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De revolutionibus orbium coelestium

De revolutionibus orbium coelestium (English translation: On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres) is the seminal work on the heliocentric theory of the astronomer Nicolaus Copernicus (1473–1543) of the Polish Renaissance. The book, first printed in 1543 in Nuremberg, Holy Roman Empire, offered an alternative model of the universe to Ptolemy's geocentric system, which had been widely accepted since ancient times.

History
Copernicus initially outlined his system in a short, untitled, anonymous manuscript that he distributed to several friends, referred to as the Commentariolus. A physician's library list dating to 1514 includes a manuscript whose description matches the Commentariolus, so Copernicus must have begun work on his new system by that time. Most historians believe that he wrote the Commentariolus after his return from Italy, possibly only after 1510. At this time, Copernicus anticipated that he could reconcile the motion of the Earth with the perceived motions of the planets easily, with fewer motions than were necessary in the version of the Ptolemaic system current at the time. Among other techniques, the heliocentric Copernican model made use of the Urdi Lemma developed in the 13th century by the Arab astronomer Mu'ayyad al-Din al-'Urdi, the first of the Maragha astronomers to develop a geocentric but non-Ptolemaic model of planetary motion.

Observations of Mercury by Bernhard Walther (1430–1504) of Nuremberg, a pupil of Regiomontanus, were made available to Copernicus by Johannes Schöner, 45 observations in total, 14 of them with longitude and latitude. Copernicus used three of them in De revolutionibus, giving only longitudes, and erroneously attributing them to Schöner. Copernicus' values differed slightly from the ones published by Schöner in 1544 in ''Observationes XXX annorum a I. Regiomontano et B. Walthero Norimbergae habitae, [4°, Norimb. 1544].''

A manuscript of De revolutionibus in Copernicus' own hand has survived. After his death, it was given to his pupil, Rheticus, who for publication had only been given a copy without annotations. Via Heidelberg, it ended up in Prague, where it was rediscovered and studied in the 19th century. Close examination of the manuscript, including the different types of paper used, helped scholars construct an approximate timetable for its composition. Apparently Copernicus began by making a few astronomical observations to provide new data to perfect his models. He may have begun writing the book while still engaged in observations. By the 1530s a substantial part of the book was complete, but Copernicus hesitated to publish. In 1536, Cardinal Nikolaus von Schönberg wrote to Copernicus and urged him to publish his manuscript.

In 1539, Georg Joachim Rheticus, a young mathematician from Wittenberg, arrived in Frauenburg (Frombork) to study with him. Rheticus read Copernicus' manuscript and immediately wrote a non-technical summary of its main theories in the form of an open letter addressed to Schöner, his astrology teacher in Nürnberg; he published this letter as the Narratio Prima in Danzig in 1540. Rheticus' friend and mentor Achilles Gasser published a second edition of the Narratio in Basel in 1541. Due to its friendly reception, Copernicus finally agreed to publication of more of his main work—in 1542, a treatise on trigonometry, which was taken from the second book of the still unpublished De revolutionibus. Rheticus published it in Copernicus' name.

Under strong pressure from Rheticus, and having seen that the first general reception of his work had not been unfavorable, Copernicus finally agreed to give the book to his close friend, Bishop Tiedemann Giese, to be delivered to Rheticus in Wittenberg for printing by Johannes Petreius at Nürnberg (Nuremberg). It was published just before Copernicus' death, in 1543.

Copernicus kept a copy of his manuscript which, sometime after his death, was sent to Rheticus in the attempt to produce an authentic, unaltered version of the book. The plan failed but the copy was found during the 18th century and was published later. It is kept at the Jagiellonian University Library in Kraków, where it remains bearing the library number BJ 10 000.

Contents

From the first edition, Copernicus' book was prefixed with an anonymous preface which argues that the following is a calculus consistent with the observations, and cannot resolve philosophical truths. Only later was this revealed to be the unauthorized interjection by Lutheran preacher Andreas Osiander, who lived in Nuremberg when the first edition was printed there. This is followed by Copernicus' own preface, where he dedicates his work to Pope Paul III and appeals to the latter's skill as a mathematician to recognize the truth of Copernicus' hypothesis.

De revolutionibus is divided into six "books" (sections or parts), following closely the layout of Ptolemy's Almagest which it updated and replaced:
 * Book I chapters 1–11 are a general vision of the heliocentric theory, and a summarized exposition of his cosmology. The world (heavens) is spherical, as is the Earth, and the land and water make a single globe. The celestial bodies, including the Earth, have regular circular and everlasting movements. The Earth rotates on its axis and around the Sun. Answers to why the ancients thought the Earth was central. The order of the planets around the Sun and their periodicity. Chapters 12–14 give theorems for chord geometry as well as a table of chords.
 * Book II describes the principles of spherical astronomy as a basis for the arguments developed in the following books and gives a comprehensive catalogue of the fixed stars.
 * Book III describes his work on the precession of the equinoxes and treats the apparent movements of the Sun and related phenomena.
 * Book IV is a similar description of the Moon and its orbital movements.
 * Book V explains how to calculate the positions of the wandering stars based on the heliocentric model and gives tables for the five planets.
 * Book VI deals with the digression in latitude from the ecliptic of the five planets.

Copernicus argued that the universe comprised eight spheres. The outermost consisted of motionless, fixed stars, with the Sun motionless at the center. The known planets revolved about the Sun, each in its own sphere, in the order: Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn. The Moon, however, revolved in its sphere around the Earth. What appeared to be the daily revolution of the Sun and fixed stars around the Earth was actually the Earth's daily rotation on its own axis.

Copernicus adhered to one of the standard beliefs of his time, namely that the motions of celestial bodies must be composed of uniform circular motions. For this reason, he was unable to account for the observed apparent motion of the planets without retaining a complex system of epicycles similar to those of the Ptolemaic system. Despite Copernicus' adherence to this aspect of ancient astronomy, his radical shift from a geocentric to a heliocentric cosmology was a serious blow to Aristotle's science—and helped usher in the Scientific Revolution.

Ad lectorem

Rheticus left Nürnberg to take up his post as professor in Leipzig. Andreas Osiander had taken over the task of supervising the printing and publication. In an effort to reduce the controversial impact of the book Osiander added his own unsigned letter Ad lectorem de hypothesibus huius operis (To the reader concerning the hypotheses of this work) printed in front of Copernicus' preface which was a dedicatory letter to Pope Paul III and which kept the title "Praefatio authoris" (to acknowledge that the unsigned letter was not by the book's author). Osiander's letter stated that Copernicus' system was mathematics intended to aid computation and not an attempt to declare literal truth: "it is the duty of an astronomer to compose the history of the celestial motions through careful and expert study. Then he must conceive and devise the causes of these motions or hypotheses about them. Since he cannot in any way attain to the true causes, he will adopt whatever suppositions enable the motions to be computed correctly ... The present author has performed both these duties excellently. For these hypotheses need not be true nor even probable. On the contrary, if they provide a calculus consistent with the observations, that alone is enough ... For this art, it is quite clear, is completely and absolutely ignorant of the causes of the apparent [movement of the heavens]. And if any causes are devised by the imagination, as indeed very many are, they are not put forward to convince anyone that they are true, but merely to provide a reliable basis for computation. However, since different hypotheses are sometimes offered for one and the same ... the astronomer will take as his first choice that hypothesis which is the easiest to grasp. The philosopher will perhaps rather seek the semblance of the truth. But neither of them will understand or state anything certain, unless it has been divinely revealed to him ... Let no one expect anything certain from astronomy, which cannot furnish it, lest he accept as the truth ideas conceived for another purpose, and depart this study a greater fool than when he entered."

As even Osiander's defenders point out, the Ad lectorem "expresses views on the aim and nature of scientific theories at variance with Copernicus' claims for his own theory". Many view Osiander's letter as a betrayal of science and Copernicus, and an attempt to pass his own thoughts off as those of the book's author. An example of this type of claim can be seen in the Catholic Encyclopedia, which states "Fortunately for him [the dying Copernicus], he could not see what Osiander had done. This reformer, knowing the attitude of Luther and Melanchthon against the heliocentric system ... without adding his own name, replaced the preface of Copernicus by another strongly contrasting in spirit with that of Copernicus."

While Osiander's motives behind the letter have been questioned by many, he has been defended by historian Bruce Wrightsman, who points out he was not an enemy of science. Osiander had many scientific connections including "Johannes Schoner, Rheticus's teacher, whom Osiander recommended for his post at the Nurnberg Gymnasium; Peter Apian of Ingolstadt University; Hieronymous Schreiber...Joachim Camerarius...Erasmus Reinhold...Joachim Rheticus...and finally, Hieronymous Cardan."

The historian Wrightsman put forward that Osiander did not sign the letter because he "was such a notorious [Protestant] reformer whose name was well-known and infamous among Catholics", so that signing would have likely caused negative scrutiny of the work of Copernicus (a loyal Catholic canon and scholar). Copernicus himself had communicated to Osiander his "own fears that his work would be scrutinized and criticized by the 'peripatetics and theologians'," and he had already been in trouble with his bishop, Johannes Dantiscus, on account of his former relationship with his mistress and friendship with Dantiscus's enemy and suspected heretic, Alexander Scultetus. It was also possible that Protestant Nurnberg could fall to the forces of the Holy Roman Emperor and since "the books of hostile theologians could be burned...why not scientific works with the names of hated theologians affixed to them? " Wrightsman also holds that this is why Copernicus did not mention his top student, Rheticus (a Lutheran) in the book's dedication to the Pope.

Osiander's interest in astronomy was theological, hoping for "improving the chronology of historical events and thus providing more accurate apocalyptic interpretations of the Bible... [he shared in] the general awareness that the calendar was not in agreement with astronomical movement and therefore, needed to be corrected by devising better models on which to base calculations." In an era before the telescope, Osiander (like most of the era's mathematical astronomers) attempted to bridge the "fundamental incompatibility between Ptolemaic astronomy and Aristotlian physics, and the need to preserve both", by taking an 'instrumentalist' position. Only the handful of "Philosophical purists like the Averroists... demanded physical consistency and thus sought for realist models."

Copernicus was hampered by his insistence on preserving the idea that celestial bodies had to travel in perfect circles — he "was still attached to classical ideas of circular motion around deferents and epicycles, and spheres." This was particularly troubling concerning the Earth because he "attached the Earth's axis rigidly to a Sun-centered sphere. The unfortunate consequence was that the terrestrial rotation axis then maintained the same inclination with respect to the Sun as the sphere turned, eliminating the seasons." To explain the seasons, he had to propose a third motion, "an annual contrary conical sweep of the terrestrial axis". It was not until the Great Comet of 1577, which moved as if there were no spheres to crash through, that the idea was challenged. In 1609, Johannes Kepler fixed Copernicus' theory by stating that the planets orbit the Sun not in circles, but ellipses. Only after Kepler's refinement of Copernicus' theory was the need for deferents and epicycles abolished.

In his work, Copernicus "used conventional, hypothetical devices like epicycles...as all astronomers had done since antiquity. ...hypothetical constructs solely designed to 'save the phenomena' and aid computation". Ptolemy's theory contained a hypothesis about the epicycle of Venus that was viewed as absurd if seen as anything other than a geometrical device (its brightness and distance should have varied greatly, but they don't). "In spite of this defect in Ptolemy's theory, Copernicus' hypothesis predicts approximately the same variations." Because of the use of similar terms and similar deficiencies, Osiander could see "little technical or physical truth-gain" between one system and the other. It was this attitude towards technical astronomy that had allowed it to "function since antiquity, despite its inconsistencies with the principles of physics and the philosophical objections of Averroists."

Writing Ad lectorem, Osiander was influenced by Pico della Mirandola's idea that humanity "orders [an intellectual] cosmos out of the chaos of opinions." From Pico's writings, Osiander "learned to extract and synthesize insights from many sources without becoming the slavish follower of any of them." The effect of Pico on Osiander was tempered by the influence of Nicholas of Cusa and his idea of coincidentia oppositorum. Rather than having Pico's focus on human effort, Osiander followed Cusa's idea that understanding the Universe and its Creator only came from divine inspiration rather than intellectual organization. From these influences, Osiander held that in the area of philosophical speculation and scientific hypothesis there are "no heretics of the intellect", but when one gets past speculation into truth-claims the Bible is the ultimate measure. By holding that Copernicianism was mathematical speculation, Osiander held that it would be silly to hold it up against the accounts of the Bible.

Pico's influence on Osiander did not escape Rheticus, who reacted strongly against the Ad lectorem. As historian Robert S. Westman puts it, "The more profound source of Rheticus's ire however, was Osiander's view of astronomy as a disciple fundamentally incapable of knowing anything with certainty. For Rheticus, this extreme position surely must have resonated uncomfortably with Pico della Mirandola's attack on the foundations of divinatory astrology."

In his Disputations, Pico had made a devastating attack on astrology. Because those who were making astrological predictions relied on astronomers to tell them where the planets were, they also became a target. Pico held that since astronomers who calculate planetary positions could not agree among themselves, how were they to be held as reliable? While Pico could bring into concordance writers like Aristotle, Plato, Plotinus, Averroes, Avicenna, and Aquinas, the lack of consensus he saw in astronomy was a proof to him of its fallibility alongside astrology. Pico pointed out that the astronomers' instruments were imprecise and any imperfection of even a degree made them worthless for astrology, people should not trust astrologists because they should not trust the numbers from astronomers. Pico pointed out that astronomers couldn't even tell where the Sun appeared in the order of the planets as they orbited the Earth (some put it close to the Moon, others among the planets). How, Pico asked, could astrologists possibly claim they could read what was going on when the astronomers they relied on could offer no precision on even basic questions?

As Westman points out, to Rheticus "it would seem that Osiander now offered new grounds for endorsing Pico's conclusions: not merely was the disagreement among astronomers grounds for mistrusting the sort of knowledge that they produced, but now Osiander proclaimed that astronomers might construct a world deduced from (possibly) false premises. Thus the conflict between Piconian skepticism and secure principles for the science of the stars was built right into the complex dedicatory apparatus of De Revolutionibus itself." According to the notes of Michael Maestlin, "Rheticus...became embroiled in a very bitter wrangle with the printer [over the Ad lectorem]. Rheticus...suspected Osiander had prefaced the work; if he knew this for certain, he declared, he would rough up the fellow so violently that in future he would mind his own business."

Objecting to the Ad lectorem, Tiedemann Giese urged the Nuremberg city council to issue a correction, but this was not done, and the matter was forgotten. Jan Broscius, a supporter of Copernicus, also despaired of the Ad lectorem, writing "Ptolemy's hypothesis is the earth rests. Copernicus' hypothesis is that the earth is in motion. Can either, therefore, be true? ... Indeed, Osiander deceives much with that preface of his ... Hence, someone may well ask: How is one to know which hypothesis is truer, the Ptolemaic or the Copernican?"

Petreius had sent a copy to Hieronymus Schreiber, an astronomer from Nürnberg who had substituted for Rheticus as professor of mathematics in Wittenberg while Rheticus was in Nürnberg supervising the printing. Schreiber, who died in 1547, left in his copy of the book a note about Osiander's authorship. Via Michael Mästlin, this copy came to Johannes Kepler, who discovered what Osiander had done and methodically demonstrated that Osiander had indeed added the foreword. The most knowledgeable astronomers of the time had realized that the foreword was Osiander's doing.

Owen Gingerich gives a slightly different version: Kepler knew of Osiander's authorship since he had read about it in one of Schreiber's annotations in his copy of De Revolutionibus; Maestlin learned of the fact from Kepler. Indeed, Maestlin perused Kepler's book, up to the point of leaving a few annotations in it. However, Maestlin already suspected Osiander, because he had bought his De revolutionibus from the widow of Philipp Apian; examining his books, he had found a note attributing the introduction to Osiander.

Johannes Praetorius (1537–1616), who learned of Osiander's authorship from Rheticus during a visit to him in Kraków, wrote Osiander's name in the margin of the foreword in his copy of De revolutionibus.

All three early editions of De revolutionibus included Osiander's foreword.

Reception
Even before the 1543 publication of De revolutionibus, rumors circulated about its central theses. In one of his Tischreden (Table Talks), Martin Luther is quoted as saying in 1539:

"People gave ear to an upstart astrologer who strove to show that the earth revolves, not the heavens or the firmament, the sun and the moon ... This fool wishes to reverse the entire science of astronomy; but sacred Scripture tells us [Joshua 10:13] that Joshua commanded the sun to stand still, and not the earth."

When the book was finally published, demand was low, with an initial print run of 400 failing to sell out. Copernicus had made the book extremely technical, unreadable to all but the most advanced astronomers of the day, allowing it to disseminate into their ranks before stirring great controversy. And, like Osiander, contemporary mathematicians and astronomers encouraged its audience to view it as a useful mathematical model without necessarily being true about causes, thereby somewhat shielding it from accusations of blasphemy.

Among some astronomers, the book "at once took its place as a worthy successor to the Almagest of Ptolemy, which had hitherto been the Alpha and Omega of astronomers". Erasmus Reinhold hailed the work in 1542 and by 1551 had developed the Prutenic Tables ("Prussian Tables"; Tabulae prutenicae; Preußische Tafeln) using Copernicus' methods. The Prutenic Tables, published in 1551, were used as a basis for the calendar reform instituted in 1582 by Pope Gregory XIII. They were also used by sailors and maritime explorers, whose 15th-century predecessors had used Regiomontanus' Table of the Stars. In England, Robert Recorde, John Dee, Thomas Digges and William Gilbert were among those who adopted his position; in Germany, Christian Wurstisen, Christoph Rothmann and Michael Mästlin, the teacher of Johannes Kepler; in Italy, Giambattista Benedetti and Giordano Bruno whilst Franciscus Patricius accepted the rotation of the Earth. In Spain, rules published in 1561 for the curriculum of the University of Salamanca gave students the choice between studying Ptolemy or Copernicus. One of those students, Diego de Zúñiga, published an acceptance of Copernican theory in 1584.

Very soon, nevertheless, Copernicus' theory was attacked with Scripture and with the common Aristotelian proofs. In 1549, Melanchthon, Luther's principal lieutenant, wrote against Copernicus, pointing to the theory's apparent conflict with Scripture and advocating that "severe measures" be taken to restrain the impiety of Copernicans. The works of Copernicus and Zúñiga—the latter for asserting that De revolutionibus was compatible with Catholic faith—were placed on the Index of Forbidden Books by a decree of the Sacred Congregation of March 5, 1616 (more than 70 years after Copernicus' publication):

"This Holy Congregation has also learned about the spreading and acceptance by many of the false Pythagorean doctrine, altogether contrary to the Holy Scripture, that the earth moves and the sun is motionless, which is also taught by Nicholaus Copernicus' De revolutionibus orbium coelestium and by Diego de Zúñiga's In Job ... Therefore, in order that this opinion may not creep any further to the prejudice of Catholic truth, the Congregation has decided that the books by Nicolaus Copernicus [De revolutionibus] and Diego de Zúñiga [In Job] be suspended until corrected."

De revolutionibus was not formally banned but merely withdrawn from circulation, pending "corrections" that would clarify the theory's status as hypothesis. Nine sentences that represented the heliocentric system as certain were to be omitted or changed. After these corrections were prepared and formally approved in 1620 the reading of the book was permitted. But the book was never reprinted with the changes and was available in Catholic jurisdictions only to suitably qualified scholars, by special request. It remained on the Index until 1758, when Pope Benedict XIV (1740–58) removed the uncorrected book from his revised Index.

Census of copies
Arthur Koestler described De revolutionibus as "The Book That Nobody Read" saying the book "was and is an all-time worst seller", despite the fact that it was reprinted four times. Owen Gingerich, an eminent astronomer and historian of science who has written on both Nicolaus Copernicus and Johannes Kepler, disproved this after a 35-year project to examine every surviving copy of the first two editions. Gingerich showed that nearly all the leading mathematicians and astronomers of the time owned and read the book; however, his analysis of the marginalia shows that almost all of them ignored the cosmology at the beginning of the book and were only interested in Copernicus' new equant-free models of planetary motion in the later chapters. Also, Nicolaus Reimers in 1587 translated the book into German.

Gingerich's efforts and conclusions are recounted in The Book Nobody Read, published in 2004 by Walker & Co. His census included 276 copies of the first edition (by comparison, there are 228 extant copies of Shakespeare's First Folio) and 325 copies of the second. The research behind this book earned its author the Polish government's Order of Merit in 1981. Due largely to Gingerich's scholarship, De revolutionibus has been researched and catalogued better than any other first-edition historic text except for the original Gutenberg Bible. One of the copies now resides at the Archives of the University of Santo Tomas in the Miguel de Benavides Library. In January 2017, a second-edition copy was stolen as part of a heist of rare books from Heathrow Airport and remains unrecovered.

Editions

 * 1543, Nuremberg, by Johannes Petreius. A copy of this is held by the University of Edinburgh; it had been owned by an astronomer, who filled the pages with scholarly annotations, and subsequently by the Scottish economist Adam Smith. Another copy is held by the Cary Graphic Arts Collection in New York, alongside astronomer Johannes de Sacrobosco's manuscript "De sphaera mundi" (On the Sphere of the World), which supports the earlier Ptolemaic model of the universe.
 * 1566, Basel, by Henricus Petrus.
 * 1617, Amsterdam, by Nicolaus Mulerius.
 * 1854, Warsaw, with Polish translation and the authentic preface by Copernicus.
 * 1873, Thorn; German translation sponsored by the local Coppernicus Society, with all of Copernicus' textual corrections given as footnotes.

Latin texts available

 * 1543, Nuremberg, by Johannes Petreius; online from Harvard University.

Translations
English translations of De revolutionibus have included:
 * On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres, translated by C. G. Wallis, Annapolis, St John's College Bookstore, 1939. Republished in volume 16 of the Great Books of the Western World, Chicago, Encyclopædia Britannica, 1952; in the series of the same name, published by the Franklin Library, Franklin Center, Philadelphia, 1985; in volume 15 of the second edition of the Great Books, Encyclopædia Britannica, 1990; and Amherst, NY: Prometheus Books, 1995, Great Minds Series – Science, ISBN 1-57392-035-5.
 * On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres, translated with an introduction and notes by A. M. Duncan, Newton Abbot, David & Charles, ISBN 0-7153-6927-X; New York: Barnes and Noble, 1976, ISBN 0-06-491279-5.
 * On the Revolutions; translation and commentary by Edward Rosen, Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1992, ISBN 0-8018-4515-7. (Foundations of Natural History. Originally published in Warsaw, Poland, 1978.)

title: De revolutionibus orbium coelestium


text: Category:1127 births

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Category:1127 births


text: User talk:69.132.35.202

title: User talk:69.132.35.202


text:
It's Never Enough

It's Never Enough is the fifth and final studio album by American pop punk band Ace Troubleshooter, recorded once more with Tim Patalan at The Loft.

Track listing

 * 1) "Ball & Chain"
 * 2) "Anything"
 * 3) "Jasmine"
 * 4) "Make It Right"
 * 5) "Seaside"
 * 6) "Turn Round"
 * 7) "My Defense"
 * 8) "Helen Burns"
 * 9) "Tempest"
 * 10) "Hoping"
 * 11) "Don't Do It Again"
 * 12) "So Long"

title: It's Never Enough


text:
Wikipedia:Articles for deletion/Long Duck Dong

Long Duck Dong (now Long Duk Dong) was proposed for deletion. This page is an archive of the discussion about the proposed deletion. This page is no longer live. Further comments should be made on the article's talk page rather than here so that this page is preserved as an historic record. The result of the debate was merge into Sixteen Candles and redirect

This page is just a stub (not marked as a stub) describing some minor character in an old movie along with the offensive racial stereotypes exhibited by this particular minor character. There's no reason for this entry to exist. If the material is to be included it should be moved to Sixteen Candles. Ntk 21:50, 30 Sep 2004 (UTC)
 * Keep. Describing Long Duk Dong as "some minor character" is absurd, and Sixteen Candles is not just "an old movie"; it is constantly shown on television today.  The "offensive racial stereotype" in question is even more reason to keep this article as it is frequently dicussed, and complained of by Asians as one of the chief examples of such stereotyping, something that could be much more fully developed.  --Daniel C. Boyer 16:08, 2 Oct 2004 (UTC)
 * Merge and delete, since I doubt a redirect is necessary. Not that there's much to merge. --Aponar Kestrel (talk) 22:06, 2004 Sep 30 (UTC)
 * Delete. Interesting that this is the only character from the movie any one has seen fit to right an article about. I guess it shows the power of the word "dong". Dsmdgold 03:46, 1 Oct 2004 (UTC)
 * Keep and expand or at the very least merge and redirect to Sixteen Candles. How can you delete the Donger? -- Netoholic @ 06:19, 2004 Oct 1 (UTC)
 * I also should point out that being a "poor quality article" is not grounds for deletion. Please review the the guidelines before submitting in the future. -- Netoholic @ 06:25, 2004 Oct 1 (UTC)
 * I thought I made it pretty clear that the reason was not that this article was badly written (which it is), but that it is completely non-notable, which is reason most of the articles on this page get deleted. Under the guidelines you linked to I would say that this article fits under "no potential to become encyclopedic."  This movie may be an obscure cult classic, but I think there's a consensus that not every minor character in every movie ever made deserves their own article.  There's clearly not much content to be written about this character and what there is can easily be folded into Sixteen Candles. Ntk 20:19, 1 Oct 2004 (UTC)
 * The movie is not "an obscure cult classic." Practically everyone who was a teenager in its era has seen it, and many more besides due to its constant screenings on weekend television.  --Daniel C. Boyer 16:08, 2 Oct 2004 (UTC)
 * Agreed. The only people who can find it obscure or old...are seven-year-olds in Nepal. Mike H 02:07, Oct 3, 2004 (UTC)
 * Merge/redirect to Sixteen Candles, which is a cult classic, by the way. Entirely plausible that a reader might type in "Long Duck Dong", looking for this exact thing. • Benc • 06:34, 1 Oct 2004 (UTC)
 * I merged it and make Long Duk Dong a redirect. If you wanna, you can delete it.  Too bad we can't redirect to a section of an article.   — Frecklefoot | Talk 18:34, Oct 1, 2004 (UTC)
 * I've merged it again, redirected to the section. -- user:zanimum
 * Merge/redirect to Sixteen Candles - let's save the breaking out of characters into individual articles until the article on the movie is a bit fuller, eh? —Stormie 00:21, Oct 5, 2004 (UTC)

This page is now preserved as an archive of the debate and, like other '/delete' pages is no longer 'live'. Subsequent comments on the issue, the deletion or on the decision-making process should be placed on the relevant 'live' pages. Please do not edit this page.


text: Category:1192 deaths

title: Category:1192 deaths


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B-Rock 99.3FM

B-Rock 99.3FM (call sign: 2BXS) is a local radio station in Bathurst, New South Wales, Australia. It broadcasts on 99.3 megahertz on the FM band, from a transmitter in Bathurst, with a power output of 10 kilowatts (10,000 watts) and callsign 2BXS.

Its callsign meaning is:
 * 2 (a prefix for New South Wales radio stations)
 * BXS, an extension of its sister station (2BS)'s callsign. However, this callsign is never heard on air.

Its on-air name, B-Rock, is named for Australian motor racing legend (and nine-time Bathurst 1000 winner) Peter Brock, but can also be known to be short for Bathurst Rock (or Rocks).

It is owned by ''Bathurst Broadcasters Pty. Ltd.'', a privately held company, owned by Bill Caralis's Broadcast Operations Group, who also owns sister station 2BS Bathurst.

It began broadcasting on 2 December 1996, as a supplementary FM license in the Bathurst district.

B-Rock's format is hot adult contemporary (rock), with a core audience of up to 39 years. Its programs are produced locally, and features competitions, comedy, requests and national news which airs on the hour from 7 am to 5 pm Monday to Friday.

title: B-Rock 99.3FM


text: Category:1190s deaths

title: Category:1190s deaths


text:
Belfast, New Zealand

Belfast (Purarekanui) is a suburb of Christchurch, New Zealand. It is in the north of the city 10 km from Cathedral Square, close to the banks of the Waimakariri River.

History
Belfast is named after Belfast in Northern Ireland. It was originally known as North Road District, Seven Mile Peg, Styx, or by its Māori name Purarekanui.

James McNeight Watt (1838–1892) emigrated from Belfast and was a partner with the original meat works, around which the settlement grew. Watt, who developed much of the area, is believed to have given it its present name.

Demographics
Belfast, comprising the statistical areas of Belfast West and Belfast East, covers 6.57 km2. It had an estimated population of as of  with a population density of  people per km2.

Before the 2023 census, Belfast had a smaller boundary, covering 5.98 km2. Using that boundary, Belfast had a population of 4,218 at the 2018 New Zealand census, an increase of 318 people (8.2%) since the 2013 census, and an increase of 549 people (15.0%) since the 2006 census. There were 1,632 households, comprising 2,091 males and 2,124 females, giving a sex ratio of 0.98 males per female, with 759 people (18.0%) aged under 15 years, 801 (19.0%) aged 15 to 29, 1,956 (46.4%) aged 30 to 64, and 705 (16.7%) aged 65 or older.

Ethnicities were 86.8% European/Pākehā, 11.7% Māori, 2.5% Pasifika, 6.4% Asian, and 2.9% other ethnicities. People may identify with more than one ethnicity.

The percentage of people born overseas was 17.0, compared with 27.1% nationally.

Although some people chose not to answer the census's question about religious affiliation, 54.5% had no religion, 33.4% were Christian, 0.3% had Māori religious beliefs, 1.1% were Hindu, 0.4% were Muslim, 0.7% were Buddhist and 2.2% had other religions.

Of those at least 15 years old, 441 (12.7%) people had a bachelor's or higher degree, and 855 (24.7%) people had no formal qualifications. 474 people (13.7%) earned over $70,000 compared to 17.2% nationally. The employment status of those at least 15 was that 1,812 (52.4%) people were employed full-time, 492 (14.2%) were part-time, and 129 (3.7%) were unemployed.

Economy
Belfast has a freezing works. The nearest shopping complex is at Northwood Supa Centre.

Education
Belfast School is a contributing primary school catering for years 1 to 8. It had a roll of as of  The school opened in 1878.

Sport
Belfast is home to the Belfast Rugby Club, which competes in the Christchurch rugby competition. The team's colours are green and gold. Its main sports ground is Sheldon Park. The northern end of the suburb houses light industry.

Notable people from Belfast

 * Shane Bond (Former player for New Zealand Black Caps cricket team)
 * Bill Bush (former All-Black) Now President Belfast Rugby Club (Cobras)
 * Craig Green (former All Black)
 * Jamie Nutbrown Former Canterbury Crusaders halfback, also a former Super Rugby referee.
 * Wayne Smith (All Black's assistant coach)
 * Mabel Whitaker (1884–1976), teacher and local historian.
 * Lewis Brown (Former New Zealand Kiwi League player) and New Zealand Warriors

title: Belfast, New Zealand


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Pyrosis

Pyrosis is a genus of moths in the family Lasiocampidae. The genus was first described by Oberthür in 1880. The moths live in Asia.

Species

 * Pyrosis borneana (Holloway, 1987)
 * Pyrosis dierli Zolotuhin & Witt, 2000
 * Pyrosis eximia Oberthür, 1880
 * Pyrosis hreblayi Zolotuhin & Witt, 2000
 * Pyrosis hyalata Zolotuhin & Witt, 2000
 * Pyrosis fulviplaga (De Joannis, 1929)
 * Pyrosis idiota (Graeser, 1888)
 * Pyrosis matronata Zolotuhin & Witt, 2000
 * Pyrosis ni (Wang & Fan, 1995)
 * Pyrosis potanini Alpheraky, 1895
 * Pyrosis rotundipennis (De Joannis, 1930)
 * Pyrosis undulosa (Walker, 1855)
 * Pyrosis wangi Zolotuhin & Witt, 2007

title: Pyrosis


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Sonex Aircraft

Sonex Aircraft, LLC is an American kit aircraft manufacturer located in Oshkosh, Wisconsin, producing kits for four all-metal homebuilt monoplanes. The company was founded in 1998 by John Monnett, who has designed the Monnett Sonerai sport aircraft series, Monnett Monerai sailplane, Monnett Moni motorglider, and Monnett Monex racer. Monnett designs are displayed in the Steven F. Udvar-Hazy Center of the National Air and Space Museum near Washington D.C.

In June 2018, John Monnett announced his plan to retire and sell the company. In January 2022, Sonex employee and general manager, Mark Schaible, purchased the assets of Sonex Aircraft LLC and Sonex Aerospace LLC, forming them into a new company, Sonex LLC. Schaible will be owner and president of the new company.

Aircraft
In 2013, the FAA National Kit Evaluation Team (NKET) approved fast-build "51% rule" versions of the Sonex, Waiex, and Onex.

In December 2019 the John Monnett-designed Sonerai was acquired by Sonex Aircraft.

Engines
Company subsidiary AeroConversions manufactures the AeroConversions AeroVee Engine, a custom aircraft implementation of the Volkswagen air-cooled engine.

Hornet's Nest
The Hornet's Nest is the research and development arm of Sonex LLC.

E-flight
At AirVenture 2007, Sonex Aircraft announced a project to work on innovative technologies in aviation. The E-flight projects includes using an electric motor, ethanol-based fuels, and other power plant alternatives. In December 2010, an all-electric Waiex was test flown from Wittman field in Oshkosh, Wisconsin. The aircraft was flown with a 54 kW brushless DC electric motor, managed by a newly designed controller. Power is from a collection of 14.5 kW-hour lithium polymer batteries, giving the aircraft an endurance of one hour at low-speed cruise or 15 minutes of aerobatics. This was the beginning of the development of the Sonex Electric Sport Aircraft.

title: Sonex Aircraft


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Cyber (Marvel Comics)

Cyber is a supervillain appearing in American comic books published by Marvel Comics. The character is usually depicted as an enemy of Wolverine from the X-Men.

Publication history
Created by writer Peter David and artist Sam Kieth, Cyber first appeared in Marvel Comics Presents #85 (Sept. 1991), though his physical appearance was obscured by a trench coat and hat. He was first fully seen and named in Marvel Comics Presents #86 (Sept. 1991).

Origin
Silas Burr is believed to have been born in Canada. He was an agent for the Pinkerton National Detective Agency, and in the spring of 1912, he was eventually put on trial in Sioux City, Iowa. He was found guilty on 22 counts of murder and sentenced to death by hanging. Escaping from the courthouse, Cyber arrived at a Western Canadian military base. In the Canadian Army a new employer named Frederick Hudson took a special interest in his unique ability to push the men under his command beyond their moral and emotional limits. Cyber's earliest known confrontation with Logan seemingly occurred around World War I, where he served as Logan's brutal drill instructor during his early days in the military. Cyber is given instructions to focus his attention on Logan in particular, and eventually receives orders to murder a woman at the base known only as Janet, in whom Logan was interested romantically, to further dehumanize his conditioning. After witnessing her death at Cyber's hands, Logan attacks and is severely beaten as Cyber effortlessly gouges out Logan's left eye. This is Logan's most severe beating and defeats up to this point in his life and the resulting psychological effects result in a deep-seated fear of Cyber. Without any memory of Burr's abuse, Logan again finds himself under the command of Burr while enlisted with the Devil's Brigade during World War II. He introduces Logan to U.S. Army soldier Nick Fury for the clandestine rescue mission of Captain America from German-occupied Northern Africa.

Returning from Indochina for nine months in 1959, Burr would train his finest student Daken (Logan's son) before the boy is secretly ordered to destroy the training camp and everyone associated with it, including its commander. Eviscerated and shot by Daken, Burr is spared from death, as he was chosen by Romulus to be the prototype for the Adamantium bonding process and has the metal permanently bonded to his skin.

Modern era
In the modern era, Cyber resurfaces in Madripoor, as an enforcer for an unnamed drug cartel, where he interferes between the rival crime cartels of Wolverine's ally Tiger Tyger and General Coy. With the exception of his Adamantium enhancements, Cyber's appearance remains unchanged, indicating that he ages much slower than an ordinary human. Wolverine, after running from the fight and barely escaping with his life from their latest encounter, Logan eventually manages to overcome his fear of Cyber to save Tyger's life. Tyger bites out the villain's left eye before he falls into a truck full of the powerful hallucinogens he had earlier used on Wolverine, leading Cyber to run screaming into the forest and disappear at the ocean's edge.

Cyber later confronts the mutant team of X-Factor alongside the female criminal organization called the Hell's Belles whom Cyber is mentoring as enforcers for an unnamed drug cartel. Shrew, a former member of the Hell's Belles, wishes to testify against the cartel, and Cyber and his team are ordered to silence the woman. Cyber defeats X-Factor's Polaris first, concerned over the woman's magnetic powers. He manages to poison Strong Guy with his claws, and attempts to ransom the antidote in exchange for Shrew. However, Strong Guy is saved due to the scientific resources of the United States government. In a later battle in a subway train station, Shrew manages to push Cyber into the path of an oncoming train driven by X-Factor's leader Val Cooper, and he disappears.

He next surfaces on the distant island of Koma Koi as an agent for the mysterious death-cult known as The Coven, hired to steal a mystical gem called the Tear of Heaven, and kidnap its guardian priestess Kayla. Wolverine, who happens to be vacationing on the island, recognizes Cyber's scent on Kayla and tracks Cyber to The Coven. The two are eventually shackled to each other by an Adamantium chain, and will fight each other incessantly unless gassed unconscious or lowered into an acid pit. Crossing a rope bridge, Wolverine eventually gains the upper hand and strangles Cyber with their shackles. Hanging by his throat and lacking an Adamantium windpipe, he releases the chain and disappears as he falls into the dark jungle.

Cyber is next seen back in Edinburgh, Scotland where he again engages Wolverine in battle. Recalling his part in the West Port murders long ago, he announces his intention to kill Wolverine and feed to the deathwatch beetles to steal the man's Adamantium skeleton. However, Cyber is unaware that the Adamantium laced to Wolverine's skeleton has been removed by Magneto. Despite this, and despite the fact that many of Wolverine's other mutant attributes were weakened, he manages to hold his own against Cyber briefly. Cyber is momentarily distracted by the distant cannon fire of Edinburgh Castle as Wolverine extracts his bone claws and slashes Cyber across the face. Cyber, unimpressed by the attack and annoyed by this turn of events, quickly slams Wolverine to the ground and uses his foot to break the bone claws off of Wolverine's right arm before their fight is interrupted, allowing Wolverine the opportunity to escape Cyber once more. Using his amplified brain-wave tracking power, he chases the poisoned Logan to Muir Island, where he is eventually outsmarted by Kitty Pride and captured by Excalibur.

Cyber is later broken out of S.H.I.E.L.D. custody by the Dark Riders, and taken to one of Apocalypse's corpse littered, ancient Egyptian fortresses. They run a series of tests to determine the strength and purity of Cyber's Adamantium skin, then through a combined effort they manage to trap him inside a vault and release a swarm of voracious, "mutant" deathwatch beetles, which devour the flesh from Cyber's entire body, beginning with his exposed face and eating the rest from the inside out. Cyber's Adamantium carapace, which remains untouched, is then used in an unsuccessful attempt to re-implant Adamantium onto Wolverine's skeleton by Genesis, leader of the Dark Riders.

Resurrection
Cyber resurfaced in astral form, making himself known to Milo Gunderson, a powerful young mutant with childlike intelligence. After possessing Milo's body, Cyber is easily able to suppress Milo's childlike psyche, coupling Milo's incredible strength with his own cunning intelligence. Intent on revenge, he sets off for the Tinkerer, contracting the man to perform the Adamantium-epidermal bonding process once he has stolen the necessary liquid Adamantium from storage in The Hague. Arriving in Brussels, he is revealed to be behind the scenes in setting up the confrontation between Wolverine and Daken. At the culmination of the bloody battle between father and son, Cyber appears, complete in his new Adamantium laced skin, and challenges not Wolverine, but Daken. After quickly gaining the upper hand in his fight with Daken, Cyber questions him on the whereabouts of his master. Daken refuses to answer and manages to flee, leaving Cyber and Wolverine alone. During the following battle, Cyber suffers from a heart attack, as Milo had a weak heart. Upon discovering that Silas had previously instructed Daken, and is capable of tracking his location, Wolverine spares him in exchange for information. As Silas starts retelling how, in 1912, he was saved from capital punishment by Sabretooth and taken to Canada where he met the mysterious man known as Hudson, his condition worsens, and Wolverine is forced to bring him to the Tinkerer to help him with the needed treatment. Agreeing to construct an artificial pacemaker to stabilize Cyber's heart condition in exchange for the use of Logan's mysterious Carbonadium synthesizer, The Tinkerer unwittingly affixes the radioactive device to Cyber's chest, before Logan disappears with the C-Synth and tosses it from a bridge into the water below. He resurfaced in a desolate town inside Northern Africa, commanding a local militant faction, and attempts to coerce Wolverine and Daken into cooperating with him in their hunt for Romulus, his personal motives remaining a mystery. After cooperating with Daken, Burr takes him to the abandoned farm somewhere in Saskatchewan, Canada where his transformation into "Cyber" took place nearly fifty years prior. Deceived by Daken's emotional powers, Cyber seemingly succumbs to the poisonous effects of the Carbonadium pacemaker, his weakened heart condition, or both and collapses in pain as Daken steps on his medication. He was last seen left for dead by both Daken and Wolverine.

Cyber is later killed by Ogun who claims that he was a formidable opponent, then tries to sell his Adamantium carapace to Dr. Abraham Cornelius after dissolving his flesh away by submerging his corpse in an acid bath.

Hornet
Under unknown circumstances, Silas returns to the living once again and has masqueraded himself as "Hornet" from the Slingers. He's first seen in Las Vegas following Hydra's takeover of America, having been hired by the Forbidden City casino owner Silas Thorne to stage a robbery of a mass food delivery being sent to another casino, as the man claims that casino owner Cassandra Mercury will simply take all of the food for herself and Cassandra's employees rather than pass it around. Hornet is able to defeat most of the casino security before he is intercepted by the Scarlet Spider, but he declines to answer questions about his apparent resurrection and fled. When Scarlet Spider and Ricochet track Hornet to the casino where his employer works, Hornet uses a strange amulet to summon an army of monsters, subsequently introducing himself as Silas to Ricochet during the fight. After Scarlet Spider damages the amulet, the monsters are contained by Dusk, but Hornet fled in the resulting confusion. He brings the rest of the Slingers together, claiming that he has been chosen by the Black Marvel and the team are ordered to capture the Scarlet Spider to charge him for his attack on Thorne. As the original and modern Scarlet Spider confront the Slingers, it is revealed that the Black Marvel has no soul and damage to Hornet's gauntlets reveal his true identity who had been revived by an as-yet-unidentified entity that was posing as Black Marvel.

Original body
Silas Burr is a mutant that possesses a number of superhuman abilities, some due to his natural mutation and some due to artificial enhancement. Silas possesses some degree of superhuman strength. Though no limit has been explicitly given, his strength was sufficient to destroy a jeep with a single blow or slash open a bank vault door with ease.

Cyber's skin was bonded with a layer of the near indestructible alloy adamantium, with the exception of his face, using an unknown arc welding technique. As a result, most of Cyber's body was virtually invulnerable to physical injury. Cyber's Adamantium skin has proven able to withstand all attacks against it, even by weapons composed of Adamantium itself.

Housed within each of Cyber's fingers is a retractable Adamantium claw. Each talon was tipped in either powerful hallucinogens or poisons that have proven capable of incapacitating Wolverine before his mutant healing factor could filter them out. The potent toxins are specifically designed to affect Wolverine and are fatal to ordinary humans within seconds. Cyber's Adamantium claws were also capable of cutting almost any known material. The known exceptions are Adamantium itself and Captain America's shield, which is composed of a Vibranium and an experimental "steel alloy".

After Wolverine gouged out Cyber's left eye in combat, it was replaced with an artificial implant.

Cyber also possesses a psionic ability that allows him to track specific brain wave patterns across great distances. The exact limit of Cyber's range is unknown, though it was greatly amplified after his over-exposure to the hallucinogens that coat his claws. Cyber has claimed he can track brain wave patterns from any location on Earth, and was even able to allow his consciousness to leave his body entirely. It was this ability that allowed Cyber to survive in astral form following the attack by the Dark Riders.

Cyber is an excellent hand-to-hand combatant. He is well known in military circles, himself a veteran of World War I and World War II, and throughout the criminal underworld, where he often hires himself out as a special enforcer or mentor. He is a talented, though quite sadistic and murderous, teacher of unarmed combat methods.

Milo Gunderson
His consciousness has taken possession of the body of Milo Gunderson, a large, muscular mutant with childlike intelligence. Milo is a mutant possessing some degree of superhuman strength, the limits of which are not known. However, his strength is sufficient to kill a fully grown horse with a single punch.

Cyber also apparently retains his brainwave tracking ability within his new body. Cyber has undergone a process in which Adamantium has been laced to Milo's skin, with only his face left uncovered, as well as retractable talons on his fingertips. As a result, his body is highly resistant to all forms of injury, including assaults from weapons composed of Adamantium. However, the mutant factor that made his body develop so fast and strong puts a lot of stress on his heart, which makes him dependent on the medicine his mother was giving him. After suffering from a heart attack, he received a "pacemaker", mounted to his chest, fabricated from the deadly, radioactive element Carbonadium. His face is beginning to show signs of blistering, possibly from its effects. As his condition worsened, he collapsed and was later seen by Wolverine lying still on his back with his eyes open, a blood stain around his Carbonadium pacemaker, and flies crawling on his face.

Hornet
His very soul had been placed within the corpse of the superhero Hornet. Most likely thanks to a combination of a powerful demon coupled with use of his psychic abilities to commandeer it, like his previous bodies; Silas has had this new one fitted with Adamantium bonded to his skin and hair follicles. Making all but his face and head impervious to physical damage.

He possesses retractable claws on all ten of his digits and wrist mounted laser guns implanted on his forearms in the event his Hornet suit were ever compromised. His new body is healthier and in perfect physical condition, not like the one of Mr. Gunderson which had a heart condition and needed a pacemaker to keep it stable. Easily being able to battle and best the eugenically enhanced spider clones Ben Reilly and Kaine Parker. Silas also accommodated the Hornet's cyber suit which was outfitted with all manner of high-tech gadgetry and weapon's systems created by its previous owners. Function such as wrist mounted blasters which fire variable rounds of ammunition; ranging from stun setting, dart launchers, laser guns and other unknown ammo types. It also magnifies his bodies physical abilities giving him increased strength, speed, durability, stamina and reflexes.

His suit also possesses a short-range bio-electrostatic discharge which he can engage when in physical contact with an adversary. Rendering them physically stunned as it delivers a debilitating shock to their nervous systems.

Through unknown means, Silas's new body has superhuman physical strength. He is now able to throw a manhole cover with enough force to decapitate someone with relative ease. He also came back bearing boons from the demon who resurrected him, gifting Silas with a special pendant that enables him to summon an extra-dimensional horror which feeds on wickedness called a Fhtagn, the drawback being that the cursed relic only calls it forth, not give him control over it. But he could potentially use his psionic abilities to control the simple, yet alien mind of the otherworldly creature if prompted too.

In other media

 * Cyber appeared as a boss in Wolverine: Adamantium Rage for the SNES and Sega Genesis.
 * Cyber appeared as a boss in X-Men: Wolverine's Rage for the Game Boy Color.

title: Cyber (Marvel Comics)


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Nelumbo

Nelumbo is a genus of aquatic plants with large, showy flowers. Members are commonly called lotus, though the name is also applied to various other plants and plant groups, including the unrelated genus Lotus. Members outwardly resemble those in the family Nymphaeaceae ("water lilies"), but Nelumbo is actually very distant from that family.

There are only two known living species of lotus: Nelumbo nucifera, which is native to East Asia, South Asia, Southeast Asia, and probably Australia and is better known. It is commonly cultivated; it is eaten and used in traditional Chinese medicine. The other lotus is Nelumbo lutea, which is native to North America and the Caribbean. Horticultural hybrids have been produced between these two allopatric species.

Ultrahydrophobicity

The leaves of Nelumbo are highly water-repellent (i.e. they exhibit ultrahydrophobicity) and have given the name to what is called the lotus effect. Ultrahydrophobicity involves two criteria: a very high water contact angle between the droplet of water and the leaf surface, and a very low roll-off angle. This means that the water must contact the leaf surface at exactly one, minuscule point, and any manipulation of the leaf by changing its angle will result in the water droplet rolling off of the leaf. Ultrahydrophobicity is conferred by the usually dense layer of papillae on the surface of the Nelumbo leaves, and the small, robust, waxy tubules that protrude off each papilla. This helps reduce the area of contact between the water droplet and the leaf.

Ultrahydrophobicity is said to confer a very important evolutionary advantage. As an aquatic plant with leaves that rest on the water's surface, the genus Nelumbo is characterized by its concentration of stomata on the upper epidermis of its leaves, unlike most other plants which concentrate their stomata on the lower epidermis, underneath the leaf. The collection of water on the upper epidermis, whether that be by rain, mist, or the nearby disturbance of water, is very detrimental to the leaf's ability to perform gas exchange through its stomata. Thus, Nelumbo's ultrahydrophobicity allows the water droplets to accumulate together very quickly, and then roll off of the leaf very easily at the slightest disturbance of the leaf, a process which allows its stomata to function normally without restriction due to blockage by water droplets.

Thermoregulation
An uncommon property of the genus Nelumbo is that it can generate heat, which it does by using the alternative oxidase pathway (AOX). This pathway involves a different, alternative exchange of electrons from the usual pathway that electrons follow when generating energy in mitochondria, known as the AOX, or alternative oxidase pathway.

The typical pathway in plant mitochondria involves cytochrome complexes. The pathway used to generate heat in Nelumbo involves cyanide-resistant alternative oxidase, which is a different electron acceptor than the usual cytochrome complexes. The plant also reduces ubiquitin concentrations while in thermogenesis, which allows the AOX in the plant to function without degradation. Thermogenesis is restricted to the receptacle, stamen, and petals of the flower, but each of these parts produce heat independently without relying on the heat production in other parts of the flower.

There are several theories about the function of thermogenesis, especially in an aquatic genus such as Nelumbo. The most common theory posits that thermogenesis in flowers attracts pollinators, for a variety of reasons. Heated flowers may attract insect pollinators. As the pollinators warm themselves while resting inside the flower, they deposit and pick up pollen onto and from the flower. The thermogenic environment might also be conducive to pollinator mating; pollinators may require a certain temperature for reproduction. By providing an ideal thermogenic environment, the flower is pollinated by mating pollinators. Others theorize that heat production facilitates the release of volatile compounds into the air to attract pollinators flying over water, or that the heat is recognizable in the dark by thermo-sensitive pollinators. None have been conclusively proven to be more plausible than the others.

After anthesis, the receptacle of the lotus transitions from a primarily thermogenic to a photosynthetic structure, as seen in the rapid and dramatic increase in photosystems, photosynthetically involved pigments, electron transport rates, and the presence of 13C in the receptacle and petals, all of which assist in increasing photosynthesis rates. After this transition, all thermogenesis in the flower is lost. Pollinators do not need to be attracted once the ovary is fertilized, and thus the receptacle's resources are better used when it is photosynthesizing to produce carbohydrates that can increase plant biomass or fruit mass.

Other plants utilize thermoregulation in their life cycles. Among these is the eastern skunk cabbage, which heats itself to melt any ice above it, and push through the ground in early spring. Also, the elephant yam, which heats its flowers to attract pollinators. In addition, the carrion flower, which heats itself to disperse water vapor through the air, carrying its scent further, thus attracting more pollinators.

Similar species
The leaves of Nelumbo can be distinguished from those of genera in the family Nymphaeaceae as they are peltate, that is they have fully circular leaves. Nymphaea, on the other hand, has a single characteristic notch from the edge in to the center of the lily pad. The seedpod of Nelumbo is very distinctive.

Taxonomic history
The Cronquist system of 1981 recognizes the family Nelumbonaceae but places it in the water lily order Nymphaeales. The Dahlgren system of 1985 and Thorne system of 1992 both recognize the family and place it in its own order, Nelumbonales. The United States Department of Agriculture still classifies the lotus family within the water lily order.

There is residual disagreement over which family the genus should be placed in. Traditional classification systems recognized Nelumbo as part of the Nymphaeaceae, but traditional taxonomists were likely misled by convergent evolution associated with an evolutionary shift from a terrestrial to an aquatic lifestyle. In the older classification systems it was recognized under the order Nymphaeales or Nelumbonales.

Modern classification
Nelumbo is currently recognized as the only living genus in Nelumbonaceae, one of several distinctive families in the eudicot order of the Proteales. Its closest living relatives, the (Proteaceae and Platanaceae), are shrubs or trees.

The APG IV system of 2016 recognizes Nelumbonaceae as a distinct family and places it in the order Proteales in the eudicot clade, as do the earlier APG III and APG II systems.

Phylogeny
There are several fossil species known from Cretaceous, Paleogene and Neogene aged strata throughout Eurasia and North America. Despite the ancient origins of this genus and the wide geographic separation of the two extant species (N. nucifera and N. lutea), phylogenetic evidence indicates that they diverged rather recently, during the early Pleistocene (about 2 million years ago).

Extant species

 * Nelumbo lutea Willd. – American lotus (Eastern United States, Mexico, Greater Antilles, Honduras)
 * Nelumbo nucifera Gaertn. – sacred or Indian lotus, also known as the Rose of India and the sacred water lily of Hinduism and Buddhism. It is the national flower of India and Vietnam. Its roots and seeds are also used widely in cooking in East Asia, South Asia and Southeast Asia.

Fossil species
Nearly 30 fossil species are known from the mid-Cretaceous to the present.
 * †Nelumbo aureavallis Hickey – Eocene (North Dakota), described from leaves found in the Golden Valley Formation in North Dakota, USA.
 * †Nelumbo changchangensis Eocene, (Hainan Island, China), described from several fossils of leaves, seedpods, and rhizomes from the Eocene-aged strata in the Changchang Basin, of Hainan Island.
 * †Nelumbo choffati Early Cretaceous (Portugal), leaves known from the Albian. One of the earliest known species.
 * †Nelumbo jiayinensis Late Cretaceous, (Heilongjiang, China), leaves described from the Santonian-aged Yong'ancun Formation
 * †Nelumbo lusitanica Early Cretaceous (Portugal), leaves known from the Albian. One of the earliest known species.
 * †Nelumbo minima Pliocene (Netherlands), described from leaves and seedpods that suggest a very small plant.  Originally described as a member of the genus Nelumbites, as "Nelumbites minimus."
 * †Nelumbo nipponica Eocene-Miocene, fossil leaves are known from Eocene-aged strata in Japan, and Miocene-aged strata in Russia.
 * †Nelumbo orientalis Cretaceous (Japan), fossils found in Cretaceous-aged strata of Japan. The Sarao Formation, which they are known from, was formerly considered of Early Cretaceous age, but more recent studies support a Maastrichtian age for it.
 * †Nelumbo protolutea Eocene (Mississippi), fossils of leaves strongly suggest a plant similar in form to the American lotus.
 * †Nelumbo weymouthi Early Cretaceous (Wyoming, US), leaves known from the Albian. One of the earliest known species.

Etymology
The genus name is derived from නෙළුම් neḷum, the name for Nelumbo nucifera.

Uses
The entire plant can be eaten either raw or cooked. The underwater portion is high in starch. The fleshy parts can be dug from the mud and baked or boiled. The young leaves can be boiled. The seeds are palatable and can be eaten raw or dried and ground into flour. The stem fibers are also used to make lotus silk.

Culture
The sacred lotus, N. nucifera, is sacred in both Hinduism and Buddhism. It is the floral emblem of both India and Vietnam.

title: Nelumbo


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Wikipedia:Articles for deletion/Tony Li

Tony Li
Non-notable. Even tells nothing more that he was a programmer, although smart, in some companies. Mikkalai 02:50, 30 Sep 2004 (UTC)
 * Keep, notable enough for magazine to interview. apparently a key player at Cisco.  more detail on that would be helpful. Wolfman 06:32, 30 Sep 2004 (UTC)
 * Delete unless real proof of notability provided. The interview is in a trade magazine. Being interviewed by a trade magazine isn't notable. Most of my family have been in trade magazines at one point or another. Average Earthman 12:33, 30 Sep 2004 (UTC)
 * Keep. The Recycling Troll 20:59, 30 Sep 2004 (UTC)
 * Delete Seems to be a programmer who got interviewed by a trade magazine  --Jll 23:39, 1 Oct 2004 (UTC)
 * Delete unless further evidence of notability is provided. Agree with Average Earthman about the relative value of a trade mag interview.  Rossami 02:43, 2 Oct 2004 (UTC)
 * Delete - ditto Rossami. Article says he's a "big name". Why? "Considered a brain"? By who? Why? The only straightforward statement in the article is his employment history. -- Cyrius|✎ 05:16, 5 Oct 2004 (UTC)
 * Delete. Minor press coverage should not constitute notability. RadicalSubversiv E 19:55, 5 Oct 2004 (UTC)

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Talk:Retirement plan

Untitled
Having created several articles to help round out the retirement plan genre, I've moved significant (and very good quality) content from the following articles around: Although I tried to integrate everything logically, there is still considerable smoothing to be done with respect to standardization of terminology, voice, and style. Please consider these pages as a whole when making edits and modifications and let's try to get all the content arranged in the logical spots. Thanks! Chris 02:52, 30 Sep 2004 (UTC)
 * Retirement plan
 * Tax advantage
 * Individual retirement account
 * 401(k)
 * 403(b)
 * Pension
 * Careful on the material you move around. If we want to be accurate for the IRS and Erisa treatment of these plans, you'll need some good resources before moving a lot around.  Currently the coverage of these topics is of course shaky at best.  I have not attacked them full on because I lost one of my best resource books on the topic. - Taxman 04:00, Oct 1, 2004 (UTC)
 * Of course, there is the additional difficulty that 3 of the above topics are only in the US. I'm not sure if almost all of the specific material on retirement plans in the US shouldn't be moved to a 'Retirement plans in the US' article.  As far as I understand it, Defined benefit pension plans are much more common in Europe and DC plans are not common, while the reverse is now true in the US for a number of reasons.  Canada has both.  Their RRSP plans are DC at least.  I even thought the terms defined contribution and defined benefit are entirely US in origin and usage.  I could be wrong. - Taxman 17:22, Oct 1, 2004 (UTC)
 * Yes, I agree, a Retirement plans in the US article would be a good idea, along with similar articles on other countries. In particular, material on specific regulations would be more appropriate in separate country articles, as jargon like "Section 615 schemes"  or "401(k) plans" is pretty meaningless to most people from outside the country in question.
 * I can confirm that the terms defined contribution and defined benefit are not US specific, and are used pretty much everywhere.
 * Enchanter 19:04, Oct 1, 2004 (UTC)
 * Good to know. Though the usage guidlines say the title should be Retirement plans in the United States.  I'll start or contribute to that since that is obviously where most of my knowledge lies. - Taxman 02:27, Oct 2, 2004 (UTC)
 * Well I started that article. That is the one I will work on the most since it is what I know about.  That way I can write what I know and have references for and we can all try to work together to write the generally applicable article here.  I'll try to remove the US related minutae out of this article. - Taxman 22:08, Oct 28, 2004 (UTC)

wikiprojects
The content within this article suggests that a wikiproject on labor or something similar would be the best fit for this article.EECavazos 21:33, 11 November 2007 (UTC)

Merger with Pension article
I merged all the content here into the Pension article as the material here was mostly redundant to that article. There also seems to be (judging from the talk page) a more active group of people working on it.

Dhollm (talk) 00:35, 25 December 2008 (UTC)

 * Nice work. — Malik Shabazz (talk · contribs) 01:53, 25 December 2008 (UTC)

Assessment comment
Substituted at 04:12, 30 April 2016 (UTC)

title: Talk:Retirement plan