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James "Shack" Harris

James Larnell Harris (born July 20, 1947) is an American former professional football player and executive. He played as a quarterback in the American Football League (AFL) and the National Football League (NFL) with the Buffalo Bills, Los Angeles Rams, and San Diego Chargers. He was later a personnel executive for the Baltimore Ravens, Jacksonville Jaguars and Detroit Lions. Harris is the inspiration for the song "Ramblin' Man From Gramblin'" composed by Sam Spence. He is nicknamed "Shack", which is short for Meshach, given to him by his Baptist minister father.

College football career
Harris played college football for the Grambling State University Tigers from 1965 to 1968. Under the guidance of head coach Eddie Robinson, Grambling won or shared all four Southwestern Athletic Conference (SWAC) titles while Harris was a player and he was named MVP of the 1967 Orange Blossom Classic. Harris was specifically trained as a prototypical pocket-passer by Robinson and broke numerous passing records at Grambling.

Buffalo Bills
Harris was drafted in the eighth round of the 1969 Common Draft by the American Football League's Buffalo Bills, and would soon join fellow rookie O. J. Simpson in the starting backfield. Continuing the American Football League's more liberal (than the NFL's) personnel policies, the Bills made Harris the first black player to start a season at quarterback in the history of pro football. Harris was also just the second black player in the modern era to start in any game as quarterback for a professional football team. Wide receiver Marlin Briscoe, of the AFL's Denver Broncos, had been the first to start a game at quarterback in 1968, and a few of Harris's completions in 1969 went to Briscoe, who, by that time, had been traded to the Bills and had been converted to the position of receiver. In the first game of the season against the defending champion New York Jets, he went 3-of-12 for 74 yards with an interception while making a run for six yards before being replaced by Jack Kemp (playing his final season) as the Bills were trounced 33-19. It was his only start for the season, and Harris threw just 24 total passes combined in the other three games he appeared in as the team went 4–10. He scored his first touchdown on a throw to Haven Moses for 39 yards in a 50-21 loss to the Oakland Raiders. He made no starts in 1970, going 24-of-50 for 338 yards with three touchdowns and four interceptions in a year where the Bills went 3-10-1 while using newly drafted Dennis Shaw as their main starter. For his third and last year with the team, he made two starts (both losses) with seven appearances, going 51-of-103 for 512 total yards with one touchdown and six interceptions. After three years with the Bills, Harris was released by the team and signed by the Los Angeles Rams in 1972.

Los Angeles Rams
In 1973, Harris was the understudy to veteran John Hadl as the Rams went 12-2 and returned to the playoffs for the first time since 1969. As the 1974 season began, the Rams offense sputtered under Hadl and the team stood at 3-2 after five games. In an effort to spark the Los Angeles offense, Rams head coach Chuck Knox promoted Harris as the starting quarterback. In his starting debut for the Rams against the San Francisco 49ers, Harris completed 12 of 15 passes for 276 yards and three touchdowns and rushed for another as the Rams won easily, 37-14, at the Los Angeles Coliseum. The performance earned Harris a perfect passer rating for the game. Two days later, Hadl was then traded to Green Bay, and Harris became the Rams' first-string quarterback for the remainder of the 1974 season. The football world was stunned by the bold move. However, Harris came through by leading the team to seven wins in its last nine regular-season games. He led the team to its second straight NFC Western Division title, as well as their first playoff victory (19-10 over the Washington Redskins) since 1951. Harris thus became the first African-American quarterback to start and win an NFL playoff game. The Rams lost the NFC Championship Game to the Minnesota Vikings 14-10. Harris was named to the NFC Pro Bowl team in 1974 and was awarded MVP of that game.

The strong-armed Harris helped lead the team to another division title in 1975. Harris, in turn, became the first African-American to open a season as his team's starting quarterback in National Football League history. However, he injured his shoulder very early in the Rams' Week 13 win over the Green Bay Packers; backup Ron Jaworski then led the Rams to wins against Green Bay and the Super Bowl Champion Pittsburgh Steelers, as well as to a 35-23 win over the St. Louis Cardinals in the divisional playoff game. Stating that a "player cannot lose his starting job due to injury," Knox named Harris the starter for the NFC Championship games vs. Dallas, as he appeared to be recovered from his injury. Harris' first pass was intercepted, and after one more incompletion and a Dallas 21-0 first-quarter lead, he was pulled in favor of Jaworski. It didn't matter as Dallas went on to a 37-7 win.

Harris' injuries continued to give him problems in the 1976 season. The Rams went with three quarterbacks; Harris, Jaworski, and rookie Pat Haden from USC. With Harris injured, Jaworski opened the season as the starter and was injured in the opener. Haden led the team to a comeback tie against the Minnesota Vikings in the second game. Harris, with his throwing shoulder mended, reclaimed his starting job and led the team to two wins, including a 436-yard passing performance against the Miami Dolphins. However, in the next game, on Monday night at home against the San Francisco 49ers, Harris was sacked 10 times and re-injured his shoulder as the Rams were shut out 16-0 at home for the first time since moving to Los Angeles. The Jaworski/Haden platoon led the team to two more wins, then Harris returned again for a win over the then-first-year Seattle Seahawks and a loss to the Cincinnati Bengals. Against the Bengals, however, Harris played poorly and Knox felt like Harris was not fully healthy. After the game, Knox decided to go with Haden as the starter for the rest of the season. Under Haden, the Rams won three out of four and the NFC West division title. Knox stuck with Haden in the 1976 playoffs, even though Harris was healthy enough to see action late in the season, including a season-ending comeback win over the Detroit Lions. In the NFC title game, the stout Minnesota defense harassed Haden the entire game as the Vikings beat the Rams 24-13 to advance to Super Bowl XI. Despite the benching, Harris' 89.6 passer rating that year was tied for the highest in the NFC. It was the first time a black quarterback ever led his conference in that category.

San Diego Chargers
Harris was traded to the San Diego Chargers prior to the 1977 season. The experience with the Rams hurt him. "I lost my passion," he said in the book Third and a Mile. "Coach Knox was supportive but the owner Carroll Rosenbloom was going over his head.

"As a quarterback, I had done all I could, more than most people could, but it still wasn't enough for the Los Angeles Rams organization to accept me as a quarterback, not a black quarterback," he commented. At the time of his departure, Harris held the highest career completion average of any quarterback in Rams team history (55.4%) and had been an integral part of three straight NFC West Champions. Harris was deeply upset by his trade from a perennial playoff team to a team in rebuilding mode and also by losing his status as a starting quarterback. Nonetheless, Harris maintained a good relationship with Chuck Knox until the latter's death in 2018.

He made nine starts in his first year due to Dan Fouts holding out for more money, going 4–5 while throwing 109-for-211 with 1,240 yards, five touchdowns and 11 interceptions. The following year, he played in nine games while starting two of them, throwing 42-of-88 for 518 yards, two touchdowns and nine interceptions. Harris last saw playing time in 1979, appearing in eight games and throwing just 5-of-9 for 38 yards with an interception.

Front office career
Harris served as the Baltimore Ravens Director of Pro Personnel from 1997 to 2003. During his tenure, the Ravens won Super Bowl XXXV. In 2003, Harris left the Ravens organization and went on to serve as the Vice President of Player Personnel for the Jacksonville Jaguars, resigning on December 23, 2008. He also served on the NFL subcommittee on college relations.

On February 2, 2009, the Detroit Free Press reported that the Detroit Lions were set to hire Harris as a personnel executive. On February 12, 2009, the Detroit Lions officially named Harris as Senior Personnel Executive. Lions General Manager Martin Mayhew has a long history with Harris, and indicated he was the only individual who was offered the job. Harris assisted in all areas of player personnel in an advisory role. He is no longer employed by the NFL. He officially "retired from the NFL" on February 27, 2015.

Honors
Harris has been inducted into the Southwestern Athletic Conference Hall of Fame, the Grambling Athletic Hall of Fame, the Louisiana Sports Hall of Fame, the Black College Football Hall of Fame and the National Quarterback Club Hall of Fame.

title: James "Shack" Harris


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File:Bif Naked - Purge.jpg

Summary
Cover for the album Purge by Bif Naked

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

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Rugby Park

Rugby Park (Scottish Gaelic: Pàirc Rugbaidh), also known as The BBSP Stadium Rugby Park for sponsorship reasons, is a football stadium which is the home of Scottish Premiership club Kilmarnock F.C. and is situated in the Scottish town of Kilmarnock. With a capacity of, it is the 7th–largest football stadium in Scotland, and was first used in 1899, also having been used for concerts, rugby union and international football fixtures. The stadium underwent a major redevelopment in 1994–1995, becoming an all-seater stadium with a capacity of 18,128. In 2002, the club constructed the Park Hotel, a 4-star hotel complex next to the ground.

During the 1994–95 season the stadium capacity was reduced to 18,128 as a result of the construction of three new stands - the Moffat Stand, the Chadwick Stand and the East Stand. The renovated stadium opened on 6 August 1995, with a friendly match against Blackburn Rovers F.C. Rugby Park has since further renovations, with an artificial pitch being installed in the summer of 2014, safe standing available from November 2019 and underground heating installed in 1999. In August 2010, the West Stand was renamed the Frank Beattie Stand in honour of former player Frank Beattie who captained Kilmarnock to their Scottish League Championship victory in 1965.

As well as football matches, Rugby Park has also hosted rugby matches, most recently between Scotland and Georgia in July 2016. The venue has also hosted four international football matches for the Scotland national football team in 1894, 1910 and two most recently in 1997.

Original stadiums
Kilmarnock played at three other sites (The Grange, Holm Quarry and Ward's Park) in their early years, before the club moved to Rugby Park in December 1877. This was not the precise site of the present stadium, as the field is now covered by Charles Street. While is initially unclear the exact place in which Kilmarnock F.C. played their first match, Recreation Ground, also known as Barbadoes Green, was situated across from Dundonald Road where a much larger area known as Wards Park was situated. In the late 1860s, Wards Park consisted of rough grassland, and is considered the earliest site of both Kilmarnock F.C. and Rugby Park.

The first stadium known as Rugby Park after being officially named as such in November 1872 was situated on Dundonald Road. In April 1874, the club left this ground before returning to approximately the same field in December 1877. The club later played at The Grange between 1874 and 1876, also playing one game at Holm Quarry in April 1874, 1876 and 1877. The club left The Grange in 1876, but returned between September–November 1877.

The club moved to Rugby Park on Dundonald Road in 1877 and remained playing at the stadium until 1899, when the stadium relocated to a new stadium built on recreation and agricultural ground where it has remained as Kilmarnock Football Club's home ground since 1899.

"New" Rugby Park
The current site was decided by Ross Quigley who was Kilmarnock's first director. The grounds were shared by cricket and rugby teams – sports which Kilmarnock had played previously – and the connection with rugby gave the ground its name. Rugby Park hosted its first international match in March 1894, when Scotland won 5–2 against Wales. Originally, the ground was constructed with a running track around its edge, a pavilion and a stand along the west side. This layout meant that Rugby Park was similar to Ibrox Park, which opened four months later.

The "new" Rugby Park opened to fans in 1899 with a home game for Kilmarnock F.C. against Celtic F.C. which finished in a 2–2 draw. It was Kilmarnock F.C.'s first match in the top tier of Scottish football, having won the Second Division the previous season. The new Rugby Park pitch had been moved south-westwards and a new grandstand for spectators being built, which was designed by football stadium architect Archibald Leitch. Delays to the construction by joinery strikes caused workers to still be working on finishing the grandstand on the morning of the first match at the new stadium with Celtic. The grandstand was extended in 1914 and was extensively re-modelled and re-roofed in 1961.

In 1940, Rugby Park was requisitioned by the War Department for use as a fuel storage area, due to its proximity to the Kilmarnock railway station and the ability for fuel tanks to be assembly underneath the stadium pitch. The clubs board of directors "reluctantly" agreed to the requisition of the stadium, announcing the suspension of playing "for the duration". In the Summer of 1944, the War Department prepared to hand Rugby Park over to the board of directors at Kilmarnock Football Club. Having done so, the stadium, pitch and grandstand were found to be in an undesirable state after four years of military use. The club eventually received compensation from the government and the War Department for the damage caused. Work commenced on repairing the stadium, with Italian prisoners of war being used to build up the terracing.

On 28 October 1953, floodlights began operating at Rugby Park and were officially opened between a friendly; Manchester United F.C. and Kilmarnock F.C. which results in 3–0 win for Manchester United. The official recorded attendance at the game was 12,639 at Rugby Park. A new grandstand was built in 1961, with space to accommodate 4,000 spectators. Kilmarnock manager Willie Waddell commented on the developments at Rugby Park; "to be a top grade club, you must have top grade accommodation".

1994–1997 reconstruction
Demolition work began at Rugby Park on 8 May 1994, with the stadiums West Stand receiving a major refurbishment including new roofing and floodlights. Both the covered terracing and covered enclosures of the stadium were demolished to make way for the construction of two new stands, the East Stand and the South Stand (the "Moffat Stand"), which were first used on 27 August and 19 November 1994 respectively. The north terracing area had remained in used during construction works, but was demolished in 1995 to allow the construction of the new North Stand (the "Chadwick Stand"), which was first used on 20 April 1995 against Rangers F.C..

Taking 49 weeks to complete, the re-construction of Rugby Park transformed the stadium into a modern, 18,128 all-seated stadium, featuring new floodlights and two American style scoreboards situated at the top of both the Moffatt and Chadwick Stands. As of October 2023, both scoreboards are no longer installed on either stand. The official opening of the reconstructed Rugby Park occurred on 8 August 1995, with a match between English Premiership Champions Blackburn Rovers F.C. and Kilmarnock F.C., finishing 0–5.

Renovations
Safety regulations cut the capacity of Rugby Park to 17,528 by the 1980s, but this figure was rarely troubled as the club fell to the Second Division. The Taylor Report, published in January 1990, recommended that British stadiums should become all-seater. Around the same time, a new board of directors took control of Kilmarnock. The new board initially proposed to move the club to an out-of-town site besides the A77 road as part of a wider development, but this was rejected by planning restrictions. The board then decided to redevelop Rugby Park. The last game before reconstruction was played on 7 May 1994, when Kilmarnock beat Rangers 1–0. During the 1994–95 season the capacity was significantly reduced as three new stands were constructed; the Moffat Stand, the Chadwick Stand and the East Stand. Their completion brought the capacity of the stadium to 18,128. The work was completed in just 348 days, as the new stands were first opened for a game against Rangers on 20 April. Kilmarnock officially opened the new Rugby Park on 6 August 1995, in a friendly match against English league champions Blackburn Rovers. Alan Shearer hit a hat-trick as the home team lost 5–0.

On 12 May 1998 Rugby Park hosted the last Ayrshire Cup final, as Kilmarnock fought back from 0–2 to beat Ayr United 4–2. In the summer of 1999, league regulations meant that Kilmarnock had to install undersoil heating at the ground. On 26 August of that year, Kilmarnock celebrated one hundred years at Rugby Park with a victory over KR Reykjavik in the 1999–2000 UEFA Cup.

Some work has since been done to increase the revenue created by the ground. In June 2002 the Park Hotel was opened adjacent to the stadium. The hotel was built on the site of Kilmarnock's training pitch and accommodates fifty twin/double bedrooms, a conference centre, a café, bar and restaurant. In November 2004 a new sports bar was opened in the West Stand, sponsored by Foster's Lager.

In 2014, new 3G artificial surfacing was installed at Rugby Park.

Recent developments
An artificial playing surface was installed in the summer of 2014. This was later replaced by an artificial hybrid surface during the 2019 close season. In November 2023 the club announced their intention to replace the artificial surface with natural grass in 2025, if work on a separate training facility can be completed.

In February 2019 Kilmarnock received approval to install a new safe-standing section in areas of the East and Moffat stands. The installation process was completed in early December of that year. In 2020, plans were unveiled revealing details of plans for further renovations at Rugby Park, creating a new entrance, changing facilities and community resources, including a memorial garden. During the 2021–22 season offices were installed in the upper deck of the Moffat Stand, which reduced the seating capacity of the stadium to 15,552.

Stadium design
Despite becoming a modern, all-seater stadium, a number of features in the design of the stands give it a unique look. All stands bar the West Stand have very little beneath them, as the tea bars and toilets are located under the lowest possible point towards the pitch. The rest of the area underneath is open tarmac, with the steel framework fully exposed. Moreover, the turnstiles for the three newer stands are built into a perimeter wall rather than the stadium itself, and there are very large open air spaces before the stands themselves. Other stadiums have a similar design – for example Tynecastle's Roseburn Stand, although there is considerably less space there. One advantage is that since the public smoking ban has come into force it has been possible for fans to stand in the open areas at half-time for a cigarette.

The East Stand is distinctive in appearance as it does not cover the full length of the pitch, tapering before ending around 15yds before the extremity of the pitch. This is because the ground behind the stand is residential, and can not be built on. However, the gap is not as large as a similar truncation at Fir Park, for example, and is filled by flags.

Disabled supporters are accommodated in an enclosures at the front of both end stands.

Rugby Union
Scotland have played two games at Rugby Park; against Tonga in November 2014 and Georgia on 26 November 2016. The match against Tonga was the first rugby union international match featuring a tier 1 nation to be played on artificial surface.

In popular culture
In August 1999, Rugby Park was used for a fictitious Scottish Cup semi-final in the Robert Duvall film A Shot at Glory. The film also starred former Kilmarnock striker Ally McCoist.

Concert tours
Rugby Park has also been used as a venue concert for several musical artists.

 * Singer Rod Stewart performed live at Rugby Park in 2016
 * Elton John performed live at Rugby Park in June 2005

International matches
Four Scottish international matches have been staged at Rugby Park. Normally, Scotland international matches are played at Hampden Park, but two matches were played at Rugby Park while the south stand at Hampden was being rebuilt. During the 1997 match against Wales, Kilmarnock were able to parade the Scottish Cup at half time, having captured the trophy at Ibrox on the previous Saturday.

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Namamugi Incident

The Namamugi incident (生麦事件), also known as the Kanagawa incident and Richardson affair, was a political crisis that occurred in the Tokugawa Shogunate of Japan during the Bakumatsu on 14 September 1862. Charles Lennox Richardson, a British merchant, was killed by the armed retinue of Shimazu Hisamitsu, the regent of the Satsuma Domain, on a road in Namamugi near Kawasaki.

Richardson's killing sparked outrage among Europeans for violating their extraterritoriality in Japan, while the Japanese argued Richardson had disrespected Shimazu and was justifiably killed under the Kiri-sute gomen rule. British demands for compensation and failure by the Satsuma to respond resulted in the Bombardment of Kagoshima (or Anglo-Satsuma War) in August 1863.

Course of events
On 14 September 1862, four British subjects – the Shanghai-based merchant Charles Lennox Richardson, two Yokohama-based merchants, Woodthorpe Charles Clark and William Marshall, and Marshall's sister-in-law Margaret Watson Borradaile – were travelling on the Tōkaidō road in Japan en route to visit the Kawasaki Daishi temple near Kawasaki. Richardson had recently announced his retirement, and was visiting the temple with his friends en route back to England. The party had departed the treaty port of Yokohama at 2:30 pm by boat, crossing Yokohama harbour to Kanagawa village, to join their horses which had been sent ahead. They were travelling north through the nearby village of Namamugi (now part of Tsurumi Ward, Yokohama) when they encountered the large, armed retinue of Shimazu Hisamitsu, the regent and father of Shimazu Tadayoshi, the daimyō of the Satsuma Domain.

Shimazu was heading in the opposite direction to Lennox and his party, who continued to ride along the side of the road without dismounting until they reached the main body of the procession, which occupied the entire width of the road. Richardson, leading his party, rode close to Shimazu's procession and did not dismount despite being gestured repeatedly to do so. Richardson was subsequently slashed and mortally wounded by one of the Satsuma bodyguards. Clark and Marshall were also severely wounded by the Satsuma but Borrodaile was not harmed, and the three rode away as fast as they could. Richardson fell from his horse and Shimazu gave the order for todome — the coup de grâce — to be given, with several samurai proceeding to hack and stab at Richardson with swords and lances. A post-mortem examination of Richardson's body showed ten mortal wounds, and he was buried in the Yokohama Foreign General Cemetery, between the later graves of Marshall and Clark.

Consequences of the Namamugi Incident

The Namamugi Incident caused a new political crisis in Japan during the Bakumatsu, the period after the ruling Tokugawa Shogunate had ended its historic isolationist foreign policy known as sakoku and allowed the entry of foreigners. Japanese and Westerners were outraged by the incident, with these groups almost unanimously supportive and opposed to the killing, respectively.

Japanese reports accused Richardson of continuing to ride in the middle of the road, and trying to get between Shimazu's litter and his bodyguards. In Japan, the samurai had a legal right known as kiri-sute gomen which allowed them to strike anyone of a lower class for perceived disrespect, which could have justified the killing by Shimazu's retinue. The Japanese instanced Eugene Van Reed, an American who had dismounted and bowed before a daimyō's train, as evidence that the insolent attitude of Lennox and his party had caused the incident. Van Reed's conduct had appalled the Western community, who believed that Westerners should hold themselves with dignity before the Japanese, being at least the equal of any Japanese person. There were also later suggestions that Richardson had acted in a similar manner towards Chinese people while horseback riding in China, and according to the Japan Herald "Extra" of Tuesday 16 September 1862, he had been heard to say just before the incident, "I know how to deal with these people". Richardson's uncle was reportedly not surprised about his nephew's demise, but blamed him for being reckless and stubborn. Frederick Wright-Bruce, the British envoy to China, remembered Richardson as an "arrogant adventurer".

The incident sparked a scare in Japan's foreign community, which was based in the Kannai district of Yokohama. Westerners argued that Lennox was protected in Japan by extraterritoriality under the Anglo-Japanese Friendship Treaty and were exempt from Japanese cultural requirements, meaning Richardson's death under kiri-sute gomen was illegal. Many Western traders appealed to their governments to take punitive action against Japan. The British government demanded reparations from the Bakufu and from the daimyō of Satsuma, together with the arrest, trial and execution of the perpetrators.

Bombardment of Kagoshima
By mid-1863, the British had become impatient that the reparations demands for the Namamugi Incident were still unmet. In July, the Bakufu reluctantly paid the British the sum of £100,000 (one-third of their annual revenue) in compensation, though this was mainly due to fear of naval bombardment against the Tokugawa capital city of Edo. The Satsuma Domain continued to ignore the British demands and refused to apologize for Richardson's death.

On 15 August, a Royal Navy squadron entered the waters of Kagoshima, the capital city of the Satsuma Domain, to extract the demanded reparations for the Namamugi Incident by force. Meeting further prevarication, they seized several Satsuma ships as bargaining chips for future negotiations, but were unexpectedly fired upon by Satsuma coastal batteries. The squadron retaliated by destroying the Satsuma vessels and bombarding Kagoshima, which had been evacuated. The Satsuma batteries were gradually silenced, but the British ships were unable to sustain the bombardment and retreated two days later. Ultimately, the battle resulted in five killed on the Satsuma side, and eleven lives among the British (including, with a single cannon shot, both the captain and commander of the British flagship HMS Euryalus).

Satsuma's material losses were substantial, with around 500 houses destroyed in Kagoshima, and three Satsuma steamships were sunk. The engagement caused much controversy in the British House of Commons, but Acting Vice Admiral Augustus Leopold Kuper's conduct was eventually commended by the House. Kuper was advanced to Knight Commander of the Most Honourable Order of the Bath in 1864 "for his services at Kagoshima". Shimazu Hisamitsu was subsequently given the court title of Ōsumi no Kami (大隅守).

The military stalemate resulted in a renegotiation between the British and Satsuma regarding the Namamugi Incident. The Satsuma admired the superiority of the Royal Navy and sought a trading relationship with Britain as a result. Later that year, the Satsuma paid the £25,000 in compensation demanded by the British government with money borrowed from the Bakufu. The Satsuma never repaid the £25,000 to the Bakufu because the Tokugawa Shogunate would be overthrown in the Meiji Restoration five years later, and British demands for the Shimazu's bodyguards that had killed Richardson to be brought to trial were unfulfilled. The Bombardment of Kagoshima became known in Japan as the Anglo-Satsuma War (薩英戦争, Satsu-Ei Sensō).

In popular culture
The Namamugi Incident was the basis of James Clavell's novel Gai-Jin. It is also partially referenced in the opening cutscene for the video game Total War: Shogun 2: Fall of the Samurai, which depicts an unnamed Japanese port town being bombarded by a British warship in retaliation for two western merchants being murdered by samurai.

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Mesures usuelles

Mesures usuelles (, customary measurements) were a French system of measurement introduced by French Emperor Napoleon I in 1812 to act as compromise between the metric system and traditional measurements. The system was restricted to use in the retail industry and continued in use until 1840, when the laws of measurement from 1795 and 1799 were reinstituted.

Rationale behind the new system
In the five years immediately before the French First Republic introduced the metric system, every effort was made to make the citizens aware of the upcoming changes and to prepare them for it. The administration distributed tens of thousands of educational pamphlets, private enterprise produced educational games, guides, almanacs, and conversion aids, and metre standards were built into the walls of prominent buildings around Paris. The introduction was phased by district over the next few years, with Paris being the first district to change. The government also realised that the people would need metre rulers, but they had only provided 25,000 of the 500,000 rulers needed in Paris as late as one month after the metre became the sole legal unit of measure. To compensate, the government introduced incentives for the mass-production of rulers. Paris police reported widespread flouting of the requirement for merchants to use only the metric system. Where the new system was in use, it was abused, with shopkeepers taking the opportunity to round prices up and to give smaller measures. Napoleon I, the French Emperor, disliked the inconvenience of surrendering the high factorability of traditional measures in the name of decimalisation, and recognised the difficulty of getting it accepted by the populace. Under the décret impérial du 12 février 1812 (imperial decree of 12 February 1812), he introduced a new system of measurement, the mesures usuelles or "customary measures", for use in small retail businesses. However, all government, legal, and similar works still had to use the metric system and the metric system continued to be taught at all levels of education.

The prototypes of the metric unit, the kilogram and the metre, enabled an immediate standardisation of measurement over the whole country, replacing the varying legal measures in different parts of the country, and even more across the whole of Europe. The new livre (known as the livre métrique) was defined as five hundred grams, and the new toise (toise métrique) was defined as two metres. Products could be sold in shops under the old names and with the old relationships to one another, but with metric-based and slightly changed absolute sizes. This series of measurements was called mesures usuelles.

Napoleon's decree was eventually revoked during the reign of King Louis Philippe I by the loi du 4 juillet 1837 (law of 4 July 1837), which took effect on 1 January 1840, and reinstated the original metric system. This brought the system of mesures usuelles to a legal end, though the livre remains in some informal use to this day.

Permitted units
The law authorised the following units of measure:

 * The toise (fathom) was defined as exactly two metres and was as before divided into 6 pieds (or "feet") or 72 pouces (inches). The pouce was divided into 12 lignes (or "lines"). The pied and pouce, at approximately 333.3 mm and 27.78 mm, were about 2.6% larger than the previous Parisian measures and 9% larger than their English counterparts.
 * The aune (ell), used to measure cloth, was defined as 120 centimetres, and divided into the demi aune (half an ell, or 60 cm) and the tiers aune (third of an ell, or 40 cm). It was 1.3% larger than l’aune de Paris (118.48 cm) and 5.0% larger than its English counterpart (45 inches; 114.3 cm).
 * The litre was subdivided like a British quart, into demis (literally, "halves", being the equivalent of a pint of about sixteen fluid ounces), quarts (literally, "fourths", being the equivalent of a cup of about eight fluid ounces), huitièmes (literally, "eighths"), and seizièmes (literally, "sixteenths", of about two fluid ounces).
 * The boisseau, (bushel), was redefined as being an eighth of a hectolitre and with associated measures double-boisseau, demi-boisseau and quart-boisseau (double, half, and quarter bushels respectively). The original boisseau, like the English bushel, varied depending on the commodity for which it was used, as well as the region where it was used.
 * The livre, (pound), was defined as 500 grams, divided into 16 onces, (ounces), each once being divided into 8 gros. Each gros being thought of as being composed of 72 grains, whose name is the same as in English. Hence, the livre was 9216 grains. The livre and once were about 10% larger than their English counterparts, while the grain was 17% less than its English counterpart.

The mesures usuelles did not include any units of length greater than the toise - the myriamètre (10 km) remaining in use throughout this period.

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Sand casting

Sand casting, also known as sand molded casting, is a metal casting process characterized by using sand—known as casting sand—as the mold material. The term "sand casting" can also refer to an object produced via the sand casting process. Sand castings are produced in specialized factories called foundries. In 2003, over 60% of all metal castings were produced via sand casting.

Molds made of sand are relatively cheap, and sufficiently refractory even for steel foundry use. In addition to the sand, a suitable bonding agent (usually clay) is mixed or occurs with the sand. The mixture is moistened, typically with water, but sometimes with other substances, to develop the strength and plasticity of the clay and to make the aggregate suitable for molding. The sand is typically contained in a system of frames or mold boxes known as a flask. The mold cavities and gate system are created by compacting the sand around models called patterns, by carving directly into the sand, or via 3D printing.

Basic process
There are five steps in this process:
 * 1) Place a pattern in sand to create a mold.
 * 2) Incorporate the pattern and sand in a gating system. Remove the pattern.
 * 3) Fill the mold cavity with molten metal.
 * 4) Allow the metal to cool.
 * 5) Break away the sand mold and remove the casting.

Patterns
From the design, provided by a designer, a skilled pattern maker builds a pattern of the object to be produced, using wood, metal, or a plastic such as expanded polystyrene. Sand can be ground, swept or strickled into shape. The metal to be cast will contract during solidification, and this may be non-uniform due to uneven cooling. Therefore, the pattern must be slightly larger than the finished product, a difference known as contraction allowance. Different scaled rules are used for different metals, because each metal and alloy contracts by an amount distinct from all others. Patterns also have core prints that create registers within the molds into which are placed sand cores. Such cores, sometimes reinforced by wires, are used to create under-cut profiles and cavities which cannot be molded with the cope and drag, such as the interior passages of valves or cooling passages in engine blocks.

Paths for the entrance of metal into the mold cavity constitute the runner system and include the sprue, various feeders which maintain a good metal 'feed', and in-gates which attach the runner system to the casting cavity. Gas and steam generated during casting exit through the permeable sand or via risers, which are added either in the pattern itself, or as separate pieces.

Tools
In addition to patterns, the sand molder could also use tools to create the holes.

Molding box and materials
A multi-part molding box (known as a casting flask, the top and bottom halves of which are known respectively as the cope and drag) is prepared to receive the pattern. Molding boxes are made in segments that may be latched to each other and to end closures. For a simple object—flat on one side—the lower portion of the box, closed at the bottom, will be filled with a molding sand. The sand is packed in through a vibratory process called ramming, and in this case, periodically screeded level. The surface of the sand may then be stabilized with a sizing compound. The pattern is placed on the sand and another molding box segment is added. Additional sand is rammed over and around the pattern. Finally a cover is placed on the box and it is turned and unlatched, so that the halves of the mold may be parted and the pattern with its sprue and vent patterns removed. Additional sizing may be added and any defects introduced by the removal of the pattern are corrected. The box is closed again. This forms a "green" mold which must be dried to receive the hot metal. If the mold is not sufficiently dried a steam explosion can occur that can throw molten metal about. In some cases, the sand may be oiled instead of moistened, which makes casting possible without waiting for the sand to dry. Sand may also be bonded by chemical binders, such as furane resins or amine-hardened resins.

Additive manufacturing (AM) can be used in the sand mold preparation, so that instead of the sand mold being formed via packing sand around a pattern, it is 3D-printed. This can reduce lead times for casting by obviating patternmaking. Besides replacing older methods, additive can also complement them in hybrid models, such as making a variety of AM-printed cores for a cavity derived from a traditional pattern.

Chills
To control the solidification structure of the metal, it is possible to place metal plates, chills, in the mold. The associated rapid local cooling will form a finer-grained structure and may form a somewhat harder metal at these locations. In ferrous castings, the effect is similar to quenching metals in forge work. The inner diameter of an engine cylinder is made hard by a chilling core. In other metals, chills may be used to promote directional solidification of the casting. In controlling the way a casting freezes, it is possible to prevent internal voids or porosity inside castings.

Cores
Cores are apparatus used to generate hollow cavities or internal features which cannot be formed using pattern alone in moulding, cores are usually made using sand, but some processes also use permanent cores made of metal.

To produce cavities within the casting—such as for liquid cooling in engine blocks and cylinder heads—negative forms are used to produce cores. Usually sand-molded, cores are inserted into the casting box after removal of the pattern. Whenever possible, designs are made that avoid the use of cores, due to the additional set-up time, mass and thus greater cost.

With a completed mold at the appropriate moisture content, the box containing the sand mold is then positioned for filling with molten metal—typically iron, steel, bronze, brass, aluminium, magnesium alloys, or various pot metal alloys, which often include lead, tin, and zinc. After being filled with liquid metal the box is set aside until the metal is sufficiently cool to be strong. The sand is then removed, revealing a rough casting that, in the case of iron or steel, may still be glowing red. In the case of metals that are significantly heavier than the casting sand, such as iron or lead, the casting flask is often covered with a heavy plate to prevent a problem known as floating the mold. Floating the mold occurs when the pressure of the metal pushes the sand above the mold cavity out of shape, causing the casting to fail.

After casting, the cores are broken up by rods or shot and removed from the casting. The metal from the sprue and risers is cut from the rough casting. Various heat treatments may be applied to relieve stresses from the initial cooling and to add hardness—in the case of steel or iron, by quenching in water or oil. The casting may be further strengthened by surface compression treatment—like shot peening—that adds resistance to tensile cracking and smooths the rough surface. And when high precision is required, various machining operations (such as milling or boring) are made to finish critical areas of the casting. Examples of this would include the boring of cylinders and milling of the deck on a cast engine block.

Design requirements
The part to be made and its pattern must be designed to accommodate each stage of the process, as it must be possible to remove the pattern without disturbing the molding sand and to have proper locations to receive and position the cores. A slight taper, known as draft, must be used on surfaces perpendicular to the parting line, in order to be able to remove the pattern from the mold. This requirement also applies to cores, as they must be removed from the core box in which they are formed. The sprue and risers must be arranged to allow a proper flow of metal and gasses within the mold in order to avoid an incomplete casting. Should a piece of core or mold become dislodged it may be embedded in the final casting, forming a sand pit, which may render the casting unusable. Gas pockets can cause internal voids. These may be immediately visible or may only be revealed after extensive machining has been performed. For critical applications, or where the cost of wasted effort is a factor, non-destructive testing methods may be applied before further work is performed.

Processes
In general, we can distinguish between two methods of sand casting; the first one using green sand and the second being the air set method.

Green sand
These castings are made using sand molds formed from "wet" sand which contains water and organic bonding compounds, typically referred to as clay. The name "green sand" comes from the fact that the sand mold is not "set", it is still in the "green" or uncured state even when the metal is poured in the mould. Green sand is not green in color, but "green" in the sense that it is used in a wet state (akin to green wood). Contrary to what the name suggests, "green sand" is not a type of sand on its own (that is, not greensand in the geologic sense), but is rather a mixture of:

 * silica sand (SiO2), chromite sand (FeCr2O4), or zircon sand (ZrSiO4), 75 to 85%, sometimes with a proportion of olivine, staurolite, or graphite.
 * bentonite (clay), 5 to 11%
 * water, 2 to 4%
 * inert sludge 3 to 5%
 * anthracite (0 to 1%)

There are many recipes for the proportion of clay, but they all strike different balances between moldability, surface finish, and ability of the hot molten metal to degas. Coal, typically referred to in foundries as sea-coal, which is present at a ratio of less than 5%, partially combusts in the presence of the molten metal, leading to offgassing of organic vapors. Green sand casting for non-ferrous metals does not use coal additives, since the CO created does not prevent oxidation. Green sand for aluminum typically uses olivine sand (a mixture of the minerals forsterite and fayalite, which is made by crushing dunite rock).

The choice of sand has a lot to do with the temperature at which the metal is poured. At the temperatures that copper and iron are poured, the clay is inactivated by the heat, in that the montmorillonite is converted to illite, which is a non-expanding clay. Most foundries do not have the very expensive equipment to remove the burned out clay and substitute new clay, so instead, those that pour iron typically work with silica sand that is inexpensive compared to the other sands. As the clay is burned out, newly mixed sand is added and some of the old sand is discarded or recycled into other uses. Silica is the least desirable of the sands, since metamorphic grains of silica sand have a tendency to explode to form sub-micron sized particles when thermally shocked during pouring of the molds. These particles enter the air of the work area and can lead to silicosis in the workers. Iron foundries expend considerable effort on aggressive dust collection to capture this fine silica. Various types of respiratory-protective equipment are also used in foundries. The sand also has the dimensional instability associated with the conversion of quartz from alpha quartz to beta quartz at 680 °C (1250 °F). Often, combustible additives such as wood flour are added to create spaces for the grains to expand without deforming the mold. Olivine, chromite, etc. are therefore used because they do not have a phase transition that causes rapid expansion of the grains. Olivine and chromite also offer greater density, which cools the metal faster, thereby producing finer grain structures in the metal. Since they are not metamorphic minerals, they do not have the polycrystals found in silica, and subsequently they do not form hazardous sub-micron sized particles.

"Air set" method
The air set method uses dry sand bonded with materials other than clay, using a fast curing adhesive. The latter may also be referred to as no bake mold casting. When these are used, they are collectively called "air set" sand castings to distinguish them from "green sand" castings. Two types of molding sand are natural bonded (bank sand) and synthetic (lake sand); the latter is generally preferred due to its more consistent composition.

With both methods, the sand mixture is packed around a pattern, forming a mold cavity. If necessary, a temporary plug is placed in the sand and touching the pattern in order to later form a channel into which the casting fluid can be poured. Air-set molds are often formed with the help of a casting flask having a top and bottom part, termed the cope and drag. The sand mixture is tamped down as it is added around the pattern, and the final mold assembly is sometimes vibrated to compact the sand and fill any unwanted voids in the mold. Then the pattern is removed along with the channel plug, leaving the mold cavity. The casting liquid (typically molten metal) is then poured into the mold cavity. After the metal has solidified and cooled, the casting is separated from the sand mold. There is typically no mold release agent, and the mold is generally destroyed in the removal process.

The accuracy of the casting is limited by the type of sand and the molding process. Sand castings made from coarse green sand impart a rough texture to the surface, and this makes them easy to identify. Castings made from fine green sand can shine as cast but are limited by the depth to width ratio of pockets in the pattern. Air-set molds can produce castings with smoother surfaces than coarse green sand but this method is primarily chosen when deep narrow pockets in the pattern are necessary, due to the expense of the plastic used in the process. Air-set castings can typically be easily identified by the burnt color on the surface. The castings are typically shot blasted to remove that burnt color. Surfaces can also be later ground and polished, for example when making a large bell. After molding, the casting is covered with a residue of oxides, silicates and other compounds. This residue can be removed by various means, such as grinding, or shot blasting.

During casting, some of the components of the sand mixture are lost in the thermal casting process. Green sand can be reused after adjusting its composition to replenish the lost moisture and additives. The pattern itself can be reused indefinitely to produce new sand molds. The sand molding process has been used for many centuries to produce castings manually. Since 1950, partially automated casting processes have been developed for production lines.

Cold box
Cold box uses organic and inorganic binders that strengthen the mold by chemically adhering to the sand. This type of mold gets its name from not being baked in an oven like other sand mold types. This type of mold is more accurate dimensionally than green-sand molds but is more expensive. Thus it is used only in applications that necessitate it.

No-bake molds
No-bake molds are expendable sand molds, similar to typical sand molds, except they also contain a quick-setting liquid resin and catalyst. Rather than being rammed, the molding sand is poured into the flask and held until the resin solidifies, which occurs at room temperature. This type of molding also produces a better surface finish than other types of sand molds. Because no heat is involved it is called a cold-setting process. Common flask materials that are used are wood, metal, and plastic. Common metals cast into no-bake molds are brass, iron (ferrous), and aluminum alloys.

Vacuum molding
Vacuum molding (V-process) is a variation of the sand casting process for most ferrous and non-ferrous metals, in which unbonded sand is held in the flask with a vacuum. The pattern is specially vented so that a vacuum can be pulled through it. A heat-softened thin sheet (0.003 to 0.008 in) of plastic film is draped over the pattern and a vacuum is drawn (200 to 400 mmHg). A special vacuum forming flask is placed over the plastic pattern and is filled with a free-flowing sand. The sand is vibrated to compact the sand and a sprue and pouring cup are formed in the cope. Another sheet of plastic is placed over the top of the sand in the flask and a vacuum is drawn through the special flask; this hardens and strengthens the unbonded sand. The vacuum is then released on the pattern and the cope is removed. The drag is made in the same way (without the sprue and pouring cup). Any cores are set in place and the mold is closed. The molten metal is poured while the cope and drag are still under a vacuum, because the plastic vaporizes but the vacuum keeps the shape of the sand while the metal solidifies. When the metal has solidified, the vacuum is turned off and the sand runs out freely, releasing the casting.

The V-process is known for not requiring a draft because the plastic film has a certain degree of lubricity and it expands slightly when the vacuum is drawn in the flask. The process has high dimensional accuracy, with a tolerance of ±0.010 in for the first inch and ±0.002 in/in thereafter. Cross-sections as small as 0.090 in are possible. The surface finish is very good, usually between 150 and 125 rms. Other advantages include no moisture related defects, no cost for binders, excellent sand permeability, and no toxic fumes from burning the binders. Finally, the pattern does not wear out because the sand does not touch it. The main disadvantage is that the process is slower than traditional sand casting so it is only suitable for low to medium production volumes; approximately 10 to 15,000 pieces a year. However, this makes it perfect for prototype work, because the pattern can be easily modified as it is made from plastic.

Fast mold making processes
With the fast development of the car and machine building industry the casting consuming areas called for steady higher productivity. The basic process stages of the mechanical molding and casting process are similar to those described under the manual sand casting process. The technical and mental development however was so rapid and profound that the character of the sand casting process changed radically.

Mechanized sand molding
The first mechanized molding lines consisted of sand slingers and/or jolt-squeeze devices that compacted the sand in the flasks. Subsequent mold handling was mechanical using cranes, hoists and straps. After core setting the copes and drags were coupled using guide pins and clamped for closer accuracy. The molds were manually pushed off on a roller conveyor for casting and cooling.

Automatic high pressure sand molding lines
Increasing quality requirements made it necessary to increase the mold stability by applying steadily higher squeeze pressure and modern compaction methods for the sand in the flasks. In early fifties the high pressure molding was developed and applied in mechanical and later automatic flask lines. The first lines were using jolting and vibrations to pre-compact the sand in the flasks and compressed air powered pistons to compact the molds.

Horizontal sand flask molding
In the first automatic horizontal flask lines the sand was shot or slung down on the pattern in a flask and squeezed with hydraulic pressure of up to 140 bars. The subsequent mold handling including turn-over, assembling, pushing-out on a conveyor were accomplished either manually or automatically. In the late fifties hydraulically powered pistons or multi-piston systems were used for the sand compaction in the flasks. This method produced much more stable and accurate molds than it was possible manually or pneumatically. In the late sixties mold compaction by fast air pressure or gas pressure drop over the pre-compacted sand mold was developed (sand-impulse and gas-impact). The general working principle for most of the horizontal flask line systems is shown on the sketch below.

Today there are many manufacturers of the automatic horizontal flask molding lines. The major disadvantages of these systems is high spare parts consumption due to multitude of movable parts, need of storing, transporting and maintaining the flasks and productivity limited to approximately 90–120 molds per hour.

Vertical sand flaskless molding
In 1962, Dansk Industri Syndikat A/S (DISA-DISAMATIC) invented a flask-less molding process by using vertically parted and poured molds. The first line could produce up to 240 complete sand molds per hour. Today molding lines can achieve a molding rate of 550 sand molds per hour and requires only one monitoring operator. Maximum mismatch of two mold halves is 0.1 mm. Although very fast, vertically parted molds are not typically used by jobbing foundries due to the specialized tooling needed to run on these machines. Cores need to be set with a core mask as opposed to by hand and must hang in the mold as opposed to being set on parting surface.

Matchplate sand molding
The principle of the matchplate, meaning pattern plates with two patterns on each side of the same plate, was developed and patented in 1910, fostering the perspectives for future sand molding improvements. However, first in the early sixties the American company Hunter Automated Machinery Corporation launched its first automatic flaskless, horizontal molding line applying the matchplate technology.

The method alike to the DISA's (DISAMATIC) vertical molding is flaskless, however horizontal. The matchplate molding technology is today used widely. Its great advantage is inexpensive pattern tooling, easiness of changing the molding tooling, thus suitability for manufacturing castings in short series so typical for the jobbing foundries. Modern matchplate molding machine is capable of high molding quality, less casting shift due to machine-mold mismatch (in some cases less than 0.15 mm), consistently stable molds for less grinding and improved parting line definition. In addition, the machines are enclosed for a cleaner, quieter working environment with reduced operator exposure to safety risks or service-related problems.

Safety standards
With automated mold manufacturing came additional workplace safety requirements. Different voluntary technical standards apply depending on the geopolitical jurisdiction where the machinery is to be used.

Canada
Canada does not have a machine-specific voluntary technical standard for sand-mold making machinery. This type of machinery is covered by:

[https://store.csagroup.org/ccrz__ProductDetails?viewState=DetailView&cartID=&portalUser=&store=&cclcl=en_US&sku=Z432-16 Safeguarding of machinery, CSA Z432. Canadian Standards Association. 2016.]

In addition, the electrical safety requirements are covered by:

[https://store.csagroup.org/ccrz__ProductDetails?viewState=DetailView&cartID=&portalUser=&store=&cclcl=en_US&sku=C22.2%20NO.%20301-16 Industrial Electrical Machinery, CSA C22.2 No. 301. 2016.]

European Union
The primary standard for sand-mold manufacturing equipment in the EU is: [https://standards.cen.eu/dyn/www/f?p=204:110:0::::FSP_PROJECT,FSP_ORG_ID:38822,6183&cs=187F082E35537138F42BC892EB6E6F41B Safety requirements for foundry moulding and coremaking machinery and plant associated equipment, EN 710. European Committee for Standardization (CEN).]

EN 710 will need to be used in conjunction with EN 60204-1 for electrical safety, and EN ISO 13849-1 and EN ISO 13849-2 or EN 62061 for functional safety. Additional type C standards may also be necessary for conveyors, robotics or other equipment that may be needed to support the operation of the mold-making equipment.

United States
There is no machine-specific standard for sand-mold manufacturing equipment. The ANSI B11 family of standards includes some generic machine-tool standards that could be applied to this type of machinery, including:

 * Safety of Machinery, ANSI B11.0. American National Standards Institute (ANSI). 2020.
 * Performance Requirements for Risk Reduction Measures: Safeguarding and other Means of Reducing Risk, ANSI B11.19. American National Standards Institute (ANSI). 2019.
 * Safety Requirements for the Integration of Machinery into a System, ANSI B11.20. American National Standards Institute (ANSI). 2017.
 * Safety Requirements for Transfer Machines, ANSI B11.24. American National Standards Institute (ANSI). 2002 (R2020).
 * Functional Safety for Equipment (Electrical/Fluid Power Control Systems) General Principles for the Design of Safety Control Systems Using ISO 13849-1, ANSI B11.26. American National Standards Institute (ANSI). 2018.
 * Sound Level Measurement Guidelines, ANSI B11.TR5. American National Standards Institute (ANSI). 2006 (R2017).

Mold materials
There are four main components for making a sand casting mold: base sand, a binder, additives, and a parting compound.

Molding sands
Molding sands, also known as foundry sands, are defined by eight characteristics: refractoriness, chemical inertness, permeability, surface finish, cohesiveness, flowability, collapsibility, and availability/cost.

Refractoriness — This refers to the sand's ability to withstand the temperature of the liquid metal being cast without breaking down. For example, some sands only need to withstand 650 C if casting aluminum alloys, whereas steel needs a sand that will withstand 1500 C. Sand with too low refractoriness will melt and fuse to the casting.

Chemical inertness — The sand must not react with the metal being cast. This is especially important with highly reactive metals, such as magnesium and titanium.

Permeability — This refers to the sand's ability to exhaust gases. This is important because during the pouring process many gases are produced, such as hydrogen, nitrogen, carbon dioxide, and steam, which must leave the mold otherwise casting defects, such as blow holes and gas holes, occur in the casting. Note that for each cubic centimeter (cc) of water added to the mold 1600 cc of steam is produced.

Surface finish — The size and shape of the sand particles defines the best surface finish achievable, with finer particles producing a better finish. However, as the particles become finer (and surface finish improves) the permeability becomes worse.

Cohesiveness (or bond) — This is the ability of the sand to retain a given shape after the pattern is removed.

Flowability – The ability for the sand to flow into intricate details and tight corners without special processes or equipment.

Collapsibility — This is the ability of the sand to be easily stripped off the casting after it has solidified. Sands with poor collapsibility will adhere strongly to the casting. When casting metals that contract a lot during cooling or with long freezing temperature ranges a sand with poor collapsibility will cause cracking and hot tears in the casting. Special additives can be used to improve collapsibility.

Availability/cost — The availability and cost of the sand is very important because for every ton of metal poured, three to six tons of sand is required. Although sand can be screened and reused, the particles eventually become too fine and require periodic replacement with fresh sand.

In large castings it is economical to use two different sands, because the majority of the sand will not be in contact with the casting, so it does not need any special properties. The sand that is in contact with the casting is called facing sand, and is designed for the casting on hand. This sand will be built up around the pattern to a thickness of 30 to 100 mm. The sand that fills in around the facing sand is called backing sand. This sand is simply silica sand with only a small amount of binder and no special additives.

Types of base sands
Base sand is the type used to make the mold or core without any binder. Because it does not have a binder it will not bond together and is not usable in this state.

Silica sand
Silica (SiO2) sand is the sand found on a beach and is also the most commonly used sand. It is either made by crushing sandstone or taken from natural occurring locations, such as beaches and river beds. The fusion point of pure silica is 1760 C, however the sands used have a lower melting point due to impurities. For high melting point casting, such as steels, a minimum of 98% pure silica sand must be used; however for lower melting point metals, such as cast iron and non-ferrous metals, a lower purity sand can be used (between 94 and 98% pure).

Silica sand is the most commonly used sand because of its great abundance, and, thus, low cost (therein being its greatest advantage). Its disadvantages are high thermal expansion, which can cause casting defects with high melting point metals, and low thermal conductivity, which can lead to unsound casting. It also cannot be used with certain basic metals because it will chemically interact with the metal, forming surface defects. Finally, it releases silica particulates during the pour, risking silicosis in foundry workers.

Olivine sand
Olivine is a mixture of orthosilicates of iron and magnesium from the mineral dunite. Its main advantage is that it is free from silica, therefore it can be used with basic metals, such as manganese steels. Other advantages include a low thermal expansion, high thermal conductivity, and high fusion point. Finally, it is safer to use than silica, therefore it is popular in Europe.

Chromite sand
Chromite sand is a solid solution of spinels. Its advantages are a low percentage of silica, a very high fusion point (1850 C), and a very high thermal conductivity. Its disadvantage is its costliness, therefore it is only used with expensive alloy steel casting and to make cores.

Zircon sand
Zircon sand is a compound of approximately two-thirds zirconium oxide (ZrO2) and one-third silica. It has the highest fusion point of all the base sands at 2600 C, a very low thermal expansion, and a high thermal conductivity. Because of these good properties it is commonly used when casting alloy steels and other expensive alloys. It is also used as a mold wash (a coating applied to the molding cavity) to improve surface finish. However, it is expensive and not readily available.

Chamotte sand
Chamotte is made by calcining fire clay (Al2O3-SiO2) above 1100 C. Its fusion point is 1750 C and has low thermal expansion. It is the second cheapest sand, however it is still twice as expensive as silica. Its disadvantages are very coarse grains, which result in a poor surface finish, and it is limited to dry sand molding. Mold washes are used to overcome the surface finish problems. This sand is usually used when casting large steel workpieces.

Other materials
Modern casting production methods can manufacture thin and accurate molds—of a material superficially resembling papier-mâché, such as is used in egg cartons, but that is refractory in nature—that are then supported by some means, such as dry sand surrounded by a box, during the casting process. Due to the higher accuracy it is possible to make thinner and hence lighter castings, because extra metal need not be present to allow for variations in the molds. These thin-mold casting methods have been used since the 1960s in the manufacture of cast-iron engine blocks and cylinder heads for automotive applications.

Binders
Binders are added to a base sand to bond the sand particles together (i.e. it is the glue that holds the mold together).

Clay and water
A mixture of clay and water is the most commonly used binder. There are two types of clay commonly used: bentonite and kaolinite, with the former being the most common.

Oil
Oils, such as linseed oil, other vegetable oils and marine oils, used to be used as a binder, however due to their increasing cost, they have been mostly phased out. The oil also required careful baking at 100 to 200 C to cure (if overheated, the oil becomes brittle, wasting the mold).

Resin
Resin binders are natural or synthetic high melting point gums. The two common types used are urea formaldehyde (UF) and phenol formaldehyde (PF) resins. PF resins have a higher heat resistance than UF resins and cost less. There are also cold-set resins, which use a catalyst instead of a heat to cure the binder. Resin binders are quite popular because different properties can be achieved by mixing with various additives. Other advantages include good collapsibility, low gassing, and they leave a good surface finish on the casting.

MDI (methylene diphenyl diisocyanate) is also a commonly used binder resin in the foundry core process.

Sodium silicate
Water glass ( sodium silicate [Na2SiO3 or (Na2O)(SiO2)] ) is a high strength binder used with silica molding sand both for cores and molds. To cure a mixture of finely ground sand (e.g. by using a sand muller) and 3 to 4% of sodium silicate the binder, carbon dioxide (CO2) gas is used. The mixture is exposed to the gas at ambient temperature reacting as following:

The advantage to this binder is that it can be used at room temperature and is fast. The disadvantage is that its high strength leads to shakeout difficulties and possibly hot tears (probably due to quartz inversion) in the casting. The mixed sodium silicate and sand may also be heated by a heat gun to achieve better rigideness.

Additives
Additives are added to the molding components to improve: surface finish, dry strength, refractoriness, and "cushioning properties".

Up to 5% of reducing agents, such as coal powder, pitch, creosote, and fuel oil, may be added to the molding material to prevent wetting (prevention of liquid metal sticking to sand particles, thus leaving them on the casting surface), improve surface finish, decrease metal penetration, and burn-on defects. These additives achieve this by creating gases at the surface of the mold cavity, which prevent the liquid metal from adhering to the sand. Reducing agents are not used with steel casting, because they can carburize the metal during casting.

Up to 3% of "cushioning material", such as wood flour, sawdust, powdered husks, peat, and straw, can be added to reduce scabbing, hot tear, and hot crack casting defects when casting high temperature metals. These materials are beneficial because burn-off when the metal is poured creates tiny voids in the mold, allowing the sand particles to expand. They also increase collapsibility and reduce shakeout time.

Up to 2% of cereal binders, such as dextrin, starch, sulphite lye, and molasses, can be used to increase dry strength (the strength of the mold after curing) and improve surface finish. Cereal binders also improve collapsibility and reduce shakeout time because they burn off when the metal is poured. The disadvantage to cereal binders is that they are expensive.

Up to 2% of iron oxide powder can be used to prevent mold cracking and metal penetration, essentially improving refractoriness. Silica flour (fine silica) and zircon flour also improve refractoriness, especially in ferrous castings. The disadvantages to these additives is that they greatly reduce permeability.

Parting compounds
To get the pattern out of the mold, prior to casting, a parting compound is applied to the pattern to ease removal. They can be a liquid or a fine powder (particle diameters between 75 and 150 um). Common powders include talc, graphite, and dry silica; common liquids include mineral oil and water-based silicon solutions. The latter are more commonly used with metal and large wooden patterns.

History
Clay molds were used in ancient China since the Shang Dynasty (c. 1600 to 1046 BC). The famous Houmuwu ding (c. 1300 BC) was made using clay molding.

The Assyrian king Sennacherib (704–681 BC) cast massive bronzes of up to 30 tonnes, and claims to have been the first to have used clay molds rather than the "lost-wax" method:

"Whereas in former times the kings my forefathers had created bronze statues imitating real-life forms to put on display inside their temples, but in their method of work they had exhausted all the craftsmen, for lack of skill and failure to understand the principles they needed so much oil, wax and tallow for the work that they caused a shortage in their own countries—I, Sennacherib, leader of all princes, knowledgeable in all kinds of work, took much advice and deep thought over doing that work. Great pillars of bronze, colossal striding lions, such as no previous king had ever constructed before me, with the technical skill that Ninushki brought to perfection in me, and at the prompting of my intelligence and the desire of my heart I invented a technique for bronze and made it skillfully. I created clay moulds as if by divine intelligence....twelve fierce lion-colossi together with twelve mighty bull-colossi which were perfect castings... I poured copper into them over and over again; I made the castings as skillfully as if they had only weighed half a shekel each"

Sand casting molding method was recorded by Vannoccio Biringuccio in his book published around 1540.

In 1924, the Ford Motor Company set a record by producing 1 million cars, in the process consuming one-third of the total casting production in the U.S. As the automobile industry grew the need for increased casting efficiency grew. The increasing demand for castings in the growing car and machine building industry during and after World War I and World War II, stimulated new inventions in mechanization and later automation of the sand casting process technology.

There was not one bottleneck to faster casting production but rather several. Improvements were made in molding speed, molding sand preparation, sand mixing, core manufacturing processes, and the slow metal melting rate in cupola furnaces. In 1912, the sand slinger was invented by the American company Beardsley & Piper. In 1912, the first sand mixer with individually mounted revolving plows was marketed by the Simpson Company. In 1915, the first experiments started with bentonite clay instead of simple fire clay as the bonding additive to the molding sand. This increased tremendously the green and dry strength of the molds. In 1918, the first fully automated foundry for fabricating hand grenades for the U.S. Army went into production. In the 1930s the first high-frequency coreless electric furnace was installed in the U.S. In 1943, ductile iron was invented by adding magnesium to the widely used grey iron. In 1940, thermal sand reclamation was applied for molding and core sands. In 1952, the "D-process" was developed for making shell molds with fine, pre-coated sand. In 1953, the hotbox core sand process in which the cores are thermally cured was invented. In 1954, a new core binder—water glass (sodium silicate), hardened with CO2 from ambient air, came out

In the 2010s, additive manufacturing began to be applied to sand mold preparation in commercial production; instead of the sand mold being formed via packing sand around a pattern, it is 3D-printed.

title: Sand casting


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Charlie Shavers

Charles James Shavers (August 3, 1917 – July 8, 1971) was an American jazz trumpeter who played with Dizzy Gillespie, Nat King Cole, Roy Eldridge, Johnny Dodds, Jimmie Noone, Sidney Bechet, Midge Williams, Tommy Dorsey, and Billie Holiday. He was also an arranger and composer, and one of his compositions, "Undecided", is a jazz standard.

Career
Shavers's father, a distant relative of Fats Navarro, was from the Shavers family of Key West, Florida. Charlie Shavers was a cousin of heavyweight boxer Earnie Shavers. Born in New York City, he took up piano and banjo before switching to trumpet. In the mid-1930s, he performed with Tiny Bradshaw and Lucky Millinder. In 1935, he played in the trumpet section with Dizzy Gillespie and Carl (Bama) Warwick in Frankie Fairfax's Campus Club Orchestra. In 1936, he joined John Kirby's Sextet as trumpet soloist and arranger. He was only 16, but gave his birth date as 1917 to avoid child labor laws; many biographies still list this date.

Shavers's arrangements and solos helped make the band one of the most commercially successful and imitated of its day. In 1937, he performed with Midge Williams and her Jazz Jesters. In 1944, he began playing sessions in Raymond Scott's CBS staff orchestra. In 1945, he left John Kirby's band to join Tommy Dorsey's Orchestra, with whom he toured and recorded, off and on, until Dorsey's passing in 1956. In 1949, he sang and played the hit "The Hucklebuck" with the Dorsey Orchestra. He can be seen as a member of Dorsey's Orchestra on numerous "Stage Show" telecasts for CBS, including early Elvis Presley appearances. During this time he also continued to play at CBS; he also appeared with the Metronome All-Stars, and made a number of recordings as trumpet soloist with Billie Holiday. From 1953 to 1954, he worked with Benny Goodman and toured Europe with Norman Granz's popular Jazz at the Philharmonic series, where he was a crowd favorite. He formed his own band with Terry Gibbs and Louie Bellson.

Shavers died from throat cancer in New York in 1971 at the age of 53. His friend Louis Armstrong died while Shavers was on his deathbed, and his last request was that his trumpet mouthpiece be buried with Armstrong.

As leader

 * Horn o' Plenty (Bethlehem, 1954)
 * Gershwin, Shavers and Strings (Bethlehem, 1954)
 * The Most Intimate (Bethlehem, 1955)
 * The Complete Charlie Shavers with Maxine Sullivan (Bethlehem, 1957)
 * Trumpets All Out with Art Farmer, Ernie Royal, Emmet Baker, Harold Baker (Savoy, 1957)
 * Hawk Eyes with Coleman Hawkins, Tiny Grimes (Prestige, 1959)
 * Blue Stompin' with Hal Singer (Prestige, 1959)
 * Charlie Digs Paree (MGM, 1959)
 * Girl Of My Dreams (Everest, 1960) later reissued on Everest as Out Of Nowhere
 * Like Charlie (Everest, 1960)
 * Here Comes Charlie (Everest, 1961)
 * The Music from Milk and Honey with Wild Bill Davis (Everest, 1961)
 * Excitement Unlimited (Capitol, 1963)
 * At Le Crazy Horse Saloon in Paris (Everest, 1964)
 * Kicks! with Nat King Cole, Buddy Rich, (Fontana, 1966)
 * Paris Jazz (Sunset, 1967) compilation from his Girl Of My Dreams and At Le Crazy Horse Saloon in Paris records
 * The Last Session (Black & Blue, 1970)
 * Trumpet Man (Phoenix Jazz, 1978)
 * Live at the London House (Hep, 1980)
 * Jazz at the Philharmonic: The Trumpet Battle 1952 (Verve, 1983)
 * A Man and His Music (Storyville, 1985)
 * Live from Chicago (Spotlite, 1985)

As sideman
With Fred Astaire
 * The Astaire Story #1 (Mercury, 1954)
 * The Astaire Story #2 (Mercury, 1954)
 * The Astaire Story #3 (Mercury, 1954)
 * The Astaire Story #4 (Mercury, 1954)

With Count Basie
 * The Count! (Clef, 1955)
 * Count Basie and His Band That Swings the Blues (American Recording Society, 1956)
 * Basie Rides Again (Verve, 1957)
 * A Portrait of an Orchestra (Verve, 1965)

With Louis Bellson
 * Louis Bellson Quintet (Norgran, 1954)
 * The Driving Louis Bellson (Norgran, 1955)
 * The Hawk Talks (Norgran, 1956)
 * Let's Call It Swing (Verve, 1958)
 * Drummer's Holiday (Verve, 1959)

With Tommy Dorsey
 * Tommy Dorsey (RCA, 1957)
 * Tribute to Dorsey Vol. 2 (RCA Victor 1957)
 * Tommy Dorsey's Greatest Band (20th Century Fox, 1959)
 * This Is Tommy Dorsey and His Greatest Band Volume 1 (20th Century Fox, 1964)

With Lionel Hampton
 * Stardust (Decca, 1954)
 * Lionel Hampton with the Just Jazz All Stars (GNP, 1955)
 * Gene Norman Presents Just Jazz (Decca, 1958)

With Coleman Hawkins
 * The Hawk in Flight (RCA Victor, 1955)
 * The Hawk in Hi Fi (RCA Victor, 1956)
 * Hawk Eyes (Prestige, 1959)
 * Rainbow Mist (Delmark, 1992)

With Billie Holiday
 * An Evening with Billie Holiday (Clef, 1953)
 * Lady Sings the Blues (Verve, 1956)
 * Solitude (Clef, 1956)
 * The Unforgettable Lady Day (Verve, 1959)
 * The Mellow Side of Billie Holiday (Verve, 1967)

With Charlie Ventura
 * An Evening with Mary Ann McCall and Charlie Ventura (Norgran, 1955)
 * Jumping with Ventura (EmArcy, 1955)
 * Charlie Ventura's Carnegie Hall Concert (Columbia, 1956)
 * East of Suez (Regent, 1958)

With others
 * Red Allen, Cozy Cole, Jazz at the Metropole Cafe (Bethlehem, 1955)
 * Steve Allen, Jazz for Tonight (Coral, 1955)
 * Louis Armstrong, I Love Jazz! (Decca, 1962)
 * Louis Armstrong, Town Hall (RCA Victor, 1957)
 * Mildred Bailey, Her Greatest Performances 1929–1946 (Columbia, 1962)
 * Charlie Barnet, Cherokee (Everest, 1958)
 * Sidney Bechet, Bechet of New Orleans (RCA Victor 1965)
 * Don Byas, Jazz...Free and Easy (Regent, 1957)
 * Cándido Camero, The Volcanic (ABC-Paramount, 1957)
 * Cándido Camero, Latin Fire (ABC-Paramount, 1959)
 * Tadd Dameron, The Magic Touch (Riverside, 1962)
 * Ella Fitzgerald, The First Lady of Song (Decca, 1958)
 * Bud Freeman, Midnight at Eddie Condon's (EmArcy, 1955)
 * Stan Getz, Groovin' High (Modern, 1956)
 * Jackie Gleason, Jackie Gleason Presents Riff Jazz (Capitol, 1958)
 * Benny Goodman, The Hits of Benny Goodman (Capitol, 1963)
 * Woody Herman, Songs for Hip Lovers (Verve, 1957)
 * Claude Hopkins, Music of the Early Jazz Dances (20th Fox, 1958)
 * Budd Johnson, Blues a la Mode (Felsted, 1958)
 * Budd Johnson, "Ya! Ya!" (Black and Blue, 1970)
 * Gene Krupa, The Exciting Gene Krupa (Clef, 1953)
 * Gene Krupa and Buddy Rich, The Drum Battle (Verve, 1960)
 * Metronome All-Stars, Metronome All-Stars (Harmony, 1957)
 * Rose Murphy, Jazz, Joy and Happiness (United Artists, 1962)
 * Frankie Ortega & Sy Oliver, 77 Sunset Strip and Other Selections (Jubilee, 1959)
 * Charlie Parker, The Charlie Parker Story Vol. 3 (Verve, 1957)
 * Oscar Peterson, At JATP (Verve, 1960)
 * Flip Phillips, Swinging with Flip (Clef, 1956)
 * Bill Potts, The Jazz Soul of Porgy & Bess (United Artists, 1959)
 * Don Redman, The Don Redman All-Stars Vol.2 (Sesac, 1960)
 * Della Reese, Melancholy Baby (Jubilee, 1957)
 * Buddy Rich, Buddy Rich at JATP (VSP, 1966)
 * Edgar Sampson, Swing Softly Sweet Sampson (Coral, 1957)
 * Phil Silvers, Phil Silvers and Swinging Brass (Columbia, 1957)
 * Jimmy Smith, Any Number Can Win (Verve, 1963)
 * Maxine Sullivan, Leonard Feather Presents Maxine Sullivan–1956 (Period, 1956)
 * Maxine Sullivan, Leonard Feather Presents Maxine Sullivan Vol. II (Period, 1956)
 * Sarah Vaughan, Sassy Swings Again (Mercury, 1967)
 * Dinah Washington, The Swingin' Miss "D" (EmArcy, 1957)
 * Dinah Washington, Dinah Washington Sings Fats Waller (Mercury, 1959)
 * Ernie Wilkins, The Big New Band of the 60's (Everest, 1960)
 * Teddy Wilson, Teddy Wilson & His All Star Jazz Sextette (Allegro, 1956)
 * Teddy Wilson, The Delicate Swing of Teddy Wilson (Polydor, 1968)

title: Charlie Shavers


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Drum Corps Associates

Drum Corps Associates (DCA) was a governing body for modern all-age and senior drum and bugle corps in North America. Its responsibilities included sanctioning competitions, certifying adjudicators, maintaining and enforcing rules of competition, and hosting an annual World Championship during Labor Day weekend. Historically, DCA members were referred to as "senior corps" in contrast to the "junior corps", who limit participants to a maximum 22 years of age. As DCA had no age restriction, the term "all-age corps" has come into common use.

On May 31, 2023, Drum Corps International and DCA announced a partnership to create an all-age class for the 2024 and 2025 competitive seasons. In August 2023, DCA announced that the all-age drum corps platform will fully exist and operate within DCI from 2024 onward. As such, 2023 was the final year of the Drum Corps Associates World Championships.

History
In August 1963, Almo Sebastianelli, sponsor of the annual Parade of Champions drum corps competition, approached Henry Mayer, then-director of the New York Skyliners, to discuss problems affecting show sponsors and competing corps. Following their discussions, Sebastianelli and Mayer organized a meeting later that month, which was attended by representatives from the Archer-Epler Musketeers, Reading Buccaneers, Yankee Rebels, and the New York Skyliners. Five areas of concern were identified during the meeting:
 * Conflicting contest dates.
 * Inconsistent contest formats.
 * Inconsistent adjudication.
 * Uneven distribution prize money.
 * Need to promote better relationships between competing corps.

At a second meeting held sometime in September 1963, by-laws for a new governing body were adopted, as well as the adoption of the name Drum Corps Associates. Mayer was elected the first DCA president. Charter members were: Reading Buccaneers, Connecticut Hurricanes, Interstatesmen, Archer-Epler Musketeers, Pittsburgh Rockets, Yankee Rebels, and the New York Skyliners.

DCA sanctioned one event in 1964, the 12th Annual Tournament of Drums in Waverly, New York. The first DCA World Championship was held in Milford, Connecticut on September 11, 1965. The Reading Buccaneers won the first of their 16 championship titles at this inaugural event.

Hawthorne Caballeros joined DCA in 1966, along with the Sunrisers, and Brigadiers. The Rochester Crusaders joined in 1967. Two decades later, in 1987, the number of corps competing in Open Class grew to 23. In 2008, twenty-four corps competed at World Championship, twelve in Open Class and Class A each.

Corps from Canada had been frequent competitors since DCA's founding, such as Les Metropolitains from Montreal, and Les Dynamiques from Buckingham, Quebec. The Kingston Grenadiers, from Toronto, competed in 2010. Yokohama Inspires, from Japan, competed in 2005. The last competitors from the United Kingdom were Kidsgrove Scouts from Kidsgrove in 2017, and Cadence from Guildford in 2018.

Classification and adjudication
DCA assigned all competing corps to four classes. No arrangements are made for corps from outside North America, as the same classification and adjudication applies to all competing corps. With the exception of mini-corps, all field corps performed in competition as one continuous flight, but scores and rankings were given by class.

Current Classes
World Class corps typically marched between 86 and 128 members who compete at the highest level.

Open Class corps typically marched between 65 and 85 members.

A Class corps were small, often young and developing groups, who typically marched between 24 and 64 members.

Mini-corps was a special class reserved for very small groups consisting of horns, and percussion or rhythm sections. These groups typically competed on a theater stage, and not on a football field, and were often no larger than twenty members. A Mini-corps championships was held the day before World Championship prelims.

Historical classes and divisions
DCA realigned its competitive classes in 1997, and again in 2001. In 2022, DCA realigned its competitive classes based on ensemble size—World, Open, and A classes.

Adjudication
DCA's Adjudication Manual was based on three broad categories, Visual, Music and Effect. Visual and Music categories were further subdivided into three reference criteria, or captions: one caption for each of a corps' sections, and two ensemble performance captions. Unlike other adjudication manuals, DCA's manual included captions for individual or ensemble analysis, or design or effect analysis.

The manual included definitions for appropriate, and achievement, in lieu of proficiency, or attempt. This vocabulary reflects the style of programming utilized by modern all-age corps. Audience entertainment and engagement are also important factors in adjudication as well. Prior to 2011, nine adjudicators were required for each competition, using a different manual. The "European Music Games" adjudication manual published by Drum Corps Europe (DCE) was adapted from the previous DCA format.

Past champions
Below is a list of past champions organized by class. DCA realigned its championships classes in 1997 with the introduction of A Class, and again in 2000 with the introduction of Mini-corps into competition. In 2022, DCA realigned classes based on ensemble size which split DCA member corps between three new divisions—World, Open, and A classes.

At the 2022 World Championships, the Hurricanes won their fourth class championship: three championships in Open Class between 1967 and 1981, and a fourth as champions of the new Open Class. Also in 2022, the Buccaneers won World Class bringing their premier class championships to eighteen, and Fusion Core won their second championship in A Class.

2023 marked the final year of the Drum Corps Associates World Championships, in which the Buccaneers, Hurricanes, Rogues Hollow Regiment, and Freelancers took first in World Class, Open Class, A Class, and Mini-corps respectively.

title: Drum Corps Associates