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Streptomyces

Streptomyces is the largest genus of Actinomycetota, and the type genus of the family Streptomycetaceae. Over 700 species of Streptomyces bacteria have been described. As with the other Actinomycetota, streptomycetes are gram-positive, and have very large genomes with high GC content. Found predominantly in soil and decaying vegetation, most streptomycetes produce spores, and are noted for their distinct "earthy" odor that results from production of a volatile metabolite, geosmin. Different strains of the same species may colonize very diverse environments.

Streptomycetes are characterised by a complex secondary metabolism. Between 5-23% (average: 12%) of the protein-coding genes of each Streptomyces species are implicated in secondary metabolism. Streptomycetes produce over two-thirds of the clinically useful antibiotics of natural origin (e.g., neomycin, streptomycin, cypemycin, grisemycin, bottromycins and chloramphenicol). The antibiotic streptomycin takes its name directly from Streptomyces. Streptomycetes are infrequent pathogens, though infections in humans, such as mycetoma, can be caused by S. somaliensis and S. sudanensis, and in plants can be caused by S. caviscabies, S. acidiscabies, S. turgidiscabies and S. scabies.

Taxonomy
Streptomyces is the type genus of the family Streptomycetaceae and currently covers more than 700 species with the number increasing every year. It is estimated that the total number of Streptomyces species is close to 1600. Acidophilic and acid-tolerant strains that were initially classified under this genus have later been moved to Kitasatospora (1997) and Streptacidiphilus (2003). Species nomenclature are usually based on their color of hyphae and spores.

Saccharopolyspora erythraea was formerly placed in this genus (as Streptomyces erythraeus).

Morphology
The genus Streptomyces includes aerobic, Gram-positive, multicellular, filamentous bacteria that produce well-developed vegetative hyphae (between 0.5-2.0 μm in diameter) with branches. They form a complex substrate mycelium that aids in scavenging organic compounds from their substrates. Although the mycelia and the aerial hyphae that arise from them are amotile, mobility is achieved by dispersion of spores. Spore surfaces may be hairy, rugose, smooth, spiny or warty. In some species, aerial hyphae consist of long, straight filaments, which bear 50 or more spores at more or less regular intervals, arranged in whorls (verticils). Each branch of a verticil produces, at its apex, an umbel, which carries from two to several chains of spherical to ellipsoidal, smooth or rugose spores. Some strains form short chains of spores on substrate hyphae. Sclerotia-, pycnidia-, sporangia-, and synnemata-like structures are produced by some strains.

Genomics
The complete genome of "S. coelicolor strain A3(2)" was published in 2002. At the time, the "S. coelicolor" genome was thought to contain the largest number of genes of any bacterium. The chromosome is 8,667,507 bp long with a GC-content of 72.1%, and is predicted to contain 7,825 protein-encoding genes. In terms of taxonomy, "S. coelicolor A3(2)" belongs to the species S. violaceoruber, and is not a validly described separate species; "S. coelicolor A3(2)" is not to be mistaken for the actual S. coelicolor (Müller), although it is often referred to as S. coelicolor for convenience. The transcriptome and translatome analyses of the strain A3(2) were published in 2016.

The first complete genome sequence of S. avermitilis was completed in 2003. Each of these genomes forms a chromosome with a linear structure, unlike most bacterial genomes, which exist in the form of circular chromosomes. The genome sequence of S. scabiei, a member of the genus with the ability to cause potato scab disease, has been determined at the Wellcome Trust Sanger Institute. At 10.1 Mbp long and encoding 9,107 provisional genes, it is the largest known Streptomyces genome sequenced, probably due to the large pathogenicity island.

The genomes of the various Streptomyces species demonstrate remarkable plasticity, via ancient single gene duplications, block duplications (mainly at the chromosomal arms) and horizontal gene transfer. The size of their chromosome varies from 5.7-12.1 Mbps (average: 8.5 Mbps), the number of chromosomally encoded proteins varies from 4983-10,112 (average: 7130), whereas their high GC content varies from 68.8-74.7% (average: 71.7%). The 95% soft-core proteome of the genus consists of approximately 2000-2400 proteins. The pangenome is open. In addition, significant genomic plasticity is observed even between strains of the same species, where the number of accessory proteins (at the species level) ranges from 250 to more than 3000. Intriguingly, a correlation has been observed between the number of carbohydrate-active enzymes and secondary metabolite biosynthetic gene clusters (siderophores, e-Polylysin and type III lanthipeptides) that are related to competition among bacteria, in Streptomyces species. Streptomycetes are major biomass degraders, mainly via their carbohydrate-active enzymes. Thus, they also need to evolve an arsenal of siderophores and antimicrobial agents to suppress competition by other bacteria in these nutrient-rich environments that they create. Several evolutionary analyses have revealed that the majority of evolutionarily stable genomic elements are localized mainly at the central region of the chromosome, whereas the evolutionarily unstable elements tend to localize at the chromosomal arms. Thus, the chromosomal arms emerge as the part of the genome that is mainly responsible for rapid adaptation at both the species and strain level.

Biotechnology
Biotechnology researchers have used Streptomyces species for heterologous expression of proteins. Traditionally, Escherichia coli was the species of choice to express eukaryotic genes, since it was well understood and easy to work with. Expression of eukaryotic proteins in E. coli may be problematic. Sometimes, proteins do not fold properly, which may lead to insolubility, deposition in inclusion bodies, and loss of bioactivity of the product. Though E. coli strains have secretion mechanisms, these are of low efficiency and result in secretion into the periplasmic space, whereas secretion by a Gram-positive bacterium such as a Streptomyces species results in secretion directly into the extracellular medium. In addition, Streptomyces species have more efficient secretion mechanisms than E.coli. The properties of the secretion system is an advantage for industrial production of heterologously expressed protein because it simplifies subsequent purification steps and may increase yield. These properties among others make Streptomyces spp. an attractive alternative to other bacteria such as E. coli and Bacillus subtilis. In addition, the inherently high genomic instability suggests that the various Streptomycetes genomes may be amenable to extensive genome reduction for the construction of synthetic minimal genomes with industrial applications.

Plant pathogenic bacteria
Several species belonging to this genus have been found to be pathogenic to plants:
 * 1) S. scabiei
 * 2) S. acidiscabies
 * 3) S. europaeiscabiei
 * 4) S. luridiscabiei
 * 5) S. niveiscabiei
 * 6) S. puniciscabiei
 * 7) S. reticuliscabiei
 * 8) S. stelliscabiei
 * 9) S. turgidiscabies (scab disease in potatoes)
 * 10) S. ipomoeae (soft rot disease in sweet potatoes)
 * 11) S. brasiliscabiei (first species identified in Brazil)
 * 12) S. hilarionis and S. hayashii (new species identified in Brazil)

Medicine
Streptomyces is the largest antibiotic-producing genus, producing antibacterial, antifungal, and antiparasitic drugs, and also a wide range of other bioactive compounds, such as immunosuppressants. Almost all of the bioactive compounds produced by Streptomyces are initiated during the time coinciding with the aerial hyphal formation from the substrate mycelium.

Antifungals
Streptomycetes produce numerous antifungal compounds of medicinal importance, including nystatin (from S. noursei), amphotericin B (from S. nodosus), and natamycin (from S. natalensis).

Antibacterials
Members of the genus Streptomyces are the source for numerous antibacterial pharmaceutical agents; among the most important of these are:
 * Chloramphenicol (from S. venezuelae)
 * Daptomycin (from S. roseosporus)
 * Fosfomycin (from S. fradiae)
 * Lincomycin (from S. lincolnensis)
 * Neomycin (from S. fradiae)
 * Nourseothricin
 * Puromycin (from S. alboniger)
 * Streptomycin (from S. griseus)
 * Tetracycline (from S. rimosus and S. aureofaciens)
 * Oleandomycin (from S. antibioticus)
 * Tunicamycin (from S. torulosus)
 * Mycangimycin (from Streptomyces sp. SPB74 and S. antibioticus)
 * Boromycin (from S. antibioticus)
 * Bambermycin (from S. bambergiensis and S. ghanaensis, the active compound being moenomycins A and C)
 * Vulgamycin

Clavulanic acid (from S. clavuligerus) is a drug used in combination with some antibiotics (like amoxicillin) to block and/or weaken some bacterial-resistance mechanisms by irreversible beta-lactamase inhibition. Novel antiinfectives currently being developed include Guadinomine (from Streptomyces sp. K01-0509), a compound that blocks the Type III secretion system of Gram-negative bacteria.

Antiparasitic drugs
S. avermitilis is responsible for the production of one of the most widely employed drugs against nematode and arthropod infestations, avermectin, and thus its derivatives including ivermectin.

Other
Less commonly, streptomycetes produce compounds used in other medical treatments: migrastatin (from S. platensis) and bleomycin (from S. verticillus) are antineoplastic (anticancer) drugs; boromycin (from S. antibioticus) exhibits antiviral activity against the HIV-1 strain of HIV, as well as antibacterial activity. Staurosporine (from S. staurosporeus) also has a range of activities from antifungal to antineoplastic (via the inhibition of protein kinases).

S. hygroscopicus and S. viridochromogenes produce the natural herbicide bialaphos.

Saptomycins are chemical compounds isolated from Streptomyces.

Symbiosis
Sirex wasps cannot perform all of their own cellulolytic functions and so some Streptomyces do so in symbiosis with the wasps. Book et al. have investigated several of these symbioses. Book et al., 2014 and Book et al., 2016 identify several lytic isolates. The 2016 study isolates Streptomyces sp. Amel2xE9 and Streptomyces sp. LamerLS-31b and finds that they are equal in activity to the previously identified Streptomyces sp. SirexAA-E.

title: Streptomyces


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Qashqai people

Qashqai people (pronounced ; ; Kaşkayı in Turkish) are a Turkic tribal confederation in Iran. Almost all of them speak a Western Turkic (Oghuz) language known as the Qashqai language — which they call "Turkī" — as well as Persian (the national language of Iran) in formal use. The Qashqai mainly live in the provinces of Fars, Khuzestan, Kohgiluyeh and Boyer-Ahmad, Chaharmahal and Bakhtiari, Bushehr and southern Isfahan, especially around the cities of Shiraz and Firuzabad in Fars.

The majority of Qashqai people were originally nomadic pastoralists and some remain so today. The traditional nomadic Qashqai traveled with their flocks twice yearly between the summer highland pastures north of Shiraz roughly 480 km or 300 miles south and the winter pastures on lower (and warmer) lands near the Persian Gulf, to the southwest of Shiraz. The majority, however, have now become partially or wholly sedentary. The trend towards settlement has been increasing markedly since the 1960s under government pressure, and encouragement, which has built housing for those willing to settle, starting in the early 20th century during the reign of the Pahlavi dynasty; However, for those who continue their migratory lifestyle, the Iranian government maintains and controls travel corridors for the Qashqai and their livestock, and other populations practicing pastoral migrations.

The Qashqai are made up of five major tribes: the Amale (Qashqai) / Amaleh (Persian), the Dere-Shorlu / Darreh-Shuri, the Kashkollu / Kashkuli, the Shishbeyli / Sheshboluki and the Eymur / Farsimadan. Smaller tribes include the Qaracha / Qarache'i, Rahimli / Rahimi and Safi-Khanli / Safi-Khani.

History
Historically, the Turkic-speaking people are believed to have arrived in Iran from Central Asia from the 11th or 12th century onwards.

Told to Marie-Tèrése Ullens by the Ilbeg Malek Mansur, brother of the Ilkhan, Nasser Khan, Chief of the Qashqa'i, in 1953: "To survive, nomads have always been obliged to fight. They lead a wandering life and do not accumulate documents and archives. But in the evenings, around fires that are burning low, the elders will relate striking events, deeds of valour in which the tribes pride themselves. Thus the epic tale is told from father to son, down through the ages. The tribes of Central Asia were forced by wars, strife, upheavals, to abandon their steppes and seek new pasture grounds...so the Huns, the Visigoths, and before them the Aryans, had invaded India, Iran, Europe. The Turks, forsaking the regions where they had dwelt for centuries, started moving down through the Altai Mountains and Caspian depressions, establishing themselves eventually on the frontiers of the Iranian Empire and in Asia Minor. Though these versions differ, we believe that the arrival of our Tribes in Iran coincided with the conquests of Genghis Khan, in the thirteenth century. Soon after, our ancestors established themselves on the slopes of the Caucasus. We are descendants of the "Tribe of the Ak Koyunlu" the "Tribe of the White Sheep" famed for being the only tribe in history capable of inflicting a defeat on Tamerlane. For centuries we dwelt on the lands surrounding Ardebil, but, in the first half of the sixteenth century we settled in southern Persia, Shah Ismail having asked our warriors to defend this part of the country against the intrusions of the Portuguese. Thus, our Tribes came to the Province of Fars, near the Persian Gulf, and are still only separated from it by a ridge of mountains, the Makran.

The yearly migrations of the Kashkai, seeking fresh pastures, drive them from the south to the north, where they move to their summer quarters "Yailaq" in the high mountains; and from the north to the south, to their winter quarters, "Qishlaq". In summer, the Kashkai flocks graze on the slopes of the Kuh-è-Dinar; a group of mountains from 12,000 to 15,000 feet, that are part of the Zagros chain. In autumn the Kashkai break camp, and by stages leave the highlands. They winter in the warmer regions near Firuzabad, Kazerun, Jerrè, Farashband, on the banks of the river Mound, till, in April, they start once more on their yearly trek. The migration is organised and controlled by the Kashkai Chief. The Tribes carefully avoid villages and towns such as Shiraz and Isfahan, lest their flocks, estimated at seven million head, might cause serious damage. The annual migration is the largest of any Persian tribe.

It is difficult to give exact statistics, but we believe that the Tribes now number 400,000 men, women and children."

The Qashqai were a significant political force in Qajar Iran during the late 19th and early 20th centuries. During World War I, they were influenced by the German consular official Wilhelm Wassmuss and sided with the German Empire. During World War II, the Qashgais attempted to organize resistance against the Anglo-Soviet invasion of Iran, receiving some ineffectual assistance from Nazi Germany in 1943 by the means of Operation ANTON, which (along with Operation FRANZ) proved a complete failure.

In 1945–1946 there was a major rebellion of a number of tribal confederacies, including the Qashgais, who fought valiantly until the invading Russians were repelled. The Qashgais revolted during 1962–1964 due to the land reforms of the White Revolution. The revolt was put down and within a few years many Qashqais had settled. Most of the tribal leaders were sent to exile. After the Iranian Revolution of 1979, the living leader, Khosrow Khan Qashqai, returned to Iran from exile in the United States and Germany.

Major tribes
The Qashqai tribal confederation consists of five major tribes, including the Dareshuri, Farsimadan, Sheshboluki, Amaleh, and Kashkuli.

Amale / Amaleh
People of the Amaleh tribe were originally warriors and workmen attached to the household of the Ilkhani, or paramount chief; recruited from all the Qashqai tribes they constituted the Ilkhani's bodyguard and retinue. By 1956, the Amaleh tribe comprised as many as 6,000 families.

Dere-Shorlu / Dareshuri / Darehshouri
The Dareshuri are said to have joined the Qashqai tribal confederation during the reign of Karim Khan Zand (1163-93/1750-79). According to Persian government statistics, there were about 5,169 Dareshuri families, or 27,396 individuals, in 1360 sh./1981. The Dareshuri were "the greatest horse-breeders and owners among the Qashqai". The policy of forced sedentarization of the nomadic tribes pursued by Reza Shah Pahlavi (1304–20 SH./1925-41) resulted in the loss of 80–90 percent of the Dareshuri horses, but the tribe made a recovery after World War II. Reza Shah Pahlavi also executed Hossein khan Darehshouri the head of Darehshouri family in order to take back the control of the Fars province which was controlled by Darehshouri tribe during Ghajar empire.

Kashkollu / Kashkuli
During World War I, the Kashkuli khans supported the British in their struggle against Ṣowlat-al-Dowla (Iyl-khan) and the German agent, Wilhelm Wassmuss. After the war, Ṣowlat-al-Dowla punished the Kashkuli. He dismissed the Kashkuli leaders who had opposed him and "deliberately set out to break up and impoverish the Kashkuli tribe". Two sections of the tribe, which consisted of elements which had been loyal to Ṣowlat-al-Dowla, were then separated from the main body of the tribe and given the status of independent tribes, becoming the Kashkuli Kuchak ("Little Kashkuli") and Qarachahi tribes. The remaining tribe became known as the Kashkuli Bozorg ("Big Kashkuli") tribe. The Kashkuli Bozorg tribe comprised 4,862 households in 1963. As Oliver Garrod observed, the Kashkuli Bozorg are "especially noted for their Jajims, or tartan woolen blankets, and for the fine quality of their rugs and trappings".

Eymur / Farsimadan
The Farsimadan claim that they are of Ḵhalaj origin, and that, before moving to southern Persia, they dwelled in Ḵalajestan, a region southwest of Tehran. The tribe was already in Fars by the late 16th century, for it is known that in October 1590 their leader, Abul-Qasem Beyg and some of his followers were punished for having sided with Yaqub Khan the Zul-Qadr governor of Fars, in a revolt against Shah Abbas I. The population of the Farsimadan was estimated by Afshaar-Sistaani at 2,715 families or 12,394 individuals, in 1982.

Culture
The Qashqai are pastoral nomads who rely on small-scale cultivation and shepherding. Traditional dress includes the use of decorated short tunics, wide-legged pants, and headscarves worn by women.

Carpeting and weaving
The Qashqai are renowned for their pile carpets and other woven wool products. They are sometimes referred to as "Shiraz" because Shiraz was the major marketplace for them in the past. The wool produced in the mountains and valleys near Shiraz is exceptionally soft and beautiful and takes a deeper color than wool from other parts of Iran.

 * "No wool in all Persia takes such a rich and deep colour as the Shiraz wool. The deep blue and the dark ruby red are equally extraordinary, and that is due to the brilliancy of the wool, which is firmer and, so to say, more transparent than silk, and makes one think of translucent enamel".

Qashqai carpets have been said to be "probably the most famous of all Persian tribal weavings". Qashqai saddlebags, adorned with colorful geometric designs, "are superior to any others made".

Notable individuals

 * One of the famous Qashqai tribe leaders, Ismail Khan Qashqai is known as Solat al-Dawla, the leader of the nomads (born 1257 AH / 1295 AH). The history of his struggles during the constitutional period as well as in the role he played in the Persian campaign of World War I is very significant. He is one of the famous Qashqai patriarchs who has played an important role in the history of the Qashqai tribe as well as in the political events of the country. Solat al-Dawla died in Qasr Prison in Tehran on October 6, 1931. (1350 AH?) [69]
 * Another figure named Jahangir Khan Qashqaei is from the Darhshouri tribe (born 1206 AH / 1243 AH) who migrated with the tribe until he was 40 years old and had a primary school education. During a trip to Isfahan to repair his room, he encounters a person who advises him to pursue science. His prominent students include Mohammad Ali Shahabadi, Seyyed Hossein Tabatabai Boroujerdi, Seyyed Hassan Modarres, Nokhodaki Esfahani and others. He died in 1289 AH (1328 AH) and was buried in "Isfahan Steel Throne". [70]
 * Haj Ayazkhan Qashqaei, the author of the travelogue of Hajj and Atbat-e-Aliat during the reign of Ahmad Shah Qajar (author of the first Qashqaei travelogue) is another Qashqai famous. He is considered to be the advisor and trustee of Ismail Khan Solat al-Dawla Qashqai and one of the famous Qashqai during the First World War. He was born in 1287 AH (1248 AH) and died in 1979 AH (1318 AH). [71]
 * Mohammad Ibrahim, nicknamed Mazun Qashqaei, is a famous Qashqai poet from the Qaderlu Borbur tribe of the Amla tribe. He was born in 1246 AH and died in 1313 AH. Mazoon has mystical and romantic poems in Persian and Qashqai languages and Shahbaz Shahbazi (collector of Qashqai poets) considers him the greatest Qashqai poet. [72]
 * Mohammad Bahmanbeigi (26 Bahman 1298 - 11 May 1389) was a great writer of the Qashqai tribe and the founder of nomadic education in Iran.

Cultural references

 * In 2006, Nissan named its new European small SUV "Qashqai", after the Qashqai people.  The designers believe that the buyers "will be nomadic in nature too".
 * The everyday life of nomadic Qashqai people was portrayed in the 1996 Iranian film Gabbeh directed by Mohsen Makhmalbaf.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Qashqai people


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Bachi

Bachi (桴, 枹; also batchi) are straight wooden sticks used on Japanese taiko drums, and also the plectrum (written 撥) for stringed instruments of Japanese origin such as the shamisen and biwa.

For percussion

Drum bachi (桴, 枹) are made in a wide variety of sizes and materials, as appropriate to the drum it will be used to play. A typical bachi is about 22 mm (7/8 inches) in diameter, 400 mm (16 inches) long and made out of a hardwood such as oak. These would be suitable for a wide variety of playing styles.

A bachi for playing a larger drum like the O-daiko would be bigger both in circumference and length. Similarly, smaller bachi are used for smaller drums.

Distinctions between the characters 桴 and 枹 are not always made in technical terms, but 枹 can also literally refer to the white oak tree, or Quercus. Some other woods commonly used to make bachi are (Japanese names in parentheses): maple (楓), pine (松), cypress (檜), magnolia (朴), beech (椈) and bamboo (竹). Magnolia is one of the lightest and softest woods, most suitable for playing smaller drums with a sharp attack and less decay. On a larger drum, however, a magnolia bachi usually sounds "slappy" and flat, because it is too light to strike the thicker head of the drum with enough power to generate the lower tones of the drum. It is also too soft to strike the rim of the drum (in kuchi shoka, it is called a ka) without denting the wood. Cypress is slightly harder than magnolia, and is usually cheaper as well. On the opposite extreme, an evergreen oak (樫) bachi is heavy and hard. It brings out a better, fuller sound when playing larger taiko, but it muffles the higher harmonics of smaller taiko, sounding "thunky" and dead.

Taiko drumming is a highly visual art form, and so bachi are sometimes decorated with bells or tassels for use during performance.

For stringed instruments

Bachi used for stringed instruments (撥) are actually picks. They are very distinct in form and use from Western-style picks, which are usually smaller in order to be held between or mounted to fingers. In shape, bachi are similar to an ice scraper or a putty knife.

Bachi can be made of various materials and with varying levels of strength. Similarly to guitar picks, bachi were traditionally made of tortoise shell (鼈甲) or ivory (象牙), but these materials are rare and expensive (and illegal to trade in some territories, due to protection of endangered species), therefore making bachi in these materials highly expensive and impractical. Modern and more affordable variants are often made of acrylic, plastic or wood.

Generally, bachi made of softer, more flexible materials are easier to play with for beginners, but harder materials produce a stronger sound and last longer.

title: Bachi


text:
User talk:DannyMuse

Welcome! Please post any meaningful comments you may have. -- DannyMuse

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Anti-Jehovah's Witnesses Websites listed at Redirects for discussion
An editor has asked for a discussion to address the redirect Anti-Jehovah&. Since you had some involvement with the Anti-Jehovah's Witnesses Websites redirect, you might want to participate in the redirect discussion if you have not already done so. Steel1943 (talk) 21:12, 15 May 2018 (UTC)

title: User talk:DannyMuse


text:
GC-content

In molecular biology and genetics, GC-content (or guanine-cytosine content) is the percentage of nitrogenous bases in a DNA or RNA molecule that are either guanine (G) or cytosine (C). This measure indicates the proportion of G and C bases out of an implied four total bases, also including adenine and thymine in DNA and adenine and uracil in RNA.

GC-content may be given for a certain fragment of DNA or RNA or for an entire genome. When it refers to a fragment, it may denote the GC-content of an individual gene or section of a gene (domain), a group of genes or gene clusters, a non-coding region, or a synthetic oligonucleotide such as a primer.

Structure
Qualitatively, guanine (G) and cytosine (C) undergo a specific hydrogen bonding with each other, whereas adenine (A) bonds specifically with thymine (T) in DNA and with uracil (U) in RNA. Quantitatively, each GC base pair is held together by three hydrogen bonds, while AT and AU base pairs are held together by two hydrogen bonds. To emphasize this difference, the base pairings are often represented as "G≡C" versus "A=T" or "A=U".

DNA with low GC-content is less stable than DNA with high GC-content; however, the hydrogen bonds themselves do not have a particularly significant impact on molecular stability, which is instead caused mainly by molecular interactions of base stacking. In spite of the higher thermostability conferred to a nucleic acid with high GC-content, it has been observed that at least some species of bacteria with DNA of high GC-content undergo autolysis more readily, thereby reducing the longevity of the cell per se. Because of the thermostability of GC pairs, it was once presumed that high GC-content was a necessary adaptation to high temperatures, but this hypothesis was refuted in 2001. Even so, it has been shown that there is a strong correlation between the optimal growth of prokaryotes at higher temperatures and the GC-content of structural RNAs such as ribosomal RNA, transfer RNA, and many other non-coding RNAs. The AU base pairs are less stable than the GC base pairs, making high-GC-content RNA structures more resistant to the effects of high temperatures.

More recently, it has been demonstrated that the most important factor contributing to the thermal stability of double-stranded nucleic acids is actually due to the base stackings of adjacent bases rather than the number of hydrogen bonds between the bases. There is more favorable stacking energy for GC pairs than for AT or AU pairs because of the relative positions of exocyclic groups. Additionally, there is a correlation between the order in which the bases stack and the thermal stability of the molecule as a whole.

Determination
GC-content is usually expressed as a percentage value, but sometimes as a ratio (called G+C ratio or GC-ratio). GC-content percentage is calculated as

 * $$\cfrac{G+C}{A+T+G+C}\times100%$$

whereas the AT/GC ratio is calculated as
 * $$\cfrac{A+T}{G+C}$$.

The GC-content percentages as well as GC-ratio can be measured by several means, but one of the simplest methods is to measure the melting temperature of the DNA double helix using spectrophotometry. The absorbance of DNA at a wavelength of 260 nm increases fairly sharply when the double-stranded DNA molecule separates into two single strands when sufficiently heated. The most commonly used protocol for determining GC-ratios uses flow cytometry for large numbers of samples.

In an alternative manner, if the DNA or RNA molecule under investigation has been reliably sequenced, then GC-content can be accurately calculated by simple arithmetic or by using a variety of publicly available software tools, such as the free online GC calculator.

Within-genome variation
The GC-ratio within a genome is found to be markedly variable. These variations in GC-ratio within the genomes of more complex organisms result in a mosaic-like formation with islet regions called isochores. This results in the variations in staining intensity in chromosomes. GC-rich isochores typically include many protein-coding genes within them, and thus determination of GC-ratios of these specific regions contributes to mapping gene-rich regions of the genome.

Coding sequences
Within a long region of genomic sequence, genes are often characterised by having a higher GC-content in contrast to the background GC-content for the entire genome. There is evidence that the length of the coding region of a gene is directly proportional to higher G+C content. This has been pointed to the fact that the stop codon has a bias towards A and T nucleotides, and, thus, the shorter the sequence the higher the AT bias.

Comparison of more than 1,000 orthologous genes in mammals showed marked within-genome variations of the third-codon position GC content, with a range from less than 30% to more than 80%.

Among-genome variation
GC content is found to be variable with different organisms, the process of which is envisaged to be contributed to by variation in selection, mutational bias, and biased recombination-associated DNA repair.

The average GC-content in human genomes ranges from 35% to 60% across 100-Kb fragments, with a mean of 41%. The GC-content of Yeast (Saccharomyces cerevisiae) is 38%, and that of another common model organism, thale cress (Arabidopsis thaliana), is 36%. Because of the nature of the genetic code, it is virtually impossible for an organism to have a genome with a GC-content approaching either 0% or 100%. However, a species with an extremely low GC-content is Plasmodium falciparum (GC% = ~20%), and it is usually common to refer to such examples as being AT-rich instead of GC-poor.

Several mammalian species (e.g., shrew, microbat, tenrec, rabbit) have independently undergone a marked increase in the GC-content of their genes. These GC-content changes are correlated with species life-history traits (e.g., body mass or longevity) and genome size, and might be linked to a molecular phenomenon called the GC-biased gene conversion.

Molecular biology
In polymerase chain reaction (PCR) experiments, the GC-content of short oligonucleotides known as primers is often used to predict their annealing temperature to the template DNA. A higher GC-content level indicates a relatively higher melting temperature.

Many sequencing technologies, such as Illumina sequencing, have trouble reading high-GC-content sequences. Bird genomes are known to have many such parts, causing the problem of "missing genes" expected to be present from evolution and phenotype but never sequenced — until improved methods were used.

Systematics
The species problem in non-eukaryotic taxonomy has led to various suggestions in classifying bacteria, and the ad hoc committee on reconciliation of approaches to bacterial systematics of 1987 has recommended use of GC-ratios in higher-level hierarchical classification. For example, the Actinomycetota are characterised as "high GC-content bacteria". In Streptomyces coelicolor A3(2), GC-content is 72%. With the use of more reliable, modern methods of molecular systematics, the GC-content definition of Actinomycetota has been abolished and low-GC bacteria of this clade have been found.

Software tools
GCSpeciesSorter and TopSort are software tools for classifying species based on their GC-contents.

title: GC-content


text:
Matsushige

Matsushige may refer to:

 * Matsushige, Tokushima, a town in Itano District, Tokushima Prefecture, Japan

People with the given name

 * Matsushige Ono (大野 松茂), Japanese politician

People with the surname

 * Hideki Matsushige, Japanese guitarist
 * Yoshito Matsushige (松重 美人), Japanese photojournalist
 * Yutaka Matsushige (松重 豊), Japanese actor

title: Matsushige


text:
Bunsei

Bunsei (文政) was a Japanese era name (年号) after Bunka and before Tenpō. This period spanned the years from April 1818 through December 1830. The reigning emperor was Ninkō-tennō (仁孝天皇).

Change of era

 * April 22, 1818 (Bunsei gannen (文政元年)): The new era name was created to mark the enthronement of the emperor Emperor Ninko in Bunka 15.

The new era name was drawn from an aphorism attributed to the ancient Chinese emperor, Great Shun (大舜): "Shun reads the Heavens, and so brings together all seven governments" (舜察天文、斉七政).

Events of the Bunsei era

 * 1822 (Bunsei 5): Edo was struck with 150 earthquake tremors over three days.
 * August 11, 1823 (Bunsei 6, 6th day of the 7th month): German flora- and fauna-taxonomist Philipp Franz von Siebold arrives at Dejima as new physician for the Dutch trading post in Nagasaki harbor.  Bakufu policy in this era was designed to marginalize the influence of foreigners in Bunsei Japan; however, an unintended and opposite consequence of sakoku was to enhance the value and significance of a very small number of thoughtful observers like von Siebold, whose writings document what he learned or discovered first-hand.  Von Siebold's published accounts and unpublished writings provided a unique and useful perspective for Orientalists and Japanologists in the 19th century; and his work continues to be rigorously examined by modern researchers today.
 * August 13, 1830 (Bunsei 13, 25th day of the 6th month): Earthquake at Kyoto (Latitude: 35.000/Longitude: 136.000), no Richter Scale magnitude suggested by available data.

title: Bunsei


text:
User talk:Ocohen

Hello and welcome to Wikipedia! Hope you like it here, and stick around.

Here are some tips to help you get started:

 * Try the Tutorial, and feel free to experiment in the test area.
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Good luck!

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P.S. One last helpful hint. To sign your posts like I did above (on talk pages, for example) use the '~' symbol. To insert just your name, type ~~~ (3 tildes), or, to insert your name and timestamp, use ~~~~ (4 tildes).

Thanks
Thanks for your picture for Harrow Footbal, it really adds to the article. --Apyule 12:40, 22 October 2005 (UTC)

Houses of Harrow School
I noticed that the Rendalls House and Bradbys House articles were deleted and turned into redirects (a peculiarly savage and unnecessary act, as a simple redirect would have been enough).

I've started a new article (title above). Feel free to help me to expand it.

If you add information, could you please say what your source is? For instance a lot of the information in Rendalls House, such as the list of House Masters, should have a published source. Other information, such as the famous former members, is listed on the Harrow School website on the page for the history of that House. If you'd like me to put a copy of your deleted work into your user space for reference purposes (which I can do as an administrator) please ask. --Tony Sidaway Talk 04:06, 7 November 2005 (UTC)

Houses of Harrow School
In all fairness, all public schools have houses, and the article as it stands shows no evidence of the "encyclopaedic" information of which you speak. As of right now, it is only a list of houses, with scant facts about them (name, colours, master), making it effectively a series of entries for a directory, which, according to policy, Wikipedia is not. I might suggest that your opinion of this information may be somewhat biased, you being at Harrow itself. In general, vanity writing, including writing about one's own friends, family, school, etc. is discouraged, as the results are more often. Kudos for your work on the article on Harrow School, but it is my opinion that an article on the houses is not for us, an opinion supported by current policy. I might suggest trying your hand at some other articles for a while (one of the beauties of Wikipedia is that you really never know what you'll find next). You could try browsing the lists of new pages or recent changes for some ideas, or perhaps some of the lists at WP:MEA which need sorting. If you're feeling particularly adventurous, look at a few random pages and see if something turns up you can add to. Maintenance tasks such as copyediting, wikifying and adding context to new articles are as important (if not moreso) than actually adding new information to articles, since they make our existing body of information accessible to a broader userbase.

I'm not trying to be mean, honest :o), but I'd encourage you to try exploring the big wide world of Wikipedia and its numerous sister projects . I started out with some edits to stubs about my local area, and a year on, my braglist extends to documentary films, UK taxation, and a lot of minor edits (I see spelling errors on other websites and find myself reaching for a non-existent "edit" button to fix them :-o).  Widen your scope a little at a time, you really won't regret it.

Happy editing, and may your career here be long and as close to "happy" as WP will reasonably allow ;-) Chris talk back 18:58, 11 November 2005 (UTC)

Thanks
Thanks for all your work on the Harrow School article, I found it very interesting reading. Puchu 12:18, 1 July 2006 (UTC)

Untagged image
An image you uploaded, Image:Elstreeschoolcrest.gif, was tagged with the coatofarms copyright tag. This tag was deleted because it does not actually specify the copyright status of the image. The image may need a more accurate copyright tag, or it may need to be deleted. If the image portrays a seal or emblem, it should be tagged as seal. If you have any questions, ask them at Media copyright questions. -- 14:03, 30 December 2006 (UTC)

Orphaned fair use image (Image:Elstreeschoolcrest.gif)
Thanks for uploading Image:Elstreeschoolcrest.gif. The image description page currently specifies that the image is non-free and may only be used on Wikipedia under a claim of fair use. However, the image is currently orphaned, meaning that it is not used in any articles on Wikipedia. If the image was previously in an article, please go to the article and see why it was removed. You may add it back if you think that that will be useful. However, please note that images for which a replacement could be created are not acceptable under fair use (see our fair use policy).

If you have uploaded other unlicensed media, please check whether they're used in any articles or not. You can find a list of 'image' pages you have edited by clicking on the "my contributions" link (it is located at the very top of any Wikipedia page when you are logged in), and then selecting "Image" from the dropdown box. Note that any fair use images not used in any articles will be deleted after seven days, as described on criteria for speedy deletion. Thank you. This is an automated message from BJBot 02:52, 28 January 2007 (UTC)

Image:Harrow Crest.JPG
Hello, Ocohen. An automated process has found and removed an image or media file tagged as nonfree media, and thus is being used under fair use that was in your userspace. The image (Image:Harrow Crest.JPG) was found at the following location: User:Ocohen. This image or media was attempted to be removed per criterion number 9 of our non-free content policy. The image or media was replaced with Image:NonFreeImageRemoved.svg, so your formatting of your userpage should be fine. Please find a free image or    media to replace it with, and or remove the image from your userspace. User:Gnome (Bot)-talk 07:14, 16 May 2007 (UTC)

Non-free use disputed for Image:Harrow Crest.JPG
Thanks for uploading Image:Harrow Crest.JPG. However, there is a concern that the rationale you have provided for using this image under "fair use" may be invalid. Please read carefully the instructions at Non-free content and then go to the image description page and clarify why you think the image qualifies.

If it is determined that the image does not qualify under fair use, it will be deleted within a couple of days according to our Criteria for speedy deletion. If you have any questions please ask them at the Media copyright questions page. Thank you. MHDIV ɪŋglɪʃnɜː(r)d  ( Suggestion? | wanna chat? ) 19:31, 1 June 2007 (UTC)

Non-free use disputed for Image:Debralogo.gif
Thanks for uploading Image:Debralogo.gif. However, there is a concern that the rationale you have provided for using this image under "fair use" may be invalid. Please read carefully the instructions at Non-free content and then go to the image description page and clarify why you think the image qualifies.

If it is determined that the image does not qualify under fair use, it will be deleted within a couple of days according to our Criteria for speedy deletion. If you have any questions please ask them at the Media copyright questions page. Thank you.BetacommandBot 00:22, 3 June 2007 (UTC)

Harrow
Hey Oli, I realise you're a Harrovian and seem very passionate about your school. I'm an old Harrovian and am at the moment collating resources to try and make the article as comprehensive and thorough as possible. Harrow's a great place, but it is very quirky, I think it makes a really interesting addition to the encyclopedia, so much history and so many traditions. Just thought I'd let you know I'm working on getting it featured; unfortunately my library is going to take up to eight weeks to get the resources. Good luck with your studies, you're working with the best teachers so you should do really well --Hadseys (talk • contribs) 20:55, 21 December 2007 (UTC)

 * Hey Oli, thanks for the reply, if you wanna help out with the article, you could write a section on the Harrow association, and if you live near the Vaughan library you might be able to find some useful resources there, other than that I'll do the majority of the work and if you want you can do a copyedit --Hadseys (talk • contribs) 00:20, 23 December 2007 (UTC)

Proposed deletion of Orchid Trust

The article Orchid Trust has been proposed for deletion  because of the following concern:
 * No WP:Independent sources found in quick search; probably does not meet WP:ORG.

While all contributions to Wikipedia are appreciated, content or articles may be deleted for any of several reasons.

You may prevent the proposed deletion by removing the notice, but please explain why in your edit summary or on the article's talk page.

Please consider improving the article to address the issues raised. Removing will stop the proposed deletion process, but other deletion processes exist. In particular, the speedy deletion process can result in deletion without discussion, and articles for deletion allows discussion to reach consensus for deletion. WhatamIdoing (talk) 22:26, 31 January 2012 (UTC)

Proposed deletion of File:RendallsDrillSquad.jpg

The file File:RendallsDrillSquad.jpg has been proposed for deletion because of the following concern: "Unused personal photo."

While all constructive contributions to Wikipedia are appreciated, pages may be deleted for any of several reasons.

You may prevent the proposed deletion by removing the notice, but please explain why in your edit summary or on the file's talk page.

Please consider addressing the issues raised. Removing will stop the proposed deletion process, but other deletion processes exist. In particular, the speedy deletion process can result in deletion without discussion, and files for discussion allows discussion to reach consensus for deletion. Kelly hi! 18:58, 22 May 2018 (UTC)

title: User talk:Ocohen


text:
Talk:Ham

False claim
The article claims "Dry-cured ham is usually eaten without being cooked.[17]". This might be true of SOME dry-cured hams but is not "usual". Country hams, for example, are always cooked before eating, and country hams are dry cured. Likewise, smoking is listed as being under wet curing. Dry cured hams can be smoked. I'm not allowed to edit this article, so I can't fix it, myself. Could someone correct the lies? DogHaid (talk) 16:55, 1 December 2023 (UTC)

 * I moved and made less definitive the sentence. Smoking is not listed as part of wet curing, just after it on this page. It applies equally to both curing types. oknazevad (talk) 18:41, 2 March 2024 (UTC)

Nitrite vs. nitrate
Someone with permission to edit shoukd search the page for “nitrate” and replace them with “nitrite” 2600:1700:7C10:BE20:61CF:D3C2:C05B:D148 (talk) 01:47, 17 November 2021 (UTC)
 * ✅ (CC) Tb hotch ™ 02:37, 17 November 2021 (UTC)

"Glazed ham" listed at Redirects for discussion
The redirect [//en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Glazed_ham&redirect=no Glazed ham] has been listed at redirects for discussion to determine whether its use and function meets the redirect guidelines. Readers of this page are welcome to comment on this redirect at  until a consensus is reached. Jay 💬 10:19, 1 March 2024 (UTC)

title: Talk:Ham


text:
Parallel Galaxy

Parallel Galaxy is the first solo album by American musician Emmett Chapman, released in 1985 on Backyard Records. The album is also one of the earliest to feature the Chapman Stick, a stringed instrument developed by Chapman. (Alphonso Johnson and Tony Levin had used a Stick a few years earlier).

This album represented both an example of Chapman's artistry on the Stick, and also showed other musicians what was possible on the Stick. Though not a top-selling album, it inspired many musicians to pick up the Stick.

The track "Back Yard" appears in the Alan Smithee version of the 1984 film Dune.

The entire album was recorded without overdubs. It included Bruce Gary on drums, Josh Hanna on vocal effects and Dan Chapman (Emmett's brother) on harmonica.

Initially released on vinyl, the album was remastered and released on CD in 1999.

Track listing

 * Side 1
 * 1) "Back Yard"
 * 2) "Margueritas In The Waves"
 * 3) "Eleanor Rigby"
 * 4) "Pumpernickel Pump"
 * 5) "Waltzing Matilda"

 * Side 2
 * 1) "A Lotus On Irish Streams"
 * 2) "Voices"
 * 3) "My Favorite Things"
 * 4) "Parallel galaxy"
 * 5) "Gypsy"

Reception
A 1999 review of the album's rerelease on CD for All About Jazz described the album as "upbeat and playful", at its best reminiscent of country or bluegrass influenced jazz in the style of Bela Fleck or Les Paul, though somewhat dated and gimmicky: "I find this an interesting listen but if it wasn’t extra-valued as Chapman’s debut Stick release I may have passed on it".

title: Parallel Galaxy


text: Category:Intimate relationships

title: Category:Intimate relationships


text:
Wikipedia:Articles for deletion/Neo-surrealism

Neo-surrealism was proposed for deletion. This page is an archive of the discussion about the proposed deletion. This page is no longer live. Further comments should be made on the article's talk page rather than here so that this page is preserved as an historic record. The result of the debate was DELETE

Although this term has a few google hits, most of them are copies of wikipedia. If this article were significantly expanded, it might be worth keeping, but currently the article consists of the same single sentence it did when it was created over two years ago (Neo-surrealism is either surrealism that those who call it neo-surrealism do not want to call "surrealism" due to the misconception that surrealism "ended" in 1945, 1966, and so forth, or an artistic movement supposedly related to surrealism, surrealism allegedly being "dead.")

This article is hardly informative, and has greatly inflated the term's apparent usage on the internet. See also VfD/Pansurrealism.
 * ~leif 07:41, 11 Oct 2004 (UTC)

 * Comment: Didn't we already vote to delete this particular one, as well as its kin?  I thought we had.  I vote to delete, in any case, simply because Surrealism hasn't ended.  As Marcel Duchamps said in an interview in 1965, "Dada did not stop.  I could do Dada right now."  I.e. schools end their flourishes, but I could write a metrical romance today, even though the era of the metrical romance was 900 years ago.  Having an article saying that people misuse the term is like establishing a negative:  no real point. Geogre 15:02, 11 Oct 2004 (UTC)

 * Delete. To use Geogre's terms: if it is a positive (is there a school of neo-surrealism?) then it's a keep, if it's simply a negative, then it's a dicdef/neologism/whatever. func(talk) 02:56, 13 Oct 2004 (UTC)
 * Delete. Ambi 07:24, 14 Oct 2004 (UTC)

This page is now preserved as an archive of the debate and, like other '/delete' pages is no longer 'live'. Subsequent comments on the issue, the deletion or on the decision-making process should be placed on the relevant 'live' pages. Please do not edit this page.


text:
Parliament of Tasmania

The Parliament of Tasmania is the bicameral legislature of the Australian state of Tasmania. It follows a Westminster-derived parliamentary system and consists of the governor of Tasmania (as representative of the King), the Legislative Council (the upper house), and the House of Assembly (the lower house). Since 1841, the Legislative Council has met in Parliament House, Hobart, with the House of Assembly following suit from its establishment in 1856. The Parliament of Tasmania first met in 1856.

The powers of the Parliament are prescribed in the Constitution of Tasmania, as amended from time to time. Since the Federation of Australia in 1901, Tasmania has been a state of the Commonwealth of Australia, and the Constitution of Australia regulates its relationship with the Commonwealth. Under the Australian Constitution, Tasmania ceded certain legislative and judicial powers to the Commonwealth, but retained complete independence in all other areas. In practice, however, the independence of the Australian states has been greatly eroded by the increasing financial domination of the Commonwealth.

The leader of the party or coalition with the confidence of the House of Assembly is invited by the governor to form the Government and become the premier of Tasmania.

Throughout its history, the Tasmanian Parliament frequently had members who previously served in Federal Parliament proportionally more so than the other state and territory parliaments.

The Government currently consists of a LiberalLambie minority government, formed after the 2024 State Election. The Second Rockliff ministry consists of solely Liberal members.

History
The island of Van Diemen's Land (now known as Tasmania) was claimed and subsequently settled by the United Kingdom in 1803. Initially, it was administered by the governor of New South Wales, as part of that British Colony of New South Wales. In 1825, Van Diemen's Land became a separate British colony, administered separately from New South Wales, with a Legislative Council of six men appointed to advise the lieutenant governor of Van Diemen's Land who had sole governance of the colony. The Council initially held meetings in a room adjacent to the old Government House that was located near to the present site of Franklin Square, but by 1841 they relocated meetings to the 'Long Room' (now the Members' Lounge) in the Customs House.

In 1850, the British Parliament enacted the Australian Colonies Government Act, which gave Van Diemen's Land the right to elect its first representative government. The size of the Legislative Council was increased from six to 24. Eight members were appointed by the Governor, and 16 were elected by property owners. The new Legislative Council met for the first time in 1852, and by 1854 they had passed the Tasmanian Constitution Act, giving Van Diemen's Land responsible self-government and a new bicameral parliament. Queen Victoria granted Royal assent in 1855 and Van Diemen's Land became a self-governing colony. In the following year, 1856, one of the new parliament's first acts was to change the name of the colony from Van Diemen's Land to Tasmania.

House of Assembly
The Tasmanian House of Assembly is the lower house of the Tasmanian Parliament. There are 35 members, with seven members elected from the five divisions. The divisions are: Bass, Braddon, Denison, Franklin, and Lyons. The Tasmanian House of Assembly electoral divisions share the same names and boundaries as the Australian House of Representatives divisions for Tasmania.

Members are elected using the Hare-Clark voting system of multi-member proportional representation for a term of up to 4 years.

Current distribution of seats
The current distribution of seats is:

Legislative Council
The Tasmanian Legislative Council is the upper house of the Tasmanian Parliament. It has 15 members, each elected from a single-member electoral division. The boundaries of the divisions are reviewed by tribunal every 9 years.

Elections are conducted annually on a 6-year periodic cycle; 3 divisions will be up for election in May one year, then 2 divisions in May the following year and so on. As such, each member will normally serve a term of 6 years.

Current distribution of seats
The current distribution of seats (updated post 2024 Tasmanian Legislative Council periodic election is:

title: Parliament of Tasmania


text: Category:Politics of Tasmania

title: Category:Politics of Tasmania


text:
Talk:Anarchism in Spain/From Spanish

This is essentially a translation of the corresponding article in the Spanish-language Wikipedia. It does not necessarily follow that verbatim, but it sticks reasonably close. I felt that article was a little overwritten in places and had some obscurities, such as flaws in its transitional sentences; I have not attempted to faithfully reproduce these aspects. I also think it has POV issues, which I have generally left intact. I've also tried to leave some kind of notes about the few passages I simply didn't understand. Still, articles drawing on this translation should give credit to that Spanish-language article in their references.

The article focuses on the anarchist workers' movement and include some discussion of other labor unions. It divides that history into three periods, before, during, and after the Franco period; during the Franco period, workers' organizations were heavily suppressed. The article also includes some discussion of business organizations as well as those of workers. It loosely corresponds to the English-language article Anarchism in Spain and is here to be mined for that and for other English-language articles.

Before the Spanish Civil War
The Spanish Worker's Movement began as a revolutionary movement approximately between 1868, during Spain's bourgeois revolution and the period of the First Spanish Republic (1873–74). The International Workingmen's Association (or First International (1864) organized in Spain by way of the Mikhail Bakunin's International Alliance of Social Democracy; from the outset, the workers' organizations in Spain had a preponderance of anarchists, whereas elsewhere in Europe the movement was dominated by socialists.

The distinguishing characteristic of the Spanish movement would be the defense of the "absence of restriction" and the total liberty of local groups within the movement. Its principles could were summarized in the formula "political anarchy, religious atheism, socialism-collectivism in the economy". The movement was openly anti-electoral; its characteristic mode of operation was "revolutionary direct action". Furthermore, many anarchists defended individual terrorism as a "revolutionary excitant".

In 1870 Spanish Regional Federation of the First International counted its membership at 30,000. The International Alliance of Social Democracy was strong within it, especially in the East and South and to the point of dominating the federation. The federation's 1870 congress in Barcelona endorsed the anarchist program: to abstain from electoral politics (not to create a workers' party and not to vote in elections) and to uphold "direct action". This stood in direct contrast to Marxism which held the necessity of a centralized and organized workers' democracy, to arrive at which would require a workers' political party.

After the 1872 rupture between Marx and Mikhail Bakunin, the Spanish federation was aligned with the latter; the country was without a workers' party, the movement favoring an anti-electoral stance over alliance with Spanish republicans. The Marxist minority within the movement filled this gap, establishing the Spanish Socialist Workers' Party (Partido Socialista Obrero Español, PSOE) in 1879; they also eventually created a Marxist labor union, the Workers' General Union (Unión General de Trabajadores, UGT) in 1888.

The early 20th century saw major growth in the movement, unleashed by the increasing industrialization of Asturias, the Basque Country, and Catalonia. This period also saw divergences within Spanish anarchism. On the one hand there were "purist" anti-syndicalist currents opposed to the creation of labor unions and among them even partisans of individual terrorism; on the other hand there were anarcho-syndicalists, advocating a revolutionary unionism based on ideas previously elaborated in France.

Despite its French, Spain would be where the ideology of anarcho-syndicalism became a mass movement. In 1907 the anarcho-syndicalism group Solidaridad Obrera ("Workers' Solidarity") was founded in Barcelona, expressing itself through a newspaper of the same name, popularly known as la Soli. With the economic recession of 1908–9, faced with job losses and pay cuts, la Soli raised the possibility of a general strike. A strike was finally triggered by the call-up of military reservists to fight a colonial war in Morocco, leading to the "Tragic Week".

The anarcho-syndicalists with control of the la Soli, convoked an National Congress of Workers in Barcelona in 1910. The congress established the National Confederation of Workers (Confederación Nacional del Trabajo, CNT; the name literally means "National Confederation of Work"), which became the largest union among the Spanish working class in the years before the Spanish Civil War, surpassing the UGT. Composed at the beginning of unions banded together "without an ideology", it had little organizational discipline, and intended to avoid the use of the strike as a bargaining tool that tended to head off "direct action". The anarcho-syndicalist or revolutionary syndicalist character of the CNT remained clear.

The CNT, beyond surpassing the size of the UGT, became in Catalonia practically the only congress of unions (especially important because Catalonia had the most industrial workers of any area of Spain). The CNT had an almost exclusively working-class character, with very few middle-class intelectuals. One could say that it was coarse-toned, with a proletarian anti-intellectualism. Nonetheless, the journals and libraries established by its groups contributed decisively to bring cultural awareness to the working class in a period when public education was conspicuous by its absence.

Although, theoretically, the CNT did not support partial and economic strikes, obviously the member unions took part in a great number of these. If the CNT had not, in practice, supported these mobilizations, it would not have been a mass labor union. The class instinct of the militants constituting the organization's base successfully imposed itself, rather than bowing to theory or leadership. Evidently, the character of the organization as a federation and an assembly allowed organizations at each level to make the decisions they considered pertinent.

The industrial strikes extended to the north, along with the campesino strikes of Andalucia at the end of the 1910s. This was the atmosphere at the time news arrived of the Russian Revolution. As elsewhere in the world, the Spanish working class was impressed with the Bolshevik victory. The impact on the PSOE and the UGT is well known, leading to the creation of the first Communist Party of Spain (Partido Comunista Español, PCE); what is less known it that the great sympathy for the Russian Revolution led to a broad enough sympathy in the Workers' movement that for a time the CNT affiliated with the Third International.

The fact that the Soviet Union was, at the outset, a workers' democracy that functioned through workers' assemblies (soviets), gave the Spanish anarcho-syndicalists good reason to see it as the incarnation of their collectivist ideals.

Catalonia, where the CNT had the greatest influence, Catalonia, had both Spain's most dynamic middle class and its most powerful worker's movement. Bourgeois Catalan nationalism pressed its cause hard, while at the same time fearing the pressure of the Catalan workers.

At the end of the 1910s, the owners of enterprises throughout Spain organized against socialism and revolucionary syndicalism. The police were overwhelmed by the workers' movement. Many workers came to see individual anarchist terrorism as the handiwork of agents provocateurs to justify police repression and persecution. The white terrorism of the pistoleros loyal to the owners only made matters worse.

Spain had generally prospered as a neutral country during the First World War, leading to growth in the working class and the CNT.

The years 1917-18 saw an increasing number of strikes. The government banned la Soli, closed workers' centers and detained their leaders. A 1919 strike at the electrical concern La Canadiense broadened into a general strike of industrial and agricultural workers throughout Catalonia, which, after a hard fight, resulted in a partial victory for the CNT. March 24, 1919 the CNT called for a second general strike demanding the release of the prisoners from the first strike, leading to three weeks of struggle in Barcelona and other cities.

The government reacted with an attempt to find middle ground [Translator's note: the Spanish-language article says instead that they reacted with "panic", but gives no evidence to support that]. On April 3, 1919, Parliament approved the 8-hour workday. They ordered the formation of mixed negotiation commisions. These were triumphs for the working class struggle, but the detention of sindicalists left the direction of the CNT to purist anarchists, who responded to the white terrorism with terrorist actions of their own, despite criticism from many sectors of the organization. Former police of the "politico-social brigade" were placed in charge of the bands of the owner-inspired pistoleros, directing them against the confederationists and against workers' organizations in general.

At the end of 1919, the government wished to cut a deal with the sindicalist sector of the CNT, but the owners' organization, the Federación de Patronos, undertook a "lock-out", reinvigorating the conflict. Further, they backed a so-called Sindicato Libre (an ultra-Catholic and reactionary "Free Union") in a violent struggle against the CNT, leading to a further escalation of assassinations and terror on both sides. La extent of terrorism in 1920, together with the "lock-out" and the general strike called for January 24, created an extremely tense situation.

The terrorism and the social struggle extended throughout Spain. Also in 1920, the government shifted from a reformist policy to a hard line, ceasing to negotiate and, instead, using the police and the army to repress the CNT. They applied the criminal ley de fugas ("fugitive law"), which permitted assasination of detainees alleged to be attempting to flee. The anarcho-syndicalists responded spectacularly, culminating with the assassination in Madrid of prime minister Eduardo Dato at the beginning of 1921 by three anarchist gunmen.

The army reacted brutally against the CNT. In 1922 the violence culminated in a victory for the repressive forces. The working class was ultimately wrecked by its attachment to "direct action". Individual terrorism was ultimately counterproductive, bringing about the opposition fo the middle classes and provoking the antipathy of the working class itself. [Translator's note: it is possible that I have not correctly rendered the sense of the latter portion of the preceding, rather convoluted sentence: "...al conseguir la oposición de las clases medias y provocar la antipatía de la clase obrera.] It led to the augmentation of repression in the form of the rise of Primo de Rivera to power in 1923.

During the first two years of the Second Spanish Republic, the workers' movement experienced a period of relative prosperity, because the authorities were favorable toward the movement (albeit the economic circumstances were unfavorable). It was precisely these economic circumstances that made the workers impatient: they did not receive all of the benefits promised by the republicans, and revolutionary disorder once again erupted in Arnedo, Castilblanco and Casas Viejas, which damaged the workers' movement by provoking the departure of the progressive parties from the governing coalition.

This situation culminated when, after the electoral triumph of CEDA in November 1933, the government began to cut back on the social advances obtained during the previous two years, which in turn led to the revolutionary movement of October 1934, especiallly in Asturias and Catalonia and its harsh repression by the government.

The situation in Europe, with the Nazi regime in Germany and the Fascist regime in Italy, and with other countries trending in similar directions, motivated the decision of the leftist unions to support the Popular Front electoral coalition that brought the parties of the left into government.

From the Civil War to the return of constitutionality
Undoubtedly, the Spanish Revolution of 1936 is an example of how the working class can change its fortune by ending capitalism and taking direction of its own destiny. If the fight ended in a victory for fascism it was because of the inopportunity of the moment in which it occurred, with energies necessarily redirected to the priority of winning the war and to the internal divisions on the revolutionary side, and by the indecision and even treason of many of the leaders.

After the Civil War and during the Franco era, all workers' movements and political parties were forced into exile or clandestinity.

During this period the franquista social policy nullified, from the outset, the arrangements made under the Republic, above all land reform, but also returning to their previous owners businesses and factories that had been seized in the Republican zone during the war. The sindicalismo vertical ("vertical unionism") of the era gave a clear advantage at all times to the owners, with workers having the chance to defend their interests only in the cargos de elección directa (enlaces sindicales, jurados de empresa desde 1954). [Translator's note: I'm not sure I understand the preceding passage; feel free to kill this comment and provide translation if you can. I believe cargos de elección directa means positions to which people were directly elected. I would guess that enlaces sindicales would be liaisons between unions, but for all I know they might be more like shop stewards. Jurados de empresa would literally be business juries, I don't know what they were. Desde 1954 is the only part of this I'm sure of, "starting in 1954", but it's not clear which parts of the preceding it modifies.] The State regulated, by means of the Ministry of Labor, the conditions to which labor relations had to be adjusted, which the owners adapted to their various industries.

There were, despite all that, some important work conflicts starting in the second half of the 1940s, such as the general strike May 1, 1947 in the Basque provinces of Vizcaya and Guipúzcoa, encouraged by the Basque government in exile and backed as much by Basque nationalists as by leftists; this general strike was met with harsh repression.

At the beginning of the 1950s, low pay and high prices provoked various labor conflicts: what began as a tram-workers' strike in Barcelona ion 1951, but extended to other sectors; general strikes in April 1951 in Vizcaya and Guipúzcoa; and other conflicts in Vitoria, Pamplona, and Madrid. Further strikes broke out in 1956–58 in various places around the country. Some of these were accompanied by disturbances at the universities, above all in Madrid in 1956.

In the heat of these social changes and mobilizations, together with the rise of a new generation, new groups of worker activists, linked to Catholic base communities, Workers' Brotherhood of Catholic Action (Hermandades Obreras de Acción Católica, HOAC), founded in 1946; Christian Worker Youth (Juventud Obrera Cristiana, JOC).

The 1958 Ley de Convenios Colectivos [Translators note: literally "Law of Collective Pacts"; without citation, I hesitate to translate that as "Collective Bargaining"] favored the labor struggle. This empowered the jurados de empresa and the role of the enlaces sindicales, establishing salaries and working conditions fixed by direct pacts between representantives of businessmen and workers. After this measure, labor conflict increased.

This increase in activity favored the growth of the clandestine Workers' Commissions (Comisiones Obreras, CC.OO. or simply CCOO), especially after 1962. The CCOO developed initially as a committee to negotiate collective pacts on the outside of the officially recognized union structure; its leadership came mainly from among activists linked to the PCE (Communist Party). Also, under the shelter of the new structures for labor relations, other clandestine unions grew, such as the Workers' Trade Unionist Confederation (Unión Sindical Obrera, USO), formed in 1960 in Asturias and the Basque Country starting from the nucleus of the JOC; it was joined in some areas by surviving remnants of the UGT, and of Basque Workers Solidarity (Euzko Langilleen Alkartasuna/Solidaridad de Trabajadores Vascos, ELA-STV) in the Basque Country. From the beginning of the 1970s other union movements arose, such as the Workers' Unitary Trade Union Confederation (Confederacion de Sindicatos Unitarios de Trabajadores, CSUT) or the Galician Workers Syndicate (Sindicato Obreiro Galego, SOC).

Constitutional Era: From Workers' Movement to Union organizations
April 28, 1977 began a new stage, the democratic period of the union organizations in Spain. Enrique de la Mata Gorostizaga, then minister of Union Relations, opend the door to union pluralism by recognizing the UGT, CCOO, USO, ELA-STV, SOC, and CNT.

A three-or-four year period of confrontation followed, revolving around what were called modelos sindicales (models for unionism), which simultaneously dealt with deep foundational issues and with tactical interests. Comisiones Obreras wanted to prolong, and above all to capitalize upon, patterns that had developed in a clandestine era, while UGT wished to move toward the practices and structures common to unionism throughout the rest of Europe.

UGT upheld a unionist logic, while Comisiones Obreras advocated a movementist logic. In reality, the comunists discovered during the clandestine era that for them a platform, a movement, was much more useful than a union: they had liquidated their union structure, the Union Workers' Opposition (Oposición Sindical Obrera, OSO), making it a part of Comisiones Obreras. Now, in a situation of legality, they again needed a union of their own. This implied a change of mentalitity to take advantage of the new system of moderation: the union elections of 1978.

From then on, the arguments centered on questions such as open or closed lists, a preponderance of candidates from the leadership or from the union rank and file, whether to stress committees or sectoral unions, assemblies or representative democracy, etc. The dominance of a union model (representative structures of sectorial and territorial character, centrality of collective bargaining, primacy of broad program and planning over espontaneity at the base, etc., in short normal unionism in a democracy) created the basis for a new sort of labor relations in Spain, which acquired its legal expression in the Estatuto de los Trabajadores [Translator's note: "Workers' Statute" but note "trabajadores", not "obreros", choosing a word relatively devoid of connotations of class struggle) approved at the beginning of 1980) and the Organic Law of Union Liberty (Ley Orgánica de Libertad Sindical, LOLS) of 1985.

Brief summary of the major contemporary union organizations
As of 2004, the two largest union orgnanizations in Spain are Comisiones Obreras (CCOO) y la Unión General de Trabajadores (UGT).

Comisiones Obreras grew out of the Asturian miners' strikes of 1962 and 1963; their first antecedents were the factory commissions in the Basque Country in 1956 and the Workers' Commission in 1958 in Gijón, Asturias. Backed by the Communist Party (PCE) they spread rapidly and were characterized by fighting from within against the "vertical unionism" of the Central Nacional de Sindicatos (CNS). Declared illegal in December 1966, they lost some of their influence during the clandestine period, but they returned to being the principal union after being declared legal in 1977.

In the union election of 1978 they won more votes than the UGT; they lost this dominant position in the union elections of 1986, but have since recovered it. In 1987 Antonio Gutiérrez took over the union from their historic leader Marcelino Camacho. He has since been succeeded by José María Fidalgo.

The UGT experienced spectacular growth under the Second Republic, which it defended in the major cities after the uprising of 1936. It was declared illegal during the Franco era, which cost it a great deal of its influence and all of its patrimony. After Franco's death in 1975, it was re-legalized and from 1986 became the largest union organization in Spain. It created a platform of union action along with CCOO in 1988 to protest, what they viewed as the social-liberal politics of the PSOE, with which the UGT had historically been associated. A one-day general strike throughout Spain on December 14, 1988 had massive support throughout the population. In 1992 they called another general strike, this time for a half day, but which had less effect than its predecessor. During the XXXVI Congress of the UGT (1994), Nicolás Redondo, who had been secretary general since 1976, was replaced by Cándido Méndez.

Business organizations: CEOE
The Spanish Confederation of Enterprise Organizations (Confederación Española de Organizaciones Empresariales, CEOE), was founded in Madrid in 1977 for the defense of business interests and to represent business toward the government, the unions, and international group. Until 1984 it was headed by Carlos Ferrer Salat and, since then, by José María Cuevas. In 1984 it absorbed the Spanish Confederation of Small and Medium-Sized Enterprises (Confederación Española de la Pequeña y Mediana Empresa, CEPYME). The affiliation of any individual entrepreneur, business, or confederation of businesses with the CEOE is voluntary.

Movimiento obrero español

title: Talk:Anarchism in Spain/From Spanish


text:
United States District Court for the Western District of Virginia

The United States District Court for the Western District of Virginia (in case citations, W.D. Va.) is a United States district court.

Appeals from the Western District of Virginia are taken to the United States Court of Appeals for the Fourth Circuit (except for patent claims and claims against the U.S. government under the Tucker Act, which are appealed to the Federal Circuit).

The court is seated at multiple locations in Virginia: Abingdon, Charlottesville, Danville, Harrisonburg, Lynchburg and Roanoke.

History
The United States District Court for the District of Virginia was one of the original 13 courts established by the Judiciary Act of 1789,, on September 24, 1789.

On February 13, 1801, the Judiciary Act of 1801,, divided Virginia into three judicial districts: the District of Virginia, which included the counties west of the Tidewater and south of the Rappahannock River; the District of Norfolk, which included the Tidewater counties south of the Rappahannock; and the District of Potomac, which included the counties north and east of the Rappahannock as well as Maryland counties along the Potomac. Just over a year later, on March 8, 1802, the Judiciary Act of 1801 was repealed and Virginia became a single District again,, effective July 1, 1802.

The District of Virginia was subdivided into Eastern and Western Districts on February 4, 1819, by. At that time, West Virginia, was still part of Virginia, and was encompassed in Virginia's Western District, while the Eastern District essentially covered what is now the entire state of Virginia. With the division of West Virginia from Virginia during the American Civil War, the Western District of Virginia became the District of West Virginia, and those parts of the Western District that were not part of West Virginia were combined with the Eastern District to form again a single District of Virginia on June 11, 1864, by. Congress again divided Virginia into Eastern and the Western Districts on February 3, 1871, by.

Counties of jurisdiction
The Western District of Virginia covers the counties of Albemarle, Alleghany,  Amherst,  Appomattox,  Augusta, Bath,  Bedford,  Bland,  Botetourt,  Buchanan,  Buckingham, Campbell, Carroll, Charlotte, Clarke, Craig, Culpeper,  Cumberland,  Dickenson,  Floyd, Fluvanna, Franklin, Frederick, Giles, Grayson, Greene, Halifax, Henry, Highland, Lee, Louisa, Madison, Montgomery, Nelson, Orange, Page, Patrick, Pittsylvania, Pulaski, Rappahannock, Roanoke, Rockbridge, Rockingham, Russell, Scott, Shenandoah, Smyth, Tazewell, Warren, Washington, Wise, and Wythe; and the independent cities of Bedford, Bristol, Buena Vista, Charlottesville, Covington, Danville, Galax, Harrisonburg, Lexington, Lynchburg, Martinsville, Norton, Radford, Roanoke, Salem, Staunton, Waynesboro, and Winchester.

U.S. Attorney and U.S. Marshal
The U.S. attorney for the Western District of Virginia represents the federal government in the court. the United States attorney is Christopher R. Kavanaugh.

The U.S. marshal for the Western District of Virginia is Thomas L. Foster.

Former U.S. attorneys

 * Edwin S. Duncan (1824-1829)
 * William A. Harrison (1829-1834)
 * Washington G. Singleton (1834-1842)
 * William Kinney (1842-1843)
 * Moses C. Good (1843-1846)
 * George H. Lee (1846-1848)
 * George W. Thompson (1848-1850)
 * Benjamin H. Smith (1850-1853)
 * Flaming B. Miller (1853-1861)
 * Thomas W. Harrison (1861)
 * Aquilla B. Caldwell (1861-1862)
 * Benjamin H. Smith (1862)
 * Warren S. Lurty (1877-1882)
 * D.S. Lewis (1882-1885)
 * Henry C. Allen (1885-1889)
 * William E. Craig (1889-1893)
 * A. J. Montague (1893-1898)
 * Thomas M. Alderson (1898-1902)
 * Thomas L. Moore (1902-1910)
 * Barnes Gillespie (1910-1914)
 * Richard E. Byrd (1914-1920)
 * Joseph J. Chitwood (1920-1921)
 * Thomas J. Muncy (1921-1922)
 * Lewis P. Summers (1922-1924)
 * Joseph C. Shaffer (1924-1929)
 * John Paul (1929-1932)
 * Joseph C. Shaffer (1932-1933)
 * Joseph H. Chitwood (1933-1940)
 * Frank S. Tavenner Jr. (1940-1948)
 * Howard C. Gilmer Jr. (1948-1953)
 * John Strickler (1953-1961)
 * Thomas B. Mason (1961–1969)
 * Leigh B. Hanes (1969-1976)
 * Paul R. Thomson Jr. (1976-1980)
 * John S. Edwards (1980–1981)
 * John P. Alderman (1981–1990)
 * E. Montgomery Tucker (1990–1993)
 * Robert P. Crouch Jr. (1993–2001)
 * John L. Brownlee (2001–2008)
 * Timothy J. Heaphy (2009–2015)
 * John P. Fishwick Jr. (2015–2017)
 * Thomas T. Cullen (2018–2020)
 * Daniel P. Bubar (2020–2021) acting


text:
Talk:Pisces (constellation)

Astrology
The astrological information should be on another page called Pisces (astrology) since it has no bearing on the astronomical constelation. The sun is not even in the constelation during the dates of the Pisces sign. Lumos3 07:54, 11 Oct 2004 (UTC)

 * In line with the above, I have moved an astrological discussion to Pisces (astrology) as "Moved." B00P (talk) 11:59, 8 March 2009 (UTC)

File:Sidney Hall - Urania's Mirror - Pisces.jpg to appear as POTD soon
Hello! This is a note to let the editors of this article know that File:Sidney Hall - Urania's Mirror - Pisces.jpg will be appearing as picture of the day on May 1, 2016. You can view and edit the POTD blurb at Template:POTD/2016-05-01. If this article needs any attention or maintenance, it would be preferable if that could be done before its appearance on the Main Page. — Chris Woodrich (talk) 00:07, 14 April 2016 (UTC)

65 Piscium (Maxwell Hall's "central sun of the universe")
On page 343 in Richard Hinckley Allen's book STAR NAMES - their lore and meaning, there is something which seems to be a mystery. A certain Maxwell Hall regarded the 6-th magnitude double star 65 Piscium as the central sun of the universe. Why the star 65 Piscium? And who was Maxwell Hall? All of this could be interesting information for the article, but I want to know if there are more sources than only page 343 of R. H. Allen's STAR NAMES. DannyCaes (talk) 13:41, 30 July 2022 (UTC)
 * An obituary of Maxwell Hall (1845-1920) and a summary of his astronomical and meteorological work can be found here. AstroLynx (talk) 14:33, 30 July 2022 (UTC)
 * Very interesting! The 65 Piscium question is answered! Thanks AstroLynx! DannyCaes (talk) 18:28, 30 July 2022 (UTC)
 * Mmmm... I try to comprehend Maxwell Hall's way of thinking, but... (???). It is an interesting obituary and summary, although I can't figure out why he thought 65 Piscium should be the central sun of the universe. The mentioned coordinates give a location in the head-part of Ursa Major! By the way, on page 346 of R.H.Allen's STAR NAMES, Boguslawski thought the star Alpha Piscis Austrini (Fomalhaut) could be the central sun of the universe. I guess many astronomers had their own special star as so-called central sun of the universe. DannyCaes (talk) 12:10, 31 July 2022 (UTC)
 * See his 1877 publication. Note that N.P.D. is not the same as declination but angular distance from the celestial north pole. AstroLynx (talk) 16:20, 31 July 2022 (UTC)
 * Interesting text to read! Thanks AstroLynx! And... aha... N.P.D. (North Pole Distance). DannyCaes (talk) 18:08, 31 July 2022 (UTC)

There are only two stars brighter than magnitude 4 in Pisces
According to your own list, clearly there is only one ... and the English is dire also. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 89.240.253.184 (talk) 08:42, 4 April 2023 (UTC)

I’m one of them 2600:6C63:6E7F:4AB4:10DC:7711:D467:4398 (talk) 12:42, 4 January 2024 (UTC)

title: Talk:Pisces (constellation)