text:
Talk:Tauranga

Initial text
The tinyurl.com URL referenced in the section about Tauranga's city status doesn't seem to lead anywhere relevant? Can someone familiar with the topic fix it, (or if not possible, remove it completely) ? -- Chuq 12:30, 4 Oct 2004 (UTC)

Education
At present, this section lists only three religious schools. Could someone please list the more prominent secondary schools and technical institutes to give the section some balance.

 * Thanks Kappa.-gadfium 20:59, 26 January 2006 (UTC)

Also, it would be nice to have a photo in the article - the bridge perhaps, or a view of the town from a high place.-gadfium 18:56, 26 January 2006 (UTC)

RE: Education: Hi there I'll start working on it-I live in Tauranga and can get this information/take some photos. Bennyboyz3000 02:51, 2 December 2006 (UTC)

Image
The page needs an image. I've found one already on Wikipedia: Image:MountMaunganui_Panorama.jpg I will leave it upto someone else to include it, if its appropriate for this page.--Konstable 11:37, 25 May 2006 (UTC)
 * I don't think Mount Maunganui is really appropriate as an image for Tauranga. It's a separate place. We have more photos at Mount Mauao by the way.-gadfium 05:16, 26 May 2006 (UTC)

I agree that this image is not appropriate as it does not show a photo of Tauranga itself and is therefore misleading. 118.93.195.221 (talk) 05:26, 6 June 2011 (UTC)

Hello im Joshville, I added a photomontage. i thought it would be an improvment, also many other cities in NZ have them as well - joshville 12:43,14 April 2022 (UTC)

Ninth largest city
Come on people, Tauranga is the ninth largest city in New Zealand. If we are talking urban area, then let's say urban area, but we are saying city and are referring to the City of Tauranga, and as such it is 9th largest. There is no question of that. Hastings and Napier are classified as an urban conglomeration but are two separate cities. Enzedbrit 02:53, 12 July 2006 (UTC)

There seems to be continued confusion about the size of Tauranga. Tauranga is New Zealand's ninth largest city. This is indisputable. The populated comes ninth. It is, however, the centre of the sixth largest urban area, if one does not consider Napier and Hastings to be a single urban area. Auckland is the largest urban area, and this is a conglomerate of several cities. Auckland City is the largest city. Tauranga City is not the sixth largest city, rather Wellington City is. Enzedbrit 03:07, 20 February 2007 (UTC)

 * Tauranga is the fifth largest urban area in NZ. Its really just playing with words whether you call the population a city or urban area. NZ 'cities' merely represent artificial local government populations and don't really conform to the boundaries of the actual urban area at all. A particular case in point is Auckland, where the separate local government populations are soon to be irrelevant due to the Super City review. I suggest we rely on the population of urban areas rather than local government areas, which are static and don't represent the outward growth of urban areas.

 * As for the question about the port, I think Tauranga is NZ's largest port for exports, and Auckland is the largest for imports. Somebody else might be able to confirm this though. Amdtelrunya (talk) 22:18, 8 April 2010 (UTC)
 * According to the reference, Tauranga is the sixth largest urban area, not the fifth. Moriori (talk) 23:03, 8 April 2010 (UTC)

Tauranga is the fifth most populous urban area (slightly bigger than Dunedin) according to Statistics NZ 2009 estimates. Crazy how some people still believe it is a tiny town, just like how some people think Dunedin is bigger than Hamilton. Populations (2009):

 * 1) Auckland	1,333,300
 * 2) Christchurch	386,100
 * 3) Wellington	386,000
 * 4) Hamilton	168,800
 * 5) Tauranga	118,200
 * 6) Dunedin	       115,700

Amdtelrunya (talk) 21:22, 21 April 2010 (UTC)

 * Not so. You missed out the Napier-Hastings Urban Area. This is how your list should look:

 * Auckland	1,333,300
 * Christchurch	386,100
 * Wellington	386,000
 * Hamilton	168,800
 * Napier-Hastings Urban Area 122,600 plus
 * Tauranga	118,200
 * Dunedin	       115,700
 * Moriori (talk) 22:31, 21 April 2010 (UTC)

Uh, this whole argument is getting ridiculous. Statistics NZ may lump them into one wider urban area, but anybody who has spent any amount of time in the Hawke's Bay will know they are distinctly separate. Statistics NZ splits Napier and Hastings into separate urban zones as well, which are the figures we should use, being (for 2009) 58 100 for Napier and 65 100 for Hastings. Its the same argument for Hamilton as well, where the total population is 200 200, but Hamilton itself makes up 168 800 of this, with the rest from Cambridge and Te Awamutu. Everybody knows that Cambridge and Te Awamutu are not part of Hamilton, and to be honest some of their residents would be offended to be included as such.

Rather than using artifical statistical categories we should be using actual urban agglomorations, where Auckland includes all zones, Hamilton is only the Hamilton zone, Wellington is all zones, and Napier and Hastings are split into their own zones. Amdtelrunya (talk) 21:30, 22 April 2010 (UTC)

See also http://www.nbr.co.nz/article/govt-eyes-auckland-tauranga-hamilton-nexus-121797

"...Auckland, Hamilton and Tauranga. They are, respectively, New Zealand's first, fourth and fifth largest urban areas (by population)..." Amdtelrunya (talk) 21:36, 22 April 2010 (UTC)
 * I think Statistics New Zealand is a more authoritative source than the National Business Review.- gadfium 05:20, 23 April 2010 (UTC)

 * Agree, which is why I have written a detailed paragraph beforehand outlining why Statistics NZ has Tauranga at no. 5. The NBR article is just an illustration of how Tauranga is perceived in reality, rather than the latest statistical construct. There really is no convincing some people who don't want to be convinced. Yet another illustration of why wikipedia is a laughing stock when it comes to accuracy. Amdtelrunya (talk) 23:11, 27 April 2010 (UTC)

 * The Statistics New Zealand data has two columns in Table 3, the main urban area in column A and zones in B. Napier-Hastings is listed in column A, along with Auckland, Wellington, Tauranga etc. It is wrong to arbitrarily look to the zones just for Napier-Hastings. If we look at the ranking based on column B then Tauranga would gain one ranking from Napier-Hastings, but lose three because of the four Auckland zones. I think today Tauranga should be listed as sixth largest urban area, not eighth largest urban zone. The idea of fifth is based on an inconsistent method. XLerate (talk) 00:43, 28 April 2010 (UTC)

Modern age
This section contains references to the Gold Coast, assertions regarding retail earnings, demographics for population growth and colloquial references to wages that are all biased and appear inaccurate. Most of this section should be deleted. I would encourage anyone with credible information on this city to please create a suitable replacement. I have not lived in Tauranga for many years, but do not believe that the article (as it stands) reflects well upon this fine city. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 202.74.208.32 (talk) 03:53, 17 February 2008 (UTC)

Really???
Quote: ''Tauranga is one of New Zealand's main centers for business, international trade, culture, fashion, horticultural science, education and entertainment. It is home to renowned institutions covering a broad range of professional and cultural fields, and is one of the most substantial economic places, with the largest port in New Zealand, the Port of Tauranga.''

All of this comes as a surprise to me. I am a Wellingtonian and I don't live in Tauranga, but it tends to be perceived as something of a backwater (and a bit red-necked) and i've certainly never heard it described as a main centre for culture or education or entertainment, etc, however it is associated strongly with the New Zealand First political party in the perception of other parts of NZ. Is it really NZ's largest port? - Wow, i'm not sure other people in NZ realise this. It is larger by what measure? Surely the port of Auckland is busier. Please also give us some indication of which renowned institutions it is home to.

I may simply be suffering from big city narcissism, so could the author of that paragraph cite these claims to remove doubt. I do wonder whether this article may be a spin-job by someone attempting to promote rather than report on Tauranga. 121.73.7.84 (talk) 09:38, 10 November 2009 (UTC)

I have to agree with the Wellingtonian, I live in Tauranga and all of the above come as a surprise to me. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 210.54.5.194 (talk) 22:43, 31 January 2011 (UTC)

Tauranga was New Zealand's largest port in 2009 in terms of gross weight of exports, exporting 6 594 267 tonnes, more than double the nearest on the list, which is New Plymouth, with just over 3 million tonnes. Auckland Port handled more in terms of value, with its exports totalling 9.83 million, and Tauranga totalling 9.33 million. Bozzio (talk) 02:38, 1 February 2011 (UTC)

Potatoes in Tauranga
The section on History, Missionaries says that in 1820 missionaries went to Tauranga for potatoes. Potatoes were introduced to the rest of the world from South America. My problem is that there is no mention whatsoever in the article of any European settlement on the island, prior to the mention of the missionary goinging there for potatoes. That makes no sense, as new crops accompanied new settlemnts - no-one was merely going around distributing new crops to new lands for the sake of it. So, do we have any information on earlier Europen settlement ou Tauranga? Rui ''Gabriel'' Correia (talk) 21:35, 13 September 2011 (UTC)
 * I have amended the Musket Wars article which this article was linked to, showing that potatoes were in NZ 50 something years before the 1820s. Moriori (talk) 06:34, 15 September 2011 (UTC)
 * Hi Moriori. My apologies! I confused you with someone else. So sorry! Best regards, Rui ''Gabriel'' Correia (talk) 10:39, 15 September 2011 (UTC)

(Copied from User talk:Gadfium)

Hi Gadfium. My problem is that there is no mention whatsoever in the article of any European settlement on the island, prior to the mention of the missionary goinging there for potatoes. That makes no sense, as new crops accompanied new settlemnts - no-one was merely going around distributing new crops to new lands for the sake of it. So, do you have any information on earlier Europen settlement ou Tauranga? Rui ''Gabriel'' Correia (talk) 21:30, 13 September 2011 (UTC)
 * According to our article on Musket Wars, potatoes were in use by Maori from 1794. There's no online reference, but it appears to be covered by Bellich and Ballara. The 1966 Encyclopaedia of New Zealand says "In 1793 Lieutenant-Governor King had two Maoris brought to Norfolk Island to instruct convicts in flax-dressing, and sent presents of pigs, potatoes, and seeds to the Bay of Island tribes"ref, so it is clear that potatoes were available in New Zealand before 1800. See page 159 of Maori Wars of the Nineteenth Century for a reference to the growing of potatoes in the Tauranga area in 1820.

 * I am not sure what you refer to by "the island". Do you mean the North Island, or one of the small islands off the coast of Tauranga? You say that new crops accompanied new settlements, but in New Zealand the potato was enthusiastically adopted by Maori as it was substantially easier to grow and more productive than the kumara - the Musket Wars article explains that the potato enabled the wars as much as the musket did.- gadfium 21:56, 13 September 2011 (UTC)
 * Fair enough. Though I still find it odd that a crop would have taken hold so quickly, especially as Europeans were initially not very keen on adopting it, therefore would not have propagated it until it became widely used. Rui ''Gabriel'' Correia (talk) 14:51, 14 September 2011 (UTC)

External links modified
Hello fellow Wikipedians,

I have just added archive links to 1 one external link on Tauranga. Please take a moment to review my edit. If necessary, add after the link to keep me from modifying it. Alternatively, you can add to keep me off the page altogether. I made the following changes:
 * Added archive https://web.archive.org/20051027143725/http://www.knowledge-basket.co.nz:80/regs/regs/text/2003/2003275.txt to http://www.knowledge-basket.co.nz/regs/regs/text/2003/2003275.txt

When you have finished reviewing my changes, please set the checked parameter below to true to let others know.

Cheers.—cyberbot II  Talk to my owner :Online 00:38, 2 February 2016 (UTC)

External links modified
Hello fellow Wikipedians,

I have just added archive links to 2 one external links on Tauranga. Please take a moment to review my edit. If necessary, add after the link to keep me from modifying it. Alternatively, you can add to keep me off the page altogether. I made the following changes:
 * Added archive https://web.archive.org/20081020050102/http://www.tauranga.govt.nz/knowledgebase/tabid/624/qid/1164/tctl/1332_ViewQuestion/Default.aspx to http://www.tauranga.govt.nz/knowledgebase/tabid/624/qid/1164/tctl/1332_ViewQuestion/Default.aspx
 * Added archive https://web.archive.org/20140325165929/http://tauranga.govt.nz/council-services/transportation-roads/roads-road-works.aspx to http://www.tauranga.govt.nz/council-services/transportation-roads/roads-road-works.aspx

When you have finished reviewing my changes, please set the checked parameter below to true or failed to let others know (documentation at ).

Cheers.—cyberbot II  Talk to my owner :Online 08:38, 2 March 2016 (UTC)

Demonym
Dose Tauranga have a demonym of any sort? im thinking "Taurangian" as i have seen it being used — Preceding unsigned comment added by Joshville (talk • contribs) 10:14, 19 May 2022 (UTC)

Photo fever
There's a bit more to Tauranga than what it looks like from up on high. Just saying... Roger 8 Roger (talk) 23:22, 21 November 2022 (UTC)

 * Hi, I have recently created a brief new article Baycourt Community and Arts Centre. It would be great to improve this article with a decent photo of the building, and ideally one inside the Addison Theatre (like this one): . Do you know of anyone who could be asked to take some photos and upload them to Commons ? As a general observation, it seems that Tauranga may be somewhat under-served in terms of the scope and quality of articles (and photos), when you consider the relatively large population. Perhaps we need to organise a wiki-blitz for the city and its environs ??. Any suggestions for who could be approached to organise this ? Marshelec (talk) 07:54, 16 June 2023 (UTC)

 * Sorry Marshelec, I can't really help. Try WP:NZWNB and you should get what you want there. Roger 8 Roger (talk) 19:37, 16 June 2023 (UTC)

title: Talk:Tauranga


text: User talk:144.98.76.9

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: User talk:144.98.76.9


text:
Cartoon All-Stars to the Rescue

Cartoon All-Stars to the Rescue is a 1990 American animated television film starring many characters from several animated television series at the time of its release. Financed by McDonald's, Ronald McDonald Children's Charities, it was originally simulcast for a limited time on April 21, 1990, on all four major American television networks (by supporting their Saturday morning characters): ABC, CBS, NBC, and Fox, and most independent stations, as well as various cable networks. McDonald's released a VHS home video edition of the special distributed by Buena Vista Home Video, which opened with an introduction from President George H. W. Bush, First Lady Barbara Bush and their dog, Millie. It was produced by the Academy of Television Arts & Sciences Foundation and Southern Star Productions, and was animated overseas by Wang Film Productions. The musical number "Wonderful Ways to Say No" was written by Academy Award-winning composer, Alan Menken and lyricist Howard Ashman, who also wrote the songs for Walt Disney Animation Studios' The Little Mermaid, Beauty and the Beast, and Aladdin.

The plot chronicles the exploits of Michael, a teenage boy who is using marijuana, leaving his family worried. When his younger sister Corey's piggy bank goes missing one morning, cartoon characters come to life from various items in her room and find it in Michael's room along with his stash of drugs, so they give him an intervention in the form of a fantasy journey to teach him the adverse consequences of drug use.

Plot
An unseen person steals a piggy bank off the dresser in the bedroom of a young girl named Corey. The theft is witnessed by Papa Smurf, who emerges from a Smurfs comic book with the other Smurfs and alerts the other cartoon characters in the room: Alf from a picture, Garfield as a lamp, Alvin and the Chipmunks from a record sleeve, Winnie the Pooh as a stuffed animal, Baby Kermit as an alarm clock, and Slimer, who arrives through the wall.

Alf, Garfield, Alvin, Simon, and Theodore identify the thief: Michael, Corey's older brother, who has a box of marijuana hidden under his bed. Meanwhile, Corey expresses her concerns about Michael's change in behavior since they used to have a close sibling relationship, which he angrily denies, causing him to storm out of the house. The cartoons set off to take action regarding Michael's addiction, leaving Pooh behind to look after Corey.

At an arcade, Michael smokes marijuana with his friends and "Smoke", an anthropomorphic cloud of smoke, who try to convince him to take harder drugs. They are chased into an alley by Bugs Bunny disguised as a police officer. He traps Smoke in a garbage can and takes Michael back in time using a time machine borrowed from the absent Wile E. Coyote. It is shown that Michael's addiction started through peer pressure from older high school students when he was around Corey's age. Back in the present, Michael is hesitant to smoke crack with his friends before one of them steals his wallet. He and Smoke chase after her until they fall into a sewer and encounter Michelangelo, who tells them that the drugs are harming his brain. Baby Kermit, Baby Miss Piggy, and Baby Gonzo take him on a roller coaster-like tour of the human brain. Michael finds himself at a park, where Huey, Dewey, and Louie as well as Tigger join the rest of the cartoons to sing about how to refuse drugs.

Michael wakes up in his room, believing his interactions with the cartoons to be a nightmare. Corey tries talking to him, but he snaps and shoves her against his bedroom wall. He tries to apologize, but she runs out of his room frightened. Smoke approves of Michael's actions, but he starts having regrets. Michael then looks at himself in a small mirror from which Alf grabs him and pulls him inside. Inside a hall of mirrors, Alf shows Michael his current reflection, then an aged, sickly version of himself severely affected by drugs. When Michael insists that he can easily quit and is in control of his actions, Alf reveals that Smoke is actually in charge. Back in Michael's room, Smoke traps Pooh in a cabinet and tempts Corey to try Michael's marijuana for herself. She considers the possibility that it could mend her relationship with Michael.

The drug-induced carnival in Michael's mind leads him to Daffy Duck, who reads his future in a crystal ball and sees an almost skeletal Michael on his deathbed. After one last warning from the cartoons, an ashamed Michael stops Corey from using the drugs just in time. When he apologizes and expresses concern over whether he can change, she advises him to seek help from family. Smoke tries to persuade him otherwise, but Michael throws him out a window into a garbage truck. All of the cartoons appear on a poster on Michael's wall, and they agree to be prepared for if and when Smoke returns. Michael releases Pooh from the cabinet, who jumps into the poster with the others before the siblings go downstairs to talk to their parents.

Characters
The characters, from 10 different franchises, are (in order of appearance):

 * The Smurfs: Papa Smurf, Brainy Smurf, Hefty Smurf and some other unidentified Smurfs (although Smurfette is seen on the poster and VHS cover, she doesn't appear in the special; Harmony Smurf and Baby Smurf make picture cameos)
 * ALF: The Animated Series: ALF
 * Garfield and Friends: Garfield
 * Alvin and the Chipmunks: Alvin, Simon and Theodore
 * The New Adventures of Winnie the Pooh: Winnie the Pooh and Tigger
 * Muppet Babies: Baby Kermit, Baby Piggy and Baby Gonzo
 * The Real Ghostbusters: Slimer
 * Looney Tunes: Bugs Bunny and Daffy Duck (Wile E. Coyote is mentioned but not seen; his time machine is used by Bugs Bunny)
 * Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles: Michelangelo (although he appears in the special, he is not shown on the poster and VHS cover)
 * DuckTales: Huey, Dewey and Louie

Voice cast
The various character owners licensed them freely due to the public service aspect of the special.

The special marked the first time the characters Bugs Bunny and Daffy Duck were voiced by someone other than Mel Blanc, who had died shortly before the production, prompting Warner Bros. to enlist Jeff Bergman in his place.

Broadcast
The special was screened in Australia in November 1990. Like the U.S. broadcast, it aired simultaneously on Australia's major commercial networks (Seven Network, Nine Network, and Network Ten). Prime Minister Bob Hawke introduced the Australian screening. It was screened in New Zealand in December on both TV One and Channel 2 simultaneously. Prime Minister Jim Bolger introduced it instead of the U.S. president. It was screened in Canada on the CBC, CTV, and Global Television Networks and most independent stations shortly after its original U.S. broadcast, although all of the characters had their respective shows aired on either CTV or Global but not CBC. Canadian Prime Minister Brian Mulroney introduced it. The special was broadcast in Brazil in 1994, as Rede Manchete made Portuguese Brazilian dubbing in Herbert Richers Dubbing Studios.

In the United States, all superstations and a handful of independent stations (mainly in selected cities) aired the special, but some stations aired the special at a different period during the week the special aired on the Big Four stations and a number of cable networks. Superstations WPIX in New York City, WGN-TV in Chicago, KTLA in Los Angeles, KTVT in Dallas, WKBD-TV in Detroit, KHTV in Houston, WVTV in Milwaukee, KSTW in Tacoma/Seattle, KSHB-TV in Kansas City, and KWGN in Denver premiered the special at the same time the big four networks and cable systems premiered, with St. Louis' KPLR-TV premiered the special two hours later after its television premiere. New York's WWOR-TV and Boston's WSBK-TV would later premiere the special the following morning on April 22. The special also aired on selected cable systems, including BET, TNT, USA Network, Nickelodeon, and The Disney Channel.

Reception
Some modern critics have considered the production a time capsule of animation history during the US war on drugs, and have ridiculed it as “propaganda” and “preachy”. However, giantfreakinrobot.com described it as "the greatest anti-drug special ever made."

In 2019, Vivienne Medrano and Nico Colaleo organized an international reanimated collaboration, wherein 53 artists collaborated to reanimate the "Wonderful Ways to Say No" song. The recreation featured 2D, live-action, and stop-motion animation.

title: Cartoon All-Stars to the Rescue


text:
Jack Baldwin (RAF officer)

Air Marshal Sir John Eustice Arthur Baldwin, (13 April 1892 – 28 July 1975) was a senior officer in the Royal Air Force during the Second World War.

Early life
Educated at Rugby School and the Royal Military College, Sandhurst, Baldwin was commissioned into the 8th (King's Royal Irish) Hussars in 1911 and served as a cavalry Officer in the First World War.

Military service
Baldwin was awarded the Royal Aero Club's Aviator's Certificate no. 971 on 17 November 1914 and became a pilot in the Royal Flying Corps. He was appointed Officer Commanding No. 55 Squadron in October 1916 and Officer Commanding No. 41 Wing in December 1917 before transferring to the Royal Air Force on its formation in 1918. He was appointed Commandant of the Central Flying School in 1928 and served as Aide-de-Camp to King George V from 1931 to 1932. He went on to be Air Officer Commanding No. 1 Group in 1934, Director of Personal Services in 1935 and Commandant of the RAF College Cranwell in 1936 before taking up the post of Air Officer Commanding No. 21 Group in 1938. He retired in August 1939.

Just two weeks later, Baldwin was recalled to serve in the Second World War as Air Office Commanding No. 3 Group at RAF Bomber Command. Between 9 January and 21 February 1942, he was acting Commander in Chief of Bomber Command, after the removal of Richard Peirse. During this brief tenure the "Channel Dash" occurred, when the Scharnhorst and Gneisenau escaped from the French port of Brest and fled up the English Channel to the sanctuary of Kiel harbour in northern Germany. In October 1942 he became Deputy Air Officer Commanding-in-Chief, India. This appointment was followed from November 1943 by his posting as Air Officer Commanding Third Tactical Air Force which supported the ground battle in South East Asia. On 5 February 1943, Baldwin attended the departure of Major General Orde Wingate, the Chindits and the 1st Air Commando Group departed for Operation THURSDAY in Burma. He reverted to the Retired List again on 15 December 1944. Jack was Colonel of the 8th King's Royal Irish Hussars from 1948 until 1958, when the unit amalgamated to form the Queen's Royal Irish Hussars.

Personal life
In 1916 Jack Baldwin married Kathleen Betsy Terry of the York confectionery family (Terry's), they lived in the village of Ketton, Rutland from the 1930s to the 1950s and had two children, John and Pamela. John Noel Anthony Baldwin became a Captain in the 8th King's Royal Irish Hussars and was killed in action in 1942 in Libya. Baldwin was the High Sheriff of Rutland for 1955–56.

title: Jack Baldwin (RAF officer)


text:
Cope's rule

Cope's rule, named after American paleontologist Edward Drinker Cope, postulates that population lineages tend to increase in body size over evolutionary time. It was never actually stated by Cope, although he favoured the occurrence of linear evolutionary trends. It is sometimes also known as the Cope–Depéret rule, because Charles Depéret explicitly advocated the idea. Theodor Eimer had also done so earlier. The term "Cope's rule" was apparently coined by Bernhard Rensch, based on the fact that Depéret had "lionized Cope" in his book. While the rule has been demonstrated in many instances, it does not hold true at all taxonomic levels, or in all clades. Larger body size is associated with increased fitness for a number of reasons, although there are also some disadvantages both on an individual and on a clade level: clades comprising larger individuals are more prone to extinction, which may act to limit the maximum size of organisms.

Effects of growth
Directional selection appears to act on organisms' size, whereas it exhibits a far smaller effect on other morphological traits, though it is possible that this perception may be a result of sample bias. This selectional pressure can be explained by a number of advantages, both in terms of mating success and survival rate.

For example, larger organisms find it easier to avoid or fight off predators and capture prey, to reproduce, to kill competitors, to survive temporary lean times, and to resist rapid climatic changes. They may also potentially benefit from better thermal efficiency, increased intelligence, and a longer lifespan.

Offsetting these advantages, larger organisms require more food and water, and shift from r to K-selection. Their longer generation time means a longer period of reliance on the mother, and on a macroevolutionary scale restricts the clade's ability to evolve rapidly in response to changing environments.

Capping growth
Left unfettered, the trend of ever-larger size would produce organisms of gargantuan proportions. Therefore, some factors must limit this process. At one level, it is possible that the clade's increased vulnerability to extinction, as its members become larger, means that no taxon survives long enough for individuals to reach huge sizes. There are probably also physically imposed limits to the size of some organisms; for instance, insects must be small enough for oxygen to diffuse to all parts of their bodies, flying birds must be light enough to fly, and the length of giraffes' necks may be limited by the blood pressure it is possible for their hearts to generate. Finally, there may be a competitive element, in that changes in size are necessarily accompanied by changes in ecological niche. For example, terrestrial carnivores over 21 kg almost always prey on organisms larger, not smaller, than themselves. If such a niche is already occupied, competitive pressure may oppose the directional selection. The three Canidae clades (Hesperocyoninae, Borophaginae, and Caninae) all show a trend towards larger size, although the first two are now extinct.

Validity
Cope recognised that clades of Cenozoic mammals appeared to originate as small individuals, and that body mass increased through a clade's history. Discussing the case of canid evolution in North America, Blaire Van Valkenburgh of UCLA and coworkers state:

In some cases, the increase in body size may represent a passive, rather than an active, trend. In other words, the maximum size increases, but the minimum size does not; this is usually a result of size varying pseudo-randomly rather than directed evolution. This does not fall into Cope's rule sensu stricto, but is considered by many workers to be an example of "Cope's rule sensu lato". In other cases, an increase in size may in fact represent a transition to an optimal body size, and not imply that populations always develop to a larger size.

However, many palaeobiologists are skeptical of the validity of Cope's rule, which may merely represent a statistical artefact. Purported examples of Cope's rule often assume that the stratigraphic age of fossils is proportional to their "clade rank", a measure of how derived they are from an ancestral state; this relationship is in fact quite weak. Counterexamples to Cope's rule are common throughout geological time; although size increase does occur more often than not, it is by no means universal. For example, among genera of Cretaceous molluscs, an increase in size is no more common than stasis or a decrease. In many cases, Cope's rule only operates at certain taxonomic levels (for example, an order may obey Cope's rule, while its constituent families do not), or more generally, it may apply to only some clades of a taxon. Giant dinosaurs appear to have evolved dozens of times, in response to local environmental conditions.

Despite many counter-examples, Cope's rule is supported in many instances. For example, all marine invertebrate phyla except the molluscs show a size increase between the Cambrian and Permian. Collectively, dinosaurs exhibit an increase in body length over their evolution. Cope's rule also appears to hold in clades where a constraint on size is expected. For instance, one may expect the size of birds to be constrained, as larger masses mean more energy must be expended in flight. Birds have been suggested to follow Cope's law, although a subsequent reanalysis of the same data suggested otherwise.

An extensive study published in 2015 supports the presence of a trend toward larger body size in marine animals during the Phanerozoic. However, this trend was present mainly in the Paleozoic and Cenozoic; the Mesozoic was a period of relative stasis. The trend is not attributable simply to neutral drift in body size from small ancestors, and was mainly driven by a greater rate of diversification in classes of larger mean size. A smaller component of the overall trend is due to trends of increasing size within individual families.

title: Cope's rule


text:
Talk:Slan

= Spoiler =

Untitled
131.227.202.252 added a change on December 10th that gave away the surprise ending to the book. Should this spoiler be left in or deleted? Please discuss. William Alan Ritch (talk) 22:00, 12 December 2007 (UTC)

 * Is it that Kier himself is a Slan? I never even heard of the book til this article. I'm just a bit psychic.
 * 92.40.248.31 (talk) 03:32, 29 April 2017 (UTC)

= Edits =

"and Jommy's mother is killed before his eyes" This is incorrect, so I've changed it. He hears it on the radio after they split up. Removed note about Kier's secret because it ruined for me and anyone else not completely done reading the book! —Preceding unsigned comment added by Jakethebordercollie (talk • contribs) 05:09, 8 February 2010 (UTC)
 * It is not acceptable to delete information from an article because you think it spoils the plot. We don't shelter people in articles; see WP:SPOILER. -- Orange Mike  |   Talk  20:52, 10 February 2010 (UTC)

=Plot=

I read Slan many years ago and don't remember much detail about it. But I did do a bit of search on the web and what I found indicates that the Slan are products of genetic manipulation rather than random mutation. I will have to go back and take a look at the book itself. Does anyone have other input on this? - User:Fritz freiheit.
 * I remember a bit for example, when Jommy follows the tendrilless, he is excited then their mind shields go up when he reveals himself, however a word escapes their minds : Snakes! From their office, a rocket regularly leaves for Mars.  Jommy is taken care of by a drunkard old lady. He is made to steal. At a certain age, due to post hypnotic sugggestion by his dad, he goes to cave which reveals weapons. I remember also that he would read an engineer's mind. I wish they made a movie out of it.--Jondel 14:22, 4 Oct 2004 (UTC)

There is no reference I can recall to the Slan's tendrills rising when their telepathic powers are active. Also, agree with the comment above, Slans are created by Samuel Lann's experiments on his wife's unborn children - Andy Mulhearn.
 * It's explained in the book that this is what most people believe, but that it's not actually true—it really is from random genetic mutation. —pfahlstrom 07:47, 19 January 2007 (UTC)

I changed "terrible secret" to "astonishing secret" for obvious reasons. -- Atticusattor

Future sequel
I sure look forward to the future sequel. That book should be made into a movie and should be popular even know. Stand aside X-men, Slans are the original mutants!--Jondel 12:26, 27 May 2006 (UTC)

The sequel, Slan Hunter (New York: Tom Doherty Associates, 2007), by van Vogt and Kevin J. Anderson, has been published. It is based on an outline developed in collaboration with van Voght and supplemented by a partial early page drafts prepared by van Vogt before he developed Alzheimer's disease and was unable to continue the project. -- Atticusattor

Symbolism in Slan
I have added a "Symbolism in Slan" section because van Vogt's New Testament gospel story allusions are perhaps the most interesting aspect of Slan yet, because of their esoteric nature, have been overlooked. -- Atticusattor
 * But it's pure speculation on your part, and thus has no part here. -- Orange Mike  |   Talk  17:38, 30 May 2011 (UTC)

Possible removal
Should "Slann, a sub-species of the Lizardmen in the game Warhammer Fantasy Battle" be removed? 50.54.224.72 (talk) 22:34, 6 May 2014 (UTC)

title: Talk:Slan


text:
Frolic

Frolic may refer to:

Maritime

 * HMS Frolic, one of several ships of the British Royal Navy
 * USS Frolic, one of several ships of the United States Navy
 * Frolic (brig), a historic shipwreck off the coast of California
 * Frolic, a trimaran designed by Arthur Piver

Music

 * Frolic (album), by Anneli Drecker, 2005
 * "Frolic", the opening theme of the HBO show Curb Your Enthusiasm

Other uses

 * Frolic (law), a concept in tort law
 * George Alexis Weymouth (1936–2016), or Frolic Weymouth, American artist and conservationist
 * A type of festive occasion in 19th century Norfolk, UK, as depicted in Thorpe Water Frolic, Afternoon by Joseph Stannard

title: Frolic


text:
MIAA

MIAA may refer to:
 * Maine Intercollegiate Athletic Association, defunct athletic conference of schools in Maine
 * Manila International Airport Authority, transportation agency in the Philippines
 * Maryland Interscholastic Athletic Association, high school athletic conference for private schools in the Baltimore Metro area
 * Massachusetts Interscholastic Athletic Association, high school athletic association governing 33 varsity sports throughout Massachusetts
 * Michigan Intercollegiate Athletic Association, athletic conference of NCAA Division III schools in Michigan and Indiana
 * Mid-America Intercollegiate Athletics Association, athletic conference of NCAA Division II schools in Kansas, Missouri, Nebraska, and Oklahoma
 * TRNA dimethylallyltransferase, an enzyme

title: MIAA


text:
Springing

Springing as a nautical term refers to global (vertical) resonant hull girder vibrations induced by continuous wave loading. When the global hull girder vibrations occur as a result of an impulsive wave loading, for example a wave slam at the bow (bow-slamming) or stern (stern-slamming), the phenomenon is denoted by the term whipping. Springing is a resonance phenomenon, and it can occur when the natural frequency of the 2-node vertical vibration of the ship equals the wave encounter frequency or a multiple therefrom. Whipping is a transient phenomenon of the same hull girder vibrations due to excessive impulsive loading in the bow or stern of the vessel. The 2-node natural frequency is the lowest and thereby the most dominant resonant mode leading to hull girder stress variations, though in theory higher vibration modes will be excited as well.

Springing induced vibrations can already be present in low or moderate sea states when resonant conditions occur between wave lengths present in the wave spectrum and the hull girder natural modes, while whipping typically requires rough sea states before the very local occurring slamming impact has sufficient energy to excite the global structural vibration modes.

The hydrodynamic theory of springing is not yet fully understood due to the complex description of the surface waves and structure interaction. It is, however, well known that larger ships with longer resonant periods are more susceptible to this type of vibration. Ships of this type include very large crude carriers and bulk carriers, but possibly also container vessels. The first experience with this phenomenon was related to fatigue cracking on 700 ft Great Lakes bulk carriers during the 1950s. Later 1000 ft Great Lakes bulk carriers experienced the same problems even after strength specifications increased. The Great Lake bulk carriers are typically rather blunt and slender ships (length to width ratio of 10) sailing at shallow draft resulting in long natural periods of about 2 seconds. This mode can be excited by short waves in the wave spectrum. A rather complete overview of the full scale experiences and relevant literature on springing can be found in references and.

The container ships are more slender, have higher service speeds and have more pronounced bow flares. Container ships are also known to experience significant whipping (transient) vibrations from bow impacts. Blunt ships may also experience whipping especially with flat bottom impacts in the bow area. The bottom part of the bow however rarely exits from the water on such ships. Vibration from whipping may also increase the extreme loading of ships potentially resulting in vessels breaking in two in severe storms.

In the extreme cases springing may cause severe fatigue cracking of critical structural details, especially in moderate to rough head seas with low peak periods. Vibration is normally more easily excited by waves in ballast condition than in cargo condition. The converse may also be true since some ships experience more head wind and waves in ballast conditions, while other ships may experience more head wind and waves in cargo condition, thereby vibrating less overall.

Ocean-going ships have not had this problem until recently, when high tensile strength steel was introduced as a common material in the whole ship to reduce initial costs. This makes the ships less stiff and the nominal stress level higher.

Today's ship specifications do not account for springing which may be the dominant fatigue factor for some vessels.

title: Springing


text:
Follebu

Follebu is a village in Gausdal Municipality in Innlandet county, Norway. The village is located along the river Gausa, about 3 km to the southeast of the village of Segalstad bru. The town of Lillehammer lies about 15 km to the southeast of Follebu.

Follebu Church (Follebu kirke) is located just to the northwest of the village. It was built in a Gothic style of stone and brick between the years 1260 and 1300.

The 1.06 km2 village has a population (2021) of 1,160 and a population density of 1095 PD/km2.

Name
The Old Norse form of the name was Foldabu. The first element is probably the genitive pluralis of fold which means "meadow", "plain", or "open and flat land". The last element of the name is bú which means "rural district". The area is quite flat and open, especially when it is compared to the surrounding areas.

title: Follebu


text:
White Trash, Two Heebs and a Bean

White Trash, Two Heebs and a Bean is the fourth studio album by the American punk rock band NOFX. It was released on November 5, 1992, through Epitaph Records. It is the first NOFX album to feature El Hefe on guitar, replacing Steve Kidwiller, who left the band in 1991. White Trash, Two Heebs and a Bean was also the first NOFX album not produced by Brett Gurewitz, who produced the band's first three albums. According to the liner notes for the album, the original title was going to be White Trash, Two Kikes and a Spic, but one of the band members' family members thought it was offensive, so they changed it to the title of the actual release. The title is a reference to the eclectic ethnic identities of the band members: white "trash" (Erik Sandin), two Jews (Fat Mike and Eric Melvin), and a Hispanic (El Hefe).

Track listing
All songs were written by Fat Mike except "Straight Edge," originally by Minor Threat.

NOFX

 * Fat Mike – bass, composer, vocals, producer
 * Eric Melvin – guitar, producer
 * Erik Sandin – drums, producer
 * El Hefe – guitar, Vocals, trumpet, producer

Additional personnel

 * Mike Lavella – backing vocals, voices
 * Donnell Cameron – producer, engineer
 * Bob Geller – engineer
 * MW – art direction, design
 * NOFX – producer
 * Joe Peccerillo – engineer
 * Eddy Schreyer – mastering
 * Dan Winters – photography

title: White Trash, Two Heebs and a Bean


text:
Province of Lecco

The province of Lecco (provincia di Lecco; Lecchese: pruincia de Lècch) is a province in the Lombardy region of Italy. Its capital is the city of Lecco.

As of 2017, the province had a population of 337,211 on a surface of 805.61 sqkm divided into 85 comuni (: comune).

History
The Province of Lecco was established by the President of the Republic in Decree No. 250 of 6 March 1992. Elections for the appointment of the first President of the Province of Lecco were held on 23 April 1995 (1st round) and 7 May 1995 (runoff). The proclamation of the 1st President, Mario Anghileri, occurred on 9 May 1995.

Geography
The Province of Lecco is situated in northern central Italy. It is bordered to the north and west by the Province of Como, to the east and north with the Province of Sondrio, to the east by the Province of Bergamo, and to the south with the Province of Monza and Brianza. The province of Lecco has an area of only 805.61 km2, with some 600 km2 located across the Adda River, in Valsassina. The remaining land is located in the Oggionese, the Casatese, and the Meratese, with an additional 16 km2 belonging to the municipality of Oliveto Lario, located on the other side of Lake Como, in Vallassina, within the pre-Alpine Lecchese. 70% of the province is mountainous and the other 30% is hilly. The highest point is Mount Legnone in the north of the province, 2609 m high; at the center of the spectacular Grigne. In the west, is Monte Cornizzolo lake at 1240 m and Monte Rai at 1259 m. In the east of the province is Monte Serrada and the Resegone di Lecco, 1875 m with its characteristic shape reminiscent of the teeth of a saw. In the center-south is Monte Barro at 922 m, in the Monte Barro Regional Park.

The province contains numerous lakes, with Lake Como and Lake Annone in the comunes of Garlate and Olginate. To the west, the comunes of Rogeno, Bosisio Parini, and Cesana Brianza overlook Lake Pusiano. There is also an abundance of rivers, including the main Adda river and the Lambro, running through Costa Masnaga, Rogeno, and Nibionno. Other smaller rivers are the Molgora, the Bévéra, a tributary of the Lambro, the Pioverna flowing in Valsassina, and Varro flowing in Val Varrone.

Towns of Brianza in the province
Airuno, Annone di Brianza, Barzago, Barzanò, Bosisio Parini, Brivio, Bulciago, Calco, Casatenovo, Cassago Brianza, Castello di Brianza, Cernusco Lombardone, Cesana Brianza, Civate, Colle Brianza, Costa Masnaga, Cremella, Dolzago, Ello, Galbiate, Garlate, Garbagnate Monastero, Imbersago, La Valletta Brianza, Lomagna, Merate, Missaglia, Molteno, Montevecchia, Monticello Brianza, Nibionno, Oggiono, Olgiate Molgora, Olginate, Osnago, Paderno d'Adda, Robbiate, Rogeno, Santa Maria Hoè, Sirone, Sirtori, Suello, Valgreghentino, Verderio, Viganò

Zone of Lecco

 * Abbadia Lariana
 * Ballabio
 * Civate
 * Galbiate
 * Lecco
 * Malgrate
 * Mandello del Lario
 * Morterone
 * Oliveto Lario
 * Pescate
 * Valmadrera

Zone of Oggiono

 * Annone di Brianza
 * Bosisio Parini
 * Cesana Brianza
 * Colle Brianza
 * Costa Masnaga
 * Dolzago
 * Ello
 * Garbagnate Monastero
 * Molteno
 * Oggiono
 * Rogeno
 * Sirone
 * Suello

Zone of Valsassina

 * Barzio
 * Casargo
 * Cassina V.
 * Cortenova
 * Crandola V.
 * Cremeno
 * Introbio
 * Margno
 * Moggio
 * Pagnona
 * Parlasco
 * Pasturo
 * Premana
 * Primaluna
 * Taceno

Zone of San Martino Valley

 * Calolziocorte
 * Carenno
 * Erve
 * Garlate
 * Monte Marenzo
 * Olginate
 * Valgreghentino
 * Vercurago

Zone of Merate

 * Airuno
 * Brivio
 * Calco
 * Cernusco L.
 * Imbersago
 * La Valletta Brianza
 * Lomagna
 * Merate
 * Montevecchia
 * Olgiate Molgora
 * Osnago
 * Paderno d’Adda
 * Robbiate
 * Santa Maria Hoè
 * Verderio

Zone of Casatenovo

 * Barzago
 * Barzanò
 * Bulciago
 * Casatenovo
 * Cassago Brianza
 * Castello Brianza
 * Cremella
 * Missaglia
 * Monticello B.
 * Nibionno
 * Sirtori
 * Viganò

Zone of eastern Lario

 * Bellano
 * Colico
 * Dervio
 * Dorio
 * Esino Lario
 * Lierna
 * Perledo
 * Sueglio
 * Valvarrone
 * Varenna
 * Vendrogno

title: Province of Lecco


text:
Archtop guitar

An archtop guitar is a hollow acoustic or semi-acoustic guitar with a full body and a distinctive arched top, whose sound is particularly popular with jazz, blues, and rockabilly players.

Typically, an archtop guitar has:

 * Six strings
 * An arched top and back, not a flat top and back
 * A hollow body
 * Moveable adjustable bridge
 * F-holes similar to members of the violin family
 * Rear mounted tailpiece, stoptail bridge, or Bigsby vibrato tailpiece
 * 14th-fret and set-in neck join

History
The archtop guitar is often credited to Orville Gibson, whose innovative designs led to the formation of the Gibson Mandolin-Guitar Mfg. Co, Ltd in 1902. His 1898 patent for a mandolin, which was also applicable to guitars according to the specifications, was intended to enhance "power and quality of tone." Among the features of this instrument were a violin-style arched top and back, each carved from a single piece of wood, and thicker in the middle than at the sides; sides carved to shape from a single block of wood; and a lack of internal "braces, splices, blocks, or bridges . . . which, if employed, would rob the instrument of much of its volume of tone." But Gibson was not the first to apply violin design principles to the guitar. Guitar maker A. H. Merrill, for example, patented in 1896 a very modern looking instrument "of the guitar and mandolin type . . . with egg-shaped hoop or sides and a graduated convex back and top." The instrument featured a metal tailpiece and teardrop shaped "f-holes," and strongly resembled the archtop guitars of the 1930s. James S. Back obtained patent #508,858 in 1893 for a guitar (which also mentions applicability to mandolins) that among other features included an arched top, which were produced under the Howe Orme name. Another transitional design is the parlor guitar fitted with a floating bridge and tailpiece. These inexpensive instruments, manufactured by companies such as Stella and Harmony, are associated with early blues musicians. The earliest Gibson designs (L1 to L3) introduced the arched top and increasing body sizes, but still had round or oval sound holes.

In 1922, Lloyd Loar was hired by the Gibson Company to redesign their instrument line in an effort to counter flagging sales, and in that same year the Gibson L5 was released to his design. Although the new instrument models flopped commercially and Loar left Gibson after only a couple of years, Gibson instruments signed by Loar now are among the most prized and celebrated in stringed-instrument history. Perhaps the most revered instrument from this period is the F5 mandolin, but probably the more broadly influential was the L5 guitar, which remains in production to this day. The mature Gibson archtop guitar and its imitators are regarded as the quintessential "jazzbox."

Archtop guitars were subsequently made by many top American luthiers, notably John D'Angelico of New York and Jimmy D'Aquisto, William Wilkanowski, Charles Stromberg and Son in Boston, and by other major manufacturers, notably Gretsch and Epiphone. In Europe, companies such as Framus, Höfner, Hoyer and Hagström took up the manufacture of archtops. Archtop guitars were particularly adopted by both jazz and country musicians, and in big bands and swing bands.

Gibson's ES-150 guitar is generally recognized as the world's first commercially successful Spanish-style electric guitar. The ES stands for Electric Spanish, and it was designated 150 because it cost $150, along with an EH-150 amplifier and a cable. After its introduction in 1936, it immediately became popular in jazz orchestras of the period. Unlike the usual acoustic guitars utilized in jazz, it was loud enough to take a more prominent position in ensembles. Jazz guitarist Eddie Durham is usually credited with making the first electric guitar solo, but it was ES-150 player Charlie Christian who popularized the jazz guitar as a solo, not just a rhythm, instrument. The ES-150's top was not carved on the underside, making it unsuitable for acoustic use.

In 1951, Gibson released the L5CES, an L5 with a single cutaway body and two electric pickups, equally playable as either an acoustic guitar or an electric guitar. This innovation was immediately popular, and while purely acoustic archtop guitars such as the Gibson L-7C remain available to this day, they have become the exception. In 1958, the L5CES was redesigned with humbucking pickups; most, but certainly not all, subsequent archtop guitars conform loosely to the pattern set by this model. The electric archtop was particularly popular with jazz musicians Tal Farlow, Barney Kessel and Johnny Smith.

Other manufacturers introduced electric archtop guitars, notable examples including the Gretsch White Falcon and various Chet Atkins models. Some of these instruments have a distinctive "twangy" sound and were taken up by country music and early rock and roll artists such as Duane Eddy and Eddie Cochran. Similar models remain popular in rockabilly.

Gibson's last innovation in archtop design was the creation, in 1955, of "thinline" models with a reduced body depth. Notable thinline models include the successful Gibson ES-335, introduced in 1958, as well as the Epiphone Casino, introduced after Epiphone was acquired in 1957 by CMI, Gibson's parent company. These were more feedback resistant, comfortable to hold and easier to play standing up. The first thinlines were hollow bodies. Later thinlines such as the ES-335, ES-345 and ES-355 were semi-hollow. Thinlines can be classed as semiacoustic guitars, although not all semiacoustic guitars have an arched top. Thinlines became popular with mainstream pop and rock artists during the 1960s. The ES-335 and similar guitars were taken up by, and remain steadfastly popular with, electric blues players; B. B. King's various "Lucilles" are based on the ES-335.

The 1970s and 1980s were a low point of interest in archtops, with many rock and pop (and some jazz and blues) players switching to solid body guitars. One manufacturer for this period was Robert Benedetto.

Interest in archtops was revived in the 1990s. Archtops had long been expensive instruments, with a level of finish and ornament to match. Boutique luthiers such as Roger Borys and Bob Benedetto brought the aesthetics of the instrument to even greater heights, making them attractive to collectors, and also continuing to innovate in technical design. The Benedetto style of acoustic/electric archtop has itself been copied by luthiers such as Dale Unger and Dana Bourgeois. Most of the accessories (pickguard, bridge, tuner buttons, knobs, etc.) are made of wood (ebony or rosewood) instead of metal and have a clean acoustic look. It is estimated there are nearly 100 archtop guitar luthiers in North America alone.

Contrastingly, mass-market archtop guitars became more affordable in the late 20th century, due to a combination of low labor costs in Asian countries and computer numerically controlled manufacture. Most major guitar marques include at least a couple of archtops in their range, albeit not necessarily manufactured at their own facilities. Ibanez sells an extensive range of archtops under the Artcore marque. The Samick corporation sells archtops under its own name besides manufacturing for other companies. Gibson sells inexpensive Asian-made archtops under its Epiphone brand, such as the Epiphone Dot.

Renewed interest in acoustic music has also led to the revival of purely acoustic archtops, such as the Gibson L-7C, The Loar Lh-600, Godin 5th Avenue and the Epiphone Century Series.

Recent technical innovations include Ken Parker's use of carbon fibre in high-end acoustic archtops, and the Godin Montreal hybrid guitar.

Construction
Archtops usually have three-a-side pegheads and necks similar in width to a steel-string acoustic rather than an electric. High-end models traditionally have "block" or "trapezoid" position markers.

The top or belly (and often the back) of the archtop guitar is either carved out of a block of solid wood or heat-pressed using either a solid top or laminations, the latter being a less expensive construction method. The belly normally has two f-holes, the lower of these partly covered by a scratch plate raised above the belly so as not to dampen its vibration. The arching of the top and the f-holes are similar to the violin family, on which they were originally based. The contours of the arching profile are usually derived in an ad hoc fashion. The tops of Gibson's archtops were parallel braced. X-braced designs were introduced later, giving a tone closer to that of a flat-top guitar. Sitka spruce, European spruce, and Engelmann spruce are most often used for the resonant tops of archtop guitars, although some guitar builders use Adirondack spruce (Red spruce), or Western red cedar. Archtop guitars often have Curly maple or Quilted maple backs. Full-sized archtops are among the largest guitars ever made, with the width of the lower bout in some cases approaching 19 inches (47 cm).

The original acoustic archtop guitars were designed to enhance volume, so they were constructed for use with relatively heavy strings. Even after electrification became the norm, jazz guitarists have continued to fit strings of 0.012" gauge or heavier for reasons of tone, and also prefer flatwound strings. Thinline archtops generally use standard electric guitar strings.

Many vibrato systems cannot be fitted to an archtop owing to the need to cut large holes in the belly to accommodate the mechanism, with the exception of the Bigsby vibrato tailpiece and the long tailpiece versions of the Gibson Vibrola. These vibrato systems mount on the surface of the guitar and need no body routing. Other systems have been used and trialed since this time.

Various use of the term "archtop"
Although "archtop" normally refers to a hollow-bodied, arched top instrument, some makers of solid-bodied guitars with carved bellies also refer to these as archtop to distinguish these from flat top guitars. For example, Gibson refers to the standard Gibson Les Paul as an archtop to distinguish it from flat top models such as the Les Paul Special and Melody Maker.

A continuum exists from purely acoustic instruments similar to the original Orville Gibson design, to solid-body designs:

 * Fully acoustic instruments with either a pressed laminate wood or hand carved top. One example in the latter category, almost cello-like in construction, is the Gibson L-5. The sound board (music) is left to vibrate freely as no hardware other than the bridge posts come into contact with it. These instruments have a full-size body and a powerful acoustic tone suitable both for chords and for melody work. For amplified use, these guitars may be fitted with floating pickups in the neck position attached either to the base of the fingerboard or the edge of the pickguard. Today's "carved tops" may also incorporate piezo electric pickups to amplify the sound without changing the tone, as in other acoustic-electric guitars.
 * Hollow-bodied semiacoustic guitars such as the Gibson ES-175, which have a sound box similar to fully acoustic guitars, but also have permanent pickups built into the sound board and are intended to be played through an amplifier. In some thin-bodied models, such as the Epiphone Casino, the function of the sound box is purely to modify the sound transmitted to the pickups, as the un-amplified sound is weak and not normally considered musically useful.
 * Semi-hollow guitars with a solid core but hollow bouts. In these, the bridge is fixed to a solid block of wood rather than to a sound board, and the belly vibration is minimized much as in a solid body instrument. While most such instruments feature F-holes, as seen on the Gibson ES-335, some semi-hollow bodies, such as the Gretsch Duo-Jet and Gibson Lucille, have no sound holes to reduce the possibility of feedback.
 * Solid body instruments, such as the Les Paul Standard, with a carved but non-sounding belly.

Bass guitars
Archtop 4-string bass guitars have been manufactured since the use of electric pickups became popular. The most famous example is the Höfner violin bass used by Paul McCartney. Warwick makes a range of archtop 4-, 5-, and 6-string bass guitars. Framus also makes a range of archtop bass guitars.

Other variations
4-string (tenor), 7-string, 9-string, and 12-string archtops have been manufactured.

A few luthiers offer archtopped Maccaferri guitars.

The Mohan veena is a cross between an archtop and an Indian veena.

Some electric archtops also have piezoelectric pickups, making them hybrid guitars.

A relatively small number of ukulele makers offer instruments with flat tops but arched backs, generally of heat-pressed laminate construction with high-quality veneer; that design concentrates the uke body's internal resonance upward toward the sound hole, "like a parabolic mirror," according to the German seller RISA, whose Koki'o brand line of ukuleles all feature arched backs.

title: Archtop guitar


text:
Aereon 26

The Aereon 26 (stylized as AEREON 26) was an experimental aircraft developed to investigate lifting body design with a view to using its shape to create hybrid designs, part airship, part conventional aircraft. It was powered by a piston engine, driving a pusher propeller, and generated lift through the aerodynamics of its lozenge-shaped fuselage.

Although results of flight tests conducted in 1971 were promising, funding for larger and semi-buoyant aircraft was not forthcoming at the time. The story of the test program was recounted by John McPhee in his book The Deltoid Pumpkin Seed (ISBN 0-374-51635-9). This aircraft has a special place in UFO and conspiracy lore, since enthusiasts have drawn parallels between the shape of this aircraft and some reported UFOs from around the same era.

Background
The AEREON Corporation, established in 1959, at first concentrated on the construction of a prototype three-hull hybrid airship, the AEREON III. Completed in 1965, the prototype was lost during taxiing tests the following year, without having flown.

Following the destruction of the AEREON III, the firm sought "a new and better solution." AEREON's Monroe Drew and John Fitzpatrick employed German physicist Jürgen Bock, formerly of the Max Planck Institute for Nuclear Physics, Heidelberg, Germany, and the U.S. Army's Aberdeen Proving Ground, to develop a list of parameters that would be fed into a computer at the General Electric Space Center, Valley Forge, Pennsylvania, in order to determine "the optimum configuration for enclosing maximum volume without too much penalty of drag." AEREON 26's deltoid configuration, "a shrewd and practical compromise between an airfoil and a sphere," was the result of these efforts.

Rubber-powered and gasoline-engined models of the configuration were flown and wind tunnel tests conducted before testing of the 26 itself began.

Structure and form
According to a paper delivered to the Interagency Workshop on Lighter than Air Vehicles in 1974 by AEREON president William Miller, the 26's shape—dubbed an "aerobody"—was "a lifting-body [sic] of deltoid planform, elliptical cross-sections, and a fineness ratio of 4:5." Among the advantages claimed for this hull form were proximity of the aerodynamic center, center of buoyancy, and center of gravity and a minimal need for trim-control devices, thus facilitating the transportation of "a full range of tonnages at various speeds without major trim requirements."

In McPhee's words, the craft was "a triangle with a deep belly and a vaulting back" or a "delta" when seen from above and a "fat and tremendous pumpkin seed" from the side (hence "deltoid pumpkin seed").

The 26's structure was composed of aluminum tubes (salvaged from the wrecked AEREON III), joined using heli-arc welding and covered with aircraft cloth and aluminum sheet.

Propulsion
The 26 was powered by a single engine, mounted above the trailing edge and driving a pusher propeller. Although the 26 inherited the engine of the AEREON III—apparently a four-cylinder McCulloch of 92 hp —it appears to have had three different propellers over the course of the test program. After the aircraft experienced difficulty in getting out of ground effect, "a propeller of a different pitch" was fitted. This second propeller was a "virtually unique" example, made of lemonwood, that had been used by Igor Bensen in an unsuccessful attempt on the autogyro speed record. After further testing indicated the 26 to be underpowered, a third propeller was carved to order from yellow birch by Sensenich Propeller and fitted in time for the 26's second series of flight tests in 1971.

The engine's lifespan also had a significant influence on the program; it was "just a drone-aircraft engine, and an old one at that" and had already been used for 12 hours of its 25-hour design life.

Construction and assembly
The 26 was assembled (like its predecessor) by veteran U.S. Navy airship rigger Everett Linkenhoker. Initial construction was in two portions, in "a small shop near Lakehurst, New Jersey." The portions were then transported by road to Red Lion Airport, where they were joined together. The aircraft was initially housed in a timber-and-sheetrock box within a hangar at the airport, for reasons of secrecy. Initial taxiing tests were conducted at Red Lion, again under conditions of secrecy. Subsequently, the aircraft was transported by road to the National Aviation Facilities Experimental Center (NAFEC) near Atlantic City for flight testing.

Flying history
The 26 made its first flight, piloted by John Olcott (later president of the National Business Aviation Association), at NAFEC on September 7, 1970. However, as discussed above, it was initially unable to climb out of ground effect. By September 28, following the replacement of the propeller and the removal of some items, the 26 was capable of reaching an altitude of 50 ft but appeared underpowered. The aircraft was returned to Red Lion before being hauled back to NAFEC on February 24, 1971, following the fitting of vortex generators and the third propeller.

Tests resumed at NAFEC on March 1, 1971. On this occasion, the 26 "went up and out of ground effect with no strain at all". In subsequent tests, it performed circuits of the field and a variety of other maneuvers before the engine's life expiry ended the test program.

Results of the program
Addressing the Interagency Workshop on Lighter than Air Vehicles in 1974, William Miller said the test program indicated that performance was as had been predicted, the 26's stability and control and handling qualities were "good," the aircraft was "docile and acceptable...within the limited scope of the tests," and the concept had been shown to be feasible, with the program potentially forming a basis for "realistic studies of much larger such aircraft."

Dynairships
The aircraft was intended as a forerunner of much larger craft that—unlike the 26 itself—would contain helium; these designs were dubbed "Dynairships." One proposal, the AEREON 340, was to have been 340 ft long, with a wingspan of 256 ft and total lift of 400,000 lb. Powered by four 5,500 hp Rolls-Royce Tyne turboprop engines, it was claimed to be capable of carrying intermodal containers or semi-trailers, operating slightly heavier than air. A patent for "[a] cargo-carrying air ship [sic] compris[ing] a gas-filled, low aspect ratio deltoid wing" was granted in 1969; according to this patent, "extremely large ships, having lengths in excess of 1,000 ft" and capable of economically transporting "large payloads, ranging up to 1,000 LT or more" over long distances, were feasible.

In 1974, Miller described three "hypothetical Dynairships":
 * A "small patrol aircraft" 50 ft long, with a gross weight of 4,000 lb
 * A "medium-size cargo aircraft" 200 ft long, with a gross weight of 270 LT
 * A "logistic carrier" 1,000 ft long, with a gross weight of 4,200 LT.

Heavier-than-air
Versions of the configuration that would, like the 26, have lacked lifting gas and operated heavier-than-air at all times were also proposed. These included "a kind of flying camper for general aviation" and "a bigger model for the regional airline industry." A variant with a V/STOL capability, using blown flaps, was patented in 1979. Another heavier-than-air variant, later known as the Aereon WASP, is described in a 1990 patent. This "airborne surveillance antenna platform" with "long endurance and high altitude flight capability" was to carry a radar antenna comprising "planar or linear phased arrays arranged to scan in a continuous pattern in all azimuthal directions" within its deltoid hull.

Current status
William Miller was looking to donate the Aereon 26 to a museum since at least 2011. As of 2019 it has been added to the Air Victory Museum permanent collection and is on public display in Lumberton, New Jersey.

title: Aereon 26


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Kombu

Konbu (from 昆布) is edible kelp mostly from the family Laminariaceae and is widely eaten in East Asia. It may also be referred to as dasima (다시마) or haidai.

Kelp features in the diets of many civilizations, including Chinese and Icelandic; however, the largest consumers of kelp are the Japanese, who have incorporated kelp and seaweed into their diets for over 1,500 years.

Prominent species
There are about eighteen edible species in Laminariaceae and most of them, but not all, are called kombu. Confusingly, species of Laminariaceae have multiple names in biology and in fisheries science. In the following list, fisheries science synonyms are in parentheses, and Japanese names follow them.
 * Saccharina japonica (Laminaria japonica),
 * Saccharina japonica var. religiosa (Laminaria religiosa),
 * Saccharina japonica var. diabolica (Laminaria diabolica), l
 * Saccharina japonica var. ochotensis (Laminaria ochotensis), – commonly used for soup stocks
 * Saccharina latissima (Laminaria saccharina), Karafuto-kombu – contains mannitol and is considered sweeter
 * Saccharina angustata (Laminaria angustata), – commonly used in the making of dashi
 * Saccharina longissima (Laminaria longissima),
 * Saccharina coriacea (Laminaria coriacea),
 * Saccharina sculpera (Kjellmaniella sculpera),
 * Saccharina longipedalis (Laminaria longipedalis), Enaga-kombu
 * Saccharina gyrata (Kjellmaniella gyrata),
 * Saccharina cichorioides (Laminaria cichorioides), Chijimi-kombu
 * Arthrothamnus bifidus,

Etymology
Kombu is a loanword from Japanese.

In Old Japanese, edible seaweed was generically called "me" (cf. wakame, arame) and kanji such as "軍布", 海藻 or "和布" were applied to transcribe the word. Especially, kombu was called hirome (from hiroi, wide) or ebisume (from ebisu). Sometime later the names konfu and kofu appeared respectively in two editions of Iroha Jiruishō in 12th–13th century.

Various theories have been claimed for the origin of the name kombu, with the following two predominant today.

One is that it originated from the on'yomi (Sino-Japanese reading) of the Chinese name 昆布 (kūnbù). The kanji itself already could be seen in Shōsōin Monjo (8th century) and Shoku Nihongi (797) in Japan, and furthermore trace back in China, as early as 3rd century, to the book Wupu Bencao (around 239). Li Shizhen wrote the following in his Bencao Gangmu (1596):

Another possibility to explain the association arises because descriptions of kūnbù in Chinese documents are vague and inconsistent, and it is impossible to identify to which seaweed the term might have applied. For instance, Chen Cangqi (681–757) noted: "kūnbù is produced in the South China Sea; its leaf is like a hand and the size is the same as a silver grass and a reed, is of red purple; the thin part of leaf is seaweed", which is similar to wakame, arame, kurome, or kajime (Ecklonia cava). The difficulty is that, at least in that time, kombu was not produced either in the East nor in the South China Sea. Moreover, following Zhang Yxi, Li Shizhen classified kūnbù and haidai (stands for kombu in Chinese) as different things, and this classification continues in China today.

History
The Erya (3rd–2nd century BC) noted that "Qūan resembles 綸 (lace, cord or rope). This is in the East China Sea." The Wupu Bencao (3rd century) mentions it as "Gūanbù, alias kūnbù". Tao Hongjing (456–536) noted kūnbù is edible. As previously mentioned, however, kūnbù can not be identified with kombu. Zhang Yuxi referred to haidai in the book Jiayou buzhu Shen Nong bencao (嘉祐補註神農本草; 1060).

Although archaeological evidence of seaweed is hard to find because of its easy decomposition, some plant remains of wakame seaweed are found in some ruins of the Jōmon Period which leads to the supposition that kombu was also eaten at that time. As to surviving documents, the letters 軍布 (in Sino-Japanese reading 軍 is gun/kun; 布 is fu/pu/bu) appeared in Man'yōshū and wood strips from Fujiwara-kyō, and may have indicated kombu. The Shoku Nihongi (797) reports: in 797 of Emishi (Ainu or Tohoku region people) stated they had been offering up kombu, which grew there, as tribute to the Yamato court every year without fail. The Engishiki (927) also reports that kombu had been offered up by Mutsu.

During the Muromachi period, a newly developed drying technique allowed kombu to be stored for more than a few days, and it became an important export from the Tohoku area. By the Edo period, as Hokkaidō was colonized and shipment routes were organized, the use of kombu became widespread throughout Japan. Traditional Okinawan cuisine relies heavily on kombu as a part of the diet; this practice began in the Edo period. Okinawa uses more kombu per household than any other prefecture. In the 20th century, a way to cultivate kombu was discovered and it became cheap and readily available.

In 1867, the word "kombu" first appeared in an English-language publication—A Japanese and English Dictionary by James Curtis Hepburn.

Umami, a basic taste, was first scientifically identified in 1908 by Kikunae Ikeda through his experimentation with kombu. He found that glutamic acid was responsible for the palatability of the dashi broth created from kombu, and was a distinct sensation from sweet, sour, bitter, and salty tastes. Ikeda named the newly-discovered taste umami (うま味), from the Japanese word umai (うまい, "delicious").

Since the 1960s, dried kombu has been exported from Japan to many countries. It was available initially at Asian, and especially Japanese, food shops and restaurants, and can be found in supermarkets, health-food stores, and other nonspecializing suppliers.

Japan
Kombu is sold dried (dashi konbu) or pickled in vinegar (su konbu) or as a dried shred (oboro konbu, tororo konbu or shiraga konbu). It may also be eaten fresh in sashimi.

Kombu is used extensively in Japanese cuisines as one of the three main ingredients needed to make dashi, a soup stock. Konbu dashi is made by putting either whole dried or powdered kombu in cold water and heating it to near-boiling. The softened kombu is commonly eaten after cooking or is sliced and used to make tsukudani, a dish that is simmered in soy sauce and mirin.

Kombu may be pickled with sweet-and-sour flavoring, cut into small strips about 5 or 6 cm long and 2 cm wide. These are often eaten as a snack with green tea. It is often included when cooking beans, putatively to add nutrients and improve their digestibility.

Konbu-cha or kobu-cha (昆布茶) is a tea made by infusing kombu in hot water. What Americans call kombucha is called "kōcha kinoko" in Japan.

Kombu is also used to prepare a seasoning for rice to be made into sushi.

Nutrition and health effects
Kombu is a good source of glutamic acid, an amino acid responsible for umami (the Japanese word used for a basic taste identified in 1908). Several foodstuffs in addition to kombu provide glutamic acid or glutamates.

Kombu contains extremely high levels of iodine. While this element is essential for normal growth and development, the levels in kombu can cause overdoses; it has been blamed for thyroid problems after drinking large amounts of soy milk in which kombu was an additive.

It is also a source of dietary fiber. Algae including kombu also contain entire families of obscure enzymes that break down complex sugars that are normally indigestible to the human gut (thus gas-causing). It also contains the well-studied alpha-galactosidase and beta-galactosidase enzymes.

Biofuel
Genetically manipulated E. coli bacteria can digest kombu into ethanol, making it a possible maritime biofuel source.

title: Kombu


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Whitechapel Gallery

The Whitechapel Gallery is a public art gallery in Whitechapel on the north side of Whitechapel High Street, in the London Borough of Tower Hamlets. The original building, designed by Charles Harrison Townsend, opened in 1901 as one of the first publicly funded galleries for temporary exhibitions in London. The building is a notable example of the British Modern Style. In 2009 the gallery approximately doubled in size by incorporating the adjacent former Passmore Edwards library building. It exhibits the work of contemporary artists and organizes retrospective exhibitions and other art shows.

History
The gallery exhibited Pablo Picasso's Guernica in 1938 as part of a touring exhibition organised by Roland Penrose to protest against the Spanish Civil War.

The gallery played a major role in the history of post-war British art by promoting the work of emerging artists. Several significant exhibitions were held at the Whitechapel Gallery including This is Tomorrow in 1956, the first UK exhibition by Mark Rothko in 1961, and in 1964, The New Generation show which featured John Hoyland, Bridget Riley, David Hockney and Patrick Caulfield among others.

Initiated by members of the Independent Group, the exhibition brought Pop Art to the general public as well as introducing some of the artists, concepts, designers and photographers that would define the Swinging Sixties.

Throughout its history, the gallery had a series of open exhibitions that provided a platform for the area's artist community, but by the early 1990s these open shows became less relevant as emerging artists moved to other areas.

In the late 1970s, the critical importance of the Whitechapel Gallery was displaced by newer venues such as the Hayward Gallery, then in the 1980s it enjoyed a resurgence under the Directorship of Nicholas Serota. The gallery had a major refurbishment in 1986; and in 2009 expanded into the former Passmore Edwards Library building next door. The expansion, which doubled the gallery's physical size and nearly tripled its available exhibition space, now allows the Whitechapel Gallery to remain open to the public all year round.

Notable exhibitions

 * 1908 – Muhammadan Art and Life in Turkey, Persia, Egypt, Morocco and India. Autumn Exhibition 23 October to 6 December. The opening day to the public was on 27th Ramadan. An advisory member was Syed Ameer Ali, who in 1910 was one of the main instigators of the London Mosque Fund, which went on to establish the nearby East London Mosque.
 * 1956 – This is Tomorrow exhibit
 * 1958 – American abstract expressionist Jackson Pollock
 * 1961 – Mark Rothko. The installation of his work at the Whitechapel becomes his template for all subsequent shows
 * 1961 - Recent Australian painting, Whitechapel Gallery, London (including John Olsen)
 * 1964 – The New Generation – Painting – showcasing the work of John Hoyland, Patrick Caulfield, David Hockney, Paul Huxley, Alan Jones and Bridget Riley
 * 1965 – The New Generation – Sculpture – showcasing the work of Philip King, David Annesley, Michael Bolus, Tim Scott, William Tucker, Isaac Witkin
 * 1970 and 1971 – David Hockney retrospective, first major shows of Gilbert & George and Richard Long
 * 1982 – Frida Kahlo
 * 1986 Victor Willing, a retrospective exhibition
 * 1993 – The Whitechapel Gallery showcases Lucian Freud
 * 2001 and 2002 – Liam Gillick and Nan Goldin stage their first major solo shows in the UK
 * 2008 – Cornelia Parker's film Chomskian Abstract, featuring Noam Chomsky
 * 2009 – Retrospective of Isa Genzken's work and solo shows for Sophie Calle and Elizabeth Peyton
 * 2010 – Survey of Alice Neel's portraits in Britain
 * 19–20 January 2011 the gallery hosted the inaugural Northern Future Forum gathering of prime ministers.
 * 2011 – First UK survey of German artist Thomas Struth, one of the photographers of the late 20th century
 * 2012 – A comprehensive survey of Turner Prize winning British artist Gillian Wearing
 * 2013 – The first major solo exhibition in London for YBA artist Sarah Lucas
 * 2014 – Five decade survey of North American Richard Tuttle, which was presented in conjunction with a major installation in Tate Modern's Turbine Hall and a solo show for Dada pioneer Hannah Höch
 * 2015 – The first show in Britain on Arab Modernism "Imperfect Chronology: Arab Art from the Modern to the Contemporary", from the Barjeel Art Foundation collection
 * 2016 – A new commission by feminist activism art group Guerrilla Girls and a major retrospective of British artist Eduardo Paolozzi
 * 2017 – A major retrospective of German artist Thomas Ruff and solo show for British artist Benedict Drew
 * 2018 – A solo show for Mark Dion and the first major UK survey of artist duo Elmgreen & Dragset

Publications
In 2006, Whitechapel Gallery and MIT Press formed an editorial alliance to produce a new series of books entitled Documents of Contemporary Art.

Expansion
The Whitechapel reopened in April 2009 after a two-year project, which approximately doubled the size of the Gallery by incorporating the adjacent former Passmore Edwards library building (vacated when Whitechapel Idea Store opened). The work cost approximately £13.5 million and was partly funded by the Heritage Lottery Fund. A full-size tapestry based on Pablo Picasso's Guernica, by Jacqueline de la Baume Dürrbach and loaned from the United Nations Art Collection, was included in the inaugural exhibition by Goshka Macuga. and Isa Genzken.

As part of the expansion, a new Archive Gallery, a reading room and an archive repository (where the Whitechapel's historic records are held) have been created to support the Whitechapel's standing as an educational charity. The archives catalogue the very conception of the gallery, as well as the complete directors' files of correspondence which reveal the reasons behind key decisions in the Gallery's history.

Directors

 * Charles Aitken (1901–1911)
 * Hugh Scrutton (1945–1952)
 * Bryan Robertson (1952–1968)
 * Mark Glazebrook (1969–1971)
 * Jenny Stein (1972–1974)
 * Jasia Reichardt (1974–1976)
 * Nicholas Serota (1976–1988)
 * Catherine Lampert (1988–2002)
 * Iwona Blazwick (2002–2022)
 * Gilane Tawadros (2022–Present)

title: Whitechapel Gallery


text:
Norwegian Humanist Association

The Norwegian Humanist Association (Human-Etisk Forbund; HEF) is one of the largest secular humanist associations in the world, with over 130,000 members. Those members constitute 2.3% of the national population of 5.47 million, making HEF by far the largest such association in the world in proportion to population. The association publishes the magazine Fri tanke (Free Thought).

History and activities
Founded in 1956, the HEF is a member of the Humanists International (HI). The Norwegian Humanist Association is an organisation for people who base their ethics on human, not religious values. Most of its members are agnostics or atheists. HEF supports the following statement of the IHEU:

 * Humanism is a democratic, non-theistic and ethical life stance which affirms that human beings have the right and responsibility to give meaning and shape to their lives and therefore reject supernatural views of reality.

Former HEF secretary general, Levi Fragell, was president of the IHEU (1988–2003) and later Chair of IHEU's Committee for Growth and Development. Since September 2021, Christian Lomsdalen is chairman of the Board of the organization.

According to its bylaws, the organization works to ensure access to humanist ceremonies and spreading knowledge of humanism. The organization previously also worked for a separation of church and state (the Evangelical-Lutheran Church of Norway was the state church of Norway until 2012). A civil confirmation organized by HEF has gained popularity among the Norwegian young during recent years. About 19 percent of Norwegian 15-year-olds were in 2018 taking part in HEF's civil or humanist confirmation, whereas 56% took part in the ceremonies of "state church", with the ceremonies of HEF increasing in popularity while the opposite happens to the church ceremonies. Locally the percentage of humanist youth ceremonies have been significantly higher and also significantly lower in the churches.

On July 9, 2006, a prominent member of the Norwegian Humanist Association, Jens Brun-Pedersen, called for prime minister Jens Stoltenberg to advocate the separation of church and state. He argued that the second article of the constitution of Norway which defines the "Evangelical-Lutheran Religion" as "the official religion of the State" and the 12th article of the constitution which requires half of the ministers of the cabinet to be members of the state church is discriminatory, and that Norway cannot criticise countries advocating sharia law when the constitution favours Lutheran members of society.

The Norwegian Humanist Association hosted the 18th World Humanist Congress of the IHEU. The Congress was held at the Oslo Congress Center in Oslo, Norway, on the 12–14 August 2011. The theme was Humanism and Peace. HEF also hosted the 3rd in 1962 and the 9th in 1986.

Although raising public awareness of scepticism is not a primary goal of the Norwegian Humanist Association, an online campaign was organized in 2011 called Ingen liker å bli lurt (No one likes to be fooled), which led to media debate of the issues. The campaign was kicked off by three appearances in Norway by James Randi, a Canadian-American retired stage magician and a scientific skeptic who has extensively challenged paranormal and pseudo scientific claims.

A youth wing of the HEF, Norwegian Humanist Youth (Humanistisk Ungdom), was founded in August 2007. The current President of the Board is Sina Inngjerdingen.

title: Norwegian Humanist Association


text:
Routsi

Routsi (Greek: Ρούτσι) is a village in the northern part of the municipal unit of Falaisia, Arcadia, Greece. It is situated in the wooded hills 8 km southeast of Megalopoli, 3 km northwest of Voutsaras, 3 km southwest of Anemodouri, 4 km south of Rapsommatis, 5 km northeast of Leontari. The railway from Corinth to Kalamata passes south of the village.

title: Routsi


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Province of Lodi

The province of Lodi (provincia di Lodi; Ludesan: pruincia de Lod) is a province in the Lombardy region of Italy. Its provincial capital is the city of Lodi. As of 2017, it has a population of 229,541 inhabitants over an area of c. 783 km2, giving the province a population density of 293.2 inhabitants per square kilometre. The provincial president is Francesco Passerini.

History
The city of Lodi was first settled during the fifth century BC by Celtic tribes, before being occupied by the Romans in 222 BC; by 89 BC it was called Laus Pompeia, the central city of the Lodi Vecchio. The history of the province in the Lombard and Frankish period is poorly documented, but the city of Lodi controlled the important trading route from Milan southwards to Cremona, Piacenza and the lower stretches of the River Lambro.

In 1025, the German emperor, Conrad II, granted certain rights to the Archbishop of Milan which caused land ownership to change and tensions in the region to flare. Allied with the Holy Roman Emperor but independent, Laus Pomperia fought against the Milanesi in the twelfth century, and the city was destroyed in 1111 and again in 1158, which marked the end of the city on the old location. A request made of Frederick I, Holy Roman Emperor, to rebuild the city near the Adda River was granted. The city, however, joined his opponents, the Lombard League, in 1167. Its citizens fought against Frederick at the Battle of Legnano in 1176. Still, it continued to have problems with Milan (also a member of the Lombard League) until the city was conquered in 1335 by lord of Milan Azzone Visconti.

It remained peaceful until it was invaded in the 1490s. The first significant Italian victory by Napoleon took place in the province on 10 May 1796, where the 5,000 men-strong forces of Napoleon defeated Austrian forces of 10,000 men. It fell under Austrian rule until the Austrians left the city in 1859 and it was ruled by the French forces, led by Marshal Patrice de MacMahon, Duke of Magenta, from 10 June 1859. It later became a part of the Kingdom of Italy and became a component of the province of Milan.

Geography
The province of Lodi is one of twelve provinces in the region of Lombardy in northwestern Italy. It is about 780 km2 in area and is delineated by rivers; the right bank of the Adda nearly surrounds it, and a further part of the boundary is formed by the left bank of the Lambro and of the Po. The province is bounded on the east by the Province of Cremona, the Metropolitan City of Milan to the north and by the Province of Pavia to the west. The land is mostly gently sloping or flat and the soil is alluvial loam. It is used to grow fodder crops, which are mown up to eight times a year, rice, wheat, maize, sugarbeet and vegetables.

title: Province of Lodi


text:
Aroma compound

An aroma compound, also known as an odorant, aroma, fragrance or flavoring, is a chemical compound that has a smell or odor. For an individual chemical or class of chemical compounds to impart a smell or fragrance, it must be sufficiently volatile for transmission via the air to the olfactory system in the upper part of the nose. As examples, various fragrant fruits have diverse aroma compounds, particularly strawberries which are commercially cultivated to have appealing aromas, and contain several hundred aroma compounds.

Generally, molecules meeting this specification have molecular weights of less than 310. Flavors affect both the sense of taste and smell, whereas fragrances affect only smell. Flavors tend to be naturally occurring, and the term fragrances may also apply to synthetic compounds, such as those used in cosmetics.

Aroma compounds can naturally be found in various foods, such as fruits and their peels, wine, spices, floral scent, perfumes, fragrance oils, and essential oils. For example, many form biochemically during the ripening of fruits and other crops. Wines have more than 100 aromas that form as byproducts of fermentation. Also, many of the aroma compounds play a significant role in the production of compounds used in the food service industry to flavor, improve, and generally increase the appeal of their products.

An odorizer may add a detectable odor to a dangerous odorless substance, like propane, natural gas, or hydrogen, as a safety measure.

Cyclic terpenes
Note: Carvone, depending on its chirality, offers two different smells.

Alcohols

 * Furaneol (strawberry)
 * 1-Hexanol (herbaceous, woody)
 * cis-3-Hexen-1-ol (fresh cut grass)
 * Menthol (peppermint)

Aldehydes
High concentrations of aldehydes tend to be very pungent and overwhelming, but low concentrations can evoke a wide range of aromas.
 * Acetaldehyde (ethereal)
 * Hexanal (green, grassy)
 * cis-3-Hexenal (green tomatoes)
 * Furfural (burnt oats)
 * Hexyl cinnamaldehyde
 * Isovaleraldehyde – nutty, fruity, cocoa-like
 * Anisic aldehyde – floral, sweet, hawthorn. It is a crucial component of chocolate, vanilla, strawberry, raspberry, apricot, and others.
 * Cuminaldehyde (4-propan-2-ylbenzaldehyde) – Spicy, cumin-like, green

Esters

 * Fructone (fruity, apple-like)
 * Ethyl methylphenylglycidate (Strawberry)
 * alpha-Methylbenzyl acetate (Gardenia)

Ketones

 * Cyclopentadecanone (musk-ketone)
 * Dihydrojasmone (fruity woody floral)
 * Oct-1-en-3-one (blood, metallic, mushroom-like)
 * 2-Acetyl-1-pyrroline (fresh bread, jasmine rice)
 * 6-Acetyl-2,3,4,5-tetrahydropyridine (fresh bread, tortillas, popcorn)

Lactones

 * gamma-Decalactone intense peach flavor
 * gamma-Nonalactone coconut odor, popular in suntan lotions
 * delta-Octalactone creamy note
 * Jasmine lactone powerful fatty-fruity peach and apricot
 * Massoia lactone powerful creamy coconut
 * Wine lactone sweet coconut odor
 * Sotolon (maple syrup, curry, fenugreek)

Thiols

 * Thioacetone (2-propanethione) A lightly studied organosulfur. Its smell is so potent it can be detected several hundred meters downwind mere seconds after a container is opened.
 * Allyl thiol (2-propenethiol; allyl mercaptan; CH2=CHCH2SH) (garlic volatiles and garlic breath)
 * (Methylthio)methanethiol (CH3SCH2SH), the "mouse thiol", found in mouse urine and functions as a semiochemical for female mice
 * Ethanethiol, commonly called ethyl mercaptan (added to propane or other liquefied-petroleum gases used as fuel gases)
 * 2-Methyl-2-propanethiol, commonly called tert-butyl mercaptan, is added as a blend of other components to natural gas used as fuel gas.
 * Butane-1-thiol, commonly called butyl mercaptan, is a chemical intermediate.
 * Grapefruit mercaptan (grapefruit)
 * Methanethiol, commonly called methyl mercaptan (after eating Asparagus)
 * Furan-2-ylmethanethiol, also called furfuryl mercaptan (roasted coffee)
 * Benzyl mercaptan (leek or garlic-like)

Miscellaneous compounds

 * Methylphosphine and dimethylphosphine (garlic-metallic, two of the most potent odorants known)
 * Phosphine (zinc phosphide poisoned bait)
 * Diacetyl (butter flavor)
 * Acetoin (butter flavor)
 * Nerolin (orange flowers)
 * Tetrahydrothiophene (added to natural gas)
 * 2,4,6-Trichloroanisole (cork taint)
 * Substituted pyrazines

Aroma-compound receptors
Animals that are capable of smell detect aroma compounds with their olfactory receptors. Olfactory receptors are cell-membrane receptors on the surface of sensory neurons in the olfactory system that detect airborne aroma compounds. Aroma compounds can then be identified by gas chromatography-olfactometry, which involves a human operator sniffing the GC effluent.

In mammals, olfactory receptors are expressed on the surface of the olfactory epithelium in the nasal cavity.

Safety and regulation

In 2005–06, fragrance mix was the third-most-prevalent allergen in patch tests (11.5%). 'Fragrance' was voted Allergen of the Year in 2007 by the American Contact Dermatitis Society. An academic study in the United States published in 2016 has shown that "34.7 % of the population reported health problems, such as migraine headaches and respiratory difficulties, when exposed to fragranced products".

The composition of fragrances is usually not disclosed in the label of the products, hiding the actual chemicals of the formula, which raises concerns among some consumers. In the United States, this is because the law regulating cosmetics protects trade secrets.

In the United States, fragrances are regulated by the Food and Drug Administration if present in cosmetics or drugs, by the Consumer Products Safety Commission if present in consumer products. No pre-market approval is required, except for drugs. Fragrances are also generally regulated by the Toxic Substances Control Act of 1976 that "grandfathered" existing chemicals without further review or testing and put the burden of proof that a new substance is not safe on the EPA. The EPA, however, does not conduct independent safety testing but relies on data provided by the manufacturer.

A 2019 study of the top-selling skin moisturizers found 45% of those marketed as "fragrance-free" contained fragrance.

List of chemicals used as fragrances
In 2010, the International Fragrance Association published a list of  3,059  chemicals used in 2011 based on a voluntary survey of its members, identifying about 90% of the world's production volume of fragrances.

title: Aroma compound