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Anglo-Spanish War (1585–1604)

The Anglo-Spanish War (1585–1604) was an intermittent conflict between the Habsburg Kingdom of Spain and the Kingdom of England that was never formally declared. It began with England's military expedition in 1585 to what was then the Spanish Netherlands under the command of Robert Dudley, Earl of Leicester, in support of the Dutch rebellion against Spanish Habsburg rule.

In large-scale campaigns, the English repelled the Spanish Armada in 1588, whilst Spain repelled the English Armada. The 2nd Spanish Armada in 1596 and the 3rd Spanish Armada in 1597 likewise ended in failure. The war included much English privateering against Spanish ships, and several widely separated battles. The war dragged on towards the end of the sixteenth century; England and Spain intervened in France in the 1590s and in Ireland from 1601. The campaign in the Netherlands continued which saw a Spanish veteran force defeated by the Anglo-Dutch at the Battle of Nieuwpoort in 1600. This was followed a year later by the costly three year Siege of Ostend which Spain eventually seized.

The war was brought to an end with the Treaty of London (1604), negotiated between Philip III of Spain and the new king of England, James I. In the treaty, England and Spain restored the status quo ante bellum, agreed to cease their military interventions in the Netherlands and Ireland respectively, and resumed trade; the English ended their high seas privateering and the Spanish recognized James as king.

Causes
In the 1560s, Philip II of Spain was faced with increasing religious disturbances as Protestantism gained adherents in his domains in the Low Countries. As a defender of the Catholic Church, he sought to suppress the rising Protestant movement in his territories, which eventually exploded into open rebellion in 1566. Meanwhile, relations with the regime of Elizabeth I of England continued to deteriorate, following her restoration of royal supremacy over the Church of England through the Act of Supremacy in 1559; this had been first instituted by her father Henry VIII and rescinded by her sister Mary I, Philip's wife. The Act was considered by Catholics as a usurpation of papal authority. Calls by leading English Protestants to support the Protestant Dutch rebels against Philip increased tensions further as did the Catholic-Protestant disturbances in France, which saw both sides supporting the opposing French factions.

Complicating matters were commercial disputes. The activities of English sailors, begun by Sir John Hawkins in 1562, gained the tacit support of Elizabeth, even though the Spanish government complained that Hawkins's trade with their colonies in the West Indies constituted smuggling. In September 1568, a slaving expedition led by Hawkins and Sir Francis Drake was surprised by the Spanish, and several ships were captured or sunk at the Battle of San Juan de Ulúa near Veracruz in New Spain. This engagement soured Anglo-Spanish relations and in the following year the English detained several treasure ships sent by the Spanish to supply their army in the Netherlands. Drake and Hawkins intensified their privateering as a way to break the Spanish monopoly on Atlantic trade. Francis Drake went on a privateering voyage where he eventually circumnavigated the globe between 1577 and 1580. Spanish colonial ports were plundered and a number of ships were captured including the treasure galleon Nuestra Señora de la Concepción. When news of his exploits reached Europe, Elizabeth's relations with Philip continued to deteriorate.

Soon after the Portuguese succession crisis of 1580, English support was provided to António, Prior of Crato who then fought in his struggle with Philip II for the Portuguese throne. Philip in return began to support the Catholic rebellion in Ireland against Elizabeth's religious reforms. Both Philip's and Elizabeth's attempts to support opposing factions were defeated.

In 1584, Philip signed the Treaty of Joinville with the Catholic League of France to defeat the Huguenot forces in the French Wars of Religion. In the Spanish Netherlands, England had secretly supported the side of the Dutch Protestant United Provinces, who were fighting for independence from Spain. In 1584, the Prince of Orange had been assassinated, leaving a sense of alarm as well as a political vacuum. The following year was a further blow to the Dutch with the capture of Antwerp by Spanish forces led by Alexander Farnese, the Duke of Parma. The Dutch rebels sought help from England, which Elizabeth agreed to as she feared that a Spanish reconquest there would threaten England. The Treaty of Nonsuch was signed as a result – Elizabeth agreed to provide the Dutch with men, horses, and subsidies but she declined overall sovereignty. In return, the Dutch handed over three Cautionary Towns which were garrisoned by English troops. Philip took this to be an open declaration of war against his rule in the Netherlands.

War
The Anglo-Spanish War broke out in 1585, following the seizure of English merchant ships in Spanish harbors. In response the English privy council immediately authorised a campaign against the Spanish fishing industry in Newfoundland and off the Grand Banks. The campaign was a huge success, and subsequently led to England's first sustained activity in the Americas. In August, England joined the Eighty Years' War on the side of the Dutch Protestant United Provinces, which had declared their independence from Spain. In that same year, the English established their first New World settlement, the short lived Roanoke Colony established by Ralph Lane.

The Queen through Francis Walsingham ordered Sir Francis Drake to lead an expedition to attack the Spanish New World in a kind of preemptive strike. Drake sailed in October to the West Indies, and in January 1586 captured and sacked Santo Domingo. The following month they did the same at Cartagena de Indias and in May sailed North to raid St. Augustine in Florida. When Drake arrived in England in July he became a national hero. In Spain however, the news was a disaster and this now further buoyed a Spanish invasion of England by King Philip. Thomas Cavendish meanwhile set out with three ships on 21 July 1586 to raid Spanish settlements in South America. Cavendish raided three Spanish settlements and captured or burned thirteen ships. Among these was a rich 600 ton treasure galleon Santa Ana, the biggest treasure haul that ever fell into English hands. Cavendish circumnavigated the globe returning to England on 9 September 1588.

Dutch Revolt (1585–1587)
Robert Dudley, The Earl of Leicester was sent to the United Provinces in 1585 with a dignitary party and took the offered governorship of the United Provinces. This, however, was met with fury from Elizabeth, who had expressed no desire for any sovereignty over the Dutch. An English mercenary army had been present since the beginning of the war and was then under the command of veteran Sir John Norreys. They combined forces but were undermanned and under-financed, and faced one of the most powerful armies in Europe led by the famed Alexander Farnese, Duke of Parma.

During the siege of Grave the following year, Dudley attempted its relief, but the Dutch garrison commander Hadewij van Hemert surrendered the town to the Spanish. Dudley was furious on hearing of Grave's sudden loss and had van Hemert executed, which shocked the Dutch. The English force then had some successes, taking Axel in July and Doesburg the following month. Dudley's poor diplomacy with the Dutch, however, made matters worse. His political base weakened and so too did the military situation. Outside Zutphen an English force was defeated and notable poet Philip Sidney mortally wounded, which was a huge blow to English morale. Zutphen itself and Deventer were betrayed by Catholic turncoats William Stanley and Rowland York, which further damaged Leicester's reputation. Finally Sluis with a largely English garrison was besieged and taken by the Duke of Parma in June 1587, after the Dutch refused to help in the relief. This resulted in mutual recriminations between Leicester and the States.

Leicester soon realised how dire his situation was and asked to be recalled. He resigned his post as governor – his tenure had been a military and political failure, and as a result, he was financially ruined. After Leicester's departure, the Dutch elected the Prince of Orange's son Count Maurice of Nassau as the stadtholder and governor. At the same time Peregrine Bertie took over English forces in the Netherlands.

Spanish Armada
On 8 February 1587, the execution of Mary, Queen of Scots outraged Catholics in Europe. In retaliation for the execution of Mary, Philip vowed to invade England to place a Catholic monarch on its throne. In April 1587 Philip's preparations suffered a setback when Francis Drake burned 37 Spanish ships in the harbour of Cádiz, and as a result the invasion of England had to be postponed for over a year.

On 29 July, Philip obtained Papal authority to overthrow Elizabeth, who had been excommunicated by Pope Pius V, and place whomever he chose on the throne of England. He assembled a fleet of about 130 ships, containing 8,050 sailors, 18,973 soldiers, and 2,088 rowers. To finance this endeavour, Pope Sixtus V had permitted Philip to collect crusade taxes. Sixtus had promised a further subsidy to the Spanish should they reach English soil.

On 28 May 1588, the Armada, under the command of the Duke of Medina Sidonia, set sail for the Netherlands, where it was to pick up additional troops for the invasion of England. As the armada sailed through the English Channel, the English navy, led by Charles Howard, 1st Earl of Nottingham, and Francis Drake, fought a battle of attrition with the Spanish from Plymouth to Portland and then to the Solent, preventing them from securing any English harbours. The Spanish were forced to withdraw to Calais. While the Spanish were at anchor there in a crescent-shaped defensive formation, the English used fireships to break the formation and scatter the Spanish ships. In the subsequent Battle of Gravelines the English navy attacked the Armada and forced it to sail northward in more dangerous stormy waters on the long way home. As they sailed around Scotland, the Armada suffered severe damage and loss of life from stormy weather. As they approached the West coast of Ireland more damaging stormy conditions forced ships ashore while others were wrecked. Disease took a heavy toll as the fleet finally limped back to port.

Philip's invasion plans had miscarried partly because of unfortunate weather and his own mismanagement, and partly because the opportunistic defensive naval efforts of the English and their Dutch allies prevailed. The failure of the Armada provided valuable seafaring experience for English oceanic mariners. While the English were able to persist in their privateering against the Spanish and continue sending troops to assist Philip II's enemies in the Netherlands and France, these efforts brought few tangible rewards. One of the most important effects of the event was that the Armada's failure was seen as a sign that God supported the Protestant Reformation in England. One of the medals struck to celebrate the English victory bore the Latin/Hebrew inscription Flavit יהוה et dissipati sunt (literally: "Yahweh blew and they were scattered"; traditionally translated more freely as: "He blew with His winds, and they were scattered").

English Armada
An English counter armada under the command of Sir Francis Drake and Sir John Norris was prepared in 1589 with three tasks: Because this mission was floated as a joint stock company, Drake had investors to satisfy, so, rather than adhere to the Queen's orders, he bypassed Santander in favor of seeking plunder, booty and financial rewards. He started by making a surprise landing at Coruña on 4 May where the lower town was captured and plundered, and a number of merchant ships were seized. Norris then won a modest victory over a Spanish relief militia force at Puente del Burgo. When the English pressed the attack on the citadel, however, they were repulsed with heavy casualties. In addition, a number of English ships were captured by Spanish naval forces.
 * Destroy the battered Spanish Atlantic fleet, which was being repaired in Santander, A Coruña, and San Sebastián in northern Spain.
 * Make a landing at Lisbon, Portugal and raise a revolt there against King Philip II (Philip I of Portugal) installing the pretender Dom António, Prior of Crato to the Portuguese throne.
 * Take the Azores if possible so as to establish a permanent base and capture the incoming Spanish treasure fleet.

Two-weeks later, having failed to capture Coruña, the English departed and sailed towards Lisbon landing on 26 May, but owing to poor organisation (they had very few siege guns), lack of co-ordination and starvation the invading force also failed to take Lisbon. The expected uprising by the Portuguese loyal to Crato never materialized. With Portuguese and Spanish reinforcements arriving the English were forced to retreat and sailed North, tossing the dead overboard by the hundred along the way, where Drake sacked and burned Vigo. Young William Fenner who had come from England with 17 supply ships commanded by Captain Cross was separated from the fleet after a storm and found himself heading toward the archipelago of Madeira, ultimately anchoring in Porto Santo where, the next day, seven more English vessels joined him. They took the island and resupplied themselves over the next two days. Unable to find the rest of the fleet, they set sail for England. Drake attempted to sail towards the Azores but could not tack against the prevailing wind. In the face of increasing sickness and deaths, he abandoned the venture and limped back to Plymouth with Captain Diego de Aramburu's flotilla of zabras harassing him nearly the entire way.

None of the objectives were achieved  and the opportunity to strike a decisive blow against the weakened Spanish navy was lost. The expedition depleted the financial resources of England's treasury, which had been carefully restored during the long reign of Elizabeth I, and its failure was so embarrassing that, even today, England barely acknowledges it ever happened. Through this lost opportunity, Philip was able to revive his navy the very next year, sending 37 ships with 6,420 men to Brittany where they established a base of operations on the Blavet river. The English and Dutch ultimately failed to disrupt the various fleets of the Indies despite the great number of military personnel mobilized every year. Thus, Spain remained the predominant power in Europe for several decades.

Dutch Revolt (1588–1598)
Soon after the defeat of the Armada, the Duke of Parma's force stood down from the invasion. In the autumn Parma moved his force North towards Bergen op Zoom and then attempted to besiege the English-held town with a substantial force. The English in a ruse however managed to repel the Spanish and forced Parma's retreat with heavy losses which boosted both Dutch and English morale. The following year Bertie, under orders from Elizabeth I, left for France with a force to help the Protestants in their fight against the Catholic League. Sir Francis Vere assumed command of English forces thereafter – a position he retained during fifteen campaigns, with almost unbroken success.

In 1590 an Anglo-Dutch force under Maurice and Vere respectively launched a campaign with the aim of taking Breda. In a remarkable feat, a small assault force hid in a peat barge before a successful surprise assault that captured the city. With Spanish forces in France supporting the Catholic League as well as in the Low Countries, Maurice was able to take advantage, and thus started a gradual reconquest of the Netherlands, which became known by the Dutch as the "Ten Glorious Years". Soon after Breda the Anglo-Dutch retook Zutphen and Deventer which restored English prestige after their earlier betrayals. After defeating the Spanish under the Duke of Parma at Knodsenberg in 1591 a new confidence in the army took shape. English troops by this time composed nearly half of the Dutch army. The reconquest continued with Hulst, Nijmegen, Geertruidenberg, Steenwijk, and Coevorden all being taken within the next two years. In 1593 a Spanish attempt led by Francisco Verdugo to recapture Coevorden ended in failure when the Anglo-Dutch under Maurice and Vere relieved the place during the spring of 1594. Finally, the capture of Groningen in the summer of 1594 resulted in the Spanish army being forced out of the northern provinces which led to the complete restoration of the seven provinces.

After these successes, Elizabeth could view the high confidence in the army and renewed the treaty with the States in 1595. English troops having been given high praise by the Dutch were kept at around 4,000 men. They were to be paid for by the States and the Queen would also be repaid on the Crown's expenses in instalments until a conclusion of peace was made.

In 1595, Maurice's campaign was resumed to retake the cities of the Twente region from the Spanish. This was delayed after Huy was besieged in March but Maurice was unable to prevent its fall. When Maurice did go on the offensive an attempt to take Grol in July ended in failure when a Spanish force under 90-year-old veteran Cristóbal de Mondragón relieved the city. Maurice then tried to make an attempt on the city of Rheinberg in September but Mondragon defeated this move at the Battle of the Lippe. Maurice was then forced to cancel further planned offensives as the bulk of his English and Scots troops were withdrawn to take part in the attack on Cadiz. Under their new commander, the Archduke of Austria, the Spanish took advantage of this lull and recaptured Hulst the following year which led to a prolonged stalemate in the campaign and delayed the reconquest.

By 1597, Spanish bankruptcy and the war in France gave the Anglo-Dutch an advantage. At the Battle of Turnhout a Spanish force was surprised and routed; Vere and the Earl of Leicester particularly distinguished themselves. With the Spanish distracted by the siege of Amiens in France, Maurice launched an offensive in the summer. This time both Rhienberg and Greonlo were taken by the Dutch. This was followed by the capture of Bredevoort, Enschede, Ootsmarsum, Oldenzaal, and finally Lingen by the end of the year. The offensive's success meant that most of the seven northern provinces of the Netherlands had been recaptured by the Dutch Republic and a significant barrier had been created along the Rhine river.

Naval war and privateering
In November, 1588, Philip II ordered the construction of 21 new galleons, all of them large. 12 of them were built in Cantabrian ports and stood out due to their number and the names they received; they were known as "the twelve apostles". In addition, 6 were made in Portugal, 2 in Gibraltar and 1 in Vinaroz; all of them entered service in a very short space of time. Philip then established a naval base in Brittany which threatened England and allowed for a sophisticated convoy system and improved intelligence network which frustrated English naval attempts on the Spanish treasure fleet during the 1590s. This was best demonstrated by the repulse of the squadron that was led by Effingham in 1591 near the Azores, who had intended to ambush the treasure fleet. It was in this battle that the Spanish captured the English flagship, HMS Revenge (1577), after a stubborn resistance by its captain, Sir Richard Grenville. Throughout the 1590s, enormous convoy escorts enabled the Spanish to ship three times as much silver as in the previous decade.

English merchant privateers or corsairs known as Elizabeth's "Sea Dogs" enjoyed more qualified success, however. In the three years after the Spanish Armada was defeated, more than 300 prizes were taken from the Spanish with a declared total value of well over £400,000. English courtiers provided money for their own expeditions as well as others, and even Elizabeth herself would make investments. The Earl of Cumberland made a number of expeditions and a few did yield profit – his first being the Azores Voyage in 1589. Others failed however due to bad weather and his 1591 voyage ended in defeat with Spanish galleys off Berlengas. Cumberland with Sir Walter Raleigh and Martin Frobisher combined financial strength and force that led to the most successful English naval expedition of the war. Off Flores island in 1592, the English fleet captured a large Portuguese carrack, the Madre de Deus, and outwitted a Spanish fleet led by Alonso de Bazán. The expedition's reward equalled nearly half the size of the Kingdom of England's royal annual revenue and yielded Elizabeth a 20-fold return on her investment. These riches gave the English an excited enthusiasm to engage in this opulent commerce. Raleigh himself in 1595 went on an expedition to explore the Orinoco river in an attempt to find the mythical city of El Dorado; in the process the English plundered the Spanish settlement of Trinidad. Raleigh would, however, exaggerate the wealth found there upon his return to England. Supporting Raleigh with his expedition was another led by Amyas Preston and George Somers known as the Preston Somers expedition to South America, notable for a daring overland assault that saw the capture of Caracas.

Many of the expeditions were financed by famed London merchants, the most notable of these being John Watts. An expedition Watts financed to Portuguese Brazil led by James Lancaster saw the capture and plunder of Recife and Olinda – which was highly profitable for both. In response to English privateering against their merchantmen, the Spanish monarchy struck back with the Dunkirkers devastating English shipping and fishing in the largely undefended seas around England.

By far the most successful English privateer was Christopher Newport, who was backed financially by Watts. Newport set out in 1590 to raid the Spanish West Indies and in the ensuing fight saw the defeat of an armed Spanish convoy but Newport lost his right arm in the process. Despite this Newport continued the ventures – the blockade of Western Cuba in 1591 was the most successful English privateering venture made during the war, and then followed that with another successful expedition to Hispaniola and the Bay of Honduras the following year. Both Drake and Hawkins died of disease on the later 1595–96 expedition against Puerto Rico, Panama, and other targets in the Spanish Main, a severe setback in which the English suffered heavy losses in soldiers and ships despite a number of minor military victories.

In August 1595, a Spanish naval force from Brittany led by Carlos de Amésquita landed in Cornwall, raiding and burning Penzance and several nearby villages.

During the summer of 1596, an Anglo-Dutch expedition under Elizabeth's young favourite, the Earl of Essex, sacked Cádiz, causing significant loss to the Spanish fleet, leaving the city in ruins and delaying a projected descent on England. The allies were unable to capture the treasure, as the Spanish commander had time in order to torch the treasure ships in port, sending the treasure to the bottom of the harbour, from where it was later recovered. Despite its failure to capture the treasure fleet, the sack of Cádiz was celebrated as a national triumph comparable to the victory over the Spanish Armada, and for a time Essex's prestige rivalled Elizabeth's own.

Instead of controlling and taxing its subjects, the English crown competed with them for private profit; it failed to succeed at this, as the great naval expeditions were on the whole unprofitable. The last of the great English naval expeditions took place in 1597, led by the Earl of Essex, known as the Islands Voyage. The objective was to destroy the Spanish fleet and intercept a treasure fleet in the Azores. Neither was achieved and the expedition ended in costly failure, and Essex on his return was scolded by the Queen for not protecting the English coast.

While the war became a great drain on the English treasury, it proved to be profitable for a number of English privateers. In its final years, English privateering continued despite the strengthening of Spanish navy convoys – Cumberland's last expedition in 1598 to the Caribbean led to the capture of San Juan, and had succeeded where Drake had failed. Newport struck at Tobasco in 1599 while William Parker successfully raided Portobello in 1601. In 1603 Christopher Cleeve struck at Santiago de Cuba and in the last raid of the war Newport plundered Puerto Caballos. Finally, just days before the signing of the peace treaty in August 1604, future admiral Antonio de Oquendo defeated and captured an English privateer in the Gulf of Cádiz.

By the end of the war, English privateering had devastated the Spanish private merchant marine. The most famous pirates lauded by English literature and propaganda tended to attack fishing vessels or boats of small value to the Spanish crown. Spanish prizes though were taken at an attritional rate; nearly 1,000 were captured by the war's end, and there was on average a declared value of approximately £100,000–£200,000 for every year of the war. In addition, for every Spanish prize brought back, another was either burned or scuttled, and the presence of so many English corsairs deterred some Spanish merchantmen from putting to sea. This resulted in much Spanish and Portuguese commerce being carried on Dutch and English ships, which in itself created competition. Nevertheless, throughout the war Spain's important treasure fleets were kept safe by their convoy system.

Dutch Revolt (1598–1604)
In 1598, the Spanish under Francisco Mendoza retook Rheinberg and Meurs in a campaign known as the Spanish winter of 1598–99. Mendoza then attempted to take Bommelerwaard island but the Dutch and English under Maurice thwarted the attempt and defeated him at Zaltbommel. Mendoza retreated from the area and the defeat resulted in chaos in the Spanish army – mutinies took place and many deserted. The following year the Dutch senate led by Johan van Oldenbarneveldt saw the chaos in the Spanish army and decided the time was ripe for a focal point of the war to be concentrated in Catholic Flanders. Despite a bitter dispute between Maurice and van Oldenbarneveldt, the Dutch and a sizeable contingent of the English Army under Francis Vere reluctantly agreed. They used Ostend (still in Dutch hands) as a base to invade Flanders. Their aim was to conquer the privateer stronghold city of Dunkirk. In 1600 they advanced toward Dunkirk and the Anglo-Dutch inflicted a rare defeat in a pitched battle on the tercio-led Spanish army at the Battle of Nieuwpoort in which the English played a major part. Dunkirk was never attempted however as disputes in the Dutch command meant that taking Spanish-occupied cities in the rest of the Republic took priority. Maurice's force thus withdrew leaving Vere to command Ostend in the face of an imminent Spanish siege.

With the siege of Ostend underway, Maurice then went on the offensive on the Rhine frontier in the summer of 1600. Rheinberg and Meurs were thus retaken from the Spanish yet again, although an attempt on s'Hertogenbosch failed during the winter months. At Ostend in January 1602 after being reinforced, Vere faced a huge Spanish frontal assault organised by the Archduke Albert and in bitter fighting this was repelled with heavy losses. Vere left the city soon after and joined Maurice in the field, while Albert, who drew much criticism from army commanders for his tactics, was replaced by the talented Ambrogio Spinola. The siege dragged on for another two years as the Spanish attempted to take Ostend's strongpoints in a costly war of attrition. Around the same time Maurice continued his campaign, Grave was retaken but Vere was severely wounded during the siege. An attempt by the Dutch and English to relieve Ostend took place in mid-1604 but the inland of port of Sluis was besieged and captured instead. Soon afterwards the Ostend garrison finally surrendered, after a siege of nearly four years and costing thousands of lives; for the Spanish, it was a pyrrhic victory.

France
Normandy added a new front in the war and the threat of another invasion attempt across the channel. In 1590, the Spanish landed a considerable force in Brittany to assist the French Catholic League, expelling the English and Huguenot forces from much of the area. Henry IV's conversion to Catholicism in 1593 won him widespread French support for his claim to the throne, particularly in Paris (where he was crowned the following year), a city that he had unsuccessfully besieged in 1590. In 1594 Anglo-French forces were able to end Spanish hopes of using the large port of Brest as a launching point for an invasion of England by capturing Fort Crozon.

The French Wars of Religion turned increasingly against the hardliners of the French Catholic League. With the signing of the Triple Alliance in 1596 between France, England, and the Dutch, Elizabeth sent a further 2,000 troops to France after the Spanish took Calais. In September 1597 Anglo-French forces under Henry retook Amiens, just six months after the Spanish took the city, bringing to a halt a string of Spanish victories. In fact, the first tentative talks on peace between the French and Spanish crowns had already begun before the battle and the League hardliners were already losing popular support throughout France to a resurgent Henry after his conversion to Roman Catholicism which was bolstered by his military successes. In addition, Spanish finances were at breaking point because of fighting wars in France, the Netherlands, and against England. Therefore, a deeply ill Philip decided to end his support for the League and to finally recognize the legitimacy of Henry's accession to the French throne. Without Spanish support, the last League hardliners were quickly defeated. In May 1598, the two kings signed the Peace of Vervins ending the last of the religious civil wars and the Spanish intervention with it.

Ireland
In 1594, the Nine Years' War in Ireland had begun, when Ulster lords Hugh O'Neill and Red Hugh O'Donnell rose up against English rule with fitful Spanish support, mirroring the English support of the Dutch rebellion. While English forces were containing the rebels in Ireland at great cost in men, general suffering, and finance, the Spanish attempted two further armadas, in 1596 and 1597: the first was shattered in a storm off northern Spain, and the second was frustrated by adverse weather as it approached the English coast. Philip II died in 1598, and his successor Philip III continued the war but with less enthusiasm.

At the end of 1601, the Spanish sent a final armada north, this time a limited expedition intended to land troops in Ireland to assist the rebels. Only half the fleet arrived because of a storm that scattered it and that which did arrive landed far from Irish rebel forces. The Spanish entered the town of Kinsale with 3,000 troops and were immediately besieged by the English. In time, their Irish allies arrived to surround the besieging force but the lack of communication with the rebels led to an English victory at the Battle of Kinsale. The besieged Spanish accepted the proposed terms of surrender and returned home, while the Irish rebels hung on, surrendering in 1603, just after Elizabeth died.

End of the war and treaty

With the end of the war in France, Philip III sought peace with England as well. By 1598 the war had become long and costly for Spain. England and Dutch Republic too were war-weary and both sides felt the need for peace. However, in peace negotiations at Boulogne in 1600, Spanish demands were adamantly rejected by the English and Dutch. Nevertheless, diplomatic routes remained open between the Archduke of Austria and his wife Infanta Isabella (Philip's sister) who differed in their policies to Philip's. Philip wanted to preserve the hegemony of the Spanish empire, whilst the Archduke and Isabella sought peace and friendly relations.

Soon after victory in Ireland the following year, the English navy under Richard Leveson conducted a blockade of Spain, the first of its kind. Off Portugal, they sailed into Sesimbra bay where a fleet of eight Spanish galleys under Federico Spinola (brother of Ambrogio) and Álvaro de Bazán were present. Spinola had already established his base at Sluis in Flanders and was gathering more with an intent on a potential strike against England. In June 1602 Leveson defeated the Spanish which resulted in two galleys sunk and the capture of a rich Portuguese carrack. Months later in the English channel Spinola's fleet gathered more galleys and sailed through the English channel once more but was defeated again by an Anglo-Dutch naval squadron off the Dover straits. Spinola's remaining galleys eventually reached Sluis. The result of this action forced the Spanish to cease further naval operations against England for the remainder of the war. Spain's priority was no longer an invasion of England, but the fall of Ostend.

After the death of Elizabeth in 1603, James I, became the new king of England. He was the Protestant son and successor to the Catholic Mary, Queen of Scots, whose execution had been a proximate cause of the war. James regarded himself as the peacemaker of Europe, and the ultimate aim of his idealistic foreign policy was the reunion of Christendom. James sought an end to the long and draining conflict, which Philip III also wanted. James ordered an end to further privateering, and in return Philip sent a Spanish-Flemish Commission headed by Juan de Tassis to London to explore the possibilities of ending the war.

After nearly a year of negotiations, peace was signed between the nations on 28 August 1604, place at Somerset House in Westminster. The sieges of Ostend and Sluis were allowed to continue until the end of those respective campaigns.

Aftermath
The treaty restored the status quo ante bellum; the terms were favourable both to Spain and England. For Spain the treaty secured her position as a leading power in the world. Spain's upgrading of the convoy system had allowed it to defend its treasure fleets and retain its New World colonies. English support for the Dutch rebellion against the Spanish king, the original cause of the war, ceased. The Spanish could then concentrate their efforts on the Dutch, in the hopes of bringing them to their knees. A complete abandonment of the Dutch cause, however, was not promised in the treaty. The English-held cautionary towns in Holland on the other hand were not surrendered despite Spanish demands. The sieges of Ostend and Sluis were allowed to continue until the end of those respective campaigns. The Dutch by 1607 had in fact prevailed; the Spanish did not deliver their knock out blow they had hoped for and the Twelve Years' Truce effectively recognized the independence of the Republic.

For England the treaty was a diplomatic triumph as well as an economic necessity. At the same time, the treaty was highly unpopular with the English public, many of whom considered it a humiliating peace. Many felt that James had abandoned England's ally, the Netherlands, in order to appease the Spanish crown and this damaged James's popularity. The treaty, however, made sure the Protestant reformation there had been protected, and James and his ministers refused the Spanish demand for Catholic toleration in England. After the defeat at Kinsale in 1602, the Treaty of Mellifont was concluded the following year between James I and the Irish rebels. In the subsequent London treaty Spain pledged not to support the rebels.

The treaty was well received in Spain. Large public celebrations were held at Valladolid, the Spanish capital, where the treaty was ratified in June 1605, in the presence of a large English ambassadorial delegation led by Lord Admiral Charles Howard. Nevertheless, some members of the Catholic clergy criticized Philip III's willingness to sign a treaty with a "heretical power".

The provisions of the treaty authorised merchants and warships of both nations to operate from each other's respective ports. English trade with the Spanish Netherlands (notably the city of Antwerp) and the Iberian peninsula was resumed. Spanish warships and privateers were able to use English ports as naval bases to attack Dutch shipping or to ferry troops to Flanders.

The war had diverted Tudor colonial efforts, but the English who had invested in privateering expeditions during the war garnered enormous windfall profits, leaving them well placed to finance new ventures. As a result, the London Company was able to establish a settlement in Virginia in 1607. The establishment of the East India Company in 1600 was significant for the growth of England (and later Great Britain) as a colonial power. A factory was established at Banten, Java, in 1603 while the Company had successfully and profitably breached the Spanish and Portuguese monopoly. While the incipient illegal trade with the Spanish colonies was brought to an end, there was deadlock over English demands for the right to trade in the East and West Indies, which Spain adamantly opposed. Eventually the complications resulted in the treaty avoiding any mention of the matter.

For Spain there was hope that England would eventually secure tolerance for Catholics but the Gunpowder Plot in 1605 destroyed any possibility of this. The resulting anti-Catholic backlash following the discovery of the plot put to rest Protestant fears that a peace with Spain would ultimately mean an invasion by Jesuits and Catholic sympathisers, as the Elizabethan recusancy laws were rigidly enforced by Parliament.

England and Spain remained at peace until 1625.

title: Anglo-Spanish War (1585–1604)


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Tilly Aston

Matilda Ann Aston (11 December 1873 – 1 November 1947), better known as Tilly Aston, was a blind Australian writer and teacher, who founded the Victorian Association of Braille Writers, and later went on to establish the Association for the Advancement of the Blind, with herself as secretary. She is remembered for her achievements in promoting the rights of vision-impaired people.

Life

Tilly was born in the town of Carisbrook, Victoria in 1873, the youngest of eight children born to Edward Aston, a bootmaker, and his wife, Ann. Vision-impaired from birth, she was totally blind by the age of 7. Her father died in 1881. Six months later, through a chance meeting, she met Thomas James, a miner who had lost his sight in an industrial accident and who had become an itinerant blind missionary. He taught her to read braille and, soon after, the Rev. W. Moss, who visited Carisbrook with the choir of the Victorian Asylum and School for the Blind, persuaded her to attend the school in St Kilda, Melbourne, to further her education. She enrolled as a boarder on 29 June 1882. After successfully matriculating at the age of 16, Tilly became the first blind Australian to go to a university, enrolling for an arts degree from University of Melbourne. However, due to the lack of braille text books and "nervous prostration", she was forced to discontinue her studies in the middle of her second year. While convalescent, she tried to earn her living as a music teacher, and realised the plight of blind people.

After leaving school, she lived with her mother and a brother in Melbourne until about 1913, when her mother died and her brother married. She then moved to a house of her own in Windsor, where she had a house-keeper-companion. She died there of cancer on 1 November 1947, and was buried at St Kilda Cemetery.

The Federal electorate Division of Aston in Melbourne's eastern suburbs and a street in the Canberra suburb Cook are named in her honour. A cairn was erected in her honour, a year after her death, by Carisbrook Primary School and the Midlands Historical Society, and there is a sculpture in her honour in Kings Domain, Melbourne.

Career
With the assistance of friends and the Australian Natives' Association, Aston established the Victorian Association of Braille Writers in 1894. This organisation would eventually become the Victorian Braille Library. In 1895 a meeting called by Tilly Aston founded the Association for the Advancement of the Blind (now Vision Australia) to fight for greater independence, social change and new laws for blind people. They quickly won voting rights for blind people; free postage for Braille material in 1899 (a world first for Australia); and transport concessions for the blind.

In 1913 Tilly Aston did teaching training and become head of the Victorian Education Department's School for the Blind, the first blind woman to do so. Her appointment was not without criticism from staff and officials of the Royal Victorian Institute for the Blind because of her disability and she was required to "sever her connexion with the blind societies she had helped to found". She proved a competent educator and administrator, but her school years were not happy ones. She retired in 1925, following a minor stroke, and received a small allowance in lieu of superannuation.

Writing career
Aston was also a prolific writer, particularly of poetry and prose sketches, though her writing was often interrupted by her teaching and other activities. In 1904, she won the Prahran City Council's competition for an original story. The Woolinappers, or Some Tales from the By-ways of Methodism was published in 1905, and several books followed after that. Her writings were also serialised in Victorian newspapers and, for 12 years, she edited and contributed to a braille magazine for Chinese mission schools, A Book of Opals.

She had 8 volumes of verse published in Melbourne between 1901 and 1940, corresponded around the world using the Esperanto language, and wrote her memoirs which were published in 1946. She believed her book of verse, The Inner Garden, contained her best work.

Awards

 * 1935: Commonwealth grant
 * King's Medal for distinguished citizen service (received twice)
 * Victorian Honour Roll of Women (2001)

Works
Poetry
 * Maiden Verses (1901)
 * The Austral Year (191-?)
 * Singable Songs (1924)
 * Songs of Light (1935)
 * The Inner Garden (1940)

Fiction
 * The Woolinappers, or Some Tales from the By-ways of Methodism (1905)
 * The Straight Goer (in Spectator, serialised from Sept 1908)
 * Gold from Old Diggings (in Bendigo Advertiser, serialised from Aug 1937)
 * Old Timers: Sketches and Word Pictures of the Old Pioneers (1938)

Non-fiction
 * The Memoirs of Tilly Aston: Australia's Blind Poet, Author and Philanthropist (1935)

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Tilly Aston


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Kan'ei

Kan'ei (寛永) was a Japanese era name (年号) after Genna and before Shōhō. This period spanned the years from February 1624 through December 1644. The reigning emperors and single empress were Go-Mizunoo-tennō (後水尾天皇), Meishō-tennō (明正天皇) and Go-Kōmyō-tennō (後光明天皇).

Change of era

 * 1624 Kan'ei gannen (寛永元年): The era name was changed to mark the start of a new cycle of the Chinese zodiac. The previous era ended and a new one commenced in Genna 9, on the 30th day of the 2nd month. This era name is derived from 寛広、永長 (meaning "Broad Leniency, Eternal Leader").

Events

 * 1624 (Kan'ei 1): Construction of the Hōei-zan temple began.
 * November 4, 1626 (Kan'ei 3, 16th day of the 9th month): Emperor Go-Mizunoo and the empress visited Nijō Castle; they were accompanied by Princes of the Blood, palace ladies and kuge. Among the precedents for this was the Tenshō era visit of Emperor Go-Yōzei to Toyotomi Hideyoshi's extravagant Heian-kyō mansion, Juraku-dai (which Hideyoshi himself would tear down in the 12th month of Bunroku 2).
 * 1626 (Kan'ei 3): The first Kan'ei Tsūhō (寛永通寳) cash coins were introduced in the Mito Domain.
 * 1629 (Kan'ei 6): The "Purple Robe Incident" (紫衣事件,)—the Emperor was accused of having bestowed honorific purple garments to more than ten priests despite the shōgun's edict which banned them for two years (probably in order to break the bond between the Emperor and religious circles). The shogunate intervened making the bestowing of the garments invalid.
 * December 22, 1629 ( Kan'ei 6, 8th day of the 11th month): The emperor renounced the throne in favor of his daughter, Kyōshi
 * March 14, 1632 (Kan'ei 9, 24th day of the 1st month): Former Shōgun Hidetada died.
 * February 28, 1633 (Kan'ei 10, 20th day of the 1st month): There was an earthquake in Odawara in the Sagami.
 * 1634 (Kan'ei 11, 7th month): Shōgun Tokugawa Iemitsu appeared at Court in Miyako; and he visited ex-emperor Go-Mizunoo. Later, on the 22nd day of the 9th month was held at Fukiage Palace the famous martial arts tournament of 12 bout, organized by Shōgun Tokugawa Iemitsu, and held in the presence of the visiting Emperor. It entered in History under the name of Kan'ei Jōran Jiai and was judged by the two Kenjutsu instructor of the Shōgun.
 * 1635 (Kan'ei 12): An ambassador from the King of Korea was received in Heian-kyō.
 * 1636 (Kan'ei 13): The Kan'ei Tsūhō became the new standard copper cash coin of Japan.
 * 1637 (Kan'ei 14): There was a major Christian rebellion in Arima and Shimabara; shogunal forces are sent to quell the disturbance.
 * 1638 (Kan'ei 15): The Christian revolt was crushed; and 37,000 of the rebels are killed. The Christian religion is extirpated in Japan.
 * 1640 (Kan'ei 17): A Spanish ship from Macao brought a delegation of 61 people to Nagasaki. They arrived on July 6, 1640; and on August 9, all of them were decapitated and their heads were stuck on poles.
 * 1640-1643 (Kan'ei 17-20): Kan'ei Great Famine forces an agricultural reform giving a greater independence to the farmers and the reduction of military spendings.
 * 1643 (Kan'ei 20): An ambassador from the King of Korea arrived in Heian-kyō.
 * November 10, 1643 (Kan'ei 20, 29th day of the 9th month): In the 15th year of Empress Meishō's reign (明正天皇15年), the empress abdicated; and the succession (senso) was received by her brother.
 * December 15, 1643 (Kan'ei 20, 5th day of the 11th month): Emperor Go-Kōmyō acceded to the throne (sokui).

title: Kan'ei


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Section 51 of the Constitution of Australia

Section 51 of the Constitution of Australia enumerates the legislative powers granted to the Parliament of Australia by the Australian States at Federation. Each subsection, or 'head of power', provides a topic under which the parliament is empowered to make laws. There are other sections in the constitution that enable the parliament to enact laws, although the scope of those other sections are generally limited in comparison with section 51.

The powers
The powers enumerated within section 51 are reflective in their topics of being those that Australia's colonies perceived as being best within the purview of a national government. The full list of powers is available on the Australian Parliament's website.

In modern times, the most prominent heads of power for Commonwealth legislative purposes are arguably: (i) the interstate trade and commerce power, (ii) the taxation power, (xx) the corporations power, and (xxix) the external affairs power. This is because these sections have been interpreted by the High Court as wide in scope, and so are extensively relied upon by the Commonwealth when attempting legislative enactment. The wide scope of these sections have at times been legally controversial in Australia; most notably in the Workchoices and Tasmanian dams cases, which expanded the understood applicable scope of the corporations power, and external affairs power, respectively.

Other particularly notable powers in history have been the (vi) defence power, (see: Australian Communist Party v Commonwealth), the (xix) naturalisation and aliens power, the (xxxi) 'just terms' property acquisition power, the (xxvi) power to make special laws in relation to peoples of a particular race, and the s51(xxiii) & (xxiiiA) power to provide social services (notable in part for having been implemented in 1946 via referendum)

With some exceptions, the remainder of the powers in s51 pertain to the standardization of commerce across Australia, empowering the federal government to enact laws in relation to metrics, statistics, finance, interstate commercial disputes, and other related issues.

Additionally, two subsections provide for the referral of matters to the Australian Parliament by Australia's State Governments. Specifically, (xxxvii) allows State Parliaments to refer matters within their competence to the commonwealth, and (xxxviii) allows state parliaments to refer any matter that the UK Parliament or Federal Council of Australasia could legislate on their behalf at the establishment of the Commonwealth.

The incidental power (xxxix) allows the Commonwealth to act on matters 'incidental' any power of the constitution. Most notably this includes section 61 of the constitution, which vests the Australian Government with Executive Power. As a result, it is one of the most important sections in practice.

Interpretive history
The High Court's approach to section 51 has changed over time. Initially, the court adopted the 'Reserved Powers' doctrine, an interpretive view that the Australian States had implicitly retained competence in core areas, which were unable to be displaced by the Commonwealth even through reliance upon the powers enumerated in s51.

This doctrine was famously, and emphatically, rejected by the Isaac's court in the Engineers' Case. Following this case, the reserved powers doctrine was abandoned; although it has notably reappeared a number of times in argument by State governments when arguing against Commonwealth legislation.

Since federation the enumerated powers in section 51 have tended overall to have expanded in scope. In particular, the Corporations and external affairs powers are notable for having a significantly larger breadth in modern times than at federation.

When interpreting whether a particular act of parliament is within the scope, or is incidental to an enumerated power; the dominant test legal test applied by the court has been whether the law in question is a reasonable and appropriate means of furthering an object or purpose in the power.

Tied grants
In practice, section 51 is not a strong limit on federal involvement in Australia's political life. Section 96 of the Australian Constitution grants the power to grant money to any State, "on such terms and conditions as the Parliament thinks fit." In effect, the Commonwealth can make grants subject to States implementing particular policies in their fields of legislative responsibility. Such grants, known as tied grants (since they are tied to a particular purpose), have been used to give the federal parliament influence over state policy matters such as public hospitals and schools.

Section 96 does not compel a state to accept a grant, so constitutionally a state may refuse a grant and not implement any policy conditions. However, since a uniform federal system of income tax was introduced in 1942 (under s51(ii)) a vertical fiscal imbalance has arisen and the Commonwealth Parliament has had a vastly larger budget. It also has control over state borrowings (under subsection iv). This has meant that the Parliament's powers have effectively been extended beyond the constraints of section 51 and other explicit grants of legislative power (e.g. section 52 and section 90).


text:
Category:Sulfate minerals

Minerals containing the sulfate anion: (SO42−).

title: Category:Sulfate minerals


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Isaiah Rider

Isaiah Rider Jr., nicknamed J.R. (born March 12, 1971), is an American former professional basketball player who played nine seasons in the NBA.

Rider was born in Oakland, California, and was raised in nearby Alameda. He starred in both baseball and basketball at Encinal High School before going on to a college career with the University of Nevada, Las Vegas (UNLV), and a professional career in the National Basketball Association.

Early life and college career
The 6'5" (1.96 m) Rider was a prep star at Encinal High School in Alameda, California (just outside Oakland) and was one of the top rated players in the state. Rider attended two junior colleges, Allen County Community College in Iola, Kansas, where he averaged just over 30 points per game; and Antelope Valley College in Lancaster, California (33 points per game), before finding a home at UNLV.

During the 1991–1992 season, Rider led the Runnin' Rebels to a 26-2 record (18-0 in conference) and a number 7 ranking in the final Associated Press regular season poll while averaging over 21 points per game, but wasn't seen on national television because UNLV was serving an NCAA-imposed punishment that stemmed from previous infractions. (In a "plea bargain" of sorts, UNLV was allowed to defend its NCAA title the previous year – they lost to Duke in the Final Four. In exchange, the Rebels were barred from postseason play and national television for the 1991–92 season.) He finally got the nation's eyes to watch him in his senior year, where he averaged 29.1 points per game (2nd in the country behind University of Texas-Pan American's Greg Guy), was named the Big West Conference Player of the Year and garnered 2nd-Team All-American honors. UNLV finished 21-8 (13-5 in Big West Conference), lost the regular season conference title to New Mexico State and failed to make the NCAA's 64-team Tournament field. The Rebels did earn a spot in the National Invitation Tournament, but Rider was suspended for the NIT due to academic issues surrounding allegations that he had someone cheating for him on some of his college classwork. Without their star player on the court, the Runnin' Rebels were knocked out of the NIT in the 1st round 90-73 to Southern California.

Minnesota Timberwolves (1993–1996)
Rider was chosen with the 5th overall pick of the 1993 NBA draft by the Minnesota Timberwolves. Rider started his NBA career strong, finishing the 1993–94 season as a member of the NBA's All-Rookie First Team. He won the 1994 NBA Slam Dunk Contest (he brashly predicted that he would win on draft day ) with a dunk that he called "The East Bay Funk Dunk."

Rider also became famous for a miraculous shot made in a game on December 22, 1994, against the Sacramento Kings. Losing control of the ball with it nearly going out of bounds, Rider reached out and threw the ball over his shoulder to keep it in play, and the ball went through the hoop as a three-point basket, a play that one announcer exclaimed as the "Play of the decade."

While Rider averaged 19 points per game in his three years with the Timberwolves, his play slipped after his rookie season. He also began a pattern of off-court misbehavior. He was found to be insubordinate towards Timberwolves management, and was involved in an incident in which he kicked the female manager of a sports bar for which he ultimately was convicted of fifth-degree assault. By 1996, Minnesota finally lost patience with Rider and dealt him to Portland in return for Bill Curley, James Robinson and a conditional first round draft pick in 1997 or 1998. Just before the trade Rider was arrested for marijuana possession. At the time of his arrest he also had an illegal cell phone; it had been altered to charge calls to someone else's bill. He was later convicted of misdemeanor marijuana possession, and pleaded no contest to possessing the illegal cell phone. Three weeks later, he was arrested for gambling in public back in Oakland.

Portland Trail Blazers (1996–1999)
In the 1997–98 season, Rider led the Blazers in scoring (19.7 points per game, 15th in the NBA) and three-pointers made (135, 8th) and attempted (420). Rider tallied a season-high 38 points (15-25 FG), along with 5 rebounds and 4 assists, against the Toronto Raptors on February 1, 1998.

In the 1998–99 season, Rider averaged 13.9 points per game and led the team in scoring 13 times.

Atlanta Hawks (1999–2000)
Following the 1998–99 season, Rider was traded to the Atlanta Hawks in a trade that sent Steve Smith to the Blazers. The Hawks had finished fourth in the Eastern Conference in the lockout-shortened season, and thought Rider was the final piece in the puzzle. So they sent Smith to the Blazers for Rider and Jim Jackson, another talent who had not quite reached his potential. The trade didn't sit well with Hawks fans, since Smith had been one of the most popular players on the team. Coach Lenny Wilkens didn't want the trade either, but tried to fit Rider into the system.

Rider played well enough on the court, pacing the Hawks in scoring. However, his off-court incidents exploded in Atlanta. After reports that he had smoked marijuana in an Orlando hotel room, the league demanded that he attend drug counseling. He refused and was fined a total of $200,000 until he agreed to attend. He was suspended numerous times by the Hawks as well, and fined a total of $200,000 by the team. Even after Wilkens benched him in March with the Hawks long out of contention, Rider still continued to be tardy for games and practices, prompting the Hawks to threaten a three-game suspension for another incident. He showed up late for a March game in Detroit, and rather than serve a three-game suspension, he demanded his outright release. The Hawks complied.

Los Angeles Lakers (2000–2001)
Rider played in 67 games with the Lakers during the 2000–01 season, leading their bench in scoring with a 7.6 average. He was suspended for five games in March 2001 for failing to comply with the NBA's anti-drug policy. Though left off the playoff roster in favor of Tyronn Lue, Rider was awarded a championship ring by the franchise. After the season, Rider stated that he wanted to return to the Lakers.

Denver Nuggets (2001)
Prior to the 2001–02 season, the Denver Nuggets signed Rider to help resuscitate their moribund offense, but Rider's stint in Denver was limited to just 10 games before he was waived on November 20, 2001. Rider refused to term it "retirement" at the time, however, insisting that he could still play if given the chance.

In 563 NBA games, (424 starts), Rider averaged 16.7 points, 3.8 rebounds, 2.7 assists, and 31:42 of floor time per game. Rider totaled 9,405 points in his 9-year NBA career.

Off the court
During his NBA career and in subsequent years, Rider was dogged by a variety of personal problems, including accusations of drug use and assault. In 2007, he was sentenced to seven months in jail after pleading guilty to cocaine possession, evading the police, and battery, though he only served about half of that time. "It was the ultimate low point of my life [...] There were no visitors. No one down for me. No letters. I had fake friends. They left me for dead", Rider told Yahoo! Sports. At the time of his sentencing, Rider's mother was in a coma, which weighed heavily on his mind.

In 2012, Rider announced he was planning to release a documentary about his life, called My Testimony: Raw and Uncut. Rider has also established a charitable organization for children called the Sky Rider Foundation. "I just want to help kids. With today's economy some parents cannot afford to send their kids to the extracurricular activities. It's very costly, there's registration fees, equipment, uniforms and shoe costs. If a kid has dreams to be somebody, I want to help", he said in an interview.

Rap career
On a 1994 album titled B-Ball's Best Kept Secret which featured songs performed by NBA players ranging from Gary Payton and Jason Kidd to Brian Shaw and Chris Mills, Rider (credited as J.R. on the album) provided the track "Funk in the Trunk".

title: Isaiah Rider


text:
Genna

Genna (元和) was a Japanese era name (年号) coming after Keichō and before Kan'ei. This period spanned the years from July 1615 to February 1624. The reigning emperor was Go-Mizunoo-tennō (後水尾天皇). It is also known as Genwa.

Change of era

 * 1615 Genna gannen (元和元年): The era name was changed to mark the enthronement of Go-Mizunuoo and because of disasters such as the siege of Osaka (大坂の役,), or more commonly, siege of Osaka (大坂の陣,). The old era ended and a new one commenced in Keichō 20.

The siege of Osaka was a series of battles undertaken by the Tokugawa shogunate against the Toyotomi clan, ending in that clan's destruction. Divided into two stages (the "Winter Campaign" and the "Summer Campaign"), and lasting from 1614 through 1615, the siege put an end to the last major armed opposition to the establishment of an enduring Tokugawa shogunate. The end of this period of fighting is also sometimes called the Genna armistice (元和偃武,) because the era name was changed from Keichō to Genna immediately following its ultimate resolution.

By order of Tokugawa Ieyasu, the era name of Emperor Xianzong of Tang China was adopted.

Events of the Genna era

 * 1615 (Genna 1): Tokugawa Ieyasu and his son, Shōgun Hidetada, marched again to Osaka Castle, which was captured and burned; but Hideyori managed to flee to Satsuma where he had prepared a refuge in advance.
 * September 1, 1615 (Genna 1, 9th day of the 7th month): Ieyasu pulled down Hōkoku-jinja.
 * September 20, 1615 (Genna 1, 28th day of the 7th month): Ieyasu promulgated the Genna-rei in 17 clauses.
 * June 1, 1616 (Genna 2, 17th day of the 4th month): Ieyasu died at Suruga.
 * September 25, 1617 (Genna 3, 26th day of the 8th month): Former-Emperor Go-Yōzei died. He is buried at Nikkō.
 * 1618 (Genna 4, 8th month): A comet appeared in the sky.
 * July 5, 1620 (Genna 6, 6th day of the 6th month): The emperor was married to Tokugawa Kazuko, the daughter of Shōgun Hidetada; and also in that year.
 * 1620 (Genna 6): There were severe fires in Mikayo on the 30th day of the 2nd month and on the 4th day of the 3rd month.
 * September 10, 1622 (Genna 8, 5th day of the 8th month): the Great Genna Martyrdom — 55 foreign and Japanese Catholics are executed in Nagasaki, part of the persecution of Christians in Japan by Tokugawa Hidetada.
 * September 6, 1623 (Genna 9, 12th day of the 8th month): the bakufu raised the Imperial maintenance allowance by 10,000 koku.
 * 1623 (Genna 9): Tokugawa Iemitsu, son of Hidetada, came to the court of the emperor where he was created Shōgun.

title: Genna


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Coat (disambiguation)

A coat is an outer garment worn on the upper body for warmth or fashion.

Coat may also refer to:
 * Coat, a layer of a certain substance, usually paint
 * Animal coat, the natural fur coat of an animal
 * Dog coat, the natural hair coat of a dog
 * Coat of arms, a heraldic design used to identify a nation, city, family, or individual
 * Lounge coat, another term for the lounge jacket as part of a lounge suit
 * Rug (animal covering), also known as an animal coat, an article of clothing for animals
 * Cindy Coat, French female canoeist

title: Coat (disambiguation)


text:
Keichō

Keichō (慶長) was a Japanese era name (年号) after Bunroku and before Genna. This period spanned from October 1596 to July 1615. The reigning emperors were Go-Yōzei-tennō (後陽成天皇) and Go-Mizunoo-tennō (後水尾天皇).

Change of era

 * 1596 Keichō gannen (慶長元年): The era name was changed to Keichō to mark the passing of various natural disasters. The preceding era ended and a new one commenced on October 27 of the 5th Bunroku.

Events of the Keichō era

 * 1596 (Keichō 1): Keichō Invasion (invasion of Korea).
 * September 18, 1598 (Keichō 3, 18th day of the 8th month): Toyotomi Hideyoshi died in his Fushimi Castle at the age of 63.
 * October 21, 1600 (Keichō 5, 15th day of the 9th month): Battle of Sekigahara. The Tokugawa clan and its allies decisively vanquish all opposition.
 * January 15, 1602 (Keichō 7, 24th day of the 11th month): A fire at the Hōkō-ji temple complex in Kyoto was caused by careless workmen; and the great image of the buddha and the structure housing the statue (the Daibutsu-den) were consumed by the flames.
 * 1603 (Keichō 8): Tokugawa Ieyasu became shōgun, which effectively becomes the beginning of what will become the Edo bakufu. Toyotomi Hideyori was elevated to Naidaijin in Miyako Daijō-kan.
 * 1604-1606 (Keichō 9-11): Tokugawa Ieyasu undertook the rebuilding of Asama Shrine at the base of Mount Fuji in Suruga Province in fulfillment of a vow and in gratitude for the help of the kami during the Battle of Sekigahara in 1600.
 * 1605 (Keichō 10): Tokugawa Hidetada was named successor shōgun after his father "retires" from the position of shōgun.
 * 1605 (Keichō 10): The first official map of Japan was ordered in this year and completed in 1639 at a scale of 1:280,000.
 * January 23, 1605 (Keichō 10, 15th day of the 12th month): A new volcanic island, Hachijōko-jima, arose from the sea at the side of Hachijō Island (八丈島,) in the Izu Islands (伊豆諸島,) which stretch south and east from the Izu Peninsula.
 * 1606 (Keichō 11): Construction began on Edo Castle.
 * 1607 (Keichō 12): Construction began on Sunpu Castle in Suruga; and an ambassador from China arrived with greetings for the emperor of Japan.
 * 1609 (Keichō 14): Invasion of Ryukyu by Shimazu daimyō of Satsuma.
 * August 24, 1609 (Keichō 14, 25th day of the 6th month): Trading pass (handelpas) issued to Dutch East Indies Company in the name of Ieyasu Tokugawa.
 * November 15, 1610 (Keichō 15, 30th day of the 9th month): Toyotomi Hideyori sponsors work which is begun to rebuild the Hōkō-ji in line with the plans which his father had supported; and this will include recreating the Daibutsu of Kyoto in bronze to replace the wooden image which had been burned. At this time, Hideyori also decides to order a great bell cast in bronze.
 * May 20, 1610 (Keichō 15, 27th day of the 3rd month): Hideyori came to Kyoto to visit the former-shōgun Tokugawa Ieyasu; and the same day, the emperor resigns in favor of his son Masahito. Emperor Go-Yōzei abdicates; and his son receives the succession (senso).
 * 1611 (Keichō 16): Emperor Go-Mizunoo formally accedes to the throne (sokui).
 * 1613 (Keichō 18): In the years 1613 through 1620, Hasekura Tsunenaga headed a diplomatic mission to the Vatican in Rome, traveling through New Spain (arriving in Acapulco and departing from Veracruz) and visiting various ports-of-call in Europe. This historic mission is called the Keichō Embassy, (慶長使節). On the return trip, Hasekura and his companions re-traced their route across Mexico in 1619, sailing from Acapulco for Manilla, and then sailing north to Japan in 1620.  This is conventionally considered the first Japanese ambassador in the Americas and in Europe.
 * 1614 (Keichō 19): Siege of Osaka. The shōgun vanquished Hideyori and set fire to Osaka Castle, and then he returned for the winter to Edo.
 * August 24, 1614 (Keichō 19, 19th day of the 7th month): A new bronze bell for the Hōkō-ji was cast successfully – see 19th century photo of Hōkō-ji belland see old photo of bell; but despite dedication ceremony planning, Ieyasu forbade any further actions concerning the great bell:
 * "[T]he tablet over the Daibatsu-den and the bell bore the inscription "Kokka ankō" (meaning "the country and the house, peace and tranquility"), and at this Tokugawa Ieyasu affected to take umbrage, alleging that it was intended as a curse on him for the character 安 (an, "peace") was placed between the two characters composing his own name 家康 ("ka-kō", "house tranquility") [suggesting subtly perhaps that peace could only be attained by Ieyasu's dismemberment?] ... This incident of the inscription was, of course, a mere pretext, but Ieyasu realized that he could not enjoy the power he had usurped as long as Hideyori lived, and consequently, although the latter more than once dispatched his kerei Katagiri Kastumoto to Sunpu Castle with profuse apologies, Ieyasu refused to be placated."

 * October 18, 1614 (Keichō 19, 25th day of the 10th month): A strong earthquake shook Kyoto.
 * 1615 (Keichō 20): Osaka Summer Battle begins.

Era developments

 * Copper, silver and gold coins called Keichō-tsūhō were issued in the Keichō era helping to unify the currency system.
 * Keichō-chokuhan, also called Keichō shinkoku-bon, were Imperial publications, produced during the Keichō era at the command of Emperor Go-Yōzei and printed using moveable type which had been imported from the Joseon Kingdom on the Korean peninsula.
 * Keichō no katsuji-ban was the general name for the first works printed with moveable typ during the Keichō era.
 * Things Heard and Seen During the Keichō Era also called the Kembun-shū was a book, a collection of tales and anecdotes compiled by Miura Jōshin (1565–1644).

title: Keichō


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Kootenay

Kootenay, Kootenai, and Kutenai may refer to:

Ethnic groups

 * The Kutenai, also known as the Ktunaxa, Kootenai, or Kootenay, an indigenous people of the United States and Canada
 * Kutenai language, the traditional language of the Kutenai
 * Ktunaxa Nation, a First Nations government in British Columbia, Canada
 * Kootenai Tribe of Idaho, a federally recognized tribe in Idaho, United States,
 * Confederated Salish and Kootenai Tribes, a federally recognized tribe in Montana, United States

Communities

 * Kootenai, Idaho, United States
 * Kootenay, British Columbia, Canada
 * Kootenay Bay, an unincorporated community in British Columbia, Canada
 * Kootenai County, Idaho, United States
 * Diocese of Kootenay, a diocese of the Ecclesiastical Province of British Columbia and the Yukon of the Anglican Church of Canada
 * List of electoral districts in the Kootenays, electoral districts in the Kootenays region of British Columbia
 * Kootenay (federal electoral district), a former electoral district in British Columbia, Canada
 * Regional District of East Kootenay, British Columbia

Geographical features

 * Kootenai National Forest, a national forest in Montana and Idaho, United States
 * The Kootenays, a region of southeastern British Columbia, Canada
 * Kootenay Canal, a hydroelectric power station in British Columbia, Canada
 * Kootenay Group, a geologic formation in British Columbia, Canada
 * Kootenay Lake, on the Kootenay River in British Columbia, Canada
 * Kootenay National Park, a national park in British Columbia at the source of the Kootenay River
 * Kootenay Pass, a mountain pass in the Selkirk Mountains of British Columbia, Canada
 * Kootenay Ranges, part of the Canadian Rockies
 * Kootenay River, or Kutenai River in the United States, a river that runs through British Columbia, Idaho, and Montana

Transportation

 * Kootenay Direct Airlines, a former airline based in Nelson, British Columbia, Canada
 * Kootenay Highway, part of British Columbia Highway 93
 * Kootenay Loop, a public transit exchange in Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada
 * HMCS Kootenay, Royal Canadian Navy ships of the name
 * SS Kootenay, a steamboat that served the Arrow Lakes in British Columbia, Canada

Other uses

 * Kootenay Brown (1839–1916), Irish-born Canadian polymath, soldier, trader and conservation advocate
 * Kootanae House, a historical North West Company fur trade post near present-day Invermere, British Columbia
 * The Kootenay Ice, a junior ice hockey team based in Cranbrook, British Columbia, Canada

title: Kootenay


text:
User talk:GURT

Welcome!

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AfD nomination of Sirsy
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Nomination of Uncovered (Sirsy album) for deletion
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Nomination of Sirsy for deletion
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ArbCom elections are now open!
MediaWiki message delivery (talk) 12:51, 23 November 2015 (UTC)

title: User talk:GURT


text:
Division of Ballarat

The Division of Ballarat (spelt Ballaarat from 1901 until the 1977 election ) is an Australian electoral division in the state of Victoria. The division was proclaimed in 1900, and was one of the original 65 divisions to be contested at the first federal election. It was named for the provincial city of the same name by Scottish squatter Archibald Yuille, who established the first settlement − his sheep run called Ballaarat − in 1837, with the name derived from a local Wathawurrung word for the area, balla arat, thought to mean "resting place".

The division currently takes in the regional City of Ballarat and the smaller towns of Bacchus Marsh, Ballan, Blackwood, Buninyong, Clunes, Creswick, Daylesford, Myrniong and Trentham and part of Burrumbeet.

The current Member for Ballarat, since the 2001 federal election, is Catherine King, a member of the Australian Labor Party.

Geography
Since 1984, federal electoral division boundaries in Australia have been determined at redistributions by a redistribution committee appointed by the Australian Electoral Commission. Redistributions occur for the boundaries of divisions in a particular state, and they occur every seven years, or sooner if a state's representation entitlement changes or when divisions of a state are malapportioned.

History
At various times in its existence the division has included other towns such as Ararat, Maryborough, and Stawell.

Ballarat used to be a marginal seat, changing hands at intervals between the Labor Party and the non-Labor parties. Unlike most marginal seats, it was not a barometer for winning government; since 1955, all but one of its members has spent at least one term in opposition.

Its most prominent member has been Alfred Deakin, who was Prime Minister of Australia three times. Liberal senator Michael Ronaldson was the grandson of Archibald Fisken, a former Member for Ballarat.

Ballarat also holds the distinction of seeing the closest seat result in Australian history. Nationalist Edwin Kerby unseated Labor incumbent Charles McGrath by a single vote in 1919. However, McGrath alleged irregularities, and the result was thrown out in 1920, forcing a by-election that was won by McGrath.

Since 2001, the seat has been held by Catherine King, a member of the Australian Labor Party. It has been a safe Labor seat since 2007 except for a 6.8 percent swing towards the Liberal Party at the 2013 election turning it marginal for one term.

Election results
{{legend|#0047AB|Liberal}}
 * {{legend|#006644|National}}

{{legend|#DE3533|Labor}} {{legend|#FFCD00|Australian Democrats}} {{legend|#10C25B|Greens}} {{legend|#218998|Democratic Labour Party}}

title: Division of Ballarat


text:
The Silverpeaks

The Silverpeaks (sometimes spelt Silver Peaks) is an area of rough forest and tussock and scrub covered hill country inland and to the northwest of Dunedin, New Zealand. The area is largely uninhabited; the main indication of human activity is the Taieri Gorge Railway, which preserves the route of the former Otago Central Railway that runs along the steep-sided valley of the Taieri River. Much of the area lies within the Silverpeaks Scenic Reserve.

Background
A network of walking tracks crisscross the area. From Pulpit Rock, trampers descend the Devil's Staircase into a lush valley just a short distance from Jubilee Hut. Access to these tracks is mainly via Double Hill Road, a rural road that leaves SH1 close to Waitati, and from several rural roads that leave SH87 between Outram and Middlemarch.

Several of the peaks rise to above 600 metres. The highest points in the Silverpeaks include Silver Peak (753 m), known in Māori as Huatea, Pulpit Rock (750 m), Mount Allen (705 m), Mount Misery (702 m). Several tributaries of the Taieri River have their sources on the slopes of the Silverpeaks to the west, as do several tributaries of the Waikouaiti River in the east.

Antimony was once mined near Hindon, the largest settlement in the area.

Jubilee hut
The Jubilee Hut is a popular hut for hikers in the Silverpeaks. The hut contains 10 bunks and is four hours walk in from Mountain road. The first Jubilee hut was opened in 1948 with the current Jubilee hut opening in 2007.

Between November 2020 and October 2021, 600 bunk nights were booked at the hut.

Tramping fatalities
As the name suggests, the region is often snow-coated in winter, and the weather in the Silverpeaks is notoriously unpredictable. The Department of Conservation considers the hiking in the area to be challenging and the country rugged. Eight international students were rescued in May 2009. They spent several hours in freezing winds and snow flurries before being rescued. They told police they had not tramped in the Silver Peaks before. Five were suffering from hypothermia. Three Logan Park High School students died in the Silver Peaks in 1983. They were walking to the Jubilee hut when they lost their way in fog and were then caught in a blizzard. Another fatality occurred in 1945 during a snow storm in the Silverpeaks.

title: The Silverpeaks


text:
Resuscitation

Resuscitation is the process of correcting physiological disorders (such as lack of breathing or heartbeat) in an acutely ill patient. It is an important part of intensive care medicine, anesthesiology, trauma surgery and emergency medicine. Well-known examples are cardiopulmonary resuscitation and mouth-to-mouth resuscitation.

title: Resuscitation


text:
Bunroku

Bunroku (文禄) was a Japanese era name (年号) after Tenshō and before Keichō. This period spanned the years from December 1592 to October 1596. The reigning emperor was Go-Yōzei-tennō (後陽成天皇).

Change of era

 * 1592 Bunroku gannen (文禄元年): The era name was changed. The previous era ended and a new one commenced in Tenshō 20.

Events of the Bunroku era

 * 1592 (Bunroku 1): Toyotomi Hideyoshi invades Korea (Bunroku no Eki), also known as Bunroku Keichō no Eki.
 * 1592 (Bunroku 1): Ogasawara Sadayori claims to have discovered the Bonin Islands; and the territory was granted to him as a fief by Toyotomi Hideyoshi.
 * 1592 (Bunroku 1): Silver coins called Bunroku-tsūhō were minted to pay Hideyoshi's troops. The 23.25 mm diameter coins weighed 1 momme (approximately 3.75 g). Copper coins were issued at the same time, but none are known to have survived.
 * 1593 (Bunroku 2): Toyotomi Hideyori is born to Hideyoshi's mistress Yodo-Dono—an infant son and possible heir.
 * 1595 (Bunroku 4): Toyotomi Hidetsugu loses his position and power.

 * 1589-1595: An agrarian reform (Bunroku no Kenchi) initiated by Hideyoshi; a general census of the population and a national survey.

title: Bunroku