daily (diurnal) rotation. The spinning Earth slowly wobbles over a period slightly less than 26,000 years. From our perspective on Earth, the stars are ever so slightly 'moving' from west to east at the rate of one degree approximately every 72 years. One degree is about twice the diameter of the Sun or Moon as viewed from Earth. The easiest way to notice this slow movement of the stars is at any fixed time each year. The most common fixed time is at the vernal equinox around 21 March each year.

In astrology, an astrological age has usually been defined by the constellation or superimposed sidereal zodiac in which the Sun actually appears at the vernal equinox. This is the method that Hipparchus appears to have applied around 127 BC when he calculated precession. Since each sign of the zodiac is composed of 30 degrees, each astrological age might be thought to last about 72 (years) × 30 (degrees) = about 2160 years.

This means the Sun crosses the equator at the vernal equinox moving backward against the fixed stars from one year to the next at the rate of one degree in seventy-two years, one constellation (on average) in about 2148 years, and the whole twelve signs in about 25,772 years, sometimes called a Platonic Year. However the length of the ages are decreasing with time as the rate of precession is increasing. Therefore, no two ages are of equal length.

First point of Aries alignment – the fiducial point
Approximately every 26,000 years the zodiacal constellations, the associated sidereal zodiac, and the tropical zodiac used by western astrologers basically align. Technically this is when the tropical and sidereal "first point in Aries" (Aries 0°) coincided. This alignment is often called the fiducial point and, if the fiducial point could be found, fairly exact timeframes of all the astrological ages could be accurately determined if the method used to determine the astrological ages is based on the equal-sized 30 degrees per age and do not correspond to the exact constellation configuration in the sky.

However this fiducial point is difficult to determine because while there is no ambiguity about the tropical zodiac used by western astrologers, the same cannot be said of the sidereal zodiac used by Vedic astrologers. Vedic astrologers do not have unanimity on the exact location in space of their sidereal zodiac. This is because the sidereal zodiac is superimposed upon the irregular zodiacal constellation, and there are no unambiguous boundaries of the zodiacal constellations.

Modern day astronomers have defined boundaries, but this is a recent development by astronomers who are divorced from astrology, and cannot be assumed to be correct from the astrological perspective. While most astronomers and some astrologers agree that the fiducial point occurred in or around the 3rd to 5th centuries AD, there is no consensus on any exact date or tight timeframe within these three centuries. A number of dates are proposed by various astronomers and even wider timeframes by astrologers. (For an alternative approach to calibrating precession, see Alternative approach to calibrating precession in New, alternative, and fringe theories section below).

As an example of a mystic contemporary approach to precession, in Max Heindel's astrology writings, it is described, that last time the starting-point of the sidereal zodiac agreed with the tropical zodiac occurred in AD 498. A year after these points were in exact agreement, the Sun crossed the equator about fifty seconds of space into the constellation Pisces. The year following it was one minute and forty seconds into Pisces, and so it has been creeping backward ever since, until at the present time the Sun crosses the equator in about nine degrees in the constellation Pisces. Based on this approach, it will thus be about 600 years before it actually crosses the celestial equator in the constellation Aquarius. However this is only one of many approaches and so this must remain speculation at this point of time.

Age of Pisces (Piscean Age)
Symbol for Pisces:

When the March equinox occurs in Pisces.

Timeframes

 * Zodiacal 30 degrees:
 * Neil Mann interpretation: began c. AD 1 and ends c. AD 2150
 * Heindel-Rosicrucian interpretation: began c. AD 498 and ends c. AD 2654

Age of Aquarius (Aquarian Age)
Symbol for Aquarius:

When the March equinox occurs in Aquarius.

Timeframes
In 1928, at the Conference of the International Astronomical Union (IAU) in Leiden, the Netherlands, the edges of the 88 official constellations became defined in astronomical terms. The edge established between Pisces and Aquarius locates the beginning of the Aquarian Age around the year 2600.

The Austrian astronomer, Professor Hermann Haupt, examined the question of when the Age of Aquarius begins in an article published in 1992 by the Austrian Academy of Science: with the German title "Der Beginn des Wassermannzeitalters, eine astronomische Frage?" ("The Start of the Aquarian Age, an Astronomical Question?"). Based on the boundaries accepted by IAU in 1928, Haupt's article investigates the start of the Age of Aquarius by calculating the entry of the spring equinox point over the parallel cycle (d = – 4°) between the constellations Pisces and Aquarius and reaches, using the usual formula of precession (Gliese, 1982), the year 2595. However Haupt concludes:

"Though it cannot be expected that astrologers will follow the official boundaries of the constellations, there will be an attempt to calculate the entry of the spring equinox point into the constellation of Aquarius. ... As briefly has been shown, the results and methods of astrology in many areas, such as concerning the Aquarian Age, are controversial on their own and cannot be called scientific because of the many esoteric elements."
 * Zodiacal 30 degrees:
 * Neil Mann interpretation: begins AD 2150.
 * Dane Rudhyar's interpretation states that the Age of Aquarius will begin in AD 2062.
 * Nicholas Campion in The Book of World Horoscopes indicates that he has collected over 90 dates provided by researchers for the start of the Age of Aquarius and these dates have a range of over 2,000 years commencing in the 15th century AD. The range of dates for the possible start of the Aquarian Age range from 1447 to 3621.
 * Constellation boundary year:
 * Hermann Haupt interpretation: begins c. AD 2595.

Astrological predictions
There is an expectation that the Aquarian Age will usher in a period of group consciousness. Marcia Moore and Mark Douglas write that the lighting up of the earth artificially by electricity is a sign of the Age of Aquarius.

Sub-periods of ages
Many research astrologers believe that the astrological ages can be divided into smaller sections along the lines of 'wheels within wheels'. The most common method is to divide each astrological ages into twelve sub-periods. There are two common ways of undertaking this process and two ways of applying these sub-periods. Furthermore, some astrologers divide the ages in different ways. For example, Lcdr David Williams employs a decanate sub-division whereby each age is divided into three equal sections.

Aries to Pisces sub-periods
The most popular method of sub-dividing astrological ages is to divide each age equally into twelve sub-periods with the first sub-period Aries, followed by Taurus, Gemini, and so on, until the last sub-division, Pisces. Charles Carter was an early advocate of this approach. Technically this approach is based on the twelfth harmonic of the zodiacal signs.

Dwadasamsa sub-periods
The alternative approach is to apply a method commonly used in Vedic astrology but with long antecedents also in western astrology. This method also divides each astrological age into twelve sub-periods but the first sub-period for each sign is the same as the sign itself, then with the following sub-periods in natural order. For example, the twelve dwadasamsa of Aquarius are Aquarius, Pisces, Aries, Taurus, and so on, until the last dwadasamsa – Capricorn. Technically this approach is based on attributes of both the twelfth and thirteenth harmonics of the zodiacal signs and can be considered to be halfway between the 12th and 13th harmonics.

Sub-period direction (forward or retrograde?)
There are two ways of applying the above sub-periods to the astrological ages.
 * Natural Order – The most common way is to arrange the sub-periods so that they go forward in the natural order. Therefore, if the Aries to Pisces method is adopted for example in the Aquarian Age, the first sub-period is Aries, followed by Taurus, Gemini and so on until the last sub-division – Pisces. This is the approach made by Charles Carter. If the dwadasamsa sub-period is adopted they also progress in the natural order of the signs. For example, the twelve dwadasamsa of Aquarius are Aquarius, Pisces, Aries, Taurus, and so on, until the last dwadasamsa – Capricorn.
 * Geometric Order (Retrograde) – The other approach is to arrange the sub-periods geometrically and reverse the direction of the sub-periods in line with the retrograde order of the astrological ages. For example, if applying the Aries to Pisces method, the first sub-period of any astrological age is Pisces, followed by Aquarius, Capricorn, and so on, until the last sub-period – Aries. Charles Carter indicated there was some merit to this approach. If applying the dwadasamsa sub-period system geometrically for example the first sub-period in the Aquarian Age is Capricorn, followed by Sagittarius, Scorpio, and so on, until the last sub-period – Aquarius. This approach is adopted by Terry MacKinnell, Patrizia Norelli-Bachelet and Lcdr David Williams applied his [decans] (threefold division) geometrically thus supporting this approach.

New, alternative, and fringe myths
Due to the lack of consensus of almost all aspects of the astrological ages, except for the astrological ages relationship to precession of the equinoxes and the retrograde order of the astrological ages, there are alternative, esoteric, innovative, fringe and newly expressed ideas about the astrological ages which have not established credibility in the wider astrological community or among archaeoastronomers.

Alternative approach to calibrating precession
Terry MacKinnell has developed an alternative approach to calibrating precession of the equinoxes to determine the Astrological Age. His major point of departure from the traditional modern approach is how he applies the vernal equinox to the zodiacal constellations. Instead of referring to the position of the Sun at the vernal equinox (a 'modern' mathematical technique developed by the Greeks in the late 1st millennium BC), he refers to the heliacal rising constellation on the day of the vernal equinox. This approach is based on the ancient approach to astronomical observations (the same ancient period that also saw the invention of the zodiacal constellations) prior to the development of mathematical astronomy by the ancient Greeks in the 1st millennium BC. All ancient astronomical observations were based on visual techniques.

Of all the key techniques used in ancient times, the most common in Babylon (most likely the source of astrology) and most other ancient cultures were based on phenomena that occurred close to the eastern or western horizons. MacKinnell opines that it is incongruent to use a modern mathematical approach to the much older constellations that were first described well before these mathematical approaches were invented.

The heliacal rising constellation at the vernal equinox is based on the last zodiacal constellation rising above the Eastern Horizon just before dawn and before the light of the approaching Sun obliterates the stars on the eastern horizon. Currently at the vernal equinox the constellation of Aquarius has been the heliacal rising constellation for some centuries. The stars disappear about one hour before dawn depending upon magnitude, latitude, and date. This one hour represents approximately 15 degrees difference compared to the contemporary method based on the position of the Sun among the zodiacal constellations.

Each age is composed of 30 degrees, therefore, 15 degrees represents about half an age or about 1080 years. Based on the heliacal rising method, the Age of Aquarius arrived about 1,080 years earlier than the modern system. John H Rogers in part one of his paper Origins of the ancient constellations also states that using the ancient heliacal rising method compared to the (modern) solar method produces a result that is approximately 1,000 in advance.

Using this approach, the astrological ages arrive about half an age earlier compared to the common contemporary approach to calibrating precession based on modern mathematical techniques. Thus, MacKinnell has the Aquarian Age arriving in the 15th century while most astrologers have the Age of Aquarius arriving in the 27th century, almost 700 years in the future.

title: Astrological age


text:
User talk:Smitty1276

Hello and welcome to Wikipedia!

Here are some tips to help you get started:

 * Try the Tutorial, and feel free to experiment in the test area.
 * If you need help, post a question at the Help Desk
 * Eventually, you might want to read the Manual of Style and Policies and Guidelines.
 * Remember Neutral point of view
 * Explore, be bold in editing pages, and, most importantly, have fun!

Good luck!

[[User:Meelar|Meelar (talk)]]

P.S. One last helpful hint. To sign your posts like I did above (on talk pages, for example) use the '~' symbol. To insert just your name, type ~~~ (3 tildes), or, to insert your name and timestamp, use ~~~~ (4 tildes).

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: User talk:Smitty1276


text:
User talk:Hiuy

Hello and welcome to Wikipedia!

Here are some tips to help you get started:

 * Try the Tutorial, and feel free to experiment in the test area.
 * If you need help, post a question at the Help Desk
 * Eventually, you might want to read the Manual of Style and Policies and Guidelines.
 * Remember Neutral point of view
 * Explore, be bold in editing pages, and, most importantly, have fun!

Good luck!

[[User:Meelar|Meelar (talk)]]

P.S. One last helpful hint. To sign your posts like I did above (on talk pages, for example) use the '~' symbol. To insert just your name, type ~~~ (3 tildes), or, to insert your name and timestamp, use ~~~~ (4 tildes).

title: User talk:Hiuy


text:
Domain Technologie Control

Domain Technologie Control (DTC) is a web hosting control panel aimed at providing a graphics-oriented layout for managing commercial hosting of web servers, intended for shared web hosting servers, virtual private servers (VPSes), and dedicated servers. Domain Technologie Control is free software released under the GNU LGPL v2.1 license. It is fully skinnable and translated into several languages.

Domain Technologie Control allows the administrator to create web hosting plans that provide email and FTP accounts, domain purchasing, subdomains, SSH, and MySQL databases to the end users under controllable quota for the web sites that these users own. DTC also maintains the automation of billing, generates backup scripts, and monitors traffic (per user and per service) using a single system, UID or GID. Also integrated into DTC are the support ticket system and customizable HTTP error pages.

DTC itself manages its own MySQL database to store its setup configuration, web hosting plans, and users. It has support for many other free software: MySQL, Apache, PHP, qmail, Postfix, Courier, Dovecot, ProFTPd, Webalizer, mod-log-sql, and more. It also connects to dtc-xen to manage and monitor the usage of Virtual Private Servers (VPS).

DTC is fully open source (LGPL). DTC is also the first web hosting control panel that has reached inclusion in major distributions like Debian (since Lenny in 2009), Ubuntu (since 2008) and FreeBSD.

title: Domain Technologie Control


text:
Arthur Kornberg

Arthur Kornberg (March 3, 1918 – October 26, 2007) was an American biochemist who won the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1959 for the discovery of "the mechanisms in the biological synthesis of ribonucleic acid and deoxyribonucleic acid" together with Spanish biochemist and physician Severo Ochoa of New York University. He was also awarded the Paul-Lewis Award in Enzyme Chemistry from the American Chemical Society in 1951, an L.H.D. degree from Yeshiva University in 1962, and the National Medal of Science in 1979. In 1991, Kornberg received the Golden Plate Award of the American Academy of Achievement and the Gairdner Foundation Award in 1995.

His primary research interests were in biochemistry, especially enzyme chemistry, deoxyribonucleic acid synthesis (DNA replication) and studying the nucleic acids which control heredity in animals, plants, bacteria and viruses.

Early life and education
Born in New York City, Kornberg was the son of Jewish parents Joseph and Lena (née Katz) Kornberg, who emigrated to New York from Austrian Galicia (now part of Poland) in 1900 before they were married. His paternal grandfather had changed the family name from Queller (also spelled Kweller) to avoid the draft by taking on the identity of someone who had already completed military service. Joseph married Lena in 1904. Joseph worked as a sewing machine operator in the sweat shops of the Lower East Side, Manhattan for almost 30 years, and when his health failed, opened a small hardware store in Brooklyn, where Arthur assisted customers at the age of nine. Joseph spoke at least six languages although he had no formal education.

Arthur Kornberg was educated first at Abraham Lincoln High School and then at City College of New York. He received a B.S. in 1937, followed by a Doctor of Medicine at the University of Rochester in 1941. Kornberg had a mildly elevated level of bilirubin in his blood— jaundice due to a hereditary genetic condition known as Gilbert's syndrome—and, while at medical school, he took a survey of fellow students to discover how common the condition was. The results were published in Kornberg's first research paper in 1942.

Kornberg's internship was at Strong Memorial Hospital in Rochester, New York, in 1941–1942. After completing his medical training, he joined the armed services as a lieutenant in the United States Coast Guard, serving as a ship's doctor in 1942 in the Caribbean. Rolla Dyer, the Director of National Institutes of Health, had noticed his paper and invited him to join the research team at the Nutrition Laboratory of the NIH. From 1942 to 1945, Kornberg's work was the feeding of specialized diets to rats to discover new vitamins.

Research and career
The feeding of rats was boring work, and Kornberg became fascinated by enzymes. He transferred to Dr Severo Ochoa's laboratory at New York University in 1946, and took summer courses at Columbia University to fill out the gaps in his knowledge of organic and physical chemistry while learning the techniques of enzyme purification at work. He became Chief of the Enzyme and Metabolism Section at NIH from 1947–1953, working on understanding of ATP production from NAD and NADP. This led to his work on how DNA is built up from simpler molecules.

While working at NIH, he also researched at Washington University in St. Louis (in the lab of Carl Ferdinand Cori and Gerty Cori in 1947), and the University of California, Berkeley (in the lab of Horace Barker in 1951).

In 1953 he became professor and head of the department of microbiology, Washington University in St. Louis, until 1959. Here he continued experimenting with the enzymes which created DNA. In 1956 he isolated the first DNA polymerizing enzyme, now known as DNA polymerase I. This got him elected to the United States National Academy of Sciences in 1957 and won him the Nobel prize in 1959.

In 1960, he was elected to the American Philosophical Society, received a LL.D. again from City College and a D.Sc. at the University of Rochester in 1962. He became professor and executive head of the department of biochemistry, Stanford University, in 1959. In an interview in 1997, Arthur Kornberg (referring to Josh Lederberg) said: "Lederberg really wanted to join my department. I knew him; he's a genius, but he'd be unable to focus and to operate within a small family group like ours, and so, I was instrumental in establishing a department of genetics [at Stanford] of which he would be chairman."

Kornberg's mother died of gas gangrene from a spore infection after a routine gall bladder operation in 1939. This started his lifelong fascination with spores, and he devoted some of his research efforts to understanding them while at Washington University. From 1962 to 1970, in the midst of his work on DNA synthesis, Kornberg devoted half his research effort to determining how DNA is stored in the spore, what replication mechanisms are included, and how the spore generates a new cell. This was an unfashionable but complex area of science, and although some progress was made, eventually Kornberg abandoned this research.

The Arthur Kornberg Medical Research Building at the University of Rochester Medical Center was named in his honor in 1999.

Until his death, Kornberg maintained an active research laboratory at Stanford and regularly published scientific journal articles. For several years the focus of his research was the metabolism of inorganic polyphosphate.

The "Kornberg school" of biochemistry refers to Arthur Kornberg's many graduate students and post-doctoral fellows, i.e., his intellectual children, and the trainees of his trainees, i.e., his intellectual grandchildren. Kornberg's intellectual children include I. Robert Lehman, Charles C. Richardson, Randy Schekman, William T. Wickner, James Rothman, Arturo Falaschi and Ken-ichi Arai.

Books

 * "Germ Stories". University Science Books, 2007, ISBN 1891389513
 * For the Love of Enzymes: The Odyssey of a Biochemist. Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA, 1989, ISBN 0-674-30776-3
 * The Golden Helix: Inside Biotech Ventures. University Science Books, 2002, ISBN 1-891389-19-X
 * Enzymatic Synthesis of DNA, John Wiley & Sons, 1961
 * DNA Synthesis, W. H. Freeman and Co., San Francisco, 1974 ISBN 0-7167-0586-9
 * DNA Replication, W. H. Freeman and Co., San Francisco, 1980 ISBN 0-7167-1102-8
 * DNA Replication (2nd Edition) with Tania A. Baker., W. H. Freeman and Co., New York, 1992 ISBN 0-7167-2003-5

Personal life
On November 21, 1943, Kornberg married Sylvy Ruth Levy, also a biochemist of note. She worked closely with Kornberg and contributed significantly to the discovery of DNA polymerase. According to their second son, Thomas, “the joke in the family—and it was just a joke—was that when the prize was announced, she said 'I was robbed!’”

Arthur and Sylvy Kornberg had three sons: Roger David Kornberg (1947), Thomas B. Kornberg (1948), and Kenneth Andrew Kornberg (1950). Roger is Professor of Structural Biology at Stanford University, and the 2006 laureate of the Nobel Prize in Chemistry. Thomas discovered DNA polymerase II and III in 1970 and is now a professor at the University of California, San Francisco. Kenneth is an architect specializing in the design of biomedical and biotechnology laboratories and buildings.

Arthur Kornberg was married three times. His first two wives predeceased him. Sylvy Kornberg died in 1986. Arthur Kornberg remarried in 1988 but his second wife, the former Charlene Walsh Levering, died in 1995. In December 1998 Arthur Kornberg married Carolyn Frey Dixon.

When he was in his eighties, Kornberg continued to conduct research full-time at department of biochemistry at Stanford. He died on October 26, 2007, at Stanford Hospital from respiratory failure.

title: Arthur Kornberg


text:
Wikipedia:Goings-on/October 3, 2004

{| cellspacing=3 width="100%"
 * bgcolor="#fffff6" colspan="2" style="border: 1px solid black;padding-left:1em;"|

Goings-on in the week starting Sunday October 3 2004

 * Chicago meetup with Jimbo Wales scheduled for 24 October 2004. Sign up if you can attend.
 * Seattle meetup (without Jimbo Wales, but with lots of other Wikipedians) scheduled for Saturday, 6 November 2004. Sign up if you can attend.
 * WikiProject Countering systemic bias - a new project to give Wikipedians easier access to less-traveled topics.

 * - valign="top"
 * bgcolor="#fffff6" style="border: 1px solid black;padding-left:1em;"|

Articles featured on the Main Page
 * History of Greenland (October 3)
 * Emacs (October 4)
 * Gene (October 5)
 * Golden age of arcade games (October 6)
 * Coronation Street (October 7)
 * James Joyce (October 8)
 * Io (moon) (October 9)

 * bgcolor="#fffff6" style="border: 1px solid black;padding-left:1em;"|

Articles that gained "featured" status
 * George IV of the United Kingdom (October 6)
 * Cyclone Tracy (October 6)
 * Strategic management (October 6)
 * William Butler Yeats (October 6)
 * William III of England (October 6)
 * Cristero War (October 9)
 * William IV of the United Kingdom (October 9)
 * Cathedral of Magdeburg (October 9)
 * William I of Orange (October 9)

Pictures that gained "featured" status
 * A large Bonfire (October 7)
 * "Promenade des Anglais" in Nice (October 5)
 * Henry Moore sculpture (October 5)
 * }

title: Wikipedia:Goings-on/October 3, 2004


text:
Wikipedia:U.S. Southern wikipedians' notice board/USSCOTW nominations

Successful nominations are on top. Please list successful nominations in sequential order.

Unsuccessful nominations can be renominated at any time.

Southern U.S. cuisine
Support

 * Three short paragraphs for a very important part of our culture. So much more could be said! [[User:Neutrality|Neutrality (talk)]] 14:18, Sep 30, 2004 (UTC)
 * I agree, but I don't know much about Southern cuisine...my parents came from the North. -- Aphrael Runestar 21:02, 2004 Sep 30 (UTC)
 * Golbez 02:17, Oct 3, 2004 (UTC)

Comments
 * This is much easier done, and much easier to prevent POV information. However, we need a wide range of Southerners for it -- North Carolina has some cuisine that other Southerner's wouldn't have anything to do with. For example, any of y'all know much about chili and slaw on burgers, or livermush? --Golbez 02:17, Oct 3, 2004 (UTC)

The Miami Herald
Support:
 * 1) An article is desperately needed on what is, arguably, Florida's most influential newspaper. Mike H 02:45, Oct 3, 2004 (UTC)
 * 2) I agree. Tuf-Kat 06:04, Oct 3, 2004 (UTC)
 * 3) Maurreen 00:03, 4 Oct 2004 (UTC)
 * 4) Kayellen 21:14, 6 Oct 2004 (UTC)
 * 5) [[User:Neutrality|Neutrality (talk)]] 22:26, Oct 6, 2004 (UTC)
 * 6) Infrogmation 11:57, 9 Oct 2004 (UTC)

Comments:
 * Originally this was for The Tampa Tribune, before I was aghast at how brief Miami's article was. Mike H 02:47, Oct 3, 2004 (UTC)

History of the U.S. South
Needs 2 votes by October 20 before it is retired.

Support:
 * 1) SimonP 00:22, Oct 13, 2004 (UTC)
 * 2) Maurreen 02:26, 13 Oct 2004 (UTC)
 * 3) Kayellen 15:55, 14 Oct 2004 (UTC)
 * 4) MattSal 20:44, Oct 14, 2004 (UTC)
 * 5) Mike H 01:22, Oct 18, 2004 (UTC)
 * 6) Golbez 21:31, Oct 19, 2004 (UTC) (bandwagon - it already won)

Comments:
 * I'm not from the South so I'm not sure if I'm allowed to make a nomination, but I was very surprised this hasn't been created. - SimonP 00:22, Oct 13, 2004 (UTC)

Delmarva Peninsula
Needs 4 votes by October 24 before it is retired.

Support:

 * 1) Lots more to be said Tuf-Kat 06:04, Oct 3, 2004 (UTC) (is it spelled wrong? penninsula?)
 * Peninsula is the correct spelling. -- Cyrius|✎ 03:17, 4 Oct 2004 (UTC)
 * 1) Golbez 21:31, Oct 19, 2004 (UTC)
 * 2) NeoJustin 02:22, Oct 22, 2004 (UTC)
 * 3) [[User:Neutrality|Neutrality (hopefully!)]] 02:24, Oct 22, 2004 (UTC)
 * 4) SWAdair | Talk 03:26, 23 Oct 2004 (UTC)
 * 5) Mike H 21:30, Oct 23, 2004 (UTC)

Comments:
 * Hehe. Funny, since I live there :) →Raul654 08:03, Oct 4, 2004 (UTC)

Nashville sit-ins
Nominated June 23, 2005, needs nine votes by July 14, 2005.

Support:
 * 1) Kaldari 02:01, 24 Jun 2005 (UTC)
 * 2) Kevin Rector (talk) 02:29, Jun 24, 2005 (UTC)
 * 3) RivGuySC 02:37, 24 Jun 2005 (UTC)
 * 4) Riffsyphon1024 14:43, Jun 24, 2005 (UTC)
 * 5) ℬ  ▼ habla con me 14:48, 24 Jun 2005 (UTC)
 * 6) · Katefan0(scribble) 14:51, Jun 24, 2005 (UTC) Definitely.

Comments:
 * One of the most pivotal events in the U.S. Civil Rights Movement. Inspired similar actions across the South, which eventually led to the desegregation of private business establishments throughout the region. Currently, there's not even a stub devoted to this historic event. Kaldari 02:01, 24 Jun 2005 (UTC)
 * This is definitely an important topic that deserves an excellent article. Kevin Rector (talk) 02:29, Jun 24, 2005 (UTC)
 * I concur. RivGuySC 02:37, 24 Jun 2005 (UTC)
 * I would think it needs something when the Civil Rights article states: "Probably the best organized and disciplined of these, and the most immediately effective, was in Nashville, Tennessee." -- Riffsyphon1024 14:43, Jun 24, 2005 (UTC)

History of Virginia
Nominated June 20, 2005, needs six votes by July 4, 2005

 * 1) Pharos 00:28, 20 Jun 2005 (UTC)
 * 2) Falphin 00:46, 20 Jun 2005 (UTC)
 * 3) Quinobi 04:51, 20 Jun 2005 (UTC)
 * 4) Wahooker 18:28, 24 Jun 2005 (UTC)
 * 5) Kaldari 30 June 2005 00:59 (UTC)

Comments:
 * Virginia has arguably one of the most important histories of any U.S. state, particularly as it played such a dominant role in the early history of the country. Currently there are a few paragraphs at Virginia, but no separate article.  Great potential for expansion.--Pharos 00:28, 20 Jun 2005 (UTC)
 * I agree, excellent COTW choice. Falphin 00:46, 20 Jun 2005 (UTC)
 * Me, too. Here's a nice external reference: http://www.talkingproud.us/VirginiaPotomac.html
 * The Virginia-Maryland border {Potomac River Basin} is as much a backdrop for the Washington-Jefferson aspects of American History as anything.  Much of the early Federalism thought was crafted and tested here. Did You Know that Virginia and Maryland once had separate currencies and many Border disputes? Quinobi 04:51, 20 Jun 2005 (UTC)

History of South Carolina (July 7)
NominatedJune 23, 2005, needs six votes by July 7, 2005.

Support:
 * 1) Falphin 13:23, 23 Jun 2005 (UTC)
 * 2) Pharos 18:55, 23 Jun 2005 (UTC)
 * 3) ℬ astique ▼ talk 03:03, 24 Jun 2005 (UTC)
 * 4) Toothpaste 6 July 2005 04:43 (UTC)
 * 5) --WAHooker July 6, 2005 13:02 (UTC)

Comments:
 * Maryland, Georgia among other southern states have there own history artcles but South Carolina doesn't and its history is as long as theirs. Falphin 13:23, 23 Jun 2005 (UTC)
 * This will probably be a bit more difficult than Virginia, as there appears to be considerably less material already on Wikipedia; but it is all the better to put in more fresh data.--Pharos 18:55, 23 Jun 2005 (UTC)
 * It would be but it was one of the 13 original colonies so I believe info could be found with a little work. And like you said its best to add fresh data to keep the COTW going. Falphin 19:10, 23 Jun 2005 (UTC)
 * My Great-uncle (The one and only time I'll be name-dropping in this place), Dr. Robert D. Bass, wrote six or seven historical novels about South Carolina, including Swamp Fox (see Francis Marion), which was adapted into television series in the early sixties by Walt Disney starring Leslie Nielsen. Considering mah people are from thereabouts... I figure I should at least vote to support this one.   ℬ astique ▼ talk 03:03, 24 Jun 2005 (UTC)

Culture of the U.S. South
Support

I find that this is an article that needs good, in-depth discussion away from the U.S. Southern states page. Mike H 13:52, Sep 30, 2004 (UTC)

Comments

Flaco Jimenez
Needs 4 votes by October 17 before it is retired.

Suppport:

 * 1) One of the most revered names in Tex-Mex and Tejano music (which itself needs some TLC) Tuf-Kat 06:04, Oct 3, 2004 (UTC)
 * 2) Support. -- Infrogmation 11:57, 9 Oct 2004 (UTC)
 * 3) Golbez 21:31, Oct 19, 2004 (UTC) (stealth support - it's 2 days overdue)

Comments:

Chesapeake Bay
Needs 6 votes by October 17 before it is retired.

Support:

 * 1) Lots of cultural, biological, environmental and geologic history to be had Tuf-Kat 06:04, Oct 3, 2004 (UTC)
 * 2) jengod 17:49, Oct 6, 2004 (UTC)
 * 3) [[User:Neutrality|Neutrality (talk)]] 22:26, Oct 6, 2004 (UTC)
 * 4) Golbez 21:31, Oct 19, 2004 (UTC)

Comments:

Mark Sanford
Needs 6 votes by October 17 before it is retired.

Support: Comments:
 * 1) Tuf-Kat 06:04, Oct 3, 2004 (UTC) - current governor of South Carolina, has one of the shortest articles on a governor
 * 2) I added most of the existing content, but it certainly could use more. Everyking 15:26, 3 Oct 2004 (UTC)
 * 3) [[User:Neutrality|Neutrality (talk)]] 22:27, Oct 6, 2004 (UTC)
 * 4) Maurreen 07:43, 11 Oct 2004 (UTC)

Sweet tea
Needs 4 votes by October 17 before it is retired.

Support:
 * 1) [[User:Aranel|Aranel ("Sarah")]] 19:18, 7 Oct 2004 (UTC)
 * 2) Yum. [[User:Neutrality|Neutrality (talk)]] 02:26, Oct 8, 2004 (UTC)
 * 3) Golbez 21:31, Oct 19, 2004 (UTC)

Comments:
 * Right now this is really a stub. This would be easy for a large number of people to write about (making it a good collaboration, also maybe bringing in some Northern input to the project), and currently the discussion about the difference between "sweat tea" and "tea with sugar added while it is cold" isn't very informative (though it's rather cute). Sweet tea is very Southern. [[User:Aranel|Aranel ("Sarah")]]

Mark R. Warner
Needs 6 votes by October 17 before it is retired.

Support:
 * 1) Far too short for someone who was considered for VP. [[User:Neutrality|Neutrality (talk)]] 22:31, Oct 6, 2004 (UTC)
 * 2) Support Tuf-Kat 19:51, Oct 7, 2004 (UTC)
 * 3) Maurreen 17:08, 9 Oct 2004 (UTC)

Comments:
 * Pretty notable topic -- Democratic Governor of loyal Republican state that may be veering Democratic... Tuf-Kat 19:51, Oct 7, 2004 (UTC)

Bayou
Needs 8 votes by October 17 before it is retired.

Support:
 * 1) Maurreen 04:07, 8 Oct 2004 (UTC)
 * 2) As I was born in Louisiana, it would be a crime for me not to vote for this. [[User:Neutrality|Neutrality (talk)]] 04:11, Oct 8, 2004 (UTC)
 * 3) Tuf-Kat 06:52, Oct 9, 2004 (UTC)
 * 4) Infrogmation 11:57, 9 Oct 2004 (UTC)
 * 5) Golbez 21:31, Oct 19, 2004 (UTC)

Comments:

Deep South
Needs 2 votes by October 17 before it is retired.

Support:
 * 1) [[User:Neutrality|Neutrality (talk)]] 05:40, Oct 9, 2004 (UTC)

Comments:
 * I'm not sure how much we could say about the Deep South that we couldn't put in the main article. Maurreen 07:50, 11 Oct 2004 (UTC)

Atlanta Journal-Constitution
Needs 6 votes by October 20 before it is retired.

Support: Comments:
 * 1) MattSal 20:43, Oct 14, 2004 (UTC)
 * 2) Best editorial cartoons in the country. [[User:Neutrality|Neutrality (hopefully!)]] 21:49, Oct 14, 2004 (UTC)
 * 3) Sayeth 22:05, Oct 14, 2004 (UTC)
 * 4) Maurreen 03:52, 15 Oct 2004 (UTC)
 * 5) Golbez 21:31, Oct 19, 2004 (UTC)
 * 1) Saw the great work done on The Miami Herald, and found that this even larger Southern newspaper is lacking in a good article. - MattSal 20:43, Oct 14, 2004 (UTC)

Waffle House
Needs 8 votes by October 24 before it is retired.

Support:
 * 1) Golbez 02:42, Oct 3, 2004 (UTC)
 * 2) Normally I'd say it's too long, but a lot of this stuff needs to be chucked and reworded...it might as well have been from the Waffle House site itself. Mike H 02:44, Oct 3, 2004 (UTC)
 * 3) Sayeth 15:55, Oct 13, 2004 (UTC)
 * 4) Cordell Walker 07:01, 17 Oct 2004 (UTC)

Comments:

Confederate Army of the Mississippi (June 26)
Nominated June 19, 2005, needs three votes by June 26, 2005

 * 1) Falphin 03:14, 19 Jun 2005 (UTC)

Comments:
 * Non-existant article about the well known Army of the Mississippi of the Civil War. Falphin 03:14, 19 Jun 2005 (UTC)

Local music in the south
Needs 8 votes by November 14

Support:

 * Just thinking of some other ways this project can be helpful -- how about everyone does what they can to document the local music scenes in their areas, either by doing the research or posting some recruitment notices at music stores or whatever. We may want to develop some guidelines on how to do so first -- we want historical documentation of prominent local bands, venues, record labels, immigrant communities etc, not fancruft, and we should especially encourage looking at historical records (local libraries might have otherwise unavailable materials)... This would not be a collaboration of one specific article, but of multiple articles like music of Texas, music of Florida.

Comments:

Congresspersons
Needs 8 votes by November 14

Support: Comments:
 * As above, not a collaboration of one article, but rather everyone promising to make a non-stub article on local Senators and Representatives. If it works, wecould follow it with governors, mayors or something. Tuf-Kat 00:53, Oct 24, 2004 (UTC)
 * Support - we should have a weekly congressperson carousel. [[User:Neutrality|Neutrality (hopefully!)]] 19:31, Oct 28, 2004 (UTC)
 * Rj 08:33, Nov 1, 2004 (UTC)
 * I can do that. I already wrote a nice mayor article here. Mike H 09:35, Nov 1, 2004 (UTC)
 * Sayeth 15:34, Nov 8, 2004 (UTC)

Appalachian folk music
Needs 8 votes by November 14

Support:

 * The roots of country, folk (in the Bob Dylan sense), bluegrass, interesting fusion of Scottish, Irish, African and other styles. Tuf-Kat 00:53, Oct 24, 2004 (UTC)

Comments:

Quapaw
Needs 8 votes by November 14

Support:
 * 1) A Native American tribe from Arkansas (and perhaps elsewhere). Tuf-Kat 00:53, Oct 24, 2004 (UTC)
 * 2) Neutrality 18:57, Oct 24, 2004 (UTC)

Comments:

Andrew Nelson Lytle
Needs 8 votes by November 14

Support:

 * I don't really know who he is, but he's mentioned as prominent on U.S. Southern states, through which I am browsing to find new nominations. He's a writer, presumably an important one.  If we had an article, I could be more educated right now. Tuf-Kat 00:53, Oct 24, 2004 (UTC)

Comments:

Graceland
Needs 8 votes by November 14

Support:

 * 1) The Elvis place, not the Paul Simon album. Tuf-Kat 00:53, Oct 24, 2004 (UTC)
 * 2) NeoJustin 02:30, Oct 26, 2004 (UTC)
 * 3) jengod 21:57, Oct 26, 2004 (UTC)

Comments:

Plantation
Needs 8 votes by November 14

Support: Comments:
 * 1) Likely more to say. Tuf-Kat 00:53, Oct 24, 2004 (UTC)
 * 2) Agreed. [[User:Neutrality|Neutrality (hopefully!)]]
 * 3) Golbez 20:11, Oct 28, 2004 (UTC)

Molly Hatchet
Needs 8 votes by November 14

Support:

 * Really good Southern rock band Tuf-Kat
 * Awesome Southern rock! SWAdair | Talk  10:18, 1 Nov 2004 (UTC)

Comments:

No Limit
Needs 8 votes by November 14

Support:

 * Probably the most prominent record label in Southern rap, home of Master P and Juvenile, for example. (Sorry for all the music nominations, but that's the area of the 'pedia I'm mostly interested in). Tuf-Kat 01:23, Oct 24, 2004 (UTC)

Comments:

Piedmont (United States)
Needs 8 votes by November 14

Support:

 * 1) Wide area with useful historical and cultural info Tuf-Kat 00:53, Oct 24, 2004 (UTC)
 * 2) Golbez 02:52, Oct 26, 2004 (UTC)

Comments:

St. Mary's City, Maryland
Needs 8 votes by November 14

Support:

 * I don't really know how much to say about it, but it used to be the capital of Maryland and this page needs some nominees. Tuf-Kat 00:53, Oct 24, 2004 (UTC)

Comments:

Confederate States Navy
Needs 8 votes by December 7

Support:

Comments:
 * 1) McMullen 02:12, 17 Nov 2004 (UTC)
 * 2) [[User:Neutrality|Neutrality (hopefully!)]] 22:31, Nov 17, 2004 (UTC)
 * I proposed this for the main Collaboration of the Week, but it got pruned. Maybe it'll do better here. It certainly deserves more than the current stub. McMullen 02:12, 17 Nov 2004 (UTC)

Redneck Riviera
Nominated June 19, 2005, needs six votes by July 3, 2005.

 * 1)  ℬ astique ▼ talk 03:01, 19 Jun 2005 (UTC)
 * 2) Mike H 03:01, Jun 19, 2005 (UTC)
 * 3) This would be fun to do. · Katefan0(scribble) 00:33, Jun 23, 2005 (UTC)
 * 4) Dystopos 20:20, 26 Jun 2005 (UTC)

Comments:

Very stubby article for a very important part of modern Southern Culture. ℬ astique ▼ talk 03:01, 19 Jun 2005 (UTC)

Deep South (June 30)
Nominated June 23, 2005, needs three votes by June 30, 2005.

Support:

Comments:
 * I'm not actually a Southerner and couldn't contribute much, so I feel guilty about nominating it, I'll not vote and see what you guys think. I just couldn't believe the stubbishness of this one. The nomination speaks for itself: this is the cultural heart of the South and one of its defining identities. I think it's an important topic. --Dmcdevit 19:07, 23 Jun 2005 (UTC)

Southern Belle (July 1)
Nominated June 24, 2005, needs three votes by July 1, 2005.

Support:
 * 1) Fenice 11:18, 24 Jun 2005 (UTC)
 * 2) Mike H 02:32, Jun 25, 2005 (UTC)

Comments:

 * For a long time there was no Southern Belle article. This really needs to be documented. Mike H 02:32, Jun 25, 2005 (UTC)
 * I created the stub when I added an article for the Kansas City Southern's passenger train, Southern Belle (KCS). The article about the train was originally in that location, but I thought the current article configuration worked better for popular meanings. I created the Southern Belle (disambiguation) and added the other meanings when I moved the articles to their current locations. slambo 14:03, August 10, 2005 (UTC)

Mariel boatlift (July 2)
Nominated June 24, 2005, needs three votes by July 1, 2005.

Support:
 * 1) Bastique 02:52, 25 Jun 2005 (UTC)
 * 2) Falphin 02:56, 25 Jun 2005 (UTC)

Not entirely a stub but somewhat short. There was a lot more to this single event that reshaped Florida's dynamics completely. ℬ astique ▼ talk 02:52, 25 Jun 2005 (UTC)
 * Not quite NPOV either. 02:56, 25 Jun 2005 (UTC)

Culture of the Southern United States (July 3)
Nominated June 26, 2005, needs three votes by July 3, 2005.

Support:

 * 1) Mike H (Talking is hot) 03:06, Jun 26, 2005 (UTC)

Comments:

I previously nominated an article like this back in October. It is currently covered in Southern United States but I think a daughter article is perfect for a collaboration like this. Mike H (Talking is hot) 03:06, Jun 26, 2005 (UTC)


text: Template:Blizzard Entertainment

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Sierra Madre (California)

The Sierra Madre (Spanish for "mother range") is a mountain range in southwestern California. It forms the southernmost part of the California Coast Ranges and lies mostly in Santa Barbara County, with a small portion extending into Ventura County. The Sierra Madre has a northwest-to-southeast orientation, bordered on the north and northeast by the Cuyama River and Cuyama Valley, and on the south and east by the drainage of the Sisquoc River.

Before the middle of the twentieth century, the term "Sierra Madre" referred to the portion of the Transverse Ranges north of the Los Angeles Basin, now known as the San Gabriel Mountains. In 1965, the United States Board of Geographic Names assigned the name Sierra Madre to the range in Santa Barbara County.

Geography
The Sierra Madre range trends from northwest to southeast, and is approximately 25 mi long. High peaks in the range include MacPherson Peak at 5747 ft in elevation, and the highest point in the range, Peak Mountain at 5843 ft in elevation. Snow falls on the higher elevations during the winter months.

The range forms the southwestern side of the Cuyama Valley. The La Panza Range is a northern extension of the Sierra Madre, located in eastern San Luis Obispo County.

The Sierra Madre is almost entirely within the Los Padres National Forest, and marks the northern boundary of the San Rafael Wilderness area. The southeastern extent of the range is about 25 mi north of the city of Santa Barbara, and the northwestern extent of the range is about 50 mi north by northwest of the city.

To the southeast, the range merges with the San Rafael Mountains of the Transverse Ranges System, in a complex topography of unnamed ranges. The adjacent highest point of the San Rafael Mountains, and in all Santa Barbara County, is Big Pine Mountain (6820 ft).

Natural history
The Sierra Madre lies in the region historically inhabited by the Chumash people, who used sites in the mountains for sacred ceremonies and rites. Numerous petroglyphs can still be found in the area, including the Painted Rock Site, identified as S'ap'aski or House of the Sun in Chumash tradition.

The predominant vegetation type on the mountains is chaparral shrubland, with oak woodlands that occur in microclimates, both of the California interior chaparral and woodlands sub-ecoregion. The higher elevations support California mixed evergreen forest and small areas of coniferous forest habitats.

The mountains are one of the most important undeveloped habitat areas of the endangered California condor.

Geologically, the mountains are mostly sedimentary rock of Tertiary age, with some marine and non-marine sedimentary rocks of Eocene and Upper Cretaceous age. There is a large proportion of sandstone, and one region in the eastern portion of the range is made up of Neogene sediments.

The mountain range is almost entirely uninhabited, except for portions of the lower slopes to the north, which have been developed for oil and gas production at the South Cuyama Oil Field. One difficult, single-lane dirt road follows the mountain crest; it often is closed after storms, and is normally only passable by four-wheel-drive vehicles or motorcycles.

title: Sierra Madre (California)


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Stephens Island (New Zealand)

Stephens Island is at the northernmost tip of the Marlborough Sounds in the South Island of New Zealand. It lies two kilometres to the northeast of Cape Stephens, the northernmost point of D'Urville Island. The island is 1.5 km2 in size, and rises 283 m high from the sea.

History
The island was owned by the Ngāti Koata iwi but was taken by the government to build a lighthouse in 1891. The Māori called it Takapourewa ("around the tower") but explorer Captain Cook renamed it Stephens Island in 1770 after Sir Philip Stephens, Secretary of the Admiralty.

The island featured in local mythos as the place where a local lighthouse keeper's cat, named Tibbles, was claimed to have caused the extinction of Lyall's wren in 1894. However, this belief was erroneous, an urban legend. While this cat did kill one of the last birds seen, a few more specimens were obtained in the following years, by which time the island also hosted numerous feral cats, and the island was only the last refuge of the bird, which had become extinct on the mainland many centuries earlier due to Polynesian rat predation.

Farming and grazing reduced the island's original vegetation cover by around 90%, before being made a wildlife sanctuary in 1966 and a nature reserve in 1997. In 2012 the Treaty of Waitangi settlement between Ngāti Koata and the New Zealand Government required joint management by Ngāti Koata and the Department of Conservation.

Conservation
Today, the best known resident of Stephens Island is the tuatara. The island is a sanctuary for this rare order of reptile which is now extinct on the mainland, except in tightly controlled reserves including ecological islands.

Stephens Island is internationally important for nature conservation. While most attention has focused on the tuatara, the significant and unique factors include:
 * Endemic species – those found nowhere else, either because they evolved here or because they have become extinct everywhere else – such as Hamilton's Frog, perhaps the rarest frog in the world and the Ngaio Weevil, a large flightless Weevil
 * Unusual species such as the tuatara (Sphenodon punctatus), which is the sole survivor of a group of reptiles that otherwise appears to have been extinct elsewhere in the world for more than 60 million years
 * Rare species – such as the Stephen's Island gecko and Cook Strait click beetle that are only found in a handful of other places, and for which Stephens Island is a stronghold
 * Common species in unusual abundance – such as the more than one million seabirds, vast numbers of wētā and darkling beetles and many more
 * Stephens Island is a part of a complex ecosystem that includes a vast area of ocean. An enormous number of seabirds link this small (154 ha) island to a vast marine ecosystem. The sea provides nutrients, the seabirds carry these to the island and Takapourewa provides a sanctuary for nesting birds, free of mammalian land predators.

Geography
In natural character, Stephens Island is a rugged landmass dominated by maritime influences. Visually the island is connected to the adjacent larger D'Urville Island, and Stephens Island is the largest of the family of islands, islets and rock stacks that characterise this southwestern side of the Cook Strait. Although uninhabited, the island has been extensively modified by land clearance and farming, but retains much of its wild natural character. From sea level the lighthouse is a prominent visual feature, while from the air the cluster of buildings and farmed landscape are obvious.

The surrounding sea is rich with marine life, albeit strongly modified and depleted by fishing, and historically by hunting of whales and seals. The island overlooks one of the great whale migration routes, most notably for humpback whales. Marine mammals such as New Zealand Fur Seals and various dolphin species are seen around the island.

This is an area of strong winds (mean annual wind speed 14 kn), strong currents and broken restless seas. The island also harbours strong gradations of weather between the often cloud-covered summit and the wave-lashed shores. There are also distinct differences between the relatively more exposed western and the less exposed eastern shores. Rainfall averages a modest 800 mm.

Geology
Stephens Island is characterised by the Stephens Formation, a geological unit comprising 1100 meters of southeast-dipping sedimentary rocks ranging from mudstone with limestone lenses to volcanogenic sandstone and conglomerate. As the youngest formation within the Maitai Group, these rocks constitute the most northerly exposure of the Nelson Regional Syncline, displaying an overturned orientation on the syncline's eastern limb. Indurated with widespread metamorphic prehnite, pumpellyite, and lawsonite, the formation is subdivided into Queens Beach, Incline, Takapourewa, and Titapua Members, with no discernible top or bottom boundaries. Notably, the oldest rocks, found in the Queens Beach Member, consist of a 150-meter layer of rounded cobble conglomerate enclosing angular blocks of coarse volcanogenic sandstone. Within one such block, measuring 4 meters in length and up to 1.5 meters in thickness, a diverse but moderately preserved marine fossil assemblage dominated by brachiopods and pectinid bivalves of Late Permian age is identified. The contemporaneous formation of the fossiliferous sandstone and conglomerate suggests a Late Permian age, although the potential for a younger (Triassic) age cannot be ruled out. Additionally, Late Quaternary deposits, including loess and windblown sand, are present in localized areas.

title: Stephens Island (New Zealand)


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Vincent Cornell

Vincent Cornell is an American scholar of Islam. From 2000 to 2006 he was a professor of history and director of the King Fahd Center for Middle East and Islamic Studies at the University of Arkansas. He was an advisor to the award-winning, PBS-broadcast documentary Muhammad: Legacy of a Prophet (2002), produced by Unity Productions Foundation. He left Arkansas in 2006 to become a professor of history at Emory University, in Atlanta. Sufism and Islamic philosophy are among his specialities. His books are available in over 2,200 libraries.

As a Muslim and self-described "critical traditionalist", Cornell has publicly deplored what he calls the superficiality of modern-day Islamic practices, which he sees as removed from the religion's traditions of deliberation. In his view, context should be taken into account in interpreting the sacred texts of Islam, and that in the globalized world of shifting ideas, Muslims cannot isolate themselves from reflexivity. He is critical of the spread of Wahhabism in the last several decades—a phenomenon he attributes to a "corporate" form of organized Islam fueled by petro dollars. Nevertheless, he cautions against a simplistic view that "demonizes" the role played by the Saudi monarchy, which he sees as compelled to promote Wahhabism.

title: Vincent Cornell


text:
Wikipedia:Articles for deletion/***

***
Nominated by ZeroOne as both a copyvio and a speedy delete. I don't think those two tags can be compatible so I moved it from speedy to here. I recommend that we allow the copyvio investigation to take precedence. Rossami 02:29, 3 Oct 2004 (UTC)

 * This same article was recreated at Interstellar Concordium (ISC). Maybe someone should do something about one of them. --ZeroOne 11:07, 3 Oct 2004 (UTC)

It certainly doesn't belong under this name, regardless of what's done to it. RickK 04:43, Oct 3, 2004 (UTC)

Delete *** (maybe speedy delete), investigate copyvio in Interstellar Concordium (ISC) outside this deletion process. jni 09:36, 4 Oct 2004 (UTC)

Duplicate article under a nonsense name. (Apparently a temporary / test page.) Speedy delete. - Mike Rosoft 16:36, 7 Oct 2004 (UTC)

title: Wikipedia:Articles for deletion/***


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Radio scanner

A scanner (also referred to as a radio scanner) is a radio receiver that can automatically tune, or scan, two or more discrete frequencies, stopping when it finds a signal on one of them and then continuing to scan other frequencies when the initial transmission ceases.

The term scanner generally refers to a communications receiver that is primarily intended for monitoring VHF and UHF landmobile radio systems, as opposed to, for instance, a receiver used to monitor international shortwave transmissions, although these may be classified as scanners too.

More often than not, these scanners can also tune to different types of modulation as well (AM, FM, SSB, etc.). Early scanners were slow, bulky, and expensive. Today, modern microprocessors have enabled scanners to store thousands of channels and monitor hundreds of channels per second. Recent models can follow trunked radio systems and decode APCO-P25 digital transmissions. Both hand held and desktop models are available. Scanners are often used to monitor police, fire and emergency medical services. Radio scanning also serves an important role in the fields of journalism and crime investigation, as well as a hobby for many people around the world.

History and use
Scanners developed from earlier tunable and fixed-frequency radios that received one frequency at a time. Non-broadcast radio systems, such as those used by public safety agencies, do not transmit continuously. With a radio fixed on a single frequency, much time could pass between transmissions, while other frequencies might be active. A scanning radio will sequentially monitor multiple programmed channels, or scan between user defined frequency limits and user defined frequency steps. The scanner will stop on an active frequency strong enough to break the radio's squelch setting and resume scanning other frequencies when that activity ceases.

Scanners first became popular and widely available during the popularity height of CB radio in the 1970s. The first scanners often had between four and ten channels and required the purchase of a separate crystal for each frequency received. A US patent was issued to Peter W. Pflasterer on June 1, 1976. An early 1976 US entry was the Tennelec MCP-1, sold at the January 1976 Consumer Electronics Show in Chicago.

Features
Many recent models will allow scanning of the specific DCS or CTCSS code used on a specific frequency should it have multiple users. Memory banks are also common. For example, one memory bank can be assigned to air traffic control, another can be for local marine communications, and yet another for local police frequencies. These can be switched on and off depending on the user's preference. Most scanners also have a weather radio band, allowing the listener to tune into weather radio broadcasts from a NOAA transmitter.

Some scanners are equipped with Fire-Tone out. Fire tone out decodes Quick Call type tones and acts as a pager when the correct sequence of tones is detected.

Modern scanners allow hundreds or thousands of frequencies to be entered via a keypad and stored in various "memory banks" and can scan at a rapid rate for activity due to modern microprocessors.

Active frequencies can be found by searching the internet and frequency reference books or can be discovered through a programmable scanner's search function. Antenna modifications may be used. For example, an external antenna can be used for a desktop scanner or an extendable antenna for a hand held unit will provide greater performance than the original equipment "stock" antennas provided by manufacturers.

Uses
Scanners are often used by hobbyists, railfans, aviation enthusiasts, auto race fans, siren enthusiasts, off-duty emergency services personnel, and reporters.

Many scanner clubs exist to allow members to share information about frequencies, codes, and operations. Many have internet presence, such as websites, email lists or web forums.

Australia
It is legal to possess a scanner in Australia and to listen to any transmission that is not classified as telecommunication (i.e. anything not connected to the telephone network).

Austria
Possession of a radio scanner is legal. However, article 93 of the Telekommunikationsgesetz prohibits the intentional reception of signals by third parties without authorization from the user.

Brazil
In Brazil, it is legal to have a scanner, but the user is required to have an amateur radio license. Individuals are prohibited from spreading or recording any information obtained through scanning.

Belgium
In Belgium it is allowed to possess and listen to a scanner. Although it is only allowed to listen to frequencies where you have a permission to listen to. Without permission it is only allowed to listen to HAM Radio or other so called 'free to listen' channels

Canada
In Canada, according to the Radiocommunication Act, it is completely legal to install, operate or possess a radio apparatus that is capable only of the reception of broadcasting (digital and analogue, but not encrypted data) provided that private information is not passed on or disclosed to any other person(s) or party(s).

A situation that occurred in the Toronto area on 28 June 2011 involving York Regional Police officer Constable Garrett Styles was picked up by scanners. Online streaming of communications between the fatally injured officer and police dispatch were picked up by local media. The tragedy was widely reported before the officer's family was notified and several media outlets rebroadcast the recorded emergency transmission. A police initiative pressuring the government to create legislation to stop online streaming of scanner captured police communications was announced in April 2012. Although it is currently legal to stream information from a scanner in Canada, using the information for profit is not legal. Some Canadian police forces use encrypted communications which cannot legally be decrypted and streamed onto the Internet. Applications are available permitting anyone with an Internet-ready computer or smartphone to access scanner communications that are streamed onto the Internet by private individuals who possess the appropriate scanner and computer equipment.

Germany
German law does not prohibit possession of a scanner. However, the Abhörverbot laid down in article 5 of the Telekommunikation-Medien-Datenschutz-Gesetz (TTDSG) stipulates that it is only legal to listen to or otherwise take knowledge of the contents of four classes of transmissions: those intended for the user of the radio receiver, those made by licensed amateur radio operators, those intended for the general public, and those intended for an indefinite group of people. Violation of this provision is punishable by up to two years in prison or a fine. This prohibition was previously included in the Telekommunikationsgesetz, but was moved to the TTSDG as a part of the German telecom law reform in 2021.

Until 2016, the Telekommunikationsgesetz only prohibited the act of listening to other classes of transmissions. This was broadened as a response to a decision of the Cologne Administrative Court, which in 2008 questioned whether the mere reception and decoding of aircraft transponder signals to display aircraft movements on a screen could be considered listening, as it lacks an acoustic element. This updated wording was carried over to the TTDSG in 2021.

Ireland
Unlicensed possession of a wireless telegraphy apparatus is generally prohibited under Section 3 of the Wireless Telegraphy Act 1926, subject to exemptions. One such exemption covers most apparatuses only capable of reception, including radio scanners.

Moreover, Section 11(2) of the Act states that "no person shall improperly divulge the purport of any message, communication, or signal sent or proposed to be sent by wireless telegraphy." The aforementioned exemption echoes this wording as a condition of use of covered receive-only apparatuses. No further information regarding the scope of this prohibition is provided.

The Airport Bye-Laws for the Cork Airport and the Dublin Airport specifically ban monitoring air traffic control or airport or airline operational frequencies with radio receiving or recording equipment.

Italy
Owning a scanner that is able to intercept the frequencies of law enforcement is illegal and carries a jail sentence from one to five years, as per Article 617 of the Civil Penal Code.

Japan
It is legal to possess, install and operate a scanner in Japan. The radio law prohibits from disclosing or passing on information received to other persons and using the information to gain personal profit. It is illegal to listen to telephone communication and those transmitted using tapping devices. An amateur radio license is required when amateur radio apparatus is used to listen to radio.

Mexico
In Mexico, it is legal to have an unblocked scanner and listen to any radio spectrum frequencies, including encrypted and cellular band. According to the Federal Law of General Ways of Communication, individuals are prohibited from spreading any information obtained via a scanner.

Netherlands
In the Netherlands, it is legal to listen to any radio spectrum frequency because of the "freedom of information"-doctrine. However, if a "special" (i.e., unusual) effort is needed to intercept the information on a frequency (such as decrypting encrypted traffic or using an unauthorized or bootleg radio), then it is considered illegal. In 2008, the Dutch Supreme Court ruled that receivers that can solely be used to detect certain frequencies (such as radar detectors) are illegal because they cannot be used to "convey knowledge or thoughts" and thus are not covered by the aforementioned doctrine.

New Zealand
In New Zealand, according to section 133A of the Radiocommunications Act of 1989, it is legal to possess and use a scanner at any time to tune to any private voice radio (but not encrypted data), provided that private information is not passed on or disclosed to any other person(s) or party(s).

Switzerland
Possession of a radio scanner is legal in Switzerland. However, it may only be used to listen to public radio traffic such as CB radio and amateur radio, as well as airband frequencies.

United Kingdom
In the United Kingdom, it is not illegal to own or use a scanner except in particular circumstances. For example, particular transmissions or frequencies should only be listened to with authorization an example of this being UK aviation frequencies and police radio, which in many other countries may be publicly listened to (and are even available to be streamed online) but in the UK are restricted. Many emergency services have now switched to digital encrypted radio systems, so that it is more difficult for the general public to listen to them.

United States

The legality of radio scanners in the United States varies considerably between jurisdictions, although it is a federal crime to monitor encrypted cellular phone calls. Five U.S. states restrict the use of a scanner in an automobile. Although scanners capable of following trunked radio systems and demodulating some digital radio systems such as APCO Project 25 are available, decryption-capable scanners would be a violation of United States law and possibly laws of other countries.

A law passed by the Congress of the United States, under the pressure from cellular telephone interests, prohibited scanners sold after a certain date from receiving frequencies allocated to the Cellular Radio Service. The law was later amended to make it illegal to modify radios to receive those frequencies, and also to sell radios that could be easily modified to do so. This law remains in effect even though no cellular subscribers still use analog technology. There are Canadian and European unblocked versions available, but these are illegal to import into the U.S. Frequencies used by early cordless phones at 43.720–44.480 MHz, 46.610–46.930 MHz, and 902.000–906.000 MHz can still be picked up by many commercially available scanners, however. The proliferation of scanners led most cordless phone manufacturers to produce cordless handsets operating on a more secure 2.4 GHz system using spread-spectrum technology. Certain states in the United States such as New York and Florida, prohibit the use of scanners in a vehicle unless the operator has a radio license issued from the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) (Amateur Radio, etc.) or the operator's job requires the use of a scanner in a vehicle (e.g., police, fire, utilities). Many scanner user manuals include a warning saying that, while it is legal to listen to almost every transmission a scanner can receive, but there are some that persons should not intentionally listen to (such as telephone conversations, pager transmissions, or any scrambled or encrypted transmissions) under the Electronic Communications Privacy Act, and that modifications to do so are illegal.

In some parts of the United States, there are extra penalties for the possession of a scanner during a crime, and some states, such as Michigan, also prohibit the possession of a scanner by a person who has been convicted of a felony in the last five years.

Many people including siren enthusiasts, aviation enthusiasts, and more use scanner audio or footage and post them online or live-stream them. Older people who are involved in these group (mainly siren enthusiasts) have said that putting siren activation tones in videos is either illegal or dangerous. Their reasoning is that in 2017 a very large siren system in Dallas, Texas had been hacked and all of the sirens in Dallas County went off in the middle of the night. According to some siren enthusiasts the hack was done by using a two-way radio and using a video online using activation tones from Dallas County's dispatch center. The hacker then transmitted the video with tones in it over the dispatch frequency which led to all of the sirens going off in Dallas. More of these hacks happened in places such as Cincinnati, Ohio, Milwaukee, Wisconsin and other cities. After this many siren enthusiasts stopped putting activation tones in videos so that they would not be used maliciously. A lot of arguments in the siren community have spun up after these hacks. Some enthusiasts began altering or pitch shifting tones so that they do not sound like the real activation tones and some still keep them in there, however they put a disclaimer in the description of the video saying they will not be held responsible for misuse of activation tones. The reason why activation tones are in videos in the first place is to alert the enthusiasts of when said siren is about to go off. With this being in mind, this is what some sources say about putting scanner audio in videos (including tones). Section 705 of the Communications Act States that: No person not being authorized by the sender shall intercept any radio communication and divulge or publish the existence, contents, substance, purport, effect, or meaning of such intercepted communication to any person. 47 U.S.C. § 605(a). The penalties for violating this section are severe: a fine of not more than $2000, imprisonment, or both or, where such violation is “willful" and for purposes of direct or indirect commercial advantage or private financial gain,” a fine of up to $50,000 and imprisonment of not more than two years for the first such conviction and up to $100,000 and five years for subsequent convictions. In addition, the statute provides for a private civil remedy to any person aggrieved by a violation of this section.  The FCC regulations implementing this section more specifically provide those messages originated by “privately-owned non-broadcast stations . . . may be broadcast only upon receipt of prior permission from the non-broadcast licensee.”  When people read this, they took it as putting scanner broadcasts online is illegal. This is not true because it only refers to the interception of broadcasts. This means it is still legal to put scanner audio in videos, but you cannot re-broadcast them over said frequency. Since most police, fire, EMS, and public safety frequencies are public and publicly available in the FCC Database, you can still put audio in videos no matter what the audio is.

In the United States, licensed amateur radio operators with a valid FCC license may possess amateur radio transceivers capable of reception beyond the amateur radio bands per an FCC Memorandum & Order known as FCC Docket PR91-36 (also known as FCC 93-410).

title: Radio scanner


text:
File:James Taylor - JT.jpg

Summary
Cover of the James Taylor album JT.

title: File:James Taylor - JT.jpg