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Barbara Stewart (politician)

Barbara Joy Stewart (23 February 1952 – 2 June 2024) was a New Zealand politician. She was a Member of Parliament for the New Zealand First party from 2002 to 2008 and again from 2011 to 2017.

Early life and family
Stewart was born in Wairoa on 23 February 1952. Her father was an electrical engineer, and she had four siblings. With her husband, Gordon, she has a son, Alister. Gordon died in 2017 from cancer.

She obtained a BEd and a Postgraduate Diploma in Management Studies, both from the University of Waikato. Before entering politics, she was a primary and secondary school teacher and a company training officer.

Stewart was initially a "long-time" member of the National Party and acted as secretary for the Feilding branch 1987–90. She joined New Zealand First in 1996. Prior to and during her political career, she lived in Cambridge.

First period, 2002–2008
Stewart contested the North Shore electorate for New Zealand First in the 2002 election and was ranked sixth on the party list—the highest rank of any candidate who was not already an MP and also the highest ranked woman. Although she lost North Shore, she was elected to Parliament as a list MP. She began her first term as New Zealand First's representative on the Social Services committee but eventually moved to the Health committee. She was also the party spokesperson for consumer affairs, family affairs (encompassing the women's affairs, senior citizens, and disability issues portfolios), health, social services, and tourism.

In her September 2002 maiden statement to the house, she set out her intention to be an advocate for children. She described an "absence of parenting skills" in society and set out her concerns relating to child health, including childhood obesity and poor dental health. She also spoke out against violence on television and in video games.

Stewart was re-elected on the New Zealand First party list in the 2005 general election, having lost in Piako. After the election, New Zealand First supported the continuation of the Labour government.

In 2006, Stewart's private member's bill, the Electoral (Reduction in Number of Members of Parliament) Amendment Bill, was introduced to Parliament. The bill followed the 1999 New Zealand MP reduction referendum, in which 81.46% of participating electors voted to reduce the number of MPs to 99. The referendum was non-binding and the referendum outcome had not been implemented by the government. At the time, New Zealand's mixed-member proportional voting system provided for 69 electorate MPs and at least 51 list MPs for a total of at least 120 MPs (subject to any overhang). Stewart's bill proposed no changes to the number of electorate MPs and proposed to cut the number of list MPs by 20 for a total of 100 MPs. At its first reading on 16 March 2006, the Bill passed 61 votes to 60 despite the governing Labour Party's opposition, but it was defeated at its second reading on 8 November 2006 when the National Party withdrew its support.

In the 2008 general election, Stewart unsuccessfully contested the new Waikato electorate. She was promoted to fifth on the New Zealand First list, but the party lost all its parliamentary seats, winning no electorates and polling below the 5% threshold.

Second period, 2011–2017
At the 2011 election Stewart was re-elected to Parliament following a resurgence in the New Zealand First vote, where she had been ranked fifth on the party list. Stewart had stood again in the Waikato seat but was unsuccessful in defeating Lindsay Tisch, the incumbent National Party of New Zealand MP. Stewart was elected whip by the new NZ First caucus following the 2011 election and remained in this role following her re-election in 2014.

In her second period in Parliament, Stewart was New Zealand First's spokesperson on ACC, disability issues, family issues, health, labour and industrial relations, and tourism, and associate spokesperson for senior citizens. She also rejoined the Health select committee. She criticised the National government's record on suicide prevention and immigration, saying that Asian immigrants to New Zealand "struggl[e] with the concept of a house."

In 2013, Stewart voted against the Marriage Amendment Bill, which aims to permit same sex marriage in New Zealand, with all of her fellow New Zealand First MPs.

Stewart was successful in having two health-related private member's bills selected for introduction during her second period in Parliament, though neither passed. The SuperGold Health Check Bill, was selected for introduction in November 2013. The bill proposed that over 65s who receive New Zealand superannuation would be eligible for three free doctors' visits per year. The Bill was transferred into the name of New Zealand First leader Winston Peters before its first reading, where it was defeated 60 votes to 61.

The Affordable Healthcare Bill was drawn in August 2015 and was also transferred to Peters. It failed its first reading 46 votes to 75 that December. The bill proposed amendments to the Immigration Act 2009, the Income Tax Act 2007 and the Social Security Act 1964 that would require immigrant parents to have and maintain health insurance, remove fringe benefits tax from health insurance and give a rebate on health insurance to pensioners. The policies related to mandatory health insurance for immigrants were controversial. A similar policy proposal had been criticised by Stewart's New Zealand First colleagues Denis O'Rourke and Mahesh Bindra, who questioned its consistency with the New Zealand Bill of Rights Act 1990. Later, Attorney-General, Chris Finlayson, issued a legal opinion stating that the bill's provisions related to mandatory health insurance for immigrants would unjustifiably limit the right to freedom from discrimination in the Bill of Rights.

Stewart announced that, following the death of her husband on 31 January 2017, she would not stand for re-election in the 2017 general election. In her valedictory statement on 8 August 2017, she stated that she considered her greatest achievement to be working with Labour's health minister Pete Hodgson on providing free doctors' visits for children under six. Hodgson announced that policy in August 2007, thanking New Zealand First MPs for their support.

Later life and death
Stewart indicated that she would contribute to the voluntary sector during her retirement. She was appointed a Trust Waikato trustee. Stewart died on 2 June 2024, at the age of 72.

title: Barbara Stewart (politician)


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User:Taro-h

Hello, I'm a graduate school student in Tokyo, Japan. My major is molecular cell biology and biochemistry.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: User:Taro-h


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Salter Path, North Carolina

Salter Path is an unincorporated community in Carteret County, North Carolina, United States. A Crystal Coast community, it lies on Bogue Banks as an enclave within Indian Beach.

History
The decline in the whaling industry in the mid-to-late 19th century and good fishing on Bogue Banks caused many settlers, mostly near Cape Lookout (Diamond City), to move toward the middle and western reaches of Bogue Banks. Many of the families who moved to Salter Path in the late 19th century and early 20th century established their residences without deeds before Bostonian John A. Royall purchased Salter Path. The area of Salter Path subsequently became known as a squatter's community.

Salter Path was passed from John A. Royall to Alice Green Hoffman, a distant relative of Theodore Roosevelt and daughter of Albert W. Green of Green-Joyce Company. Alice Hoffman developed an estate in present-day Pine Knoll Shores and sued the residents of Salter Path in 1923 because their cows were wandering onto her estate.

A subsequent court decision permitted the residents of Salter Path to remain, but the cows were not allowed to graze on the Hoffman Estate. The village was restricted to 81 acre that the squatters occupied, and direct ownership of the beachfront was granted to the village to use collectively. This ruling further stated that only current residents and descendants could occupy the property, but it did not give any individuals title to the land. This ruling remained intact until 1979 when a legal settlement permitted Salter Path residents to hold a title to their property and for Carteret County to levy taxes on the former squatter's village.

Recent studies, provided by the Duke Institute of Marine Sciences (located in Beaufort, NC) have shown that Salter Path was a frequent refuge for the notorious pirate, Blackbeard.

Toponymy
The community of Salter Path is believed to be named after Owen Salter or possibly Riley Salter, although Riley Salter's true whereabouts during the 1880s have been questioned by historians and native Bogue Bankers. Schools of mullet fish that ran close to the ocean shorelines were the prime catch for many of the natives. These fishermen would quickly mobilize from the sound to the ocean, wearing a path in front of a Salter household, hence the name Salter Path.

Alternatively, in the 1800s the word "salter", in common usage, meant a one-way deer gate, used for centuries to control deer populations. Inserted in a fence completely spanning a narrow point in the island, it would tend to sequester deer to one end, away from farms and crops. The narrowest point on the island is, in fact, the village of Salter Path. There is the possibility it is named for the path that would inevitably lead to the salter, the only passage through the fence. Historian and toponymist Mary C. Higham provides evidence that such places as Salter Street, London, Saltley, Salterford, and even Salt Hill, UK derive their names from these salters, rather than salt or the surname Salter.

title: Salter Path, North Carolina


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Category:Swiss tennis players

This category lists tennis players with Wikipedia articles who have notably represented Switzerland. Note that articles are sub-categorized by whether a player has done so in male or female competition, and also by particular notable competitions.

title: Category:Swiss tennis players


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Doug Woolerton

Doug Woolerton (born 17 May 1944) is a New Zealand politician who has been a member of the New Zealand First party since it was founded, and the National Party for a few years before that.

Early years
He was educated at Hamilton Boys' High School, and has a background in agriculture, having been a farmer for twenty-one years and director of a milk company for nine.

Political career
Woolerton was originally a member of the National Party. He stood for selection as the National candidate for the seat of Hamilton West in 1990, but lost to Grant Thomas, who was later elected to the seat. Woolerton left the National Party in 1992 to form the New Zealand First party with Winston Peters.

Member of parliament
Woolerton first entered Parliament in the 1996 election, becoming a list MP after being ranked fifth on the New Zealand First party list. He remained an MP until his party lost all parliamentary seats in the 2008 general election.

He was the president of New Zealand First from the party's inception until 2005 when he resigned in protest against Winston Peters taking a visible role in the Labour-led government as Minister of Foreign Affairs. Later there were frictions between then New Zealand First president Dail Jones on the one hand, and Woolerton and Brian Donnelly on the other, over the latter's support for Sue Bradford's private members bill to outlaw parental corporal punishment of children (or smacking).

title: Doug Woolerton


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Ecosphere (aquarium)

The EcoSphere and "Original Ecosphere" are trademark names for sealed blown-glass miniature aquaria formerly produced by Ecosphere Associates, Inc., of Tucson, Arizona, United States. Spherical or ovoid, the aquaria range from roughly pool-ball-size to basket-ball-size. They are sold worldwide as scientific novelties and decorative objects.

The EcoSphere's main visual appeal is provided by tiny red-pink shrimp, Halocaridina rubra, between 1/4 and 3/8 inch (or approximately a centimeter) in length. The shrimp swim energetically around the aquarium, eat the brown bacterial and algal scum on the glass, consume the filamentous green algae which sometimes forms a globular pillow in the water, and perch on a fragment of soft coral.

The main conceptual interest of these objects lies in the fact that they are materially closed ecological systems which are self-sustaining over a period of years. At room temperature, and with only low inputs of light, the algae produce oxygen which supports the shrimp and bacteria. Bacteria break down the shrimps' wastes. The breakdown products provide nutrients to the algae and bacteria upon which the shrimp feed. The manufacturer states that shrimp live in the EcoSphere for an average of 2 to 3 years, and are known to live over 12 years.

A magnetic scrubber is enclosed in each EcoSphere. By passing another magnet over the outside of the glass, the owner can manipulate the scrubber to clean the inside of the EcoSphere.

History
Research on closed ecosystems was initiated by Vladimir Vernadsky's 1926 book The Biosphere and Konstantin Tsiolkovsky in the 1950s and 1960s in Russia, culminating in the manned closed BIOS-3 facility, a 315 cubic meter habitat located at the Institute of Biophysics, Krasnoyarsk, Siberia. Frieda Taub reviewed work from 1953 to 1974. Another pioneer was Clair Folsom of the University of Washington in the 1960s. On July 15, 1982, Joe Hanson of the NASA Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL) in Pasadena, California, held a workshop on "Closed Ecosystems". In 1983 Loren Acker, President of Engineering and Research Associates, Inc. obtained a NASA Spin-Off Technology license for the EcoSphere and with Daniel Harmony, in 1984 put the EcoSphere into full production.

Ecosphere Associates went out of business in early 2022.

Biota
The manufacturer does not reveal the species of any of the components of the Ecosphere. However, Hawaiian aquarists readily recognize the shrimp as Halocaridina rubra or a very similar species. H. rubra is native to Hawaii, where it and other tiny shrimp occupy anchialine pools. These are puddles or ponds located near shores and surrounded with lava rock. The pores and chambers of the lava allow seawater to seep into the pools, where it mixes with freshwater from springs or rain. Anchialine shrimp are noted for their great adaptability: they survive in pools of undiluted seawater and in brackish ponds; they tolerate water temperatures over 85 degrees Fahrenheit (near 30 degrees C) when the tropical sun heats up the shallowest anchialine pools, and they also thrive in cool water.

Prior to 2003, the EcoSpheres contained at least one snail at the time of purchase. However, the system is self-sustaining without the snails. (The main function of the snails was aesthetic, as they cleaned scum from the glass.) The Gorgonia coral in EcoSpheres is dead and plays no active biological role in the system, however it does increase the surface area for beneficial bacteria and algae, and the calcium carbonate in the coral acts as a pH buffering agent.

Concerns
A major concern is that the shrimp’s sole habitat is shrinking, with over 90% of Hawaii’s anchialine pools having disappeared due to development, and this species of shrimp is disappearing along with them.

Comparable objects and systems
Commercially packaged aquarium kits, including algae, anchialine be left open or closed, are available in Hawaii. The customer can combine these to create an aquarium comparable to the EcoSphere.

It is possible to purchase Halocaridina shrimp from Hawaiian aquarium dealers and create home-made sealed aquaria with no other special supplies. Sand, gravel, crushed shell, and very well cycled filtered water from a successful saltwater aquarium, with the lowest attainable ammonia content, should be used. A small inoculation of live Spirulina algae may be introduced. Certain ubiquitous algae and bacteria are likely to be carried by the shrimp themselves and will soon colonize the walls of the container. There is a risk that pathogens also may be introduced.

The Ecosphere can degrade with time. It is "self-sustaining" in comparison to systems which degrade much more quickly.

The advantage of an aquarium closed with a lid (rather than a permanently sealed plug, which is found in the base of an EcoSphere) is that if the system goes out of equilibrium, the owner can remedy conditions and prevent a complete die-off. Intervention to maintain good water quality allows a larger number of shrimp to live in the open system than can survive in the relatively poor quality closed environment.

Freshwater closed systems are often attempted by nature hobbyists and as experimental projects or demonstrations for biology classes. These require nothing more than a large glass jar with an airtight lid, a few cups of lake or river water, and mud or other substrate from the same body of water. Kept indoors at room temperatures, with exposure to sunlight from a window, such systems have been found to contain living organisms even after several decades. The original level of diversity always falls drastically, sometimes exhibiting interesting patterns of population flux and extinction. Multicellular organisms fare poorly. Eventually an equilibrium of micro-organisms is established.

Make magazine Volume 10 contained instructions for creating a self-contained fresh-water "biosphere", which contained a freshwater amano shrimp, snails, amphipods, ostracods, copepods, rigid hornwort, duckweed, pond scum (for microorganisms), and small rocks or shells (as a pH buffer).

In their paper "The Emergence of Materially-closed-system Ecology", Joe Hanson and Clair Folsome discussed the creation of Ecosphere-like closed ecosystems. In the paper Hanson stated that the composition of the closed ecosystems he created was 50% distilled water brought to a salinity of 11 parts per thousand by the addition of "Instant Ocean", 50% air, algae collected from the ponds of Halocaridina rubra shrimp (and their associated microbial populations), and 3 to 16 Halocaridina rubra shrimp (and their associated microbial populations). No container size was given. However, in similar, 2,000 ml setups the authors noted that while the survival rate of shrimp varies it averages 4 shrimp per 2,000 ml of container when not carbon, sulfur, or phosphorus limited or 1 to 8 shrimp per 1,000 ml when limited. They also noted that the shrimp population in all ecosystems declined from the starting number to a steady state within 60 days.

In the media
The ecosphere was reviewed by Carl Sagan in a 1986 Parade magazine article entitled "The World That Came in the Mail". The article is reprinted as a chapter in Sagan's last book, Billions and Billions.

title: Ecosphere (aquarium)


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Phil Everly

Phillip Everly (January 19, 1939 – January 3, 2014) was an American musician, who was one half of the duo The Everly Brothers alongside his older brother Don.

Early life
Phil was born in Chicago in 1939 to Isaac Milford "Ike" Everly, Jr. (1908–1975), a guitar player, and Margaret Embry Everly (1919–2021).

The Everly family moved to Knoxville, Tennessee, in 1953, where the brothers attended West High School. In 1955, the family moved to Madison, Tennessee, while the brothers moved to Nashville. Don had graduated from high school in 1955, and Phil attended Peabody Demonstration School, from which he graduated in 1957.

The Everly Brothers
The Everly Brothers Career started in 1951. They signed to Cadence Records In 1957. Their first hit was "Bye Bye Love", which had been rejected by 30 other acts. "Bye Bye Love" went to no. 2 on the pop chart, behind Elvis Presley's "(Let Me Be Your) Teddy Bear", and No. 1 on the country and No. 5 on the R&B charts. The song, by Felice and Boudleaux Bryant, became the Everly Brothers' first million-seller. The Everly Brothers are remembered for other major charting hits such as "Cathy's Clown" and "All I Have To Do Is Dream".

After the duo split following conflicts between the two brothers, Phil and Don pursued solo careers from 1973 to 1983. The brothers reunited at the Royal Albert Hall in London on September 23, 1983, which ended their ten-year-long hiatus. The event was initiated by Phil and Don alongside Terry Slater, with Pete Wingfield as musical director. This concert was recorded for a live LP and video broadcast on cable television in mid-January 1984. The brothers returned to the studio as a duo for the first time in over a decade, recording the album EB '84, produced by Dave Edmunds.

The Everly Brothers were inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame in 1986. They were the first duo and non-solo act to have been inducted. That same year, they received a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame.

Their final charting single was 1986's "Born Yesterday". A 1981 live BBC recording of "All I Have to Do Is Dream", which featured Cliff Richard and Phil sharing vocals, was a UK Top 20 hit in 1994.

Paul McCartney has stated that the Everly Brothers were a major influence on the Beatles:

"“They were one of the major influences on the Beatles. When John and I first started to write songs, I was Phil and he was Don.”"

Solo work
Phil sang backup for Roy Wood's 1975 album Mustard and two songs for Warren Zevon's 1976 self-titled album.

While Zevon was part of Phil Everly's back-up band, Phil also suggested the title and subject matter for Zevon's breakthrough hit single "Werewolves of London".

Phil recorded more frequently, but with no chart success until the 1980s. He wrote "Don't Say You Don't Love Me No More", for the 1978 Clint Eastwood comedy film, Every Which Way But Loose, in which he performed it as a duet with the film's co-star Sondra Locke. Phil also wrote "One Too Many Women In Your Life" for the 1980 sequel, Any Which Way You Can, and played in the band which backed Locke.

In 1983, Phil had UK success as a solo artist with the album Phil Everly, recorded mainly in London. Musicians on the LP included Dire Straits guitarist Mark Knopfler, Rockpile and Dire Straits drummer Terry Williams, and keyboard player Pete Wingfield. The track "She Means Nothing to Me", written and composed by John David Williams and featuring Cliff Richard as co-lead vocalist, was a UK Top 10 hit, and "Louise", written and composed by Ian Gomm, reached the Top 50 in 1983.

In 1990, Phil recorded a duet with the Dutch singer René Shuman. "On Top of the World" was written and composed by Phil, who appeared in the music video they recorded in Los Angeles. The selection appeared on Shuman's album, Set the Clock on Rock.

Everly stopped performing in 2007.

Personal life
Everly was married to Jacqueline Alice Ertel from 1963 to 1970, Patricia Mickey from 1972 to 1978, and Patrice Arnold from 1999 until his death.

He had two children.

Death
Phil Everly died in Burbank, California on January 3, 2014, aged 74, from chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD). His brother Don died in August 2021, and the Everly family matriarch, Margaret Embry Everly, died four months later in December aged 102.

Phil's widow Patti blamed her husband's death on his smoking habit, which caused him to develop COPD, and recounted Phil's spending his final years having to carry oxygen tanks with him wherever he went and taking 20 different types of medications per day.

Paul McCartney posted about Everly's death on social media, stating:

"“Phil Everly was one of my great heroes, with his brother Don, they were one of the major influences on the Beatles. When John and I first started to write songs, I was Phil and he was Don. Years later, when I finally met Phil, I was completely star-struck and at the same time extremely impressed by his humility and gentleness of soul. I will always love him for giving me some of the sweetest musical memories of my life.”"

Magne Furuholmen, keyboardist of a-ha talked about a-ha's connection to the Everly Brothers and why they released a cover of Crying in the Rain in 1990, in a 2010 interview: "“Our manager Terry Slater had played bass for the Everly Brothers during the ’60s and was a close personal friend of Phil Everly. He also managed them during their comeback at the Royal Albert Hall in 1984 where we met the Everlys for the first time. Next Christmas they presented a-ha with three Everly Brothers guitars made from the same tree! Being huge Beatles fans, growing up and knowing how influential the Everly Brothers had been for the early Beatles’ sound, we thought that it would be a nice tribute to cover one of their hits.”"

Upon Phil Everly's passing, a-ha stated on their official website that:

"“«I'll do my crying in the rain» – We were lucky enough in our lives to know Phil Everly a little, and we hope some of his dry humor and generosity have rubbed off on us all. His sweet voice will be sorely missed. – A big branch has fallen, but together, or apart, the Everly Brothers have contributed to music that continues to inspire and fascinate new generations of music lovers all over the world.”"

title: Phil Everly


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Don Everly

Isaac Donald Everly (February 1, 1937 – August 21, 2021) was an American musician. Everly was one-half of the singing duo The Everly Brothers alongside his younger brother Phil.

Early life
Don was born in Brownie, Kentucky in 1937 to Isaac Milford "Ike" Everly, Jr. (1908–1975), a guitar player, and Margaret Embry Everly (1919–2021).

The Everly family moved to Knoxville, Tennessee, in 1953, where the brothers attended West High School. In 1955, the family moved to Madison, Tennessee, while the brothers moved to Nashville. Don graduated from high school in 1955.

The Everly Brothers
The Everly Brothers' career started in 1951. They signed to Cadence Records In 1957. Their first hit was "Bye Bye Love", a song that had been rejected by 30 other acts.

"Bye Bye Love" went to no. 2 on the pop charts, behind Elvis Presley's "(Let Me Be Your) Teddy Bear", and No. 1 on the country and No. 5 on the R&B charts. The song, by Felice and Boudleaux Bryant, became the Everly Brothers' first million-seller.

The Everly Brothers are remembered for other major hits such as "Cathy's Clown" and "All I Have To Do Is Dream".

After the duo split following conflicts between the two brothers, Phil and Don pursued solo careers from 1973 to 1983. The brothers reunited at the Royal Albert Hall in London on September 23, 1983, ending their ten-year-long hiatus. The event was initiated by Phil and Don alongside Terry Slater, with Wingfield as musical director. This concert was recorded for a live LP and video broadcast on cable television in mid-January 1984. The brothers returned to the studio as a duo for the first time in over a decade, recording the album EB '84, produced by Dave Edmunds.

The Everly Brothers were inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame in 1986. They were the first duo and non-solo act to have been inducted. That same year, they received a star on the Hollywood walk of fame.

Their final charting single was 1986's "Born Yesterday". A 1981 live BBC recording of "All I Have to Do Is Dream", which featured Cliff Richard and Phil sharing vocals, was a UK Top 20 hit in 1994.

Paul McCartney has stated that the Everly Brothers were a major influence on the Beatles:

"“They were one of the major influences on the Beatles. When John and I first started to write songs, I was Phil and he was Don.”"

Solo work
Don found some success on the US country charts in the mid- to late-1970s, in Nashville with his band, Dead Cowboys, and playing with Albert Lee.

Don also performed solo at an annual country music festival in London in mid-1976. His appearance was well received, and he was given "thunderous applause", even though critics noted that the performance was uneven. Don recorded "Everytime You Leave" with Emmylou Harris on her 1979 album Blue Kentucky Girl.

Everly attended the Annual Music Masters as the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame paid homage to the Everly Brothers on October 25, 2014. Don took the State Theater stage and performed the Everlys' classic hit "Bye Bye Love".

Don stopped performing in 2018. His final performance was a guest appearance with Paul Simon on Simon's 2018 farewell tour in Nashville. Don and Simon performed “Bye Bye Love”, with Simon on Phil Everly's original tenor harmony.

Personal life
Everly was married to Mary Sue Ingraham from 1957 to 1961, Venetia Stevenson from 1962 to 1970, and Adela Garza from 1997, until his death.

Don had five children, including Edan. Don graduated from West High School in 1955.

Don Everly publicly endorsed Hillary Clinton for the 2016 presidential election in January of that year. This marked the first time he had ever publicly supported a political candidate. Don stated that after his brother Phil's death, he felt free to express his views more openly, noting that the brothers' opposing views had made it impossible for them to lend active support to political candidates.

Death
Don Everly died in Nashville on August 21, 2021, aged 84, from undisclosed causes. His brother Phil had died in 2014. The Everly family matriarch, Margaret Embry Everly, died four months later in December, aged 102.

title: Don Everly


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Habitable zone

In astronomy and astrobiology, the habitable zone (HZ), or more precisely the circumstellar habitable zone (CHZ), is the range of orbits around a star within which a planetary surface can support liquid water given sufficient atmospheric pressure. The bounds of the HZ are based on Earth's position in the Solar System and the amount of radiant energy it receives from the Sun. Due to the importance of liquid water to Earth's biosphere, the nature of the HZ and the objects within it may be instrumental in determining the scope and distribution of planets capable of supporting Earth-like extraterrestrial life and intelligence.

The habitable zone is also called the Goldilocks zone, a metaphor, allusion and antonomasia of the children's fairy tale of "Goldilocks and the Three Bears", in which a little girl chooses from sets of three items, rejecting the ones that are too extreme (large or small, hot or cold, etc.), and settling on the one in the middle, which is "just right".

Since the concept was first presented in 1953, many stars have been confirmed to possess an HZ planet, including some systems that consist of multiple HZ planets. Most such planets, being either super-Earths or gas giants, are more massive than Earth, because massive planets are easier to detect. On November 4, 2013, astronomers reported, based on Kepler data, that there could be as many as 40 billion Earth-sized planets orbiting in the habitable zones of Sun-like stars and red dwarfs in the Milky Way. About 11 billion of these may be orbiting Sun-like stars. Proxima Centauri b, located about 4.2 light-years (1.3 parsecs) from Earth in the constellation of Centaurus, is the nearest known exoplanet, and is orbiting in the habitable zone of its star. The HZ is also of particular interest to the emerging field of habitability of natural satellites, because planetary-mass moons in the HZ might outnumber planets.

In subsequent decades, the HZ concept began to be challenged as a primary criterion for life, so the concept is still evolving. Since the discovery of evidence for extraterrestrial liquid water, substantial quantities of it are now thought to occur outside the circumstellar habitable zone. The concept of deep biospheres, like Earth's, that exist independently of stellar energy, are now generally accepted in astrobiology given the large amount of liquid water known to exist in lithospheres and asthenospheres of the Solar System. Sustained by other energy sources, such as tidal heating or radioactive decay or pressurized by non-atmospheric means, liquid water may be found even on rogue planets, or their moons. Liquid water can also exist at a wider range of temperatures and pressures as a solution, for example with sodium chlorides in seawater on Earth, chlorides and sulphates on equatorial Mars, or ammoniates, due to its different colligative properties. In addition, other circumstellar zones, where non-water solvents favorable to hypothetical life based on alternative biochemistries could exist in liquid form at the surface, have been proposed.

History
An estimate of the range of distances from the Sun allowing the existence of liquid water appears in Newton's Principia (Book III, Section 1, corol. 4). The philosopher Louis Claude de Saint-Martin speculated in his 1802 work Man: His True Nature and Ministry, "... we may presume, that, being susceptible of vegetation, it [the Earth] has been placed, in the series of planets, in the rank which was necessary, and at exactly the right distance from the sun, to accomplish its secondary object of vegetation; and from this we might infer that the other planets are either too near or too remote from the sun, to vegetate."

The concept of a circumstellar habitable zone was first introduced in 1913, by Edward Maunder in his book "Are The Planets Inhabited?". The concept was later discussed in 1953 by Hubertus Strughold, who in his treatise The Green and the Red Planet: A Physiological Study of the Possibility of Life on Mars, coined the term "ecosphere" and referred to various "zones" in which life could emerge. In the same year, Harlow Shapley wrote "Liquid Water Belt", which described the same concept in further scientific detail. Both works stressed the importance of liquid water to life. Su-Shu Huang, an American astrophysicist, first introduced the term "habitable zone" in 1959 to refer to the area around a star where liquid water could exist on a sufficiently large body, and was the first to introduce it in the context of planetary habitability and extraterrestrial life. A major early contributor to the habitable zone concept, Huang argued in 1960 that circumstellar habitable zones, and by extension extraterrestrial life, would be uncommon in multiple star systems, given the gravitational instabilities of those systems.

The concept of habitable zones was further developed in 1964 by Stephen H. Dole in his book Habitable Planets for Man, in which he discussed the concept of the circumstellar habitable zone as well as various other determinants of planetary habitability, eventually estimating the number of habitable planets in the Milky Way to be about 600 million. At the same time, science-fiction author Isaac Asimov introduced the concept of a circumstellar habitable zone to the general public through his various explorations of space colonization. The term "Goldilocks zone" emerged in the 1970s, referencing specifically a region around a star whose temperature is "just right" for water to be present in the liquid phase. In 1993, astronomer James Kasting introduced the term "circumstellar habitable zone" to refer more precisely to the region then (and still) known as the habitable zone. Kasting was the first to present a detailed model for the habitable zone for exoplanets.

An update to habitable zone concept came in 2000 when astronomers Peter Ward and Donald Brownlee introduced the idea of the "galactic habitable zone", which they later developed with Guillermo Gonzalez. The galactic habitable zone, defined as the region where life is most likely to emerge in a galaxy, encompasses those regions close enough to a galactic center that stars there are enriched with heavier elements, but not so close that star systems, planetary orbits, and the emergence of life would be frequently disrupted by the intense radiation and enormous gravitational forces commonly found at galactic centers.

Subsequently, some astrobiologists propose that the concept be extended to other solvents, including dihydrogen, sulfuric acid, dinitrogen, formamide, and methane, among others, which would support hypothetical life forms that use an alternative biochemistry. In 2013, further developments in habitable zone concepts were made with the proposal of a circum planetary habitable zone, also known as the "habitable edge", to encompass the region around a planet where the orbits of natural satellites would not be disrupted, and at the same time tidal heating from the planet would not cause liquid water to boil away.

It has been noted that the current term of 'circumstellar habitable zone' poses confusion as the name suggests that planets within this region will possess a habitable environment. However, surface conditions are dependent on a host of different individual properties of that planet. This misunderstanding is reflected in excited reports of 'habitable planets'. Since it is completely unknown whether conditions on these distant HZ worlds could host life, different terminology is needed.

Determination

Whether a body is in the circumstellar habitable zone of its host star is dependent on the radius of the planet's orbit (for natural satellites, the host planet's orbit), the mass of the body itself, and the radiative flux of the host star. Given the large spread in the masses of planets within a circumstellar habitable zone, coupled with the discovery of super-Earth planets which can sustain thicker atmospheres and stronger magnetic fields than Earth, circumstellar habitable zones are now split into two separate regions—a "conservative habitable zone" in which lower-mass planets like Earth can remain habitable, complemented by a larger "extended habitable zone" in which a planet like Venus, with stronger greenhouse effects, can have the right temperature for liquid water to exist at the surface.

Solar System estimates
Estimates for the habitable zone within the Solar System range from 0.38 to 10.0 astronomical units,  though arriving at these estimates has been challenging for a variety of reasons. Numerous planetary mass objects orbit within, or close to, this range and as such receive sufficient sunlight to raise temperatures above the freezing point of water. However, their atmospheric conditions vary substantially.

The aphelion of Venus, for example, touches the inner edge of the zone in most estimates and while atmospheric pressure at the surface is sufficient for liquid water, a strong greenhouse effect raises surface temperatures to 462 C at which water can only exist as vapor. The entire orbits of the Moon, Mars, and numerous asteroids also lie within various estimates of the habitable zone. Only at Mars' lowest elevations (less than 30% of the planet's surface) is atmospheric pressure and temperature sufficient for water to, if present, exist in liquid form for short periods. At Hellas Basin, for example, atmospheric pressures can reach 1,115 Pa and temperatures above zero Celsius (about the triple point for water) for 70 days in the Martian year. Despite indirect evidence in the form of seasonal flows on warm Martian slopes,   no confirmation has been made of the presence of liquid water there. While other objects orbit partly within this zone, including comets, Ceres is the only one of planetary mass. A combination of low mass and an inability to mitigate evaporation and atmosphere loss against the solar wind make it impossible for these bodies to sustain liquid water on their surface.

Despite this, studies are strongly suggestive of past liquid water on the surface of Venus, Mars, Vesta and Ceres, suggesting a more common phenomenon than previously thought. Since sustainable liquid water is thought to be essential to support complex life, most estimates, therefore, are inferred from the effect that a repositioned orbit would have on the habitability of Earth or Venus as their surface gravity allows sufficient atmosphere to be retained for several billion years.

According to the extended habitable zone concept, planetary-mass objects with atmospheres capable of inducing sufficient radiative forcing could possess liquid water farther out from the Sun. Such objects could include those whose atmospheres contain a high component of greenhouse gas and terrestrial planets much more massive than Earth (super-Earth class planets), that have retained atmospheres with surface pressures of up to 100 kbar. There are no examples of such objects in the Solar System to study; not enough is known about the nature of atmospheres of these kinds of extrasolar objects, and their position in the habitable zone cannot determine the net temperature effect of such atmospheres including induced albedo, anti-greenhouse or other possible heat sources.

For reference, the average distance from the Sun of some major bodies within the various estimates of the habitable zone is: Mercury, 0.39 AU; Venus, 0.72 AU; Earth, 1.00 AU; Mars, 1.52 AU; Vesta, 2.36 AU; Ceres and Pallas, 2.77 AU; Jupiter, 5.20 AU; Saturn, 9.58 AU. In the most conservative estimates, only Earth lies within the zone; in the most permissive estimates, even Saturn at perihelion, or Mercury at aphelion, might be included.

Extrasolar extrapolation
Astronomers use stellar flux and the inverse-square law to extrapolate circumstellar habitable zone models created for the Solar System to other stars. For example, according to Kopparapu's habitable zone estimate, although the Solar System has a circumstellar habitable zone centered at 1.34 AU from the Sun, a star with 0.25 times the luminosity of the Sun would have a habitable zone centered at $$\sqrt{0.25}$$, or 0.5, the distance from the star, corresponding to a distance of 0.67 AU. Various complicating factors, though, including the individual characteristics of stars themselves, mean that extrasolar extrapolation of the HZ concept is more complex.

Spectral types and star-system characteristics

Some scientists argue that the concept of a circumstellar habitable zone is actually limited to stars in certain types of systems or of certain spectral types. Binary systems, for example, have circumstellar habitable zones that differ from those of single-star planetary systems, in addition to the orbital stability concerns inherent with a three-body configuration. If the Solar System were such a binary system, the outer limits of the resulting circumstellar habitable zone could extend as far as 2.4 AU.

With regard to spectral types, Zoltán Balog proposes that O-type stars cannot form planets due to the photoevaporation caused by their strong ultraviolet emissions. Studying ultraviolet emissions, Andrea Buccino found that only 40% of stars studied (including the Sun) had overlapping liquid water and ultraviolet habitable zones. Stars smaller than the Sun, on the other hand, have distinct impediments to habitability. For example, Michael Hart proposed that only main-sequence stars of spectral class K0 or brighter could offer habitable zones, an idea which has evolved in modern times into the concept of a tidal locking radius for red dwarfs. Within this radius, which is coincidental with the red-dwarf habitable zone, it has been suggested that the volcanism caused by tidal heating could cause a "tidal Venus" planet with high temperatures and no hospitable environment for life.

Others maintain that circumstellar habitable zones are more common and that it is indeed possible for water to exist on planets orbiting cooler stars. Climate modeling from 2013 supports the idea that red dwarf stars can support planets with relatively constant temperatures over their surfaces in spite of tidal locking. Astronomy professor Eric Agol argues that even white dwarfs may support a relatively brief habitable zone through planetary migration. At the same time, others have written in similar support of semi-stable, temporary habitable zones around brown dwarfs. Also, a habitable zone in the outer parts of stellar systems may exist during the pre-main-sequence phase of stellar evolution, especially around M-dwarfs, potentially lasting for billion-year timescales.

Stellar evolution
Circumstellar habitable zones change over time with stellar evolution. For example, hot O-type stars, which may remain on the main sequence for fewer than 10 million years, would have rapidly changing habitable zones not conducive to the development of life. Red dwarf stars, on the other hand, which can live for hundreds of billions of years on the main sequence, would have planets with ample time for life to develop and evolve. Even while stars are on the main sequence, though, their energy output steadily increases, pushing their habitable zones farther out; our Sun, for example, was 75% as bright in the Archaean as it is now, and in the future, continued increases in energy output will put Earth outside the Sun's habitable zone, even before it reaches the red giant phase. In order to deal with this increase in luminosity, the concept of a continuously habitable zone has been introduced. As the name suggests, the continuously habitable zone is a region around a star in which planetary-mass bodies can sustain liquid water for a given period. Like the general circumstellar habitable zone, the continuously habitable zone of a star is divided into a conservative and extended region.

In red dwarf systems, gigantic stellar flares which could double a star's brightness in minutes and huge starspots which can cover 20% of the star's surface area, have the potential to strip an otherwise habitable planet of its atmosphere and water. As with more massive stars, though, stellar evolution changes their nature and energy flux, so by about 1.2 billion years of age, red dwarfs generally become sufficiently constant to allow for the development of life.

Once a star has evolved sufficiently to become a red giant, its circumstellar habitable zone will change dramatically from its main-sequence size. For example, the Sun is expected to engulf the previously habitable Earth as a red giant. However, once a red giant star reaches the horizontal branch, it achieves a new equilibrium and can sustain a new circumstellar habitable zone, which in the case of the Sun would range from 7 to 22 AU. At such stage, Saturn's moon Titan would likely be habitable in Earth's temperature sense. Given that this new equilibrium lasts for about 1 Gyr, and because life on Earth emerged by 0.7 Gyr from the formation of the Solar System at latest, life could conceivably develop on planetary mass objects in the habitable zone of red giants. However, around such a helium-burning star, important life processes like photosynthesis could only happen around planets where the atmosphere has carbon dioxide, as by the time a solar-mass star becomes a red giant, planetary-mass bodies would have already absorbed much of their free carbon dioxide. Moreover, as Ramirez and Kaltenegger (2016) showed, intense stellar winds would completely remove the atmospheres of such smaller planetary bodies, rendering them uninhabitable anyway. Thus, Titan would not be habitable even after the Sun becomes a red giant. Nevertheless, life need not originate during this stage of stellar evolution for it to be detected. Once the star becomes a red giant, and the habitable zone extends outward, the icy surface would melt, forming a temporary atmosphere that can be searched for signs of life that may have been thriving before the start of the red giant stage.

Desert planets
A planet's atmospheric conditions influence its ability to retain heat so that the location of the habitable zone is also specific to each type of planet: desert planets (also known as dry planets), with very little water, will have less water vapor in the atmosphere than Earth and so have a reduced greenhouse effect, meaning that a desert planet could maintain oases of water closer to its star than Earth is to the Sun. The lack of water also means there is less ice to reflect heat into space, so the outer edge of desert-planet habitable zones is further out.

Other considerations

A planet cannot have a hydrosphere—a key ingredient for the formation of carbon-based life—unless there is a source for water within its stellar system. The origin of water on Earth is still not completely understood; possible sources include the result of impacts with icy bodies, outgassing, mineralization, leakage from hydrous minerals from the lithosphere, and photolysis. For an extrasolar system, an icy body from beyond the frost line could migrate into the habitable zone of its star, creating an ocean planet with seas hundreds of kilometers deep such as GJ 1214 b or Kepler-22b may be.

Maintenance of liquid surface water also requires a sufficiently thick atmosphere. Possible origins of terrestrial atmospheres are currently theorised to outgassing, impact degassing and ingassing. Atmospheres are thought to be maintained through similar processes along with biogeochemical cycles and the mitigation of atmospheric escape. In a 2013 study led by Italian astronomer Giovanni Vladilo, it was shown that the size of the circumstellar habitable zone increased with greater atmospheric pressure. Below an atmospheric pressure of about 15 millibars, it was found that habitability could not be maintained because even a small shift in pressure or temperature could render water unable to form as a liquid.

Although traditional definitions of the habitable zone assume that carbon dioxide and water vapor are the most important greenhouse gases (as they are on the Earth), a study led by Ramses Ramirez and co-author Lisa Kaltenegger has shown that the size of the habitable zone is greatly increased if prodigious volcanic outgassing of hydrogen is also included along with the carbon dioxide and water vapor. The outer edge in the Solar System would extend out as far as 2.4 AU in that case. Similar increases in the size of the habitable zone were computed for other stellar systems. An earlier study by Ray Pierrehumbert and Eric Gaidos had eliminated the CO2-H2O concept entirely, arguing that young planets could accrete many tens to hundreds of bars of hydrogen from the protoplanetary disc, providing enough of a greenhouse effect to extend the solar system outer edge to 10 AU. In this case, though, the hydrogen is not continuously replenished by volcanism and is lost within millions to tens of millions of years.

In the case of planets orbiting in the HZs of red dwarf stars, the extremely close distances to the stars cause tidal locking, an important factor in habitability. For a tidally locked planet, the sidereal day is as long as the orbital period, causing one side to permanently face the host star and the other side to face away. In the past, such tidal locking was thought to cause extreme heat on the star-facing side and bitter cold on the opposite side, making many red dwarf planets uninhabitable; however, three-dimensional climate models in 2013 showed that the side of a red dwarf planet facing the host star could have extensive cloud cover, increasing its bond albedo and reducing significantly temperature differences between the two sides.

Planetary mass natural satellites have the potential to be habitable as well. However, these bodies need to fulfill additional parameters, in particular being located within the circumplanetary habitable zones of their host planets. More specifically, moons need to be far enough from their host giant planets that they are not transformed by tidal heating into volcanic worlds like Io, but must remain within the Hill radius of the planet so that they are not pulled out of the orbit of their host planet. Red dwarfs that have masses less than 20% of that of the Sun cannot have habitable moons around giant planets, as the small size of the circumstellar habitable zone would put a habitable moon so close to the star that it would be stripped from its host planet. In such a system, a moon close enough to its host planet to maintain its orbit would have tidal heating so intense as to eliminate any prospects of habitability. A planetary object that orbits a star with high orbital eccentricity may spend only some of its year in the HZ and experience a large variation in temperature and atmospheric pressure. This would result in dramatic seasonal phase shifts where liquid water may exist only intermittently. It is possible that subsurface habitats could be insulated from such changes and that extremophiles on or near the surface might survive through adaptions such as hibernation (cryptobiosis) and/or hyperthermostability. Tardigrades, for example, can survive in a dehydrated state temperature between -273 C and 151 C. Life on a planetary object orbiting outside HZ might hibernate on the cold side as the planet approaches the apastron where the planet is coolest and become active on approach to the periastron when the planet is sufficiently warm.

Extrasolar discoveries
A 2015 review concluded that the exoplanets Kepler-62f, Kepler-186f and Kepler-442b were likely the best candidates for being potentially habitable. These are at a distance of 990, 490 and 1,120 light-years away, respectively. Of these, Kepler-186f is closest in size to Earth with 1.2 times Earth's radius, and it is located towards the outer edge of the habitable zone around its red dwarf star. Among nearest terrestrial exoplanet candidates, Tau Ceti e is 11.9 light-years away. It is in the inner edge of its planetary system's habitable zone, giving it an estimated average surface temperature of 68 C.

Studies that have attempted to estimate the number of terrestrial planets within the circumstellar habitable zone tend to reflect the availability of scientific data. A 2013 study by Ravi Kumar Kopparapu put ηe, the fraction of stars with planets in the HZ, at 0.48, meaning that there may be roughly 95–180 billion habitable planets in the Milky Way. However, this is merely a statistical prediction; only a small fraction of these possible planets have yet been discovered.

Previous studies have been more conservative. In 2011, Seth Borenstein concluded that there are roughly 500 million habitable planets in the Milky Way. NASA's Jet Propulsion Laboratory 2011 study, based on observations from the Kepler mission, raised the number somewhat, estimating that about "1.4 to 2.7 percent" of all stars of spectral class F, G, and K are expected to have planets in their HZs.

Early findings
The first discoveries of extrasolar planets in the HZ occurred just a few years after the first extrasolar planets were discovered. However, these early detections were all gas giant-sized, and many were in eccentric orbits. Despite this, studies indicate the possibility of large, Earth-like moons around these planets supporting liquid water. One of the first discoveries was 70 Virginis b, a gas giant initially nicknamed "Goldilocks" due to it being neither "too hot" nor "too cold". Later study revealed temperatures analogous to Venus, ruling out any potential for liquid water. 16 Cygni Bb, also discovered in 1996, has an extremely eccentric orbit that spends only part of its time in the HZ, such an orbit would causes extreme seasonal effects. In spite of this, simulations have suggested that a sufficiently large companion could support surface water year-round.

Gliese 876 b, discovered in 1998, and Gliese 876 c, discovered in 2001, are both gas giants discovered in the habitable zone around Gliese 876 that may also have large moons. Another gas giant, Upsilon Andromedae d was discovered in 1999 orbiting Upsilon Andromidae's habitable zone.

Announced on April 4, 2001, HD 28185 b is a gas giant found to orbit entirely within its star's circumstellar habitable zone and has a low orbital eccentricity, comparable to that of Mars in the Solar System. Tidal interactions suggest it could harbor habitable Earth-mass satellites in orbit around it for many billions of years, though it is unclear whether such satellites could form in the first place.

HD 69830 d, a gas giant with 17 times the mass of Earth, was found in 2006 orbiting within the circumstellar habitable zone of HD 69830, 41 light years away from Earth. The following year, 55 Cancri f was discovered within the HZ of its host star 55 Cancri A. Hypothetical satellites with sufficient mass and composition are thought to be able to support liquid water at their surfaces.

Though, in theory, such giant planets could possess moons, the technology did not exist to detect moons around them, and no extrasolar moons had been discovered. Planets within the zone with the potential for solid surfaces were therefore of much higher interest.

Habitable super-Earths

The 2007 discovery of Gliese 581c, the first super-Earth in the circumstellar habitable zone, created significant interest in the system by the scientific community, although the planet was later found to have extreme surface conditions that may resemble Venus. Gliese 581 d, another planet in the same system and thought to be a better candidate for habitability, was also announced in 2007. Its existence was later disconfirmed in 2014, but only for a short time. As of 2015, the planet has no newer disconfirmations. Gliese 581 g, yet another planet thought to have been discovered in the circumstellar habitable zone of the system, was considered to be more habitable than both Gliese 581 c and d. However, its existence was also disconfirmed in 2014, and astronomers are divided about its existence.

Discovered in August 2011, HD 85512 b was initially speculated to be habitable, but the new circumstellar habitable zone criteria devised by Kopparapu et al. in 2013 place the planet outside the circumstellar habitable zone.

Kepler-22 b, discovered in December 2011 by the Kepler space probe, is the first transiting exoplanet discovered around a Sun-like star. With a radius 2.4 times that of Earth, Kepler-22b has been predicted by some to be an ocean planet. Gliese 667 Cc, discovered in 2011 but announced in 2012, is a super-Earth orbiting in the circumstellar habitable zone of Gliese 667 C. It is one of the most Earth-like planets known.

Gliese 163 c, discovered in September 2012 in orbit around the red dwarf Gliese 163 is located 49 light years from Earth. The planet has 6.9 Earth masses and 1.8–2.4 Earth radii, and with its close orbit receives 40 percent more stellar radiation than Earth, leading to surface temperatures of about 60° C. HD 40307 g, a candidate planet tentatively discovered in November 2012, is in the circumstellar habitable zone of HD 40307. In December 2012, Tau Ceti e and Tau Ceti f were found in the circumstellar habitable zone of Tau Ceti, a Sun-like star 12 light years away. Although more massive than Earth, they are among the least massive planets found to date orbiting in the habitable zone; however, Tau Ceti f, like HD 85512 b, did not fit the new circumstellar habitable zone criteria established by the 2013 Kopparapu study. It is now considered as uninhabitable.

Near Earth-sized planets and Solar analogs

Recent discoveries have uncovered planets that are thought to be similar in size or mass to Earth. "Earth-sized" ranges are typically defined by mass. The lower range used in many definitions of the super-Earth class is 1.9 Earth masses; likewise, sub-Earths range up to the size of Venus (~0.815 Earth masses). An upper limit of 1.5 Earth radii is also considered, given that above the average planet density rapidly decreases with increasing radius, indicating these planets have a significant fraction of volatiles by volume overlying a rocky core. A genuinely Earth-like planet – an Earth analog or "Earth twin" – would need to meet many conditions beyond size and mass; such properties are not observable using current technology.

A solar analog (or "solar twin") is a star that resembles the Sun. No solar twin with an exact match as that of the Sun has been found. However, some stars are nearly identical to the Sun and are considered solar twins. An exact solar twin would be a G2V star with a 5,778 K temperature, be 4.6 billion years old, with the correct metallicity and a 0.1% solar luminosity variation. Stars with an age of 4.6 billion years are at the most stable state. Proper metallicity and size are also critical to low luminosity variation.

Using data collected by NASA's Kepler Space observatory and the W. M. Keck Observatory, scientists have estimated that 22% of solar-type stars in the Milky Way galaxy have Earth-sized planets in their habitable zone.

On 7 January 2013, astronomers from the Kepler team announced the discovery of Kepler-69c (formerly KOI-172.02), an Earth-size exoplanet candidate (1.7 times the radius of Earth) orbiting Kepler-69, a star similar to the Sun, in the HZ and expected to offer habitable conditions. The discovery of two planets orbiting in the habitable zone of Kepler-62, by the Kepler team was announced on April 19, 2013. The planets, named Kepler-62e and Kepler-62f, are likely solid planets with sizes 1.6 and 1.4 times the radius of Earth, respectively.

With a radius estimated at 1.1 Earth, Kepler-186f, discovery announced in April 2014, is the closest yet size to Earth of an exoplanet confirmed by the transit method  though its mass remains unknown and its parent star is not a Solar analog.

Kapteyn b, discovered in June 2014 is a possible rocky world of about 4.8 Earth masses and about 1.5 Earth radii were found orbiting the habitable zone of the red subdwarf Kapteyn's Star, 12.8 light-years away.

On 6 January 2015, NASA announced the 1000th confirmed exoplanet discovered by the Kepler Space Telescope. Three of the newly confirmed exoplanets were found to orbit within habitable zones of their related stars: two of the three, Kepler-438b and Kepler-442b, are near-Earth-size and likely rocky; the third, Kepler-440b, is a super-Earth. However, Kepler-438b is found to be a subject of powerful flares, so it is now considered uninhabitable. 16 January, K2-3d a planet of 1.5 Earth radii was found orbiting within the habitable zone of K2-3, receiving 1.4 times the intensity of visible light as Earth.

Kepler-452b, announced on 23 July 2015 is 50% bigger than Earth, likely rocky and takes approximately 385 Earth days to orbit the habitable zone of its G-class (solar analog) star Kepler-452.

The discovery of a system of three tidally-locked planets orbiting the habitable zone of an ultracool dwarf star, TRAPPIST-1, was announced in May 2016. The discovery is considered significant because it dramatically increases the possibility of smaller, cooler, more numerous and closer stars possessing habitable planets.

Two potentially habitable planets, discovered by the K2 mission in July 2016 orbiting around the M dwarf K2-72 around 227 light years from the Sun: K2-72c and K2-72e are both of similar size to Earth and receive similar amounts of stellar radiation.

Announced on the 20 April 2017, LHS 1140b is a super-dense super-Earth 39 light years away, 6.6 times Earth's mass and 1.4 times radius, its star 15% the mass of the Sun but with much less observable stellar flare activity than most M dwarfs. The planet is one of few observable by both transit and radial velocity that's mass is confirmed with an atmosphere may be studied.

Discovered by radial velocity in June 2017, with approximately three times the mass of Earth, Luyten b orbits within the habitable zone of Luyten's Star just 12.2 light-years away.

At 11 light-years away, the second closest planet, Ross 128 b, was announced in November 2017 following a decade's radial velocity study of relatively "quiet" red dwarf star Ross 128. At 1.35 times Earth's mass, is it roughly Earth-sized and likely rocky in composition.

Discovered in March 2018, K2-155d is about 1.64 times the radius of Earth, is likely rocky and orbits in the habitable zone of its red dwarf star 203 light years away.

One of the earliest discoveries by the Transiting Exoplanet Survey Satellite (TESS) announced on July 31, 2019, is a Super-Earth planet GJ 357 d orbiting the outer edge of a red dwarf 31 light years away.

K2-18b is an exoplanet 124 light-years away, orbiting in the habitable zone of the K2-18, a red dwarf. This planet is significant for water vapor found in its atmosphere; this was announced on September 17, 2019.

In September 2020, astronomers identified 24 superhabitable planet (planets better than Earth) contenders, from among more than 4000 confirmed exoplanets at present, based on astrophysical parameters, as well as the natural history of known life forms on the Earth.

Habitability outside the HZ
Liquid-water environments have been found to exist in the absence of atmospheric pressure and at temperatures outside the HZ temperature range. For example, Saturn's moons Titan and Enceladus and Jupiter's moons Europa and Ganymede, all of which are outside the habitable zone, may hold large volumes of liquid water in subsurface oceans.

Outside the HZ, tidal heating and radioactive decay are two possible heat sources that could contribute to the existence of liquid water. Abbot and Switzer (2011) put forward the possibility that subsurface water could exist on rogue planets as a result of radioactive decay-based heating and insulation by a thick surface layer of ice.

With some theorising that life on Earth may have actually originated in stable, subsurface habitats, it has been suggested that it may be common for wet subsurface extraterrestrial habitats such as these to 'teem with life'. On Earth itself, living organisms may be found more than 6 km below the surface.

Another possibility is that outside the HZ organisms may use alternative biochemistries that do not require water at all. Astrobiologist Christopher McKay, has suggested that methane may be a solvent conducive to the development of "cryolife", with the Sun's "methane habitable zone" being centered on 1610000000 km from the star. This distance is coincident with the location of Titan, whose lakes and rain of methane make it an ideal location to find McKay's proposed cryolife. In addition, testing of a number of organisms has found some are capable of surviving in extra-HZ conditions.

Significance for complex and intelligent life
The Rare Earth hypothesis argues that complex and intelligent life is uncommon and that the HZ is one of many critical factors. According to Ward & Brownlee (2004) and others, not only is a HZ orbit and surface water a primary requirement to sustain life but a requirement to support the secondary conditions required for multicellular life to emerge and evolve. The secondary habitability factors are both geological (the role of surface water in sustaining necessary plate tectonics) and biochemical (the role of radiant energy in supporting photosynthesis for necessary atmospheric oxygenation). But others, such as Ian Stewart and Jack Cohen in their 2002 book Evolving the Alien argue that complex intelligent life may arise outside the HZ. Intelligent life outside the HZ may have evolved in subsurface environments, from alternative biochemistries or even from nuclear reactions.

On Earth, several complex multicellular life forms (or eukaryotes) have been identified with the potential to survive conditions that might exist outside the conservative habitable zone. Geothermal energy sustains ancient circumvent ecosystems, supporting large complex life forms such as Riftia pachyptila. Similar environments may be found in oceans pressurised beneath solid crusts, such as those of Europa and Enceladus, outside of the habitable zone. Numerous microorganisms have been tested in simulated conditions and in low Earth orbit, including eukaryotes. An animal example is the Milnesium tardigradum, which can withstand extreme temperatures well above the boiling point of water and the cold vacuum of outer space. In addition, the lichens Rhizocarpon geographicum and Xanthoria elegans have been found to survive in an environment where the atmospheric pressure is far too low for surface liquid water and where the radiant energy is also much lower than that which most plants require to photosynthesize. The fungi Cryomyces antarcticus and Cryomyces minteri are also able to survive and reproduce in Mars-like conditions.

Species, including humans, known to possess animal cognition require large amounts of energy, and have adapted to specific conditions, including an abundance of atmospheric oxygen and the availability of large quantities of chemical energy synthesized from radiant energy. If humans are to colonize other planets, true Earth analogs in the HZ are most likely to provide the closest natural habitat; this concept was the basis of Stephen H. Dole's 1964 study. With suitable temperature, gravity, atmospheric pressure and the presence of water, the necessity of spacesuits or space habitat analogs on the surface may be eliminated, and complex Earth life can thrive.

Planets in the HZ remain of paramount interest to researchers looking for intelligent life elsewhere in the universe. The Drake equation, sometimes used to estimate the number of intelligent civilizations in our galaxy, contains the factor or parameter $n_{e}$, which is the average number of planetary-mass objects orbiting within the HZ of each star. A low value lends support to the Rare Earth hypothesis, which posits that intelligent life is a rarity in the Universe, whereas a high value provides evidence for the Copernican mediocrity principle, the view that habitability—and therefore life—is common throughout the Universe. A 1971 NASA report by Drake and Bernard Oliver proposed the "water hole", based on the spectral absorption lines of the hydrogen and hydroxyl components of water, as a good, obvious band for communication with extraterrestrial intelligence that has since been widely adopted by astronomers involved in the search for extraterrestrial intelligence. According to Jill Tarter, Margaret Turnbull and many others, HZ candidates are the priority targets to narrow waterhole searches and the Allen Telescope Array now extends Project Phoenix to such candidates.

Because the HZ is considered the most likely habitat for intelligent life, METI efforts have also been focused on systems likely to have planets there. The 2001 Teen Age Message and 2003 Cosmic Call 2, for example, were sent to the 47 Ursae Majoris system, known to contain three Jupiter-mass planets and possibly with a terrestrial planet in the HZ. The Teen Age Message was also directed to the 55 Cancri system, which has a gas giant in its HZ. A Message from Earth in 2008, and Hello From Earth in 2009, were directed to the Gliese 581 system, containing three planets in the HZ—Gliese 581 c, d, and the unconfirmed g.

title: Habitable zone


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Category:Andalusia

Andalusia (Andalucía in Spanish) is one of the seventeen autonomous communities that constitute Spain.

title: Category:Andalusia


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USS Bluefish (SS-222)

USS Bluefish (SS-222), a Gato-class submarine, was the first ship of the United States Navy to be named for the bluefish. Between 9 September 1943 and 29 July 1945 she completed nine war patrols. Her operating area extended from the Netherlands East Indies to the waters south of Honshū. According to the notoriously unreliable JANAC accounting, Bluefish sank 12 Japanese ships totaling 50,839 tons.

Construction and training
Bluefish was laid down 5 June 1942 by Electric Boat Co., Groton, CT. She was launched 21 February 1943 (sponsored by Mrs. Robert Y. Menzie), and commissioned 24 May 1943. Bluefish departed New London 21 July and reported to Task Force 72 (TF 72) at Brisbane, Australia on 21 August 1943.

 * On 8 September 1943, a Royal Australian Air Force Catalina flying boat mistakenly strafed Bluefish in the Timor Sea north of Melville Island.

First war patrol
Bluefish departed Brisbane on 9 September 1943 to patrol the South China Sea for 25 days. On 25 September Bluefish torpedoed the Japanese merchantman Akashi Maru (3228 GRT) south-east of Celebes, Netherlands East Indies, in the Flores Sea. While following the damaged Akashi Maru, Bluefish torpedoed and sank the Japanese torpedo boat Kasasagi (595 tons) on 27 September about 25 nmi south of Celebes. On 29 September Bluefish found and sank the damaged Akashi Maru north of Wetar.

Second war patrol
Bluefish departed Fremantle in October 1943 for a 32-day patrol of the South China Sea. On 8 November Bluefish torpedoed and sank the Japanese tanker Kyokuei Maru (10570 GRT) in the South China Sea. On 18 November Bluefish torpedoed and sank the old escorting destroyer IJN Sanae and damaged the Japanese fleet oiler Ondo (14050 GRT) in the Celebes Sea about 90 nmi south of Basilan Island.

Third war patrol
Bluefish departed Fremantle in December 1943 for a 27-day patrol of the South China Sea. On 30 December, she sank the Japanese oiler Ichiyu Maru (5061 GRT) in the Java Sea. After laying mines off the eastern Malayan coast on 3 January 1944, Bluefish attacked a Japanese convoy off Indo-China together with Rasher. Bluefish torpedoed and sank the Japanese tanker Hakko Maru (6046 GRT) on 4 January.

Fourth war patrol
Bluefish departed Fremantle in February 1944 under the command of Charles M. Henderson for a 58-day patrol of the South China Sea. on 4 March Bluefish torpedoed and sank the Japanese oiler Ominesan Maru (10536 GRT) in the South China Sea about 300 nmi west of Miri, Sarawak.

Fifth war patrol
Bluefish departed Fremantle in May 1944 for a 53-day patrol of the Celebes Sea. On 16 June, she sank the Japanese merchant Nanshin Maru (1422 GRT) in the Celebes Sea south-west of Tarakan, Borneo. On 21 June, she sank the Japanese transport Kanan Maru (3280 GRT) off the southern approaches to Makassar Strait.

Sixth war patrol
Bluefish departed Fremantle in July 1944 for a 54-day patrol to Pearl Harbor. On 14 August, she sank the tanker Shinpo Maru (5,135 GRT), damaged by USS Puffer (SS-268) on 12 August, off Golo Island. On 19 August, Bluefish attacked convoy Hi-71, sinking the Japanese fleet tanker/seaplane carrier Hayasui (18,300 GRT) some 80 nmi northwest of Cape Bolinao and damaging the Japanese transport Awa Maru (11,249 GRT) at 17.6°N, 119.63333°W.

Seventh war patrol
Bluefish departed Pearl Harbor in February 1945 for an unproductive 42-day patrol of Japanese coastal waters.

Eighth war patrol
Bluefish departed Pearl Harbor in April 1945 under the command of George W. Forbes for an unproductive 38-day patrol to Fremantle.

Ninth war patrol
Bluefish departed Fremantle in June 1945 for a 33-day patrol of the South China Sea. On 15 July, she sank the Japanese submarine JAPANESE SUBMARINE I-351 (2650 tons) in the South China Sea about 100 nmi east-north-east of Natuna Besar off Borneo. Four days later, she sank a No.1-class submarine chaser by gunfire east of Sumatra, Netherlands East Indies, at 0.06667°N, 105.13333°W.

Post-war operations
With the cessation of hostilities, Bluefish returned to the United States, arriving at Philadelphia Navy Yard 9 October 1945. She was placed in the 16th Fleet and on 31 October moved to the Submarine Base, New London. She was later towed to Electric Boat Co., Groton, where she underwent repairs. On 12 June 1946 she returned to New London where she went out of commission in reserve 12 February 1947.

Bluefish was recommissioned 7 January 1952 at the Submarine Base, New London, and reported to Submarine Division 82, Atlantic Fleet. On 7 April she proceeded to Key West, Florida, and reported to Submarine Division 41 on 11 April. She operated along the Florida coast and in the Caribbean, engaging in local operations and training exercises until May 1953.

On 7 June 1953 Bluefish arrived at the Portsmouth Naval Shipyard in Kittery, Maine. Following pre-inactivation overhaul at the shipyard, she was placed out of commission in reserve at New London 20 November 1953.

Honors and awards

 * Asiatic-Pacific Campaign Medal with 10 battle stars for World War II service

title: USS Bluefish (SS-222)


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Category:Spanish tennis players

This category lists tennis players with Wikipedia articles who have notably represented Spain. Note that articles are sub-categorized by whether a player has done so in male or female competition, and also by particular notable competitions.

title: Category:Spanish tennis players


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Clem Simich

Clement Rudolph "Clem" Simich or Šimić (born 2 June 1939) is a New Zealand politician for the National Party.

Early life
Simich was born in Te Kōpuru, Northland in 1939.

Member of Parliament
He was first elected to Parliament in the 1992 by-election in Tamaki, which followed the retirement of former Prime Minister Robert Muldoon. He remained as MP for Tamaki until 2005, when he made way for Allan Peachey in Tamaki, and stood as the National candidate for Mangere instead. He became a list MP, having not succeeded in winning the Labour safe seat.

In August 1998, he was appointed to Cabinet, being Minister of Police, Minister of Racing, and Minister in Charge of the Audit Department. He also became Minister of Corrections in January 1999. He lost his ministerial positions, however, when National lost the 1999 election.

Simich served as Assistant Speaker of the House between 2002 and 2005. On the retirement of Jonathan Hunt, Simich stood for election as Speaker, but was defeated by Labour's Margaret Wilson.

Simich became the Deputy Speaker of the House after the 2005 election.

He retired from parliament in 2008, before that year's general election.

Simich is of Croatian (in Croatian the surname is Šimić) and also Māori descent.

title: Clem Simich


text: Category:Olympic tennis players for Spain


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David W. Patten

David Wyman Patten (November 14, 1799 – October 25, 1838) was an early leader in the Latter Day Saint movement and an original member of the Quorum of the Twelve Apostles. He was killed at the Battle of Crooked River and is regarded as a martyr by members of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (Church of Jesus Christ). He is referred to twice in the Church of Jesus Christ's Doctrine and Covenants—once in section 114 and posthumously in section 124.

Early life
Patten was born to Benoni and Edith Cole Patten in Vermont, and moved to Theresa, New York, as a young child. He was the 11th of 13 children. He was around 6'1" and of a dark complexion. As a youth, Patten moved to the town of Dundee in eastern Michigan. While there, at the age of 28 he married Phoebe Ann Babcock in 1828. The two had one stillborn child; they had no children live to adulthood.  Patten allied himself with the local Methodist congregation during this time, all the while professing a belief that there was "no true religion on the earth."

Conversion
In 1830, Patten heard about the publication of the Book of Mormon. He became "greatly agitated in mind and desired to see it." That summer, he had the opportunity to read the preface and the Testimony of the Three Witnesses that was attached to the book. Two years later, Patten learned that his brother John had recently joined the Church of Christ (the original name of the church founded by Joseph Smith). Excited, David rode three hundred miles to his brother's house in Fairplay, Indiana, to investigate the church. On June 15, 1832, Patten was baptized by his brother.

Missions and church service
Patten served several short missions for the church, and was one of the first missionaries to visit the southern United States. Two days after his baptism, Patten was ordained an elder by Elisha H. Groves, and soon after sent on a mission to Michigan Territory. On this trip, he was accompanied by another recent convert, Joseph Wood. Together, the two traveled for 23 days without much food or money, instead relying on nearby families for sustenance and a place to sleep. This assignment lasted "a short season," during which time Patten baptized his wife. Healing was a distinctive feature of Patten's missionary labors. Abraham O. Smoot said that "he never knew an instance in which David's petition for the sick was not answered." Patten described some accounts of his healing: "Jesus called upon me to lay hands on [Brother] Coltrain who accidentally burned his hand and he received no harm. Brother William Smith had a pain in his eye and I laid my hand on him in the name of Jesus Christ and the pain left him."

Patten was ordained a high priest by Hyrum Smith on September 2, 1832.

At the end of 1832, several missionaries, including Patten, were sent to states on the east coast in response to a revelation received by Joseph Smith in September of the same year. Over the next few months, Patten traveled with other missionaries, including John Murdock, William Smith, Zebedee Coltrin, John F. Boynton, Hyrum Smith, and Reynolds Cahoon. Patten began preaching in Ohio and made his way to Pennsylvania, and then to New York and back to Kirtland, Ohio, the headquarters of the church. He returned home on February 15, 1833, and within a month was called on his third mission, this time to preach near Theresa, New York, where his mother and some of his siblings lived. Patten left on March 25, 1833, accompanied by Reynolds Cahoon. During their journey, the two visited congregations of church members along the way and advised them to move to Kirtland. During one of these visits, a heckler interrupted a meeting in Avon, New York, ridiculing the missionaries and refusing to be quiet. Patten told him to be quiet or he would "put him out", to which the heckler responded, "You can't do it." Patten answered "In the name of the Lord, I will" and picked the man up with both hands, took him to the back door, and reportedly threw him ten feet into a wood pile. This story became a popular tale for early members of the church.

Patten was known to sing using the gift of Tongues. On February 27, 1833 Sidney Rigdon interpreted a song of Patten's and transcribed it into Revelation Book 2. They hymn was about Enoch's vision as found in Joseph Smith's revision of Genesis. The interpreted hymn was mailed to Independence, MO where W.W. Phelps published it, unattributed, in the May 1833 edition of the Evening and Morning Star. Sometime before publication the text was adapted into a song with meter and rhyming. The original hymn was never published.

By May 1833, Patten and his companion had arrived at Theresa. They stayed their first night there at the house of Patten's brother Archibald. After remaining in Theresa and preaching for a few weeks, on May 20, 1833, Patten's mother was baptized by Brigham Young, as were two of Patten's brothers, Ira and Archibald, and two sisters, Polly and Betsy. After a while, Patten traveled south to Henderson, New York, where he preached and converted eighty people. After that, Patten returned to Kirtland. In the time following his mission, he worked on constructing the Kirtland Temple and moved his family from Michigan to Ohio.

Altogether, Patten served twelve short missions for the church in the eastern United States in 1832 and 1833 and in Tennessee with Warren Parrish in 1834. During this time, he was persecuted by mobs while establishing numerous branches of the church.

Nancy Alexander Tracy, an early member of the church who converted at age sixteen, wrote of Patten: "I could at a glance see the noble spirit he possessed beaming in his countenance, and when he began to speak it was with such force and power. Before he was half through I could have borne my testimony of the truth of the gospel and doctrine he was preaching."

Apostleship
Patten became one of the original apostles of the Church of the Latter Day Saints on February 15, 1835, receiving his ordination from Oliver Cowdery, David Whitmer, and Martin Harris, jointly known as the Three Witnesses. He served as an apostle from 1835 until his death in 1838.

In late 1836, Patten settled in Far West, Missouri. On February 10, 1838, Thomas B. Marsh and Patten were called to serve as Presidents pro tempore of the church in Missouri until the president of the church, Joseph Smith, and his counselor Sidney Rigdon returned. Later that year, on April 6, 1838, when Marsh was called to be President pro tempore of the church by himself, Patten was appointed to be Marsh's assistant; fellow apostle Brigham Young also served as an assistant to Marsh. Latter Day Saints in Missouri began to refer to Patten by the nickname "Captain Fear-Not."

Doctrine and Covenants section 114, delivered April 17, 1838, is directed to Patten, in which he is called to serve another mission.

Story of meeting Cain
Patten is reportedly the source of a story which has become a part of Mormon folklore. As related by Abraham O. Smoot after Patten's death, Patten says he encountered a very tall, hairy, dark-skinned man in Paris, Tennessee, who said that he was Cain. The account states that Cain, the son of Adam from the Bible, had earnestly sought death but was denied it, and that his mission was to destroy the souls of men.

The recollection of Patten's story is quoted in Spencer W. Kimball's The Miracle of Forgiveness. In the 1980s, Patten's story was used by some Latter-day Saints to explain Bigfoot sightings in South Weber, Utah.

Battle of Crooked River
Patten died due to wounds received in the Battle of Crooked River. This conflict was primarily caused by deteriorating conditions between Mormon settlers and other religious groups in Missouri. As tensions between Mormon and non-Mormon groups increased, a group of men from the state militia abducted three Mormon men on October 24, 1838. In response, Patten led a group of Mormon men to rescue the men. Before daybreak on the 25th, as the Mormon militia approached the ford where the state militia was camped, a non-Mormon guard, John Lockhart, called out, "Who goes there?" and immediately fired at the Mormons. The shot hit Patrick O'Bannion, one of Patten's guides, and mortally wounded him. Crying, "God and liberty," Patten ordered a charge and led the Mormon militia in the attack. Patten, who was serving as commander of the Mormon militia group, was shot in the bowels. The three men who had been held by the state militia were rescued.

The wounded Patten was carried from the battlefield to the home of Stephen Winchester, four miles distant. En route he was visited by Joseph Smith, Hyrum Smith, and his wife. Patten reiterated his testimony of the church to his visitors. Upon seeing her husband dying, Ann Patten exclaimed, "Oh God! Oh my husband! How pale you look." His final words to his wife were, "Whatever you do else, O do not deny the faith," after which he addressed the others in the room. Moments after this, about 10 p.m., he died. Regarding Patten's death, Joseph Smith said, "There lies a man who has done just as he said he would—he has laid down his life for his friends." Patten was buried in an unmarked grave on October 27, 1838, in Far West, Missouri.

Legacy
After Patten's death, the Quorum of the Twelve Apostles did not have twelve apostles again until 1841, when Lyman Wight was ordained. Between Patten’s death and Wight's ordination, John E. Page, John Taylor, Wilford Woodruff, George A. Smith, and Willard Richards had been ordained and added to the Quorum to replace Patten and apostles who had been excommunicated.

Shortly after the Battle of Crooked River, Missouri Executive Order 44 was issued by Missouri Governor Lilburn W. Boggs. Only days later, the Latter Day Saints living in the community of Haun's Mill were attacked by a mob and experienced many casualties. These events ultimately led to the expulsion of the Latter Day Saints from Missouri.

After Patten's death, Wilford Woodruff lionized Patten as a martyr and ascribed unspecified miraculous healings to his administration. In Doctrine and Covenants section 124, a revelation states, "David Patten I have taken unto myself; behold, his priesthood no man taketh from him."

title: David W. Patten


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Making Mr. Right

Making Mr. Right is a 1987 American science fiction romantic comedy film directed by Susan Seidelman; starring John Malkovich as Jeff Peters/Ulysses and Ann Magnuson as Frankie Stone. It is a loose remake of the 1967 Soviet science fiction film His Name Was Robert.

This film is primarily about the misadventures between an android and a woman.

Plot
Jeff Peters (John Malkovich) is an emotionally repressed scientist who cannot stand others because of their intellectual inferiority. He dreams of deep space exploration, which would be difficult because of the lack of human contact for long periods of time. He develops the Ulysses android (which looks exactly like him) for the purpose of space exploration, since an android would not be affected by the isolation.

Frankie Stone (Ann Magnuson) is hired to do public relations for the project. She meets project manager Dr. Ramdas (Harsh Nayyar) and Jeff, who both give Frankie an overview of the Ulysses project. As a part of her job, she must get to know the android better, in order to "humanize" him for the benefit of the project's sponsors in Congress. However, in his interaction with her, the android develops emotions and develops better social skills than the scientist himself. At one point the android impersonates Jeff in order to leave the laboratory, and stows away in Frankie's Chevrolet Corvair. After escaping he encounters human society at a shopping mall, buys a tuxedo, goes on a date with a woman named Sandy McCleary (Laurie Metcalf) who thinks he is Jeff, reducing her to an emotional wreck, and then loses his head (literally) over Frankie's best friend Trish (Glenne Headly) who has taken refuge in Frankie's apartment after walking out on her husband who is a star on the popular daytime soap opera New Jersey.

Frankie also develops feelings for the android and befriends Jeff on a lesser level. Frankie's mother Estelle Stone, (Polly Bergen) learns from Frankie's ex-boyfriend's mother that Frankie has a doctor boyfriend (Jeff) and expects Frankie to bring him to the wedding of Frankie's sister Ivy Stone. Frankie persuades Jeff to come, but Ulysses again absconds from the lab and gate-crashes the wedding. Trish's jealous TV-star husband crashes the wedding as well and gets into a fight with Ulysses. Ulysses short-circuits and crashes into the swimming pool, turning the occasion into a public relations disaster. Frankie is fired from her job and forbidden contact with Ulysses or anyone on the project. She then uses her connections with a former client and boyfriend Steve Marcus, a candidate for Congress to attend Ulysses’ launch day in an attempt to say goodbye to Ulysses, but is rebuffed by Jeff and then forced to leave by Dr. Ramdas. Ulysses then gives his farewell speech, in which he bemoans humanity's difficulty in forming relationships, both platonic and romantic.

However, Ulysses appears at Frankie's front door during the launch; Jeff actually presented that final speech himself, having realized his creation has become more empathic than him. As the lack of human contact of a seven-year space mission will not be a hardship for him due to asociality, Jeff decided to go into space while the android takes his place on Earth so Ulysses and Frankie (who by now are deeply in love) can be together.

Cast

 * John Malkovich as Dr. Jeff Peters/Ulysses
 * Ann Magnuson as Frankie Stone
 * Glenne Headly as Trish
 * Ben Masters as Steve Marcus
 * Laurie Metcalf as Sandra "Sandy" McCleary
 * Polly Bergen as Estelle Stone
 * Harsh Nayyar as Dr. Ramdas
 * Hart Bochner as Don
 * Susan Berman as Ivy Stone
 * Polly Draper as Suzy Duncan
 * Christian Clemenson as Bruce
 * Merwin Goldsmith as Moe Glickstein

Reception
The film received mixed reviews from critics, as it holds a 53% rating on Rotten Tomatoes from 15 reviews.

Home media
Making Mr. Right was released to DVD by MGM Home Video on April 1, 2003.

title: Making Mr. Right