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Battle of Sentinum

The Battle of Sentinum was the decisive battle of the Third Samnite War, fought in 295 BC near Sentinum (next to the modern town of Sassoferrato, in the Marches, region of Italy), in which the Romans overcame a formidable coalition of Samnites, Etruscans, and Umbrians and Senone Gauls. The Romans won a decisive victory that broke up the tribal coalition (the Etruscans, Umbrians, and Senones pulled out of the war) and paved the way for the Romans' complete victory over the Samnites. The Romans involved in the battle of Sentinum were commanded by consuls Publius Decius Mus and Quintus Fabius Maximus Rullianus.

Background
The Third Samnite War started when envoys from Lucania asked Rome for help against an attack on them by the Samnites. Rome intervened and the war started. Just prior to and during the first year of this, Rome was also facing a war with the Etruscans. In 297 BC the Romans received news that the Etruscans were considering suing for peace. As a result, both Roman consuls marched on Samnium and concentrated their operations there. Quintus Fabius defeated the Samnites at the Battle of Tifernum and Publius Decius defeated a Samnite force from Apulia near Maleventum. The two consuls then spent four months ravaging Samnium. Fabius also seized Cimetra (location unknown).

In 296 BC Quintus Fabius and Publius Decius were made proconsuls and were given a six-month extension of their military command to carry on the war in Samnium. Publius Decius ravaged Samnium until he drove the Samnite army outside its territory. The Samnite army headed north to Etruria to back up previous calls for an alliance with the Etruscans that had been turned down. Gellius Egnatius, a Samnite commander, insisted on the Etruscan council being convened. Most Etruscan city-states voted for a joint war. Umbrian groups near Etruria also joined in and there were attempts to hire Gallic mercenaries.

The consul Appius Claudius Caecus set off for Etruria with two legions and 15,000 allied troops. The other consul, Lucius Volumnius Flamma Violens, had already left for Samnium with two legions and 12,000 allies. Appius Claudius suffered some setbacks so Lucius Volumnius went to Etruria to help. The two consuls together defeated the Etruscans and Lucius Volumnius returned to Samnium as their appointments as proconsulships were about to expire. Meanwhile, the Samnites raised new troops and raided Roman territories and allies in Campania. Volumnius repelled the raids. However, the raids alarmed Rome because of news that the Etruscans were arming themselves and had invited the Samnites (under Gellius Egnatius) and the Umbrians to join them in a major revolt against the Romans. There were also reports that large sums of money were being offered to the Gauls followed by reports of an actual coalition between these four peoples and that there was "a huge army of Gauls."

It was the first time that Rome had to confront such a large coalition of forces. The two best military commanders, Quintus Fabius Maximus Rullianus and Publius Decius Mus, were elected as consuls again (for 295 BC). They took on the war in Etruria with four legions and a large body of allied infantry and cavalry (1,000 Campanian soldiers are mentioned), 40,000 men in total. The allies fielded an even larger army. Lucius Volumnius' command was prolonged for a year to continue the war in Samnium with two legions. Livy thought that his going there with such a big force must have been part of a diversionary strategy to force the Samnites to respond to Roman raids in Samnium and limit their troop deployment in Etruria. Two reserve contingents headed by propraetors were stationed in the Faliscan district and near the Vatican Hill to protect Rome.

The Etruscans, Samnites, and Umbrians crossed the Apennine Mountains and approached Sentinum. Their plan was for the Samnites and Senones to engage the Romans and for the Etruscans and Umbrians to take the Roman camp during the battle. Deserters from Clusium informed Quintus Fabius about this plan. The consul ordered the legions in Falerii and the Vatican to march to Clusium and ravage its territory as another diversionary strategy. This succeeded in drawing the Etruscans away from Sentinum to defend their land. Livy thought that with their departure the two enemy forces were so evenly matched that if the Etruscans and Umbrians had been present it would have been a disaster for the Romans. The propraetor Gnaeus Fulvius defeated the Etruscans. Perusia and Clusium lost up to 3,000 men.

Battle
The two armies arrived at the plain of Sentinum, but waited for two days to do battle. Finally, unable to control the eagerness of their troops, the Romans attacked. The Senones stood on the right and the Samnites on the left. On the Roman side Quintus Fabius commanded the right and Publius Decius the left.

Quintus Fabius fought defensively to make the battle a test of endurance and wait for the enemy to flag. Publius Decius fought more aggressively and ordered a cavalry charge, which drove back the Senone cavalry twice. During the second charge they reached the enemy infantry, but were counter-charged by the Senone chariots and were routed. The line of Decius’ infantry was broken by the chariots and the Senone foot.

Publius Decius decided to perform the devotio, offering prayers to the gods and launching himself into the enemy lines, effectively sacrificing himself when his troops were in dire straits, just as his father had done at the Battle of Vesuvius in 340 BC. This act galvanised the Roman left who were joined by two reserve contingents which Quintus Fabius had called in to help.

On the right, Quintus Fabius directed the cavalry to outflank the Samnite wing and attack it in the flank and ordered his infantry to push forward. He then called in the other reserves. The Samnites broke and fled past the Senone line. The Senones formed a testudo with their shields at the front and top. Quintus Fabius ordered 500 Campanian lancers to attack them in the rear, combined with attacks by the middle line of one of the legions and by other cavalry units. Meanwhile, Quintus Fabius and the rest of the army took the Samnite camp by storm and cut off the line of retreat of the Senones. The Senones were defeated, losing 20,000 men according to Livy, while the Romans lost 8,700 men.

Aftermath
Livy noted that some writers (whose work is lost) exaggerated the size of the battle, saying that the Umbrians also took part which gave the enemy an infantry of 60,000, a cavalry of 40,000 and 1,000 chariots and claiming that Lucius Volumnius and his two legions also fought in the battle. Livy said that Lucius Volumnius, instead, was holding the front in Samnium and routed a Samnite force near Mount Tifernus. After the battle, 5,000 Samnites made their way back home from Sentinum through the land of the Paeligni. The locals attacked them and killed 1,000 men. Quintus Fabius left Publius Decius’ army to guard Etruria and went to Rome to celebrate a triumph. In Etruria, the Perusini continued the war. Appius Claudius was sent to head Publius Decius’ army as propraetor and Quintus Fabius confronted and defeated the Perusini. The Samnites attacked the areas around the River Liris (at Formiae and Vescia), and the River Volturnus. They were pursued by Appius Claudius and Lucius Volumnius. They joined their forces and defeated them near Caiatia, near Capua.

Rome's victory broke up the coalition it had defeated. The Etruscans, Umbrians and Senone Gauls pulled out of the war. The Samnites, besides losing their allies, suffered heavy casualties. The Romans went on to win other battles against the Samnites. In the final stage of the war, which ended five years later, the Romans devastated Samnium and the Samnites capitulated. Rome gained control over much of central Italy and part of southern Italy.

title: Battle of Sentinum


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Palio di Siena

The Palio di Siena (known locally simply as Il Palio; from Latin pallium) is a horse race held twice each year, on 2 July and 16 August, in Siena, Italy. Ten horses and riders, bareback and dressed in the appropriate colours, represent ten of the seventeen contrade, or city wards, in a tradition dating back to the 17th-century. The Palio held on 2 July is named Palio di Provenzano, in honour of the Madonna of Provenzano, a Marian devotion particular to Siena which developed around an icon from the Terzo Camollia area of the city. The Palio held on 16 August is named Palio dell'Assunta, in honour of the Assumption of Mary.

Sometimes, in case of exceptional events or local or national anniversaries deemed relevant and pertinent ones, the city community may decide for an extraordinary Palio, run between May and September, such as on 9 September 2000, to celebrate the city entering the new millennium and on 20 October 2018, in commemoration of the centenary of the end of the Great War.

The Corteo Storico, a pageant to the sound of the March of the Palio, precedes the race, which attracts visitors and spectators from around the world.

The race itself, in which the jockeys ride bareback, circles the Piazza del Campo, on which a thick layer of earth has been laid. The race is run for three laps of the piazza and usually lasts no more than 90 seconds. It is common for a few of the jockeys to be thrown off their horses while making the treacherous turns in the piazza, and indeed, it is not unusual to see riderless horses finishing the race. A horse is not required to have a rider to win the race.

Origins
The earliest known antecedents of the race are medieval. The town's central piazza was the site of public games, largely combative: pugna, a sort of many-sided boxing match or brawl; jousting; and in the 16th century, bullfights. Public races organized by the contrade were popular from the 14th century onwards; called palio alla lunga, they were run across the whole city.

When the Grand Duke of Tuscany outlawed bullfighting in 1590, the contrade took to organizing races in the Piazza del Campo. The first such races were on buffalo-back and called bufalate; asinate, races on donkey-back, later took their place, while horse racing continued elsewhere. The first modern Palio (called palio alla tonda to distinguish it from the earlier palio alla lunga) took place in 1633.

A second Palio in August
At first, one race was held each year, on 2 July. A second, on 16 August, was added from 1701, though initially, the August race was run intermittently rather than every year. The August race (il palio dell'Assunta), which coincided with the Feast of the Assumption, was probably introduced "spontaneously" as part of the feasting and celebration associated with this important festival. The date 16 August was presumably chosen because the other days of the mid-August canonical festival, the 14th and 15th of the month, were already taken up respectively by the Corteo dei Ceri (Procession of the Ceri) and by the census.

The August Palio started out as an extension of the celebrations of the July Palio and was organized and funded by July's winning contrada, though only if the contrada in question could afford it. After 1802, however, organisation and funding the August race became a central responsibility of the city, which removed annual uncertainty over whether or not an August Palio would run. It has been held at least since 15 August 1581 when 15-year-old jockey Virginia Tacci was the first female to ride a steed in the race.

Restriction
In 1729, the city's Munich-born governor, Violante of Bavaria, defined formal boundaries for the contrade, at the same time imposing several mergers so that the number of Sienese contrade was reduced to seventeen. This was also the year of the decree restricting to ten the number of contrade that could participate in a Palio; the restriction, which remains in force, resulted from the number and extent of accidents experienced in the preceding races.

The seventeen contrade
The seventeen contrade are:

In each race, only ten of the seventeen contrade participate: the seven which did not participate in the previous year's Palio and three others chosen by drawing lots.

The race today
The first race (Palio di Provenzano) is held on 2 July, which is both the Feast of the Visitation and the date of a local festival in honour of the Madonna of Provenzano (a sculpture of the Virgin Mary once owned by the Sienese leader Provenzano Salvani, which was supposed to have miraculous curative power). The second race is held on 16 August (Palio dell'Assunta), the day after the Feast of the Assumption, and is likewise dedicated to the Virgin Mary. After exceptional events (e.g., the Apollo 11 Moon landing) and on important anniversaries (e.g., the centennial of the Unification of Italy), the Sienese community may decide to hold a third Palio between May and September. The most recent was in 2018 to celebrate the anniversary of the end of WWI.

The field consists of ten horses, so not all seventeen contrade can take part in the Palio on any occasion. The seven contrade that did not take part in that month of the previous year are automatically included; three more are chosen by draw (twice a year, in the last days of May and at the beginning of July). Private owners (among them, some jockeys) offer the pick of their stables, selected during the year after trial races, other Palio races in Italy and veterinary examination, from which main representatives of the participating contrade, the Capitani, choose ten of approximately equal quality, three days before the race. A lottery then determines which horse will run for each contrada. Six trial races are run, the first on the evening of the horse selection and the last on the morning before the Palio. Corruption (bribery) is commonplace, prompting the residents of each contrada, known as contradaioli, to keep a close watch on their stable and their rider. The horses are of mixed breed; no purebred horses are allowed.

The race is preceded by a spectacular pageant to the sound of the March of the Palio, the Corteo Storico, which includes (among many others) Alfieri, flag wavers, in medieval costumes. Just before the pageant, a squad of carabinieri on horseback, wielding swords, demonstrate a mounted charge around the track. They take one lap at a walk, in formation, and a second at a gallop that foreshadows the excitement of the race to come, before exiting down one of the streets that leads out of Piazza del Campo. Spectators arrive early in the morning, eventually filling the centre of the town square, inside the track, to capacity; the local police seal the entrances once the festivities begin in earnest. Seats ranging from simple bleachers to elaborate box seats may be had for a price, but sell out long before the day of the race. At 7:30 p.m. for the July race, and 7 p.m. for the August race, the detonation of an explosive charge echoes across the piazza, signaling to the thousands of onlookers that the race is about to begin. The race itself runs for three laps of the Piazza del Campo, the perimeter of which is covered with several inches of dirt (imported and laid for the occasion at great expense to the city) and the corners of which are protected with padded crash barriers for the occasion. The jockeys ride the horses bareback from the starting line, an area between two ropes. Nine horses, in an order only decided by lot immediately before the race starts, enter the space. The tenth, the rincorsa, waits outside. When the rincorsa finally enters the space between the ropes the starter (mossiere) activates a mechanism that instantly drops the canapo (the front rope). This process (the mossa) can take a very long time, as deals have usually been made between various contrade and jockeys that affect when the rincorsa moves—he may be waiting for a particular other horse to be well—or badly-placed, for example.

On the dangerous, steeply canted track, the riders are allowed to use their whips (in Italian, nerbi, stretched, dried bulls' hide) not only for their own horse, but also for disturbing other horses and riders. The Palio in fact is won by the horse who represents his contrada, and not by the jockeys. The winner is the first horse to cross the finish line—a horse can win without its rider (a condition known as cavallo scosso). A horse can also win without its decorative headgear (spennacchiera), although the opposite belief is widely held even among the Sienese. The loser in the race is considered to be the contrada whose horse came second, not last.

The winner is awarded a banner of painted silk, or palio, which is hand-painted by a different artist for each race. The enthusiasm after the victory, however, is so extreme that the ceremony of attribution of the palio is quite instantaneous, being the first moment of a months-long celebration for the winning ward. There are occasional outbreaks of violence between partisans of rival contrade.

There may be some danger to spectators from the sheer number of people in attendance. There have also been complaints about mistreatment of horses, injuries and even deaths, especially from animal-rights associations and even from some veterinarians. In the Palio held on 16 August 2004, the horse for the contrada of Bruco (the Caterpillar) fell and was badly trampled, as the race was not stopped despite possible additional safety risks for other horses. The horse died of its injuries, raising further complaints from animal-rights organizations.

The Palio differs from "normal" horse races in that part of the game is for the wards to prevent rival contrade from winning. When a contrada fails to win, its historical enemy will celebrate that fact nearly as merrily as a victory of its own, regardless of whether adversarial interference was a deciding factor. Few things are forbidden to the jockeys during the race; for instance, they can pull or shove their fellows, hit the horses and each other, or try to hamper other horses at the start.

The most successful ward is Oca, the Goose, which has won 64 races (at least according to their records, which start from 1644), followed by Chiocciola, the Snail, with 51, and Tartuca, the Tortoise, with 46. Oca is also the contrada with the most wins in recent history (from 1900 to 2010) with 21 victories, followed by Selva, the Forest, with 18, and Drago, the Dragon, with 17.

Among jockeys, the most victorious of all time is Andrea Degortes, nicknamed Aceto ('Vinegar'), with 14 wins (from 1964 to 1996). Angelo Meloni, nicknamed Picino (active from 1897 to 1933) has the second in the number of wins with 13 successes, and Luigi Bruschelli, nicknamed Trecciolino (still active), has the third most of 12 wins (although he claims 13 victories, his horse won without him one year).

The most successful horses were Folco and Panezio with eight wins each, followed by Topolone with seven.

In recent history (from 1900 to the present), only three wards have succeeded in winning both the July and the August races in a single year (the term in Italian is fare cappotto) with the same jockey. Tartuca (the Tortoise) accomplished the feat in 1933 with jockey Fernando Leoni (nicknamed "Ganascia") on Folco. In 1997, Giraffa (the Giraffe) won both races, with jockey Giuseppe Pes, nicknamed Il Pesse. In 2016, jockey Jonatan Bartoletti, on the mount "Preziosa Penelope", won both the July and August races for Lupa (the She-wolf).

Ritual and rivalry
The Palio di Siena is more than a simple horse race. It is the culmination of ongoing rivalry and competition between the contrade. The lead-up and the day of the race are invested with passion and pride. Formal and informal rituals take place as the day proceeds, with each contrada navigating a strategy of horsemanship, alliances and animosities. There are the final clandestine meetings among the heads of the contrade and then between them and the jockeys. There is the two-hour pageant of the Corteo Storico, and then all this is crowned by the race, which takes only about 75 seconds to complete. Although there is great public spectacle, the passions displayed are still very real.

The contrada that has been the longest without a victory is nicknamed nonna ('grandmother'). Civetta (the Owlet) had the title from 1979 until 2009, when it won 16 August race. Torre (the Tower) had this title for being without victory for 44 years (from 1961 to 2005), and Bruco (the Caterpillar) held the title for not winning over 41 years (from 1955 to 1996). Last nonna was Lupa (the She-Wolf), which has not had a victory since 2 July 1989, a period of 0 years years, until July 2016, when it finally won, leaving now the nonna title to Aquila (the Eagle).

Palio (Drappellone)
The drappellone ('banner'), or palio, known affectionately as cencio ('the rag') in Siena, is the trophy that is to be delivered to the contrada that wins the Palio.

The palio is an elongated rectangular piece of silk, hand-painted by an artist for the occasion. It is held vertically on a black-and-white shaft halberd and topped by a silver plate, with two white and black plumes draped down the sides.

The palio, along with the plumes, remains the property of the contrada. The plate is returned to the city of Siena before the two Palii of the following year, after the date and the name of the victorious contrada are inscribed on its back. There is one silver platter for the Palio in July and another for the August Palio. The plates are replaced approximately every ten years.

The value of the banner is unique, because it represents a particular historical period of the city of Siena. The palii often reflect the symbols of the various governments that have presided at various times, including the crest of the grand duchy of Lorraine, the crest of the Grand Dukes of Tuscany, the crest of the Kingdom of Sardinia, symbols from Fascist Italy, and most recently, imagery of the Republic.

The process that an artist should follow in designing the palio is rigid: it must follow a precise iconography that includes some sacred symbols, as the July Palio is dedicated to the Madonna of Provenzano, and that of August to the Madonna of the Assumption. It must present the insignia of the city, those of the third part of the city, and the symbols or colors of the ten contrade participating in the race. There are, however, no limits regarding the style of the art. The palio is first presented at a press conference in the courtyard of the Podestà of the City Hall about a week before the race.

Preparations throughout the year
Although many activities take place within each contrada, the organization of the Palio is still the largest, since it is not just in two races each year. Each time, the festival itself runs for four days of events, the preparation for which lasts all year.

Beginning in early winter, the contrada leaders talk and develop strategies, making contacts with the jockeys and horse owners. These leaders prepare those who will race in the Piazza del Campo or take part in minor Palios elsewhere in nearby towns (la cosiddetta provincia) and bring them to training courses organized by the city in the spring.

The full activities of the Palio start to grow in momentum towards the end of May, with the drawing of lots of the three remaining contrade that will join the seven that have won the right to race. With districts and teams outlined, contrade begin to talk about "deals" (engagement of jockeys) and "parties" (secret pacts for the win), despite not knowing which horse they will draw in the lot.

About a week before the race, the palio (drappellone) itself is presented to the city, which has commissioned a local artist (in the case of the Palio of July) or internationally recognized artist (in the case of the Palio of August or a special Palio) to create the prize. Also at this time, visits occur to the horses which will be presented for the lottery.

In the first of the four days of the festival, the lottery is held to select which barbero (the term for 'racehorse' in the city of Siena and Tuscany) will go to which contrada. The stone race track around the square is covered with a layer of dirt composed of a mixture of tuff, clay and sand. Six trials are run, during which the riders have the opportunity to familiarize themselves with their horse and with the track itself, its sounds and rhythms of the race. The trials, Prova, are held the evening of the horse lottery and twice daily for the next two days. Attended by many tourists and contrada members in square, barriers are mounted on the outside of the track so no people may move in and out during the race. The children of the contrade are assembled in bleachers to sing closest to the city hall during the trials, but adults will sit there on the race day. Children are no longer allowed to stand in the middle of the piazza during the race, and can only view from a bleacher or window.

Among the events that mark the approach of the Palio are the rehearsal dinner, the "mass" of the jockeys and the blessing of the horse and jockey.

Extraordinary Palios
An extraordinary Palio is a third Palio which may take place during the period between May and September and is associated with events or anniversaries of major importance for the community of Siena. The most recent extraordinary Palio was held in 2018. An extraordinary Palio on 9 September 2000 coincided with the advent of the new millennium and was won by Selva (Forest), by jockey Giuseppe Pes riding on the horse Urban II. Prior to this, the last extraordinary Palio was held on 13 September 1986 to celebrate the centenary of the abolition of the Balia and Biccherna governments.

In earlier times, the third Palio was a way to honor distinguished guests passing through or visiting Siena. Examples are the extraordinary Palio of 7 June 1676, during the visit to Siena of the wife of Prince Don Agostino Chigi, and that of 15 June 1673 (not considered official), honouring the visit to Siena of Cardinal Flavio Chigi. Even the Grand Duke of Tuscany requested another round of Palio, perhaps closer to the ordinary.

From the second half of the 19th century, extraordinary Palios began to be organized for celebration of special events, rather than illustrious visits. This was the case of a meeting of the Society of Sciences or the inauguration of important monuments (such as the inauguration of the monument to the fallen in the Battle of Curtatone and Montanara, on 29 May 1893). In 1896, they even ran four Palios, both ordinary and two extraordinary. The first extraordinary race was on 16 August, which is considered extraordinary because it was requested by the citizens as the original race was moved to 25 August due to transfer from Siena's VIII Corps, and the second was on 23 September for the inauguration of the monument to Giuseppe Garibaldi.

A third Palio, the "Palio of Peace", was held in 1945 by popular acclaim to celebrate the end of World War II and was won by Gioacchino Calabro riding Rubacuori su Folco, for the contrada of Drago (Dragon). An extraordinary Palio was held in 1969 to commemorate the landing on the Moon by the Apollo 11 mission.

After 1945 the habit of running extraordinary palios to mark important centenaries emerged. A palio was held on 28 May 1950 to celebrate the five hundredth anniversary of the canonization of Saint Bernardine of Siena. On 5 June 1961 an extraordinary palio marked the centenary of unification. The most recent centenary palio, held on 20 October 2018, commemorated the ending of the First World War in 1918.

Controversy and equine security measures
For several years, the Palio has been the focus of numerous protests by animal-rights organizations, including the Anti-Vivisection League. Concerns include primarily race incidents causing falls, which in some cases have led to horses' deaths.

In 2011, these concerns resulted in Italy's tourism minister blocking the Palio from being nominated for listing in the UNESCO Intangible Cultural Heritage Lists.

The results of calculations on the percentage of accidents caused by the Palio vary depending on who makes them. According to the Anti-Vivisection League, a total of 48 horses have died from 1970 to 2007, an average of one dead horse per year. However, the calculations carried out by supporters of the Palio for the same period, which include all the tests held before the real race, give a rate of 2.05% of fatal accidents per ride.

Many rules governing the protection of animals have been developed and implemented only since the 1990s; supporters of the Palio stress that injuries have been drastically reduced since then.

In recent decades, the city of Siena has adopted a series of measures to ensure the protection of horses (and riders) before, during and after the race, but these measures are still judged insufficient by some animal welfare groups, who continue to seek abolition of the race. Among the measures taken include:

 * A compulsory health check held by a commission appointed by the City Council and consisting of two surgeons
 * Serum chemistry analysis, introduced in May 1999 in order to confirm and verify what has always been required by the Rules, or the prohibition of administration of substances with stimulants and depressants and local anesthetics
 * Approval in 1999 the "Protocol for the provision of incentives for the maintenance of the Palio horse" and the establishment of the register of horses trained to run. A register of farmers was introduced in 2004, instead of half blood Arabian horses (deemed physically fit to travel) and a register of barriers
 * Building a track in the town of Mociano, identical in shape and slope to the Piazza del Campo. From March to June, in addition to Monticiano and Monteroni d'Arbia, the horses intended for the Palio train here.
 * Protections (formerly known as materassoni) present the curve of St. Martin in June 1999 set up a barrier of protection to high absorption in PVC, raising the parapet of the House and the curve of shirts introduction of safety for the emergency personnel of 118,
 * Intervention on the composition, method of implementation and monitoring of the layer of tuff
 * Care of horses that no longer run the Palio (due to age or injury) at the Equestrian Center of State Forestry, "The Caggio", in the town of Radicondoli.
 * Alcohol test for jockeys by order of the Secretary of Health Francesca Martini.

Feature films
This is the race that is seen in:
 * Palio by Alessandro Blasetti (1932)
 * La ragazza del Palio by Luigi Zampa (1957)
 * Bianco rosso celeste – cronaca dei giorni del Palio di Siena by Luciano Emmer (1963)
 * "The Winds Rise", the first episode of the 1983 miniseries The Winds of War, ABC miniseries directed by Dan Curtis
 * Il bianco e il nero – Tutti i colori del Palio di Siena by Anton Giulio Onofri (2002)
 * The Last Victory by John Appel (2004)
 * Visioni di Palio by Anton Giulio Onofri (2004)
 * Piazza delle Cinque Lune by Renzo Martinelli (2006)
 * Quantum of Solace, the 22nd James Bond movie, directed by Marc Forster (2008)
 * Palio by Cosima Spender and John Hunt (2015)

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Palio di Siena


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Itapecerica da Serra

Itapecerica da Serra is a municipality in the Brazilian state of São Paulo. It is part of the Metropolitan Region of São Paulo. The population is 177,662 (2020 est.) in an area of 150.74 km2. It is located 23 miles southwest of São Paulo and at an altitude of 920 m above sea level. The name Itapecerica is believed to come from the Tupi language for slippery stone, and da Serra means of the Mountains in Portuguese.

History
Itapecerica da Serra was founded in 1562 by the Jesuit missionaries. It was one of several settlements Christianized indians, established around the Colégio de São Paulo de Piratininga (later to become the city of São Paulo) as a first line of defense against raids by hostile Indians. Besides the local inhabitants, the village incorporated natives from the village of Carapicuíba, brought by bandeirante Afonso Sardinha and priest Belchior Pontes.

Media
In telecommunications, the city was served by Companhia Telefônica Brasileira until 1973, when it began to be served by Telecomunicações de São Paulo. In July 1998, this company was acquired by Telefónica, which adopted the Vivo brand in 2012.

The company is currently an operator of cell phones, fixed lines, internet (fiber optics/4G) and television (satellite and cable).

title: Itapecerica da Serra


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User:J heisenberg

Hello everyone. I'm from Munich, Germany. Interests: Philosophy, mathematics, economics.

Lists of red links:
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 * Stuff from Nuttall Encyclopedia
 * List of cities with more than 100 000 inhabitants

Everything licensed under public domain.

title: User:J heisenberg


text:
Itapecerica

Itapecerica is a municipality located in the center of the Brazilian state of Minas Gerais. The population is 21,761 (2020 est.) in an area of 1041 km². The city belongs to the meso-region of Oeste de Minas and to the micro-region of Formiga. It was founded in 1789.

History
Candindé, an extinct Jê language, was once spoken in the Itapecerica Valley.

Location
The city center of Itapecerica is located at an elevation of 825 meters east of Formiga and southeast of Divinópolis. Neighboring municipalities are:  Divinópolis (N), Cláudio (E), Camacho (S), Oliveira (SE), and Formiga (W).

Distances to other cities
 * Belo Horizonte/MG - 180 km
 * Formiga/MG - 62 km
 * Camacho/MG - 22 km
 * Divinópolis/MG - 55 km

Economic activities
Services, mining, and industry are the most important economic activities. There are large deposits of graphite in the region, which is used in making pencils. In 2005 there were 25 extractive industries (mining) employing 404 persons and 89 transformation industries employing 628 persons. The GDP in 2005 was approximately R$121 million, 9 million reais from taxes, 67 million reais from services, 24 million reais from industry, and 19 million reais from agriculture. There were 1,203 rural producers on 86,000 hectares of land (2006). 127 farms had tractors (2006). Approximately 2,500 persons were involved in agriculture. The main crops are coffee, sugarcane, and corn. There were 41,000 head of cattle (2006), a large percentage of which were dairy cattle. Poultry raising was also important.

There were 4 banks (2007). The motor vehicle fleet had 2,525 automobiles, 258 trucks, 196 pickup trucks, and 1,155 motorcycles (2007).

Health and education
In the health sector there were 11 public health clinics and 1 hospital with 59 beds (2005). Patients with more serious health conditions are transported to Formiga or Divinópolis. Educational needs of 4,600 students were met by 19 primary schools, 6 middle schools, and 4 pre-primary schools.

 * Municipal Human Development Index: 0.763 (2000)
 * State ranking: 200 out of 853 municipalities in 2000
 * National ranking: 1514 out of 5,138 municipalities in 2000
 * Literacy rate: 85%
 * Life expectancy: 72 (average of males and females)

In 2000 the per capita monthly income of R$223.00 was well below the state and national average of R$276.00 and R$297.00 respectively. Poços de Caldas had the highest per capita monthly income in 2000 with R$435.00. The lowest was Setubinha with R$73.00.

The highest ranking municipality in Minas Gerais in 2000 was Poços de Caldas with 0.841, while the lowest was Setubinha with 0.568. Nationally the highest was São Caetano do Sul in São Paulo with 0.919, while the lowest was Setubinha. In more recent statistics (considering 5,507 municipalities) Manari in the state of Pernambuco has the lowest rating in the country—0,467—putting it in last place.

title: Itapecerica


text:
Workplace OS

Workplace OS is IBM's ultimate operating system prototype of the 1990s. It is the product of an exploratory research program in 1991 which yielded a design called the Grand Unifying Theory of Systems (GUTS), proposing to unify the world's systems as generalized "personalities" cohabitating concurrently upon a universally sophisticated platform of object-oriented frameworks upon one microkernel. Using personalities, a single machine would be able to run applications from multiple conventional operating systems like Unix or OS/2.

Developed in collaboration with Taligent and its Pink operating system imported from Apple via the AIM alliance, the ambitious Workplace OS was intended to improve software portability and maintenance costs by aggressively recruiting all operating system vendors to convert their products into Workplace OS personalities. In 1995, IBM reported that "Nearly 20 corporations, universities, and research institutes worldwide have licensed the microkernel, laying the foundation for a completely open microkernel standard." At the core of IBM's new unified strategic direction for the entire company, the project was intended also as a bellwether toward PowerPC hardware platforms, to compete with the Wintel duopoly.

With protracted development spanning four years and $2 billion (or 0.6% of IBM's revenue for that period), the project suffered development hell characterized by workplace politics, feature creep, and the second-system effect. Many idealistic key assumptions made by IBM architects about software complexity and system performance were never tested until far too late in development, and found to be infeasible. In January 1996, the first and only commercial preview was billed under the OS/2 family with the name "OS/2 Warp Connect (PowerPC Edition)" for limited special order by select IBM customers, as a crippled product. The entire Workplace OS platform was discontinued in March due to very low market demand, including that for enterprise PowerPC hardware.

A University of California case study described the Workplace OS project as "one of the most significant operating systems software investments of all time" and "one of the largest operating system failures in modern times".

Objective
By 1990, IBM acknowledged the software industry to be in a state of perpetual crisis. This was due to the chaos from the inordinate complexity of software engineering inherited by its legacy of procedural programming practices since the 1960s. Large software projects were too difficult, fragile, expensive, and time-consuming to create and maintain; they required too many programmers, who were too busy with fixing bugs and adding incremental features to create new applications. Different operating systems were alien to each other, each of them running their own proprietary applications. IBM envisioned "life after maximum entropy" through "operating systems unification at last" and wanted to lay a new worldview for the future of computing.

IBM sought a new world view of a unified foundation for computing, based upon the efficient reuse of common work. It wanted to break the traditional monolithic software development cycle of producing alphas, then betas, then testing, and repeating over the entire operating system — instead, compartmentalizing the development and quality assurance of individual unit objects. This new theory of unifying existing legacy software and the new way of building all new software, was nicknamed the Grand Unified Theory of Systems or GUTS.

Coincidentally, Apple already had a two-year-old secret prototype of its microkernel-based object-oriented operating system with application frameworks, named Pink. The theory of GUTS was expanded by Pink, yielding Workplace OS.

Architecture
IBM described its new microkernel architecture as scalable, modular, portable, client/server distributed, and open and fully licensable both in binary and source code forms. This microkernel-based unified architecture was intended to allow all software to become scalable both upward into supercomputing space and downward into mobile and embedded space.

Leveraged upon a single microkernel, IBM wanted to achieve its grand goal of unification by simplifying complex development models into reusable objects and frameworks, and all while retaining complete backward compatibility with legacy and heritage systems. Multiple-library support would allow developers to progressively migrate select source code objects to 64-bit mode, with side-by-side selectable 32-bit and 64-bit modes. IBM's book on Workplace OS says, "Maybe we can get to a 64-bit operating system in our lifetime." IBM intended shareable objects to eventually reduce the footprint of each personality, scaling them down to a handheld computing profile.

At the base of Workplace OS is a fork of the Mach 3.0 microkernel (release mk68) originally developed by Carnegie Mellon University and heavily modified by the Open Software Foundation's Research Institute. Officially named "IBM Microkernel",    it provides five core features: IPC, virtual memory support, processes and threads, host and processor sets, and I/O and interrupt support.

On top of the IBM Microkernel is a layer of shared services (originally called Personality Neutral Services or PNS ) to cater to some or all of the personalities above them. Shared services are endian-neutral,  have no user interface, and can serve other shared services. Byte summarizes that shared services "can include not only low-level file system and device-driver services but also higher-level networking and even database services. [Workplace OS's lead architect Paul Giangarra] believes that locating such application-oriented services close to the microkernel will improve their efficiency by reducing the number of function calls and enabling the service to integrate its own device drivers." This layer contains the file systems, the scheduler, network services, and security services. IBM first attempted a device driver model completely based in userspace to maximize its dynamic configuration, but later found the need to blend it between userspace and kernelspace, while keeping as much as possible in userspace. The Adaptive Driver Architecture (ADD) was designed for the creation of layered device drivers, which are easily portable to other hardware and operating system platforms beyond Workplace OS, and which consist of about 5000-8000 lines of device-specific code each. Some shared services are common only to select personalities, such as MMPM serving multimedia only to Windows 3.1 and OS/2 personalities, and which is alien or redundant to other markets.

Atop the shared services, another layer of userspace servers called personalities provide DOS, Windows, OS/2 (Workplace OS/2), and UNIX (WPIX) environments. The further hope was to support OS/400, AIX, Taligent OS, and MacOS personalities. Personalities provide environment subsystems to applications. Any one personality can be made dominant for a given version of the OS, providing the desktop user with a single GUI environment to accommodate the secondary personalities. In 1993, IBM intended one release version to be based upon the OS/2 Workplace Shell and another to be based upon the UNIX Common Desktop Environment (CDE).

IBM explained the branding: "Workplace OS is the codename for a collection of operating system components including, among others, the IBM Microkernel and the OS/2 personality. Workplace OS/2 is the specific codename for the OS/2 personality. Workplace OS/2 will operate with the IBM Microkernel and can be considered OS/2 for the PowerPC." For the 1995 final preview release, IBM continued, "When we stopped using the name 'Workplace' and started calling the product 'OS/2 for the PowerPC', you might have thought that the 'Workplace' was dead. But the 'Workplace' is far from dead. It has simply been renamed for prime time." Workplace OS/2 was intended to define the future of OS/2, as a 32-bit clean platform and free of internal legacy, with perfect compatibility for source code of OS/2 applications and drivers. IBM originally wanted to prove new development models on Workplace OS/2 and backport them into OS/2 2.1 for x86 until the two platforms were unified—especially the IBM Microkernel, a new graphics subsystem, fully 32-bit system code with a flat memory model, Taligent, and OpenDoc.

IBM intended for Workplace OS to run on several processor architectures, including PowerPC, ARM, and x86  which would range in size from handheld PDAs to workstations to large 64-bit servers and supercomputers. IBM saw the easy portability of the Workplace OS as creating a simple migration path to move its existing x86 (DOS and OS/2) customer base onto a new wave of standard reference PowerPC-based systems, such as the PC Power Series and the Power Macintosh. Creating a unique but open and industry-standard reference platform of open-source microkernel, IBM hedged its company-wide operating system strategy by aggressively attempting to recruit other computer companies to adopt its microkernel as a basis for their own operating systems.

GUTS
In January 1991, there was an internal presentation to the IBM Management Committee of a new strategy for operating system products. This included a chart called the Grand Unification Theory of Operating Systems (GUTS) which outlined how a single microkernel underlying common subsystems could provide a single unifying architecture for the world's many existing and future operating systems. It was initially based in a procedural programming model, not object-oriented. The design elements of this plan had already been implemented on IBM's RS/6000 platform via the System Object Model (SOM), a model which had already been delivered as integral to the OS/2 operating system.

Sometime later in 1991, as a result of the Apple/IBM business partnership, a small exploratory IBM team first visited the Taligent team, who demonstrated a relatively mature prototype operating system and programming model based entirely on Apple's Pink project from 1987. There, GUTS's goals were greatly impacted and expanded by exposure to these similar goals—especially advanced in the areas of aggressive object-orientation, and of software frameworks upon a microkernel. IBM's optimistic team saw the Pink platform as being the current state of the art of operating system architecture. IBM wanted to adopt Pink's more object-oriented programming model and framework-based system design, and add compatibility with legacy procedural programming along with the major concept of multiple personalities of operating systems, to create the ultimate possible GUTS model.

Through the historic Apple/IBM partnership, Apple's CEO John Sculley said that the already volume-shipping OS/2 and MacOS would become unified upon the common PowerPC hardware platform to "bring a renaissance to the industry".

In late 1991, a small team from Boca Raton and Austin began implementing the GUTS project, with the goal of proving the GUTS concept, by first converting the monolithic OS/2 2.1 system to the Mach microkernel, and yielding a demo. To gain shared access to key personnel currently working on the existing OS/2, they disguised the project as the Joint Design Task Force and brought "a significant number" of personnel from Boca, Austin (with LANs and performance), Raleigh (with SNA and other transport services), IBM Research (with operating systems and performance), and Rochester (with the 64-bit, object-oriented worldview from AS/400). Pleased with the robust, long-term mentality of the microkernel technology and with the progress of the project, the team produced a prototype in mid 1992. The initial internal-development prototypes ran on x86-based hardware and provided a BSD Unix derived personality and a DOS personality.

Demos and business reorganization
At Comdex in late 1992, the team flew in and assembled a private demonstration based on last-minute downloads to replace corrupted files and one hour of sleep. The presentation was so well received that the prototype was put on the trade show floor on Thursday, as the first public demonstration of the IBM Microkernel-based system running OS/2, DOS, 16-bit Windows, and UNIX applications. In 1992, IBM ordered Taligent to migrate the Taligent OS from its internally developed microkernel named Opus, onto the IBM Microkernel. Ostensibly, this would have allowed Taligent's operating system (implemented as a Workplace OS personality) to execute side-by-side with DOS and OS/2 operating system personalities.

In 1993, InfoWorld reported that Jim Cannavino "has gone around the company and developer support for a plan to merge all of the company's computing platforms—ES/9000, AS/400, RS/6000, and PS/2—around a single set of technologies, namely the PowerPC microprocessor, the Workplace OS operating system, and the Taligent object model, along with a series of open standards for cross-platform development, network interoperability, etc." On June 30, 1993, a presentation was given at the Boca Programming Center by Larry Loucks, IBM Fellow and VP of Software Architecture of the Personal Software Products (PSP) Division.

By 1993, IBM reportedly planned two packages of Workplace OS, based on personality dominance: one based on the OS/2 Workplace Shell and another based upon the UNIX Common Desktop Environment (CDE). IBM and Apple were speaking about the possibility of a Mac OS personality.

By January 1994, the IBM Power Personal Systems Division had still not yet begun testing its PowerPC hardware with any of its three intended launch operating systems: definitely AIX and Windows NT, and hopefully also Workplace OS. Software demonstrations showed limited personality support, with the dominant one being the OS/2 Workplace Shell desktop, and the DOS and UNIX personalities achieving only fullscreen text mode support with crude hotkey switching between the environments. Byte reported that the multiple personality support promised in Workplace OS's conceptual ambitions was more straightforward, foundational, and robust than that of the already-shipping Windows NT. The magazine said "IBM is pursuing multiple personalities, while Microsoft appears to be discarding them" while conceding that "it's easier to create a robust plan than a working operating system with robust implementations of multiple personalities".

In 1994, the industry was reportedly shifting away from monolithic development and even application suites, toward object-oriented, component-based, crossplatform, application frameworks.

By 1995, Workplace OS was becoming notable for its many and repeated launch delays, with IBM described as being inconsistent and "wishy washy" with dates. This left IBM's own PowerPC hardware products without a mainstream operating system, forcing the company to at least consider the rival Windows NT. In April 1994, Byte reported that under lead architect Paul Giangarra, IBM had staffed more than "400 people working to bring [Workplace OS] up on Power Personal hardware".

In May 1994, the RISC Systems software division publicly announced the company's first attempt to even study the feasibility of converting AIX into a Workplace OS personality, which the company had been publicly promising since the beginning. One IBM Research Fellow led a team of fewer than ten, to identify and address the problem, which was the fundamentally incompatible byte ordering between the big-endian AIX and the little-endian Workplace OS. This problem is endemic, because though the PowerPC CPU and Workplace OS can perform in either mode, endianness is a systemwide configuration set once at boot time only; and Workplace OS favors OS/2 which comes from the little-endian Intel x86 architecture. After seven months of silence on the issue, IBM announced in January 1995 that the intractable endianness problem had resulted in the total abandonment of the flagship plan for an AIX personality.

In late 1994, as Workplace OS approached its first beta version, IBM referred to the beta product as "OS/2 for the PowerPC". As the project's first deliverable product, this first beta was released to select developers on the Power Series 440 in December 1994. There was a second beta release in 1995. By 1995, IBM had shipped two different releases of an application sampler CD, for use with the beta OS releases.

Preview launch
In mid 1995, IBM officially named its planned initial Workplace OS release "OS/2 Warp Connect (PowerPC Edition)" with the code name "Falcon". In October 1995, IBM announced the upcoming first release, though still a developer preview. The announcement predicted it to have version 1.0 of the IBM Microkernel with the OS/2 personality and a new UNIX personality, on PowerPC. Having been part of the earliest demonstrations, the UNIX personality was now intended to be offered to customers as a holdover due to the nonexistence of a long-awaited AIX personality, but the UNIX personality was also abandoned prior to release.

This developer release is the first ever publication of Workplace OS, and of the IBM Microkernel (at version 1.0), which IBM's internal developers had been running privately on Intel and PowerPC hardware. The gold master was produced on December 15, 1995 with availability on January 5, 1996, only to existing Power Series hardware customers who paid $215 for a special product request through their IBM representative, who then relayed the request to the Austin research laboratory. The software essentially appears to the user as the visually identical and source-compatible PowerPC equivalent of the mainstream OS/2 3.0 for Intel. Packaged as two CDs with no box, its accompanying overview paper booklet calls it the "final edition" but it is still a very incomplete product intended only for developers. Its installer only supports two computer models, the IBM PC Power Series 830 and 850 which have PowerPC 604 CPUs of 100-120 MHz, 16-196 MB of RAM, and IDE drives. Contrary to the product's "Connect" name, the installed operating system has no networking support. However, full networking functionality is described within the installed documentation files, and in the related book IBM's Official OS/2 Warp Connect PowerPC Edition: Operating in the New Frontier (1995) — all of which the product's paper booklet warns the user to disregard. The kernel dumps debugging data to the serial console. The system hosts no compiler, so developers are required to cross-compile applications on the source-compatible OS/2 for Intel system, using MetaWare’s High C compiler or VisualAge C++, and manually copy the files via relocatable medium to run them.

With an officially concessionary attitude, IBM had no official plans for a general release packaged for OEMs or retail, beyond this developer preview available only via special order from the development lab. Upon its launch, Joe Stunkard, spokesman for IBM's Personal Systems Products division, said "When and if the Power market increases, we'll increase the operating system's presence as required." On January 26, 1996, an Internet forum statement is made by John Soyring, IBM's Vice President of Personal Software Products: "We are not planning additional releases of the OS/2 Warp family on the PowerPC platform during 1996 — as we just released in late December 1995 the OS/2 Warp (PowerPC Edition) product. ... We have just not announced future releases on the PowerPC platform. In no way should our announcement imply that we are backing away from the PowerPC."

Roadmap
On November 22, 1995, IBM's developer newsletter said, "Another focus of the 1996 product strategy will be the IBM Microkernel and microkernel-based versions of OS/2 Warp. Nearly 20 corporations, universities, and research institutes worldwide have licensed the microkernel, laying the foundation for a completely open microkernel standard." IBM planned a second feature-parity release for x86 and PowerPC in 1996, and version 2.0 of the microkernel was "distributed to microkernel adopters" early that year. This version was described as final, with support for x86 and ARM processors. IBM reportedly tested OS/2 on the never-released x86-compatible PowerPC 615.

At this point, the several-year future roadmap of Workplace OS included IBM Microkernel 2.0 and was intended to subsume the fully converged future of the OS/2 platform starting after the future release of OS/2 version 4, including ports to Pentium, Pentium Pro, MIPS, ARM, and Alpha CPUs.

Discontinuation
The Workplace OS project was finally canceled in March 1996 due to myriad factors: inadequate performance; low acceptance of the PowerPC Reference Platform; poor quality of the PowerPC 620 launch; extensive cost overruns; lack of AIX, Windows, or OS/400 personalities; and the overall low customer demand. The only mainstream desktop operating system running on PowerPC was Windows NT, which also lacked supply and demand. Industry analysts said that "the industry may have passed by the PowerPC". In 1996, IBM also closed the Power Personal Division responsible for personal PowerPC systems. IBM stopped developing new operating systems, and instead committed heavily to Linux, Java, and some Windows. In 2012, IBM described Linux as the "universal platform" in a way that happens to coincide with many of the essential design objectives of GUTS.

Industrial reception
Reception was enthusiastically but skeptically mixed, as the young IT industry was already constantly grappling with the second-system effect, and was now presented with Workplace OS and PowerPC hardware as the ultimate second system duo to unify all preceding and future systems. On November 15, 1993, InfoWorld's concerns resembled the Osborne effect: "Now IBM needs to talk about this transition without also telling its customers to stop buying all the products it is already selling. Tough problem. Very little of the new platform that IBM is developing will be ready for mission-critical deployment until 1995 or 1996. So the company has to dance hard for two and maybe three years to keep already disaffected customers on board."

In 1994, an extensive analysis by Byte reported that the multiple personality concept in Workplace OS's beta design was more straightforward, foundational, and robust than that of the already-shipping Windows NT. It said "IBM is pursuing multiple personalities, while Microsoft appears to be discarding them" and conceded that "it's easier to create a robust plan than a working operating system with robust implementations of multiple personalities".

Upon the January 1996 developer final release, InfoWorld relayed the industry's dismay that the preceding two years of delays had made the platform "too little, too late", "stillborn", and effectively immediately discontinued. An analyst was quoted, "The customer base would not accept OS/2 and the PowerPC at the same time" because by the time IBM would eventually ship a final retail package of OS/2 on PowerPC machines, "the power/price ratio of the PowerPC processor just wasn't good enough to make customers accept all of the other drawbacks" of migrating to a new operating system alone.

In 2013, Ars Technica retrospectively characterized the years of hype surrounding Workplace OS as supposedly being "the ultimate operating system, the OS to end all OSes ... It would run on every processor architecture under the sun, but it would mostly showcase the power of POWER. It would be all-singing and all-dancing."

Internal analysis
In January 1995, four years after the conception and one year before the cancellation of Workplace OS, IBM announced the results of a very late stage analysis of the project's initial assumptions. This concluded that it is impossible to unify the inherent disparity in endianness between different proposed personalities of legacy systems, resulting in the total abandonment of the flagship plan for an AIX personality.

In May 1997, one year after its cancellation, one of its architects reflected back on the intractable problems of the project's software design and the limits of available hardware.

Academic analysis
In September 1997, a case study of the history of the development of Workplace OS was published by the University of California with key details having been verified by IBM personnel. These researchers concluded that IBM had relied throughout the project's history upon multiple false assumptions and overly grandiose ambitions, and had failed to apprehend the inherent difficulty of implementing a kernel with multiple personalities. IBM considered the system mainly as its constituent components and not as a whole, in terms of system performance, system design, and corporate personnel organization. IBM had not properly researched and proven the concept of generalizing all these operating system personalities before starting the project, or at any responsible timeframe during it — especially its own flagship AIX. IBM assumed that all the resultant performance issues would be mitigated by eventual deployment upon PowerPC hardware. The Workplace OS product suffered the second-system effect, including feature creep, with thousands of global contributing engineers across many disparate business units nationwide. The Workplace OS project had spent four years and $2 billion (or 0.6% of IBM's revenue for that period), which the report described as "one of the most significant operating systems software investments of all time" and "one of the largest operating system failures in modern times".

title: Workplace OS


text:
Battle of Camerinum

The Battle of Camerinum in 298 BC took place during the Third Samnite War. In the battle, the Samnites defeated a Roman legion under the command of the propraetor Lucius Cornelius Scipio Barbatus.

title: Battle of Camerinum


text:
Robert Carney

Robert Bostwick Carney (March 26, 1895 – June 25, 1990) was an admiral in the United States Navy who served as commander-in-chief of the NATO forces in Southern Europe (1951–1953) and then as Chief of Naval Operations (1953–1954) during the Eisenhower administration.

Early years
Born in Vallejo, California, Carney graduated from the United States Naval Academy in 1916. He served in World War I, seeing combat against German U-boats.

Between wars
Carney served as Flag Secretary to Admiral Louis R. de Steiguer during the mid-1920s during de Steiguer's time in command of various battleship forces. Their relationship was not happy, mainly due to de Steiguer's imperious manner described by Carney as "constant pressure, irascibility, criticism, and unpleasantness".

Famously, Carney eventually marched into de Steiguer's cabin, snapped, "Admiral, I just want to tell you I think you are a goddamn rotten son of a bitch," and stormed out. After failing to retrieve Carney with a Marine orderly, de Steiguer visited Carney's cabin in person, said, "Sonny, you've been working too hard. You and I are going ashore" after which he took Carney on an epic drinking binge. Carney ultimately concluded that his three years with de Steiguer had been a valuable experience, but not one he would have chosen to repeat.

World War II
In February 1941, then Commander Carney was recalled from duty in the Pacific to assist in organizing, equipping, and training a special Surface-Air Force, having as its mission the protection of shipping against submarine and air attack. This force became fully involved in convoy escort prior to the involvement of the United States into the war. From September 13, 1941, until April 1942, this force, under command of Vice Admiral Arthur L. Bristol, Jr., escorted over 2,600 ships on the ocean lanes while suffering the loss of only six ships.

From October 15, 1942, until July 1943 Carney commanded the cruiser USS Denver (CL-58) in the Pacific Theater. He was twice decorated for engagements in the Solomon Islands campaign, earning the Bronze Star Medal with Combat "V" for meritorious service as Commanding Officer of Denver while attached to a task group of Admiral William Halsey's Third Fleet during operations against the Japanese-held islands of Kolombangara and Shortland. Off Bougainville the night of July 26, 1943 he took advantage of poor weather to lay a large quantity of mines along sea lanes around the island, and then delivered a naval bombardment against the Japanese shore installations.

On July 29, 1943, Carney was appointed chief of staff to Halsey, and was promoted to rear admiral. At the time Halsey was Commander, South Pacific Force, a responsibility which included all ground, sea, and air forces in the South Pacific area. Carney later wrote that "Admiral Halsey unfailingly gave credit to his subordinates for successes achieved, and took all blame for failures on his own shoulders." While in this assignment, Carney was awarded his second Navy Distinguished Service Medal for his contributions to the overall strategy and in organizing the logistic support of the Allied Forces in the South Pacific, the citation stating, in part: "Displaying sound judgement and distinctive tactical ability, he conceived and correlated the many offensive operations carried out in the Solomon Islands and Bismarck Archipelago areas. Through his comprehensive knowledge of logistics and his expert planning, he enabled our Forces to exert their greatest strength against the enemy and administer a series of crushing defeats on the Japanese."

When Halsey assumed command of the Third Fleet in the Central Pacific in June 1944, Carney accompanied him as Chief of Staff. Carney participated in the amphibious invasions of Palau and Lingayen, and the naval Battle of Leyte Gulf. It was during this engagement that Carney famously confronted an enraged Halsey. During Halsey's run to the north in tracking down the Japanese carriers, he received numerous calls from Admiral Thomas C. Kinkaid's Seventh Fleet, whose escort carriers were under attack from a Japanese battle group of battleships, cruisers and destroyers. Then, shortly after 10:00 hours, an anxious message was received from Admiral Chester Nimitz: "Where is repeat where is Task Force 34? The world wonders". The tail end of this message, The world wonders, was intended as padding designed to confuse enemy decoders, but was mistakenly left in the message when it was handed to Halsey. The inquiry appeared to be a rebuke. The fiery Halsey threw his hat on the deck of the bridge and began cursing. Finally Carney confronted him, telling Halsey "Stop it! What the hell's the matter with you? Pull yourself together." Halsey regained his composure, and later turned the fleet south to support Seventh Fleet.

Later, Carney continued to assist Halsey as Chief of Staff during his operations in the Okinawa campaign and the carrier air raids against Japanese air fields in Vietnam and Formosa in the South China Sea. In 1945, Third Fleet was striking targets in the Japanese homeland itself, launching attacks on Tokyo, the naval base at Kure and the northern Japanese island of Hokkaidō, as well as the bombardments of a number of Japanese coastal cities in preparation for a possible invasion of Japan which never happened.

Carney arranged with Japanese emissaries for the entry of the Third Fleet into Tokyo Bay, accepted the surrender of Yokosuka Naval Base and surrounding area from Vice Admiral Michitaro Totsuka of the Imperial Japanese Navy, and attended the ceremony for the surrender of Japan held on board Halsey's flagship, the battleship USS Missouri (BB-63).

Post-war
In 1946, Carney was promoted to vice admiral and, until February 1950, served as Deputy Chief of Naval Operations. He then assumed command of the Second Fleet operating on the East Coast of the United States. On October 2, 1950, Carney was advanced in rank to admiral.

From 1951 to 1953, Carney served as Commander-in-Chief of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization's Allied Forces Southern Europe, where he was responsible for the fleets of five countries and the armed forces of Italy, Greece and Turkey.

On May 13, 1953, President Dwight D. Eisenhower selected Carney as the next Chief of Naval Operations. On completion of this assignment, Carney retired from active service in the Navy.

Over the next several years, Carney's various assignments, coupled with his personal interest in industrial participation in the defense effort, resulted in close contact with industry including the position of chairman of the board, Bath Iron Works, Corporation.

Carney died of cardiac arrest in Washington, D.C., on June 25, 1990, at the age of 95. He and his wife are buried at Arlington National Cemetery. USS Carney (DDG-64) and Carney Park were named in his honor.

title: Robert Carney


text:
Talk:Ain't Had Enough Fun

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title: Talk:Ain't Had Enough Fun


text:
Novocherkassk

Novocherkassk (Новочерка́сск) is a city in Rostov Oblast, Russia, located near the confluence of the Tuzlov and Aksay Rivers, the latter a distributary of the Don River. Novocherkassk is best known as the cultural capital of the Cossacks, and as the official capital of the Don Cossacks. Population:

Foundation
Although the first settlement in the region was founded by Temroqwa Idar, the city of Novocherkassk was founded in 1805 by Lieutenant-general Matvei Platov, the Ataman of the Don Cossacks, as the administrative center of the Don Host Oblast. It was established in reaction to the original administrative center, the stanitsa of Cherkassk, being deemed unsuitable as the capital for the Don Cossacks for several reasons. Cherkassk was repeatedly flooded for long periods of time due to its low-lying location on the banks of the Don River, and attempts at constructing levees to protect the town were found to be too costly and ineffective. Additionally, Cherkassk was prone to destructive fires due to its chaotic layout and wooden buildings, and was located far away from any major roads. Despite the fact that ten of the eleven representatives of the villages that were part of Cherkassk refused to move the capital, Platov still made a presentation to Tsar Alexander I asking him to allow the capital of the Don Cossacks to be moved to another location, and was granted permission in a decree from the Tsar on August 23, 1804.

Plan as new capital of the Don Cossacks
Platov and the engineer François Sainte de Wollant developed Novocherkassk as a planned city, deciding to build it on a location at the top of a hill known as the "Wolf's Lair" to the north of Cherkassk, near the confluence of the Tuzlov River and Aksay River. On November 7, 1804, De Wollant and Platov presented to Tsar Alexander a plan for the future of the city and an extensive report, in which the clearly embellished merits of the area chosen for construction were described. The city was designed in the popular traditions of European models of urban development, with spacious areas, wide avenues and boulevards full of greenery. De Wollant, calling the future Novocherkassk "little Paris" on the basis of numerous town squares, each of which was supposed to feature a church, and to have streets beginning radially around each square. On December 31, 1804, after reviewing the plan and the report of Platov and De Wollant, Tsar Alexander personally inscribed: "To be according to this. Alexander". The construction of the city was slow, primarily because of the reluctance of most Don Cossacks to leave their homes in Cherkassk, and the new capital being 20 km from the River Don, with which the Cossacks were closely connected throughout its history. To compensate, there were even plans to deepen the Aksay River (a distributary of the Don) where the new city was located to eventually alter the course of the Don through the city. This plan was abandoned due to lack of funds, and for more than three decades the question of the place of the capital of the Don Cossack remained unresolved, while growth of Novocherkassk stagnated.

By 1837, an alternative to transfer the capital to the village of Aksayskoy, which was also on a hill and near the Don, gained popularity. However, Tsar Nicholas I personally inspected Novocherkassk and the village of Aksayskoy that same year, and after returning to Saint Petersburg ordered the Don Cossacks to keep the capital in Cherkassk because of the difficulties and uselessness of the transfer. In the first half of the 19th century, Novocherkassk was built only as an army center, administrative buildings, guest yards, taverns, wine cellars, hotels, and generals and noblemen's houses. In the 1850s, industrialization reached Novocherkassk and industrial enterprises were formed, however only one-thousand of the city's twenty-thousand residents worked in them.

Soviet era
On the eve of the February Revolution, Novocherkassk had a population of about sixty thousand people, about twenty-five thousand of whom were serving Cossacks and their families, three thousand were noblemen, and about five hundred were clergymen. Novocherkassk, unlike many Russian cities at the time, had almost no permanent merchants or peasants. During the Russian Civil War from 1917 to 1922, Novocherkassk was the center of the Don Army counter-revolution and came under the command of General Alexey Kaledin. The Red Army eventually defeated ousted the White-aligned Don Army from Novocherkassk on January 7, 1920.

During World War II, the Wehrmacht of Nazi Germany occupied Novocherkassk between July 24, 1942 and February 13, 1943. The city was chosen as the headquarters of the Don Army Group, headed by Erich v. Manstein in November of 42’.

On June 1–2, 1962, events known as the Novocherkassk massacre occurred when food riots and workers rights protests broke out following a labor strike at the locomotive factory, the Novocherkassk Electric Locomotive Plant, in the city. The protests were suppressed by troops of the Soviet Army, resulting in 26 protesters being killed and 87 being wounded.

On November 20, 1990, Andrei Chikatilo, one of the Soviet Union's most prolific serial killers, with 56 convicted murders, was arrested in Novocherkassk. On 14 February 1994, he was taken from his death row cell to a soundproofed room in Novocherkassk prison and executed with a single gunshot behind the right ear. He was buried in an unmarked grave at the prison cemetery.

Recent history
On October 5–6, 1991, a meeting of the Grand Circle of the Union of Cossacks of the Don Military Region took place, where the status of the historical and modern center of the Don Cossacks was established in the city, officially making Novocherkassk the capital of the Don Cossacks. On July 17–18, 1993, a meeting of the United Supreme Circle of Cossack troops of Russia and abroad was held in Moscow, where Novocherkassk was proclaimed the world capital of the Cossacks.

Administrative and municipal status
Within the framework of administrative divisions, it is incorporated as Novocherkassk Urban Okrug—an administrative unit with the status equal to that of the districts. As a municipal division, this administrative unit also has urban okrug status.

Economy
Novocherkassk NEVZ ElektroVagon Plant, trains and locomotives.

Culture and religion

Novocherkassk was once an archiepiscopal see of the Greek Orthodox Church and has a huge neo-Byzantine cathedral (1904), as well as the Church of Our Lady of the Don (2013), the palace of the ataman of the Cossacks, and monuments to Matvei Platov and Yermak Timofeyevich (Mikhail Mikeshin, 1904). During the bicentenary celebrations in September 2005 another monument, dedicated to the reconciliation of White and Red Cossacks, was opened in the presence of the members of the Romanov family.

In 1856, the Trinity Church was built, but later it was destroyed.

Cinemas

 * Tanais

Monuments

 * Horse Monument to Platov

Twin towns – sister cities
Novocherkassk is twinned with:

 * 🇩🇪 Iserlohn, Germany
 * 🇧🇬 Levski, Bulgaria
 * 🇷🇸 Novi Bečej, Serbia
 * 🇫🇷 La Valette-du-Var, France

Notable people

 * Andrey Esipenko (born 2002), chess grandmaster
 * Witold Łokuciewski (1917–1990), Polish fighter ace renowned for flying in the 303rd Squadron during the Battle of Britain.
 * Yuriy Sedykh (born 1955), hammer thrower; a World and Olympic Champion holding the world record with a throw of 86.74 m.
 * Valerian Zorin (1902–1986), Soviet diplomat and ambassador, and Deputy Minister of Foreign Affairs
 * Alexey Kaledin, Cossack general who fought for the Tsarist Army during the First World War died by his own hand in 1918.

title: Novocherkassk


text: Talk:Chinese Work Songs

title: Talk:Chinese Work Songs


text:
Itapetininga

Itapetininga is a municipality in the state of São Paulo, Brazil. The population is 165,526 (2020 est.) in an area of 1790 km2. The name comes from a Tupi-Guarani language, meaning "dry stone".

It is situated in the southern part of the state, and is known as cidade das escolas, meaning city of schools in Portuguese.

History
Itapetininga developed along with the "tropeirismo" (Trooping), as a resting point of the cattle dealers, who were mounting groups and villages for the landing, before they travel towards the South. The first nucleus of cattle dealers in the region of Itapetininga appeared in 1724, when it was discovered that the pasture in the region was abundant and the land was fertile for planting. To these factors there was added up the distance to the Sorocaba town - 12 leagues - that was corresponding to a journey of a troop. About 1760, a group of Portuguese, led by Domingos José Vieira, left the first nucleus (today, district of Porto) and formed another, in a high place and surrounded by two streams.

At this time there was an argument between two nucleuses that wanted to be elevated to the condition of town. The results: on April 17, 1770, Simão Barbosa Franco was nominated to establish and administering the new village, and so was left to him the choice of the principal nucleus. Historians tell that a "marching" mule, offered as a present to Simão Barbosa Franco, guaranteed the victory to Domingos José Vieira. The town of Nossa Senhora dos Prazeres de Itapetininga was officially created on November 5, 1770, when a solemn mass was celebrated by the vicar of the new parish, Priest Inácio of Araújo Ferreira. It is in this date that was agreed to commemorate the anniversary of the municipality.

Besides Simão Barbosa Franco and Domingos José Vieira, an Itu town citizen. Salvador de Oliveira Leme (-nicknamed Sarutayá )- has been  included among the historical founders of the municipality, since he was the second captain-mor of Itapetininga (the first one was Domingos José Vieira). The emancipation of the Town of Itapetininga happened in 1852, through the Law nº 11, on July 7, 1852. The law granted judicial autonomy, thus creating to judicature of Itapetininga. The town, however, only became a municipality, in fact, on March 13, 1855 with the name of Itapetininga.

The holy patron of Itapetininga is Our Lady of the Pleasures.

Media
In telecommunications, the city was served by Companhia Telefônica Brasileira until 1973, when it began to be served by Telecomunicações de São Paulo. In July 1998, this company was acquired by Telefónica, which adopted the Vivo brand in 2012.

The company is currently an operator of cell phones, fixed lines, internet (fiber optics/4G) and television (satellite and cable).

Guelem
Influent illustrator and comic artist from Itapetininga, he is famous for working on the tabletop RPG "O Círculo de Fogo", as concept artist and illustrator. He also works as a freelancer, and is possibly part of the group "Os The Boys", that is commonly mistaken for the terrorist group.

title: Itapetininga


text:
Talk:Dixie Chicken (album)

Move discussion in progress
There is a move discussion in progress on Talk:Dixie Chicken (album) which affects this page. Please participate on that page and not in this talk page section. Thank you. —RMCD bot 17:31, 28 September 2022 (UTC)

title: Talk:Dixie Chicken (album)


text:
Talk:Down on the Farm (album)

The original vinyl LP contained a very different version of Front Page News as compared to the subsequent CD release. The LP version features lead vocals by Lowell George. The CD version was sung by Bill Payne. The songs, in fact, are very different. The Bill Payne version features much more guitar while, ironically, the Lowell George version features varied keyboard instruments.

Maxine Waters
"Maxine Waters" currently links to a U.S. politician of that name. Are the politician and the background singer indeed the same person? 62.78.230.2 (talk) 23:00, 4 September 2014 (UTC)

title: Talk:Down on the Farm (album)


text: Talk:The Last Record Album

title: Talk:The Last Record Album


text:
Talk:Let It Roll (Little Feat album)

Reviews
There's an AllMusic review here, and quite a lengthy one here of a live show for the album from pastemagazine. Martinevans123 (talk) 20:42, 8 July 2018 (UTC)

title: Talk:Let It Roll (Little Feat album)


text: Talk:Live from Neon Park

title: Talk:Live from Neon Park


text:
HMS Highflyer

Four vessels of the British Royal Navy have been named HMS Highflyer.

 * The first HMS Highflyer (1813) was an 8-gun schooner operating as an American privateer. In January 1813 HMS Poictiers (1809) captured her. The Royal Navy took Highflyer into service, retaining her name. The Americans recaptured her in September of that year.
 * The second HMS Highflyer (1822) was a 2-gun tender in service from 1822 to 1833.
 * The third HMS Highflyer (1851) was a wooden-hulled screw frigate launched in 1851 and broken up 1871.
 * The fourth HMS Highflyer (1898) was a 2nd class cruiser launched 1898 and sold in 1921.
 * Highflyer was also the name of the Royal Navy shore establishment in Trincomalee, Ceylon until 1958.

title: HMS Highflyer


text:
Vålerenga Ishockey

Vålerenga Ishockey (abbreviated as VIF) is a Norwegian professional ice hockey team based in Oslo, Norway. Vålerenga has been the dominant force in Norwegian hockey since the 1960s, claiming 26 national championships and 29 regular season titles. Their old home arena, located in central-eastern Oslo, was Jordal Amfi, built for the 1952 Winter Olympics. In 2020, Vålerenga moved in to their new arena at Jordal.

The team's interim head coach is former NHL player and club legend, Espen "Shampo" Knutsen, with Joachim Svendsen his assistant.

Early days
Although the parent club Vålerengens Idrettsforening was founded in 1913, the history of Vålerenga Ishockey starts in 1947, when the junior team participated in the national junior championships for the first time. In the 50s, the junior team won the national junior championships five years in a row.

First dynasty (1960–1973)
Vålerenga won their first national championship in 1960, taking over the throne from local rivals Gamlebyen. More championships were won in 1962 and 1963. From 1965 to 1971, Vålerenga won the championship an incredible seven times in a row, a feat not repeated in Norwegian hockey since. Notable players from this era include Arne "Mikkel" Mikkelsen, Steinar "Bjølle" Bjølbak, Tor "Jern-Gustav" Gundersen, and notably, Roy "Sleipern" Jansen. Another title was added in 1973, but this also marked the end of the first dynasty as the club faced a generational change.

A new generation (1982–1994)
Ten years went by before Vålerenga could celebrate another championship, in 1983. A new generation had emerged, and players such as Jim Marthinsen, Roy Johansen, Geir Myhre, Tor Helge "Totto" Eikeland, Bjørn Kolsrud, Arne Billkvam and Jon Magne Karlstad would go on to become club legends. In 1988, Vålerenga won their 15th title. The next season saw the debut of Espen Knutsen, who would later become the first Vålerenga product to play in the National Hockey League.

Recent era
This marked the start of another dynasty for Vålerenga and the club added several more titles in the 1990s. Kent Forsberg became head coach in 1994 and invited his son Peter and Markus Näslund to play a friendly match for the club during the lockout season in the NHL. The 20th national championship was won in 1999. Notable players from this era include Morten Ask, Kenneth Larsen, and Kjell Richard "Ricky" Nygaard, along with Swedish imports such as Johan Brummer, Patric Englund and Niklas Gällstedt. Six more championships were added after 2000, the last being won in 2009. Vålerenga were in talks to join the Kontinental Hockey League in 2014, but the plans didn't go through.

Vålerenga's home arena through six decades, Jordal Amfi, was demolished in January 2017 and replaced by new arena, completed in the fall of 2020 after construction delays.

Season-by-season results
''This is a partial list of the last ten seasons completed by Vålerenga. For the full season-by-season history, see List of Vålerenga Ishockey seasons.'' Source:

Head coaches

 * Jan Molberg, ?-1953
 * Georg Hebæk, 1953-?
 * Tor Gundersen, 195?-197?
 * Lennart Johansson, 1983-1984
 * Lennart Åhlberg, 1984-1987
 * Erik Ask, 1987-1990
 * Geir Myhre, 1990-1993
 * Kent Forsberg, 1994-1995
 * Staffan Tholson, 1995-1997
 * Roy Johansen, 1997-2001
 * Petter Thoresen, 2001-2004
 * Knut Jørgen Stubdal, 2004-2006
 * Espen Knutsen, 2006-2016
 * Roy Johansen, 2016-

Honours

 * Norwegian Champions (26): 1960, 1962–3, 1965–71, 1973, 1982, 1985, 1987–8, 1991–3, 1998–9, 2001, 2003, 2005–7, 2009
 * Regular Seasons (30): 1961–62, 1962–63, 1963–64, 1964–65, 1965–66, 1966–67, 1967–68, 1968–69, 1969–70, 1970–71, 1979–80, 1981–82, 1984–85, 1987–88, 1990–91, 1991–92, 1992–93, 1993–94, 1995–96, 1997–98, 1998–1999, 1999–00, 2001–02, 2002–03, 2004–05, 2006–07, 2009–10, 2012–13, 2013–14, 2018–19

Individual all-time records
Statistics for regular season only.
 * – current active player

Notable players

 * 🇳🇴 Alexander Bonsaksen
 * 🇳🇴 Anders Fredriksen
 * 🇳🇴 Anders Myrvold
 * 🇳🇴 Arne Billkvam
 * 🇳🇴 Atle Olsen
 * 🇸🇪 Björn Bjurling
 * 🇨🇦 Blake Evans
 * 🇳🇴 Brede Frettem Csiszar
 * 🇨🇦 Brendan Brooks
 * 🇮🇹 Brian Ihnacak
 * 🇳🇴 Bård Sørlie
 * 🇨🇦 Chris Mason
 * 🇨🇦 Christian Chartier
 * 🇳🇴 Daniel Sørvik
 * 🇳🇴 Einar Bruno Larsen
 * 🇳🇴 Erik Follestad Johansen
 * 🇳🇴 Espen "Shampo" Knutsen
 * 🇨🇦 Evan Cheverie
 * 🇳🇴 Frank Vestreng
 * 🇨🇦 Gavin Morgan
 * 🇳🇴 Geir Hoff
 * 🇳🇴 Geir Myhre
 * 🇨🇦 Greg Day
 * 🇫🇮 Ilkka Kaarna
 * 🇳🇴 Jan-Roar Fagerli
 * 🇳🇴 Jim Marthinsen
 * 🇨🇿 Jiri Latal
 * 🇸🇪 Johan Åkerman
 * 🇸🇪 Johan Brummer
 * 🇳🇴 Jon-Magne Karlstad
 * 🇨🇦 Justin Donati
 * 🇳🇴 Jørgen Karterud
 * 🇳🇴 Ken Andre Olimb
 * 🇸🇪 Kent Nilsson
 * 🇳🇴 Lars Erik Lund
 * 🇳🇴 Lars Haugen
 * 🇳🇴 Marius Rath
 * 🇺🇸 Mark McCutcheon
 * 🇳🇴 Martin Laumann Ylven
 * 🇳🇴 Mathis Olimb
 * 🇳🇴 Mathias Trygg
 * 🇳🇴 Mats Rosseli Olsen
 * 🇳🇴 Mats Trygg
 * 🇳🇴 Mats Zuccarello
 * 🇳🇴 Morten Ask
 * 🇳🇴 Sigurd Thinn
 * 🇳🇴 Tommy Marthinsen
 * 🇨🇦 Travis Brigley
 * 🇸🇪 Per-Ragnar Bergkvist
 * 🇳🇴 Petter Thoresen
 * 🇸🇪 Patric Englund
 * 🇨🇦 Patrick Coulombe
 * 🇨🇦 Patrick DesRochers
 * 🇨🇦 Regan Kelly
 * 🇳🇴 Roy Jansen
 * 🇳🇴 Roy Johansen
 * 🇨🇦 Scott Hartnell
 * 🇨🇦 Serge Boisvert
 * 🇷🇺 Sergei Pushkov
 * 🇨🇦 Simon Gamache
 * 🇳🇴 Sondre Olden
 * 🇳🇴 Stig Johansen
 * 🇫🇮 Tommy Kiviaho
 * 🇨🇦 Tyler Donati
 * 🇳🇴 Vegar Barlie
 * 🇨🇿 Vladimir Machulda
 * 🇳🇴 Øystein Olsen

title: Vålerenga Ishockey


text:
Talk:Live at the Rams Head

Fair use rationale for Image:Little Feat - Live at the Rams Head.jpg
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BetacommandBot (talk) 23:50, 13 February 2008 (UTC)

title: Talk:Live at the Rams Head