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Earthworks (novel)

Earthworks is a 1965 dystopian science fiction novel by British science fiction author Brian Aldiss. The novel draws its premise from prevalent fears about population growth and overcrowding of the Earth.

Plot introduction
The novel is set in a world of environmental catastrophe and extreme socio-economic inequality. Outside crowded cities controlled by a police state, a class of wealthy and powerful "Farmers" exploit a rural prison labour population and hunt down subversive "Travellers" who have broken free of social controls.

Cultural impact
In 1967, the artist Robert Smithson took a copy of Earthworks with him on a trip to the Passaic River in New Jersey (where he created The Monuments of Passaic, 1967). He reused the title to describe some of his works, based on natural materials like earth and rocks, and infused with his ideas about entropy and environmental catastrophe.

title: Earthworks (novel)


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license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: User:FaustX


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Matteo La Grua

Father Matteo La Grua (February 15, 1914 – January 15, 2012) was an Italian Roman Catholic priest and exorcist of the Franciscan Order. He was the author of several books in Italian, including La preghiera di liberazione.

He entered the priesthood on July 25, 1937. For over thirty years he was the official exorcist of the Archdiocese of Palermo, Italy. On Saturday, July 22, 2007, Father La Grua celebrated his 70th anniversary in the priesthood.

In a book printed in Italian called the President of the Exorcists written by the senior exorcist of Rome, Father Gabriele Amorth, there is a section by Father La Gura on curses and prayers of liberation.

Libri di Padre Matteo La Grua

 * M. G. La Grua (as pseudonym of Nebrodo), Castelbuono. Sua monografia con brevi cenni storici e Guida pratica, 1956.
 * M. G. La Grua e C. Verso, Io verrò e lo curerò. Cristoterapia, Palermo, Herbita Editore, 2004.
 * M. G. La Grua e C. Verso, Va' e anche tu fa lo stesso, Palermo, Herbita Editore, 2001
 * M. G. La Grua, Caino. Dramma sacro in quattro atti, Palermo, Herbita Editore, 2004.
 * M. G. La Grua, Cristoterapia (Riflessioni). Corso di Formazione alla Cristoterapia guidato da Padre Matteo La Grua,  in co-operation with Associazione Terapisti Cattolici, Pro manuscripto ad uso interno dei gruppi RnS.
 * M. G. La Grua, Frutti di Stagione. Poesie, Palermo, Sigma Edizioni, 2003.
 * M. G. La Grua, G. Costanzo, G. Savagnone, Magia e Fede, Siracusa, Editrice Istina, 1996.
 * M. G. La Grua, Il Cristo nelle pietre preziose, RnS, 1999.
 * M. G. La Grua, La preghiera di consolazione, Palermo, Herbita Editore, 1997
 * M. G. La Grua, La preghiera di guarigione, Palermo, Herbita Editore, 1987.
 * M. G. La Grua, La preghiera di liberazione, Palermo, Herbita Editore, 1985.
 * M. G. La Grua, La profezia assembleare nel Rinnovamento nello Spirito, Palermo, Centro Gesù Liberatore.
 * M. G. La Grua, L'accompagnamento spirituale - Rilettura di Tobia, Palermo, Centro Gesù Liberatore.
 * M. G. La Grua, Lavati sette volte nel Giordano e sarai guarito, RnS, 2000.
 * M. G. La Grua, Le Litanie Lauretane, Palermo, Edizioni Amen, 2007.
 * M. G. La Grua, M. A. Musolesi, Profeta di Dio, Shalom, 2010.
 * M. G. La Grua, Mistagogie, Palermo, Sigma Edizioni, 2003.
 * M. G. La Grua, Oltre le cose, Palermo, Amen Edizioni, 2007.
 * M. G. La Grua, S. Martinez, Come colui che serve, RnS, 1999.
 * M. G. La Grua, S. Martinez, M. Panciera, L'accoglienza. Come attualizzarla efficacemente nella vita comunitaria, Shalom, 1999.
 * M. G. La Grua, Spunti per una riflessione vol. 1-2-3-4, Palermo,
 * C. Verso, La tua fede ti ha salvato (presentazione di Padre Matteo La Grua), Palermo, Herbita Editrice, 1992.

title: Matteo La Grua


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Thomas Killigrew

Thomas Killigrew (7 February 1612 – 19 March 1683) was an English dramatist and theatre manager. He was a witty, dissolute figure at the court of King Charles II of England.

Life
Killigrew was one of twelve children of Sir Robert Killigrew of Hanworth, a courtier to James I, and his wife Mary née Woodhouse; he became a page to King Charles I at about the age of thirteen. According to Samuel Pepys, the boy Killigrew used to volunteer as an extra, or "devil," at the Red Bull Theatre, so that he could see the plays for free. The young Killigrew had limited formal education; the Court and the playhouse were his schoolroom.

Killigrew was present at the exorcism of the possessed nuns of Loudun. In 1635 he left a sceptical account of the proceedings.

Before the English Civil War, Killigrew wrote several plays—tragicomedies like Claracilla and The Prisoners, as well as his most popular play, The Parson's Wedding (1637). The latter play has been criticized for its coarse humour; but it also contains prose readings of John Donne's poetry to pique a literate audience.

A Royalist and Roman Catholic, Killigrew followed Prince Charles (the future Charles II) into exile in 1647. In the years 1649–51, he was in Paris, Geneva, and Rome, and in the later year was appointed Charles' representative in Venice. (It has been said that Killigrew wrote each of his plays in a different city; Thomaso, or the Wanderer was written in Madrid)

At the Restoration in 1660, Killigrew returned to England along with many other Royalist exiles. Charles rewarded his loyalty by making him Groom of the Bedchamber and Chamberlain to Queen Catherine. He had a reputation as a wit; in his famous Diary, Samuel Pepys wrote that Killigrew had the office of the King's fool and jester, with privilege to mock and revile even the most prominent without penalty

Along with Sir William Davenant, he was given a royal warrant to form a theatre company in 1660—which gave Killigrew a key role in the revival of English drama. Killigrew beat Davenant to a debut, at Gibbon's Tennis Court in Clare Market, with the new King's Company. Its original members were Michael Mohun, William Wintershall, Robert Shatterell, William Cartwright, Walter Clun, Charles Hart and Nicholas Burt. They played for a time at the old Red Bull Theatre, but in 1663 the company moved to the new Theatre Royal in Drury Lane. (Unfortunately, Killigrew gained a reputation as an incompetent manager; he was constantly in disputes with his actors and had to bribe his stars to keep working for him.) Killigrew staged plays by Aphra Behn, John Dryden, William Wycherley...and Thomas Killigrew, as well as revivals of Beaumont and Fletcher. Having inherited the rights and repertory of the old King's Men, the King's Company performed many of Shakespeare's works, in the rewritten forms that were so popular at the time and so disparaged later. Two Killigrew productions of his own Parson's Wedding, in 1664 and 1672-3, were cast entirely with women.

In 1673, Killigrew was appointed Master of the Revels. He lost control of his theatre in a conflict with his son Charles in 1677. (Charles, in turn, went bust a year later.) Thomas Killigrew died at Whitehall on 19 March 1683.

Works
Thomas Killigrew's dramas are:

 * The Prisoners (written c. 1632-5 in London; printed 1641)
 * Claricilla (c. 1636, Rome; printed 1641)
 * The Princess, or Love at First Sight (c. 1636; Naples)
 * The Parson's Wedding (c. 1637; Basel, Switzerland)
 * The Pilgrim (Paris)
 * Bellamira Her Dream, or Love of Shadows (two-part play; Venice)
 * Cicilia and Clorinda, or Love in Arms (two-part play; Cicilia, c. 1650, Turin; Clorinda, 1651, Florence)
 * Thomaso, or the Wanderer (two-part play; Madrid).

In 1664, Henry Herringman published a collected edition of Killigrew's dramas, titled Comedies and Tragedies (rather inaccurately, since the majority of the plays are tragicomedies). Only his two earliest plays had been printed previously. The collected edition identifies the city in which Killigrew supposedly wrote each play.

The Parson's Wedding and Claricilla were successful stage plays. Of his last three works, Thomaso is a broad comedy based on Killigrew's experiences in European exile, while Bellamira and Cicillia are heroic romances—but all three are closet dramas, ten-act double plays never intended for the stage. Yet oddly enough, Aphra Behn adapted Thomaso for her successful The Rover (1677). The tragedy The Pilgrim, apparently never performed, borrows its plot from James Shirley's The Politician and reveals many allusions to Shakespeare.

Some critics have considered The Parson's Wedding to be a Restoration play written before the Restoration, an anticipation of what was to come—and Killigrew himself as a central figure in the transition from English Renaissance theatre to Restoration drama.

Family
He married twice.

1 Cecilia Crofts (16?? –1638) in 1636, a maid of honour to Queen Henrietta Maria with a son: 2 Charlotte de Hesse (1629 –1716) in 1655; with children:
 * Henry Killigrew (bapt 16 April 1637 St Martin's-in-the-Fields)
 * Charles Killigrew (29 December 1655 – 1725)
 * Thomas Killigrew (the younger) (1657 –1719), who had one successful play, called Chit-Chat (1719)
 * Robert (Roger) Killigrew (born 17 September 1663)
 * Elizabeth Killigrew (born 3 July 1666)

His second wife and their 3 sons were naturalised in an Act of Parliament in 1683.

The other Killigrews
Among his 8 siblings known to have survived to adulthood, Thomas had two brothers who also wrote plays:
 * Sir William Killigrew (1606–1695), was a Court official (vice chamberlain to the Queen) who wrote four plays: Selindra; Pandora; and Ormasdes, or Love and Friendship—all printed in 1664; and The Siege of Urbin (1666), generally considered his best work.
 * Henry Killigrew (1613–1700), a clergyman, wrote only one play ... but he wrote it twice. His The Conspiracy was published in 1638, apparently pirated; he revised it into Pallantus and Eudora (1653). Henry was the father of the poet Anne Killigrew.

For the other six, see Robert Killigrew

title: Thomas Killigrew


text: Talk:Athersley

title: Talk:Athersley


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Indian Christian Front

The Indian Christian Front (ICF) is a Christian political party in the Indian state of Tamil Nadu. The president of the party is M.L. Sundaram. ICF, together with the Christian Democratic Front, contested the local elections in 2001. The party supported the All India Anna Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam (AIADMK), forming an alliance in the 2001 Tamil Nadu state assembly election.

In 2004 & 2009, the party extended its support to the United Progressive Alliance (UPA), which strengthened the hand of the Prime Minister Manmohan Singh.

In 2011, Tamil Nadu State Assembly Election, the party extended its support to All India Anna Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam (AIADMK), which has recently gained power in Tamil Nadu.

In 2014, Loksabha Election, the party extended its support again to All India Anna Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam (AIADMK), which has swept 37 (out of 40) Seats in Tamil Nadu.

In 2016, Tamil Nadu State Assembly Election, the Indian Christian Front (ICF) extended its support again to All India Anna Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam (AIADMK), except in 3 seats (Palani, Thiruverumbur, Killiyoor) in which the Front tossed its own candidates. AIADMK had swept 134 (out of 232) Seats and got re-elected to retain power in Tamil Nadu.

In 2019, Loksabha Election, the party contested in 3 states, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka and Andhra to prove its considerable existence. Trichirappalli, Chennai South, Bangalore Central, Bangalore South and Kurnool are noted constituencies.

In 2021, Tamil Nadu State Assembly Election, (on the basis of the recommendations of CSI and Catholic Denominations in South India)the Indian Christian Front (ICF) established an "Indian Christian Federation" and extended its support to Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam (DMK) led alliance which has recently gained power in Tamil Nadu.

Instead of tossing its own candidates, it supported and campaigned for Christian DMK candidates. Few Among them where Dr.Inigo Irudhayaraj (Tiruchirappalli -East), Joseph Samuel (Ambattur), JJ Ebenezer (RK Nagar).

The Front has 100000 members in Tamil Nadu and Pondicherry, and the Christian population was around 5 per cent at the time in Tamil Nadu and Pondicherry.

Objectives

 * 1) To ensure that Dalit Christians are included in the SC list (a list of officially disadvantaged people groups in India) and are given rights on a par with other Dalits
 * 2) To demand government jobs for one member in each family, according to eligibility norms
 * 3) To remove what the party believes to be hurdles prevailing in the Christian minority educational institutions
 * 4) To cultivate relationship other minorities based on caste, religion, language, race etc., to safeguard minority in the welfare of nation.

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title: Indian Christian Front


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Henry King (poet)

Henry King (1592 – 30 September 1669) was an English poet who served as Bishop of Chichester.

Life
The elder son of John King, Bishop of London, and his wife Joan Freeman, he was baptised at Worminghall, Buckinghamshire, 16 January 1592. He was educated at Lord Williams's School, Westminster School and in 1608 became a student of Christ Church, Oxford. With his brother John King he matriculated 20 January 1609, and was admitted (19 June 1611 and 7 July 1614) to the degrees of bachelor and master of arts. On 24 January 1616 he was collated to the prebend of St. Pancras in St. Paul's Cathedral, receiving at the same time the office of penitentiary or confessor in the cathedral, together with the rectory and patronage of Chigwell, Essex. He was made archdeacon of Colchester on 10 April 1617, and soon afterwards received the sinecure rectory of Fulham, in addition to being appointed one of the royal chaplains. All these preferments he held until he was advanced to the episcopal bench.

Late in 1617 he preached a sermon at Paul's Cross. About this time King married Anne, eldest daughter of Robert Berkeley, esq., and granddaughter of Sir Maurice Berkeley. There were four or five children of the marriage, but only two survived. His wife died about 1624 at age 24, and was buried in St. Paul's Cathedral. Her death is the subject of his poem The Exequy.

He was a close friend of John Donne, who made him one of his executors, and presented him with his sermons in manuscript, and notes from his reading on over 1400 authors. Other friends were Ben Jonson, George Sandys, Sir Henry Blount, and James Howell. His friendship with Izaak Walton began about 1634, and was lifelong.

After his father's death, on Good Friday 1621, a rumour circulated that he had died in communion with the church of Rome. This was the subject of a two pamphlets attributed to Richard Broughton and George Musket. King preached a sermon refuting this claim on 25 November 1621. He was made canon of Christ Church 3 March 1624, and his brother John was made canon in the following August. On 19 May 1625 they were admitted to the degrees of B.D. and D.D.

On 6 February 1639 he was made Dean of Rochester, and on 6 February 1642, the day after the House of Lords had passed the bill to deprive the bishops of their votes, he became Bishop of Chichester; he was also presented to the rectory of Petworth in Sussex. He was residing at his episcopal palace when Chichester surrendered to the parliament in 1643, and his library was seized. He was deprived of the rectory of Petworth, which was given by parliament to Francis Cheynell, and by a resolution of the House of Commons, 27 June 1643, his estates were ordered to be sequestrated. From 1643 to 1651 he lived in the house of his brother-in-law, Sir Richard Hobart of Langley, Buckinghamshire. He was deprived of his See by Parliament on 9 October 1646, as episcopacy was abolished for the duration of the Commonwealth and the Protectorate.

Shortly afterwards King retired to Ritchings, near Langley, the residence of Lady Anne Salter (supposed to be the sister of Brian Duppa), where other members of the King family and John Hales of Eton found refuge. In 1659 King was engaged in negotiations for supplying the vacant bishoprics, and was reinstated at the Restoration (by 20 June 1660), returning to Chichester. On 20 May 1661 he preached at Whitehall, and on 24 April 1662 he delivered an impressive funeral sermon on Bishop Duppa at Westminster Abbey. King died at Chichester 30 September 1669, and was buried in Chichester Cathedral, where the widow of his son John erected a monument to his memory and that of her husband. His second son, Henry, died 21 February 1669; his eldest son, John, died 10 March 1671.

Works
King wrote many elegies on royal persons and on his private friends, who included John Donne and Ben Jonson. A selection from his Poems and Psalms was published in 1843.

The "Blackmoor" poems
A poem by Henry Rainolds and a response by Henry King were included in several manuscript miscellanies of verse. In Rainold's poem, an African woman, described as a "Blackmoor", asks for the love of a white boy. King had the conventional views of the time and in his response, which exists in alternative versions, the boy explains that racial differences keep them apart. In King's opinion the interbreeding of races can only produce unwelcome results:

 * Prodigious might that union prove,
 * Where Night and Day together move,
 * And the conjunction of our lips
 * Not kisses make but an eclipse;
 * In which the mixed black and white
 * Portends more terrour than delight.

Poems

 * A Renunciation
 * Exequy on His Wife
 * The Exequy
 * A Collection of Poems by Henry King

title: Henry King (poet)


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Aleutian Islands campaign

The Aleutian Islands campaign (アリューシャン方面の戦い) was a military campaign fought between 3 June 1942 and 15 August 1943 on and around the Aleutian Islands in the American Theater of World War II during the Pacific War. It was the only military campaign of World War II fought on North American soil.

The islands' strategic value was their ability to control Pacific transportation routes as US General Billy Mitchell stated to the U.S. Congress in 1935, "I believe that in the future, whoever holds Alaska will hold the world. I think it is the most important strategic place in the world." The Japanese reasoned that their control of the Aleutians would prevent a possible joining of forces by the Americans and the Soviets and future attack on Japan proper via the Kuril Islands. Similarly, the US feared that the islands could be used as bases from which to launch air raids on West Coast cities such as Anchorage, Seattle, San Francisco, or Los Angeles.

Following two aircraft carrier-based attacks on the American naval base at Dutch Harbor, the Imperial Japanese Navy occupied the islands of Attu and Kiska, where the remoteness of the islands and the challenges of weather and terrain delayed a larger American-Canadian force sent to eject them for nearly a year. A battle to reclaim Attu was launched on 11 May 1943 and completed after a final Japanese banzai charge on 29 May. On 15 August 1943 an invasion force landed on Kiska in the wake of a sustained three-week barrage, only to discover that the Japanese had withdrawn from the island on 29 July. The campaign is known as the "Forgotten Battle" because it has been overshadowed by other events in the war.

Many military historians believe that the Japanese invasion of the Aleutians was a diversionary or feint attack during the Battle of Midway that was meant to draw out the US Pacific Fleet from Midway Atoll, as it was launched simultaneously under the same commander, Isoroku Yamamoto. Some historians have argued against that interpretation and believe that the Japanese invaded the Aleutians to protect their northern flank and did not intend it as a diversion.

Japanese attack

Before the Empire of Japan entered World War II, the Imperial Japanese Navy had gathered extensive information about the Aleutians but had no up-to-date information regarding military developments on the islands. Admiral Isoroku Yamamoto provided the Japanese Northern Area Fleet, commanded by Vice Admiral Boshirō Hosogaya, with a force of two non-fleet aircraft carriers, five cruisers, twelve destroyers, six submarines, and four troop transports, along with supporting auxiliary ships. With that force, Hosogaya was to launch an air attack against Dutch Harbor then follow with an amphibious attack upon Adak Island, 480 mi to the west. Hosogaya was instructed to destroy whatever American forces and facilities were found on Adak, but the Japanese did not know the island was undefended. Hosogaya's troops were to return to their ships and become a reserve for two additional landings: the first on Kiska, 240 mi west of Adak, the other on the Aleutians' westernmost island, Attu, 180 mi west from Kiska.

Because the Office of Naval Intelligence had broken the Japanese naval codes, Admiral Chester Nimitz learned by May 1942 of Yamamoto's plans, including the Aleutian invasion, the strength of both Yamamoto's and Hosogaya's fleets, and Hosogaya's plan attack the Aleutians on 1 June or shortly thereafter.

As of 1 June, the US military strength in Alaska stood at 45,000 men, with about 13,000 at Cold Bay (Fort Randall) on the tip of the Alaska Peninsula and at two Aleutian bases: Dutch Harbor on Unalaska Island, 200 mi west of Cold Bay, and the recently built Fort Glenn Army Air Base on the island of Umnak 70 mi west of Dutch Harbor. Army strength, less air force personnel, at those three bases totaled no more than 2,300, composed mainly of infantry, field and anti-aircraft artillery troops, and a large construction engineer contingent, which was used in the construction of bases. The Army Air Force's Eleventh Air Force consisted of 10 B-17 Flying Fortress heavy bombers and 34 B-18 Bolo medium bombers at Elmendorf Airfield, and 95 P-40 Warhawk fighters divided between Fort Randall and Fort Glenn. The forward headquarters was set up at Fort Geely, while the rear units were stationed at Fort Richardson. The naval commander was Rear Admiral Robert A. Theobald, commanding Task Force 8 afloat, who as Commander North Pacific Force (ComNorPac) reported to Nimitz in Hawaii. Task Force 8 consisted of five cruisers, thirteen destroyers, three tankers, six submarines, as well as naval aviation elements of Fleet Air Wing Four.

When the first signs of a possible Japanese attack on the Aleutians were known, the Eleventh Air Force was ordered to send out reconnaissance aircraft to locate the Japanese fleet reported heading toward Dutch Harbor and attack it with bombers, concentrating on sinking Hosogaya's two aircraft carriers. Once the enemy planes were removed, Naval Task Force 8 would engage the enemy fleet and destroy it. On the afternoon of 2 June, a naval patrol plane spotted the approaching Japanese fleet, reporting its location as 800 nmi southwest of Dutch Harbor. Eleventh Air Force was placed on full alert. Shortly thereafter bad weather set in, and no further sightings of the fleet were made that day.

Before the attack on Dutch Harbor, the Army's 4th Infantry Regiment, under command of Colonel Percy E. LeStourgeon, was established at Fort Richardson. LeStourgeon had previously designed a layout of base facilities—such as isolation of weapons and munitions depots—to protect against enemy attack.

Attack on Dutch Harbor

According to Japanese intelligence, the nearest field for land-based American aircraft was at Fort Morrow Army Airfield on Kodiak, more than 600 mi away, and Dutch Harbor was a sitting duck for the strong Japanese fleet, carrying out a coordinated operation with a fleet that was to capture Midway Island.

Making use of weather cover, the Japanese made a two-day aerial bombing of continental North America for the first time in history. The striking force was composed of Nakajima B5N2 "Kate" torpedo bombers from the carriers JAPANESE AIRCRAFT CARRIER Jun'yō and JAPANESE AIRCRAFT CARRIER Ryūjō. However, only half of the striking force reached their objective. The rest either became lost in the fog and darkness and crashed into the sea or returned to their carriers. Seventeen Japanese planes found the naval base, the first arriving at 05:45. As the Japanese pilots looked for targets to engage, they came under intense anti-aircraft fire and soon found themselves confronted by Eleventh Air Force fighters sent from Fort Glenn. Startled by the American response, the Japanese quickly released their bombs, made a cursory strafing run, and left to return to their carriers. As a result, they did little damage to the base.

On 4 June the Japanese returned to Dutch Harbor. This time, the Japanese pilots were better organized and prepared. When the attack ended that afternoon, Dutch Harbor oil storage tanks were burning, the hospital was partly demolished, and a beached barracks ship was damaged. Although American pilots eventually located the Japanese carriers, attempts to sink the ships failed because bad weather set in that caused the US pilots to lose all contact with the Japanese fleet. However, the weather caused the Japanese to cancel plans to invade Adak with 1,200 men.

Invasion of Kiska and Attu
The Japanese invasions and occupations of Kiska on 6 June and Attu on 7 June shocked the American public, as the continental United States was invaded for the first time in 130 years since 1815 (during the War of 1812). The invading forces initially met little resistance from the local Unangax, also known as Aleuts. Though the U.S. Navy had offered to evacuate Attu in May 1942, the Attuan Unangax chief declined. Little changed for the Unangax under Japanese occupation until September 1942 when Japan's Aleutian strategy shifted. It was at this point that the Unangax were taken to Hokkaido, Japan, and placed in an internment camp.

The invasion of Attu and imprisonment of the local Unangax became the justification for the United States' policy of forcible evacuation of the Unangax in the Aleutian Islands. Unangan civilians were placed in internment camps in the Alaska Panhandle.

Through the rest of the summer of 1942, aerial raids by either side could be flown only when the weather permitted. Japan installed a radar warning system on the islands and continued to resupply them, despite heavy disruptions against its shipping by US bombers and submarines. The establishment of American air bases in Umnak and Cold Bay would add to the threat faced by the Japanese.

Allied response

Many Americans feared that the Japanese would use the islands as bases to strike within range along the rest of the West Coast. Although the West Coast was subject to attack several times in 1942 (including unrestricted submarine warfare in coastal waters; the bombardment of Ellwood in California; and the bombardment of Fort Stevens in Oregon), the Aleutian Islands campaign of June 1942 was the first major operation by a foreign enemy in the American Theater. Lieutenant Paul Bishop of the 28th Bombardment Group recalled:

"General Simon B. Buckner Jr. [of the Alaska Defense Command] said to us that the Japanese would have the opportunity to set up airbases in the Aleutians, making coastal cities like Anchorage, Seattle, and San Francisco vulnerable within range to attack by their bombers. The fear of that scenario was real at the time because the Japanese were nearly invincible and ruthless in Asia and the Pacific. We knew that they bombed China relentlessly and by surprise on Pearl Harbor, so we had to make sure it wouldn't happen here in the continental U.S. similar to what the Germans did over London and Coventry."

Lieutenant Bob Brocklehurst of the 18th Fighter Squadron stated:

"[T]he impression we were given — and this was voiced oral stuff — was that we had nothing to stop the Japanese. [Our commanding officers] figured that the Japanese, if they wanted to, could have come up the Aleutians, taken Anchorage, and come down past down Vancouver to Seattle, Washington."

On 31 August 1942 American forces attacked Adak Island after scouting it two days earlier. To keep the Japanese on Kiska occupied, missions were flown there by bombers from the Eleventh Air Force. They were escorted by fighter aircraft, including P-38s from Umnak over 600 miles away. Runway construction began immediately following the American landing. After 10 September fighters and bombers were moved into the new Adak airbase and used to launch more bombing raids against Japanese positions on Kiska.

From September to November, American air raids were able to keep the total number of enemy aircraft low, usually under 14 frames, despite persistent attempts to reinforce their number by the Japanese. Without supporting carriers in the area, the Japanese were unable to dislodge the American forces on Adak. Even when they had a few air assets to spare, the Japanese generally avoided direct combat. Other supplies were also beginning to run low. After evacuating Attu, the Japanese contemplated occupying and setting up a new base on either the Semichis or Amchitka but were not able to carry out those plans.

In February 1943, the Americans successfully occupied Amchitka and built an airstrip there. Their main losses were a result of bad weather. Ground attack missions were flown from the new island base, starting with P-38s and P-40s before bombers also joined in. Their targets included radar installations, parked aircraft, anti-aircraft artillery positions, railway, submarine base, and moored vessels. The bombings further reduced Japan's ability to supply its bases, hampered its construction of landing strips on Attu and Kiska, and facilitated the recapture of those two islands later that year.

Navy submarines and surface ships had also been patrolling the area. Kiska Harbor was the main base for Japanese ships in the campaign and several were sunk there, some by warships but mostly in air raids. On 5 July 1942 the submarine USS Growler (SS-215), under command of Lieutenant Commander Howard Gilmore, attacked three Japanese destroyers off Kiska. She sank one and heavily damaged the others, killing or wounding 200 Japanese sailors. Ten days later, USS Grunion (SS-216) was attacked by three Japanese submarine chasers in Kiska Harbor, with two of the patrol craft sunk and one other damaged. On 12 May 1943 the Japanese submarine JAPANESE SUBMARINE I-31 was sunk in a surface action with the destroyer USS Edwards (DD-619) 5 mi northeast of Chichagof Harbor.

Komandorski Islands
A cruiser and destroyer force under Rear Admiral Charles "Soc" McMorris was assigned to eliminate the Japanese supply convoys. They met the Japanese fleet in March 1943. One American cruiser and two destroyers were damaged, and seven US sailors were killed. Two Japanese cruisers were damaged, with 14 men killed and 26 wounded. Japan thereafter abandoned all attempts to resupply the Aleutian garrisons by surface vessels, and only submarines would be used.

Attu Island

On 11 May 1943 American forces commenced Operation Landcrab to recapture Attu. The invasion force included the 17th and 32nd Infantry regiments of the 7th Infantry Division and a platoon of scouts recruited from Alaska, nicknamed Castner's Cutthroats. A shortage of landing craft, unsuitable beaches, and equipment that failed to operate in the appalling weather made it difficult for the Americans to exert force against the Japanese. Soldiers suffered from frostbite because essential cold-weather supplies could not be landed, and soldiers could not be relocated to where they were needed because vehicles could not operate on the tundra. Rather than engage the Americans where they landed, Colonel Yasuyo Yamasaki had his forces dig into the high ground far from the shore. That resulted in fierce combat, with a total of 3,829 US casualties, with 549 killed, 1,148 wounded, and another 1,200 suffering severe injuries from the cold weather. Also, 614 Americans died from disease and 318 from miscellaneous causes, mainly Japanese booby traps or friendly fire.

On 29 May 1943 without warning the remainder of Japanese forces attacked near Massacre Bay. Recorded as one of the largest banzai charges of the Pacific campaign, Yamasaki penetrated so deep into US lines that Japanese soldiers encountered rear-echelon units of the Americans. After furious, brutal, often hand-to-hand combat, the Japanese force was virtually exterminated. Only 28 Japanese soldiers were taken prisoner, none of them were officers. American burial teams counted 2,351 Japanese dead, but it was thought that hundreds more had been buried by bombardment during the battle.

Kiska Island

On 15 August 1943 an invasion force of 34,426 Canadian and American troops landed on Kiska. Castner's Cutthroats were part of the force, but the invasion consisted mainly of units from the 7th Infantry Division. The force also included about 5,300 Canadians, mostly from the 13th Canadian Infantry Brigade of the 6th Canadian Infantry Division, and the 1st Special Service Force, a 2,000-strong Canadian-American commando unit formed in 1942 in Montana and trained in winter warfare techniques. The force included three 600-man regiments: the 1st was to go ashore in the first wave at Kiska Harbor, the 2nd was to be held in reserve to parachute where needed, and the 3rd was to land on the north side of Kiska on the second day of the assault. The 87th Regiment of the 10th Mountain Division, the only major U.S. force specifically trained for mountain warfare, was also part of the operation.

Royal Canadian Air Force No. 111 and No. 14 Squadrons saw active service in the Aleutian skies and scored at least one aerial kill on a Japanese aircraft. Additionally, three Canadian armed merchant cruisers and two corvettes served in the Aleutian campaign but did not encounter enemy forces.

The invaders landed to find the island abandoned; the Japanese forces had left two weeks earlier. Under the cover of fog, the Japanese had successfully removed their troops on 28 July. Despite US military command having access to Japanese ciphers and having decoded all the Japanese naval messages, the Army Air Forces chose to bomb abandoned positions for almost three weeks. The day before the withdrawal, the US Navy fought an inconclusive and possibly meaningless Battle of the Pips 80 mi to the west.

Although the Japanese troops had gone, Allied casualties on Kiska numbered 313. They were the result of friendly fire, booby traps, disease, mines, timed bombs set by the Japanese, vehicle accidents, or frostbite. Like Attu, Kiska offered an extremely hostile environment.

Aftermath

"The loyal courage, vigorous energy and determined fortitude of our armed forces in Alaska—on land, in the air and on the water—have turned back the tide of Japanese invasion, ejected the enemy from our shores and made a fortress of our last frontier. But this is only the beginning. We have opened the road to Tokyo; the shortest, most direct and most devastating to our enemies. May we soon travel that road to victory."

Although plans were drawn up for attacking northern Japan, they were not executed. Over 1,500 sorties were flown against the Kuriles before the end of the war, including the Japanese base of Paramushir, which diverted 500 Japanese planes and 41,000 ground troops.

The battle also marked the first time that Canadian conscripts were sent to a combat zone in World War II. The government had pledged not to send draftees "overseas", which it defined as being outside North America. The Aleutians were considered to be North American soil, which enabled the Canadian government to deploy conscripts without breaking its pledge. There were cases of desertion before the brigade sailed for the Aleutians. In late 1944, the government changed its policy on draftees and sent 16,000 conscripts to Europe to take part in the fighting. The battle also marked the first combat deployment of the 1st Special Service Force, but it did not see any action.

In the summer of 1942, the Americans recovered the Akutan Zero, an almost-intact Mitsubishi A6M2 Zero fighter, which enabled the Americans to test-fly the Zero and contributed to improved fighter tactics later in the war.

Killed in action
During the campaign, two cemeteries were established on Attu to bury those killed in action: Little Falls Cemetery, located at the foot of Gilbert Ridge, and Holtz Bay Cemetery, which held the graves of Northern Landing Forces. After the war, the tundra began to take back the cemeteries and so in 1946, all American remains were relocated as directed by the soldier's family or to Fort Richardson near Anchorage, Alaska. On 30 May 1946 a Memorial Day address was given by Captain Adair with a 21-gun salute and the sounding of Taps. The Decoration of Graves was performed by Chaplains Meaney and Insko.

Legacy
Many of the United States locations involved in the campaign, either directly or indirectly, have been listed on the National Register of Historic Places, and several have been designated National Historic Landmarks. The battlefield on Attu and the Japanese occupation site on Kiska are both National Historic Landmarks and are included in the Aleutian Islands World War II National Monument. Surviving elements of the military bases at Adak, Umnak, and Dutch Harbor are National Historic Landmarks. The shipwrecked SS Northwestern, badly damaged during the attack on Dutch Harbor, is listed on the National Register, as is a crash-landed B-24D Liberator on Atka Island.

The 2006 documentary film Red White Black & Blue features two veterans of the Attu Island campaign, Bill Jones and Andy Petrus. It is directed by Tom Putnam and debuted at the 2006 Locarno International Film Festival in Locarno, Switzerland, on 4 August 2006.

Dashiell Hammett spent most of World War II as an Army sergeant in the Aleutian Islands, where he edited an Army newspaper. He came out of the war suffering from emphysema. As a corporal in 1943, he co-authored The Battle of the Aleutians with Corporal Robert Colodny under the direction of Infantry Intelligence Officer Major Henry W. Hall.

title: Aleutian Islands campaign


text:
William Kingsford

William Kingsford (23 December 1819 – 29 September 1898) was an English-born Canadian historian and civil engineer. He is best known for his History of Canada in 10 volumes (1887–1898), which was widely read by both the upper middle class and Anglophone teachers.

Born in London, England, Kingsford traveled to Canada, where he served in the army before engaging in surveying work. He was a self-taught historian, and one of the first to use the archives being gathered in Ottawa. He was also a civil engineer, working across North America to install railways such as the Hudson River Railroad. His work led him to Panama, where he assisted in construction of the Panama Canal Railway. Kingsford served a brief term as the chief engineer of Toronto, Canada.

Kingsford believed that the Conquest of New France guaranteed victory for British constitutional liberty and that it ensured material progress. He assumed the assimilation of French Canadians into a superior British culture was inevitable and desirable, for he envisioned Canada as one nation with one anglophone population.

Early life
Born on 23 December 1819 in the parish of St. Lawrence Jewry, London, he was the son of William and Elizabeth Kingsford of Lad Lane. Educated at Nicholas Wanostrocht's school in Camberwell, he was articled at an early age to an architect. He then enlisted in the 1st Dragoon Guards, aged 16. He went with his regiment to Canada in 1837, became sergeant, and in 1840, through the influence of his friends at home, obtained his discharge, despite an offer by Sir George Cathcart, colonel of the regiment, to procure a commission for him.

Civil engineer
Entering the office of the city surveyor of Montreal in 1841, Kingford qualified in due course as civil engineer, and obtained the position of deputy city surveyor, a post which he held for three years. He resigned to begin the publication of the Montreal Times, in company with Murdo McIver. Two years later he entered the public works department, and among other undertakings made a new survey of the Lachine Canal.

In 1849 Kingsford was engaged in the construction of the Hudson River Railroad in the state of New York. In he 1851 went to Panama as assistant engineer to J. J. Campbell, who was then building the Panama Canal Railway. Returning to Canada in 1853, he surveyed for the Grand Trunk Railway railroad tracks running from Montreal to Vaudreuil, from Montreal to Cornwall, Ontario, from Brockville to Rideau, and, under A. M. Ross, laid down the lines of the Victoria Bridge.

Kingsford was chief engineer of the city of Toronto for a few months during 1855, but resigned to re-enter the service of the Grand Trunk, in whose employment he remained till 1864. He acted at first as superintendent of the line east from Toronto, and afterwards as contractor to maintain the section that runs from that city westward to Stratford. He came to England in 1865, where he made one or two general surveys on the continent for English firms. He reported to Thomas Brassey on the railway possibilities of the island of Sardinia.

In 1867, the building of the Intercolonial Railway took Kingsford to Canada once more to Canada, where he remained for the rest of his life. He worked on the enlargement of the Grenville Canal and the draining of Russell, Ontario, moving to Ottawa. When the Mackenzie government came into power in 1872 Kingsford was appointed dominion engineer in charge of the harbours of the Great Lakes and the St. Lawrence River. He continued in this post till 31 December 1879, when he was dismissed by Sir Hector Langevin, minister of public works.

Later life
At the age of 60, Kingsford then turned to Canadian history. Queen's University and Dalhousie University recognised Kingsford's historical works by conferring on him the degree of LL.D.; and McGill University gave his name to a recently endowed chair of history. He survived the completion of his History by a few months only, and died on 28 September 1898.

Works
Kingsford began writing for the press, and published some pamphlets:

 * The History, Structure, and Statistics of Plank-roads, 1852
 * Impressions of the West and South, 1858
 * The Canadian Canals: their History and Cost, 1865

and a monograph on Canadian history entitled A Political Coin.

Kingsford studied of the archives of Canada, collected at Ottawa, from 1880. He published Canadian Archæology in 1886, soon followed by the Early Bibliography of Ontario. He published the first volume of the History of Canada in 1887. The tenth and last volume went up to the union of Upper and Lower Canada (1841), and was printed in 1898, with a preface dated 24 May.

Kingsford was a fellow of the Royal Society of Canada, to which he contributed several papers, and a member of the Canadian Society of Civil Engineers. He published correspondence and proceedings related to his sacking in a pamphlet Mr. Kingsford and Sir Hector Langevin (1882).

Family
In 1848 Kingsford married Maria Margaret, daughter of William Burns Lindsay, clerk of the legislative assembly of the province of Canada. Queen Victoria gave her his widow's civil list pension after his death.

title: William Kingsford


text:
Samuel Chandler

Samuel Chandler (1693 – 8 May 1766) was an English Nonconformist minister and pamphleteer. He has been called the "uncrowned patriarch of Dissent" in the latter part of George II's reign.

Early life
Samuel Chandler was born at Hungerford in Berkshire, the son of Henry Chandler (d.1719), a Dissenting minister, and his wife Mary Bridgeman. His father was the first settled Presbyterian minister at Hungerford since the Toleration Act 1688. In or around 1700 the family moved to Bath, where for the remainder of his life Henry ministered to the congregation that met at Frog Lane.

He was the younger brother of the Bath poet Mary Chandler, whose biography he wrote for inclusion in Theophilus Cibber's The Lives of the Poets (1753).

As a child he displayed an 'early genius for learning', and this was encouraged by his family. He excelled in the classics and is said to have already mastered Greek by the time he entered the dissenting academy at Bridgwater, where he was a student of the Rev John Moore (d.1747). He later attended Samuel Jones' academy at Gloucester. Here he was a contemporary of Bishop Butler and Archbishop Secker, who in spite of their later churchmanship and high preferment remained life-long friends.

Career
In 1714, Chandler began a preaching ministry in London. During this time he shared a house with Secker, who had returned to England after studying in Leiden. In 1716, he was chosen as minister of the Presbyterian Hanover Chapel in Peckham and ordained in December of that year.

Through the South Sea Bubble crash of 1720, Chandler lost the fortune which his wife had brought to their marriage. This left him in straitened circumstances, and from about 1723 he supplemented his income by working as a bookseller at the Cross Keys in the Poultry, London. In 1725, having read his recently published A Vindication of the Christian Religion, Archbishop Wake wrote to him expressing surprise that 'so much good learning and just reasoning in a person of your profession, and do think it pity you should not rather spend your time in writing books than in selling them'.

It was partly due to the success of A Vindication, which brought together sermons he had delivered at the Old Jewry Meeting-house in defence of Christian revelation, that Chandler was invited to be the assistant minister under Thomas Leavesley at the Old Jewry in 1726. During this time he continued to preach at Peckham. In 1728 he was appointed pastor at the Old Jewry, the congregation offering him an extra £100 a year on the condition that he give up bookselling. He held this position for the rest of his life.

Over time he came to play a leading role in the affairs of London Dissenters. From 1730 he was a member of the Presbyterian Board, and from 1744 of Dr Williams's Trust. It was largely as a result of his influence, particularly among wealthy dissenters, that a relief society for widows and orphaned children of Protestant dissenting ministers was established in 1733. In a similar way he co-ordinated the formation of The Society for the Propagation of the Knowledge of God among the Germans, formed in 1753 to assist German dissenters in the British Colony of Pennsylvania.

Beliefs and writings
Chandler was an extensive writer, and through his pamphlets, sermons and letters he engaged energetically with the religious disputes of the day. He was an impassioned proponent of civil and religious liberty, advocating freedom of conscience and the appeal to reason in matters of belief. "'Tis with great pleasure, that I observe that the principles of liberty are every day gaining ground, and that a censorious persecuting bigot is now generally looked on with contempt, and treated as a common enemy to mankind. Grave looks, and magisterial dictates must now no longer pass for arguments' (Samuel Chandler, Reflections on the Conduct of Modern Deists, 1727)"His work appears to owe a particular debt to the Christian philosopher Samuel Clarke, and stands broadly in the Lockean tradition.

Subscription, penal laws and comprehension
Theologically Chandler belonged to the liberal wing of Dissent. He believed in the sufficiency of a reasoned approach to Scripture, and was hostile to the claims of human tradition and authority. As such, he was among those who argued against the imposition of creeds or articles of faith as tests of orthodoxy. In the Salters' Hall meetings of 1719, which concerned themselves with subscription to the doctrine of the Trinity, he was among the non-subscribing majority. Chandler's Trinitarian theology is said to have derived from Samuel Clarke's The Scripture-Doctrine of the Trinity (1712), and he is often described as an Arian, or having Arian leanings.

In the introduction to his translation of Philipp van Limborch's Historia Inquistionis (1731) he discusses subscription at some length, where he describes the practice as having 'ever been a Grievance in the Church of God'. He took up the subject again in anonymous contributions to the Old Whig periodical in 1737. Subsequent debates led to the publication of The Case of Subscription to Explanatory Articles of Faith (1748).

In a number of works published in the 1730s Chandler challenged the penal laws governing Dissenters, which through various tests and subscriptions barred them from full participation in civic life. In 1732 he supported those petitioning parliament for their repeal with a pamphlet entitled The Dispute Better Adjusted, and in his 1735 sermons against Roman Catholicism earned the censure of several Anglicans for his 'unseasonal' demands for the repeal of the Test and Corporation Acts. This was followed by The Case of the Protestant Dissenters (1736) and an open letter to the Lord Mayor of London in 1738.

By the time he published The Case of Subscription Chandler was expressing his disinclination to engage in any further 'publick Debates concerning Party Affairs'. Time had 'softened' his mind on such issues, and establishing a common front against the 'impieties of the present generation' was of more importance. Besides ties of friendship, he shared a common outlook with the Latitudinarian leaders of the Anglican Church, and spoke warmly of his relations with them. In the same year he was engaged in informal discussions with Thomas Herring, Thomas Gooch and Thomas Sherlock about the possibility of an act of comprehension, which would enable Dissenters to enter the Established fold in good conscience. To overcome doctrinal objections he suggested that the church's articles by re-written in scriptural language, and that the Athanasian Creed ought to be discarded. These overly ambitious proposals came to nothing, and Chandler came under fire from fellow Dissenters for acting with presumption.

Deism
In A Vindication of the Christian Religion (1725) and Reflections on the Conduct of Modern Deists (1727) he defended the scriptural, revealed basis of Christianity against attacks by deists, particularly Anthony Collins. This focused on the argument from miracles and prophecy. At the same time he upheld his opponents' right of conscience and expression against those calling for their censorship.

In 1741 he entered once again into the deist controversy with A Vindication of the History of the Old Testament. This was a response to Thomas Morgan's The Moral Philosopher (1738-1740), whose third volume included a character assassination of Joseph. Chandler followed A Vindication with his Defence of the Prime Ministry and Character of Joseph (1743).

The debate also promoted a contribution from the deist Peter Annet, who in the same year published his The Resurrection of Jesus Considered (1744). Continuing on from the work of Thomas Woolston in the 1720s, it questioned the reliability of the gospel accounts of the Resurrection. Chandler's answer was contained in The Witnesses of the Resurrection of Jesus re-examined, and their testimony proved entirely consistent (London, 1744). John Leland, in his overview of deist writers, called it a 'very valuable treatise' that showed 'great clearness and judgement'.

His apologetic, Plain Reasons for Being a Christian (London, 1730), was a more indirect reply to freethinking critiques of Christianity. It was advanced on the same grounds, however, making its appeal to 'the Truth and Reason of Things' arrived at by a 'free and rational Choice'. Like Clarke, he argued that human reason, which is capable of arriving at natural religion, needed to be supplemented by revelation. But the test of this revelation would be its consistency with reason.

Roman Catholicism
Chandler was vehement in his opposition to Roman Catholicism, and this was sharpened by events which seem to threaten the Protestant Revolution of 1688.

In 1735 he took part in a series of controversial lectures organised by Dissenters at Salters' Hall in London, aimed at what they perceived to be the growing threat of "popery", particularly from missionaries. His contributions were published in Seventeen Sermons against Popery preached at Salter's Hall (London, 1735), as well as separately. These advanced a Protestant ecclesiology over and against claims of Roman supremacy, embodied in Bellarmine's fifteen Marks of the Church. As well as being accused by Richard Challoner of wilfully misrepresenting Roman Catholicism, Chandler's sermons were among those that drew criticism from Anglicans. While supportive of his purposes, they took issue with his remarks on the episcopacy ('The Mission of Bishops and Prelates is in itself a trifling Circumstance, of little or not importance...' ) and apostolic succession.

Shortly afterwards Chandler joined John Eames and Jeremiah Hunt in talks with two Roman priests at the Bell tavern in Nicholas Lane, London. The debate ranged over issues such as the authority of the Pope, transubstantiation, and praying to saints and angels. An account of the second conference was written by Chandler and published by John Gray, his successor at the Cross Keys.

Recognition

In his Biographia Britannica (1778-1793) the minister Andrew Kippis, who worked on some of his literary remains, described Chandler as: "'...a man of very extensive learning, and eminent abilities; his apprehension was quick, and his judgement penetrating; he had a warm and vigorous imagination; he was a very instructive and animated preacher; and his talents in the pulpit, and as a writer, procured him very great and general esteem, not only among the Dissenters, but among large numbers of the established Church'"In a letter of 1747 Archbishop Herring wrote of Chandler that 'I really affect and honour the man, and wish with all my soul that the Church of England had him; for his spirit and learning are certainly of the first class'. He had been offered high and lucrative preferment in the Church of England, but chose to remain a Presbyterian to the end of his life on the grounds of conscience.

He was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society in December 1754. The only known portrait of Chandler, executed by Mason Chamberlin, was bequeathed to the Royal Society by his brother, the apothecary John Chandler FRS. He was also a Fellow of the Society of Antiquarians. In common with other respected Dissenters he was made a Doctor of Divinity by both Edinburgh University (1755) and King's College, Aberdeen (1756). In the past Chandler had turned down honorary degrees because, as he put it, "so many blockheads had been made Doctors".

Death
Chandler died on 8 May 1766. During the last year of his life he had suffered from re-occurrences of a 'very painful disorder'.

He was buried in what became the family vault at Bunhill Fields in London on 16 May. His funeral sermon was preached at the Old Jewry by his friend, Thomas Amory. Amory later wrote a short memoir of Chandler to preface his posthumously published sermons, and together with Nathaniel White replaced him as a co-pastor at the Old Jewry.

Family
On 17 September 1719, Chandler married Elizabeth Rutter at St Giles' Church, Camberwell. Elizabeth was the daughter of Benjamin Rutter, leather dresser of Bermondsey, and his wife Elizabeth. They had six children: Elizabeth (d. before 1772), wife of Thomas Mitchell, tailor of Bucklersbury, London; Sarah (d.1791), wife of the classical scholar Edward Harwood (1729-1794); Catherine ("Kitty"), wife of William Ward, packer of Sise-lane, London, and Mary ("Polly"), who remained unmarried. His two sons pre-deceased him.

Chandler's widow died in 1773. In her will she left £1860 in individual bequests. The residue of her estate went to her daughter Mary.

Works

 * The History of the Inquisition (1731); English translation of Philippus van Limborch's Historia Inquisitionis (1692). Chandler wrote a substantial introduction to Van Limborch's original four volume Latin preface to the Liber Sententiarum Inquisitionis Tolosanae (1308–1323), and published his translation in two Volumes.

Sermons and pamphlets

 * A vindication of the Christian religion: In two parts. A discourse of the nature and use of miracles. An answer to a late book entitled, A discourse of the grounds and reasons of the Christian religion (1725)
 * Doing good recommended from the example of Christ (John Gray, London; 1728)
 * A second letter to the Revd. Mr. John Guyse, (John Gray, 1730)
 * Plain reasons for being a Christian (1730)
 * An answer to the brief remarks of William Berriman, D.D.: ... on Mr. Chandler's Introduction to the History of the Inquisition. In a letter to the said doctor (John Gray, 1733)
 * A second letter to William Berriman, D.D. (John Gray, 1733)
 * The notes of the church considered: in a sermon ... Preached at Salters-Hall, January 16, 1734-5 (T. Cox; R. Ford; R. Hett; and J. Gray, 1735)
 * An account of the conference held in Nicholas-lane, February 13th, 1734-5. Between Two Romish Priests, and some Protestant Divines (London, 1735)
 * Benevolence and integrity essentials of Christianity. A sermon preach'd at the Old Jury, March 3, 1735-6. To the Society for Relief of the Widows and Children of Dissenting Ministers (1736)
 * The dispute better adjusted (J. Roberts & John Gray, London; 1732)
 * The case of the Protestant Dissenters, with reference to the Corporation and Test Acts (London, ?1736)
 * A vindication of the right honourable the lord-mayor. (sir J. Barnard). In answer to a letter address'd to his lordship, on occasion of his lordship's nomination of five dissenters ... to serve the office of sheriff of London. By a citizen (1738)
 * Death the wages of sin (J. Noon, London; 1741)
 * The witnesses of the Resurrection of Jesus Christ re-examined: and their testimony proved entirely consistent (Noon & Hett, 1744)
 * The danger and duty of good men, under the present unnatural invasion: A sermon preach'd at the Old-Jewry, September 29, 1745 (Noon, 1745)
 * Great-Britain's memorial against the Pretender and Popery (1745)
 * The case of subscription to explanatory articles of faith (John Gray, London; 1748)
 * The signs of the times. A sermon preached at the Old-Jury, Feb. 16, 1759; the day appointed for a publick-fast (Noon & Millar, 1759)
 * The character of a great and good king full of days, riches, and honour. a sermon preached on occasion of the death of His Late Majesty King George II of glorious and blessed memory, in the Old Jury... (1760)
 * A review of The history of the man after God's own heart (1762): A response to anonymous (John Noorthouck?) (1761)
 * A critical history of the life of David (1762)
 * Critical history of the life of David: in which the principal events are ranged in order of time; the chief objections of Mr. Bayle, and others, against the character of this prince, and the scripture account of him, and the occurrences of his reign, are examined and refuted; Vol.1 (1766), Vol.2 (1766)
 * Four volumes of sermons (1768)
 * Paraphrase of the Epistles to the Galatians and Ephesians (1777)

title: Samuel Chandler


text:
Robert de Ros (died 1285)

Sir Robert de Ros (before 1237 – 13 May 1285) was an English nobleman.

Family
Robert de Ros of Helmsley, Yorkshire, born c. 1225, was the son of Sir William de Ros (died c. 1264/5) and Lucy FitzPeter, the daughter of Peter FitzHerbert and Alice FitzRoger. He had five brothers, Sir Peter, Sir William, Sir Alexander, Sir Herbert, and John, and two sisters, Lucy and Alice.

He was the grandson of Sir Robert de Ros, one of the twenty-five barons who guaranteed the observance of Magna Carta, and Isabel of Scotland, an illegitimate daughter of William the Lion, King of the Scots, by Isabel, a daughter of Robert Avenel.

Career
On 24 December 1264 he was summoned to Simon de Montfort's Parliament in London as Robert de Ros, and for some time it was considered that the barony was created by writ in that year, and that Robert de Ros was the 1st Baron Ros. According to The Complete Peerage:

"In 1616 the barony of De Ros was allowed precedence from this writ [of 24 December 1264], a decision adopted by the Lords in 1806 (Round, Peerage and Pedigree, vol. i, pp. 249-50); but these writs, issued by Simon in the King's name, are no longer regarded as valid for the creation of peerages."

Accordingly, the barony is now considered to have been created when Robert's eldest son, William de Ros was summoned to Parliament from 6 February 1299 to 16 October 1315 by writs directed Willelmo de Ros de Hamelak.

On 3 July 1257, Ros obtained from Henry III a grant of the free warren, in the lordship of Belvoir, by which the boundary was determined. In 1258, he was actively employed in Scotland, in delivering King Alexander III of Scotland out of the hands of his rebellious subjects; and at Chester, in resisting the hostile invasions of Llewelyn the Last. In the same year, he and his lady Isabel had a controversy with the Prior and Convent of Belvoir, relative to the right of presentation to the Church of Redmile (near Bottesford), which was amicably compromised by their relinquishing the patronage to the convent, for a certain compensation. In 1261 he obtained from the king the grant of a weekly market, to be held at Belvoir, on Tuesday; and of an annual fair on the feast of St John the Baptist, to continue for three days. In 1264, he was one of the insurgent barons who defeated Henry III at the battle of Lewes, and took him and the prince prisoner, confining them in Farleigh Hungerford Castle. In 1264, de Ros was summoned to the parliament, which was called by the barons in the king's name. He died in 1285, and was buried at Kirkham Priory.

Marriage and issue
Robert de Ros married, Bef. 17 May 1246, Isabel d'Aubigny (c.1233 – 15 June 1301), granddaughter (her father, William, died in 1247) and heiress of William d'Aubigny (died 1236) of Belvoir, Leicestershire, by his second wife, Isabel, by whom he had five sons and three daughters:

 * William de Ros, 1st Baron de Ros.
 * Sir Robert de Ros of Gedney, Lincolnshire, who married a wife named Erneburge.
 * John de Ros.
 * Nicholas de Ros, a cleric.
 * Peter de Ros, a cleric.
 * Isabel de Ros, who married Walter de Fauconberg, 2nd Baron Fauconberg.
 * Joan de Ros, who married John Lovell, 1st Baron Lovell.
 * Mary de Ros, who married William de Braose, 1st Baron Braose.

title: Robert de Ros (died 1285)


text:
Greccio

Greccio is an old hilltown and comune of the province of Rieti in the Italian region of Lazio, overhanging the Rieti Valley on a spur of the Monti Sabini, a sub-range of the Apennines, about 16 km by road northwest of Rieti, the nearest large town.

It is one of I Borghi più belli d'Italia ("The most beautiful villages of Italy"). The town hall of the comune is in the frazione of Limiti di Greccio.

Greccio was the place where, in December 1223, Saint Francis of Assisi devised the first living Nativity scene (in Italian: presepe). The Nativity scene tradition continues there to this day, and a memorial of Saint Francis, the Sanctuary of Greccio, may be visited.

Etymology
The first hypothesis on the tymology of the town's name is linked to the settlement of ancient Greek colonists in the same place where Greccio now stands. Hence the name, according to this hypothesis, Grecia, Grece, Grecce and finally Greccio.

According to other hypotheses, the name of Greccio used during the Middle Ages, "curtis de Greze", derives from "curtis", i.e. from a self-sufficient medieval economic organization managed by a lord, and from "greze" or "grezze" i.e. crushed stone (in Italian, pietre grezze), which recalls the presence of a stone quarry used at the time. According to this hypothesis, the name Greccio does not therefore derive from the ancient presence of Greek colonists.

History

Modern Greccio, which is of medieval origin, was founded on lands of ancient Greek colonization, in a place where there was, in ancient times, a colony founded by colonists from Magna Graecia. They had fled or were exiled from their homeland as a result of war.

The earliest records of Greccio date back to the 10th and 11th centuries with the name of "curtis de Greze". The Benedictine Monk, Gregory of Catino (1062–1133) refers to the town of "Grecciae" in his work "Summary Farfense". From the remains of the ancient buildings, it shows that Greccio became a fortified medieval castle surrounded by walls and protected by a six towers fortress.

In documents from the 11th century, the toponym of Greccio is cited with many variations, until 1091, when the name "Grecciae", from which the current name derives, seems to spread; the community also experiences a fair amount of development, favored by the abundance of flat arable land and good pastures.

During the struggle with neighboring cities, the castle was destroyed in 1242 by the troops of Frederick II. They had a difficult history until 1799 when the town was destroyed and looted by the Napoleonic army. The town was called for the first time with its current name "Greccio" around 1720.

Greccio was the place where, in December 1223, Saint Francis of Assisi devised the first living Nativity scene (in Italian: presepe). This attracted would-be pilgrims who would otherwise go to Bethlehem, which was a risky venture because the Holy Land was then under the control of the Turks. Francis' 1223 living nativity scene is commemorated on the calendars of the Catholic, Lutheran and Anglican liturgical calendars,  and its creation is described by Saint Bonaventure in his Life of Saint Francis of Assisi c. 1260.

Saint Francis' manger scene is said to have been enacted at Christmas 1223 in a cave near the Sanctuary of Greccio. The very small chapel where it is said to have taken place survives. The painting over its altar, and others before 1400, by Giotto at the Assisi Lower Church, and by Antonio Vite in Pistoia, depict Saint Francis kneeling and placing a small baby into a chest-like manger. Giotto adds a miniature ox and ass. The Nativity scene tradition continues there to this day, and a memorial of Saint Francis, the Sanctuary of Greccio, may be visited.

Sanctuary of Greccio
The Hermitage of Greccio Sanctuary (Santuario Eremo di Greccio) is one of the four shrines erected by Saint Francis of Assisi in the Sacred Valley, along with the Sanctuary of Fonte Colombo, the Sanctuary of the Forest, and the convent of Poggio Bustone. Francis presented the first living Nativity scene in a nearby cave in December 1223.

Inside there are frescoes modern and original chapel of the saint carved in the rock. Francis, recalling a visit he had made years before to Bethlehem, resolved to create the manger he had seen there. The ideal spot was a cave in nearby Greccio. He would find a baby, hay upon which to lay him, an ox, and an ass to stand beside the manger. Word went out to the people of the town.

At the appointed time, the townspeople arrived carrying torches and candles. One of the friars began celebrating Mass while Francis himself gave the sermon. His biographer, Thomas of Celano, recalls that Francis stood before the manger, overwhelmed with love and filled with a wonderful happiness. For Francis, the simple celebration was meant to recall the hardships Jesus suffered even as an infant, a savior who chose to become poor for our sake, a truly human Jesus. The Sanctuary of Greccio may be visited.

Other architectures

The medieval town that preserves part of the pavement of the old castle (11th century) and three of the six towers. The parish church of San Michele Archangel is located next to the bell tower on top of a flight of steps and dates back to the 11th century. The church was built over a part of the castle. The church was destroyed and rebuilt several times. The church as a Nave and side chapels. Two of the side chapels, dedicated to St. Anthony of Padua and Our Lady Immaculate have paintings and frescoes of the 15th and 16th century, and stucco decorations created in 1636. Remarkable from an artistic point of view are the baptismal font, the main altar, a gilded silver chalice and a monstrance, all dating back to the 16th century. In the square, there is the Church of Santa Maria del Giglio from the 14th century. This church also is a single aisle or Nave. It has a central altar and two side altars, stucco Roman school with influences of Carlo Fontana, and tempera paintings dated to the early 15th century. The high altar preserves, a fresco, which represents the Virgin and Child with Angels.

Museums
The town contains the ruined church of Santa Maria, now restored as the International Museum of the Crib, the remains of the ancient towers, one of the entrance doors, the chapel dedicated to St. Francis, with the stone on which he used to preach, and the place where, according to tradition, was launched firebrand who made public the place designated for the construction of the Sanctuary. Inside the International Museum of the Crib there are nativity scenes from all the cultures of the world on display; outside it there is a statue of Saint Francis 5 m high.

Natural areas

Greccio is surrounded by oak and elm forests, on which Mount Lacerone (1204 m) stands out and gives a view of the entire Rieti Valley. Here, St. Francis of Assisi, would retire in prayer and meditation in a hut protected by two hornbeam plants. In this same place, in 1712, by popular demand, it was built a memorial chapel dedicated to him, "the chapel". Here Saint Francis of Assisi used to retreat in prayer and meditation, in a hut protected by two hornbeam trees. On the top stands "la Cappelletta", a small chapel built in 1792 in his memory.

Geography

The town of Greccio is located in Sabina, in Upper Lazio, on the border with Umbria. The medieval town of Greccio stands on a ridge of the Monti Sabini, on the western edge of the Rieti Valley, at 705 m above sea level (about 300 m higher than the valley floor).

The flat part of the town territory extends into the underlying Rieti Valley and includes the frazioni of Spinacceto, Limiti di Greccio (where the town hall is located) and Sellecchia.

Distances from the most important population centers:
 * From Contigliano: 8 km;
 * Rieti: 16 km;
 * Terni: 27 km;
 * L'Aquila: 77 km;
 * Rome: 96 km.

Economy
Among the most traditional, widespread and renowned economic activities are artisanal ones, such as the processing and art of iron and copper. Another important economic activity in Greccio is tourism.

Tradition and folklore
The town is famous for the re-enactment of the first living nativity scene made by Francis of Assisi in 1223. On this occasion, nativity scenes are present throughout the town, and the main piazza of Greccio hosts a nativity scene art market. The living nativity scene recited by the local population, dressed in period clothing, is staged in front of the Sanctuary of Greccio, in memory of the historic event of 1223.

Cinema
Some scenes of the film Il vegetale (2018), directed by Gennaro Nunziante and starring Fabio Rovazzi, were filmed in Greccio.

Roads
Greccio has a junction on the Rieti-Terni dual carriageway (SS 79), which runs at the foot of the mountains where the town stands.

The Reopasto provincial road (SP1) also runs through the valley floor, the main road connecting with Rieti and Terni before the construction of the dual carriageway. Along the SP1 there are its frazioni of Spinacceto, Limiti di Greccio (where the town hall are located) and Sellecchia.

The comune of Greccio and the Franciscan sanctuary are located along the provincial road SP1, a branch of the SP1 which originates in Sellecchia and reconnects to the SP1 near Spinacceto.

Railways
Greccio is crossed by the Terni–Sulmona railway, with trains to Terni, Rieti and L'Aquila, and is served by the Greccio rail station, located at the foot of the town in Sellecchia, 6 km from Greccio and 4 km from the sanctuary. Until 2014, the Terria rail station also served the town, located near the hamlet of Spinacceto, now abolished.

Twin towns - sister cities
Greccio is twinned with:
 * Bethlehem, Palestine

title: Greccio


text:
US Catanzaro 1929

Unione Sportiva Catanzaro 1929, or simply Catanzaro, is a professional football club based in Catanzaro, Calabria, Italy, that competes in Serie B, the second tier of the Italian football championship, following a 17-year absence from it.

The club was initially formed with the merger of two local clubs in 1927 before being officially founded in 1929. Since then, the club has primarily competed in the lower divisions of the national competitions and has been re-founded twice, once in 2006 and again in 2011, both for financial reasons.

Since its foundation, the official colours of the club have been red and yellow. The team has used these colours predominantly in their kits, frequently playing in either all-red kits with yellow trims or in red and yellow stripes. The club's official emblem is the golden eagle, in honour of the city's coat of arms. The team plays its home matches at the Stadio Nicola Ceravolo, which was built in 1919 and is the oldest sports facility in Calabria.

In its history, Catanzaro has played seven seasons in Serie A, five of which were consecutive. The best performance in Serie A was a seventh place finish in 1981–82 and an eighth-place finish in 1980–81.

The club has won seven championships since its foundation. Six of these were in the third tier (one in Prima Divisione, two in Serie C, and three in Serie C1). The final championship was won in IV Serie in 1953. This year, the club was also national title holders after winning the Scudetto IV Serie. At youth level, the club won the Dante Berretti Trophy of Serie C in 1991–1992.

In the Coppa Italia, Catanzaro's best results were runners-up in 1965–66, and semi-finalists in 1978–79 and 1981–82.

On 30 May 2018, the club, which had already used the historic logo since 2011, announced the return of the old name "Unione Sportiva Catanzaro", with the final addition of "1929".

Origins to pre-World War II
The club was initially founded by the merger of two local teams (la Braccini and la Scalfaro) as Unione Sportiva Catanzarese in 1927, and competed in the Terza Divisione interregional group of Calabria & Basilicata, which was the fourth tier of Italian football at the time. Following a visit to the city from fascist leader Benito Mussolini, the club was officially founded with the name change of Unione Sportiva Fascista Catanzarese in 1929. The club continued to compete in the Terza Divisione for the 1929–30 season where it gained promotion for a second place finish directly into the third tier, the Prima Divisione, for the 1930–31 season. After spending three seasons in this division, Catanzarese gained promotion into Serie B for the first time in the 1933–34 season. They would spend the next three out of four years in Serie B, culminating with a fifteenth place finish in 1936–37. This meant the club would be regulated to Serie C for the following season, however financial troubles struck the club, so they returned to regional leagues instead. There, they would win a couple of regional titles before the second world war would prevent any further competition.

Post World War II and first national title
When competition resumed post World War II, the club dropped the fascist moniker, simply becoming Unione Sportiva Catanzaro for the Serie C season. They would remain in Serie C for thirteen of the following fifteen seasons, participating in only the Serie B once in 1946–47 and IV Serie once following relegation from the 1951–52 Serie C season. Catanzaro would bounce quickly back to Serie C after the 1952–53 season, which saw them not only win their interregional group, but also become national scudetto winners following the play-offs between interregional winners. The club would go on to become Serie C group winners in 1958–59 to achieve promotion back to Serie B for the first time in thirteen years.

Serie B consistency to Serie A promotion
With promotion into Serie B for the 1959–60 season, the club would enter a period of stable success, competing for twelve consecutive years there, with generally mid-table placings. This period saw the club reach the Coppa Italia final in 1966, before finally winning promotion to Serie A for the first time in 1971, after they defeated Bari in the deciding fixture of a three-way play-off which also featured Atalanta.

Catanzaro's inaugural Serie A season saw them struggle and succumb to relegation on the final day with only 3 wins and 15 draws for 21 points. However, their first-ever Serie A win came in Round 16 with a 1–0 win over Juventus. After narrowly missing out on a return to Serie A in 1975, they bounced back in 1976 but once again lasted just one year.

A third promotion in 1978 ushered in the club's golden era with a five-year stay in Serie A. With a team including Claudio Ranieri, Gianni Improta and the iconic Massimo Palanca, Catanzaro managed a highly credible 9th place in 1979. Though they finished 14th and would have been relegated for the following season, they won a reprieve thanks to forced relegations of AC Milan and Lazio. They managed 8th place in 1981 and 7th the following year before a dismal relegation in 1983. Much of the next four years was spent bouncing between Serie B and C1.

Return to Serie C and bankruptcy
Catanzaro initially emerged as promotion contenders once more in 1988, finishing 5th with the ageless Palanca having returned to the club after a fruitless spell at Napoli. However, they ultimately succumbed to successive relegations in 1990 and 1991, staying in Serie C2 for twelve seasons until 2003.

In 2005, after two consecutive promotions, Catanzaro returned to Serie B after a 15-year absence. However, after a poor season they ended their Serie B campaign in last place, meaning relegation to Serie C1. Catanzaro would immediately get another chance, the team being reinstated to Serie B due to vacancies related to the exclusion of other teams from Serie B. In its 2005–06 Serie B campaign, Catanzaro came last again and was relegated to Serie C1. The relegation was followed by financial troubles which led to the federation cancelling the club's registration.

F.C. Catanzaro (2006–2011)
In the summer 2006 the club was re-founded for the first time with the new name of F.C. Catanzaro and was registered to Serie C2 for the 2006–07 season, with the hope to return to the upper divisions.

In season 2010–11, they were initially relegated from Lega Pro Seconda Divisione group C to Serie D, but due to the relegation of Pomezia to last place, the club was saved from relegation.

On 18 July 2011 the club was excluded by the Federal Council from Lega Pro Seconda Divisione, but on 27 July 2011 the club won its appeal to Tnas and be permitted to play in the 2011–12 Lega Pro Seconda Divisione.

Catanzaro Calcio 2011 / U.S. Catanzaro 1929 (2011–present)
On 30 June 2011 the company Catanzaro Calcio 2011 acquired permanently the company branch of the bankrupt F.C. Catanzaro, following the cancellation of the previous club's registration because of financial troubles. On 6 August 2011, the company purchased the historical brand and logo of U.S. Catanzaro.

In the 2011–12 season, Catanzaro obtained a respectable second place in the Lega Pro Seconda Divisione and was promoted to Lega Pro Prima Divisione after playoffs. The following two seasons saw Catanzaro ending in tenth and fourth place respectively, and also a participation in the promotion play-offs (then lost to Benevento) in the latter case.

Finally in 2018, the club officially transitioned to the name Unione Sportiva Catanzaro 1929, after years of using the historical logo. The logo was also updated with the year '1929' added to highlight this change. The club would make promotion play-offs for three consecutive years, after finishing 3rd, 7th and 2nd but ultimately remain in Serie C.

In the 2021–22 season, Catanzaro again performed strongly in the league and also in the Coppa Italia Serie C. The start of the season began slowly with a number of draws interspersed with some wins. Ultimately, by 29 November 2021 Calabro was fired following a 1–1 draw with Monterosi and was replaced by Vivarini. The team had an immediate response with two wins and drew 1–1 away to Padova in the Coppa Italia Serie C semi-final. On the return leg at home, Catanzaro lost 0–1 and Padova went on to become eventual winners of the cup. Catanzaro continued to pick up points and finished the season strongly in second for a consecutive season, gaining direct entry into the quarter-final promotion playoffs. There they defeated Monopoli 3–1 on aggregate to once again find themselves matched up again Padova in the semi-finals. Unfortunately, they were unable to progress through to final as they lost 2–1 on aggregate.

In the 2022–23, Catanzaro return to Serie B for next season after defeat Gelbison 0-2 on Matchweek 33 and Champions of Serie C Group A.

Stadium, Colours and badge
 Stadium

Catanzaro plays out of Stadio Nicola Ceravolo, which was built in 1919 and is the oldest sports facility in Calabria.

 Colours

The team's colours, since foundation, are red and yellow, just as the whole city

The most used uniform in the eighty years of history of the Aquile is the solid red one, with the yellow V collar with red shorts and socks with yellow edges.

Those pairings have accompanied the Calabrians in the golden years of the Serie A and therefore are the most dear to the Catanzaro environment. Equally used was the vertical striped yellow and red shirt with red shorts and socks with yellow edges, especially in the post-failure years of 2006.

Most rarely Catanzaro has used a shirt with yellow and red horizontal stripes. However, this uniform was used by the Calabrians in the historic match in Turin, won against Juventus, in the 1965-66 Coppa Italia, which was to launch the Catanzaro in the final, then lost against the lilies of Florence.

For the away shirt, the most used is completely blue with references to the Giallorossi, but also completely white or yellow seals were worn.

Occasionally le Aquile, have also used a third uniform which, depending on the color of the home squad, could be either blue or white or yellow. Same for the fourth currency

 Badges

The corporate coat of arms consists of a shield in which stands the historic symbol of Catanzaro, the Golden eagle, faithfully taken from the city's coat of arms, which holds a blue ribbon on its beak bearing the motto Sanguinis effusione, motivated by the losses reported in various battles by the Catanzaro fighters.

On the belly of the eagle takes place a shield that reproduces the three hills on which the city stands. A vertical line splits the emblem in two, so as to allow the insertion of the team's social colors, which is completed by the name of the company, placed at the top on a blue background.

Derbies and rivalries
Catanzaro has competed against other regional Calabrian teams throughout the professional competitions of Italian football. These derbies include:
 * Cosenza – Calabria Derby (Derby della Calabria) – this is the most historic of all derbies in Calabria, with the first meeting in Serie B taking place in 1946. The history of these two sides dates all the way back to 1912 when Cosenza met one of the forerunner club's of Catanzaro. Their first official match was in 1930 in Serie C (or the Prima Divisione as it was then known). Overall, the sides have met 54 times, with 21 Catanzaro wins, 24 draws, and 9 Cosenza wins.
 * Reggina – The Classic (U-classicu) – with Catanzaro as Calabria's capital and Reggio Calabria the region's largest city, this match has had a special meaning to the area. The first meeting was also in the 1930–31 Prima Divisione. This contest has had the most Serie B meetings of all Calabrian derbies with 20 matches, the first of which was in 1965. It is also the only derby involving Catanzaro in which the Coppa Italia was contested (on one occasion). Out of the 62 matches, Catanzaro has won 20 times, there have been 20 draws, and Reggina has won 24 times.
 * Crotone – The former Province of Catanzaro Derby (Derby dell'ex provincia di Catanzaro) – Prior to 1992, the Province of Crotone was a part of the Province of Catanzaro, which is where the name of this derby comes from. The teams however, only met for the first time in Serie B in 2004–05 season and then again in the 2005–06 season. They have spent seven seasons together in Serie C and one season in Serie C2. They have also met four times in Coppa Italia Serie C but never in the Coppa Italia. Whilst both teams have participated in Serie A, it has never been in the same season. The overall head-to-head for this meeting is Catanzaro 8 wins, 11 draws, and 9 Crotone wins from 28 games.

Hall of fame
Below is a list of players inducted into the Catanzaro Hall of Fame

Presidential history
Below is a presidential history list of Catanzaro, from when they were founded in 1927, until the present day.

Managerial history
* Denotes took over as manager during the season

Leagues

 * Serie B (Level 2)
 * Runners-up (2): 1975–76, 1977–78
 * Promoted via play-offs (1): 1970–71
 * Serie C / Serie C1 (Level 3)
 * Winners (6): 1935–36 (Group D), 1958–59 (Group B) , 1984–85 (Group B) , 1986–87 (Group B) , 2003–04 (Group B) , 2022–23 (Group C)
 * IV Serie (Level 4)
 * Winners (1): 1952–53

Cups

 * Coppa Italia
 * Finalists (1): 1965–66
 * Semi-finalists (2): 1978–79, 1981–82
 * Supercoppa di Serie C
 * Winners (1): 2023
 * Runners-up (1): 2004
 * Scudetto IV Serie
 * Winners (1): 1952–53

European

 * Cup of the Alps
 * Winners (1): 1960

League

 * Notes

title: US Catanzaro 1929


text:
Mill (grinding)

A mill is a device, often a structure, machine or kitchen appliance, that breaks solid materials into smaller pieces by grinding, crushing, or cutting. Such comminution is an important unit operation in many processes. There are many different types of mills and many types of materials processed in them. Historically mills were powered by hand or by animals (e.g., via a hand crank), working animal (e.g., horse mill), wind (windmill) or water (watermill). In modern era, they are usually powered by electricity.

The grinding of solid materials occurs through mechanical forces that break up the structure by overcoming the interior bonding forces. After the grinding the state of the solid is changed: the grain size, the grain size disposition and the grain shape.

Milling also refers to the process of breaking down, separating, sizing, or classifying aggregate material (e.g. mining ore). For instance rock crushing or grinding to produce uniform aggregate size for construction purposes, or separation of rock, soil or aggregate material for the purposes of structural fill or land reclamation activities. Aggregate milling processes are also used to remove or separate contamination or moisture from aggregate or soil and to produce "dry fills" prior to transport or structural filling.

Grinding may serve the following purposes in engineering:
 * increase of the surface area of a solid
 * manufacturing of a solid with a desired grain size
 * pulping of resources

Grinding laws
In spite of a great number of studies in the field of fracture schemes there is no formula known which connects the technical grinding work with grinding results. Mining engineers, Peter von Rittinger, Friedrich Kick and Fred Chester Bond independently produced equations to relate the needed grinding work to the grain size produced and a fourth engineer, R.T.Hukki suggested that these three equations might each describe a narrow range of grain sizes and proposed uniting them along a single curve describing what has come to be known as the Hukki relationship.

In stirred mills, the Hukki relationship does not apply and instead, experimentation has to be performed to determine any relationship.

To evaluate the grinding results the grain size disposition of the source material (1) and of the ground material (2) is needed. Grinding degree is the ratio of the sizes from the grain disposition. There are several definitions for this characteristic value:

 * Grinding degree referring to grain size d80
 * $$Z_d=\frac{d_{80,1}}{d_{80,2}}\,$$
 * Instead of the value of d80 also d50 or other grain diameter can be used.

 * Grinding degree referring to specific surface
 * $$Z_S=\frac{S_{v,2}}{S_{v,1}}=\frac{S_{m,2}}{S_{m,1}}\,$$

 * The specific surface area referring to volume Sv and the specific surface area referring to mass Sm can be found out through experiments.

 * Pretended grinding degree
 * $$Z_a=\frac{d_1}{a}\,$$
 * The discharge die gap a of the grinding machine is used for the ground solid matter in this formula.

Grinding machines
In materials processing a grinder is a machine for producing fine particle size reduction through attrition and compressive forces at the grain size level. See also crusher for mechanisms producing larger particles. In general, grinding processes require a relatively large amount of energy; for this reason, an experimental method to measure the energy used locally during milling with different machines was recently proposed.

Autogenous mill
Autogenous or autogenic mills are so-called due to the self-grinding of the ore: a rotating drum throws larger rocks of ore in a cascading motion which causes impact breakage of larger rocks and compressive grinding of finer particles. It is similar in operation to a SAG mill as described below but does not use steel balls in the mill. Also known as ROM or "Run Of Mine" grinding.

Ball mill
A typical type of fine grinder is the ball mill. A slightly inclined or horizontal rotating cylinder is partially filled with balls, usually stone or metal, which grind material to the necessary fineness by friction and impact with the tumbling balls. Ball mills normally operate with an approximate ball charge of 30%. Ball mills are characterized by their smaller (comparatively) diameter and longer length, and often have a length 1.5 to 2.5 times the diameter. The feed is at one end of the cylinder and the discharge is at the other. Ball mills are commonly used in the manufacture of Portland cement and finer grinding stages of mineral processing. Industrial ball mills can be as large as 8.5 m (28 ft) in diameter with a 22 MW motor, drawing approximately 0.0011% of the total world's power (see List of countries by electricity consumption). However, small versions of ball mills can be found in laboratories where they are used for grinding sample material for quality assurance.

The power predictions for ball mills typically use the following form of the Bond equation:
 * $$E= 10 W \left(\frac{1}{\sqrt {P_{80}}} - \frac{1}{\sqrt {F_{80}}}\right)\,$$

where
 * E is the energy (kilowatt-hours per metric or short ton)
 * W is the work index measured in a laboratory ball mill (kilowatt-hours per metric or short ton)
 * P80 is the mill circuit product size in micrometers
 * F80 is the mill circuit feed size in micrometers.

Buhrstone mill
Another type of fine grinder commonly used is the French buhrstone mill, which is similar to old-fashioned flour mills.

High pressure grinding rolls
A high pressure grinding roll, often referred to as HPGRs or roller press, consists out of two rollers with the same dimensions, which are rotating against each other with the same circumferential speed. The special feeding of bulk material through a hopper leads to a material bed between the two rollers. The bearing units of one roller can move linearly and are pressed against the material bed by springs or hydraulic cylinders. The pressures in the material bed are greater than 50 MPa (7,000 PSI). In general they achieve 100 to 300 MPa. By this the material bed is compacted to a solid volume portion of more than 80%.

The roller press has a certain similarity to roller crushers and roller presses for the compacting of powders, but purpose, construction and operation mode are different.

Extreme pressure causes the particles inside of the compacted material bed to fracture into finer particles and also causes microfracturing at the grain size level. Compared to ball mills HPGRs achieve a 30 to 50% lower specific energy consumption, although they are not as common as ball mills since they are a newer technology.

A similar type of intermediate crusher is the edge runner, which consists of a circular pan with two or more heavy wheels known as mullers rotating within it; material to be crushed is shoved underneath the wheels using attached plow blades.

Pebble mill
A rotating drum causes friction and attrition between rock pebbles and ore particles. May be used where product contamination by iron from steel balls must be avoided. Quartz or silica is commonly used because it is inexpensive to obtain.

Rod mill
A rotating drum causes friction and attrition between steel rods and ore particles. But the term 'rod mill' is also used as a synonym for a slitting mill, which makes rods of iron or other metal. Rod mills are less common than ball mills for grinding minerals.

The rods used in the mill, usually a high-carbon steel, can vary in both the length and the diameter. However, the smaller the rods, the larger is the total surface area and hence, the greater the grinding efficiency.

SAG mill
SAG is an acronym for semi-autogenous grinding. SAG mills are autogenous mills that also use grinding balls like a ball mill. A SAG mill is usually a primary or first stage grinder. SAG mills use a ball charge of 8 to 21%. The largest SAG mill is 42' (12.8m) in diameter, powered by a 28 MW (38,000 HP) motor. A SAG mill with a 44' (13.4m) diameter and a power of 35 MW (47,000 HP) has been designed.

Attrition between grinding balls and ore particles causes grinding of finer particles. SAG mills are characterized by their large diameter and short length as compared to ball mills. The inside of the mill is lined with lifting plates to lift the material inside the mill, where it then falls off the plates onto the rest of the ore charge. SAG mills are primarily used at gold, copper and platinum mines with applications also in the lead, zinc, silver, alumina and nickel industries.

Tower mill
Tower mills, often called vertical mills, stirred mills or regrind mills, are a more efficient means of grinding material at smaller particle sizes, and can be used after ball mills in a grinding process. Like ball mills, grinding (steel) balls or pebbles are often added to stirred mills to help grind ore, however these mills contain a large screw mounted vertically to lift and grind material. In tower mills, there is no cascading action as in standard grinding mills. Stirred mills are also common for mixing quicklime (CaO) into a lime slurry. There are several advantages to the tower mill: low noise, efficient energy usage, and low operating costs.

Vertical shaft impactor mill (VSI mill)
A VSI mill throws rock or ore particles against a wear plate by slinging them from a spinning center that rotates on a vertical shaft. This type of mill uses the same principle as a VSI crusher.

Types of grinding mills

 * Windmill, wind powered
 * Watermill, water powered
 * Horse mill, animal powered
 * Treadwheel, human powered (archaic: "treadmill")
 * Ship mill, floats near a river bank or bridge
 * Arrastra, simple mill for grinding and pulverizing (typically) gold or silver ore.
 * Roller mill, an equipment for the grinding or pulverizing of grain and other raw materials using cylinders
 * Stamp mill, a specialized machine for reducing ore to powder for further processing or for fracturing other materials
 * A place of business for making articles of manufacture. The term mill was once in common use for a factory because many factories in the early stages of the Industrial Revolution were powered by a watermill, but nowadays it is only used in a few specific contexts; e.g.,
 * Bark mill produces tanbark for tanneries
 * Cider mill crushes apples to give cider
 * Gristmill grinds grain into flour
 * Oil mill, see expeller pressing, extrusion
 * Paper mill produces paper
 * Sawmill cuts timber
 * Starch mill
 * Steel mill manufactures steel
 * Sugar mill (also called a sugar refinery) processes sugar beets or sugar cane into various finished products
 * Textile mill
 * Silk mill, for silk
 * Flax mill, for flax
 * Cotton mill, for cotton
 * Huller (also called a rice mill, or rice husker) is used to hull rice
 * Powder mill produces gunpowder

 * Ball mill
 * Bead mill
 * Coffee mill
 * Colloid mill
 * Conical mill
 * Disintegrator
 * Disk mill
 * Edge mill
 * Gristmill, also called flour mill or corn mill
 * Hammermill
 * IsaMill
 * Jet mill
 * Mortar and pestle
 * Pellet mill
 * Planetary mill
 * Stirred mill
 * Three roll mill
 * Vibratory mill
 * VSI mill
 * Wiley mill

title: Mill (grinding)


text:
Kivimäki

Kivimäki is a Finnish surname. Notable people with the surname include:

 * Toivo Mikael Kivimäki (1886–1968), Prime Minister of Finland 1932–1936
 * Timo Kivimäki, professor of international politics at the University of Copenhagen
 * Erkki Kivimäki (1936–2007), Finnish diplomat
 * Samuli Kivimäki (1988–), Finnish ice hockey player

title: Kivimäki