text:
Talk:Ghengis kahn

from VfD:

This was meant to be Genghis Khan, I suppose. Spelling mistake by a new user. utcursch 11:43, Oct 14, 2004 (UTC)
 * Keep as redirect. There is no need to discuss this article, it's a classic case for replacing by a redirect. Which I already done... andy 11:51, 14 Oct 2004 (UTC)
 * Keep as redirect.--Jll 12:20, 14 Oct 2004 (UTC)
 * Keep as redirect - very common error -- Graham ☺ | Talk 12:22, 14 Oct 2004 (UTC)
 * Delete. I don't think speling errors (sic) should be kept as redirects. Make the search engine fuzzy if we want that functionality. --Improv 18:15, 14 Oct 2004 (UTC)
 * Redirects have always been used for spelling mistakes, we shouldn't start to change that now imho. Fuzzy search engines arn't appropriate because of the structure of wikipedia. Darksun 18:37, 14 Oct 2004 (UTC)
 * There's no structural reason why the search engine isn't fuzzy, it's just not been written that way (yet). Anyway, I see no reason to delete harmless misspellings once they've been created; this is just clogging up VfD. Keep redirect. sjorford 12:38, 18 Oct 2004 (UTC)
 * Keep as redirect - God knows how many times it takes to spell Neitzsche correctly. I mean, Nietzche. I mean, Nietszche -- Argh! Ian Pugh 18:39, 17 Oct 2004 (UTC)
 * Keep as redirect until implementation not of a fuzzy search (which would correct for all mild typos) but that of a search that understood the rules of non-typo misspelling by English speakers.  I shouldn't have to fall back on an any-typo search (or Soundex), since reasonable misspellings can be enumerated. --Jerzy(t) 11:04, 2004 Oct 18 (UTC)

end moved discussion

title: Talk:Ghengis kahn


text: Template:Municipalities in Asturias

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Template:Municipalities in Asturias


text:
Wikipedia:Articles for deletion/Koumpare/old

Koumpare
Not meant for Wikipedia. utcursch 11:45, Oct 14, 2004 (UTC)
 * Delete. Foreign language dict. def with horrible spelling errors. jni 12:21, 14 Oct 2004 (UTC)
 * Delete -- Ferkelparade π 12:40, 14 Oct 2004 (UTC)
 * Delete; no way of fixing this childish piece of POV, short of total rewrite, and I bet the subject ain't really notable. — Bill 22:17, 14 Oct 2004 (UTC)
 * Not verifiable. Move to Talk:Koumpare until it can be verified. anthony (see warning) 15:50, 19 Oct 2004 (UTC)


text:
Dave Hilton Jr.

Dave "Davey" Hilton Jr. (born December 9, 1963) is a Canadian former boxing world champion. He is also known for being convicted of sexually assaulting two of his daughters.

He is the older brother of former light middleweight world champion of boxing, Matthew Hilton.

Professional boxing career
He briefly held the WBC super middleweight title after defeating Dingaan Thobela in December 2000, but shortly thereafter, the WBC stripped it from him after child molestation charges were leveled against him. Hilton suffered only two losses in his career, to fellow Canadians Stephane Ouellet, and Alain Bonnamie. He later avenged the loss to Bonnamie, and has previously knocked out Ouellet twice.

Legal troubles
Hilton was found guilty in 2001 of sexually abusing his daughters when they were under 14 years old, Jeannie, born in 1981, and Anne Marie, born in 1983, between 1995 and 1998, and was sentenced to seven years in jail in a facility 110 kilometers northwest of Montreal. In May 2006, Hilton was granted parole and was freed on June 20. He made his return to the boxing ring in May 2007 and won a unanimous decision. Hilton's daughters have written a book, Le Coeur au beurre noir (The Heart with a Black Eye), describing their abuse in detail. In September 2004, a Quebec judge lifted a publication ban on the identities of the daughters so they could publish the book. An English translation is in progress.

On August 20, 2007, Hilton was arrested by police and returned to jail for breaching conditions of his release. It was reported that Hilton assaulted his wife and made threats. He was acquitted on the charges of assault and death threats but remained detained pending the decision of Commission nationale des libérations conditionnelles due to his conditional release violations.

Dave Hilton was again arrested on September 28, 2010, and charged with threats and assault, along with his brother, Jimmy Hilton.

Hilton remarried in September 2012, and had another daughter in March 2013.

title: Dave Hilton Jr.


text:
User talk:Mathewke

Hello, and welcome to Wikipedia! We're glad to have you here. Unfortunately, we can't keep the articles you created on Gerbera, because they violate another person's copyright. We aren't legally allowed to directly take other people's work; however, it is fine to research topics on other sites. See Copyrights for details.

But don't get discouraged – try writing your own articles! For help on writing articles, you can check out the FAQs, especially on contributing and editing. There's a lot to know, but one of the cool things about Wikipedia is that others will edit your contributions to make them better! Have fun, -- Solitude 11:48, Oct 14, 2004 (UTC)

title: User talk:Mathewke


text:
Oliver C. Hartley

Oliver Cromwell Hartley (1823–1859) was an American lawyer from Galveston, Texas. He served as the reporter for the state's Supreme Court from 1846 to 1859, and published the first codification of state laws in "A Digest of the Laws of Texas" in 1850.

Hartley also served in the Texas state House of Representatives in 1851 and 1852. He died in Galveston on February 13, 1859.

Hartley County, Texas is named for him and his brother Rufus K. Hartley.

title: Oliver C. Hartley


text:
Wikipedia:Articles for deletion/Roman Numerals (Band)

Roman Numerals (Band)
Let's not welcome our new vanity overlord band. -- Solitude 11:54, Oct 14, 2004 (UTC)
 * In Soviet Russia, article Deletes you :P -- Ferkelparade π 12:35, 14 Oct 2004 (UTC)
 * LOL. Not sure about this band though. Abstain. --Improv 18:16, 14 Oct 2004 (UTC)
 * Delete: Not notable. utcursch 12:40, Oct 14, 2004 (UTC)
 * Delete. Non-notable band. Damn, I didn't got the first post! jni 13:08, 14 Oct 2004 (UTC)
 * Delete: A Joy Division cover band in 2002?  Whoa.  Good for them for keeping the flame burning.  Not, of course, that they were the first or only J/ cover act to call themselves Unknown Pleasures, but all the others were from the 1980's (there was one called Warsaw and one called Closer, too, as well as one Atrocity Exhibition).  Anyway, club band vanity. Geogre 14:35, 14 Oct 2004 (UTC)
 * Delete. Garage band vanity.   — Gwalla | Talk 00:19, 15 Oct 2004 (UTC)
 * Seems to be a real band, but can't definitively verify at this time. Move to Talk:Roman Numerals (Band). anthony (see warning) 15:52, 19 Oct 2004 (UTC)


text:
Conyza

Conyza (horseweed, butterweed or fleabane) is a genus of flowering plants in the family Asteraceae.

They are native to tropical and warm temperate regions throughout the world, and also north into cool temperate regions in North America and eastern Asia. The New World species of the genus are closely related to Erigeron (also known as fleabanes).

The species are annual or perennial herbaceous plants, rarely shrubs, growing to 1–2 m tall. The stems are erect, branched, with alternate leaves. The flowers are produced in inflorescences, with several inflorescences loosely clustered on each stem.

Many species of the genus Conyza are ruderal species and some have been found to be resistant to the herbicide glyphosate.

• Conyza abyssinica Sch.Bip. ex A.Rich.
 * Species

• Conyza adenocarpa Dalzell & A.Gibson

• Conyza ageratoides DC.

• Conyza agnewii Mesfin

• Conyza agrostophylla F.G.Davies

• Conyza alluaudii Humbert

• Conyza amboinica Crantz

• Conyza andina J.Rémy

• Conyza andringitrana Humbert

• Conyza androrangensis Humbert

• Conyza angustifolia Roxb.

• Conyza arabidifolia Remy

• Conyza arenosa

• Conyza atrixioides Chiov.

• Conyza attenuata DC.

• Conyza attenuata Wall.

• Conyza auriculifera R.E.Fr.

• Conyza bakeri Humbert

• Conyza bampsiana (Lisowski) Lisowski

• Conyza baumii (O.Hoffm.) Wild

• Conyza blinii H.Lév.

• Conyza boelckei Cabrera

• Conyza burkartii Zardini

• Conyza burmeana Miq.

• Conyza bustillosiana J.Rémy

• Conyza capillipes S.Moore

• Conyza cardaminifolia Kunth

• Conyza catharinensis Cabrera

• Conyza chionea S.Díaz & A.Correa

• Conyza clarenceana (Hook.f.) Oliv. & Hiern

• Conyza collina Phil.

• Conyza copiapina Phil.

• Conyza cordata Kuntze

• Conyza coronopifolia Kunth

• Conyza dentonae McVaugh

• Conyza depilis Phil.

• Conyza deserticola Phil.

• Conyza edelbergii Rech.f.

• Conyza eucoma Miq.

• Conyza fastigiata Willd.

• Conyza feae (Bég.) Wild

• Conyza flabellata Mesfin

• Conyza foliosa Phil.

• Conyza fruticulosa O.Hoffm.

• Conyza gallianii Chiov.

• Conyza garnieri Klatt

• Conyza gayana Phil.

• Conyza gigantea O.Hoffm.

• Conyza glabrata Phil.

• Conyza glabrescens Pax

• Conyza glandulitecta Cabrera

• Conyza gonania

• Conyza grahamii DC.

• Conyza hirtella DC.

• Conyza hochstetteri Sch.Bip. ex A.Rich.

• Conyza hypoleuca A.Rich.

• Conyza incana (Vahl) Willd.

• Conyza japonica (Thunb.) Less. ex Less.

• Conyza kahuzica Lisowski

• Conyza laevigata (Rich.) Pruski

• Conyza larrainiana J.Rémy

• Conyza lasseriana Aristeg.

• Conyza lateralis Phil.

• Conyza leucantha (D.Don) Ludlow & P.H.Raven

• Conyza lignescens Rusby

• Conyza limosa O.Hoffm.

• Conyza longipedunculata Klatt

• Conyza lorentzii Griseb.

• Conyza loueirii Poir.

• Conyza macrophylla Spreng.

• Conyza magnimontana Cabrera

• Conyza mandrarensis Humbert

• Conyza maxima Zoll. & Moritzi

• Conyza megensis F.G.Davies

• Conyza messeri Pic.Serm.

• Conyza microcephala Hemsl.

• Conyza mima S.F.Blake

• Conyza minutiflora Phil.

• Conyza mixta Fouc. & Neyr.

• Conyza modesta Kunth

• Conyza molleri Phil.

• Conyza monorchis (Griseb.) Cabrera

• Conyza montigena S.Moore

• Conyza muliensis Y.L.Chen

• Conyza myriocephala

• Conyza nana Sch.Bip. ex Oliv. & Hiern

• Conyza neglecta R.E.Fr.

• Conyza nemoralis Phil.

• Conyza neocandolleana Humbert

• Conyza newii Oliv. & Hiern

• Conyza obscura DC.

• Conyza oligantha Cabrera

• Conyza pallidiflora R.E.Fr.

• Conyza pampeana (Parodi) Cabrera

• Conyza pannosa Webb

• Conyza pectinata (Sch.Bip.) Sch.Bip. ex Oliv. & Hiern

• Conyza pencana Phil.

• Conyza perennis Hand.-Mazz.

• Conyza perijaensis S.Díaz & A.Correa

• Conyza perrieri Humbert

• Conyza pinnata (L.f.) Kuntze

• Conyza pinnatifida (Thunb.) Less.

• Conyza podocephala DC.

• Conyza popayanensis (Hieron.) Pruski

• Conyza principis Gagnep.

• Conyza procumbens Balb.

• Conyza prolialba Cuatrec.

• Conyza pterocaulon Bolle

• Conyza pulsatilloides O.Hoffm.

• Conyza pusilla Houtt.

• Conyza pycnophylla Phil.

• Conyza pyrrhopappa Sch.Bip. ex A.Rich.

• Conyza ramosissima Cronquist

• Conyza reitziana Cabrera

• Conyza retirensis Cabrera

• Conyza ruderalis Phil.

• Conyza rufa Wall. ex DC.

• Conyza ruwenzoriensis (S.Moore) R.E.Fr.

• Conyza saltensis Cabrera

• Conyza sarmentosa Humbert

• Conyza scabrida DC.

• Conyza schimperi Sch.Bip. ex A.Rich.

• Conyza schlechtendalii Bolle

• Conyza semipinnatifida Wall. ex DC.

• Conyza sennii Chiov.

• Conyza serrana Cabrera

• Conyza setulosa F.Phil. ex Phil.

• Conyza spiciformis (Griseb.) Zardini

• Conyza spiculosa (Hook. & Arn.) Zardini

• Conyza spinellosa Miq.

• Conyza spinosa (Sch.Bip.) Sch.Bip. ex Oliv. & Hiern

• Conyza stenophylla Phil.

• Conyza steudelii Sch.Bip. ex A.Rich.

• Conyza subscaposa O.Hoffm.

• Conyza subspicata Phil.

• Conyza suffruticosa Phil.

• Conyza sumatrensis (S.F.Blake) Pruski & G.Sancho

• Conyza tenera Phil.

• Conyza thermarum Phil.

• Conyza thesiifolia Kunth

• Conyza tigrensis Oliv. & Hiern

• Conyza trihecatactis (S.F.Blake) Cuatrec.

• Conyza tunariensis (Kuntze) Zardini

• Conyza uliginosa (Benth.) Cuatrec.

• Conyza ulmifolia (Burm.f.) Kuntze

• Conyza urticifolia (Baker) Humbert

• Conyza valdiviana Phil.

• Conyza varia (Webb) Wild

• Conyza variegata Sch.Bip. ex A.Rich.

• Conyza vernonioides (Sch.Bip. ex A.Rich.) Wild

• Conyza viguieri Humbert

• Conyza viscida

• Conyza welwitschii (S.Moore) Wild

title: Conyza


text:
Talk:Henri Rousseau

Biography assessment rating comment
The article may be improved by following the WikiProject Biography 11 easy steps to producing at least a B article. -- Edofedinburgh 10:40, 29 March 2007 (UTC)

Henri Rousseau (Born 1844) (Died 1910)

Henri Rousseau was also known by his nickname “Le Douanier Rousseau”, which means “Customs Officer” although he did work in the customs business; he never ascended to the rank of officer. He had little formal education and took up painting as a hobby and later retired early from his customs job, (in 1893) so he could devote himself to art. He never learnt to draw from anybody, and his self learnt style was what made his works so wonderful and unique. Nobody knew how to copy Henri Rousseau’s work, it was simply too hard to imitate such a naïve style of paining..

His first career was in the army, and he claims to have served in Mexico and a lot of his art has been claimed to have been inspired by his travels there, but in actual fact, Henri Rousseau’s sources were illustrations from books which he would redraw, and also from his imagination. He was first considered part of the avant-garde by the Spanish and is now considered one of the first painters of innocent art.

Although his is now considered to be an extraordinarily ingenuous, he suffered much ridicule when he lived (although he sometimes interpreted sarcastic remarks literally and took them as praise) as well as enduring great poverty. However, his faith in his own abilities never wavered. He tried to paint in the academic manner of such traditionalist artists as Bouguereau and Gérôme, but it was the innocence and charm of his work that won him the admiration of the avant-garde: in 1908 Picasso held a banquet in his honor, half serious, half mockery.

Rousseau is very well known for his jungle scenes, the first one he did was “Surprised!” (It is now in the National Gallery, London) it was painted in 1891. His jungle paintings show his great imaginative power, and he reveals his extraordinary ability to retain a fresh look, even when working on a large scale image. It is said that his jungle paintings were inspired by his time spent in Mexico with the army, but these claims are false, in fact, Henri Rousseau never went to Mexico, and his sources for his wonderful paintings are from zoos and botanical gardens found in Paris.

-Frostickle

Henri Rousseau's lush tropical gardens recall a private dream space. Where dreams can be dreamed, where problems can be resolved, where lions and panthers can sit beside us in peace and harmony.

Henri had 6 children with his first wife, 1 of which survived.

My revert...
I just reverted a change that replaced a section with a long text in French. Now, that may have been a worthwhile contribution, but I can't read enough French to know, so if someone who does wants to check it out in the history and translate anything useful, that would be great. Pinball22 17:56, 12 April 2007 (UTC)
 * Automatic translation from English producing garbled French! Man vyi 18:26, 12 April 2007 (UTC)
 * Aha. Thank you for checking! :) Pinball22 19:55, 12 April 2007 (UTC)

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Link Pierre Loti,
There should be a wiki-link to Pierre Loti by his picture text.

--Zzalpha (talk) 17:45, 26 April 2020 (UTC)

title: Talk:Henri Rousseau


text:
User:Ben@liddicott.com

Yes, that's my real email address.

title: User:Ben@liddicott.com


text:
List of mayors and lord mayors of Hobart

This is a list of the Mayors and Lord Mayors of the City of Hobart local government area, Hobart, Tasmania, Australia.

Lord Mayors (since 1935)
The title of 'Lord Mayor' was conferred on the position of Mayor during the 1934 – 1935 council.


text: Category:Archivists

title: Category:Archivists


text:
Talk:Catholic Church in Thailand

Untitled
I am searching the geographical extent of the dioceses. Catholic-hierachy gives the population and area, but not which provinces are covered. So far I could only find: As long as the dioceses borders coincide with the provincial borders it may be possible to guess from the above numbers which provinces may belong to it, but I prefer a more reliable source. andy 11:59, 14 Oct 2004 (UTC)
 * Surat Thani: Chumphon, Krabi, Nakhon Si Thammarat, Narathiwat, Pattani, Phang Nga, Phattalung, Phuket, Prachuap Khiri Khan, Ranong, Satun, Songkhla, Surat Thani, Trang, Yala
 * Chantaburi: Chachoengsao, Chanthaburi, Chonburi, Nakhon Nayok, Rayong, Prachinburi, Srakaeo, Trat

 * I found the map I searched at http://www.aidscatholic.com/thaimap.html - strangely google didn't index that site, but in yahoo it was the third hit. Google doesn't rule anymore... andy 11:02, 15 Oct 2004 (UTC)

 * Well, nearly - the detail maps contradict a bit, in the detail maps the provinces Nakhon Nayok and Chachoengsao are added to both Bangkok and Chanthaburi. andy 18:49, 15 Oct 2004 (UTC)
 * At least the boundary between Bangkok and Chanthaburi does not follow the provincial boundaries, but instead the course of rivers - most likely the Nakhon Nayok River and Bang Pa Kong River. andy 21:32, 27 Oct 2004 (UTC)

http://thaicath.net/EDioceses.php says it's part of Chachoengsao and Amphoe Banna of Nakhon Nayok. andy 11:41, 13 Apr 2005 (UTC)

 * And now there's finally a logical explanation of why Ban Na belongs to Bangkok, while the rest of Nakhon Nayok to Chanthaburi. At the time of the creation of the Apostolic Vicariate Chanthaburi the province Nakhon Nayok was split - most part belonged to Prachinburi while Ban Na belonged to Saraburi. As Prachinburi was added to the new vicariate, Ban Na stayed with Bangkok, even after Nakhon Nayok was reestablished. Later Saraburi became part of the vicariate Nakhon Sawan, and only Ban Na remained. andy 12:12, 31 October 2006 (UTC)

Martyrs of Thailand
As there's no page for the Martyrs of Thailand yet, I'm putting this here. I have a number of images from the Our Lady of the Martyrs of Thailand Shrine (สักการสถาน พระมารดาแห่งมรณสักขี ประเทศไทย) in Mukdahan. At the shrine there is a series of 14 carved stone panels hanging on the outer wall of the shrine, depicting the story of the martyrs. Would there be interest in my uploading these panels, and if so, does anyone have the idea of what the copyright status would be? An artist's name and date (and location?) is present on each of the panels: Ritthirong Samutprakarn 2002 (not sure if Samutprakarn is given here as surname or the artist's location), but I can't find any information about him. I took a picture of each panel individually, so they're quite high resolution in their original format.

As the author of the photographs, I have uploaded one picture, to illustrate my point and ask your opinions. However, obviously the work depicted in the photograph is not mine. Any advice/response is most welcome. rikker04 04:37, 12 September 2006 (UTC)

 * IANAL. As far as I know the rules, if these plates are in public you are free to take a photo of the whole site. However if you'd take the single plates, it is like a reproduction (similar to making a scan of a book cover) and then it would be a copyright violation. There are even such crazy things like the Eiffel tower at night cannot be reproduced because the one who built the lighting copyrighted that one. The best place to ask for comments would be the Village Pump at Commons, which would anyway be the best place to upload free pictures to make them available in all Wikimedia projects in all languages. andy 11:14, 12 September 2006 (UTC)

 * PawYiLee. Next time I'm up there, I'll ask about pictures of the panels. Note the north wall has The Stations of the Cross in gold, echoed on the south with plain panels telling the story of the martyrs. See http://www.catholichomepage.com/church_in_thailand.htm for a picture of the church's interior. Another version of the story is at http://www.sspxasia.com/Newsletters/2002/Oct-Dec/Seven_Blessed_Martyrs_of_Thailand.htm

but is in error stating that SONGKHON is the only catholic village in Thailand. There is one 40 klicks north of Yasothorn hosting the Church of Archangel Michael, claimed to be the largest wooden church in Thailand, and a designated "UNseen -in Thailand" tourist site.Lee 08:00, 15 September 2006 (UTC)PawYiLee

PS see also http://thehands.org/martyrs.htm Lee 08:07, 15 September 2006 (UTC)PawYiLee
 * The page for Martyrs of Thailand is started. So the above discussion should be used in that Article.Ans-mo 06:34, 6 July 2007 (UTC)

Catholic Encyclopedia topics
Much of this article appears to be taken from the Catholic Encyclopedia. It might be useful to refer to Catholic Encyclopedia topics. In particular,

 * While the text is public domain PLEASE do not simply dump text from the CE into Wikipedia without modification. The Encyclopedia was written to serve the Catholic Church and reflect its doctrine, therefore nearly every article has a distinct POV and no article should be included word for word. Format the text according to the Wikipedia Manual of Style. Update any spelling anomalies. Rephrase any awkward-sounding prose to improve clarity and flow. Remove 19th century references unless they really move the text along. Update the articles with new information. Any text describing the "current situation" as of 1908 or 1913 should be revised as necessary.

I have now removed twice text that describes the "current situation" as of 1911. Please do not re-insert it.

--Richard 06:44, 7 July 2007 (UTC)

What was the problem in text about 1911 situation with Catholics in Thailand? Why is it necessary to remove facts and figures in passage on certain historical period? The opinion of Catholic Encyclopedia is the most reliable source in presenting the articles on Catholic Church. Removing the last passage with figures and facts seems to be like POV and prejudice. There are no other sources of information on Catholic articles, than Catholic Encyclopedia.Ans-mo 06:29, 9 July 2007 (UTC)

 * And the passage did not describe the situation of 1911 as current. Here as it was:

 * By 1911, there were 23,000 Catholics, 42 European and 13 native priests, 38 catechists, 50 central stations, 55 churches and chapels, 12 Brothers of St. Gabriel, 103 sisters (Holy Infant Jesus, St. Paul of Chartres, Lovers of the Cross), 50 elementary schools with over 3000 pupils, 15 orphanages with 314 inmates, 3 agricultural schools, 1 seminary with 62 students, 1 college with 400 boys, and a pensionnat with 220 girls.

And what is the value of providing 1911 data? --Richard 07:08, 9 July 2007 (UTC)

Why not to provide such data describing the history of Roman Catholic Church in Thailand of certain period? It does not seem to violate any rule of Wikipedia.Ans-mo 07:23, 9 July 2007 (UTC)

 * It's too much detail.
 * It's data for an arbitrary point in time for which there is no corresponding watershed event.

 * The relevant Wikipedia rule here would be "Use common sense." The application of the rule would run like this "What conceivable scenario can you hypothesize in which this information would be of use to the reader?"

 * --Richard 07:28, 9 July 2007 (UTC)

 * As for arbitrary point in time, I would say, that 1910 - 1913 presented the time before the beginning of huge and dramatic changes in world history, which also influenced the Catholic Church.
 * True, but could you make a case that this particular period of time represented the beginning of "huge and dramatic changes" in the history of Thailand or the history of Roman Catholicism in Thailand? If so, this case is not made in the article. --Richard 17:01, 10 July 2007 (UTC)
 * As for the point, that such information is of no use, it is not more and not less of use than any other information in the article and in the majority of other article in Wikipedia.Ans-mo 07:42, 9 July 2007 (UTC)
 * No, I disagree. It is of very little use except as a way of illustrating the dramatic increase in the number of Catholics in Thailand during the 20th century which the article now shows.  However, the next step is to provide a better explanation of how this has come about.  A century is a long time.  Did the increase come before or after the Second World War?  Is it a result of Westernization after the Second World War or events prior to WWII? The increase is certainly not through natural population growth.  Is it from proselytization or immigration? --Richard 17:01, 10 July 2007 (UTC)
 * The passage also presents information about Catholic orders of certain time in Thailand.Ans-mo 07:45, 9 July 2007 (UTC)
 * This is excessive detail and distracting to the reader. Just because information is available and can be referenced does not mean that it should be included.  An article tells a story.  Our goal is to communicate information to the reader.  Sometimes, "less is more".  --Richard 17:01, 10 July 2007 (UTC)
 * Deleting mentioning of catholic orders in the article on Roman Catholic Church without ground expalanation lookes like clear prejudiced POV. Why the present in Thailand monastic orders should not be mentioned in the related to the theme article? It is violation of neutrality principle.Ans-mo 07:53, 11 July 2007 (UTC)
 * It has nothing to do with neutrality. The long list is distracting and degrades readability. --Richard 08:21, 11 July 2007 (UTC)
 * OK. I agree with the last editing and making separate section on congregations. Regards.Ans-mo 08:35, 11 July 2007 (UTC)

Requested move 2 October 2016

 * The following is a closed discussion of a requested move. Please do not modify it. Subsequent comments should be made in a new section on the talk page. Editors desiring to contest the closing decision should consider a move review. No further edits should be made to this section.

The result of the move request was: Procedural close per WP:MULTI. Follow-up instead at Talk:Roman Catholicism in Armenia. (non-admin closure) — Andy W.  ( talk  · ctb) 00:42, 4 October 2016 (UTC)

Roman Catholicism in Thailand → Catholic Church in Thailand – In consistancy with other equivalent articles, including Catholic Church, Catholic Church in England and Wales, Catholic Church in the United States, etc. Chicbyaccident (talk) 13:55, 2 October 2016 (UTC)

 * The above discussion is preserved as an archive of a requested move. Please do not modify it. Subsequent comments should be made in a new section on this talk page or in a move review. No further edits should be made to this section.

Move discussion in progress
There is a move discussion in progress on Talk:Roman Catholicism in Armenia which affects this page. Please participate on that page and not in this talk page section. Thank you. —RMCD bot 00:46, 4 October 2016 (UTC)

title: Talk:Catholic Church in Thailand


text:
Strong's Concordance

The Exhaustive Concordance of the Bible, generally known as Strong's Concordance, is a Bible concordance, an index of every word in the King James Version (KJV), constructed under the direction of American theologian James Strong. Strong first published his Concordance in 1890, while professor of exegetical theology at Drew Theological Seminary.

Use
Strong's Concordance provides an index to the Bible. This allows the reader to find words where they appear in the Bible. It also lets the reader directly compare how the same word may be used elsewhere in the Bible.

Strong's numbers
Each original-language word (Hebrew or Greek) is given an entry number in the dictionary of those original language words listed in the back of the concordance. These have become known as the "Strong's numbers". The main concordance lists each word that appears in the KJV Bible in alphabetical order with each verse in which it appears listed in order of its appearance in the Bible, with a snippet of the surrounding text (including the word in italics). Appearing to the right of the scripture reference is the Strong's number. This allows the user of the concordance to look up the meaning of the original language word in the associated dictionary in the back, thereby showing how the original language word was translated into the English word in the KJV Bible.

Strong's Concordance includes:
 * The 8,674 Hebrew root words used in the Old Testament. (Example: )
 * The 5,624 Greek root words used in the New Testament. (Example: )

Although the Greek words in Strong's Concordance are numbered 1–5624, the numbers 2717 and 3203–3302 are unassigned due to "changes in the enumeration while in progress". Not every distinct word is assigned a number, but rather only the root words. For example, αγαπησεις is assigned the same number as αγαπατε – both are listed as in Strong's Concordance (αγαπαω).

Due to Strong's numbers it became possible to translate concordances from one language into another. Thus, the Russian concordance of 30,000 words from the Russian Thompson Study Bible is a translation of the English concordance from Thompson Chain-Reference Bible. In the process of compiling the Russian concordance, the Hebrew/Greek word corresponding to the English concordance word was found, and then its Russian equivalent in the Russian Synodal translation of the Bible was added to the resulting Russian concordance text.

Strong's dictionaries
In the 1890 version, Strong added a "Hebrew and Chaldee Dictionary" and a "Greek Dictionary of the New Testament" to his concordance. In the preface to both dictionaries, Strong explains that these are "brief and simple" dictionaries, not meant to replace reference to "a more copious and elaborate Lexicon." He mentions Gesenius and Fürst as examples of the lexicons that Strong's is drawn from. His dictionaries were meant to give students a quick and simple way to look up words and have a general idea of their meaning.

title: Strong's Concordance


text:
QF 18-pounder gun

The Ordnance QF 18-pounder, or simply 18-pounder gun, was the standard British Empire field gun of the First World War-era. It formed the backbone of the Royal Field Artillery during the war, and was produced in large numbers. It was used by British Forces in all the main theatres, and by British troops in Russia in 1919. Its calibre (84 mm) and shell weight were greater than those of the equivalent field guns in French (75 mm) and German (77 mm) service. It was generally horse drawn until mechanisation in the 1930s.

The first versions were introduced in 1904. Later versions remained in service with British forces until early 1942. During the interwar period, the 18-pounder was developed into the early versions of the Ordnance QF 25-pounder, which would form the basis of the British artillery forces during and after the Second World War in much the same fashion as the 18-pounder had during the First.

History
During the Second Boer War, the British government realised that its field artillery was being overtaken by the more modern "quick-firing" guns of other major powers, and investigated replacements for its existing field gun, the BL 15-pounder 7 cwt. In 1900, General Sir Henry Brackenbury, the then director-general of ordnance, sent officers to visit European gun makers. At Rheinische Metallwaren und Maschinenfabrik in Düsseldorf, they found a quick firing gun designed by Heinrich Ehrhardt with a recoil system that totally absorbed all the recoil of firing, 108 guns plus spares, were secretly purchased and entered service as the Ordnance QF 15-pounder in June 1901.

At the same time, the British Cabinet ordered Field Marshal Lord Roberts, the Commander-in-Chief in South Africa, to send home artillery brigade and battery commanders "selected for their eminence and experience" to form an Equipment Committee. The committee was chaired by General Sir George Marshall, who had been artillery commander in South Africa. It formed in January 1901 with a wide-ranging area of study from horse-drawn mobile guns and the larger more static field guns, to harness design, and even binoculars. They swiftly established the "conditions to be fulfilled by proposed new equipment"; the most important were the "weight behind the team", then ballistics, rapidity of fire, weight of shell, provision of shield and number of rounds carried.

British gun manufacturers were invited to propose designs. Of the many entries, five for the horse artillery gun and three for the field gun were selected and their makers invited to submit a "specimen". These were tested in 1902, but none was found suitable for service although they all had good features. The makers were called to a conference and agreed to collaborate to produce a composite design. This used the Armstrong gun, Vickers' recoil system, and Royal Ordnance Factory's sighting and elevating gear and ammunition carrying. Reduced wheel size from 5 ft to 4 ft was also accepted (it had been a matter the Equipment Committee had to investigate) which saved weight. Four Artillery batteries of the composite design took part in trials of in 1903, and the new 18-pounder design was accepted.

The cost of rearmament was huge, and it took some pressure from the press for the War Office to follow through. Initially the British Indian Army was re-equipped first; however, the First Moroccan Crisis changed the priorities. In the end the weapon phase-in cost £4 million (equivalent to £ with the GDP deflator) and became the biggest such undertaking to the date in British Army history.

The 18-pounder was used on all fronts during the First World War. It remained in service during the inter-war period. Starting in 1938, carriages Marks IV and V were converted to 25-pounder Ordnance QF Mark 1 on Carriage Mark 1. 18-pounder Guns served with the British Expeditionary Force in France in the Second World War and were used in other theatres as well as for training or beach defence.

Description
The 18-pounder was a quick-firing horse-drawn field gun designed to be towed behind a limber and six horses. The gun barrel was wire-wound nickel-steel with a single-motion screw breech with a cartridge extractor. It fired a fixed round of shell and cartridge fixed together, which was known as "quick firing" in British terminology. The lower carriage comprised a single hollow steel trail fixed to the centre of the axle-tree. The limited traverse saddle supported the elevating mass and a shield. Traverse controls were on the left and elevation on the right of the saddle. Recoil was by a hydraulic buffer with telescopic running-up springs to return the barrel to its firing position.

The Equipment Committee's conditions required tangent sights (i.e. direct fire) with the option of a telescope. However, the 18-pounder entered service with rocking bar (also called "bar and drum") sights – open sights with the option of a telescope on the left and a range scale (in yards) on the right of the cradle. These arrangements also incorporated independent line of sight, meaning that the sights could remain laid on the target while the barrel was elevated or depressed. A clinometer was provided for indirect fire when the sight was aimed using a gun-arc (a refined version of the expedient devices used in South Africa) and aiming posts in line horizontally with the target.

In 1906 indirect fire goniometric sights were adopted which consisted of an alidade mounted on a circular scale graduated in degrees that was mounted on the shield. In 1910, the Number 3 Dial Sight, a refined version with a telescope and compass, replaced the goniometer. The rocking bar and telescope were retained for direct fire, as was the range scale on the right in spite of a clinometer being part of the Dial Sight mount.

In 1910, after three years of trials, the Number 7 Dial Sight was adopted. This was a very heavily modified version (notably using external instead of internal scales) of the German Goertz panoramic sight. This, with its sight mount that again included a sight clinometer, replaced the No 3. However, resolving various issues, notably with the sight and mount carrying case mounted on the shield, meant that the Number 7 sight did not enter service until early in 1914.

Unusually for a 20th-century British gun, the 18-pounder retained two-man laying throughout its life, elevation (in yards) was set on a range scale on the righthand side of the cradle. The Equipment Committee had also insisted on better methods of fuze setting, important because until late in 1914 it only had time fuzed ammunition. A hand held mechanical fuze setter was developed, and in early 1914 a "fuze indicator" was introduced, this converted the range into a fuze setting.

Mk I Gun on Mk I Carriage
The Ordnance Quick Firing 18-pounder Mark I gun barrel was wire-wound for one-third of its length, chosen as it was lighter, stronger and cheaper to manufacture than a fully built-up barrel. A jacket was shrunk over the wire and "A" tube. The Mk I gun and Mk I carriage were accepted into service on 30 June 1904.

The narrow single-pole trail design of the Carriages Mk I and II were suited to towing by teams of horses, but constrained downward motion of the breech, and thus limited the gun's range to 6525 yards in normal use. The range could be increased to 7800 yards by "digging in" the end of the pole trail to increase elevation. Its distinguishing feature was the barrel, significantly longer than the 13-pounder's and, unlike the 13-pounder, the barrel was significantly longer than the recuperator housing above it.

Mk II Gun on Mk I Carriage
The original gun design was quickly replaced in production from 1906 by the "rationalized" Mark II gun for ease of relining : the exterior of the inner "A" tube was slightly tapered, and was inserted into a matching tapered jacket by hydraulic pressure.

Mark I and II guns were still in use in the post-First World War era, and some saw combat in the Far East in Second World War.

Mk II Gun on High-angle Anti-aircraft mounting
In early 1915, a number of 18-pounder guns were mounted on pedestals, with the addition of a second recuperator and retaining catch for the cartridge case at high angle, in an attempt to come up with a workable anti-aircraft gun. The gun's relatively low muzzle velocity, and the unsatisfactory ballistic characteristics of its shrapnel shell at high angles, made it a marginal performer in such a role. However, by sleeving the barrel down to 3 in and mating the 18-pounder cartridge with the 13-pounder's shell, the successful QF 13-pounder 9 cwt anti-aircraft gun was produced with the necessary high muzzle velocity.

The early versions of 18-pounder anti-aircraft guns remained in service, apparently only in the home defense of Britain. 35 were in service in Britain in June 1916 and 56 at the end of the First World War. After the war, they were converted back to field gun use by removing the cartridge retaining catch.

Mk II Gun on Mk I Carriage with armoured oil reservoir on recuperator
Battlefield experience in 1914 and 1915 showed up the weakness of the original recuperator springs (which returned the barrel to firing position after recoil) and loss of oil in the recuperator under intense firing. Poor quality of wartime manufacture of the springs was also a factor. Spring shortages due to breakages meant guns remained in the firing line and had to be "run up" – have the barrel moved forward into its firing position – by hand, hence slowing the rate of fire. A temporary preventive measure was the addition of a distinctive armoured box-shaped oil reservoir to the front end of the recuperator to maintain the oil supply and extend spring life. This modification is visible in many photographs of 18-pounders in action on the Western Front right up to the end of the war

Mk I* and II Carriage
The recuperator spring problem was rectified with the new Mk II carriage officially introduced in the field in November 1916 with a hydro-pneumatic recuperator design which replaced the recuperator springs with a system driven by air compression and could be fitted into the existing spring housing by battery officers in the field. It is identified by the 10 in torpedo-shaped extension on the recuperator, which made the recuperator assembly nearly as long as the barrel and hence altered the equipment profile. Converted existing carriages were designated Mk I*. The Mk II carriage also incorporated a longer cradle.

In about 1917, all 18-pounders began to be fitted with a new calibrating range scale. This allowed the gun's muzzle velocity to be set on it and automatically corrected the range for the difference between the actual muzzle velocity and the standard one.

Mk III gun on High-angle Carriage
An experimental Mk III gun was developed in 1916. It had a semi-automatic horizontal sliding block breech, with the recoil mechanism below rather than above the gun barrel. The high-angle mounting may have been an experimental dual anti-aircraft and field carriage. The design did not enter service.

Mk IV Gun on Mk III and Mk IV Carriage

A major variant (essentially, a new artillery piece with the same ballistics) was the Mark IV gun on Mk IV carriage. The Mk IV gun started testing in 1916 mounted on a new Mk III carriage with box trail, then typical for howitzers. This eliminated the original central pole trail, which had restricted elevation, allowing increased elevation to 37.5 degrees and hence increased maximum range from 6525 to 9300 yards with the 2 charge shell.

Mk III carriage was quickly superseded by Mk IV carriage as the standard field carriage.

Mk III and IV carriages incorporated a new variable-recoil hydro-pneumatic system and moved from above to below the gun barrel. The new single-motion "Asbury breech" allowed for higher rates of fire and a Welin tapered screw adopted for the breech. A single battery of the Mk IV gun on the early Mk III carriage was serving with 4th Army when the First World War ended. The new gun and carriage was in effect a new weapon but as the calibre and ammunition remained the same it was referred to as part of the 18 pr development cycle until the calibre was phased out.

By 1919, the standard British field gun was the 18-pounder Mk IV gun on Mk IV carriage but Britain still possessed many of the older Marks.

Naval Use
In addition to its land role 184 guns were converted to arm Defensively Armed Merchant Ships (DAMS) against U-boat attack during the First World War. The conversion entailed mounting the guns on the same type of elastic mount used by the QF 6-pounder Hotchkiss.

Wagons and Limbers
The "carriage" limber, towed between the gun and horse team, carried 24 rounds of ammunition. Each gun was accompanied by a second horse team towing an ammunition wagon and wagon limber carrying the gun detachment (none were carried on the gun limber) and 38 rounds in each. In action, the wagon was placed close beside the gun; its steel body provided an extended shield to protect the detachments against small arms fire.

The towed weight of the gun and loaded limber was 40 cwt (2,000 kg), the wagon and its limber were about 37 cwt. Each battery also held a second wagon and wagon limber per gun, giving first line ammunition stocks of 176 rounds per gun.

Inter-War Period
On 28 June 1922, Michael Collins effectively started the Irish Civil War by using two 18-pounder field guns, "borrowed" from the British Army, to bombard the Four Courts in Dublin.

The Mk V carriage with split trail entered service in 1923, it allowed 25 degrees left and right traverse without moving the trail and up to 37.5 degrees elevation. In the same year the Army began a full-scale mechanisation of the artillery: Vickers Medium Dragon tracked artillery tractors were used to tow the gun, and the horse teams began to be returned to the Army Remount Service.

In 1925, some guns were experimentally fitted on a Medium tank chassis as self-propelled artillery (the "Birch gun"), the Birch gun was used for the exercises of the Experimental Mechanized Force in 1927–1928.

The Mk IV ordnance was modified. In the Mk IVA, the A tube and wire were replaced by an autofrettaged loose liner. The Mk IVB was the same with minor modifications, most notably 3 shoulders instead of 2. A Mk V ordnance was designed but does not appear to have entered service. In the 1930s, as the British Army started to fully mechanise, all guns were converted to mechanised towing. Initially, this was by fitting heavy wooden wheels with solid rubber tyres, the carriages becoming Mks IIITR, IVR and VR. Subsequently, wooden wheels were replaced by new axles, steel wheels, pneumatic tyres and modern brakes. The Mk IV and V carriages had a British conversion to produce the Mk IVP and VP on 9.00 X 16" wheels. The Mk IIs, with their pole trails, had the American 'Martin Parry' conversion to produce the Mk IIPA on 7.50 X 24" wheels. Unlike other guns, 18-pounder was not converted to Probert pattern calibrating sights.

Introduction of a new streamlined shell, Mk 1C, with a 4/7.5 crh increased maximum range to 11,100 yards with Mks III, IV and V carriages.

Starting in 1938, Mk IVP and VP carriages were used for the new Ordnance QF 25-pounder Mk 1. This was a conversion from the 18-pounder Mk IV Ordnance. The calibre was increased from 84 mm to 87.6 mm by changing the liner.

Spanish service
After WWI, Vickers modified 18-pounder on the Mk. IV carriage to shoot 105-mm shells; this design was license-produced as Obús Vickers de 10,5 cm. modelo 1922 (105/22) at partially Vickers-owned Sociedad Española de Construcción Naval plant; those howitzers were used by both sides of the Spanish Civil War. After the start of WWII they were modernised with a lengthened (from 22 calibres to 30 calibres) barrel featuring a counterweight at the breech and redesignated as Obús de campaña Vickers de 105/30 modelo 1940 Some 105/30 pieces (but not all) received pneumatic wheels.

Production
By the outbreak of war in 1914, 1225 guns had been produced, including 99 in India. UK production was by Armstrong Whitworth, Vickers and Woolwich Ordnance factory. During the First World War, these were joined by Beardmore, the Elswick Ordnance Company and, in the US, Bethlehem Steel. In the latter part of the war, component assemblies were produced by various other companies.

Total wartime production 1914–1918 was 9908 guns and 6926 carriages. Limited production of both guns and carriages continued between the wars and some carriages for use with 25-pounder Mk 1 were produced in the early part of the Second World War.

First World War
Throughout the First World War, the 18-pounder was operated by the Royal Field Artillery as the standard field gun. Some Royal Horse Artillery batteries were also re-equipped with it as their 13-pounders proved unsuited to the prevalent trench warfare. The gun and its 2-wheeled ammunition (carriage) limber were towed by a team of six vanner horses (light draught) in pairs – lead pair, centre pair, limber pair. A driver rode the left horse of each pair. The limber was hooked up to the horses and the trail of the gun was hooked up to the limber, so the total weight of the gun and trail were supported on 4 wheels. The gun detachment all rode into action either on their own horses or on the limber and wagons, led by the No. 1 (the detachment commander, a Sergeant) on his own horse. In the early actions of the war, the ammunition wagon was positioned on the gun position to the left of the gun. The teams with their respective limbers, moving back from the gun position to the "wagon lines". Ammunition was passed from the wagon to the loader. As the war progressed and larger quantities of ammunition were fired, ammunition was often dumped directly onto the gun position next to the gun pits and the wagons held in the wagon lines.

Initially, British Regular Army and Canadian infantry divisions were equipped with three field artillery brigades each with three batteries of six 18-pounders (for a total of 54 per division), and a brigade of 4.5-inch howitzers. By the end of September 1914, all reserve guns (25% above the establishment entitlements as decided by the Mowat Committee in 1901) had been delivered to France, although new production orders had been placed on the outbreak of war. However, there were insufficient guns to equip brigades of New Army, Territorial Force and other Dominion divisions, so their batteries had only four guns (total 36 per division) and at Gallipoli, Australian and New Zealand divisions had fewer brigades. In 1916, the decision was taken on the Western Front that all batteries should have six guns.

From February 1917, all divisions were standardised with two artillery brigades each with three batteries (named A, B and C) of six 18-pounders (total 36 per division) and one battery (D) of six 4.5-inch howitzers (total 12 per division). The remaining 18 guns from Regular divisions were transferred to Army control in Army Field Artillery Brigades, to be available for more flexible deployment.

1914
When the war began, British field guns (13-pounder and 18-pounder) were equipped solely with shrapnel shells, with an approximate 3:1 ratio of field guns to field howitzers (5-inch and 4.5-inch).

The 18-pounder shrapnel shell contained 374 small spherical bullets. A time fuze was set to initiate the shell in the air in front of the target. This blew off the shell nose and fired the bullets forward in a cone like a shotgun – they were effective up to 300 yards from the burst. For maximum effect from the cone of bullets, the angle of descent of the shell had to be flat and not plunging. At a theoretical maximum 20 rounds per minute, it could deliver 7,480 bullets per minute at a far greater range than machine guns. The gunners and officers of Regular Army field artillery batteries were expert at closely supporting the "fire and movement" tactics of the infantry with accurate shrapnel fire.

Shrapnel was effective against troops in the open, including those serving guns without gun shields. They remained effective throughout the war against opportunity targets, such as working parties. They were used for wire cutting and most importantly in the creeping barrage, where they prevented defenders from manning their trench parapets during a British assault. In this respect, they were perhaps the key element in the British artillery doctrine of neutralizing defenders during an assault instead of trying to destroy the enemy in their defences before an attack. Primacy of neutralizing defenders became the distinguishing characteristic of British artillery for the remainder of the 20th century.

The first trial high-explosive TNT rounds were fired in action on 31 October 1914 by 70th Battery, 34th Brigade RFA and 54th Battery, 39th Brigade RFA on the Ypres front and were quite successful, demonstrating both that they could destroy enemy guns and kill troops. From then on, Britain increasingly supplied 18-pounders with high-explosive shells.

A major lesson learned in 1914 was that the early British doctrine of positioning field guns in open or semi-open positions made them vulnerable to enemy artillery fire, and subsequently more use would be made of available sheltered and hidden positions for firing. This made the role of the Observing Officer crucial for 18-pounder batteries engaging targets as they could no longer rely on direct line of sight. These officers suffered high casualties. It is instructive to compare the photograph of the 18-pounder gun in the open at the 1914 Battle of the Marne with that below of the gun almost hidden in a pit at the Second Battle of Bullecourt in 1917.

1915
With Britain now attacking on the Western Front from 1915 onwards, barrages were used to neutralize defenders during an attack (first used some 15 years earlier). 18-pounder fire was also used to cut enemy barbed-wire obstacles, and high-explosive shells to inflict damage on defensive works. From 1916, light and medium mortars were increasingly used to blow aside barbed wire obstacles.

The 18-pounder continued to be used as a general-purpose light gun in other theatres, such as on Gallipoli where it was manhandled up onto the tops of steep hills such as the "400 Plateau", "Bolton's Hill" and "Russell's Top" because of the lack of a modern mountain gun and shortage of field howitzers. The 18-pounder could attack lightly protected troops by destroying the parapets of trenches, small houses, and barricades. But its relatively flat high velocity trajectory meant that it could not reach an enemy sheltering out of the direct line of sight, in dips in the ground, on reverse slopes (such as the Quadrilateral east of Ginchy on the Somme) or in deep trenches or cellars. It lacked the power to demolish fortifications. However, it could neutralize defenders with HE or shrapnel.

Nevertheless, in the first 10 months of the war, 3628 18-pounders were ordered and only 530 4.5-inch Howitzers. Heavier guns were being collected from the farthest corners of the Empire and by June 1915 orders had been placed for 274 new heavy guns and howitzers from 60-pounder Gun to 15-inch Howitzer and a new 6-inch Howitzer designed. However, by June 1915 it had also become clear that Germany was reducing the proportion of field guns (to 3.5 per 1000 bayonets) and increasing that of heavier guns and howitzers (to 1.7 per 1000 bayonets), with one-third of their artillery being 15 cm or more. Britain had no choice but to increase the amount of heavy artillery, but did not plan to reduce the scale of field artillery because of the need for what would later be called "close support". Nevertheless, a de facto decrease had happened due to expansion limiting field batteries to 4 guns.

British planners considered that they would need a 2:1 ratio for a successful offensive, while the French believed they needed 1:1. General Farndale justified the retention of 2:1 field artillery as "Field guns were essential to attack targets close to our own troops and to play their part in the tactical plan".

During 1915, 18-pounder ammunition production was equally divided between HE and shrapnel, but expenditure was mostly shrapnel, 88% in September and November.

1916
Field artillery (both 18-pounder and 4.5-inch howitzer) was used successfully during the pre-Zero fire in the Battle of the Somme in late June – early July 1916, when the British heavy artillery damaged German defensive works and forced troops into the open to rebuild them they were successfully fired on with shrapnel. The use of field guns to provide a covering fire barrage that neutralized the enemy during the infantry advance was used and improved during the Battle of the Somme, forcing the enemy to remain in shelters while the infantry advanced immediately behind the bursting shells – "... It is therefore of the first importance that in all cases the infantry must advance right under the field artillery barrage, which must not uncover the first objective until the infantry is within 50 yards of it". The small bursting range of the shell was an advantage in this case, as advancing troops could approach close to it. The 18-pounder's role was spelled out following the Somme battles "... primarily in barrage fire, repelling attacks in the open, raking communications, wire cutting and sometimes for neutralising guns within their reach, destroying breast-works and barriers with HE and preventing repair work on defenses beyond the reach of infantry weapons".

18-pounder ammunition requirements were predominantly shrapnel during 1916, although in the latter part of the year it shifted back to equality between HE and shrapnel. In July 1916, standard contract prices for UK produced shells were 12 shillings and 6 pence (62.5 pence in modern terms) for HE and 18 shillings and 6 pence for shrapnel. US and Canadian prices were significantly higher. The lowest price achieved for 18-pounder HE shells was 8 shillings and 11 pence (44.8 pence) later in 1916.

1917
The January 1917 "Artillery in Offensive Operations" estimated that 18-pounders needed 7.5 shrapnel rounds + 5% HE per yard of front at medium range to cut barbed wire defences, and 20 rounds of HE to destroy trenches in enfilade. The destruction of trenches frontally was generally estimated as requiring twice the enfilade amount. It was estimated that an 18-pounder would fire 200 rounds per day in an "all-out" offensive. It expressed a preference for shrapnel with a long corrector in creeping barrages due to its high number of "man-killing missiles" and its smoke cloud (shrapnel shells were designed to produce a white puff of smoke on bursting, originally as an aid to gunnery spotting). HE was viewed as not providing this necessary visual screen but could be considered for use in creeping and back-barrages in conjunction with smoke shell, but smoke shell was considered "still in its infancy".

In its February 1917 Technical Notes on 18-pounder Barrages, GHQ stated shrapnel and HE barrages would normally cover to a depth of 200 yards and expressed its preference for timed shrapnel (T.S.) for creeping barrages, due partly to shrapnel directing its force forward hence being safer for those following, especially if it fell short. 50% air bursts and 50% percussion (bursting on contact) was considered optimal except on "very bad ground" where percussion rounds would mostly be wasted. HE with its lateral bursting was considered more dangerous to advancing troops (as they were assumed to be in a line abreast) than shrapnel if it burst short, but lateral bursts were considered to have less effect on the enemy as they had less "forward effect". HE with delay was difficult for advancing troops to stay close behind, as it burst 30–40 yards beyond the point of initial contact. HE without delay was assessed as effective only if it burst actually in the enemy trench. With a proper barrage program and fuze setting, timed shrapnel creeping barrage was considered optimal. British regular army field gunners were already proficient in accurately timed low shrapnel bursts in 1914, as demonstrated in the early battles, but few remained by early 1917 and many gunners were relatively new recruits and inexperienced; HE had only been in use with 18-pounders for two years, so this note perhaps reflects a desire to stick with a proven method for which they could still draw on a nucleus of experts. Shrapnel appears to have been favoured for creeping barrages and a mix of shrapnel and HE for standing barrages and other tasks.

The British advance in pursuit of the German army in early 1917 as it withdrew to stronger positions on the Hindenburg Line brought a brief resumption of mobile warfare, and from the experience GHQ emphasised the need to get all light weaponry as far forward as possible to support infantry, and that "Covering fire of 18-pounders and 4.5-inch howitzers can not be too far exploited" [i.e. should be exploited as much as possible]. It also warned "There was tendency, due to trench warfare, among C.R.A.s to attempt to control individual batteries. Brigade or group commanders should be given a task and allowed to carry it out".

At the opening of the Battle of Arras on 9 April 1917, the order was for 18-pounders to fire 50% HE and 50% shrapnel in the creeping barrage ahead of the advancing infantry, with one gun for every 20 yards of front. While a few commanders varied this slightly, such as Brigadier-General Tudor, CRA of 9th (Scottish) Division, who chose 75% HE and 25% smoke, the opening was notable for the first use of a coordinated fireplan across the whole front of several armies, with a common strategy linking infantry with artillery and coordinating the advance of various types of artillery. For instance, the 18-pounders were to move forward when the infantry reached their Phase 2 objective and the 60-pounders and 6-inch howitzers would move forward to take their vacated firing positions. This contrasted with the Somme, where individual Corps and Division commanders used their own fire plans and assault tactics.

For the Third Battle of Ypres in July 1917, the plan was for wire cutting to be done by mortars and howitzers, "to conceal the strength of the field guns". 1,098 18-pounders, one for every 15 yards on average, would include shrapnel in firing a creeping barrage starting close to the British trenches and moving forward at 100 yards in 4 minutes. Field batteries were to advance beyond no-mans land as the priority was to protect the infantry while they were "consolidating on their objectives" (i.e. gaining and holding new advanced positions).

In the opening barrage for the first phase on 31 July, the Battle of Pilckem Ridge, 2/3s of the 18-pounders fired in the creeping barrage at four rounds per minute and 1/3 fired in the standing barrage on the German second line. The barrage was generally successful; but as the weather deteriorated, tracks turned to mud and shell holes filled with water, it became nearly impossible for guns to advance in support of the infantry as planned.

For the opening barrage at the Battle of Menin Road on 20 September, the ratio of medium/heavy artillery to field artillery reached 1 : 1.5 for the first time, reflecting more heavy guns rather than fewer field guns. 18-pounders were to fire 50%-50% shrapnel and HE with 25% of the HE fuzes set to delay. Hence the previous doubts about HE appear to have been overcome, and for the lifting barrage for the Battle of Cambrai on 20 November (this was chosen rather than a creeping barrage) the 18-pounders were to fire equal proportions of shrapnel, HE and smoke, with the precise smoke usage depending on weather conditions at the time.

A total of 47,992,000 18-pounder rounds were manufactured in 1917 and 38,068,000 were fired, (38% of its total for the whole war) indicating the extent to which the artillery war escalated in 1917. 18-pounder ammunition requirements in 1917 were generally equal quantities of shrapnel and HE.

1918
18-pounders were used effectively in the spring of 1918 against attacking German troops during their Spring Offensive. However, the effectiveness of the German fire plan on 21 March caused many casualties amongst the gunners, and in too many cases batteries were unable to withdraw before being overrun. Nevertheless, on 4 April, the Germans made their final attempt to break the British line having advanced to the area of Villers Bretonneux held by 14th (Light) and 18th (Eastern) Divisions, reinforced by the 16th (Irish) and 39th divisional artilleries although batteries were understrength through losses. By mid-morning, observers were engaging massed German infantry but these pressed forward and reached just east of Hamel. Brigadier-General Edward Harding-Newman, CRA of 14th (Light) Division issued the following order "This attack must and can be stopped by artillery fire. If any battery can no longer effectively stop the enemy from its present position, it will at once move forward to a position on the crest, to engage the enemy over open sights. It is essential that the artillery hold the line and they will do so." Fire from several RFA brigades, mostly with 18-pounder batteries, stopped the German advance, including some from 16th (Irish) Division that deployed forward to the crest and observers from the 177th Brigade RFA using Hamel church tower. This action effectively ended the German advance.

For the successful British attack at the Battle of Amiens on 4 July, there was one 18-pounder per 25 yards of front, supplemented by machine guns, and they fired a barrage of 60% shrapnel, 30% HE and 10% smoke 200 yards ahead of the advancing troops.

In the first half of 1918, 18-pounder ammunition requirements were predominantly (about 60%) shrapnel, moving back to equality between shrapnel and HE in the final months of the war. Chemical and smoke shells were each around 5% of the total.

By the end of the war, the modern "empty battlefield" was evolving, with troops learning to avoid open spaces, and the light field gun was becoming obsolete, with an increasing use of light machine guns, light mortars and field howitzers which, with their high trajectory, were able to drop shells onto even deeply sheltered enemy troops on reverse slopes that field guns could not reach. The 18-pounder Mk IV, with its box trail which allowed it to fire in a high trajectory, had begun its evolution into the more versatile 25-pounder gun-howitzer.

At the Armistice, there were 3,162 18-pounders in service on the Western Front, which had fired approximately 99,397,670 rounds, and 800 guns in Egypt, Russia and on other fronts.

Between The Wars
After the Armistice in 1918, some British and Canadian 18-pounders, including a battery transported portee, were in the British Army of the Rhine in the Rhineland. It also served with British and Canadian forces in North Russia in 1918–1919 and with the Canadian Siberian Expeditionary Force.

In 1919, it served with the 7th, 16th, 21st and 217th Brigades R.F.A. in the Third Afghan War, in operations in Mesopotamia 1920–21, and Waziristan 1936–37.

Second World War
During the Second World War, the 18-pounder was used mainly by Territorial Army regiments in the British Expeditionary Force. Some Regular units were also equipped with them, including K (Hondeghem) Battery, which won its battle honour with them. A total of 216 guns were lost in the 1940 campaign. This left the British Army with 126 guns in UK and 130 in the rest of the world, according to a stocktake in July 1940.

It was also used by British and other Commonwealth units in the East African campaign, and the North African campaign.

During the war against Japan (from December 1941), the 18-pdr was used in the Malayan campaign (by a number of British field regiments) and, to a lesser degree, the Battle of Hong Kong (by 965 Beach Defence Battery). At the Battle of Kota Bharu (Malaya) some of the first shots of the Pacific War were fired by an Indian Army 18-pounder. Most, if not all, of these guns were lost as a result of the defeat of Commonwealth forces and the capture of Hong Kong and Singapore.

From 1942, the 25-pdr replaced the 18-pdr for British and Indian forces in the Burma campaign.

Irish Service
The 18-pounder was introduced to the Irish National Army in 1922 on the foundation of the state. It was first used by National Army Gunners to bombard the Four Courts in Dublin from 28 June 1922, as part of the Battle of Dublin. The departing British Forces were criticised for the lack of training that they had imparted to the gunners of the infant Irish artillery corps, and for providing shells intended to destroy barbed wire rather than the normal HE shells. The marks of the shell fire can still be seen on the walls of the Four Courts. The 18-pounder played an important role throughout the Irish Civil War, being instrumental in the fighting in Munster alongside the Rolls-Royce Armoured Car. The nine 18-pounder guns were used in the infantry support role until grouped together to form an artillery corps in March 1923.

With the establishment of the Defence Forces in 1924, the 18-pounder was the only artillery weapon in Irish service, forming the 1st and 2nd Field Batteries of the Artillery Corps. By the following year, twenty five 18-pounder guns were on hand and three more were delivered in 1933. Additional equipment received by the army in 1941 included four 18-pounder guns. The regular army's field batteries re-equipped with the 25-pounder in 1949 but thirty seven 18-pounder guns were still in use with the reserve FCA. The guns remained in FCA service until the late 1970s, when they were replaced by the 25-pounder and 120 mm mortars.

Some examples remain preserved, including several in Collins Barracks, Cork, in McKee Barracks, Dublin and two Mk IV guns in Aiken Barracks, Dundalk.

Finnish Service
In 1940 Britain sold 30 Mk 2 guns on Mk 2PA carriages to Finland during the Winter War, but they arrived too late to be used during that combat. They were used as "84 K/18" during the Continuation War by Field Artillery Regiment 8, 17th Division. They were modified by the Finns who fitted a large muzzle brake and a much improved sighting system. For use in deep snow a second set of 24 in wheels were fitted.

Extended specification
(carriage Mk IV box trail & Mk V split trail)
 * Gun
 * Length: 9 ft
 * weight: 9 cwt
 * Rifling: 18 grooves (Mks I, II, IV)
 * Twist: 1 in 30 (Mks I, II, IV)
 * Barrel Life: 12,000 to 15,000 rounds
 * Carriage
 * weight: 24 cwt (Mk V 27 cwt)
 * Width: 6 ft
 * recoil: 41 inches fixed (carriage Mk I, II); 26 – 48 inches variable (carriage Mk IV, Mk V)
 * Elevation: -5° to +16° (carriage Mk I & II with pole trail), +30° (carriage Mk III box trail), +37°
 * Traverse: 4.5° left and right (Carriage Mk I – IV); 25° left and right (carriage Mk V)
 * Gunshield: proof against shrapnel and rifle fire (500 yds)
 * Limber
 * Capacity: 24 shells
 * weight: 14 cwt

First World War Ammunition
18-pounder ammunition was a fixed round (i.e. the shell and brass cartridge case were loaded as a single unit, much like a large rifle cartridge), and fitted with a nose fuze. The normal service round was "Full Charge", a "Reduced Charge" round was available for training. Double base propellant (nitroglycerine and nitrocellulose) was used, Cordite Mark 1 was the standard propellant when the gun was first introduced into service. By 1914, this cordite had been replaced by Cordite MD. During the First World War this was replaced by a revised formulation that was easier to produce called Cordite RDB.

Until September 1914, the only 18-pounder issued shell was shrapnel, fitted with a No. 80 "Time & Percussion" fuze (based on a Krupp design). The timer was set to open the shell and fire the bullets forward before it hit the ground. No 80 Fuze was an igniferous type of time fuze (as were most First World War time fuzes), meaning that it burnt gunpowder at a known rate to give a time from firing to fuze functioning. The shell did not burst, but projected spherical lead-antimony bullets forward in a cone, these bullets were effective up to 300 yards from the burst. 18-pounder carried 374 of the 41/pound size bullets. The fuze was designed to function as close as 50 yards from the muzzle if required, in order to eliminate the need for case shot. Observing shrapnel bursts was difficult and, after many experiments, gunpowder pellets were added to the tube between the fuze and the gunpowder ejecting charge in the base of the shell in order to emit a puff of smoke, this had the added advantage of widening the cone of the bullet spread.

A star shell with a time fuze (No 25) had been developed and small stocks were held before the war but it was not routine issue.

Pre-war experiments with 18-pounder HE shells had been inconclusive in terms of their benefits. However, the first month of the war showed that they were worth having and the first HE rounds arrived in September 1914. This was a different shape to the existing shrapnel shell so a new Mark 2 shrapnel shell was introduced to ensure ballistic compatibility. The original shrapnel shells had a relatively blunt ogive – 1.5 circular radius head (crh), the newer ones were 2 crh.

In 1914, the standard HE used by UK artillery was Lyddite, a formulation based on picric acid, this was a powerful explosive but expensive. TNT was introduced, but this too was expensive, particularly in its pure form required for shells so eventually Amatol was adopted. This was a mixture of ammonium nitrate and lower quality TNT, various proportions were used but eventually 80% ammonium nitrate and 20% TNT became standard. The parallel inside walls of the shell made it suitable for filling using pre-formed blocks of explosive as well as pouring.

Other types of shell were also introduced, although not as extensively as they were for howitzers and heavier guns. White phosphorus smoke shells became available in small quantities in 1916, and in 1918 chemical and incendiary shells were provided. The latter was a shrapnel type shell using thermite pellets, although a black powder incendiary shell for AA use against Zeppelins was introduced in 1916.

Second World War Ammunition
After the First World War, the variety of ammunition was reduced, although an armour piercing HE shell was developed. The main change was introduction of a new streamlined HE shell, 4/7.5 crh, giving a significant improvement in range. In the 1930s, the new generation of double base propellant, Cordite W, was also adopted.

Surviving examples

 * Royal Artillery Museum, Woolwich, London
 * Imperial War Museum, London.
 * Canadian War Museum, Ottawa
 * The Central Museum of The Royal Regiment of Canadian Artillery, Shilo Manitoba
 * Collins Barracks, Cork, Ireland
 * Australian War Memorial, Canberra
 * Royal Australian Artillery Museum, North Head, Sydney, Australia
 * South African National Museum of Military History, Johannesburg, South Africa
 * Mk 2 gun on Mk 2 carriage with pneumatic tyres (Finnish 84 K/18) on display at the Finnish Artillery Museum (Suomen tykistömuseo), Hämeenlinna, Finland
 * Keswick Barracks, Adelaide, Australia
 * Fort Nelson, Fareham, England. Believed to be the only survivor capable of firing, which it does frequently.

title: QF 18-pounder gun


text:
Infernal Affairs II

Infernal Affairs II is a 2003 Hong Kong crime-action film directed by Andrew Lau and Alan Mak. It is a prequel to the 2002 film Infernal Affairs. Anthony Wong, Eric Tsang, Edison Chen, Shawn Yue and Chapman To reprise their roles from the original film alongside new cast members Carina Lau, Francis Ng, Hu Jun and Roy Cheung. Neither Andy Lau nor Tony Leung, who played the central roles in the original, appear in this film as they are replaced by their younger versions portrayed by Chen and Yue respectively. The events of the film take place from 1991 to 1997. It was followed by Infernal Affairs III (2003), which is both a sequel and a semi-prequel to the original film.

In 1991
Hong Kong Police Force Senior Inspector Wong Chi-Shing meets his Triad informant, Hon Sam. Meanwhile, Lau Kin-Ming, who is due to become Hon's prospective spy within the Hong Kong Police Force, assassinates Hon's Triad boss, Ngai Kwun, in a mission for Hon's wife, Mary, who wants Hon to rise up the triad ranks. Mary tells Lau to keep her order secret from all, including Hon.

With Kwun dead, the Big Four triad underbosses intend to stop paying their dues to the Ngai family, but Kwun's successor and son Ngai Wing-Hau manipulates them to continue by blackmailing them on their mutual betrayals. As Lau enlists in the police academy, another police cadet, Chan Wing-Yan, is fired from the academy upon the discovery that he is also a (illegitimate) son of Kwun's, despite his dissociation with the Ngais. The police tell Chan to meet Wong, who enlists Chan as an undercover cop after Chan relays his purpose of being a righteous man. Chan is imprisoned on fake criminal charges to get close to one of Hon's men, Keung, whom Chan helped arrest previously.

In 1995
Lau has risen as a rookie cop, due to tips on criminal dealings from Hon. Meanwhile, Chan has become a small-time gangster after his and Keung's release from prison. Chan's girlfriend aborts their baby due to his gang association. Hau invites Chan to join the Triad, then tells the Big Four and Hon that he wants to emigrate, leaving them the Hong Kong underworld. Hau sends Hon to Thailand to link up with Thai cocaine smugglers, Hon leaves despite Mary's warning of a trap. Mary meets Wong; it is revealed that Wong ordered her to kill Kwun.

Hau's right-hand-man, Law, an undercover cop, tips off the next deal of Hau's. There, the police arrest Hau, but instead of finding drugs, they find a video located by Hau's hired private investigators, showing Mary and Wong's conspiracy to murder Kwun. Simultaneously, Hau's men assassinate the Big Four. Mary admits the truth about Kwun to Hon. Spooked, Hon and Keung kill many Thai mafia. Trapped, Hon makes a desperate overture to Thai mafioso Paul for an alliance. Paul attempts to shoot Hon; the gun misfires. Hau also sends a man to kill Mary, but Lau kills him to save Mary. The police release Hau, who kills Law after discovering Law's wire. Chan saves Hau from a drive-by shooting, possibly conducted by Lau.

Hau has a car bomb planted in Wong's car, which kills Wong's superior and friend, Superintendent Luk, while Wong is unharmed. Lau hides Mary in a safehouse. When she rejects his romantic advances and attempts to travel to Thailand for Hon, Lau anonymously betrays her to Hau's men, who kill her at Kai Tak Airport.

In 1997
Lau is promoted to Probation Inspector; Chan is a full-fledged triad member. Hon has a new wife and child in Thailand. Wong admits guilt of conspiracy to murder to an internal investigation, but the department clears him so that he can take down the increasingly powerful Hau. Wong persuades Hon to return to Hong Kong to testify against Hau, as revenge for Mary. Hau is arrested, ruining his attempt to enter politics. Hon's testimony would threaten a short jail sentence for Hau. Chan later passes Wong decisive evidence against Hau.

Triad member John has the Thai mafia take Hon's Thai wife and child hostage. Hon escapes witness protection and confronts Hau. Hon reveals that the Thai mafia were allied with him; they kill John. Hon also proves that Paul is holding the rest of the Ngai family hostage in Hawaii. The police arrive as an infuriated Hau prepares to shoot Hon. Hon accepts his death as revenge for Hau to be killed or jailed for life. Wong shoots Hau to save Hon. As Hau dies in Chan's arms, he discovers Chan's wire.

Wong laments the failure to imprison Hau. Paul insists on executing the Ngai family to tie up loose ends, despite Hon's reluctance. The murders turn Hon into a top criminal target for Wong. Undercover cop Chan joins Keung in Hon's triad, while Lau, Hon's police spy, handles a case for a young woman, Mary, his future fiancée, setting up the events of Infernal Affairs.

Cast

 * Anthony Wong as Wong Chi-shing (黃志誠), a police inspector who aims to take down the Ngai family triad.
 * Eric Tsang as Hon Sam (韓琛), a member of Ngai's triad.
 * Carina Lau as Mary, Hon Sam's wife.
 * Francis Ng as Ngai Wing-hau (倪永孝), the boss of the Ngai family triad after his father's assassination.
 * Edison Chen as Lau Kin-ming (劉健明), Hon Sam's mole in the police force.
 * Shawn Yue as Chan Wing-yan (陳永仁), Ngai Wing-hau's half-brother and an undercover cop.
 * Hu Jun as Luk Kai-cheung (陸啟昌), a police superintendent who is Wong's close friend and partner.
 * Chapman To as "Silly" Keung (傻強), Chan's friend and fellow triad member.
 * Roy Cheung as Law Kai-yin (羅繼賢), an undercover cop in the triad.
 * Liu Kai-chi as Uncle John (三叔), a prominent triad member.
 * Joe Cheung as Ngai Kwun (倪坤), the boss of the Ngai family triad and Ngai Wing-hau's father who was assassinated by Lau.
 * Henry Fong as Gandhi (甘地), one of the Big Four.
 * Peter Ngor as Negro (黑鬼), one of the Big Four.
 * Arthur Wong as Kwok-wah (國華), one of the Big Four.
 * Teddy Chan as Man-ching (文拯), one of the Big Four.
 * Chiu Chung-yu as Mary, the girl Lau meets in the police station at the end of the film.
 * Phorjeat Keanpetch as Sunny, the Thai drug lord who tried to kill Hon Sam.
 * Ye Shipin as a socialite at the handover party
 * Tay Ping Hui as Hung, lawyer for the Ngais
 * Hui Kam-fung as the principal of the police cadet school
 * Alexander Chan as Ngai Wing-yee (倪永義), Ngai Wing-hau's elder brother.
 * Andrew Lin as Ngai Wing-chung (倪永忠), Ngai Wing-hau's younger brother.
 * Kara Hui as Ngai Wing-tsz (倪永慈), Ngai Wing-hau's elder sister
 * Wan Chi-keung as Superintendent Leung (梁Sir), Wong's superior.
 * Chan Charoenwichai as Paul, the Thai drug dealer who became friends with Hon Sam.
 * Kelly Fu as May, Chan's girlfriend

Music
The film's score was composed by Chan Kwong-wing. The theme song, Eternal Realm (長空; Changkong), was composed by Wong Ka-keung, lyrics provided by Wong and Yip Sai-wing, and performed by the band Beyond.

Reception
The film was highly anticipated prior to its release due to the success achieved by Infernal Affairs. However, the general response to the film was mixed.

Box office
The film grossed HK$24,919,376 — big by 2003 Hong Kong standards, but only about half of the original's earnings.

Awards
Although Infernal Affairs II earned twelve nominations for the 2003 Hong Kong Film Awards, it could not match its predecessor's success. The film won only one award, Best Original Film Song, for the song "長空" (performed by Cantopop band Beyond). The film won the Best Film award at the Hong Kong Film Critics Society Awards.

23rd Hong Kong Film Awards
 * Won: Best Original Film Song (Wong Ka Keung, Yip Sai Wing, Beyond)
 * Nominated: Best Film (Andrew Lau)
 * Nominated: Best Director (Andrew Lau, Mak Siu-fai)
 * Nominated: Best Screenplay (Mak Siu-fai, Chong Man-keung)
 * Nominated: Best Actor (Francis Ng)
 * Nominated: Best Actress (Carina Lau)
 * Nominated: Best Supporting Actor (Chapman To)
 * Nominated: Best Supporting Actor (Liu Kai-chi)
 * Nominated: Best Cinematography (Andrew Lau, Ng Man-ching)
 * Nominated: Best Editing (Curran Pang, Danny Pang)
 * Nominated: Best Original Film Score (Chan Kwong-wing)
 * Nominated: Best Sound Effects (Kinson Tsang)

10th Hong Kong Film Critics Society Awards
 * Won: Best Film

title: Infernal Affairs II


text:
Severn Railway Bridge

The Severn Railway Bridge (historically called the Severn Bridge) was a bridge carrying the railway across the River Severn between Sharpness and Lydney in Gloucestershire, England. It was built in the 1870s by the Severn Bridge Railway Company, primarily to carry coal from the Forest of Dean to the docks at Sharpness; it was the furthest-downstream bridge over the Severn until the opening of the Severn road bridge in 1966. When the company got into financial difficulties in 1893, it was taken over jointly by the Great Western Railway and the Midland Railway companies. The bridge continued to be used for freight and passenger services until 1960, and saw temporary extra traffic on the occasions that the Severn Tunnel was closed for engineering work.

The bridge was constructed by Hamilston's Windsor Ironworks Company Limited of Garston, Liverpool. It was approached from the north via a masonry viaduct and had twenty-two spans. The pier columns were formed of circular sections, bolted together and filled with concrete. The twenty-one regular wrought iron spans were then put in place, as well as the southernmost span, the swing bridge over the Gloucester and Sharpness Canal. The bridge was 4162 ft long and 70 ft above high water. 6,800 LT of iron were used in its construction.

A number of incidents took place at the bridge over the years, with vessels colliding with the piers due to the strong tides. In 1960 two river barges hit one of the piers on the bridge, causing two spans to collapse into the river. Repair work was under consideration when a similar collision occurred the following year, after which it was decided that it would be uneconomical to repair the bridge. It was demolished between 1967 and 1970, with few traces remaining.

Construction
For more than fifty years before the Severn Railway Bridge was opened, there had been discussion and various proposals for rail routes to cross the Severn downstream of Gloucester, either by a bridge or a tunnel, but most of these did not leave the drawing board. The exception was a tunnel near Newnham on Severn in 1810; this had been excavated partway under the river when water broke in, and the tunnellers were lucky to escape with their lives. The damage was irreparable and the project abandoned. In 1845, an ambitious project by Isambard Kingdom Brunel was to bridge the Severn near Awre for his projected South Wales Railway, bypassing Gloucester completely. This plan got as far as receiving the approval of Parliament but did not proceed. Other schemes were mooted and in 1871, six different schemes were under consideration. Finally the Severn Bridge Railway's scheme was approved by Parliament and received Royal Assent on 18 July 1872.

The Severn Railway Bridge was built by the Severn Bridge Railway Company to transport coal from the Forest of Dean on the Severn and Wye Railway. At the time it was expected that the amount of coal freighted would increase year by year and the existence of a bridge would remove the necessity for the coal to be shipped via Gloucester. Work began in 1875 and was completed in 1879; the wrought iron bridge, which was 4162 ft long and 70 ft above high water, had twenty-two spans and had stone abutments made from local limestone. The first span across the Gloucester and Sharpness Canal, which ran parallel to the Severn at this point, operated as a swing bridge. The twenty-one fixed spans, in order of erection from the southeast (Sharpness) side, consisted of thirteen of length 134 ft, five of length 174 ft, two of length 312 ft, and a single span of length 134 ft. The bridge incorporated 6,800 LT of iron. It was approached from the south-east by a two-arch masonry viaduct on the canal embankment leading to the swing bridge, and on the northwest by a 12-arch viaduct about 70 ft high.

The river, with its large tidal range (the Severn bore) and strong currents, made construction difficult. The pier columns were formed of 4 ft cylindrical sections, about 10 ft in diameter. Near the west bank, the bedrock was a long way below the shifting sands so much work had to prepare firm foundations. Staging was used through which the sections were lowered by chains, and when in place, filled with concrete. Near the east bank, a primitive piling machine was used to drive the sections through a ridge of clay. The staging was extended upwards for use while assembling the spans.

The spans were assembled on site. Staging was laid and rails put in place to carry a travelling crane. The long beams were hoisted in place first, followed by the vertical bracings, and then the outer and inner plates of the top chordal trusses and the diagonals. The whole structure was bolted together at first, and later riveted by blacksmiths using hand-operated forges. Some individual spans were completed within a week, with contractors being complimented on the efficiency of their work.

The main contractor was Hamilston's Windsor Ironworks Company Limited of Garston, Liverpool. They were tasked with the founding and erection of the pier cylinders on the riverbed, and the erection and riveting of the twenty-one bowstring spans and the swing bridge over the Gloucester and Sharpness Canal. They were also responsible for another swing bridge on the North Docks Branch of the line close to the New Docks at Sharpness. The company manufactured the castings and the wrought-iron structures for the bridge. Project manager George Earle was later given a watch praising his ability and enthusiasm for carrying out the project. The engineers for the project were George Wells Owen and George William Keeling.

History
The bridge carried a single-track railway line. When it came into service, it took approximately 30 mi off the journey from Bristol to Cardiff, with trains no longer having to pass through Gloucester. The bridge predated the construction of the Severn Tunnel, around 14 mi downstream, by seven years. The opening ceremony for the bridge took place on 17 October 1879; nearly 400 dignitaries travelled in twenty-three first class carriages across the bridge and back again, with fog detonators exploding on each of the spans during the return trip. A banquet followed at the Pleasure Grounds near Sharpness station.

During construction, it was anticipated that the Severn Bridge Railway would mainly receive its revenue from carrying coal from the Forest of Dean. However, the company ran into financial difficulties as coal was not carried in the volumes that had been anticipated, nor had tourist travel risen to the expected levels. Miners in the Forest of Dean went on strike about low pay and poor conditions and the coal trade there continued to be depressed. The opening of the Severn Tunnel, providing an alternative route from England into South Wales, was a serious blow to the bridge. By 1890, the company was unable to pay the interest on its debentures and faced bankruptcy. As a result, it was taken over jointly by the Great Western Railway and the Midland Railway in 1893, becoming the Severn and Wye Joint Railway.

Several fatalities occurred during the construction of the bridge. A baulk of timber fell on one man when a rope slipped, and another died when he fell from the part-completed structure, injuring himself on the staging as he fell. Only a few days after the bridge's opening, a rowing boat trying to pass underneath was caught in a giant eddy and capsized, one occupant being drowned. Over the succeeding years a number of incidents happened at the bridge involving larger vessels. The trow Brothers was lost after a collision with one of the piers in 1879, and the Victoria, employed in the bridge's construction, was wrecked in the 1880s. In 1938, a tug and two barges got into difficulties and were carried along broadside by the tide into the bridge; a connecting hawser snagged one of the piers and the vessels capsized, with several fatalities.

In 1943, a flight of three Spitfire fighter aircraft was being delivered by ATA pilots, including one woman, Ann Wood, from their factory in Castle Bromwich to Whitchurch, Bristol. As it was low tide, the lead pilot Johnnie Jordan flew under the bridge. Some time later, Ann Wood repeated this underflying – without realising that this time it was high tide and there was 30 ft less headroom but she just squeezed through. These were not the only instances of pilots buzzing the bridge, and on one occasion a Vickers Wellington bomber, a much larger aircraft, was seen to fly under it. The practice became so common that RAF police were called in and tasked with the recording of serial numbers of offending aircraft. After a few courts-martial the incidents ceased.

Railway operation
Until the Severn Road Bridge was opened in 1966, the Severn Railway Bridge was often referred to simply as the Severn Bridge. There was a small station known as Severn Bridge on the Lydney side, adjacent to the Gloucester to Newport Line, which the Severn Bridge Line crossed over. The bridge was used as a diversionary route for passenger services when the Severn Tunnel was closed for engineering work. The south-to-north chord at Berkeley Loop South Junction used for this route was closed when the bridge was abandoned. The remaining line from Berkeley Rd Junction to Sharpness Docks remains and on the north side of the Severn estuary, the line from the former Otters Pool Junction at Lydney to the Severn Bridge has long been lifted but a short section of the track exists as part of the Forest of Dean Railway network.

While the bridge provided a considerably shorter railway route from London to South Wales, its use was limited in that the route was single track, and also because the bridge was only strong enough to carry locomotives up to a 2-6-0. By the early 1960s traffic was restricted to trains serving Lydney, both passenger trains to Berkeley Road and freight to Stoke Gifford, with GWR 1600 Class locomotives typically heading the trains.

There were plans by British Railways to improve the bridge in order to provide additional capacity for diverted main line trains.

1960 partial collapse

On 25 October 1960, in thick fog and a strong tide, two barges (named the Arkendale H and Wastdale H) which had overshot Sharpness Dock, collided with one of the columns of the bridge after being carried upstream. Two bridge spans collapsed into the river. As they fell, parts of the structure hit the barges causing the fuel oil and petroleum they were carrying to catch fire. Five people died in the incident.

During the collapse of the bridge the 12 in diameter gas main that ran alongside the railway line was damaged leaving households across the Forest of Dean without mains gas. Locals who were around at the time talk of people from the gas company banging on the doors early in the morning and being told not to use their gas, and of having to be supplied with bottled gas and compatible appliances for weeks and months until the mains could be restored. Gas engineers from across the UK were brought in to help with visiting every house affected before the household could use the mains gas again.

Local people favoured repairing the bridge as it was an important community link, in particular used by children of Sharpness to travel by train to their school at Lydney on the opposite side; they now had to be taken on a 40 mi detour via Gloucester. An underwater survey in December 1961 found extensive damage to Pier 16. Rebuilding costs were estimated to be £312,000 (£ million in ) as against dismantling costs of £250,000 (£ million in ). The Western Region of British Railways planned to go ahead with reconstruction but shortly before the work was due to start, a capsized tanker caused further damage to Pier 20, and this same pier was struck again when the contractor's crane broke adrift. These incidents added a further £20,000 to the estimated costs of repair, and in 1965, BR decided that the bridge was damaged beyond economic repair and opted for demolition.

Demolition
Demolition began in August 1967. The contract was awarded to Nordman Construction after an unsuccessful tender process. The company brought in the Magnus II, a floating crane with a lifting capacity of 400 LT, which could remove all but two of the spans. These longer spans were pulled sideways off the piers, expecting that they would break into manageable pieces under their own weight. They proved stronger than this and remained intact, needing to be broken up in the river, with much sinking into the bed instead of being recovered.

In May 1968, another firm, Swinnerton & Miller, completed the main demolition work with the help of explosives, but clearing of the debris took another two years.

Evidence of several of the piers remains. The most significant is a large circular tower, sited between the canal and river. This had formed the base of the swinging section and housed the steam engine to power it. A large stone arch also remains on the landward side of the canal, the original abutment to the swinging section. Some piers reduced to their stone foundations and the wrecks of the petrol barges that caused the original damage are visible at low tide. The river at this point has always been hazardous to shipping because of the strong tidal currents, which caused the 1960 collision.

During the demolition, the support vessel Severn King, an old Aust Ferry boat that had become surplus after the new Severn road bridge replaced the ferry in 1966, broke its mooring in the tide, grounded on the remains of the bridge and flooded.

A wooden motor barge, the Halfren of 1913, was also used in the demolition work, for collecting small pieces of wreckage. Worn out by this work and the frequent groundings, it was abandoned on the shore at Aust.

title: Severn Railway Bridge


text: Category:Haskell County, Texas

title: Category:Haskell County, Texas