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Cruise line

A cruise line is a company that operates cruise ships that operate on ocean or rivers and which markets cruises to the public. Cruise lines are distinct from passenger lines which are primarily concerned with transportation of passengers. Though cruise packages provided by cruise lines vary, there are some features most have in common, such as accommodation, all meals and entertainment. They may include alcohol and shore excursions, sometimes on additional payment.

Among cruise lines, some are direct descendants of the traditional passenger lines, while others were founded since the 1960s specifically for cruising. The business has been extremely volatile; the ships are massive capital expenditures with very high operating costs, and a slight dip in bookings can easily put a company out of business. Cruise lines frequently sell, renovate, or simply rename their ships to keep up with travel trends.

A wave of failures and consolidations in the 1990s has led to many companies being bought by much larger holding companies and to operate as "brands" within larger corporations. Brands exist partly because of repeat customer loyalty, and also to offer different levels of quality and service. For instance, Carnival Corporation & plc owns both Carnival Cruise Line, whose former image were vessels that had a reputation as "party ships" for younger travellers, but have become large, modern, yet still profitable, and Holland America Line, whose ships cultivate an image of classic elegance.

A common practice in the cruise industry in listing cruise ship transfers and orders is to list the smaller operating company, not the larger holding corporation, as the recipient cruise line of the sale, transfer, or new order. For example, Carnival Cruise Line and Holland America Line are the cruise lines whereas Carnival Corporation & plc and Royal Caribbean Group are considered holding corporations. This industry practice of using the brand, not the larger holding corporation, as the cruise line is also followed in the member cruise lines in Cruise Lines International Association (CLIA) and the member-based reviews of cruise lines.

title: Cruise line


text:
Anakin

Anakin may refer to:

 * Anakin Skywalker, later known as Darth Vader, a central character in the Star Wars franchise
 * Anakin Solo, grandson of Darth Vader
 * A variant of the surname Annakin
 * Anakin (given name)
 * Cyber Anakin, the pseudonym of a computer hacktivist
 * Doug Anakin (1930–2020), Canadian bobsleigh athlete
 * Fly Anakin, American rapper and record producer

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Anakin


text: File:HampdenSydneyLogo.PNG

title: File:HampdenSydneyLogo.PNG


text:
List of cruise lines

A cruise line is a company that operates cruise ships and markets cruises to the public. Cruise lines are distinct from passenger lines which are primarily concerned with transportation of their passengers. Cruise lines have a dual character; they are partly in the transportation business, and partly in the leisure entertainment business, a duality that carries down into the ships themselves, which have both a crew headed by the ship's captain, and a hospitality staff headed by the equivalent of a hotel manager.

Because of mergers and consolidations, a cruise line may also be a brand of a larger holding corporation. For example, as noted below, Carnival Cruise Line and Holland America Line are cruise lines within the larger parent corporation Carnival Corporation & plc. This industry practice of using the brand, not the larger parent corporation, as the cruise line is also followed in the member cruise lines in Cruise Lines International Association (CLIA); the listing of cruise ship sales, transfers, and new orders; cruise line market share; and the member-based reviews of cruise lines.

Cruise ships can cruise in oceans or rivers. The listing of cruise lines below includes separate lists for both areas. Cruise lines operating ocean and river ships can be found in both lists.

List of cruise lines by size
, the cruise industry was estimated to be around US$23.8 billion with 13.9 million passengers per year. The following is a list of the largest cruise lines with over 1,000 passengers per year and their market share by passengers and revenue as of 2021 according to Cruise Market Watch. The list also includes the combined market share of each of the cruise line holding companies: Carnival Corporation & plc, Royal Caribbean Group, Norwegian Cruise Line Holdings, TUI Group, and Genting Hong Kong.

Legend:
 * Bold: Major cruise company
 * Italic: Subsidiary of a major cruise company

Shipping line still in service
The following is a list of defunct ocean cruise lines where their shipping line is still in service.

Operational
The following is a list of operational river cruise lines.

Defunct
The following is a list of defunct river cruise lines.

title: List of cruise lines


text:
Takashi Nagasako

Takashi Nagasako (長嶝 高士) is a Japanese voice actor who is currently affiliated with Arts Vision. He has voiced in a number of video games with roles such as Ganondorf in The Legend of Zelda, Big the Cat in the Sonic the Hedgehog series, Cervantes de Leon and Rock Adams in Soulcalibur, Gale Lantis in Soul Link, Donkey Kong in the Donkey Kong and Super Mario series and Darun Mister in Street Fighter EX. In anime, he voices King Yama in Hōzuki no Reitetsu. He has taken over some of the roles from the late Shun Yashiro, Junpei Takiguchi, Masaaki Tsukada, and Tōru Ōhira.

Overseas dubbing
<!-- NEED SOURCE
 * A Better Tomorrow 3 ||   ||   ||
 * Alarm für Cobra 11 – Die Autobahnpolizei || ツァーガー ||   ||
 * Alias ||  || Season 4 ||
 * The Big White || Jimbo ||  ||
 * Black Dog ブラックドッグ ||   ||   ||
 * Cats Don't Dance ||  ||   ||
 * Desperado ||  ||   ||
 * Diagnosis: Murder ||   ||   ||
 * Eden || Bob || 2012 film, voice dub for Beau Bridges ||
 * Farscape: The Peacekeeper Wars || カー･ダーゴ ||   ||
 * Green Rose ||   ||   ||
 * The Groomsmen || Jimbo ジンボ ||   ||
 * Hitch || Albert ||  ||
 * In the Spider's Web || Sgt. Chadhri ||  ||
 * The Invasion || Richard || 2007 film ||
 * Lost || Manison || Season 3 ||
 * Lucky You ||  || Sam ||
 * Miss Congeniality 2: Armed and Fabulous || Agent Clonsky ||  ||
 * My First Wedding || Father Edward || 2006 film ||
 * Rescue Me || Lou ||  ||
 * Ruby Gloom ||  ||   ||
 * Running Wild 美しき野獣 ||   ||   ||
 * The Sky's On Fire ||  ||   ||
 * Someone Special ||  ||   ||
 * SpongeBob SquarePants || Patrick ||  ||
 * The Transporter || ティーポフ  ||   ||
 * Transporter 2 || ティーポフ ||   ||
 * Wizards of Waverly Place || Rariteto Teacher ラリテート先生 ||   ||
 * The X-Files ||  ||   ||
 * X-Men || Cyclops ||  ||
 * Zathura: A Space Adventure || ﾋﾞﾙ・ﾌｪｼﾞｬｰﾍﾞｲｸ ||   ||
 * }
 * Lucky You ||  || Sam ||
 * Miss Congeniality 2: Armed and Fabulous || Agent Clonsky ||  ||
 * My First Wedding || Father Edward || 2006 film ||
 * Rescue Me || Lou ||  ||
 * Ruby Gloom ||  ||   ||
 * Running Wild 美しき野獣 ||   ||   ||
 * The Sky's On Fire ||  ||   ||
 * Someone Special ||  ||   ||
 * SpongeBob SquarePants || Patrick ||  ||
 * The Transporter || ティーポフ  ||   ||
 * Transporter 2 || ティーポフ ||   ||
 * Wizards of Waverly Place || Rariteto Teacher ラリテート先生 ||   ||
 * The X-Files ||  ||   ||
 * X-Men || Cyclops ||  ||
 * Zathura: A Space Adventure || ﾋﾞﾙ・ﾌｪｼﾞｬｰﾍﾞｲｸ ||   ||
 * }
 * SpongeBob SquarePants || Patrick ||  ||
 * The Transporter || ティーポフ  ||   ||
 * Transporter 2 || ティーポフ ||   ||
 * Wizards of Waverly Place || Rariteto Teacher ラリテート先生 ||   ||
 * The X-Files ||  ||   ||
 * X-Men || Cyclops ||  ||
 * Zathura: A Space Adventure || ﾋﾞﾙ・ﾌｪｼﾞｬｰﾍﾞｲｸ ||   ||
 * }
 * The X-Files ||  ||   ||
 * X-Men || Cyclops ||  ||
 * Zathura: A Space Adventure || ﾋﾞﾙ・ﾌｪｼﾞｬｰﾍﾞｲｸ ||   ||
 * }
 * Zathura: A Space Adventure || ﾋﾞﾙ・ﾌｪｼﾞｬｰﾍﾞｲｸ ||   ||
 * }

The following entries were in his resume but not sure what the title is メタルイーグル (metal eagle) ナイトウォーリアー (night warrior) おばけのキャスパー (casper which version?)
 * メタルウイング (metal wing) ||   ||   ||
 * Felix the Cat (which version?) || ?? character name ハレ・ブローカー  ||   ||

-->
 * Kevin Michael Richardson
 * Transformers: Prime (Bulkhead)
 * Codename: Kids Next Door (Dr. Lincoln)
 * Epic (Grub (Chris O'Dowd))
 * Shirt Tales (Captain Crook from "Raiders of the Lost Shark")
 * The SpongeBob SquarePants Movie (Patrick Star (Bill Faggerbakke))
 * Transformers Animated (Professor Isaac Sumdac (Tom Kenny))
 * The Mr. Men Show (Mr. Scatterbrain (Joseph J. Terry))
 * Popeye's Voyage: The Quest for Pappy (Wimpy (Sanders Whiting))

title: Takashi Nagasako


text: File:The Unicorns - Who Will Cut Our Hair When We're Gone? cover art.jpg


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David Ramsay (Ontario politician)

David James Ramsay (April 23, 1948 – July 29, 2020) was a Canadian politician in Ontario. He was elected as a New Democratic member of the Legislative Assembly of Ontario in 1985 who crossed the floor a year later to join the Liberal party. He represented the northern Ontario riding of Timiskaming from 1985 to 1999 and the redistributed riding of Timiskaming—Cochrane from 1999 to 2011. He served as a cabinet minister in the governments of David Peterson and Dalton McGuinty.

Background
Born in Australia, Ramsay moved to Canada with his parents at age one after having been adopted in Sydney, and was raised in Oakville, Ontario. He attended Concordia University in Montreal, and after graduation worked as a farmer in New Liskeard and a clerk-treasurer in Casey Township, in northern Ontario. He later served as president of the Timiskaming Federation of Agriculture in 1984-85, was a founding member of the Timiskaming Grain Growers Board, and served as chair of the Timiskaming Hospital Board for a time. Ramsay died in Halifax, Nova Scotia, on July 29, 2020, at the age of 72.

Election as a New Democrat
In the 1985 provincial election he ran as the New Democrat candidate in the northern Ontario riding of Timiskaming. He defeated Progressive Conservative incumbent Ed Havrot by almost 3000 votes, as the once-powerful Tory machine in northern Ontario began to lose its support base. He served as a critic of Small Business, Financial Institutions, and Agriculture and Food.

Becoming a Liberal
On 6 October 1986, Ramsay crossed the floor to join the governing Liberals, claiming that Northern Ontario needed greater representation in government. (Ramsay also seems to have disliked the Toronto leadership of the NDP, describing it as out of touch with his rural/populist base.)

Despite an intense effort by the NDP to defeat Ramsay in the 1987 election, he won re-election by over 4,000 votes. On 29 September 1987, Ramsay was appointed to David Peterson's cabinet as Minister of Correctional Services. Following a cabinet shuffle on 2 August 1989, he was named Minister of Agriculture and Food. Ramsay kept his seat in the 1990 election that defeated the Liberal government and brought Ramsay's former party, the NDP, to power under Bob Rae.

He ran for the leadership of the Liberal Party in the 1992 Liberal leadership convention, but placed last in a field of six candidates. Like fellow candidate Greg Sorbara, his campaign included both right-wing and left-wing elements. He supported tax reduction (including lower gasoline taxes, a reduction in the Provincial Sales Tax and a one-year moratorium on the federal Goods and Services Tax), and favoured open Sunday shopping and allowing corner stores to sell beer and wine. He also supported pay equity measures, and described himself as pro-choice on abortion.

In the provincial elections of 1995 and 1999, Ramsay's primary opposition came not from the New Democrats but the Progressive Conservatives, whose leader Mike Harris represented a neighbouring riding. He won by a clear margin on both occasions. In 1996, he endorsed Dwight Duncan's bid to lead the Ontario Liberal Party.

Ramsay served as caucus chair from 1993 to 1994 and again from 1999 to 2003.

With the victory of the Liberals under the leadership of Dalton McGuinty in the 2003 election, Ramsay returned to cabinet as Minister of Natural Resources on 23 October 2003. He was also given responsibility for Aboriginal Affairs on 29 June 2005. In June 2007, Ramsay was appointed Ontario's first Minister of Aboriginal Affairs.

In the 2007 provincial election, Ramsay won by 634 votes over NDP candidate John Vanthof. Ramsay expected to continue as a minister but was dropped from cabinet. Instead he was appointed as McGuinty's Parliamentary Assistant.

In January 2011 he said that he was retiring from politics and would not run in the 2011 election.

title: David Ramsay (Ontario politician)


text:
Saeko Chiba

Saeko Chiba (千葉 紗子) is a Japanese voice actress and singer. She grew up in Tokyo and married in 2007. She is contracted to the Space Craft Produce.

Biography
Chiba took up ballet at a young age with ambitions of becoming part of Takarazuka Revue. However, having failed the entrance exam for Takarazuka Music School in her third year of middle-school, she joined the Minami Aoyama Shōjo Kageki Dan (南青山少女歌劇団) a stage group for teenage girls.

Having had several lead roles over the three years she spent with the troupe, Saeko was then cast in the lead voice acting role of Kotori Haruno in the Dreamcast game Kita e. Having had a taste of being a voice actress and deciding that she preferred voice acting to performing on stage, Saeko decided to pursue the career full-time. Some of her earlier roles are her voice acting debut as Tsubaki Sakura in Kare Kano, Kitsune no Akane in Angel Tales, and Elliot Chapman in Sci-Fi Harry. Saeko was famed for her long, straight, black hair and seemingly cold outward appearance which led to her being cast in various tsundere and 'cool-girl' roles. She then cut her hair short in the spring of 2005, which strangely coincided with the increasing diversity of her roles, as Saeko herself noted on the My-HiME fandisc interview. Saeko has pursued a singing career with Yuki Kajiura, who wrote music for some of the Nanshō stage shows, writing and producing almost all her material. Her first single was Koi no Kiseki, the theme song for the PlayStation game Meguri Aishite. She has since released nine singles and two albums, along with various character song and drama CDs. She has also performed theme songs for games such as Alundra 2 and Atelier Judie. Saeko was also part of the group tiaraway with fellow Nanshō member Yuuka Nanri. Originally recording and performing as 'Saeko Chiba & Yuuka Nanri' for Memories Off 2nd, the duo released three singles and an album before breaking up on March 6, 2005.

On February 17, 2011, Saeko gave birth to her first child, a daughter.

Anime

 * 1998
 * Kare Kano (Tsubaki Sakura)

 * 2000
 * Boogiepop Phantom (Yoko Sasaoka)
 * Tottoko Hamtarō Dechu (Lapis-chan)
 * Sci-Fi Harry (Elliot Chapman)

 * 2001
 * Angel Tales (Kitsune no Akane)
 * Ask Dr. Rin! (Meirin Kanzaki)

 * 2002
 * UFO Ultramaiden Valkyrie (Akina Nanamura)
 * Heat Guy J (Kyoko Milchan)
 * Duel Masters (Sayuki Manaka)

 * 2003
 * The World of Narue (Hajime Yagi)
 * Nanaka 6/17 (Chie Kazamatsuri)
 * Tenshi no Shippo Chu! (Fox Akane)
 * Ultra Maniac (Maya Orihara)
 * Avenger (Maple)
 * UFO Ultramaiden Valkyrie 2: December Nocturne (Akina Nanamura)
 * Chrono Crusade (Azmaria Hendric)

 * 2004
 * Gravion Zwei (Fei Shinruu)
 * Aishiteruze Baby (Ayumi Kubota)
 * Madlax (Chiara)
 * Duel Masters Charge (Shayuki Manaka)
 * Rockman EXE Stream (Jasmine)
 * My-HiME (Natsuki Kuga)
 * W Wish (Tsubasa Ohtori)
 * Kujibiki Unbalance (Ritsuko Kyuberu Kettenkraftrad)

 * 2005
 * GUNxSWORD (Priscilla)
 * Peach Girl (Momo Adachi)
 * Bludgeoning Angel Dokuro-Chan (Dokuro Mitsukai)
 * Buzzer Beater (Claire)
 * MÄR (Aidou)
 * Best Student Council (Miura)
 * Tsubasa: RESERVoir CHRoNiCLE (Oruha)
 * UFO Ultramaiden Valkyrie 3: Bride of Celestial Souls' Day (Akina Nanamura)
 * Noein (Ai Hasebe)
 * Rockman EXE Beast (Jasmine)
 * Gunparade Orchestra (Noeru Sugawara)
 * My-Otome (Natsuki Kruger)

 * 2006
 * Hell Girl (Yuuko Murai)
 * Ayakashi (Oshizu)
 * Bakegyamon (Kagari)
 * Ray (Anna Takekawa)
 * NANA (Miu Shinoda)
 * Gin-iro no Olynssis (Marika)
 * Code Geass: Lelouch of the Rebellion (Nina Einstein)
 * Venus to Mamoru (Mitsuki Fujita)

 * 2007
 * D.Gray-man (Liza)
 * Ghost Slayers Ayashi (Kiyohana)
 * Nodame Cantabile (Reina Ishikawa)
 * Bludgeoning Angel Dokuro-Chan 2 (Dokuro Mitsukai)
 * GIANT ROBO (Maria Vovnich)
 * Reideen (Akira Midorino)
 * Nagasarete Airantou (Ayane)
 * Bokurano (Chizu's older sister)
 * Spider Riders: Yomigaeru Taiyou (Corona)
 * Buzzer Beater 2 (Claire)
 * Majin Tantei Nōgami Neuro (Shouko Hayami)
 * Dragonaut: The Resonance (Widow)
 * Goshūshō-sama Ninomiya-kun (Shinobu Kirishima)
 * Shugo Chara! (Nadeshiko Fujisaki)
 * Minami-ke (Hayami)

 * 2008
 * Rosario + Vampire (Rubi Tōjō)
 * Shigofumi (Natsuka Kasai)
 * Minami-ke: Okawari (Hayami-senpai, Hiroko)
 * XxxHOLiC: Kei (Neko Musume)
 * Psychic Squad (Bullet (Young), Chil Chil's Rival, Mary Ford, Momiji Kanou)
 * Code Geass: Lelouch of the Rebellion R2 (Nagisa Chiba, Nina Einstein)
 * Glass Maiden (Sofia)
 * Scarecrowman (Elsa)
 * Strike Witches (Mio Sakamoto)
 * Birdy the Mighty: Decode (Birdy Cephon Altera)
 * Mission-E (Yuma Saito)
 * Blade of the Immortal (Ren)
 * Rosario + Vampire Capu2 (Rubi Toujou)
 * Shugo Chara!! Doki— (Nagihiko Fujisaki)
 * Kemeko Deluxe! (Aoi-chan)

 * 2009
 * Shikabane Hime: Kuro (Rika Aragami)
 * Minami-ke: Okaeri (Hayami-senpai, Hiroko)
 * Birdy the Mighty Decode:02 (Birdy)
 * Spice and Wolf II (Amartie)
 * Jungle Emperor Leo (Professor Hikawa)
 * Shugo Chara! Party! (Nagihiko Fujisaki)
 * Kaidan Restaurant (Aya)

 * 2010
 * The Legend of the Legendary Heroes (Sion's Mother)

 * 2011
 * Wandering Son (Chizuru Sarashina)

 * 2013
 * Minami-ke Tadaima (Hayami)

OVA

 * .hack//Liminality (Yuki Aihara)
 * Bludgeoning Angel Dokuro-Chan (Dokuro Mitsukai)
 * Cosplay Complex (Maria Imai)
 * Karas (Yoshiko Sagizaka)
 * Iriya no Sora, UFO no Natsu (Akiho Sudou)
 * Kikoushi-Enma (Yukihime)
 * King of Bandit Jing in Seventh Heaven (Benedictine)
 * Kujibiki Unbalance (Ritsuko Kübel Kettenkrad)
 * Sci-Fi Harry (Elliott Chapman)
 * Tristia of the Deep-Blue Sea (Panavia Tornado)
 * My-Otome Zwei (Natsuki Kruger)
 * Tetsuwan Birdy: Decode OVA "The Chiper" (Birdy Cephon Altera)
 * Code Geass: Nunally In Wonderland (Nina Einstein)

Games

 * Alundra 2: A New Legend Begins (Aishia)
 * Case Closed: The Mirapolis Investigation (Linda Hanayama)
 * Chocolat~maid café curio (Kanako Akishima)
 * Dengeki Bunko: Fighting Climax (Dokuro-Chan)
 * Dengeki Gakuen RPG: Cross of Venus (Dokuro-Chan)
 * Grandia III (Unama)
 * Kita he~White Illumination (Kotori Haruno)
 * Kita he~Photo Memories (Kotori Haruno)
 * Memories Off 2nd (Takano Suzuna)
 * My-HiME ~Unmei no Keitōju~ (Natsuki Kuga)
 * Tales of Hearts (Beryl Benito)
 * Tales of Vesperia (Nan)

Dubbing

 * Sound of Colors (Dong Ling (Dong Jie))

title: Saeko Chiba


text:
Quillaia

Quillaia is the milled inner bark or small stems and branches of the soapbark (Quillaja saponaria, Molina). Other names include Murillo bark extract, Panama bark extract, Quillaia extract, Quillay bark extract, and Soapbark extract. Quillaia contains high concentrations of saponins that can be increased further by processing. Highly purified saponins from quillaia are used as adjuvants to enhance the effectiveness of vaccines. Other compounds in the crude extract include tannins and other polyphenols, and calcium oxalate.

Quillaia is used in the manufacture of food additives, and it is listed as an ingredient in root beer and cream soda. The extract also is used as a humectant in baked goods, frozen dairy products, and puddings and as a foaming agent in soft drinks. It is used in agriculture for some "natural" spray adjuvant formulations.

Saponin adjuvants
The saponins from Quillaja saponaria are used in several approved veterinary vaccines (e.g., foot-and-mouth disease vaccines). Initially a crude preparation was used, but more recently purified products have been developed. Two of these (Quil A and Matrix-M) have been shown to be more effective and cause less local irritation.

Quil A is still a mixture of more than 25 different saponin molecules. One of them, the saponin QS21, has been investigated for as an adjuvant for human vaccines.

Novavax uses a highly purified quillaja extract as an adjuvant in its veterinary and human vaccines. The adjuvant, Matrix-M, is made at facilities in Sweden and Denmark.

title: Quillaia


text:
User:Jxg/U.S. Senate election, 2004-Temp

This is a temporary workspace for the table at U.S. Senate election, 2004.

"Outcome" numbers are taken from data available as of 1300 EST November 3. Should be updated after certified data become available.

I have included every candidate who has received 2% of the vote.

Jxg 17:59, 3 Nov 2004 (UTC)


text:
Amit Yoran

Amit Yoran (born December 1970) is chairman and chief executive officer of Tenable, Inc., a position held since January 3, 2017. He is also on the board of directors of the Center for Internet Security.

Early life
Yoran was born in the United States to Israeli emigrants who arrived in the 1960s. He obtained a B.S. in computer science from the United States Military Academy and served as one of the founding members of the US Department of Defense's Computer Emergency Response Team. He received a M.S. in computer security from George Washington University.

Career
In April 1998, during the dot-com bubble, along with his two brothers and Tim Belcher, Yoran co-founded Riptech. It began operations in December 1999 and raised $45 million in venture capital from Columbia Capital, Providence Equity, and Broadview Capital. It was sold to Symantec (now Gen Digital) in August 2002 for $145 million in cash.

In September 2003, he was named director of the newly-created National Cyber Security Division within the United States Department of Homeland Security. There, he oversaw the creation of a cyber alert system that sends out warnings about computer viruses and net attacks. He resigned from the position abruptly in October 2004.

In January 2006, he was named CEO of In-Q-Tel. He resigned in April 2006 after less than four months in the position. At that time, he was also a member of the board of directors of Trust Digital, Guidance Software, and Guardium.

In November 2006, he was named CEO of Netwitness.

In October 2014, Yoran was named president of RSA.

Effective January 2017, he was named CEO of Tenable, Inc.

In August 2023, he accused Microsoft of putting its customers at risk after he revealed the existence of a zero-day vulnerability in Microsoft Azure.

Personal life
Yoran is married and has three children, including a set of twins.

title: Amit Yoran


text:
Hampden–Sydney College

Hampden–Sydney College (H-SC) is a private liberal arts men's college in Hampden Sydney, Virginia.

Founded in 1775, Hampden–Sydney is the oldest privately chartered college in the Southern United States, the tenth-oldest college in the US, the last college founded before the American Declaration of Independence, and the oldest of the four-year, all-male liberal arts colleges remaining in the United States. Hampden–Sydney College is listed on the National Register of Historic Places and the Virginia Landmarks Register. It is affiliated with the Presbyterian Church (USA).

Founding and early years
The college's founder and first president, Samuel Stanhope Smith, was born in Pequea, Pennsylvania. He graduated as a valedictorian from the College of New Jersey (now Princeton University) in 1769, and he went on to study theology and philosophy under John Witherspoon, whose daughter he married on June 28, 1775. In his mid-twenties, working as a missionary in Virginia, Smith persuaded the Hanover Presbytery to found a school east of the Blue Ridge, which he referred to in his advertisement of September 1, 1775, as "an Academy in Prince Edward...distinguished by the Name of HAMPDEN–SIDNEY". The school, not then named, was always intended to be a college-level institution; later, in the same advertisement, Smith explicitly modeled its curriculum on that of the College of New Jersey. "Academy" was a technical term used for college-level schools not run by the established church.

As the college history indicates on its website, "The first president, at the suggestion of Dr. John Witherspoon, the Scottish president of the College of New Jersey (now Princeton University), chose the name Hampden–Sydney to symbolize devotion to the principles of representative government and full civil and religious freedom which John Hampden (1594–1643) and Algernon Sydney (1622–1683) had outspokenly supported, and for which they had given their lives, in England's two great constitutional crises of the previous century. They were widely invoked as hero-martyrs by American colonial patriots, and their names immediately associated the College with the cause of independence championed by James Madison, Patrick Henry, and other less well-known but equally vigorous patriots who composed the College's first Board of Trustees."

Classes at Hampden–Sydney began in temporary wooden structures on November 10, 1775, on the eve of American Independence, moving into its three-story brick building early in 1776. The college has been in continuous operation since that date, operating under the British, Confederate, and United States flags. Classes have only been canceled seven times: for a Civil War skirmish on campus, for a hurricane that knocked a tree into a dormitory building, twice due to snowstorms, once for an outbreak of norovirus, briefly during the COVID-19 pandemic, and once for an ice storm in 2021, leaving the campus without power. Since the college was founded before the proclamation of the Declaration of Independence on July 4, 1776, it was eligible for an official coat of arms and armorial bearings from the College of Arms of the Royal Household of the United Kingdom. Through gifts from the F. M. Kirby Foundation, Professor John Brinkley ('59), in whose honor the "achievement of arms" was given, liaised with Mr. John Brooke-Little, then the Richmond Herald, in designing the arms for the college. The Latin text of the "letters patent" conferring the arms is dated July 4, 1976; Mr. Brooke-Little—who, with the Queen's special permission, appeared in full herald's uniform—made the presentation on Yorktown Day, October 19, 1976, at the college.

Despite the problematic and financially strapped first years resulting from the Revolutionary War, the college survived with sufficient viability to be granted a charter by the Virginia General Assembly in 1783—the oldest private charter in the Southern United States. Patrick Henry, then Governor of Virginia, encouraged the passage of the charter and wrote into it an oath of allegiance to the new republic required of all professors.

Alumni of Princeton University founded the college. Patrick Henry, who did not attend college, and James Madison, a Princeton alumnus, were elected trustees in the founding period before classes began. Smith hired his brother, John Blair Smith, and two other recent Princeton graduates to teach. Samuel Stanhope Smith would later become president of Princeton University. John Blair Smith would become the second president of Hampden–Sydney and later the first president of Union College.

19th century

Hampden–Sydney became a thriving college while located in southside Virginia, which led to expansion. In 1812, the Union Theological Seminary was founded at Hampden–Sydney College. The seminary was later moved to Richmond, Virginia and is currently the Union Presbyterian Seminary. In 1838, the medical department of Hampden–Sydney College was founded—the Medical College of Virginia, which is now the MCV Campus of Virginia Commonwealth University. Among the early nineteenth-century leaders were John Holt Rice, who founded the seminary, Jonathan P. Cushing, and Reverend James Marsh. In those years, the intellectual culture at HSC spanned from leading southern, anti-slavery writers like Jesse Burton Harrison and Lucian Minor to leading proslavery writers, such as George A. Baxter and Landon Garland. During this time, the college constructed new buildings using Federal-style architecture with Georgian accents. This is the style of architecture still used on the campus.

At the onset of the American Civil War, Hampden–Sydney students formed a company in the Virginia Militia. The Hampden–Sydney students did not see much action but rather were "captured, and...paroled by General George B. McClellan on the condition that they return to their studies".

20th century

"Fame has come suddenly to Hampden-Sydney College," began a 1931 New York Times article titled, "Hampden-Sydney's High Scholastic Rank Achieved With Old-Fashioned Teaching." The article highlighted a study showing that of all U.S. colleges and universities, Hampden-Sydney had the highest percentage of living graduates listed in Who's Who.

During World War II, Hampden–Sydney College was one of 131 colleges and universities nationally that took part in the V-12 Navy College Training Program, which offered students a path to a commission.

The college has hosted a wide array of noteworthy musicians. Bruce Springsteen, the Temptations, Ben E. King, The Platters, The Lettermen, Dionne Warwick, the Allman Brothers, Dave Matthews Band, Widespread Panic, Bruce Hornsby, Pretty Lights, and Government Mule were among the popular visitors to Hampden–Sydney throughout the latter half of the twentieth century. But for tragic reasons, the most significant concert occurred on October 14, 1967 featuring the superstar duet of Marvin Gaye and Tammi Terrell. During their performance, 22-year-old Terrell collapsed into Gaye's arms. Terrell would later be diagnosed with a brain tumor and had eight unsuccessful surgeries before she died on March 16, 1970, at the age of 24.

On May 11, 1964, Attorney General Robert F. Kennedy visited Hampden–Sydney College to speak with students, and U.S. Vice President George H. W. Bush is said to have given the 1985 commencement address.

21st century
As of 2020, Hampden-Sydney had expanded its academic offerings to include more than 50 majors and minors, with recent additions including majors in engineering physics and biochemistry and molecular biology.

In 2017 the college added a new student center and renovated an existing facility to create a state-of-the-art center for the arts. A center for entrepreneurship and innovation was also launched in 2017. In recent years the campus has also added a high ropes course featuring a vertical climbing wall, suspended ropes obstacles, and zip line.

In 2018, the college's Wilson Center for Leadership in the Public Interest launched a four-year leadership development program, with 47 first-year students in the inaugural cohort. The center and program are named for the late Lieutenant General Samuel V. Wilson, a former Hampden-Sydney president who "combined the savvy of a spymaster with the grit of a hardened combat veteran," according to a 2017 New York Times obituary.

2019 saw the launch of a new experiential learning program called Compass, which requires students to complete at least three experiential learning courses from options including internships, study abroad, research, service learning, and hands-on classroom experiences. A $6 million gift from Cindy and Rob Citrone (class of 1987) was dedicated to supporting the Compass program. That same year, the college also received the donation of $30 Million from the Pauley Family Foundation. These funds were used to construct the Pauley Science Center which replaced the section of the grounds previously host to Bagby Hall. The sightline from Venable hall to Cushing hall was restored, an intentional design element dating to the 1820s which was previously blocked by Bagby Hall.

In August 2020, the college completed a new 147-bed residential complex called the Grove. Footpaths and a central courtyard link the lodge-like, apartment-style residence halls. A neighboring community lodge overlooks Lake Chalgrove and features indoor and outdoor fireplaces and grilling space.

Construction began in 2020 on the new, 73,000-square-foot Pauley Science Center. The Pauley Science Center debuted in the fall semester of 2022, with its dedication on November 11th, 2024

Name
Under the influence of his mentor and father-in-law Witherspoon, Smith named the college for two English champions of liberty, John Hampden (1594–1643) and Algernon Sydney (1622–1683). Hampden lost his life in the battle of Chalgrove Field during the English Civil War. Sydney, who wrote Discourses Concerning Government, was beheaded by order of Charles II following his (unproven) implication in a failed attempt to overthrow the king.

Presidents
The following is a list of the Presidents of Hampden–Sydney College from its opening in 1775 until the present.

Academics
Hampden–Sydney enrolls approximately 1,000 students from 30 states and several foreign countries and emphasizes a rigorous, traditional liberal arts curriculum.

Rankings

 * U.S. News & World Report ranked Hampden–Sydney #98 in its 2022 rankings of the top National Liberal Arts Colleges.
 * Forbes awarded Hampden–Sydney with an "A" grade in its 2016 Forbes College Financial Grades; an evaluation methodology designed to "measure the fiscal soundness of nearly 900 four-year, private, not-for-profit colleges with at least 500 students".
 * The Princeton Review ranked Hampden–Sydney #2 in its 2020 rankings of Best Alumni Network. The Princeton Review also ranked Hampden-Sydney's Bortz Library #5 in its 2020 rankings of Best College Library. In addition, the Princeton Review ranked Hampden-Sydney #14 in its 2020 rankings of Best Schools for Internships.

Honor Code

In addition to Wabash College and Morehouse College, Hampden–Sydney is one of only three remaining traditional all-male colleges in the United States and was noted in a 1999 Newsweek article as exemplary. Many identify with the school's mission of forming good men, rigorous students, and American citizens.The honor code reflects these values.

Western Culture Program

All Hampden–Sydney students must take two semesters of Western culture as part of a three-course Core Cultures sequence. In addition to the Western Culture courses, which introduce them to some of the great works and historical events from Greece and Rome through present times, students take at least one Global Cultures course, which compares hierarchical structures, cultural frameworks, and regional and global networks from the beginning of human history to the present. Western Culture has been described as "the bedrock of Hampden–Sydney's liberal arts program and one of the most important of its core academic requirements." The Core Cultures program draws on professors from all disciplines.

Rhetoric Program
The Rhetoric Program is based on a 1978 faculty resolution that states: "All Hampden-Sydney graduates will write and speak competently." Every student must prepare for and pass the Rhetoric Proficiency Exam, which consists of a three-hour essay that is graded for grammatical correctness and the coherence, quality, and style of the argument.

While the program was formalized in 1978, the emphasis on rhetoric dates back to the college's founding. In a September 1775 advertisement in the Virginia Gazette, founding president Samuel S. Smith wrote, "The system of Education will resemble that which is adopted in the College of New Jersey; save, that a more particular Attention shall be paid to the Cultivation of the English Language than is usually done in Places of public Education."

Campus
The college expanded from its original small cluster of buildings on 100 acre to a campus of over 1300 acre. Before 2006, the college owned 660 acre. In February 2006, the college purchased 400 acre which includes a lake and Slate Hill Plantation, the historic location of the college's founding. The campus is host to numerous federal-style buildings. Part of the campus has been listed on the National Register of Historic Places as a historic district.

Culture
Given that it is older than the United States and one of just a handful of colleges for men, Hampden–Sydney College has a distinctive culture that values tradition. When they arrive on campus, freshmen are issued a copy of To Manner Born, To Manners Bred: A Hip-pocket Guide to Etiquette for the Hampden–Sydney Man, which covers basic manners, how to greet and introduce people, how to navigate job interviews, how to respond to invitations, how to dress for various occasions (such as the difference between a black-tie and white-tie event), how to pair wine with food, etc. The college publishes the book as a useful tool for existing successfully in a variety of social settings. To Manner Born has been highlighted in the New York Times and on the CBS Late Show with Stephen Colbert, who attended Hampden-Sydney in the 1980s.

Tailgating before football games is central to Hampden–Sydney's social culture each fall, and the college's tailgate scene has been featured in Town & Country and Southern Living, which ranked Hampden-Sydney as one of the top-20 best tailgates in the Southern United States, alongside large schools like Ole Miss and Alabama.

Many students are passionate outdoorsmen, and Field & Stream has called Hampden-Sydney a "hidden gem for outdoorsmen" in a list of "21 of the Best Colleges for Hunters and Anglers," where the college ranked #7.

Clubs and organizations
There are more than 50 clubs on campus, each run by students. There are political clubs, sports clubs, religious clubs, a student-run radio station, a pep band, and multiple social fraternities. There are also volunteer groups such as Habitat for Humanity and Rotaract.

The 100-year-old student newspaper, The Hampden-Sydney Tiger, has produced many prominent journalists, including Jonathan Martin of the New York Times, Chris Stirewalt of Fox News, Charles Hurt of the Washington Times, Matthew Karnitschnig, the chief Europe correspondent for Politico and a Pulitzer Prize finalist, and Matthew Phillips of CNN, who was previously an editor for Bloomberg Businessweek and Freakonomics.

The college campus is home to a volunteer fire department, which provides fire suppression service and non-transport basic life support EMS to Prince Edward County and the college, as well as assisting the Farmville fire department at fires within the town limits. HSVFD, Company 2, is located on the southern end of campus near the water tower and the physical plant. Since the departments incorporation in 1982 it has not been affiliated with the college, despite the fact a majority of active members are college faculty, staff, or students.

Union-Philanthropic Literary Society (UPLS) is the oldest student organization at Hampden–Sydney College. Established on September 22, 1789, UPLS is the nation's oldest literary and debating society, still in existence today without interruption.

Greek life

Internal sources claim that roughly 47% of the student body is involved in Greek life. Beta Theta Pi used Atkinson Hall (built 1834) as a fraternity house when it came to campus in 1850, possibly making it one of the first fraternity houses in North America.

Athletics

Hampden–Sydney athletic teams are the Tigers. The college is a member of the Division III level of the National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA), primarily competing in the Old Dominion Athletic Conference (ODAC) since the 1976–77 academic year.

Hampden–Sydney competes in ten intercollegiate varsity sports: Men's sports include baseball, basketball, cross country, football, golf, lacrosse, soccer, swimming & diving, tennis, and distance track. The Tigers have rugby as a club sport.

Hampden–Sydney's rivalry with Randolph–Macon College is one of the longest-running college rivalries in the United States. "The Game" is often referred to as the oldest small-school football rivalry in the Southern United States, with the first match up having been played in 1893. Athletic events involving the two schools are fiercely competitive, and the week prior to "The Game" between Hampden–Sydney and Randolph–Macon is known as "Beat Macon Week".

Several Hampden–Sydney athletes have gone on to successful coaching careers, including Russell Turner, the head coach of the UC Irvine men's basketball team, and Ryan Odom, who led the #16 seed UMBC Retrievers to a historic upset over #1 seed University of Virginia in the 2018 NCAA men's basketball tournament. Ryan Silverfield, an alumnus and former student-assistant with the Hampden–Sydney football program, was named head football coach at the University of Memphis just before the 2019 Cotton Bowl Classic after previously serving as an assistant with the Detroit Lions and Minnesota Vikings.

title: Hampden–Sydney College


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Salmonellosis

Salmonellosis is a symptomatic infection caused by bacteria of the Salmonella type. It is the most common disease to be known as food poisoning (though the name refers to food-borne illness in general), these are defined as diseases, usually either infectious or toxic in nature, caused by agents that enter the body through the ingestion of food. In humans, the most common symptoms are diarrhea, fever, abdominal cramps, and vomiting. Symptoms typically occur between 12 hours and 36 hours after exposure, and last from two to seven days. Occasionally more significant disease can result in dehydration. The old, young, and others with a weakened immune system are more likely to develop severe disease. Specific types of Salmonella can result in typhoid fever or paratyphoid fever. Typhoid fever and paratyphoid fever are specific types of salmonellosis, known collectively as enteric fever, and are, respectively, caused by salmonella typhi and paratyphi bacteria, which are only found in humans. Most commonly, salmonellosis cases arise from salmonella bacteria from animals, and chicken is a major source for these infections.

There are two species of Salmonella: Salmonella bongori and Salmonella enterica with many subspecies. However, subgroups and serovars within a species may be substantially different in their ability to cause disease. This suggests that epidemiologic classification of organisms at the subspecies level may improve management of Salmonella and similar pathogens.

Both vegetarian and non-vegetarian populations are susceptible to Salmonella infections due to the consumption of contaminated meat and milk. Infection is usually spread by consuming contaminated meat, eggs, water or milk. Other foods may spread the disease if they have come into contact with manure. A number of pets including cats, dogs, and reptiles can also carry and spread the infection. Diagnosis is by a stool test or blood tests.

Efforts to prevent the disease include the proper washing, preparation, and cooking of food to appropriate temperature. Mild disease typically does not require specific treatment. More significant cases may require treatment of electrolyte problems and intravenous fluid replacement. In those at high risk or in whom the disease has spread outside the intestines, antibiotics are recommended.

Salmonellosis is one of the most common causes of diarrhea globally. In 2015, 90,300 deaths occurred from nontyphoidal salmonellosis, and 178,000 deaths from typhoidal salmonellosis. In the United States, about 1.35 million cases and 450 deaths occur from non-typhoidal salmonellosis a year. In Europe, it is the second most common foodborne disease after campylobacteriosis.

Enteritis
After a short incubation period of a few hours to one day, the bacteria multiply in the small intestine, causing an intestinal inflammation (enteritis). Most people with salmonellosis develop diarrhea, fever, vomiting, and abdominal cramps 12 to 72 hours after infection. Diarrhea is often watery and non-bloody but may be mucoid and bloody. In most cases, the illness lasts four to seven days, and does not require treatment. In some cases, though, the diarrhea may be so severe that the patient becomes dangerously dehydrated and must be hospitalized. At the hospital, the patient may receive fluids intravenously to treat the dehydration, and may be given medications to provide symptomatic relief, such as fever reduction. In severe cases, the Salmonella infection may spread from the intestines to the blood stream, and then to other body sites, and can cause death, unless the person is treated promptly with antibiotics.

In otherwise healthy adults, the symptoms can be mild. Normally, no sepsis occurs, but it can occur exceptionally as a complication in the immunocompromised. However, in people at risk such as infants, small children, and the elderly, Salmonella infections can become very serious, leading to complications. In infants, dehydration can cause a state of severe toxicity. Extraintestinal localizations are possible, especially Salmonella meningitis in children, osteitis, etc. Children with sickle-cell anemia who are infected with Salmonella may develop osteomyelitis. Treatment of osteomyelitis, in this case, will be to use fluoroquinolones (ciprofloxacin, levofloxacin, etc., and nalidixic acid).

Those whose only symptom is diarrhea usually completely recover, but their bowel habits may not return to normal for several months.

Typhoid fever
Typhoid fever occurs when Salmonella bacteria enter the lymphatic system and cause a systemic form of salmonellosis. Endotoxins first act on the vascular and nervous apparatus, resulting in increased permeability and decreased tone of the vessels, upset thermal regulation, vomiting, and diarrhea. In severe forms of the disease, enough liquid and electrolytes are lost to upset the fluid balance, cause an electrolyte imbalance, decrease the circulating blood volume and arterial pressure, and cause hypovolemic shock. Septic shock may also develop. Shock of mixed character (with signs of both hypovolemic and septic shock) are more common in severe salmonellosis. Oliguria and azotemia develop in severe cases as a result of renal involvement due to hypoxia and toxemia.

Long-term
Salmonellosis is associated with later irritable bowel syndrome and inflammatory bowel disease. Evidence however does not support it being a direct cause of the latter.

A small number of people afflicted with salmonellosis experience reactive arthritis, which can last months or years and can lead to chronic arthritis. In sickle-cell anemia, osteomyelitis due to Salmonella infection is much more common than in the general population. Though Salmonella infection is frequently the cause of osteomyelitis in people with sickle-cell, it is not the most common cause, which is Staphylococcus infection.

Those infected may become asymptomatic carriers, but this is relatively uncommon, with shedding observed in only 0.2 to 0.6% of cases after a year.

Causes

 * Contaminated food, often having no unusual look or smell
 * Poor kitchen hygiene, especially problematic in institutional kitchens and restaurants because this can lead to a significant outbreak
 * Excretions from either sick or infected but apparently clinically healthy people and animals (especially dangerous are caregivers and animals)
 * Polluted surface water and standing water (such as in shower hoses or unused water dispensers)
 * Unhygienically thawed poultry (the meltwater contains many bacteria)
 * An association with reptiles (pet tortoises, snakes, iguanas, and aquatic turtles) is well described.
 * Amphibians such as frogs

Salmonella bacteria can survive for some time without a host; they are frequently found in polluted water, with contamination from the excrement of carrier animals being particularly important.

The European Food Safety Authority highly recommends that when handling raw turkey meat, consumers and people involved in the food supply chain should pay attention to personal and food hygiene.

An estimated 142,000 Americans are infected each year with Salmonella Enteritidis from chicken eggs, and about 30 die. The shell of the egg may be contaminated with Salmonella by feces or environment, or its interior (yolk) may be contaminated by penetration of the bacteria through the porous shell or from a hen whose infected ovaries contaminate the egg during egg formation.

Nevertheless, such interior egg yolk contamination is theoretically unlikely. Even under natural conditions, the rate of infection was very small (0.6% in a study of naturally contaminated eggs and 3.0% among artificially and heavily infected hens ).

Prevention
The US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) has published guidelines to help reduce the chance of food-borne salmonellosis. Food must be cooked to 145 - 165 °F, and liquids such as soups or gravies should be boiled when reheating. Freezing kills some Salmonella, but it is not sufficient to reliably reduce them below infectious levels. While Salmonella is usually heat-sensitive, it acquires heat-resistance in high-fat environments such as peanut butter.

Vaccine
Antibodies against nontyphoidal Salmonella were first found in Malawi children in research published in 2008. The Malawian researchers identified an antibody that protects children against bacterial infections of the blood caused by nontyphoidal Salmonella. A study at Queen Elizabeth Hospital in Blantyre found that children up to two years old develop antibodies that aid in killing the bacteria. This could lead to a possible Salmonella vaccine for humans.

A 2014 study tested a vaccine on chickens which offered efficient protection against salmonellosis.

Vaccination of chickens against Salmonella essentially wiped out the disease in the United Kingdom. A similar approach was considered in the United States, but the Food and Drug Administration decided not to mandate vaccination of hens.

Treatment
Electrolytes may be replenished with oral rehydration supplements (typically containing salts sodium chloride and potassium chloride).

Appropriate antibiotics, such as ceftriaxone, may be given to kill the bacteria, but are not necessary in most cases. Azithromycin has been suggested to be better at treating typhoid in resistant populations than both fluoroquinolone drugs and ceftriaxone. There are recommendations on choice of antibiotic to avoid promoting antibiotic resistance.

There is no evidence of benefit of treating healthy people with diarrhea due to non-typhoidal salmonellosis. However, the evidence for the very young, very old or people with severe diseases are uncertain.

United States
Salmonellosis annually causes, per CDC estimation, about 1.35 million illnesses, 26,500 hospitalizations, and 420 deaths in the United States every year. About 142,000 people in the United States are infected each year with Salmonella Enteritidis specifically from chicken eggs, and about 30 die.

In 2010, an analysis of death certificates in the United States identified a total of 1,316 Salmonella-related deaths from 1990 to 2006. These were predominantly among older adults and those who were immunocompromised. The U.S. government reported as many as 20% of all chickens were contaminated with Salmonella in the late 1990s, and 16.3% were contaminated in 2005.

The United States has struggled to control salmonella infections, with the rate of infection rising from 2001 to 2011. In 1998, the USDA moved to close plants if salmonella was found in excess of 20 percent, which was the industry's average at the time, for three consecutive tests. Texas-based Supreme Beef Processors, Inc. sued on the argument that Salmonella is naturally occurring and ultimately prevailed when a federal appeals court affirmed a lower court. These issues were highlighted in a proposed Kevin's Law (formally proposed as the Meat and Poultry Pathogen Reduction and Enforcement Act of 2003), of which components were included the Food Safety Modernization Act passed in 2011, but that law applies only to the FDA and not the USDA. The USDA proposed a regulatory initiative in 2011 to Office of Management and Budget.

Salmonella is found in 8% of the chicken parts tested by the USDA and 25% of ground chicken.

Europe
An outbreak of salmonellosis started in Northern Europe in July 2012, caused by Salmonella thompson. The infections were linked to smoked salmon from the manufacturer Foppen, where the contamination had occurred. Most infections were reported in the Netherlands; over 1060 infections with this subspecies and four fatalities were confirmed.

A case of widespread infection was detected mid-2012 in seven EU countries. Over 400 people had been infected with Salmonella enterica serovar Stanley (S. Stanley) that usually appears in the regions of Southeast Asia. After several DNA analyses seemed to point to a specific Belgian strain, the "Joint ECDC/E FSA Rapid Risk Assessment" report detected turkey production as the source of infection.

In Germany, food poisoning infections must be reported. Between 1990 and 2005, the number of officially recorded cases decreased from about 200,000 to about 50,000.

Elsewhere
In March 2007, around 150 people were diagnosed with salmonellosis after eating tainted food at a governor's reception in Krasnoyarsk, Russia. Over 1,500 people attended the ball on March 1 and fell ill as a consequence of ingesting Salmonella-tainted sandwiches.

In Singapore about 150 people fell sick after eating Salmonella-tainted chocolate cake produced by a major bakery chain in December 2007.

South Africa reported contamination of its poultry carcasses by Salmonella. Egypt showed that Salmonella was predominant in poultry along with other non-typhoid strains. In Indonesia, the isolation of Salmonella Typhi was the main focus,  while other serovars were also included from poultry. In India, Salmonella was predominant in poultry. Romania reported Salmonella serovars in poultry that affect humans.

History
Both salmonellosis and the microorganism genus Salmonella derive their names from a modern Latin coining after Daniel E. Salmon (1850–1914), an American veterinary surgeon. He had help from Theobald Smith, and together they found the bacterium in pigs.

Salmonella enterica was possibly the cause of the 1576 cocliztli epidemic in New Spain.

Four-inch regulation
The "Four-inch regulation" or "Four-inch law" is a colloquial name for a regulation issued by the U.S. FDA in 1975, restricting the sale of turtles with a carapace length less than four inches (10 cm).

The regulation was introduced, according to the FDA, "because of the public health impact of turtle-associated salmonellosis". Cases had been reported of young children placing small turtles in their mouths, which led to the size-based restriction.

FSSAI regulation
The FSSAI has been established under the Food Safety and Standards Act, 2006, which is a consolidating statute related to food safety and regulation in India. FSSAI is responsible for protecting and promoting public health through the regulation and supervision of food safety. The major importance of the FSSAI License is that it ensures that the food is verified chemically and hence is safe to consume. 'Health before wealth' is a common quote as well as fact. Therefore, anything related directly to health is a matter of great sensitivity.

Bacteriophage treatment
Therapy with phages or bacteriophages (viruses that infect bacteria) has been proposed as a treatment for Salmonella infections. Bacteriophages have a number of advantages over other alternatives: (i) high efficacy in killing bacteria, (ii) minimal or no side effects, (iii) no allergic effects, (iv) production is rapid and inexpensive, and (v) they are host-specific and therefore do not affect the intestinal microbiota or other saprophytic bacteria in the environmental milieu.

The use of bacteriophages is effective in the prevention and treatment of bacterial pathogens in animals. In the specific case of poultry, good results have been obtained by reducing the infection of Salmonella, E. coli and Campylobacter. Until now, the use of phage therapy to control Salmonella in poultry could reduce, but not completely eliminate bacterial colonisation.

Bacteriophages are suitable to prevent or reduce the colonization of pathogenic bacteria and therefore diseases in cattle, where phages are supplied either individually or in cocktail to farm animals, the routes and methods of application were examined by various authors and the application of phages through oral tube feeding or feed intake showed a reduction of pathogenic bacteria without affecting the intestinal microbiota of the host. Current research is focused on improved phage delivery in a manner that avoids decreasing phage titer due to destabilization or inactivation by gastric pH extremes.

Immunological parameters of infection
From an immunological point of view Salmonellosis is an infection caused by gram-negative bacteria infiltrating epithelial cells of the small intestine in the distal ileum whereby inducing acute inflammatory response called enteritis. Salmonella can infect M-cells population overlying the Payer’s patches in the intestine, cells located in lamina propria of the intestinal mucosa and other epithelial cells. After infecting cells in Peyer's patches, Salmonella can move to the mesenteric lymph nodes. This happens because lymphatic vessels are responsible for draining fluids, cells, and microbes from the intestinal tissues and carrying them to these lymph nodes. This process requires migration dependent on a factor known as CCR7. Once in the mesenteric lymph nodes, Salmonella can then enter the bloodstream, leading to a systemic infection that spreads throughout the body. Virulence of the Salmonella is given by the Salmonella Pathogenicity Island 1 (SPI-1). This needle-like structure, formed by a set of proteins, is known as the Type III secretion system. It enables Salmonella to effectively invade neighboring cells by injecting bacterial proteins directly into them, facilitating its spread and evasion of the host's immune defenses. The first cells recruited to the Salmonella infection site are neutrophils, monocytes, and dendritic cells. Neutrophils play a key role in early defense against Salmonella, preventing its spread into the bloodstream. Studies in mice have shown that without neutrophils, there's an increase in the extracellular bacterial load during Salmonella infection. Moreover, these cells are essential for producing IFN-γ in the intestinal mucosa, which is crucial for controlling Salmonella Typhimurium through an IFN-γ-dependent mechanism. Several other pro-inflammatory cytokines have been also observed after the infection of the epithelia such as IL-1α, TNFα, IL-12, IL-18 and IL-15, affecting the body-temperature by inducing fever, increase mucus production, activation of B and T leukocytes and polymorphonuclear leukocytes and macrophages recruitment to the site of infection. Resident macrophages can also recognize flagellin and activate NLRC4 inflammasome complex to activate caspase-1 and IL-1β and IL-18 release. Recruited monocytes are specifically adapted to regulating bacterial replication through the production of antimicrobial molecules (anti-microbial factors such as iNOS, TNF-α and IL-1β), however, they exhibit limited capability as antigen-presenting cells. While monocytes help in containing the bacteria initially, the inability to effectively present antigens can delay or weaken the activation of T cells, which are necessary for a strong and specific immune response. In contrast, dendritic cells experience maturation through both direct pathways, mediated by bacteria, and indirect pathways, facilitated by cytokines in vivo, enhancing their ability to present antigens optimally. In a study focusing on the interaction between dendritic cells and intestinal epithelial cells, it was observed that when intestinal epithelial cells are stimulated by flagellin (a component of bacterial flagella, like those found in Salmonella), they trigger a specific response. This response involves the release of a molecule called CCL20. CCL20 is known to attract DCs, a type of immune cell. As a result, dendritic cells migrate towards the site of flagellin stimulation in the intestines. Recruitment of these cells to follicles plays a crucial role in initiating early T-cells mediated responses to Salmonella infection. T–cell activation is limited to the draining mesenteric lymph nodes within 9–12 h since the initial infection as in any other lymph node activated T-cells specific to Salmonella were not detected. Protective immunity against Salmonella appears to be primarily mediated by CD4+ T cells. This is evident in mice lacking a thymus, αβ T cells, MHC class-II, or T-bet+ Th1 cells, as they demonstrate an inability to resolve the infection. Clearly Th1 response is crucial in response and clearance of Salmonella infection since mice depleted from T-bet or IFN-γ are unable to combat Salmonellosis. The presence of different cytokines in combination with cytokines produced from Th1 cells however suggests additional effect of Th17 response. IL-22 and IL-17 are contributing to protection against Salmonella by its mucosal production and antimicrobial peptides expression (IL-22) as well regulation of mucosal host defense and neutrophil recruitment (IL17) demonstrated by IL-17A deficient mice infected with Salmonella. Conversely, mice lacking B-cells or γδ T cells can successfully clear the primary attenuated Salmonella infection, but a robust B-cell response is essential for resolving virulent Salmonella infections. Different study revealed that B-cells are essential for protective immunity against Salmonella independent of antibody secretion because B-cells unable to secrete antibodies were still protective against Salmonella, suggesting that B-cells can serve as antigen presenting cells in this context and activate T-cells responses. Further experiments focused on CD8+ cytotoxic lymphocytes revealed their crucial role in Salmonella clearance. Depletion of CD8+ T cells resulted in the failure to resolve the infection in mice. These findings strongly suggest that CD4+-mediated protection is facilitated by the contribution of CD8+ cytotoxic T cells in the immune response against Salmonella. The investigation of immune memory revealed robust bacterial clearance facilitated by both CD4+ and CD8+ responses. Interestingly, this memory was not sufficient in adoptive transfer into other mice, despite possessing a potent response. However, when serum transfer was employed, the observed response indicated the crucial antibody-dependent role in secondary Salmonella infections. Immunocompromised individuals (for example AIDS, malnutrition or those taking immunosuppressive treatment) are more susceptible to salmonellosis and contribute to bacteremia caused by neutropenia in immunocompromised individuals comparing immunocompetent ones.

title: Salmonellosis