text:
Luftwaffen-Legion Lettland

Luftwaffen-Legion Lettland was a unit of the German Luftwaffe that served in the Eastern Front in 1944. It was composed almost entirely of Latvian volunteers.

Formation and training
In September 1943 the Germans ordered the creation of a Latvian night bombing unit as part of the Luftwaffe. A flight school, Flugzeugführerschule A/B Libau/Grobin, was established at Liepaja-Grobina in October, which was renamed Ergaenzungs Nachtschlachtgruppe Ostland ("Supplementary Night Combat Group Ostland") on 1 January 1944. The pilots were drawn from former members of the pre-war Latvian Army's Aviation Regiment, the paramilitary Aizsargi, and the Latvian Aero Club. Flying training was carried out in the Bücker Bü 131, and ground crews were trained as mechanics, electricians, ordnance handlers, and anti-aircraft gunners.

Nachtschlachtgruppe 12 (Lettisch)
The first group of pilots graduated in late February, and the 1st Staffel ("Squadron") of Nachtschlachtgruppe 12 (Lettisch), ("12th Night Combat Group (Latvian)") was established on 1 March 1944. It consisted of all Latvian officer and NCO pilots, ground crews, with a few German liaison and administrative personnel, and was equipped with eighteen Arado Ar 66 biplanes, all under the command of a German, Hauptmann Rademacher.

As a Störkampfstaffel ("Harassment squadron") 1./NSGr.12 flew night bombing missions attacking enemy concentrations, infrastructure, and other targets of opportunity. Although the Ar 66 was a two-seater aircraft, they usually flew with only a single pilot, and carried two or three 50 kg or 70 kg anti-personnel or incendiary bombs. Their missions were typically flown at an altitude of around 1000 m, up to 50 km behind enemy lines. Each pilot was issued with a pistol and machine gun, in case of a forced landing in enemy territory.

1./NSGr.12 were first based at Vecumi, flying their first combat missions on 26 March. On 26 May they moved to Salas aerodrome in Kārsava, about 50 km south of Vecumi. On 22 June the second Staffel (2./NSGr.12) was formed, joining 1./NSGr.12 at Salas on the 26th. In July NSGr.12 moved north-east to Gulbene, and later eastwards to Kalnciems near Riga. A third Staffel (3./NSGr.12) was created in July, but due to a lack of aircraft, flew no operations, and its equipment and personnel were eventually incorporated into the 1st and 2nd Staffeln.

Luftwaffen-Legion Lettland
On 11 August 1944 the Luftwaffen-Legion Lettland was formed. It consisted of the two active Staffel of NSGr.12, and the third (still in the process of formation), the flight school at Liepaja-Grobina, renamed the Ergaenzungs Fliegergruppe Lettland ("Latvian Supplementary Flying Group"), and an anti-aircraft unit. On 17 August overall command of the Legion was assumed by the Latvian Lieutenant-Colonel Jānis Rucels, with Lt.-Col. Nikolajs Bulmanis commanding NSGr.12. In September the Legion was relocated further east to a base in Tukums, and in early October flew their last combat sorties in the vicinity of Dobele. The Legion was finally evacuated back to Hohensalza (now Inowrocław, Poland).

The trust of the Germans in their local Baltic flyers had been eroded by the desertion of five Estonian pilots from Nachtschlachtgruppe 11 (Estnisch) to neutral Sweden in late September and early October. As a result, the Luftwaffe ordered that the Estonian and Latvian aviation legions be dissolved. Luftwaffen-Legion Lettland was disbanded on 17 October 1944, and its personnel redistributed to German units.

During its operational existence the unit flew about 6,150 sorties, with the loss of six pilots. About 80% of the pilots were awarded the Iron Cross 1st or 2nd class.

In mid-1944 a select group of ten Latvian pilots were transferred to Germany to train in the Focke-Wulf Fw 190. Five returned to Latvia in October, but by then the Legion had been disbanded, so they were assigned to Jagdgeschwader 54.

title: Luftwaffen-Legion Lettland


text:
Wallace Clement Sabine

Wallace Clement Sabine (June 13, 1868 – January 10, 1919) was an American physicist who founded the field of architectural acoustics. Sabine was the architectural acoustician of Boston's Symphony Hall, widely considered one of the two or three best concert halls in the world for its acoustics.

Early life
Wallace Clement Sabine was born on June 13, 1868, in Richwood, Ohio, of Dutch, English, French, and Scottish descent. He graduated with a Bachelor of Arts from Ohio State University in 1886 at the age of 18. He then attended Harvard University and graduated with a Master of Arts in 1888.

His sister was Annie W. S. Siebert.

Career
After graduating, Sabine became an assistant professor of physics at Harvard in 1889. He became an instructor in 1890 and a member of the faculty in 1892. In 1895, he became an assistant professor and in 1905, he was promoted to professor of physics. In October 1906, he became dean of the Lawrence Scientific School, succeeding Nathaniel Shaler. Sabine's career is the story of the birth of the field of modern architectural acoustics. In 1895, acoustically improving the Fogg Lecture Hall, part of the recently constructed Fogg Art Museum, was considered an impossible task by the senior staff of the physics department at Harvard. (The original Fogg Museum was designed by Richard Morris Hunt and constructed in 1893. After the completion of the present Fogg Museum the building was repurposed for academic use and renamed Hunt Hall in 1935.) The assignment was passed down until it landed on the shoulders of a young physics professor, Sabine. Although considered a popular lecturer by the students, Sabine had never received his PhD and did not have any particular background dealing with sound.

Sabine tackled the problem by trying to determine what made the Fogg Lecture Hall different from other, acoustically acceptable facilities. In particular, the Sanders Theater was considered acoustically excellent. For the next several years, Sabine and his assistants spent each night moving materials between the two lecture halls and testing the acoustics. On some nights they would borrow hundreds of seat cushions from the Sanders Theater. Using an organ pipe and a stopwatch, Sabine performed thousands of careful measurements (though inaccurate by present standards) of the time required for different frequencies of sounds to decay to inaudibility in the presence of the different materials. He tested reverberation time with several different types of Oriental rugs inside Fogg Lecture Hall, and with various numbers of people occupying its seats, and found that the body of an average person decreased reverberation time by about as much as six seat cushions. Once the measurements were taken and before morning arrived, everything was quickly replaced in both lecture halls, in order to be ready for classes the next day.

Sabine was able to determine, through the experiments, that a definitive relationship exists between the quality of the acoustics, the size of the chamber, and the amount of absorption surface present. He formally defined the reverberation time, which is still the most important characteristic currently in use for gauging the acoustical quality of a room, as number of seconds required for the intensity of the sound to drop from the starting level, by an amount of 60 dB (decibels).

His formula is

T=\frac{V}{A} \cdot 0.161\,\mathrm{s\,m^{-1}} $$

where
 * T = the reverberation time
 * V = the room volume
 * A = the effective absorption area

By studying various rooms judged acoustically optimal for their intended uses, Sabine determined that acoustically appropriate concert halls had reverberation times of 2-2.25 seconds (with shorter reverberation times, a music hall seems too "dry" to the listener), while optimal lecture hall acoustics featured reverberation times of slightly under 1 second. Regarding the Fogg Museum lecture room, Sabine noted that a spoken word remained audible for about 5.5 seconds, or about an additional 12-15 words if the speaker continued talking. Listeners thus contended with a very high degree of resonance and echo. Sabine's work was continued by his cousin Paul Earls Sabine at the Riverbank Laboratories from 1919.

Using what he discovered, Sabine deployed sound absorbing materials throughout the Fogg Lecture Hall to cut its reverberation time and reduce the "echo effect." This accomplishment cemented Wallace Sabine's career, and led to his hiring as the acoustical consultant for Boston's Symphony Hall, the first concert hall to be designed using quantitative acoustics. His acoustic design was successful and Symphony Hall is generally considered one of the best symphony halls in the world.

The unit of sound absorption, the Sabin, was named in his honor.

Personal life
Sabine had a wife and two daughters.

Death
Sabine died on January 11, 1919, at his home in Boston, Massachusetts.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Wallace Clement Sabine


text:
Karitane

The small town of Karitane is located within the limits of the city of Dunedin in New Zealand, 35 kilometres to the north of the city centre.

Set in rolling country near the mouth of the Waikouaiti River, the town is a popular holiday retreat for Dunedinites.

Early history
The site of the present settlement of Karitane includes that of the pre-European Māori kaika, or undefended village. Giant moa were likely to be hunted in the area.

It encompasses Huriawa on the adjacent peninsula, a pā or fortified village, recalled in oral tradition for sieges in the late 17th or early 18th centuries. It was also the site of the whaling station set up by Long, Wright and Richards in 1837. That was known as Waikouaiti, but the name later became transferred to the present township of that name established by Johnny Jones as a farming settlement in 1840, on the north side of the estuary.

Modern history
In 1838 Jones acquired the Karitane whaling station, primarily targeting southern rights and humpbacks, resulting in severe depletion of local populations for these species. After sending pioneers to start his farming settlement he sent a Wesleyan missionary to join them in May 1840. Rev. James Watkin established the first mission station in the South Island. The first Christian service in the South Island took place in Karitane on 17 May, 1840. Watkin set up his mission station at Karitane. He was living there with his wife and children in a purpose-built house by late 1842. In 1867 George O'Brien painted a memorable view looking north from the Karitane waterfront, now in the Toitū Otago Settlers Museum, Dunedin.

2021 lead poisoning scare
In early February 2021, high levels of lead (40 times the acceptable level of 0.01mg/L) were detected in Karitane and nearby Waikouaiti's drinking water. The high levels of lead were first detected on 18 December 2020 but the alert was emailed to a Dunedin City Council staff member who was on holiday. In response, Director-General of Health Ashley Bloomfield offered free blood tests to Karitane and Waikouaiti residents. The Dunedin City Council also dispatched water tanks and staff to assist and reassure local residents. Prime Minister Jacinda Ardern described the lead levels in Karitane and Waikouaiti as "unacceptable." On 9 February, the City Council distributed free fruits and vegetables to residents of Karitane, Waikouaiti, and Hawksbury due to concerns about eating crops irrigated with the contaminated water. On 11 February, the Dunedin City Council also confirmed that it would drain a raw water reservoir and replace 5 kilometres of old pipes in order to reassure local residents. By 10 March, the Southern District Health Board confirmed that 1,512 people had been tested, with blood test results indicating that nobody had a blood lead level requiring hospitalisation and that long term exposure to lead from the water supply was limited.

Truby King
The name Karitane is often associated with pioneering paediatrician and psychiatrist Sir Truby King, founder of the Plunket Society. The name is echoed in many New Zealand child-related services and products:
 * Plunket set up a string of neonatal care institutions known throughout the country as Karitane Hospitals, starting here in Truby King's house, Kingscliff
 * A type of infant formula, Karicare, now made by Nutricia, as well as earlier brands Karilac and Kariol made by the Karitane Products Society are named after the town
 * Karitane Nurse (historically) a type of nurse in New Zealand specialising in infant care
 * Community Karitane, a type of community worker in New Zealand advising on parenting issues such as breastfeeding, nutrition, sleep and behaviour.
 * Karitane yellow, an informal name for a (baby-excrement-coloured) unpleasant shade of yellow
 * After 40 years absence in the market the Karilac brand has relaunched with a new infant formula called Shegoa which is made from goat and sheep milk.

Truby King also worked at nearby Seacliff Lunatic Asylum.

Orpheus Beaumont
Orpheus Beaumont, a woman from Karitane who entered and won the international Navy competition to invent the modern life jacket in 1918.

Demographics
Karitane is described by Statistics New Zealand as a rural settlement. It covers 1.29 km2 and had an estimated population of as of  with a population density of  people per km2. It is part of the much larger Bucklands Crossing statistical area.

Karitane had a population of 405 at the 2018 New Zealand census, an increase of 42 people (11.6%) since the 2013 census, and an increase of 57 people (16.4%) since the 2006 census. There were 192 households, comprising 198 males and 207 females, giving a sex ratio of 0.96 males per female, with 66 people (16.3%) aged under 15 years, 42 (10.4%) aged 15 to 29, 195 (48.1%) aged 30 to 64, and 102 (25.2%) aged 65 or older.

Ethnicities were 92.6% European/Pākehā, 11.1% Māori, 0.7% Asian, and 2.2% other ethnicities. People may identify with more than one ethnicity.

Although some people chose not to answer the census's question about religious affiliation, 59.3% had no religion, 28.1% were Christian, 0.7% had Māori religious beliefs, 1.5% were Buddhist and 0.7% had other religions.

Of those at least 15 years old, 90 (26.5%) people had a bachelor's or higher degree, and 54 (15.9%) people had no formal qualifications. 72 people (21.2%) earned over $70,000 compared to 17.2% nationally. The employment status of those at least 15 was that 153 (45.1%) people were employed full-time, 60 (17.7%) were part-time, and 3 (0.9%) were unemployed.

Bucklands Crossing
The Bucklands Crossing statistical area, which also includes Warrington, covers 421.96 km2. It had an estimated population of as of  with a population density of  people per km2.

Bucklands Crossing had a population of 1,482 at the 2018 New Zealand census, an increase of 57 people (4.0%) since the 2013 census, and an increase of 252 people (20.5%) since the 2006 census. There were 675 households, comprising 753 males and 729 females, giving a sex ratio of 1.03 males per female. The median age was 48.2 years (compared with 37.4 years nationally), with 261 people (17.6%) aged under 15 years, 156 (10.5%) aged 15 to 29, 756 (51.0%) aged 30 to 64, and 309 (20.9%) aged 65 or older.

Ethnicities were 93.3% European/Pākehā, 11.7% Māori, 0.8% Pasifika, 1.2% Asian, and 1.8% other ethnicities. People may identify with more than one ethnicity.

The percentage of people born overseas was 17.2, compared with 27.1% nationally.

Although some people chose not to answer the census's question about religious affiliation, 61.1% had no religion, 26.5% were Christian, 0.4% had Māori religious beliefs, 0.2% were Hindu, 0.2% were Muslim, 1.2% were Buddhist and 2.6% had other religions.

Of those at least 15 years old, 354 (29.0%) people had a bachelor's or higher degree, and 210 (17.2%) people had no formal qualifications. The median income was $32,500, compared with $31,800 nationally. 225 people (18.4%) earned over $70,000 compared to 17.2% nationally. The employment status of those at least 15 was that 570 (46.7%) people were employed full-time, 231 (18.9%) were part-time, and 30 (2.5%) were unemployed.

Culture
Huirapa Marae, also known as Puketeraki Marae, is located in Karitāne. It is a marae (meeting ground) of Ngāi Tahu, including the Kāti Huirapa Rūnanga Ki Puketeraki branch, and includes the Karitāne wharenui (meeting house).

Close to the settlement is the site of Huriawa Pā, which was a major pā (fortification) in pre-European New Zealand. It was set in a strong position on a rocky promontory above the coast.

Education
Karitane School is a co-educational state contributing primary school for Year 1 to 6 students, with a roll of students as of  A school has existed at Karitane since at least 1892.

title: Karitane


text:
Jerzy Hoffman

Jerzy Julian Hoffman (born 15 March 1932) is a Polish director, screenwriter, and producer. He received the Polish Academy Life Achievement Award in February 2006.

Hoffman is best known for his works in The Deluge (1974) and With Fire and Sword (1999), the former of which was nominated for an Academy Award for Best Foreign Language Film. His other notable credits were in Three Steps on Earth (1965) and Colonel Wolodyjowski (1969).

Early life, family and education
Hoffman was born to Jewish parents, Zygmunt Hoffman and Maria Schmelkes.

Career
His 1965 film Three Steps on Earth was entered into the 4th Moscow International Film Festival where it won a Silver Prize. His 1969 film Colonel Wolodyjowski was entered into the 6th Moscow International Film Festival. In 1973 he was a member of the jury at the 8th Moscow International Film Festival. In 1981 he was a member of the jury at the 12th Moscow International Film Festival. In 1985 he was a member of the jury at the 14th Moscow International Film Festival.

Hoffman directed Battle of Warsaw 1920 in 2011, the first Polish 3D feature film, stating “The fact that Poles made a film in 3D is not a miracle”.

Personal life
Hoffman is the father of early Macintosh development team member Joanna Hoffman.

Selected filmography

 * Battle of Warsaw 1920 (2011)
 * Ukraine - The Birth of a Nation (2008)
 * An Ancient Tale (Stara Baśń, 2003)
 * With Fire and Sword (Ogniem i mieczem, 1999)
 * A Beautiful Stranger (Piękna nieznajoma, 1992)
 *  (Wedle wyroków Twoich, 1983)
 * The Quack (Znachor, 1981)
 * To the Last Drop of Blood (Do krwi ostatniej, 1978)
 * Leper (Trędowata, 1976)
 * The Deluge (Potop, 1974) - nominated for a Best Foreign Film Oscar
 * Colonel Wolodyjowski (Pan Wołodyjowski, 1968 )
 * The Father (Ojciec, 1967)
 * The Market of Miracles (Jarmark cudów, 1966)
 * Three Steps on Earth (1965)
 * The Law and the Fist (Prawo i pięść, 1964)

title: Jerzy Hoffman


text: Category:Gamebooks

title: Category:Gamebooks


text:
Talk:Pascal's law

Older comments
I dont think that this (hydrostatic pressure is due to height of water column) is not what's commonly known as Pascal's Law. Pascal's Law (as I understand) is that force applied to an enclosed fluid is spread as an equal pressure throughout the fluid. ie. the concept behind pistons, syringes, car tyres,... Dougalc 23:57, 21 Oct 2004 (UTC)
 * I agree. I googled Pascal's Law and all mentioned the principle you explained above.  In fact, Pascal's law and Pascal's principle are supposed to be the same. Bubbachuck 16:03, 7 August 2005 (UTC)
 * The two principles may both be Pascal's Law; they are both foundational priciples for fluid statics and hydrostatics. The "hydrostatic paradox", discovered by Simon Stevin explains that the downward pressure of a liquid is independent of the shape of the vessel, and depends only on its height and base. Pascal discovered his principle by moving a barometer to different elevations in the atmosphere.  Often, the hydrostatic paradox is              said to be the precursor of Pascal's principle.  So they may both be the same principle.  The spreading of pressure may be the "higher" principle.  Also some state that Pascal's law is Pressure = density * gravity * height.  This equation would explain both principles.  I am checking on it further. Steven McCrary 19:13, August 7, 2005 (UTC)
 * OK, here is what I found: Applied Fluid Mechanics, Third Edition, by Mott (New York: Macmillan, 1990) uses the term "Pascal's law s ".  Fluid Mechanics with Engineering Applications by Daugherty and Franzini (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1977) says, "all points in a connected body of constant density fluid at rest are under the same pressure if they are at the same depth below the liquid surface."  So they are the same principle, but could be called principles, if necessary.   Steven McCrary 14:55, August 8, 2005 (UTC)

I have added in the alternative formula, although i am not sure how to make the text in the same format as the original formula. --LeakeyJee 05:40, 30 May 2006 (UTC)

......
 * Clarification needed:
 * The wording of the intro is technically correct, but not very clear as worded: "...pressure exerted anywhere ... is transmitted equally in all directions throughout the fluid such that the pressure variations (initial differences) remain the same."  This is saying that the variation with elevation, (the "initial differences") remains the same after some pressure changes.

 * It is much clearer to say that: "When there is a pressure change at one point ... there is an equal change at every other point."
 * Following the pattern of the original intro wording: "...a principle in fluid mechanics that states that a pressure change anywhere in a confined incompressible fluid is transmitted throughout the fluid such that the same pressure change occurs everywhere in the container. The "All direction" is redundant because of the word "throughout".

 * It's not spread as an _equal pressure_ throughout the volume because the pressure in a volume is not one value since it varies with depth. The *change* is what spreads equally. That is, if there is an increase at one point there will be an equal increase throughout.  This allows for the variation in hydeostatic pressure with depth.  This follows from the fundamental principle that at any point, pressure acts in all directions. This stems directly from Newton's Third Law.
 * E.G if pressure goes up 1 PSI at one point in a container, it will go up 1 PSI everywhere in the container. If a container of water is 14 PSI at the top and 15 PSI at the botom, then if the presure at the top goes to 15 PSI, the bottom will go to 16 PSI.  The *increase* is the same throughout.  The hydorstatic variation with eleveation must remain since it is a fundamental phenomenon.

 * NASA's GRC wording is much better: "Pascal's law states that when there is an increase in pressure at any point in a confined fluid, there is an equal increase at every other point in the container."These words are From: https://www.grc.nasa.gov/www/k-12/WindTunnel/Activities/Pascals_principle.html    Regards,  -- Steve --  (talk) 07:56, 13 July 2016 (UTC)

Pascal's law concept beats me
ok so volume of a liquid has to be conserved (given it is incompressible, non viscous blah blah) but why should the force per unit area be conserved and be the same in all directions? Basically if I just model everything as volume conservation and simply try and say that the liquid "en mass" will try to attain a level of minimal potential energy, I still end up with the same results. However to make the assumption that dF/dA is conserved seems off beat to me —The preceding unsigned comment was added by 220.227.207.194 (talk) 09:29, 5 March 2007 (UTC).

It is a static situation and nothing “ will try to attain a level of minimal potential energy”. Force is a vector describes interaction between two bodies (two parts of liquid). Pressure is a scalar describes properties of point on the surface. When you are considering p=dF/dS you must indicate surface S. This surface divide liquid on two parts. This parts are reacted. Problem, where is a starting point of vector force. I mean that centre of mass is a good point or point on the indicated surface. Gas or liquid is the set of material point in this model. 83.26.189.120 (talk) 08:21, 18 November 2008 (UTC)

I still do not agree, Pascal's law is extrapolated and can never be 1. either measured correctly 2. nor extrapolated mathematically. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 192.18.192.21 (talk) 09:26, 30 November 2009 (UTC) well here is a simple observation consider 2 sides of a U tube, one with area A1 and other A2 A1.d1 is the displacement of one side and A2.d2 is the displacement of the other A1.d1=A2d2 if fluid is incompressible hence work done F1.d1=F2.d2 hence d1/d2=F2/F1=A2/A1 Hence: F1/A1 = F2/A2 —Preceding unsigned comment added by Alokdube (talk • contribs) 11:06, 25 November 2009 (UTC)

However the above has no bearing to how the liquid has the same level or why the pressure should be same inside the liquid —Preceding unsigned comment added by Alokdube (talk • contribs) 11:08, 25 November 2009 (UTC)

Another example is as follows: Take a U tube with unequal width arms. The U tube is stable because of the base stand, if you suspend it on a pivot/via a string, while liquid make seek the same level, the tube will dip towards the heavier side. In case the tube is on the table, we easily assume pressure is equal, forces somehow balance out etc. — Preceding unsigned comment added by Alokdube (talk • contribs) 08:11, 28 March 2011 (UTC)

Major Style Revisions Needed
This article has worthwhile information in it, but it was extremely poorly written. I've given it a once over, but someone with more time and experience should deal with it. Of particular note, I removed two of the entries under applications:
 * 'Pascal's burst barrel demonstration': a long and narrow vertical pipe is connected to the contents of a large, sealed barrel. Adding 2x to the pipe increases the pressure throughout the system. Adding a small amount of water to the pipe is enough to burst the barrel.
 * Atmospheric pressure diminishes with height, a fact first verified on the Puy-de-Dôme and the Saint-Jacques Tower in Paris, on the instigation of Blaise Pascal himself.

The first is poorly written enough that I cannot tell what it's trying to say (and I am unfamiliar with the demonstration). It also appears to be anecdotal at best, and is hardly an "application". The second is misleading: air is not an incompressible fluid, and is therefore not strictly subject to Pascal's law. -Athaler (talk) 18:05, 19 February 2009 (UTC)

Terminology
In engineering, the term fluid encompasses both gases and liquids. Typically, gases are compressible fluids (increasing or decreasing pressure can change the volume occupied by a gas), while liquids are incompressible fluids (applying pressure does not change the volume occupied by the liquid). Though in lay language, a fluid is usually construed as a liquid, when a textbook or other source says Pascal's Law applies to fluids, it is covering both gases and liquids—not one or the other.Writeswift (talk) 21:07, 1 May 2014 (UTC)

Energy interpretation
A more correct interpretation, though, is that the pressure change is caused by the change of potential energy per unit volume of the liquid due to the existence of the gravitational field.

It's not at all obvious to a non-physicist how energy sneaks into this simple equation in such a way as to warrant depiction as "more correct". — MaxEnt 19:15, 2 May 2014 (UTC)

Please someone take notice of this difficulty: I personally do not think energy (potential energy) is even to be considered here - pressure is about force (per unit area) being "exerted" - which is not the "potential" of exertion - but rather naive "force" in itself.

It is highly sad no one is trying to either correct it or clarify as MaxEnt requested - his/her request is lying neglected since more than 3 years? MakingSenseOfSenses (talk) 17:52, 2 October 2017 (UTC)

=MaxEnt and MakingSenseOfSenses,
 * I know I'm coming in late here. I just happened to notice this from another change. Pressure is potential energy. It has the potential to do work if allowed to. A piston in a pressurized cylinder can, if allowed, push a block, or turn a crank and be converted to kinetic energy and/or friction-heat.  Until it does some work, it still only has the potential to. I agree that sometimes the conservation of energy thing gets thrown out as an explanation, which may be true, but it is at too high a level for the particular part of the discussion. The basic concept is that any force is has the potential to do work. Hope this helps.  -- Steve --  (talk) 14:54, 18 September 2018 (UTC)

Pascal's law in compressible fluids
Are we sure, that Pascal's law is correct only in incompressible fluids? I've found phrases in literature, that Pascal's law is consequense of law of conservation of energy and is correct for compressible liquids (gases). Dinamik (talk) 14:15, 21 May 2016 (UTC)
 * The problem I see is that for compressible liquids (such as gases), the density changes with pressure, and so the simple form presented on the page (:$$ \Delta P =\rho g (\Delta h)\,$$) doesn't work. However, the derivative form should:$$ dP/dh =\rho g $$. Klbrain (talk) 21:12, 31 August 2016 (UTC)
 * Well another problem is that Pacal law only works for liquid that is not moving. Otherwise we have additional inertia and viscosity terms. In compressible fluids pressure change causes movement Alex Bakharev (talk) 21:02, 9 July 2019 (UTC)

article needs attention
This article is a total mess. Under "Definition," it has two inequivalent statements of the law. The second one, stated as an equation, is valid only for fluids in static equilibrium, and is also stated in a mathematical form that makes it invalid except when the fluid is incompressible and the gravitational field is constant. There is a graph, referenced nowhere in the text, with this caption: "Pressure in water and air. Pascal's law applies only for fluids." The term "fluid" is usually defined in physics and engineering to include both liquids and gases, and in any case the graph doesn't demonstrate anything about Pascal's law. I'm adding the { { Expert-subject } } tag.--76.169.116.244 (talk) 17:48, 29 July 2016 (UTC)

Pascal's barrel
See the elements given in fr:Crève-tonneau de Pascal : the experiment never was performed by Pascal... Micheletb (talk) 04:32, 3 July 2020 (UTC)

"Explanation" Section
The explanation section does not provide an explanation, just an example. For instance, there's no explanation of why, when gravity acts only downward, that there should also be pressure on the sides of the container. A conceptual (not just mathematical) explanation is needed. DrMattB (talk) 02:36, 8 November 2021 (UTC)

Indeed. The sentence "The pressure that the left piston exerts against the water will be exactly equal to the pressure the water exerts against the right piston." just restates the law. For this reason, I'll rename the "Explanation" section to "Application" and merge it with the existing section. I'll also remove redundant entries from there. Kotlopou (talk) 19:35, 9 January 2022 (UTC)

title: Talk:Pascal's law


text:
Ivor Wood

Ivor Sydney Wood (4 May 1932 – 13 October 2004) was a prolific Anglo-French  animator, director, producer and writer. He was known for his work on children's television series.

Born in Leeds to an English father and a French mother, his family moved to the mountains near Lyon, France, after the Second World War, where he was educated. He studied fine art in Paris, and later worked in an advertising agency in Paris, where he met Serge Danot. Together they made the acclaimed French series Le Manège enchanté (known in English as The Magic Roundabout), with Wood as the animator.

Following the success of The Magic Roundabout in the UK, Wood partnered with the London-based animation company FilmFair. Wood became both animator and director for a number of FilmFair's animated children's programmes, starting with The Herbs in 1968. During the 1970s, he animated and directed Simon in the Land of Chalk Drawings, Hattytown Tales, The Adventures of Parsley, The Wombles, and Paddington.

Woodland Animations Limited
Woodland Animations Ltd. was founded by Ivor Wood and his wife Josiane, specifically to produce stop-motion animated series for the BBC. The company produced a number of programmes, the earliest and most popular of which was Postman Pat.

Series produced

 * Postman Pat (1981–1996, 2003–2008)
 * Gran (1983)
 * Bertha (1985–1986)
 * Charlie Chalk (1988–1989)

Death
Wood died on 13 October 2004 at the age of 72.

title: Ivor Wood


text:
Talk:Air Assault Badge

Retroactive Awards
If any Vietnam Air Cavalry or Airmobile vet has been successful in obtaining a retroactive award, please contact me by email to Glamunyon@aol.com. I have been trying to get a retroactive award for several years. For more information, visit www.airassault.bizhosting.com. Welcome Home ! ! !

 * Its actually a very simple process. Go on the web and download DD Form 149 (avaialble through Yahoo, Google, Lycos search engine, etc).  Fill out the DD Form 149 stating why the Air Assualt badge is warranted and mail it to the Army address which is on the form.  The Army will then determine if a retroactive award is warranted.  If you need records to support your claim, they can be obtained by Standard Form 180 which is sent to the National Personnel Records Center.  General info number is 314-801-0800 -Husnock 21 Oct 04

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OK, here is an actual case - the veteran's request for a retroactive Air Assault Badge was TURNED DOWN - see decision at the link below: http://boards.law.af.mil/cgi-bin/quickview.cgi?filename=ARMY/BCMR/CY2004/2004104600.rtf

A change in policy must happen before we can have a retroactive award.

Guy C. Lamunyon Chairman Air Assault Parity Coalition

 * I've seen at least four to five cases, in my work with military records, where this badge was awarded retroactively to veterans who had truely participated in airborne assault missions prior ot the badges creation. I, myself, have typed up the DD Form 215 in at least one circumstance.  Sorry for the person at the link above, though. -Husnock 11Feb05

 * Followup up to that. 1st: thats a pretty cool link! 2nd: it is interesting that they denied it based on the year of the school having to be after 1974.  The folks Ive seen get it for Vietnam might have gone to that school later in their career and thats why it was retroactive...hmmm.  But, in any event, as far as I know it CAN be retroactive, but obviously not always is. -Husnock

So what do you know of these people that got the AAB retroactive? If they had gone to the school after '74 what would they need the badge retroactive, I mean they would have earned it by completing the school, right?

Len Blachly trikat2501@msn.com

Earning the badge
Upon assignment to Fort Campbell in 1986, I volunteered for Air Assault training - a simple 2 week course. I got my "wings", but the only time I got to use them was when I saw my First Sergeant improperly preparing a vehicle for helicopter transport. I tried to tell him, but he blew me off. And never even thanked me after the thing fell to the ground (as I had predicted)... Ah, NCOs... Uncle Ed 04:17, 23 September 2005 (UTC)

The section from the article that has been moved here:
Wikipedia's guidelines on verifiablilty state that "The threshold for inclusion in Wikipedia is verifiability, not truth." The section about what people thought of the AAB and whether or not it is better or worse than the Parachutists Badge is not only unsourced, but seems a bit on the POV side (read: a lot on the POV side). I'm moving it here until it can be verified by reliable sources and not someone's personal memory of events.

"Initially the new badge did not meet with much enthusiasm. Just as with the long-gone Glider Badge, the design was clearly taken from jump wings, and it was not held in high regard among paratroopers, who saw it as a cheap imitation for lesser mortals. Jumpers derisively referred to the badge as “Bullwinkle Wings” (likening it to a cartoon character) and “Dope on a Rope.”  Unlike parachute volunteers assigned to the arch-rival 82nd Airborne Division, personnel were assigned to the 101st much like any other unit and they did not necessarily wish to become Air Assault-qualified.  Attendance at the course was in some cases used by units within the 101st as punishment for those deemed in need of attitude adjustment.  In 1983, when a former assistant division commander of the 101st started an Air Assault course at Fort Rucker, AL, volunteers were lacking and prospective aviation officers awaiting the start of their flight training were told, “Attendance at the Air Assault School is not mandatory; however, should you choose not to attend, your career may be adversely affected.”  The message was clear: attend or else. Forcing the school on unwilling personnel did not increase the popularity of the badge, and some chose to silently protest by not wearing it even after they’d completed the course. After over three decades of wear, the badge is accepted Army-wide, but it will probably never reach equal status with the Parachute Badge."

The information in the paragraph above is probably not documented anywhere, but it was common knowledge to anyone associated with Airborne and Air Assault matters during the 1970s and 1980s. Certainly no official Army publication would document a general's veiled threats to the careers of budding Army aviators if they did not choose to attend the Fort Rucker AAS.

Sometimes antagonism toward the AAB was more than subtle. When the 3d Brigade, 101st Airborne Division (Airmobile) came off jump status in April 1974, the brigade's paratroopers were incensed about losing their jump status and involuntarily becoming airmobile soldiers. They were to be sent to the new Airmobile (later Air Assault) Course on post, and as is the case with the Airborne Course at Fort Benning, they had to complete an Airborne physical fitness test (50 push-ups, 50 sit-ups, and a two-mile run in less than 16 minutes) prior to starting the course. One company of the brigade's 503rd Infantry "protested" by failing the test by one push-up (i.e., each soldier only accomplished 49 push-ups). This angered the company commander, for it was obvious what the troops were doing, but they couldn't openly state they wanted nothing to do with the Airmobile Badge.

Removed and placed the paragraph on 1-377th FAR's wear of a wing trimming as well as a flash on maroon berets, even though the unit was not Airborne. The authorization in 2000 may have been made in error, perhaps with the unit being misunderstood to be an Airborne rather than Air Assault battalion, and the Institute of Heraldry is taking action to cancel the flash and wing trimming.

Text removed:

Other Units
Note: Until 2007 this unit's most recent assignment was at Fort Bragg, NC, as a subordinate element of the 18th Field Artillery Brigade (Airborne). Although it was Air Assault, not Airborne, as a unit of the 18th it wore both the maroon beret with flash as well as a matching oval for Air Assault wings. Reassigned to the 17th Fires Brigade at Fort Lewis, WA, it has lost the wear of the maroon beret but will continue to wear its oval behind the Air Assault Badge. HHB, 1-377th FAR traces its history back to Battery A, 377th Parachute Field Artillery Battalion, which served in the 101st Airborne Division in World War II.
 * 1st Battalion, 377th Field Artillery Regiment

B-Class Review
I'd say this article is B-Class, but only just. It's a bit ragged in organization and could use some additional notes.Intothatdarkness 21:09, 27 July 2012 (UTC)

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Qualifications
Are there MOS or rank restrictions, or can anyone apply for the school? Are certain people (platoon sergeants, squad leaders, &c) required to earn the badge? 104.153.40.58 (talk) 00:57, 20 February 2022 (UTC)
 * No MOS or rank restrictions. Only people required to earn the badge are those in air assault designated units, e.g. 101st. ⇒   SWAT Jester   Shoot Blues, Tell VileRat! 02:06, 16 June 2024 (UTC)

Honorable Air Assault badges
Honorable Air Assault Badges have been awarded to the appropriate soldiers that had served in either the 1st Cavalry or the 101st Airborne in Vietnam. It was probably four or so years ago. We were considered the pioneers of Air Assault tactics. 2603:8000:63F:85FF:2A7C:B9F6:1680:72F1 (talk) 18:27, 15 June 2024 (UTC)
 * It was in 2021, but it is not an actual U.S. military skill badge, it's an organizational award from the 101st Airborne Association. ⇒   SWAT Jester   Shoot Blues, Tell VileRat! 02:05, 16 June 2024 (UTC)

title: Talk:Air Assault Badge


text:
User:Bmeacham

Project manager, requirements analyst, independent scholar in Philosophy. Ph. D. in Philosophy.

title: User:Bmeacham


text:
The Dunciad

The Dunciad is a landmark, mock-heroic, narrative poem by Alexander Pope published in three different versions at different times from 1728 to 1743. The poem celebrates a goddess, Dulness, and the progress of her chosen agents as they bring decay, imbecility, and tastelessness to the Kingdom of Great Britain.

Versions
The first version – the "three-book" Dunciad – was published in 1728 anonymously. The second version, the Dunciad Variorum, was published anonymously in 1729. The New Dunciad, in a new fourth book conceived as a sequel to the previous three, appeared in 1742, and The Dunciad in Four Books, a revised version of the original three books and a slightly revised version of the fourth book with revised commentary, was published in 1743 with a new character, Bays, replacing Theobald as the "hero".

Origins
Pope told Joseph Spence (in Spence's Anecdotes) that he had been working on a general satire of Dulness, with characters of contemporary Grub Street scribblers, for some time and that it was the publication of Shakespeare Restored by Lewis Theobald that spurred him to complete the poem and publish it in 1728.

Part of Pope's bitter inspiration for the characters in the book comes from his soured relationship with the royal court. The Princess of Wales Caroline of Ansbach, wife of George II, had supported Pope in her patronage of the arts. When she and her husband came to the throne in 1727 she had a much busier schedule and thus had less time for Pope, who saw this oversight as a personal slight against him. When planning the Dunciad he based the character Dulness on Queen Caroline, as the fat, lazy and dull wife. The King of the Dunces as the son of Dulness was based on George II. Pope makes his views on the first two Georgian kings very clear in the Dunciad when he writes "Still Dunce the second reigns like Dunce the first".

However, Pope's reputation had been impugned, as the full title of Theobald's edition was ''Shakespeare restored, or, A specimen of the many errors, as well committed, as unamended, by Mr. Pope : in his late edition of this poet. Designed not only to correct the said edition, but to restore the true reading of Shakespeare in all the editions ever yet published.''

Pope had written characters of the various "Dunces" prior to 1728. In his "Essay on Criticism", Pope describes some critics of a witless nature. In his various Moral Epistles, Pope likewise constructs characters of contemporary authors of poor taste. The general structure owes its origins to the communal project of the Scriblerians and other similar works such as the mock-heroic MacFlecknoe by John Dryden and Pope's own The Rape of the Lock.

The Scriblerian club most consistently comprised Jonathan Swift, John Gay, John Arbuthnot, Robert Harley, and Thomas Parnell. The group met during the spring and summer of 1714. One group project was to write a satire of contemporary abuses in learning of all sorts, in which the authors would combine their efforts to write the biography of the group's fictional founder, Martin Scriblerus, through whose writings they would accomplish their satirical aims. The resulting The Memoirs of Martin Scriblerus contained a number of parodies of the most lavish mistakes in scholarship.

For the mock-heroic structure of the Dunciad itself, however, the idea seems to have come most clearly from MacFlecknoe. MacFlecknoe is a poem celebrating the apotheosis of Thomas Shadwell, whom Dryden nominates as the dullest poet of the age. Shadwell is the spiritual son of Flecknoe, an obscure Irish poet of low fame, and he takes his place as the favourite of the goddess Dulness.

Pope takes this idea of the personified goddess of Dulness being at war with reason, darkness at war with light, and extends it to a full Aeneid parody. His poem celebrates a war, rather than a mere victory, and a process of ignorance, and Pope picks, as his champions of all things insipid, Lewis Theobald (1728 and 1732) and Colley Cibber (1742).

Jean-Pierre de Crousaz, who wrote a biting commentary on Pope's Essay on Man, found that Pope had "reserved a place for him in the Dunciad".

Publication
Pope first published The Dunciad in 1728 in three books, with Lewis Theobald as its "hero". The poem was not signed, and he used only initials in the text to refer to the various Dunces in the kingdom of Dulness. However, "Keys" immediately came out to identify the figures mentioned in the text, and an Irish pirate edition was printed that filled in the names (sometimes inaccurately). Additionally, the men attacked by Pope also wrote angry denunciations of the poem, attacking Pope's poetry and person. Pope endured attacks from, among others, George Duckett, Thomas Burnet, and Richard Blackmore. All of these, however, were less vicious than the attack launched by Edmund Curll, a notoriously unscrupulous publisher, who produced his own pirate copy of the Dunciad with astounding swiftness, and also published "The Popiad" and a number of pamphlets attacking Pope.

In 1729, Pope published an acknowledged edition of the poem, and the Dunciad Variorum appeared in 1732. The Variorum was substantially the same text as the 1729 edition, but it now had a lengthy prolegomenon. The prefatory material has Pope speaking in his own defence, although under a variety of other names; for example, "A Letter to the Publisher Occasioned by the Present Edition of the Dunciad" is signed by William Cleland (d. 1741), one of Pope's friends and father of John Cleland, but it was probably written by Pope himself.

In these prefatory materials, Pope points out that the Keys were often wrong about the allusions, and he explains his reluctance at spelling out the names. He says that he wishes to avoid elevating the targets of the satire by mentioning their names (which, of course, did happen, as a number of persons are only remembered for their appearances in the poem), but he similarly did not want innocents to be mistaken for the targets. Pope also apologises for using parody of the Classics (for his poem imitates both Homer and Virgil) by pointing out that the ancients also used parody to belittle unworthy poets. Pope's preface is followed by advertisements from the bookseller, a section called "Testimonies of Authors Concerning Our Poet and his Works" by "Martinus Scriblerus", and a further section named "Martinus Scriblerus, of the Poem".

Martinus Scriblerus was a corporate identity employed by Pope and the other members of the Scriblerians. Therefore, these two portions of the preface could have been written by any of its members, but they, like the other prefatory materials, were most likely written by Pope himself. The various Dunces had written responses to Pope after the first publication of The Dunciad, and they had not only written against Pope, but had explained why Pope had attacked other writers. In the "Testimonies" section, Martinus Scriblerus culls all the comments the Dunces made about each other in their replies and sets them side by side, so that each is condemned by another. He also culls their contradictory characterisations of Pope, so that they seem to all damn and praise the same qualities over and over again.

The "Testimonies" also includes commendations from Pope's friends. The words of Edward Young, James Thomson and Jonathan Swift are brought together to praise Pope specifically for being temperate and timely in his charges. The conclusion asks the reader "to chuse whether thou wilt incline to the Testimonies of Authors avowed" (like Pope's friends) "or of Authors concealed" (like many of the Dunces) – in short, "of those who knew him, or of those who knew him not".

"Tibbald" King of Dunces
Alexander Pope had a proximal, close and long term cause for choosing Lewis Theobald as the King of Dunces for the first version of the Dunciad. The immediate cause was Theobald's publication of Shakespeare Restored, or a Specimen of the many Errors as well Committed as Unamended by Mr Pope in his late edition of this poet; designed not only to correct the said Edition, but to restore the true Reading of Shakespeare in all the Editions ever published in 1726. Pope had published his own version of Shakespeare in 1725, and he had made a number of errors in it. He had "smoothed" some of Shakespeare's lines, had chosen readings that eliminated puns (which Pope regarded as low humour), and had, indeed, missed several good readings and preserved some bad ones. In the Dunciad Variorum, Pope complains that he had put out newspaper advertisements when he was working on Shakespeare, asking for anyone with suggestions to come forward, and that Theobald had hidden all of his material. Indeed, when Pope produced a second edition of his Shakespeare in 1728, he incorporated many of Theobald's textual readings.

Pope, however, had already a quarrel with Theobald. The first mention of Theobald in Pope's writings is the 1727 "Peri Bathous", in Miscellanies, The Last Volume (which was the third volume), but Pope's attack there shows that Theobald was already a figure of fun. Regardless of the quarrels, though, Theobald was, in a sense, the nearly perfect King of Dunces. The Dunciad's action concerns the gradual sublimation of all arts and letters into Dulness by the action of hireling authors. Theobald, as a man who had attempted the stage and failed, plagiarised a play, attempted translation and failed to such a degree that John Dennis referred to him as a "notorious Ideot", attempted subscription translation and failed to produce, and who had just turned his full attention to political attack writing, was an epitome, for Pope, of all that was wrong with British letters. Additionally, Pope's goddess of Dulness begins the poem already controlling state poetry, odes, and political writing, so Theobald as King of Dunces is the man who can lead her to control the stage as well. Theobald's writings for John Rich, in particular, are singled out within the Dunciad as abominations for their mixing of tragedy and comedy and their "low" pantomime and opera; they are not the first to bring the Smithfield muses to the ears of kings, but they ferried them over in bulk.

Overview of the three-book Dunciad
The central premise of the poem is the same as that of MacFlecknoe: the crowning of a new King of Dulness. However, Pope's poem is far more wide-ranging and specific than Dryden's had been. His satire is political and cultural in very specific ways. Rather than merely lambasting "vice" and "corruption", Pope attacks very particular degradations of political discourse and particular degradations of the arts.

The political attack is on the Whigs, and specifically on the Hanoverian Whigs. The poem opens, in fact, with the goddess Dulness noting that "Still Dunce the second rules like Dunce the first", which is an exceptionally daring reference to George II, who had come to the throne earlier in the year. Furthermore, although the King of Dunces, Theobald, writes for the radical Tory Mist's Journal, Pope consistently hammers at radical Protestant authors and controversialists. Daniel Defoe is mentioned almost as frequently as anyone in the poem, and the booksellers picked out for abuse both specialised in partisan Whig publications.

The cultural attack is broader than the political one, and it may underlie the whole. Pope attacks, over and over again, those who write for pay. While Samuel Johnson would say, half a century later, that no man but a blockhead ever wrote but for money, Pope's attack is not on those who get paid, but those who will write on cue for the highest bid. Pope himself was one of the earliest poets to make his living solely by writing, and so it is not the professional author, but the mercenary author that Pope derides. He attacks hired pens, the authors who perform poetry or religious writing for the greatest pay alone, who do not believe in what they are doing. As he puts it in book II, "He [a patron] chinks his purse, and takes his seat of state [among the poets] ... And instant, fancy feels th' imputed sense" (II 189, 192). He objects not to professional writers, but to hackney writers. His dunce booksellers will trick and counterfeit their way to wealth, and his dunce poets will wheedle and flatter anyone for enough money to keep the bills paid.

The plot of the poem is simple. Dulness, the goddess, appears at a Lord Mayor's Day in 1724 and notes that her king, Elkannah Settle, has died. She chooses Lewis Theobald as his successor. In honour of his coronation, she holds heroic games. He is then transported to the Temple of Dulness, where he has visions of the future. The poem has a consistent setting and time, as well. Book I covers the night after the Lord Mayor's Day, Book II the morning to dusk, and Book III the darkest night. Furthermore, the poem begins at the end of the Lord Mayor's procession, goes in Book II to the Strand, then to Fleet Street (where booksellers were), down by Bridewell Prison to the River Fleet, then to Ludgate at the end of Book II; in Book III, Dulness goes through Ludgate to the City of London to her temple.

A Book I
The poem begins with an epic invocation, "Books and the Man I sing, the first who brings/ The Smithfield Muses to the Ear of Kings" (I 1–2) (Smithfield being the site of Bartholomew Fair entertainments, and the man in question was Elkanah Settle, who had written for Bartholomew Fair after the Glorious Revolution; Pope makes him the one who brought pantomime, farce, and monster shows to the royal theatres). The goddess Dulness notes that her power is so great that "Time himself stands still at her command, / Realms shift their place, and Ocean turns to land" (I 69-70), and thus claims credit for the routine violation of the Unities of Aristotle in poetry. On Lord Mayor's Day of 1724, when Sir George Thorold was Lord Mayor, Dulness announces the death of the current King of Dunces, Elkanah Settle. Settle had been the City Poet, and his job had been to commemorate Lord Mayor's Day pageants. Thanks to his hard work in stultifying the senses of the nation, Dulness claims control of all official verse, and all current poets are her subjects ("While pensive Poets painful vigils keep, / Sleepless themselves to give their readers sleep" I 91–92). She mentions Thomas Heywood, Daniel Defoe (for writing political journalism), Ambrose Philips, Nahum Tate, and Sir Richard Blackmore as her darlings. However, her triumph is not complete, and she aspires to control dramatic poetry as well as political, religious, and hack poetry. She therefore decides that Theobald will be the new King.

The action shifts to the library of Lewis Theobald, which is "A Gothic Vatican! of Greece and Rome / Well-purg'd, and worthy Withers, Quarles, and Blome" (I 125-126) (a Vatican Library for Northern European authors, and especially notable for vainglorious and contentious writing and criticism). Theobald is despairing of succeeding in writing dull poetry and plays, and he is debating whether to return to being a lawyer (for that had been Theobald's first trade) or to become a political hack. He decides to give up poetry and become an entirely hired pen for Nathaniel Mist and his Mist's Journal. He therefore collects all the books of bad poetry in his library along with his own works and makes a virgin sacrifice of them (virgin because no one has ever read them) by setting fire to the pile. The goddess Dulness appears to him in a fog and drops a sheet of Thule (a poem by Ambrose Philips that was supposed to be an epic, but which only appeared as a single sheet) on the fire, extinguishing it with the poem's perpetually wet ink. Dulness tells Theobald that he is the new King of Dunces and points him to the stage. She shows him,

The book ends with a hail of praise, calling Theobald now the new King Log (from Aesop's fable).

A Book II
Book II centres on the highly scatological "heroic games". Theobald sits on the throne of Dulness, which is a velveteen tub ("tub" being the common term for the pulpit of Dissenters), and Dulness declares the opening of heroic games to celebrate his coronation. Therefore, all her sons come before her on the Strand in London, leaving half the kingdom depopulated, for she summons both dull writers, their booksellers, and all who are stupid enough to patronise dull writers.

The first game is for booksellers. (Booksellers at the time purchased manuscripts from authors, and the proceeds from book sales went entirely to the bookseller, with the author getting no more than the advance price.) Dulness therefore decides upon a race for the booksellers. She creates a phantom Poet,

but, instead, a fat, well dressed poet (and therefore a wealthy, noble one who would command sales by his title). The phantom poet is named More, a reference to James Moore Smythe, who had plagiarised both Arbuthnot (Historico-physical Account of the South-Sea Bubble) and Pope (Memoirs of a Parish Clark), and whose only original play had been the failed The Rival Modes. The booksellers immediately set out running to be the first to grab Moore, with Bernard Lintot setting forth with a roar (Lintot had been James Moore Smythe's publisher), only to be challenged by Edmund Curll:

The race seemingly having been decided by progress through bed-pan slops, Curll prays to Jove, who consults the goddess Cloacina. He hears the prayer, passes a pile of feces down, and catapults Curll to the victory. As Curll grabs the phantom Moore, the poems it seemed to have fly back to their real authors, and even the clothes go to the unpaid tailors who had made them (James Moore Smythe had run through an inherited fortune and bankrupted himself by 1727). Dulness urges Curll to repeat the joke, to pretend to the public that his dull poets were really great poets, to print things by false names. (Curll had published numerous works by "Joseph Gay" to trick the public into thinking they were by John Gay.) For his victory, she awards Curll a tapestry showing the fates of famous Dunces. On it, he sees Daniel Defoe with his ears chopped off, John Tutchin being whipped publicly through western England, two political journalists clubbed to death (on the same day), and himself being wrapped in a blanket and whipped by the schoolboys of Westminster (for having printed an unauthorised edition of the sermons of the school's master, thereby robbing the school's own printer).

The next contest Dulness proposes is for the phantom poetess, Eliza (Eliza Haywood). She is compared to their Hera. Whereas Hera was "cow-eyed" in Iliad, and "of the herders", Haywood inverts these to become a

The booksellers will urinate to see whose urinary stream is the highest. Curll and Chetham compete. Chetham's efforts are insufficient to produce an arc, and he splashes his own face. Curll, on the other hand, produces a stream over his own head, burning (with an implied case of venereal disease) all the while. For this, Chetham is awarded a kettle, while Curll gets the phantom lady's works and company.

The next contest is for authors, and it is the game of "tickling": getting money from patrons by flattery. A very wealthy nobleman, attended by jockeys, huntsmen, a large sedan chair with six porters, takes his seat. One poet attempts to flatter his pride. A painter attempts to paint a glowing portrait. An opera author attempts to please his ears. John Oldmixon simply asks for the money (Oldmixon had attacked Pope in The Catholic Poet, but Pope claims that his real crime was plagiarism in his Critical History of England, which slandered the Stuarts and got him an office from the Whig ministry), only to have the lord clench his money tighter. Finally, a young man with no artistic ability sends his sister to the lord and wins the prize.

Another contest, primarily for critics, comes next. In this, Dulness offers up the prize of a "catcall" and a drum that can drown out the braying of asses to the one who can make the most senseless noise and impress the king of monkeys. They are invited to improve mustard-bowl thunder (as the sound effect of thunder on the stage had been made using a mustard bowl and a shot previously, and John Dennis had invented a new method) and the sound of the bell (used in tragedies to enhance the pitiful action). Pope describes the resulting game thus:

The critics are then invited to all bray at the same time. In this, Richard Blackmore wins easily:

(Blackmore had written six epic poems, a "Prince" and "King" Arthur, in twenty books, an Eliza in ten books, an Alfred in twelve books, etc. and had earned the nickname "Everlasting Blackmore". Additionally, Pope disliked his overuse of the verb "bray" for love and battle and so had chosen to have Blackmore's "bray" the most insistent.)

The assembled horde go down by Bridewell (the women's prison) between 11:00 am and 12:00 pm, when the women prisoners are being whipped, and go "To where Fleet-ditch with disemboguing streams/ Rolls the large tribute of dead dogs to Thames" (II 259-260). At the time, the River Fleet was the city's sewer outlet, where all of the gutters of the city washed into the river. It was silted, muddy, and mixed with river and city waters.

In the ditch, the political hacks are ordered to strip off their clothes and engage in a diving contest. Dulness says, "Who flings most filth, and wide pollutes around / The stream, be his the Weekly Journals, bound" (II 267–268), while a load of lead will go to the deepest diver and a load of coal to the others who participate. "The Weekly Journals" was a collective noun, referring to London Journal, Mist's Journal, British Journal, Daily Journal, etc. In this contest, John Dennis climbs up as high as a post and dives in, disappearing forever. Next, "Smedly" (Jonathan Smedley, a religious opportunist who criticised Jonathan Swift for gain) dives in and vanishes. Others attempt the task, but none succeed like Leonard Welsted (who had satirised Pope, Gay, and Arbuthnot's play Three Hours after Marriage in 1717), for he goes in swinging his arms like a windmill (to splash all with mud): "No crab more active in the dirty dance, / Downward to climb, and backward to advance" (II 298–299). He wins the Journals, but Smedly reappears, saying that he had gone all the way down to Hades, where he had seen that a branch of Styx flows into the Thames, so that all who drink city water grow dull and forgetful from Lethe.

Smedly becomes Dulness's high priest, and the company move to Ludgate. There, the young critics are asked to weigh the difference between Richard Blackmore and John "Orator" Henley. The one who can will be the chief judge of Dulness. Three second year students ("college sophs") from Cambridge University and three lawyers from Temple Bar attempt the task, but they all fall asleep. The entire company slowly falls asleep, with the last being Susanna Centlivre (who had attacked Pope's translation of Homer before its publication) and "Norton Defoe" (another false identity created by a political author who claimed to be the "true son" of Daniel Defoe). Finally, Folly herself is killed by the dullness of the works being read aloud. The result is, appropriately, that there is no judge for Dulness, for Dulness requires an absence of judgment.

A Book III
Book three is set in the Temple of Dulness in the City. Theobald sleeps with his head on the goddess's lap, with royal blue fogs surrounding him. In his dream, he goes to Hades and visits the shade of Elkannah Settle. There he sees millions of souls waiting for new bodies as their souls transmigrate. Bavius dips each soul in Lethe to make it dull before sending it to a new body. (In classical mythology, the souls of the dead were put into Lethe to forget their lives before passing on to their final reward, but these are dipped in Lethe before being born.) Elkannah Settle hails Theobald as the great promised one, the messiah of Dulness, for Bavius had dipped him over and over again, from lifetime to lifetime, before he was perfected in stupidity and ready to be born as Theobald. Theobald had formerly been a Boeotian, several Dutchmen, several monks, all before being himself: "All nonsense thus, of old or modern date, / Shall in thee centre, from thee circulate" (III 51–52).

Settle gives Theobald full knowledge of Dulness. This is his baptism: the time when he can claim his divine role and begin his mission (in a parody of Jesus being blessed by the Holy Spirit). Settle shows Theobald the past triumphs of Dulness in its battles with reason and science. He surveys the translatio stultitia: the Great Wall of China and the emperor burning all learned books, Egypt and Omar I burning the books in the Ptolemean library. Then he turns to follow the light of the sun/learning to Europe and says,

Goths, Alans, Huns, Ostrogoths, Visigoths, and Islam are all seen as destroyers of learning. Christianity in the medieval period is also an enemy of learning and reason in Settle's view:

Pope lambasts the medieval popes for destroying statuary and books that depicted Classical gods and goddesses and for vandalising others, for making statues of Pan into Moses.

Settle then surveys the future. He says that Grub Street will be Dulness's Mount Parnassus, where the goddess will "Behold a hundred sons, and each a dunce" (III 130). He names two sons of contemporary dunces who were already showing signs of stupidity: Theophilus Cibber (III 134) and the son of Bishop Burnet.

Settle turns to examine the present state of "duncery", and this section of the third book is the longest. He first looks to literary critics, who are happiest when their authors complain the most. Scholars are described as:

From critics, he turns to the contrastive of triumphant dunces and lost merit. Orator Henley gets special attention here (lines 195 ff.). Henley had set himself up as a professional lecturer. On Sundays, he would discuss theology, and on Wednesdays any other subject, and those who went to hear him would pay a shilling each ("Oh great Restorer of the good old Stage, / Preacher at once, and Zany of thy Age!" III 201–202), while learned bishops and skilled preachers spoke to empty congregations. Next come the theatres: a Dr. Faustus was the toast of the 1726–1727 season, with both Lincoln's Inn Fields and Drury Lane competing for more and more lavish stage effects to get the audiences in:

Even though Pope was on good terms with some of the men involved (e.g. Henry Carey, who provided music for the Drury Lane version), the two companies are fighting to see who can make the least sense. This competition of vulgarity is led by two theatres, and each has its champion of decadence. At Lincoln's Inn Fields is the "Angel of Dulness", John Rich:

Rich's ability to ride in a stage whirlwind (in parody of God in the Book of Job) is matched by Colley Cibber and Barton Booth, patentees of the Drury Lane theatre, who mount the stage in purple dragons and have an aerial battle. Dulness is the winner in these contests, for she benefits. Settle urges Theobald to refine these entertainments, to hammer them home and get them all the way to court, so that Dulness can be the true empress of the land. He prophesies that Theobald will live in an age that will see Laurence Eusden the Poet Laureate and Colley Cibber the "Lord Chancellor of plays".

Settle then reveals some current triumphs of dullness over good sense. He mentions William Benson as the proper judge of architecture:

William Benson was a fool who had taken the place of Sir Christopher Wren and told the House of Lords that the house was unsound and falling down. It was not. John Gay never obtained a pension and yet was often remarked as one of the most jovial, intelligent, and compassionate wits of the age. Jonathan Swift had been "exiled" to Ireland, where he had become involved in Irish politics. Pope himself had spent three years translating Homer. Settle sees in these things great prospects for the coming age of darkness.

The poem ends with a vision of the apocalypse of nonsense:

Settle invokes the second coming of stupidity, urging,

At the very conclusion, Theobald cannot take any more joy, and he wakes. The vision goes back through the ivory gate of Morpheus.

Themes of The Dunciad A
The Three Book Dunciad has an extensive inversion of Virgil's Aeneid, but it also structures itself heavily around a Christological theme. To some degree, this imagery of unholy consecration had been present in Dryden's MacFlecknoe, but Pope's King of Dunces is much more menacing than Thomas Shadwell could ever have been in Dryden's poem. It is not a case of an unworthy man getting praised that spurs the poem, but rather a force of degradation and decadence that motivates it. Pope is not targeting one man, but rather a social decline that he feels is all but irrevocable. Nevertheless, the poem is still a satire and not a lamentation. The top of society (the kings) may be dulled by spectacle and freak shows, but Dulness is only one force. She is at war with the men of wit, and she can be opposed. In the Four Book Dunciad (or Dunciad B), any hope of redemption or reversal is gone, and the poem is even more nihilistic.

The four-book Dunciad B of 1743
In 1741, Pope wrote a fourth book of the Dunciad and had it published the next year as a stand-alone text. He also began revising the whole poem to create a new, integrated, and darker version of the text. The four-book Dunciad appeared in 1743 as a new work. Most of the critical and pseudo-critical apparatus was repeated from the Dunciad Variorum of 1738, but there was a new "Advertisement to the Reader" by Bishop Warburton and one new substantial piece: a schematic of anti-heroes, written by Pope in his own voice, entitled Hyper-Critics of Ricardus Aristarchus. The most obvious change from the three-book to the four-book Dunciad was the change of hero from Lewis Theobald to Colley Cibber.

Colley Cibber: King of Dunces
Pope's choice of new 'hero' for the revised Dunciad, Colley Cibber, the pioneer of sentimental drama and celebrated comic actor, was the outcome of a long public squabble that originated in 1717, when Cibber introduced jokes onstage at the expense of a poorly received farce, Three Hours After Marriage, written by Pope with John Arbuthnot and John Gay. Pope was in the audience and naturally infuriated, as was Gay, who got into a physical fight with Cibber on a subsequent visit to the theatre. Pope published a pamphlet satirising Cibber, and continued his literary assault until his death, the situation escalating following Cibber's politically motivated appointment to the post of poet laureate in 1730. Cibber's role in the feud is notable for his 'polite' forbearance until, at the age of 71, he finally became exasperated. An anecdote in "A Letter from Mr. Cibber, to Mr. Pope", published in 1742, recounts their trip to a brothel organised by Pope's own patron, who apparently intended to stage a cruel joke at the expense of the poet. Since Pope was only about 4' tall, with a hunchback, due to a childhood tubercular infection of the spine, and the prostitute specially chosen as Pope's 'treat' was the fattest and largest on the premises, the tone of the event is fairly self-apparent. Cibber describes his 'heroic' role in snatching Pope off of the prostitute's body, where he was precariously perched like a tom-tit, while Pope's patron looked on, sniggering, thereby saving English poetry. In the third book of the first version of Dunciad (1728), Pope had referred contemptuously to Cibber's "past, vamp'd, future, old, reviv'd, new" plays, produced with "less human genius than God gives an ape". While Cibber's elevation to laureateship in 1730 had further inflamed Pope against him, there is little speculation involved in suggesting that Cibber's anecdote, with particular reference to Pope's "little-tiny manhood", motivated the revision of hero. Pope's own explanation of the change of hero, given in the guise of Ricardus Aristarchus, provides a detailed justification for why Colley Cibber should be the perfect hero for a mock-heroic parody.

Aristarchus's "hyper-criticism" establishes a science for the mock heroic and follows up some of the ideas set forth by Pope in Peri Bathous in the Miscellanies, Volume the Third (1727). In this piece, the rules of heroic poetry could be inverted for the proper mock-heroic. The epic hero, Pope says, has wisdom, courage, and love. Therefore, the mock-hero should have "Vanity, Impudence, and Debauchery". As a wise man knows without being told, Pope says, so the vain man listens to no opinion but his own, and Pope quotes Cibber as saying, "Let the world ... impute to me what Folly or weakness they please; but till Wisdom can give me something that will make me more heartily happy, I am content to be ". Courage becomes a hero, Pope says, and nothing is more perversely brave that summoning all one's courage just to the face, and he quotes Cibber's claim in the Apology that his face was almost the best known in England. Chivalric love is the mark of a hero, and Pope says that this is something easy for the young to have. A mock-hero could keep his lust going when old, could claim, as Cibber does, "a man has his Whore" at the age of 80. When the three qualities of wisdom, courage, and love are combined in an epic hero, the result is, according to Pope, magnanimity that induces admiration in the reader. On the other hand, when vanity, impudence, and debauchery are combined in the "lesser epic" hero (Pope uses the term "lesser epic" to refer to the satirical epic that would function like a satire play in the Classical theatre), the result is "Buffoonry" that induces laughter and disgust. Finally, Pope says that Cibber's offences are compounded by the outlandishness of his claims. Although he was "a person never a hero even on the Stage", he sets himself out as an admirable and imitable person who expects applause for his vices.

The argument of the four-book Dunciad
Most of the argument of the Dunciad B is the same as that of Dunciad A: it begins with the same Lord Mayor's Day, goes to Dulness contemplating her realm, moves to Cibber (called "Bays", in honour of his being Poet Laureate and thereby having the laurel wreath and butt of sherry) in despair, announces Cibber's choice as new King of Dunces, etc. Other than a change of hero, however, Pope made numerous adaptations and expansions of key passages. Not only are the topical references altered to fit Cibber's career, but Pope consistently changes the nature of the satire subtly by increasing the overarching metaphor of Cibber as "Anti-Christ of Wit", rather than Classical hero of Dulness. Most of the adaptations increase the parody of the Bible at the expense of the parody of Virgil.

B Book I
The invocation changes from "the one who brings" the Smithfield muses to the ears of kings to "The Mighty Mother, and her Son who brings", thus immediately making Cibber the fatherless son of a goddess, and the poem addresses "... how the Goddess bade Britannia sleep, / And pour'd her Spirit o'er the land and deep" (I 7–8). From the invocation, the poem moves to an expanded description of the Cave of Poverty and Poetry, near Bedlam. Cibber is the co-master of the cave, "Where o'er the gates [of Bedlam], by his fam'd father's hand/ Great Cibber's brazen, brainless brothers stand" (I 31–32) (referring to statues constructed by Caius Cibber, Colley Cibber's father), and the cave is now the source of "Journals, Medleys, Merc'ries, Magazines" (I 42). These changes introduce the Biblical and apocalyptical themes that Book IV, in particular, will explore, as Dulness's spirit parodies the Holy Spirit dwelling upon the face of the waters in the Book of Genesis.

When Dulness chooses her new king, she settles on Bays, who is seen in his study surveying his own works:

The base of Cibber's pile of sacrificed books is several commonplace books, which are the basis of all his own productions. Although Cibber confesses:

The accidental common sense was The Careless Husband. When Cibber casts about for new professions, he, unlike Theobald in 1732, decides, "Hold—to the Minister I more incline; / To serve his cause, O Queen! is serving thine" (I 213–214). The "minister" is Robert Walpole, an extremely unpopular Whig leader, and the "queen" is both Dulness and Queen Caroline of Hanover, who was a Tory enemy for her reconciliation of George II with Walpole. When the new king is about to burn his books in despair, Pope heightens the religious imagery, for Cibber says to his books, "Unstain'd, untouch'd, and yet in maiden sheets;/ While all your smutty sisters walk the streets" (I 229–230), and it is better that they be burned than that they be wrapped in "Oranges, to pelt your sire" (I 236). Again, Dulness extinguishes the pyre with a sheet of the ever-wet Thule.

Cibber goes to Dulness's palace, and Pope says that he feels at home there, and "So Spirits ending their terrestrial race, / Ascend, and recognize their Native Place" (I 267–268). The Christian Heaven-home of Puritan songs is altered for Cibber to the originating sleep of Dulness. While in the Dunciad A the palace had been empty, it is here crowded with ghosts (the same dunces mentioned in 1727, but all having died in the interim). Dulness calls forth her servants to herald the new king, and the book ends with Dulness's prayer, which takes an apocalyptic tone in the new version:

B Book II
Most of Book II of the Dunciad B is the same as Dunciad A. The Dunce Games are largely the same, with a few changes in personnel. Cibber watches all, with "A brain of feathers, and a heart of lead" (II 44). The contest of booksellers is generally as it was in 1727, with Curll slipping on bedpan slops. However, when Curll prays to Cloacina, Pope provides more motivation for her hearing his prayer:

Further, Cloacina aids Curll win the race herself, and not by intercession with Jove, and Pope here explains how she propels him to victory: she makes the ordure nourishment to Curll, and he "Imbibes new life, and scours and stinks along" (B II 106). Again, the phantom poet, More, vanishes. The game for Eliza Heywood's person and poetry is the same as the previous version, except that the promised gift for the runner-up is a chamber pot. Curll here competes with Thomas Osborne, a bookseller who had claimed to sell Pope's subscription edition of Iliad at half price, when he had merely pirated it, cut the size of the book to octavo, and printed on low quality paper. Curll wins Eliza, and Osborne is crowned with the pot.

The "tickling" contest is the same, except that Thomas Bentley, nephew of Richard Bentley the classicist, replaces Richard Blackmore. This Bentley had written a fawning ode on the son of Robert Harley (a former friend of Pope's with whom he seems estranged). In the noise battle, Dulness tells her poets,

In the braying contest that follows, there is a noise that seems to come "from the deep Divine; / There Webster! peal'd thy voice, and Whitfield! thine" (B II 257–258). Webster was a radical Protestant religious writer who had demanded the scourging of the church, and Whitfield was George Whitfield, the notable collaborator with John Wesley, who agreed with Webster only "to abuse all the sober Clergy". Richard Blackmore appears again as the single singer with the loudest "bray".

The progress by Bridewell to Fleet-ditch and the muck-diving games are the same, but, again, with some changes of dunces. Oldmixon, who had appeared in 1727 as one of the ticklers, is here the elderly diver who replaces John Dennis. Smedley and Concanen are the same, but Pope adds a new section on party political papers:

These "sons of a day" are the daily newspapers that only had lifespans of a single issue. They were frequently printed with two different papers on the same sheet of paper (front and back), and Pope quotes the investigation into Robert Harley, 1st Earl of Oxford (conducted by Walpole's administration) as showing that the Tory ministry of Pope's friends had spent over fifty thousand pounds to support political papers. The dead gazettes are mourned only by "Mother Osborne" (James Pitt, who had run the London Journal under the name of "Father Osborne"; he had been called "Mother Osborne" for his dull, pedantic style). The champion of splattering in Dunciad B is William Arnal, a party author of the British Journal who had gotten ten thousand pounds as a political hack. In keeping with the insertion of Webster and Whitfield, earlier, Pope takes a new turn and has the winner of the depth dive be the Archbishop of Canterbury, John Potter (1674–1747), and he is surrounded by an army of minor authors, "Prompt or to guard or stab, to saint or damn, / Heav'n's Swiss, who fight for any God, or Man" (B II 357–358). These trimming religious authors are people like Benjamin Hoadley (who had been an aid to Smedley) and John "Orator" Henley. Potter describes the vision of Hades and the Styx pouring into the Thames, but it is not merely Lethe that pours in. Lethe and the effluvia of dreams go into the Thames, so the effect is that it "Intoxicates the pert, and lulls the grave" (B II 344). The Archbishop of Canterbury becomes the Archbishop of Dulness.

The book concludes with the contest of reading Blackmore and Henley.

B Book III
Book III is, like Book II, largely the same text as the Dunciad Variorum. In light of the new fourth book and the subtle changes of Book I, however, some passages take on more menace. The opening, in which Cibber rests with his head in Dulness's lap, is here a clear parody of the Madonna with child. The vision granted Cibber is less Christological, as Cibber is not given a mission in the same way with an infusion of the Unholy Spirit, as Book IV provides a new ending, but the general vision of Hades is the same. Cibber visits the shade of Elkannah Settle and is shown the translatio studii and its inverse, the translatio stultitiae, as learning moves ever westward across the world, with the sun, and darkness springs up right behind it.

In the survey of the formless poets waiting to be born (in print), Cibber sees the same faces as Theobald had, but with a few excisions and additions. The implied homosexual couple of critics from the Dunciad A are cut, but a mass of nameless poets contend, "who foremost shall be dam'd to Fame" (B III 158) (both cursed with fame and damned by the goddess Fama for being an idiot), and altogether,

As in the previous version, these struggling hack writers and political character assassins are contrasted to the glorious dunces who win all the money and fame of the kingdom, while worthy ministers and divines go ignored. Thus, Settle features Orator Henley as a paragon,

As in the three book Dunciad, Settle shows the happy triumph of Dulness on the stage, but the lines are compressed and take on a new parodic context:

The theatre is providing a mockery of the Apocalypse and the second coming, an inverted, man-made spectacle of the divine. For these accomplishments, Settle blesses Cibber and mourns his own failure in Dulness's service. For Cibber,

Settle then takes a glance at the loss of learning incipient in the age. In architecture, the fool triumphant is Ripley, who was making a new Admiralty building, while "Jones' and Boyle's" fail. Settle wishes for the day to come soon when Eton and Westminster are in permanent holiday. As with the earlier version of the poem, the book ends with Cibber excitedly waking from his dream.

Book IV
Book IV was entirely new to the Dunciad B and had been published first as a stand-alone concluding poem. Pope himself referred to the four-book version "the Greater Dunciad", in keeping with the Greater Iliad. It is also "greater" in that its subject is larger. Book IV can function as a separate piece or as the conclusion of the Dunciad: in many ways its structure and tone are substantially different from the first three books, and it is much more allegorical.

It opens with a second, nihilistic invocation:

The fourth book promises to show the obliteration of sense from England. The Dog-star shines, the lunatic prophets speak, and the daughter of Chaos and Nox (Dulness) rises to "dull and venal a new World to mold" (B IV 15) and begin a Saturnian age of lead.

Dulness takes her throne, and Pope describes the allegorical tableau of her throne room. Science is chained beneath her foot-stool. Logic is gagged and bound. Wit has been exiled from her kingdom entirely. Rhetoric is stripped on the ground and tied by sophism. Morality is dressed in a gown that is bound by two cords, of furs (the ermines of judges) and lawn (the fabric of bishops sleeves), and at a nod from Dulness, her "page" (a notorious hanging judge named Page who had had over one hundred people executed) pulls both cords tight and strangles her. The Muses are bound in tenfold chains and guarded by Flattery and Envy. Only mathematics is free, because it is too insane to be bound. Nor, Pope says, could Chesterfield refrain from weeping upon seeing the sight (for Chesterfield had opposed the Licensing Act of 1737, which is the chaining of the Muses). Colley Cibber, however, slumbers, his head in Dulness's lap. (In a note, Pope says that it is proper for Cibber to sleep through the whole of Book IV, as he had had no part in the actions of book II, slept through book III, and therefore ought to go on sleeping.)

Into the audience chamber, a "Harlot form" "with mincing step, small voice, and languid eye" comes in (B IV 45–46). This is opera, who wears patchwork clothing (for operas being made up of the patchwork of extant plays and being itself a mixed form of singing and acting). Opera then speaks to Dulness of the Muses:

However, Opera warns Dulness that Handel is a threat to her. His operas make too much sense, have too strong a plot, and are too masculine in their performance. Accordingly, Dulness banishes Handel to Ireland.

Fame blows her "posterior trumpet", and all the dunces of the land come to Dulness's throne. There are three classes of dunce. First, there are the naturally dull. These are drawn to her as bees are to a queen bee, and they "adhere" to her person. The second are the people who do not wish to be dunces but are, "Whate'er of mungril no one class admits, / A wit with dunces, and a dunce with wits" (B IV 89–90). These dunces orbit Dulness. They struggle to break free, and they get some distance from her, but they are too weak to flee. The third class are "false to Phoebus, bow to Baal; / Or impious, preach his Word without a call" (B IV 93–94). They are men and women who do dull things by supporting dunces, either by giving money to hacks or by suppressing the cause of worthy writers. These people come to Dulness as a comet does: although they are only occasionally near her, they habitually do her bidding. Of this last group, Pope classes Sir Thomas Hanmer, a "decent knight", who absurdly thinks himself a great Shakespeare editor and uses his own money to publish an exceptionally lavish and ornate edition (with a text that was based on Pope's own edition). He is outshone in darkness by one Benson, who is even more absurd, in that he begins putting up monuments of John Milton, striking coins and medals of Milton, and translating Milton's Latin poetry and who had then passed from excessive Milton fanaticism to fanaticism for Arthur Johnston, a Scottish physician and Latin poet. Unable to be the most fantastically vain man, Hamner prepares to withdraw his edition, but "Apollo's May'r and Aldermen" (B IV 116) take the page from him. (This was a reference to Oxford University Press, with which Pope had a quarrel based on their denying Bishop Warburton a doctorate in 1741). Dulness tells her followers to imitate Benson and tack their own names to statues and editions of famous authors, to treat standard authors as trophies (the busts made of them like hunting trophies), and thus "So by each Bard an Alderman shall sit" (B IV 131).

All of the dunces press forward, vying to be the first to speak, but a ghost comes forward who awes them all and makes all to shake in fear. Doctor Busby, headmaster of Westminster School appears, "Dropping with Infant's blood, and Mother's tears" (B IV 142) from the birch cane that he used to whip boys, and every man in the hall begins to tremble. Busby tells Dulness that he is her true champion, for he turns geniuses to fools, "Whate'er the talents, or howe'er design'd, / We hang one jingling padlock on the mind" (B IV 161–162). Dulness agrees and wishes for a pedant king like James I again, who will "stick the Doctor's Chair into the Throne" (B IV 177), for only a pedant king would insist on what her priests (and only hers) proclaim: "The of Kings to govern wrong" (B IV 188), for Cambridge and Oxford still uphold the doctrine.

As soon as she mentions them, the professors of Cambridge and Oxford (except for Christ Church college) rush to her, "Each fierce Logician, still expelling Locke" (B IV 196). (John Locke had been censured by Oxford University in 1703, and his Essay on Human Understanding had been banned.) These professors give way to their greatest figure, Richard Bentley, who appears with his Quaker hat on and refuses to bow to Dulness. Bentley tells Dulness that he and critics like him are her true champions, for he had "made Horace dull, and humbled Milton's strains" (B IV 212) and, no matter what her enemies do, critics will always serve Dulness, for "Turn what they will to Verse, their toil is vain,/ Critics like me shall make it Prose again" (B IV 213–214). Picking fine arguments on letters and single textual variants and correcting authors, he will make all wits useless, and clerics, he says, are the purely dull, though the works of Isaac Barrow and Francis Atterbury might argue otherwise. He says that it is "For thee explain a thing till all men doubt it,/ And write about it, Goddess, and about it" (B IV 251–252). They cement over all wit, throwing stone back onto the figures that authors had chiselled out of marble. As he makes his boast, he sees a whore, a pupil, and a French governor come forward, and the devout Bentley skulks away.

The French governor attempts to speak to Dulness but cannot be heard over the French horn sound that emerges, so the pupil tells his story. The "governor" is an English nobleman who went to school and college without learning anything, then went abroad on the Grand Tour, on which "Europe he saw, and Europe saw him too" (B IV 294). He went to Paris and Rome and "he saunter'd Europe round, / And gather'd ev'ry Vice on Christian ground" (B IV 311–312). At the end of his travels, he is "perfectly well-bred, / With nothing but a Solo in his head" (B IV 323–324), and he has returned to England with a despoiled nun following him. She is pregnant with his child (or the student's) and destined for the life of a prostitute (a kept woman), and the lord is going to run for Parliament so that he can avoid arrest. Dulness welcomes the three—the devious student, the brainless lord, and the spoiled nun—and spreads her own cloak about the girl, which "frees from sense of Shame".

After the vacuous traveller, an idle lord appears, yawning with the pain of sitting on an easy chair. He does nothing at all. Immediately after him, Annius speaks. He is the natural predator for idling nobles, for he is a forger of antiquities (named for Annio di Viterbo) who teaches the nobles to value their false Roman coins above their houses and their forged Virgil manuscripts above their own clothing. He serves Dulness by teaching her servants to vaunt their stupidity with their wealth.

title: The Dunciad


text: User talk:67.84.192.33

title: User talk:67.84.192.33