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Land Rover 101 Forward Control

The 101 Forward Control or Land Rover 101FC was a light utility vehicle produced by Land Rover for the British Army. It was not available to the public off the production line, but was as military surplus.

History
The vehicle was primarily produced to meet the Army's requirement for a gun tractor, and was designed to tow a field gun (the L118 Light Gun) with a ton of ammunition and other equipment in the rear load space, giving it the alternative name of the Land Rover One Tonne. The vehicle was designed to be easily transported by air; the positioning of the 3.5 litre Rover V8 engine beneath and to the rear of the cab eliminates the bonnet at the front, making the vehicle more or less cuboid thus reducing unused space in transport aircraft. Of concern was the payload and limited stability, particularly when crossing an incline.

The official name of 101 Forward Control is derived from the vehicle's 101 in wheelbase, and the position of the driver, above and slightly in front of the front wheels which used a fairly large 9.00 × 16 inch tyre. To facilitate entry into the cab, the wheels carry a flange around the centre of the wheel with an embossed tread pattern as a step for the crew, named a wheel-step. This unusual feature was also used for many years on the Mercedes Unimog S404.

Development of the 101FC started in 1967, with a design team led by Norman Busby (14 October 1931 – 30 June 2005). Production took place between 1972 and 1978. In common practice of the armed forces, many vehicles were not used for some years and it is not unheard of for military vehicle enthusiasts to pick up these vehicles after only a few thousand miles service. All the vehicles produced at the Land Rover factory at Lode Lane, Solihull were soft top ("rag top") General Service (GS) gun tractors, although later on many were rebuilt with hard-top ambulance bodies and as radio communication trucks. A rare variant is the electronic warfare Vampire body. It is thought that only 21 of these were produced and less than half of these survive today. One was destroyed in the Buncefield Oil Terminal Fire.

The 101FC also served with the RAF Regiment. Two 101s were allocated to each Rapier Missile set up. The British RAF Rapier system used three Land Rovers in deployment: a 24V winch-fitted 101 Firing Unit Tractor (FUT) to tow the launch trailer, loaded with four Rapier missiles, guidance equipment and radio; a 12V winch-fitted 101 Tracking Radar Tractor (TRT) to tow the Blindfire Radar trailer, also loaded with four Rapier missiles and guidance equipment; and a 109 Land Rover to tow a reload trailer with 9 Rapier missiles and loaded with the unit's other supplies and kit.

The 101FC also served in an ambulance role, with ambulance bodywork built by Marshall of Cambridge. The 101FC was manufactured in both left and right hand drive with either 12 or 24 volt electrical systems.

Some 101FCs were produced with a PTO powered Nokken capstan winch mounted on the chassis at the centre of the vehicle, allowing winching from either the front or rear. Another variation on a small number of pre-production vehicles was the addition of a trailer with an axle driven from the PTO, creating a 6x6 vehicle, this adaptation was abandoned before full production when it was discovered that the trailer had a propensity to push the vehicle onto its side when driven over rough terrain.

On 5 September 1979 an open 101FC of the Life Guards Regiment carried the coffin of Louis Mountbatten, 1st Earl Mountbatten of Burma from his funeral at Westminster Abbey to Waterloo Station

Replacement
By the late 1990s, the 101s were decommissioned by the MoD and were replaced with Defenders and Pinzgauer vehicles. Many 101s have entered into private ownership and there is a thriving owners club supporting these sourcing spares and providing technical support. The club also keeps a register of known surviving vehicles throughout the world.

A prototype 101 was built based on a recovery vehicle. Only one of these is known to be in existence, at the Heritage Motor Centre in Gaydon, Warwickshire.

Australia
The Australian Army acquired fifty 101 vehicles, which were used to tow Rapier missile carriers. These 101s were disposed of and some of these remain in private hands.

Use in film

Thirty-one 101s were converted by Land Rover with styled bodyshells for the 1995 Sylvester Stallone film Judge Dredd. Land Rover is supposedly the world's only surviving vehicle manufacturer in 2139 when the film is set, and the green oval logo can be seen on the side of the vehicles, known as "City CABs". Several of these prop vehicles still exist in driveable condition and these can be seen at Land Rover events.

Custom Versions
During the 1990s Malcolm Whitbread of Whitbread Offroad 4x4 obtained four examples of the 101. Three were right-hand drive, one was left-hand drive. The right-hand drive examples were extensively modified for trails or rally use. Modifications included conversion to a coil spring suspension system based on the Range Rover configuration of the time. Disc brakes were also fitted. The left-hand drive example (UK registration GDP252V) was reconstructed with a hand-built custom chassis as a completely new vehicle. 15” wheels and power-assisted steering were included in the construction. GDP252V was the only left-hand drive Land Rover 101 Forward Control to be registered as a new vehicle.

title: Land Rover 101 Forward Control


text:
Kitzur Shulchan Aruch (disambiguation)

Kitzur Shulchan Aruch is written by Rabbi Shlomo Ganzfried.

Kitzur Shulchan Aruch or its alternative transliterations may also refer to:

 * A similar Sephardi work entitled "Kitzur Shulchan Aruch" by Rabbi Raphael Baruch Toledano

 * The "Kitzur Shulchan Aruch Mekor Hayyim" by Rabbi Hayim David HaLevi
 * The volumes entitled "Kitzur Shulchan Aruch" from Yalkut Yosef

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Kitzur Shulchan Aruch (disambiguation)


text:
Mercy Brown vampire incident

The Mercy Brown vampire incident occurred in Rhode Island, US, in 1892. It is one of the best documented cases of the exhumation of a corpse in order to perform rituals to banish an undead manifestation. The incident was part of the wider New England vampire panic.

Several cases of consumption (tuberculosis) occurred in the family of George and Mary Brown in Exeter, Rhode Island. Friends and neighbors believed that this was due to the influence of the undead. An attempt was made to remediate. Mercy Brown died January 1892 aged 19.

History
In Exeter, Rhode Island, several members of George and Mary Brown's family suffered a sequence of tuberculosis infections in the final two decades of the 19th century. Tuberculosis was called "consumption" at the time, and was a devastating and much-feared disease.

The mother, Mary Eliza, was the first to die of the disease, followed in 1884 by their eldest daughter, Mary Olive, according to her grave stone. In 1891, daughter Mercy and son Edwin also contracted the disease. Friends and neighbors of the family believed that one of the dead family members was a vampire, although they did not use that name, and had caused Edwin's illness. This was in accordance with threads of contemporary folklore, which linked multiple deaths in one family to undead activity. Consumption was a poorly understood condition at the time and the subject of much superstition.

George Brown was persuaded to give permission to exhume several bodies of his family members. Villagers, the local doctor, and a newspaper reporter exhumed the bodies on March 17, 1892. The bodies of both Mary and Mary Olive exhibited the expected level of decomposition, so they were thought not to be the cause. However, the corpse of a daughter, Mercy, exhibited almost no decomposition, and still had blood in the heart. This was taken as a sign that the young woman was undead and the agent of young Edwin's condition. Her lack of decomposition was more likely due to her body being stored in freezer-like conditions in an above-ground crypt during the two months following her death.

As superstition dictated, Mercy's heart and liver were burned, and the ashes were mixed with water to create a tonic and was given to the sick Edwin to drink, as an effort to resolve his illness and stop the influence of the undead. The young man died two months later. What remained of Mercy's body was buried in the cemetery of the Baptist Church in Exeter after being desecrated.

In the end, the father, George Brown, was one of very few never to contract tuberculosis, living until 1922, just long enough to see bacteriologists Albert Calmette and Camille Guérin discover the BCG vaccine which was widely used to treat and cure tuberculosis.

Trivia
The Mercy Brown incident was the inspiration for Caitlín R. Kiernan's short story "So Runs the World Away", which makes explicit reference to the affair. It has also been suggested by scholars that Bram Stoker, the author of the novel Dracula, knew about the Mercy Brown case through newspaper articles and based the novel's character Lucy Westenra upon her. It is also referred to in H. P. Lovecraft's "The Shunned House". Mercy Brown's story was the inspiration for the young adult novel Mercy: The Last New England Vampire by Sarah L. Thomson. An account of the events as told by the remaining descendants of Mercy is available in Michael E. Bell's Food for the Dead: On the Trail of New England's Vampires.

The Mercy Brown story was the main subject of the first episode of the Lore podcast in 2015, as well as the first episode of the television adaptation of the same title in 2017.

The MonsterQuest episode "Vampires In America" investigated the Mercy Brown case and used it as a reference in the investigation.

American rock band Clutch has a song titled "Mercy Brown" on their 2022 album Sunrise on Slaughter Beach.

The story of Mercy Brown is also prominently featured in Paul Tremblay's novel The Pallbearer's Club.

title: Mercy Brown vampire incident


text:
Albert Heijn

Albert Heijn, often abbreviated to AH and informally to Appie , is the largest supermarket chain in the Netherlands with a market share of 34.8% in 2020. It was founded in 1887, and has been part of Ahold Delhaize since 2016.

History
The chain was founded on 27 May 1887, when Albert Heijn bought a grocery store from his father Jan Heijn in Oostzaan. In the following years, Heijn opened other locations in several cities and in 1899, he opened a central warehouse in Zaandam.

From 1895, Heijn started roasting his own brand of coffee in a laundry room in his Oostzaan location and in 1910, several other self-produced items were added, including confectionery, cakes and pastry. Until 1913, these products were produced in an old town house in Zaandam, but the company built a professional factory on this spot in 1913.

In 1920, all enterprises were combined in the Maatschappij tot Exploitatie der Fabrieken en Handelszaken. Anton Jurgens, one of the founders of Unilever, took a 50% share within the new company. These shares were bought back by the family Heijn in 1927. On 29 April 1920, Albert Heijn transferred control of the company to his sons Gerrit Heijn and Jan Heijn, and his son-in-law Johan Hille. Albert Heijn stayed on as president of the board.

Albert Heijn Sr. benefited from the industrialization that brought prosperity through fixed wages for factory workers and a new group of rich people. Eating habits changed: less in quantity but more and other types of items. Due to the rise of manufacturers and prepackaged items, indigenous and exclusive products came within reach.

The chain went public in 1948, and underwent two major changes in the 1950s. The first change was in 1952, with the introduction of their first self-service store and the second change was in 1955, with the opening of their first supermarket.

The chain could become the largest within the Netherlands via several acquisitions. Notable (partial) acquisitions were Van Amerongen (1950), Simon de Wit (1972) and C1000 (2008 and parts in 2012).

Ahold NV was founded on August 27, 1973 and Albert Heijn became part of it. The new construction made it easier for Albert Heijn's new parent company to enter the foreign market. In October of the same year, Etos was acquired, a number of stores were converted into Albert Heijn and the rest continued as a drugstore within Ahold.

At the beginning of 2003, Albert Heijn saw its market share fall sharply: 22.8 percent against 24.7 percent a year earlier. In order to win back customers and leave the expensive image behind, Albert Heijn decided to start a large-scale price reduction in the same year. The chain permanently reduced the price of thousands of items every so often.

At the end of 2006, managing director Dick Boer announced that Albert Heijn would stop lowering prices. The price difference with the competitors was successfully reduced by many percent. The market share was almost 30 percent at the end of 2006.

In 2007, the company crossed the ocean with the opening of a franchise store in Curaçao, this shop remained open until 2016, when it was changed to a different brand. The company entered the Belgian market in 2011, with the opening of a store in Brasschaat. Despite the merger of Ahold and Delhaize, Albert Heijn and Delhaize both remained active in Belgium. Currently Albert Heijn has 60 stores. After Curaçao and Belgium the company entered the German market with their AH To Go formula. This venture ended in 2018.

Simon de Wit
Simon de Wit was a large family-owned chain of supermarkets in the Netherlands. The company was founded by Simon de Wit (1852–1934), who after his father's death in 1867 started a grocery store from his parental house in Wormerveer. In 1888 he opened the first branch in Amsterdam and by 1900 he ran stores at 30 different locations and owned a central warehouse in Zaandam.

In 1954 the opening of the 150th store was celebrated. In 1970, when Simon de Wit's grandson Simon was in charge, a fire destroyed the central warehouse in Zaandam. Soon after, Albert Heijn, which also originated in the Zaanstreek, showed interest in a takeover and in 1973 Simon de Wit merged with Albert Heijn, with all employees retaining their jobs. All remaining shops took on the name of the latter.

Albert Heijn
This formula is most used throughout the Netherlands and Belgium and is their regular store format. Since 2018, the company began to roll out the concept Echt Vers (Really Fresh) in which the stores would be remodelled to offer 10–15% more fresh produce.

Albert Heijn also distinguishes itself by the steadily growing range of organic and ecological products, reducing the use of plastics and investing in sustainable construction and transport. The expansion of the sustainable range was brought under the umbrella brand "Puur & Eerlijk" in 2009, under the leadership of Dick Boer, with adjustments to stricter certification and change of packaging. The retail chain is also committed to reducing food waste.

AH To Go
In 1999, the chain developed a new formula for a convenience store on request of the Nederlandse Spoorwegen, the railway company would become a franchisee and opened the first store on Station Den Bosch. The formula got its current name in 2001, and specialises in products that customers need on their commute.

Since 2019, the company is testing a new version of the formule without staff and cash registers. The customer scans their debit card and cameras register the customer and the items that are picked, after the customer leaves the right amount is deducted from their account. The new concept and technology was tested in a mobile unit that has been placed at the headquarters of Ahold Delhaize and Schiphol.

AH XL
Since 2002, the company operates several hypermarkets with a larger variety of products in both food and non-food. Within the store there are also several chefs preparing take-away.

Albert Heijn Online
The company started testing delivery in 1999, with the Albert Heijn Thuisservice, which was renamed Albert.nl in 2001. Via this channel customers could purchase their groceries, but also products from sister-companies Etos and Gall & Gall. The Albert brand was discontinued in 2014, and the delivery service was integrated in the Albert Heijn brand.

Organisation and brand value
Since 1899, the chain is headquartered in Zaandam, their parent company is also located here. The chain operates six distribution centres in Nieuwegein, Geldermalsen, Zaandam, Tilburg, Pijnacker and Zwolle. In addition to an ever-growing impressive number of stores - both franchise and in-house - the chain also operates seven "Home Shop Centers" in Almere, Eindhoven, Rotterdam, De Meern, Amsterdam, Oosterhout and Bleiswijk.

The brand value of Albert Heijn was 866 million dollars in 2014, according to Trademark Office Interbrand. This put Albert Heijn in 26th place in the European brand values top 50.

Recent information about the brand value cannot be found publicly.

title: Albert Heijn


text: Category:Polish organic chemists

title: Category:Polish organic chemists


text:
User:Leshonai

Hi everybody! Most active on the German Wikipedia, I recently started writing here too...

My first articles were Kharga, Zarqa, ...

de:Benutzer:Leshonai fr:Utilisateur:Leshonai la:Usor:Leshonai

title: User:Leshonai


text:
Yosef Chaim

Yosef Chaim is the name of:

 * Chacham Yosef Chaim of Baghdad (1832–1909), better known as the Ben Ish Chai ("Son of Man (who) Lives") He was an Iraqi Halakist and preacher.
 * Yosef Chaim Brenner (1881–1921), a pioneer in Hebrew literature
 * Rabbi Yosef Chaim Sonnenfeld (1848–1932), anti-Zionist Rav of Jerusalem

title: Yosef Chaim


text:
Categorical logic

Categorical logic is the branch of mathematics in which tools and concepts from category theory are applied to the study of mathematical logic. It is also notable for its connections to theoretical computer science. In broad terms, categorical logic represents both syntax and semantics by a category, and an interpretation by a functor. The categorical framework provides a rich conceptual background for logical and type-theoretic constructions. The subject has been recognisable in these terms since around 1970.

Overview
There are three important themes in the categorical approach to logic:
 * Categorical semantics: Categorical logic introduces the notion of structure valued in a category C with the classical model theoretic notion of a structure appearing in the particular case where C is the category of sets and functions. This notion has proven useful when the set-theoretic notion of a model lacks generality and/or is inconvenient. R.A.G. Seely's modeling of various impredicative theories, such as System F, is an example of the usefulness of categorical semantics.

 * It was found that the connectives of pre-categorical logic were more clearly understood using the concept of adjoint functor, and that the quantifiers were also best understood using adjoint functors.

 * Internal languages: This can be seen as a formalization and generalization of proof by diagram chasing. One defines a suitable internal language naming relevant constituents of a category, and then applies categorical semantics to turn assertions in a logic over the internal language into corresponding categorical statements. This has been most successful in the theory of toposes, where the internal language of a topos together with the semantics of intuitionistic higher-order logic in a topos enables one to reason about the objects and morphisms of a topos as if they were sets and functions. This has been successful in dealing with toposes that have "sets" with properties incompatible with classical logic. A prime example is Dana Scott's model of untyped lambda calculus in terms of objects that retract onto their own function space. Another is the Moggi–Hyland model of system F by an internal full subcategory of the effective topos of Martin Hyland.
 * Term-model constructions: In many cases, the categorical semantics of a logic provide a basis for establishing a correspondence between theories in the logic and instances of an appropriate kind of category. A classic example is the correspondence between theories of βη-equational logic over simply typed lambda calculus and Cartesian closed categories. Categories arising from theories via term-model constructions can usually be characterized up to equivalence by a suitable universal property. This has enabled proofs of meta-theoretical properties of some logics by means of an appropriate categorical algebra. For instance, Freyd gave a proof of the disjunction and existence properties of intuitionistic logic this way.

title: Categorical logic


text:
Talk:Tokaj wine region

[Untitled]
Juro,

As you suggested, let me make this discussion more scientific. In reply to your comments: "The Slovak region is NOT a separate wine region - unless you are claiming that the Hungarian region "by coincidence" ends exactly at the state border between Slovakia and Hungary. The region was one region throughtout centuries and only became separated in 1918. But of course, you can create two articles. I hope you are not going to argue with the seemingly different Hungarian name"

Actually, the state border is precisely why there are now two different wine regions. Comtemporary wine regions are (at least in the EU) administrative entities, and strictly defined by law. The Hungarian wine region of Tokaj-Hegyalja is strictly defined in geographical terms and does not extend beyond the state border. No one would seriously argue that the northern and southern Zemplen hills are today part of the same county - of course not, an international border splits the historic county into two. The 'international treaty' you have referred to, or rather treaties (I presume you are referring to the separate accession treaties signed by the Slovak and Hungarian governments), in fact define two separate wine regions, so please don't use this as an argument for the opposite. Furthermore, UNESCO's definition of the Tokaj World Heritage Site clearly refers only to the Hungarian wine region (compare with the 'Caves of Aggtelek Karst and Slovak Karst' World Heritage Site which extends across the Slovak-Hungarian border).
 * There was another treaty between the two countries in 2004. This has nothing to do (directly at least) with the EU accession.

Besides, the above 'official' explantion of two separate Tokaj wine regions (one in Hungary, one in Slovakia), there are various other arguments for classifying them as separate regions. Each region has its own regulations. In the case of Tokaj-Hegyalja the strict regulations are a legacy from the communist era (many wine makers complain that they are too strict and do not allow for innovation, which is one reason why some are now producing Aszu wines but labelling them as "late harvest" so that they don't have to follow the regulations). These regulations clearly define what can be labelled as Szamorodni, Aszu etc (e.g minimum time maturing in the barrel) and as 3, 4 puttonyos etc. (minimum residual sugar and extract content). The regulations in Slovakia are different and result in wines of a different character, just as an Aszu wine from the Balaton region of Hungary is different to a Tokaji Aszu (though of course the differences are due to other factors too). Another factor which differentiates the two wine regions is that the Tokaj-Hegyalja region has recently received massive foreign investment (approx 50 million Euros) which has enabled the larger wine makers to invest in state-of-the-art facilities. Many of the wines now being produced in the region are significantly different in character, to the wines of ten years ago, let alone the typical wines of the communist era.
 * Since the Slovak wines are being produced using the same techniques and cellars and the Hungarians from Hegylja themselves are claiming now that the quality of their wines has decreased because of too many low-quality producers, the question is whether two wines from the Hungarian region from different producers are less different than one Tokaj wine from Slovakia and one wine from Hungary - the answer is, I am quite sure, no. So in this sense it is one single region.The Slovaks are even claiming that they are using the same standards and the same definition of the Tokaj region for decades, while the Hungarian standards have been changed several times and the region is (as the Hungarians have said themselves) constantly moving (if you look at particular vineyards). So, actually, the Slovak wines are closer to the original Tokaj wines than the Hungarian ones (as the Slovaks claim). The argument with the investments is not sufficient, because you could take any region and say that in the western part there are investments, in the eastern there are no investments (provided that its true - I do not know) - that does not change the fact that it is one region. Next, (almost exactly) the Hungarian and Slovak region is even one region in terms of geomorphology and soil (a separate unit). Next, the whole discussions in 2003-2004 between the (by the way Hungarian-) Slovak minister and the Hungarian minister were led with the aim of accepting the territory as one region and I remember having seen an interview with the Hungarian minister after the treaty has been signed where he said that of course it is one region only separated by a border from 1918. The arguments you and your books are using are simply the result of Hungary's decision from 1958 to start to compete with Czechoslovak producers, which is a typical trade/brand dispute. And the books are a kind of Hungarian marketing accompanying this dispute and trying to persuade the world to buy wine from Hungary and from no other country in the world (which again is nothing new in the world)...But we have two articles now, so this question should be closed for now...Juro 02:18, 15 Oct 2004 (UTC)
 * Those are not "Slovak" wines, those are Hungarian wines. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 81.182.43.216 (talk) 17:32, 6 February 2018 (UTC)

Actually there is a dispute over what is the character of historical Tokaj wines. During the communist era, Hungarian Tokaj Aszu was heavily oxidized resulting in wines deep in colour and repressing the characteristics of the individual terroirs and of the grapes themselves. The regulations, with a minimum time of maturation in the barrel, still seem to be aimed at encouraging this style of Aszu. However, some producers believe that this isn't the historical style and are calling for the elimination of legal minimums for barrel aging. Do you know what the regulations are in Slovakia? What is the position of the Slovakian producers on this debate? Scott Moore 10:01, 15 Oct 2004 (UTC)

Text from a Nov 2002 US magazine article on this debate: "The controversy about the style of Tokaj comes down to a debate over what is the true tradition and, once this is established, what deviations from it should be allowed. Specifically there are different opinions about the degree of oxidative aging required. If Tokaj is to establish its place on the palate of contemporary connoisseurs, how faithful must it remain to historical models? Why, when classic wines such as Bordeaux, Barolo and Port have evolved, should Tokaj remain exactly as it has always been? At the heart of this debate is disagreement over what is traditional, and what changes were introduced during the Communist period. According to exhaustive research undertaken by Miles Lambert-Gocs, a student of Eastern European winemaking history and employee of the US Department of Agriculture, the historical style of Tokay has always involved substantial oxidative aging of the wine after fermentation, a finding that reinforces the position of Hungary's National Wine Classification Board. The NWCB, in opposition to some of the new private investors in Tokaj, seeks to maintain the traditional style of the wine and actively discourages proposed innovations away from it, such as using grapes which are not fully botrytis-effected for Aszu, aging Tokaji in a completely reductive state, and shortening the duration of barrel maturation. Lambert-Gocs agrees that these proposed changes would distort and alter what it is about the wines that have made them special over the centuries - the flavors and aromas created by substantial oxidative exposure and long maturation in cellar. In keeping with Europe's other wine industry boards, which guard the quality and authenticity of their region's classic appellations, wines cannot be released into the market until a tasting panel, in this case the OBB, authorizes their regional typicity. Tasters who support the more oxidative style and insist that this is what sets Tokaji apart as a distinct dessert wine category, just as heating the wine distinguishes Madeira, dominate this panel. Although some wines submitted for approval as Tokaji Aszu have been rejected, many of the more recent releases taste to me reflective of reductive rather than oxidative winemaking practices.

The modernists or innovators claim that they are simply seeking to bring Tokaj more in line with conventional modern taste as a cleaner, lighter colored white wine that will fit with current preferences for fresh fruit flavors rather than heavily wood-influenced characteristics. Further they charge that Tokaj historically was not a dark amber-colored wine full of oxidative characters, but that this was only a legacy of the Communist era when winemaking at the State Farms was careless and unconcerned with quality. In particular, Tokaj's foreign investors, many of whom have red wine production backgrounds, have sought to top casks up to minimize oxidative exposure, and to shorten the time of barrel maturation altogether. This is a position which Lambert-Gocs' research vigorously disputes. Tokaj is and always has been, according to him, a wine of deep amber colors and substantial rich oxidative character. This was not a fall from grace attributable to Communist bureaucratic meddling, but the authentic practice which originally established the reputation and excellence of the wines."

Earliest viticulture in Tokaj
No one really knows when viticulture begin in Tokaj - it could have been started by the Celts, or it could have begun only in the 12th Century. Here are the views of some of the leading experts (the text is from "TRADITION AND INNOVATION IN THE TOKAJ REGION" by Tim Atkin, Master of Wine:

"The origins of Tokaji are unclear. No one knows when the first wines were made in the region, whether dry, medium or sweet. Phillips argues that the area was first planted in the early 1300s, while Johnson admits that ‘the very early history of this singular region is little known’. Grapes could have been planted here by the Celts, the Greeks or the Romans, according to Johnson. Halász asserts that ‘in all probability’ the first vineyards were planted by indigenous Celts, but points to the part played by French settlers, who arrived in the mid-eleventh century, in the development of Tokaji."

References: Phillips, A Short History of Wine, p. 85; Johnson, The Story of Wine, p. 246 Halasz, Hungarian wine through the ages, p. 84

Name of the article
Shouldn't this be at Tokaj-Hegyalja? It is now a redirect, but it's the real name of the region. Tokaj is the town's name only. Alensha 13:57, 10 Apr 2005 (UTC)

A good idea, although - as far as I remember - strictly speaking Tokaj-Hegyalja is more the geological/geographical term and the geological region is (obviously) not 100% identical with the region of viticulture...Juro 23:41, 11 Apr 2005 (UTC)

I've never heard Tokaj-Hegyalja being mentioned in any other context than viticultural (and my family is from there :). I'll request the move at Requested_moves. Alensha 23:57, 17 Apr 2005 (UTC)

I have seen it in a Hungarian internet encyclopedia, I just do not remember anymore where ...Juro 21:28, 19 Apr 2005 (UTC)

This article has been renamed as the result of a move request. violet/riga (t) 16:10, 22 Apr 2005 (UTC)

pls remove details of the debate from the intro
I agree that the controversion between the Hungarian and Slovakian region is worth mentioning, but definitely not in first place. See Lead_section. --Torzsmokus 20:22, 5 March 2007 (UTC)

Why not also Slovakia?
Guys, shouldn't it be mentioned in the first sentence and also in the Infobox, that the Tokaj wine region lies in Hungary AND Slovakia? I'm from Slovakia, but please don't take this as a nationalist attack. It's a plain fact that when the borders of Czechoslovakia were agreed upon by the foreign powers after the WWI, a small part of the Tokaj region was left outside the newly-created Hungary. That's it. (BTW, the border was created quite unfairly for a single reason: so that the important railway track between Košice and Čierna nad Tisou - a strategic connection to Carpathian Ruthenia, to Russia and also to Romania - could remain entirely in Czechoslovakia.) Nowadays the EU regulations recognize the Slovak part also eligible for selling wines branded "Tokaj". So why not mention Slovakia equally? Comments please. In case of no objections, I'll change it. Johnnyjanko (talk) 11:34, 22 January 2014 (UTC)
 * Tokaji is a Hungarian wine, the Slovakian part produced Hungarian wine, too. Tokaj is not a Slovak wine.

title: Talk:Tokaj wine region


text:
Vathek

Vathek (alternatively titled Vathek, an Arabian Tale or The History of the Caliph Vathek) is a Gothic novel written by William Beckford. It was composed in French beginning in 1782, and then translated into English by Reverend Samuel Henley in which form it was first published in 1786 without Beckford's name as An Arabian Tale, From an Unpublished Manuscript, claiming to be translated directly from Arabic. The first French edition, titled simply as Vathek, was published in December 1786 (postdated 1787). In the twentieth century some editions include The Episodes of Vathek (Vathek et ses épisodes), three related tales intended by Beckford to be so incorporated, but omitted from the original edition and published separately long after his death.

Plot introduction
Vathek capitalised on the eighteenth (and early nineteenth) century obsession with all things Oriental (see Orientalism), which was inspired by Antoine Galland's translation of The Arabian Nights (itself retranslated, into English, in 1708). Beckford was also influenced by similar works from the French writer Voltaire. His originality lay in combining the popular Oriental elements with the Gothic stylings of Horace Walpole's The Castle of Otranto (1764). The result stands alongside Walpole's novel and Mary Shelley's Frankenstein (1818) in the first rank of early Gothic fiction.

Description
William Beckford wrote Vathek in French in 1782, when he was 21. He often stated that Vathek was written as an emotional response to "the events that happened at Fonthill at Christmas 1781", when he had prepared an elaborate Orientally-inspired entertainment at his lavish country estate with the assistance of renowned painter and set designer Philip James de Loutherbourg. Beckford said that it took him only two to three days and the intervening nights to write the entire book.

Vathek was written during a time when part of European culture was influenced by Orientalism. It is an Arabian tale because of the oriental setting and characters and the depiction of oriental cultures, societies, and myth. Vathek is also a Gothic novel with its emphasis on the supernatural, ghosts, and spirits, as well as the terror it tries to induce in the reader.

The title character is inspired by al-Wathiq (الواثق), son of al-Mu'tasim, an Abbasid caliph who reigned in 842–847 (227–232 AH in the Islamic calendar) who had a great thirst for knowledge and became a great patron to scholars and artists. During his reign, a number of revolts broke out. He took an active role in quelling them. He died of fever on 10 August 847.

The narrative of Vathek uses a third person, omniscient, semi-intrusive narrator. The novel, while it may lend itself to be divided into chapters, is one complete manuscript without pause.

Plot summary
The novel chronicles the fall from power of the Caliph Vathek, who renounces Islam and engages with his mother, Carathis, in a series of licentious and deplorable activities designed to gain him supernatural powers. At the end of the novel, instead of attaining these powers, Vathek descends into a hell ruled by the fallen angel Eblis where he is doomed to wander endlessly and speechlessly.

Vathek, the ninth caliph of the Abassides, ascended to the throne at an early age. He is a majestic figure, terrible in anger (one glance of his flashing eye can make "the wretch on whom it was fixed instantly [fall] backwards and sometimes [expire]"), and addicted to the pleasures of the flesh. He is intensely thirsty for knowledge and often invites scholars to converse with him. If he fails to convince the scholar of his points of view, he attempts a bribe; if this does not work, he sends the scholar to prison. To better study astronomy, he builds an observation tower with 11,000 steps.

A hideous stranger arrives in town, claiming to be a merchant from India selling precious goods. Vathek buys glowing swords with letters on them from the merchant, and invites the merchant to dinner. When the merchant does not respond to Vathek's questions, Vathek looks at him with his "evil eye", but this has no effect, so Vathek imprisons him. The next day, he discovers that the merchant has escaped and his prison guards are dead. The people begin to call Vathek crazy. His Greek mother, Carathis, tells him that the merchant was "the one talked about in the prophecy", and Vathek admits that he should have treated the stranger kindly.

Vathek wants to decipher the messages on his new sabres, offers a reward to anyone who can help him, and punishes those who fail. After several scholars fail, one elderly man succeeds: the swords say "We were made where everything is well made; we are the least of the wonders of a place where all is wonderful and deserving, the sight of the first potentate on earth". But the next morning, the message has changed: the sword now says "Woe to the rash mortal who seeks to know that of which he should remain ignorant, and to undertake that which surpasses his power". The old man flees before Vathek can punish him. However, Vathek realises that the writing on the swords really did change.

Vathek then develops an insatiable thirst and often goes to a place near a high mountain to drink from one of four fountains there, kneeling at the edge of the fountain to drink. One day he hears a voice telling him to "not assimilate [him]self to a dog". It was the voice of the merchant who had sold him the swords, a mysterious man whom Vathek calls "Giaour", an Ottoman term used for non-believers. The Giaour cures his thirst with a potion and the two men return to Samarah. Vathek returns to immersing himself in the pleasures of the flesh, and begins to fear that the Giaour, who is now popular at Court, will seduce one of his wives. Vathek makes a fool of himself trying to out-drink the Giaour, and to out-eat him; when he sits upon the throne to administer justice, he does so haphazardly. His prime vizier rescues him from disgrace by whispering that Carathis had read a message in the stars foretelling a great evil to befall Vathek and his vizier Morakanabad; the vizier informs Vathek that Carathis advises him to ask the Giaour about the drugs he used in the potion, lest that be a poison. When Vathek confronts him, the Giaour only laughs, so Vathek gets angry and kicks him. The Giaour is transformed into a ball and Vathek compels everyone in the palace to kick it, even the resistant Carathis and Morakanabad. Then Vathek has the whole town kick the ball-shaped merchant into a remote valley. Vathek stays in the area and eventually hears Giaour's voice telling him that if he will worship the Giaour and the jinns of the earth, and renounce the teachings of Islam, he will bring Vathek to "the palace of the subterrain fire" (22) where Soliman Ben Daoud (King Solomon) controls the talismans that rule over the world.

Vathek agrees, and proceeds with the ritual that the Giaour demands: to sacrifice fifty of the city's children. In return, Vathek will receive a key of great power. Vathek holds a "competition" among the children of the nobles of Samarah, declaring that the winners will receive "endless favors". As the children approach Vathek for the competition, he throws them inside an ebony portal to be sacrificed. Once this is finished, the Giaour makes the portal disappear. The Samaran citizens see Vathek alone and accuse him of having sacrificed their children to the Giaour, and form a mob to kill Vathek. Carathis pleads with Morakanabad to help save Vathek's life; the vizier complies, and calms the crowd.

Vathek wonders when his reward will come, and Carathis says that he must fulfill his end of the pact and sacrifice to the jinn of the earth. Carathis helps him prepare the sacrifice: she and her son climb to the top of the tower and mix oils to create an explosion of light. The people, presuming that the tower is on fire, rush up the stairs to save Vathek from being burnt to death. Instead, Carathis sacrifices them to the jinn. Carathis performs another ritual and learns that for Vathek to claim his reward, he must go to Istakhar.

Vathek goes away with his wives and servants, leaving the city in the care of Morakanabad and Carathis. A week after he leaves, his caravan is attacked by carnivorous animals. The soldiers panic and accidentally set the area on fire; Vathek and his wives must flee. Still, they continue on their way. They reach steep mountains where the Islamic dwarfs dwell. They invite Vathek to rest with them, possibly in the hopes of converting him back to Islam. Vathek sees a message his mother left for him: "Beware of old doctors and their puny messengers of but one cubit high: distrust their pious frauds; and, instead of eating their melons, impale on a spit the bearers of them. Should thou be so fool as to visit them, the portal to the subterranean place will shut in thy face" (53). Vathek becomes angry and claims that he has followed the Giaour's instructions long enough. He stays with the dwarfs, meets their Emir, named Fakreddin, and the Emir's beautiful daughter Nouronihar.

Vathek wants to marry her, but she is already in love with and promised to her effeminate cousin Gulchenrouz. Vathek thinks she should be with a "real" man and arranges for Bababalouk to kidnap Gulchenrouz. The Emir, finding of the attempted seduction, bends his head and asks Vathek to kill him, as he is ashamed to have seen "the prophet's vice-regent violate the laws of hospitality." But Nouronihar prevents Vathek from killing her father, and Gulchenrouz escapes. The Emir and his servants plan to safeguard Nouronihar and Gulchenrouz by drugging them and hiding them in a valley by a lake. The plan succeeds temporarily, but when they awake in the valley, they believe they have died and are in purgatory. Nouronihar, however, grows curious and wants to explore the area. Beyond the valley, she encounters Vathek, who is mourning for her supposed death. Both realise the sham. Vathek then orders Nouronihar to marry him, she abandons Gulchenrouz, and the Emir abandons hope.

Meanwhile, in Samarah, Carathis can discover no news of her son from reading the stars. Vathek's favorite wife, the sultana Dilara, writes to Carathis, informing her that her son has broken the condition of the Giaour's contract, by accepting Fakreddin's hospitality on the way to Istakhar. She asks him to drown Nouronihar, but Vathek refuses, because he intends to make her his queen. Carathis then decides to sacrifice Gulchenrouz, but before she can catch him, Gulchenrouz jumps into the arms of a Genie who protects him. That night, Carathis hears that Motavakel, Vathek's brother, is planning to lead a revolt against Morakanabad. Carathis tells Vathek that he has distinguished himself by breaking the laws of hospitality by "seducing" the emir's daughter after sharing his bread, and that if he can commit one more crime along the way he shall enter Soliman's gates triumphant.

Vathek continues on his journey, reaches Rocnabad, and degrades and humiliates its citizens for his own pleasure.

A Genie asks Mohammed for permission to try to save Vathek from his eternal damnation. He takes the form of a saintly shepherd who plays the flute to make men realise their sins. The shepherd asks Vathek if he is done sinning, warns Vathek about Eblis, ruler of Hell, and asks Vathek to return home, destroy his tower, disown Carathis, and preach Islam. He has until a set moment to decide yes or no. Vathek's pride wins out, and he tells the shepherd that he will continue on his quest for power, and values Nouronihar more than life itself or God's mercy. The moment is past, and the shepherd screams and vanishes. Vathek's servants desert him; Nouronihar becomes immensely prideful.

Finally, Vathek reaches Istakhar, where he finds more swords with writing on them, which says "Thou hast violated the conditions of my parchment, and deserve to be sent back, but in favour to thy companion, and as the meed for what thou hast done to obtain it, Eblis permitted that the portal of this place will receive thee" (108). The Giaour opens the gates with a golden key, and Vathek and Nouronihar step through into a place of gold where Genies of both sexes dance lasciviously. The Giaour leads them to Eblis, who tells them that they may enjoy whatever his empire holds. Vathek asks to be taken to the talismans that govern the world. There, Soliman tells Vathek that he had once been a great king, but was seduced by a Jinn and received the power to make everyone in the world do his bidding. But because of this, Soliman is destined to suffer in hell for a finite but vast period — until the waterfall he is sitting beside, stops. This eventual end to his punishment is due to his piety in the earlier part of his reign. The other inmates must suffer the fire in their hearts for all eternity. Too late, Vathek asks the Giaour to release him, saying he will relinquish all he was offered, but the Giaour refuses. He tells Vathek to enjoy his omnipotence while it lasts, for in a few days he will be tormented.

Vathek and Nouronihar become increasingly discontented with the palace of flames. Vathek orders an ifrit to fetch Carathis from the castle. While the ifrit is bringing Carathis, Vathek meets some people who are, like him, awaiting the execution of their own sentences of eternal suffering. Three relate to Vathek how they got to Eblis' domain. When Carathis arrives, he warns her of what happens to those who enter Eblis' domain, but Carathis takes the talismans of earthly power from Soliman regardless. She gathers the Jinns and tries to overthrow one of the Solimans, but Eblis decrees "It is time." Carathis, Vathek, Nouronihar, and the other denizens of hell lose "the most precious gift granted by heaven – HOPE" (119). They begin to feel eternal remorse for their crimes, their hearts burning with literal, eternal fire.

Characters

 * Carathis: Vathek's mother. She is a Greek woman who is well versed in science, astrology, and occult magic. She teaches all of her skills to Vathek, and convinces him to embark on his quest for power which eventually leads to his damnation. When arriving in hell, Carathis runs amok, exploring the palace, discovering its hidden secrets, and even tries to stage a rebellion. However, once her own punishment is enacted, she too loses all hope and is consumed by her guilt.

 * Vathek: Ninth Caliph of the Abassides, who ascended to the throne at an early age. His figure was pleasing and majestic, but when angry, his eyes became so terrible that "the wretch on whom it was fixed instantly fell backwards and sometimes expired" (1). He was addicted to women and pleasures of the flesh, so he ordered five palaces to be built: the five palaces of the senses. Although he was an eccentric man, he was learned in the ways of science, physics, and astrology. His chief sin, gluttony, paved the path of his damnation.

 * Giaour: His name means blasphemer and infidel. He claims to be an Indian merchant, but in actuality he is a Jinn who works for the arch-demon Eblis. He guides Vathek and gives him instructions on how to reach the palace of fire.

 * Emir Fakreddin: Vathek's host during his travels. He offers Vathek a place to stay and rest. He is deeply religious. Vathek betrays his hospitality by seducing his daughter.

 * Nouronihar: The Emir's daughter, a beautiful girl who is promised to Gulchenrouz, but is seduced by Vathek and joins him in his road to damnation.

 * Gulchenrouz: A beautiful young man with feminine features. He is the Emir's nephew. Due to his innocence, he is rescued from Carathis's hands and is allowed to live in eternal youth in a palace above the clouds.

 * Bababalouk: Head of Vathek's eunuchs. He is cunning and acts as a steward on Vathek's journey.

 * Morakanabad: Vathek's loyal and unsuspecting vizier.

 * Sutlememe: The Emir's head eunuch who serves as a caretaker for Nouronihar and Gulchenrouz.

 * Dilara: Vathek's favourite wife.

Themes
Afrit – described as a creature comparable to the Lamia and Medusa, depicted as the cruelest type of demon (div) in Vathek.

Bilqis (Balkis in Vathek) (מלכת שבא, ;, ; (ማክዳ ); ملكة سبأ, ) – a woman who ruled the ancient kingdom of Sheba and is referred to in Habeshan history, the Hebrew Bible, the New Testament, and the Qur'an. She is mentioned (unnamed) in the Bible in the Books of Kings and Book of Chronicles as a great queen who seeks out Solomon to learn if the tales of his wisdom are true. She is also mentioned in Jewish legends as a queen with a great love for learning, in African tales as "the queen of Egypt and Ethiopia", and in Muslim tradition as Balkis, a great queen of a nation that worshiped the sun who later converted to Solomon's god. The Roman historian Josephus calls her Nicaule. She is thought to have been born on 5 January, sometime in the 10th century BC.

Dive – an evil creature, a demon.

Eunuch – a castrated man; the term usually refers to those castrated to perform a specific social function, as was common in many societies of the past.

Khalif (Caliph in Vathek) (from Arabic خلافة khilāfa) – the head of state in a caliphate, and the title for the leader of the Islamic Ummah, or global Islamic nation. It is a transliterated version of the Arabic word خليفة Khalīfah which means "successor" or "representative". The early leaders of the Muslim nation following Muhammad's (570–632) death were called "Khalifat ar-rasul Allah," meaning political successor.

Fortress of Aherman – a fortress in which demons would gather to receive the commands of their lord.

Jinn – according to Middle Eastern mythology, they governed the Earth before humans. They are formed of subtler matter than humans and likewise capable of salvation.

Layla and Majnun – famous lovers in Middle Eastern legends.

Eblis (Arabic إبليس) – lord of the apostate angels, who were cast into the underworld after refusing to bow before Adam.

Mount Qaf – believed to be a mountain surrounding the Earth.

Simurgh – a wise and miraculous bird, friendly towards "the sons of Adam" and an enemy to the divs.

Setting
Architecture is used to illustrate certain elements of Vathek's character and to warn of the dangers of over-reaching. Vathek's hedonism and devotion to pleasure are reflected in the pleasure wings he adds on to his castle, each with the express purpose of satisfying a different sense. He builds a tall tower in order to further his quest for knowledge. This tower stands for Vathek's pride and desire for a power beyond the reach of humans. He is later warned that he must destroy the tower and return to Islam, or risk dire consequences. Vathek's pride wins out, and in the end his quest for power and knowledge ends with him confined to hell.

Literary significance and criticism
Lord Byron cited Vathek as a source for his poem The Giaour. In Childe Harold's Pilgrimage, Byron also calls Vathek "England's wealthiest son". Other Romantic poets wrote works with a Middle Eastern setting inspired by Vathek, including Robert Southey's Thalaba the Destroyer (1801) and Thomas Moore's Lalla-Rookh (1817). John Keats's vision of the Underworld in Endymion (1818) is indebted to the novel.

Edgar Allan Poe mentions the infernal terrace seen by Vathek in "Landor's Cottage". Stéphane Mallarmé, who translated Poe's poems into French, inspired by this reference in "Landor's Cottage," had Vathek reprinted in its original French, for which edition he also supplied a preface. In his book English Prose Style, Herbert Read cited Vathek as "one of the best fantasies in the language".

H. P. Lovecraft also cited Vathek as the inspiration for his unfinished novel Azathoth. Vathek is also believed to have been a model for Lovecraft's completed novel The Dream-Quest of Unknown Kadath.

American fantasy author Clark Ashton Smith greatly admired Vathek. Smith later wrote "The Third Episode of Vathek", the completion of a fragment by Beckford that was entitled "The Story of the Princess Zulkaïs and the Prince Kalilah". "The Third Episode of Vathek" was published in R. H. Barlow's fanzine Leaves in 1937, and later in Smith's 1960 collection The Abominations of Yondo.

Vathek has been well received by historians of the fantasy genre; Les Daniels stated Vathek was "a unique and delightful book". Daniels argued Vathek had little in common with the other "Gothic" novels; "Beckford's luxuriant imagery and sly humour create a mood totally antithetical to that suggested by the grey castles and black deeds of medieval Europe". Franz Rottensteiner calls the novel "a marvellous story, the creation of an erratic but powerful imagination, which brilliantly evokes the mystery and wonder associated with the Orient" and Brian Stableford has praised the work as the "classic novel Vathek—a feverish and gleefully perverse decadent/Arabian fantasy".

Allusions/references in other works

 * Eblis, the architect of Vathek's damnation, was modelled on Iblis or Azazil; Beckford's depiction of Eblis is derived from John Milton's Paradise Lost's Satan (1667 and 1674; see Fallen angel).
 * Argentinian writer Eduardo Berti's short story "El traductor apresurado" ("The Hurried Translator", published in 2002 in La vida imposible) strongly alludes to Beckford's novel.
 * Chapter 7 of Roberto Bolaño's Distant Star (1996) mentions it.
 * Vathek, a symphonic poem written in 1913, composed by Luís de Freitas Branco, was inspired by this novel.
 * Another symphonic poem by the same title came from Horatio Parker in 1903.
 * Vathek's insatiable thirst for knowledge also parallels the attitude seen in the character of Dr. Faustus, in Christopher Marlowe's Dr. Faustus (1604), a work based on the German legend of Faust.
 * H. G. Wells alludes to it in Tono-Bungay (1909).
 * The Spanish musician Luis Delgado has published an album called Vathek (1982), inspired by the literary work.
 * An episode of Extreme Ghostbusters, "Deadliners", has malevolent spirits known as the Vathek.

title: Vathek


text:
User:Chris 73/Closet

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title: User:Chris 73/Closet


text:
Requiem for a Dream (novel)

Requiem for a Dream is a 1978 novel by American writer Hubert Selby Jr., that concerns four New Yorkers whose lives spiral out of control as they succumb to their addictions.

Plot
This story follows the lives of Sara Goldfarb, her son Harry, his girlfriend Marion Kleinmitz, and his best friend Tyrone C. Love, who are all searching for the key to their dreams in their own ways. In the process, they fall into devastating lives of addiction. Harry and Marion are in love and want to open their own business; their friend Tyrone wants to escape life in the ghetto. To achieve these dreams, they buy a large amount of heroin, planning to get rich by selling it.

Sara, Harry's lonely widowed mother, dreams of being on television. When a phone call from a game show casting company gets her hopes up, she goes to a doctor, who gives her diet pills to lose weight. She spends the next few months on the pills, wanting desperately to look thin on TV and fit into a red dress from her younger days. However, the casting company does not notify her about the details of her show. She becomes addicted to the diet pills and eventually develops amphetamine psychosis after her life continues to go downhill. She eventually ends up in a mental institution, where she undergoes electroconvulsive therapy (ECT).

Harry, Marion, and Tyrone become addicted to their own product. Eventually, when heroin becomes scarce, they turn on each other, slowly hiding the drugs they obtain from the other two members. On their way to Miami, Harry and Tyrone are arrested, convicted, and sentenced to jail. Harry's arm has become infected from repeated injections, and has to be amputated. Left alone, Marion becomes a prostitute to support her addiction. In jail, Tyrone faces frequent abuse from the guards due to his race.

Film adaptation
The novel was later adapted into a critically acclaimed eponymous film, released in 2000. The film was directed by Darren Aronofsky and stars Jared Leto, Jennifer Connelly, Marlon Wayans and Ellen Burstyn. Burstyn was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Actress for her performance as Sara.

Release details

 * Paperback – ISBN 978-1-56025-248-1, published in 2000 by Da Capo Press.

title: Requiem for a Dream (novel)


text:
Chinoiserie

 (, ; loanword from French chinoiserie, from chinois, "Chinese"; ) is the European interpretation and imitation of Chinese and other Sinosphere artistic traditions, especially in the decorative arts, garden design, architecture, literature, theatre, and music. The aesthetic of chinoiserie has been expressed in different ways depending on the region. It is related to the broader current of Orientalism, which studied Far East cultures from a historical, philological, anthropological, philosophical, and religious point of view. First appearing in the 17th century, this trend was popularized in the 18th century due to the rise in trade with China (during the High Qing era) and the rest of East Asia.

As a style, chinoiserie is related to the Rococo style. Both styles are characterized by exuberant decoration, asymmetry, a focus on materials, and stylized nature and subject matter that focuses on leisure and pleasure. Chinoiserie focuses on subjects that were thought by Europeans to be typical of Chinese culture.

History

Chinoiserie entered European art and decoration in the mid-to-late 17th century; the work of Athanasius Kircher influenced the study of Orientalism. The popularity of chinoiserie peaked around the middle of the 18th century when it was associated with the Rococo style and with works by François Boucher, Thomas Chippendale, and Jean-Baptist Pillement. It was also popularized by the influx of Chinese and Indian goods brought annually to Europe aboard English, Dutch, French, and Swedish East India Companies. There was a revival of popularity for chinoiserie in Europe and the United States from the mid-19th century through the 1920s, and today in elite interior design and fashion.

Though usually understood as a European style, chinoiserie was a global phenomenon. Local versions of chinoiserie were developed in India, Japan, Iran, and particularly Latin America. Through the Manila galleon trade, Spanish traders brought large amounts of Chinese porcelain, lacquer, textiles, and spices from Chinese merchants based in Manila to New Spanish markets in Acapulco, Panama, and Lima. Those products then inspired local artists and artisans such as ceramicists making Talavera pottery at Puebla de Los Angeles.

Chinoiserie had some parallel in "occidenterie", which was Western styled goods produced in 18th century China for Chinese consumers. Although this was a notable interest of the Kangxi Emperor and Qianlong Emperor, as shown by the architecture of Xiyang Lou, it was not restricted only to the court. "Occidenterie" artifacts and art were accessible to a wider variety of consumers, as they were domestically produced.

Popularization
There were many reasons why chinoiserie gained such popularity in Europe in the 18th century. Europeans had a fascination with Asia due to their increased, but still restricted, access to new cultures through expanded trade with East Asia, especially China. The 'China' indicated in the term 'chinoiserie' represented in European people's mind a wider region of the globe that could embrace China itself, but also Japan, Korea, South-East Asia, India or even Persia. In art, the style of "the Orient" was considered a source of inspiration; the atmosphere rich in images and the harmonic designs of the oriental style reflected the picture of an ideal world, from which to draw ideas in order to reshape one's own culture. For this reason the style of chinoiserie is to be regarded as an important result of the exchange between the West and the East. During the 19th century, and especially in its latter period, the style of chinoiserie was assimilated under the generic definition of exoticism.

Even though the root of the word 'chinoiserie' is 'Chine' (China), the Europeans of the 17th and 18th centuries did not have a clear conceptualization of how China was in reality. Often terms like 'Orient', 'Far East' or 'China' were all equally used to signify the region of Eastern Asia that had proper Chinese culture as a major representative, but the meaning of the term could change according to different contexts. Sir William Chambers for example, in his oeuvre A Dissertation on Oriental Gardening of 1772, generically addresses China as the 'Orient'. In the financial records of Louis XIV during the 17th and 18th centuries were already registered expressions like 'façon de la Chine', Chinese manner, or 'à la chinoise', made in the Chinese way. In the 19th century the term 'chinoiserie' appeared for the first time in French literature. In the novel L'Interdiction published in 1836, Honoré de Balzac used chinoiserie to refer to the craftworks made in the Chinese style. From this moment on the term gained momentum and started being used more frequently to mean objects produced in the Chinese style but sometimes also to indicate graceful objects of small dimension or of scarce account. In 1878 'chinoiserie' entered formally in the Dictionnaire de l'Académie.

After the spread of Marco Polo's narrations, the knowledge of China held by the Europeans continued to derive essentially from reports made by merchants and diplomatic envoys. Dating from the latter half of the 17th century a relevant role in this exchange of information was then taken up by the Jesuits, whose continual gathering of missionary intelligence and language transcription gave the European public a new deeper insight of the Chinese empire and its culture.

While Europeans frequently held inaccurate ideas about East Asia, this did not necessarily preclude their fascination and respect. In particular, the Chinese who had "exquisitely finished art... [and] whose court ceremonial was even more elaborate than that of Versailles" were viewed as highly civilized. According to Voltaire in his Art de la Chine, "The fact remains that four thousand years ago, when we did not know how to read, they [the Chinese] knew everything essentially useful of which we boast today." Moreover, Indian philosophy was increasingly admired by philosophers such as Arthur Schopenhauer, who regarded the Upanishads as the "production of the highest human wisdom" and "the most profitable and elevating reading which...is possible in the world."

Chinoiserie was not universally popular. Some critics saw the style as "…a retreat from reason and taste and a descent into a morally ambiguous world based on hedonism, sensation and values perceived to be feminine." It was viewed as lacking the logic and reason upon which Antique art had been founded. Architect and author Robert Morris claimed that it "…consisted of mere whims and chimera, without rules or order, it requires no fertility of genius to put into execution." Those with a more archaeological view of the East, considered the chinoiserie style, with its distortions and whimsical approach, to be a mockery of the actual Chinese art and architecture. Finally, still others believed that an interest in chinoiserie indicated a pervading "cultural confusion" in European society.

Persistence after the 18th century
Chinoiserie persisted into the 19th and 20th centuries but declined in popularity. There was a notable loss of interest in Chinese-inspired décor after the death in 1830 of King George IV, a great proponent of the style. The First Opium War of 1839–1842 between Britain and China disrupted trade and caused a further decline of interest in the Oriental. China closed its doors to exports and imports and for many people chinoiserie became a fashion of the past.

As British-Chinese relations stabilized towards the end of the 19th century, there was a revival of interest in chinoiserie. Prince Albert, for example, reallocated many chinoiserie works from George IV's Royal Pavilion at Brighton to the more accessible Buckingham Palace. Chinoiserie served to remind Britain of its former colonial glory that was rapidly fading with the modern era.

Chinese porcelain
From the Renaissance to the 18th century Western designers attempted to imitate the technical sophistication of Chinese export porcelain (and for that matter Japanese export porcelain – Europeans were generally vague as the origin of "oriental" imports), with only partial success. One of the earliest successful attempts, for instance, was the Medici porcelain manufactured in Florence during the late-16th century, as the Casino of San Marco remained open from 1575 to 1587. Despite never being commercial in nature, the next major attempt to replicate Chinese porcelain was the soft-paste manufactory at Rouen in 1673, with Edme Poterat, widely reputed as creator of the French soft-paste pottery tradition, opening his own factory in 1647. Efforts were eventually made to imitate hard-paste porcelain, which were held in high regard. As such, the direct imitation of Chinese designs in faience began in the late 17th century, was carried into European porcelain production, most naturally in tea wares, and peaked in the wave of rococo chinoiserie (c. 1740–1770).

Earliest hints of chinoiserie appear in the early 17th century, in the arts of the nations with active East India Companies, Holland and England, then by the mid-17th century, in Portugal as well. Tin-glazed pottery (see delftware) made at Delft and other Dutch towns adopted genuine blue-and-white Ming decoration from the early 17th century. After a book by Johan Nieuhof was published the 150 pictures encouraged chinoiserie, and became especially popular in the 18th century. Early ceramic wares in Meissen porcelain and other factories naturally imitated Chinese designs, though the shapes for "useful wares", table and tea wares, typically remained Western, often based on shapes in silver. Decorative wares such as vases followed Chinese shapes.

Painting
The ideas of the decorative and pictorial arts of the East permeated the European and American arts and craft scene. For example, in the United States, "by the mid-18th century, Charleston had imported an impressive array of Asian export luxury goods [such as]...paintings." The aspects of Chinese painting that were integrated into European and American visual arts include asymmetrical compositions, lighthearted subject matter and a general sense of capriciousness.

William Alexander (1767–1816), a British painter, illustrator and engraver who travelled to the East Asia and China in the 18th century, was directly influenced by the culture and landscape he saw in the East. He presented an idealized, romanticized depiction of Chinese culture, but he was influenced by "pre-established visual signs." While the chinoiserie landscapes that Alexander depicted accurately reflected the landscape of China, "paradoxically, it is this imitation and repetition of the iconic signs of China that negate the very possibility of authenticity, and render them into stereotypes." The depiction of China and East Asia in European and American painting was dependent on the understanding of the East by Western preconceptions, rather than representations of Eastern culture as it actually was.

Interior design
Various European monarchs, such as Louis XV of France, gave special favor to chinoiserie, as it blended well with the rococo style. Entire rooms, such as those at Château de Chantilly, were painted with chinoiserie compositions, and artists such as Antoine Watteau and others brought expert craftsmanship to the style. Central European palaces like the Castle of Wörlitz or the Castle of Pillnitz all include rooms decorated with Chinese features, while in the palace of Sanssouci at Potsdam features a Dragon House (Das Drachenhaus) and the Chinese House (Das Chinesische Haus). Pleasure pavilions in "Chinese taste" appeared in the formal parterres of late Baroque and Rococo German and Russian palaces, and in tile panels at Aranjuez near Madrid. Chinese Villages were built in the mountainous park of Wilhelmshöhe near Kassel, Germany; in Drottningholm, Sweden and Tsarskoe Selo, Russia. Thomas Chippendale's mahogany tea tables and china cabinets, especially, were embellished with fretwork glazing and railings, c. 1753–70, but sober homages to early Qing scholars' furnishings were also naturalized, as the tang evolved into a mid-Georgian side table and squared slat-back armchairs suited English gentlemen as well as Chinese scholars. Not every adaptation of Chinese design principles falls within mainstream chinoiserie. Chinoiserie media included "japanned" ware imitations of lacquer and painted tin (tôle) ware that imitated japanning, early painted wallpapers in sheets, after engravings by Jean-Baptiste Pillement, and ceramic figurines and table ornaments.

In the 17th and 18th centuries Europeans began to manufacture furniture that imitated Chinese lacquer furniture. It was frequently decorated with ebony and ivory or Chinese motifs such as pagodas. Thomas Chippendale helped to popularize the production of chinoiserie furniture with the publication of his design book The Gentleman and Cabinet-maker's Director: Being a large Collection of the Most Elegant and Useful Designs of Household Furniture, In the Most Fashionable Taste. His designs provided a guide for intricate chinoiserie furniture and its decoration. His chairs and cabinets were often decorated with scenes of colorful birds, flowers, or images of exotic imaginary places. The compositions of this decoration were often asymmetrical.

The increased use of wallpaper in European homes in the 18th century also reflects the general fascination with chinoiserie motifs. With the rise of the villa and a growing taste for sunlit interiors, the popularity of wallpaper grew. The demand for wallpaper created by Chinese artists began first with European aristocrats between 1740 and 1790. The luxurious wallpaper available to them would have been unique, handmade, and expensive. Later wallpaper with chinoiserie motifs became accessible to the middle class when it could be printed and thus produced in a range of grades and prices.

The patterns on chinoiserie wallpaper are similar to the pagodas, floral designs, and exotic imaginary scenes found on chinoiserie furniture and porcelain. Like chinoiserie furniture and other decorative art forms, chinoiserie wallpaper was typically placed in bedrooms, closets, and other private rooms of a house. The patterns on wallpaper were expected to complement the decorative objects and furniture in a room, creating a complementary backdrop.

Architecture and gardens
European understanding of Chinese and East Asian garden design is exemplified by the use of the word Sharawadgi, understood as beauty, without order that takes the form of an aesthetically pleasing irregularity in landscape design. The word traveled together with imported lacquer ware from Japan where shara'aji was an idiom in appraisal of design in decorative arts. Sir William Temple (1628–1699), referring to such artwork, introduces the term sharawadgi in his essay Upon the Gardens of Epicurus written in 1685 and published in 1690. Under Temple's influence European gardeners and landscape designers used the concept of sharawadgi to create gardens that were believed to reflect the asymmetry and naturalism present in the gardens of the East.

These gardens often contain various fragrant plants, flowers and trees, decorative rocks, ponds or lake with fish, and twisting pathways. They are frequently enclosed by a wall. Architectural features placed in these gardens often include pagodas, ceremonial halls used for celebrations or holidays, pavilions with flowers and seasonal elements.

Landscapes such as London's Kew Gardens show distinct Chinese influence in architecture. The monumental 163-foot Great Pagoda in the centre of the gardens, designed and built by William Chambers, exhibits strong English architectural elements, resulting in a product of combined cultures (Bald, 290). A replica of it was built in Munich's Englischer Garten, while the Chinese Garden of Oranienbaum includes another pagoda and also a Chinese teahouse. Though the rise of a more serious approach in Neoclassicism from the 1770s onward tended to replace Oriental inspired designs, at the height of Regency "Grecian" furnishings, the Prince Regent came down with a case of Brighton Pavilion, and Chamberlain's Worcester china manufactory imitated "Imari" wares. While classical styles reigned in the parade rooms, upscale houses, from Badminton House (where the "Chinese Bedroom" was furnished by William and John Linnell, ca 1754) and Nostell Priory to Casa Loma in Toronto, sometimes featured an entire guest room decorated in the chinoiserie style, complete with Chinese-styled bed, phoenix-themed wallpaper, and china. Later exoticism added imaginary Turkish themes, where a "diwan" became a sofa.

Tea
One of the things that contributed to the popularity of chinoiserie was the 18th-century vogue for tea drinking. The feminine and domestic culture of drinking tea required an appropriate chinoiserie mise en scène. According to Beevers, "Tea drinking was a fundamental part of polite society; much of the interest in both Chinese export wares and chinoiserie rose from the desire to create appropriate settings for the ritual of tea drinking." After 1750, England was importing 10 million pounds of tea annually, demonstrating how widespread this practice was. The taste for chinoiserie porcelain, both export wares and European imitations, and tea drinking was more associated with women than men. A number of aristocratic and socially important women were famous collectors of chinoiserie porcelain, among them Queen Mary II, Queen Anne, Henrietta Howard, and the Duchess of Queensbury, all socially important women. This is significant because their homes served as examples of good taste and sociability. A single historical incident in which there was a "keen competition between Margaret, 2nd Duchess of Portland, and Elizabeth, Countess of Ilchester, for a Japanese blue and white plate," shows how wealthy female consumers asserted their purchasing power and their need to play a role in creating the prevailing vogue.

Fashion
The term is also used in the fashion industry to describe "designs in textiles, fashion, and the decorative arts that derive from Chinese styles". Since the 17th century, Chinese arts and aesthetic were sources of inspiration to artists and creators, and fashion designers when goods from oriental countries were widely seen for the first time in Western Europe.

In the 18th century and throughout the 19th century, chinoiserie fashion was especially celebrated in France, and the origin of most Chinese-inspired fashion was French during this period. Chinoiserie had also inspired designers such as Mariano Fortuny, the Callot Soeurs, and Jean Paquin.

In the early 20th century, European and fashion designers would use China and other countries outside of the Eurocentric-fashion world to seek inspiration; Vogue magazine also acknowledged that China had contributed to the aesthetic inspiration to global fashion. Chinese motifs grew popular in European fashion during this period. China and the Chinese people also supplied the materials and aesthetics to American fashion. Original Chinese fashion also influenced various designs and styles of deshabille.

There was also a fashion trend for day-wear jackets and coats to be cut in styles which would suggest various Chinese items as was published the Ladies' Home Journal in June 1913, where the garments displayed showed influences of the Qing dynasty mandarin court gown (especially the bufu), the jiaoling ruqun, kanjia, mamianqun, yunjian, yaoqun (short waist-skirt), piling (collar), as well as traditional Chinese embroideries, and traditional Chinese Lào zi, pankou, high collars, etc.

According to the Ladies' Home Journal of June 1913, volume 30, issue 6:"Interest in the political and civic activities of the new China, which is more or less world-wide at this time, led the designers of this page [p.26] and the succeeding one [p.27] to look to that country for inspiration for clothes that would be unique and new and yet fit in with present-day modes and the needs and environments of American women [...]"

Music
Western approximations of Chinese music first began to be used in the mid-17th century in operas such as Purcell's The Fairy-Queen (1692) and Gluck's Le cinesi (1754). Jean-Jacques Rousseau included what he claimed was an authentic Chinese melody, the air chinois, in his 1768 Dictionary of Music, and it was re-used by Weber in his Overtura cinesa (1804). Offenbach's satirical one-act operetta Ba-ta-clan (1855) was a big success in Paris. The 1889 Paris World Fair played a significant role in bringing world music to the attention of modern Western composers.

In the early 20th century French composers responded to the West's then utopian, nostalgic view of Chinese landscape and culture in pieces such as Pagodas (Debussy, 1903). There followed three major 20th century examples of musical chinoiserie: Mahler's Das Lied von der Erde (1908), Stravinsky's The Nightingale (1914), and Puccini's Turandot (1926).

Other notable pieces include Tchaikovsky's 'Chinese Dance' (from Act Two of The Nutcracker 1892), Ravel's 'Laideronnette, impératrice des pagodes' (from Ma mère l'Oye, 1910), the Chinese Symphony (1914) by Bernard van Dieren, and the light music orchestral fantasy In a Chinese Temple Garden by Albert Ketelbey (1923). In Britain, many 20th century song composers set English translations of Chinese poetry (by orientalists such as Launcelot Cranmer-Byng, Herbert Giles, Edward Powys Mathers and Arthur Waley) to music, including Benjamin Britten in his cycle Songs from the Chinese for high voice and guitar (1957). More recent operatic examples include A Night at the Chinese Opera (Judith Weir, 1987) and Nixon in China (John Adams, 1987).

The influence of Chinese and East Asian music has also been evident in popular music, from musical comedy (A Chinese Honeymoon, 1899), Tin Pan Alley (Limehouse Nights by George Gershwin, 1920), Broadway musicals and jazz (Chinoiserie by Duke Ellington, 1971) through to modern rock music (China Girl by David Bowie, 1976 and many more). These pieces often incorporate Western cultural shorthand clichés of Chinese musical style, such as the oriental riff, making use of the pentatonic scale, often harmonized with open parallel fourths.

Literary criticism
The term is also used in literary criticism. The so-called 'Mandarin style' "is beloved by literary pundits, by those who would make the written word as unlike as possible to the spoken one". Critics also describe a mannered "Chinese-esque" style of writing, such as that employed by Ernest Bramah in his Kai Lung stories, Barry Hughart in his Master Li & Number Ten Ox novels and Stephen Marley in his Chia Black Dragon series.

References and sources

 * References

 * Sources
 * Chang, Sheng-Ching (張省卿)，《東方啓蒙西方 – 十八世紀德國沃里兹（Wörlitz）自然風景園林之中國元素(Dongfang qimeng Xifang – shiba shiji Deguo Wolizi (Wörlitz) ziran fengjing yuanlin zhi Zhongguo yuansu) 》 (The East enlightening the West – Chinese elements in the 18th century landscape gardens of Wörlitz in Germany), 台北 (Taipei)：輔仁大學出版社 (Furendaxue chubanshe; Fu Jen University Bookstore), 2015.
 * Kang, Angela. Musical chinoiserie, University of Nottingham thesis, September 2011
 * Kang, Angela. Musical chinoiserie, University of Nottingham thesis, September 2011
 * Kang, Angela. Musical chinoiserie, University of Nottingham thesis, September 2011

title: Chinoiserie


text:
Penny Fuller

Penny Fuller is an American actress. She received two Tony Award nominations for her performances on Broadway stage: for Applause (1970), and The Dinner Party (2001). For her television performances, Fuller received six Emmy Award nominations, winning once, in 1982 for playing Madge Kendal in The Elephant Man.

Early life and family
Fuller was born in Durham, North Carolina. She attended Lumberton High School and Northwestern University, where her teachers included Alvina Krause.

Career
Fuller moved to New York City, and in 1960 appeared at the East 74th Street Theater in George Gershwin's Oh, Kay!, with Linda Lavin and Marti Stevens. She made her Broadway debut in The Moon Besieged (1962); she appeared as a replacement in the original productions of Barefoot in the Park (1963) and Cabaret (1966).

After a handful of Shakespearean productions, Fuller gained notice on Broadway for her portrayal of the outwardly sweet but subtly undermining Eve Harrington in Applause (1970–1972), the musical version of All About Eve with Lauren Bacall as Margo Channing. She started in Richard Rodgers' 1976 flop about Henry VIII, Rex, in which she appeared opposite Nicol Williamson and Glenn Close. Fuller continued to work in musicals, including the original production of William Finn's A New Brain and a 1999 revival of Rodgers' Do I Hear a Waltz? at New Jersey's George Street Playhouse. In later years, Fuller was also on Broadway in the original productions of Wendy Wasserstein's An American Daughter (1997) and Neil Simon's The Dinner Party (2000); she was Tony-nominated for the latter. Off-Broadway appearances have included Three Viewings (1995) and Nicky Silver's Beautiful Child. Most recently, appeared as the Old Lady/Blair Daniels in the 2017 revival of Sunday in the Park with George and as the Dowager Empress in Anastasia.

Fuller has extensive television work to her credit, including an Emmy-winning performance as Mrs. Kendal in the TV version of Bernard Pomerance's play The Elephant Man (1982) and Cat on a Hot Tin Roof (1984) by Tennessee Williams, in which she played Mae (a.k.a. Sister Woman). In 1992 she played Nancy McKeon's mother Ruth Benson in the CBS movie Baby Snatcher.

Fuller portrayed Amanda Harding in the ABC crime drama Fortune Dane (1986). She also appeared in dozens of other TV series, including The Edge of Night (1964), Love, American Style (1969), The Bob Newhart Show (1972), The F.B.I. (1972), Banacek (1973), The Six Million Dollar Man (1974), Barnaby Jones (1975), Family (1977), Trapper John, M.D. (1979 and 1981), One Day at a Time (1983), The Love Boat (1983 and 1985), Matlock (1988), L.A. Law (1988), Murder, She Wrote (1988 and 1993), China Beach (1989–90), Columbo (1990), Quantum Leap (1992), NYPD Blue (1994), Mad About You (1994–95), Melrose Place (1994–95), ER (1995), Law & Order (1998) and Judging Amy (2002 and 2005).

Her film work includes All the President's Men (1976) and The Beverly Hillbillies (1993).

Personal life
Fuller married Knox Kinlaw, an Atlanta doctor, in 1977. They had a daughter that same year.

Filmography

 * Women in Chains (1972, TV movie) as Helen Anderson
 * Applause (1973, TV movie) as Eve Harrington
 * Banacek (1973, TV series) as Gloria Hamilton, episode "The Greatest Collection of Them All"
 * The Six Million Dollar Man (1974, TV series) as Dr. Chris Forbes, episode "Population: Zero"
 * All the President's Men (1976) as Sally Aiken
 * Amber Waves (1980, TV movie) as Fern Jensen
 * The Elephant Man (1982, TV movie) as Mrs. Kendal
 * A Piano for Mrs. Cimino (1982, TV movie) as Mrs. Polanski
 * Lois Gibbs and the Love Canal (1982, TV movie) as Jeannie Kolchak
 * Intimate Agony (1983, TV movie) as Joanna
 * Quantum Leap (1992, TV Series) as Jane Lindhurst, episode "The Play's the Thing"
 * License to Kill (1984, TV movie) as Judith Peterson
 * Cat on a Hot Tin Roof (1984, TV movie) as Mae
 * As Summers Die (1986, TV movie) as Marci Holt
 * George Washington II: The Forging of a Nation (1986, TV movie) as Eliza Powel
 * The Two Mrs. Grenvilles (1987, TV mini-series) as Cordelia Grenville Hardington
 * Fire and Rain (1989, TV movie) as Mrs. Hamilton
 * Lies Before Kisses (1991, TV movie) as Katherine
 * False Arrest (1991, TV movie) as Marilyn Redmond
 * Miss Rose White (1992, TV movie) as Kate Ryan
 * Baby Snatcher (1992, TV movie) as Ruth Benson
 * Rio Shannon (1993, TV movie) as Beatrice Minister
 * Star (1993, TV movie) as Olivia Wyatt
 * The Beverly Hillbillies (1993) as Mrs. Margaret Drysdale
 * Melrose Place (1993-94) as Marilyn Carter
 * Mad About You (1993-1995) as Theresa Stemple
 * The Gift of Love(1994, TV movie) as Leora
 * All My Children (1995–96) as Lois (Erika Kane's rehab roommate)
 * Shadow Conspiracy (1997) as Dr. Olson
 * The Color of Love: Jacey's Story (2000, TV movie) as Madeleine Porter
 * King of the Corner (2004) as Mrs. Hargrove
 * James McNeill Whistler and the Case for Beauty (2014) as Anna Whistler (voice)
 * Strawberry Mansion (2021) as Arabella Isadora

title: Penny Fuller


text:
N21

N21 or N-21 may refer to:

Buses and trams

 * N21 (Long Island bus), New York
 * London Buses route N21

Roads

 * N21 road (Belgium), a National Road in Belgium
 * Route nationale 21, in France
 * N21 road (Ireland)
 * N21 (Cape Town), in South Africa
 * Nebraska Highway 21, in the United States

Other uses

 * HMS Abdiel (N21), a minelayer of the Royal Navy
 * Network TwentyOne, an Amway support organization
 * Nieuport 21, a French First World War fighter
 * Nitrogen-21, an isotope of nitrogen
 * Tumbuka language
 * N21, a postcode district in the N postcode area

title: N21