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Burundian Civil War

The Burundian Civil War was a civil war in Burundi lasting from 1993 to 2005. The civil war was the result of longstanding ethnic divisions between the Hutu and the Tutsi ethnic groups. The conflict began following the first multi-party elections in the country since its independence from Belgium in 1962, and is seen as formally ending with the swearing-in of President Pierre Nkurunziza in August 2005. Children were widely used by both sides in the war. The estimated death toll stands at 300,000.

Background

Before becoming subject to European colonial rule, Burundi was governed by an ethnic Tutsi monarchy, similar to that of its neighbor Rwanda. German, and subsequently Belgian, colonial rulers found it convenient to govern through the existing power structure, perpetuating the dominance of the Tutsi minority over the ethnic Hutu majority. The Belgians generally identified the ethnic distinctions in Burundi and Rwanda with the following observations: the Twa who were short, the Hutu who were of medium height and the Tutsi who were tallest among them. Those individuals who owned more than ten cows were normally described as Tutsi.

Burundi became independent in 1962, breaking from a colonial federation with Rwanda. The independent country initially preserved its monarchy. The country's first multi-party national elections were held in June 1993. These elections were immediately preceded by 25 years of Tutsi military regimes, beginning with Michel Micombero, who had led a successful coup in 1966 and replaced the monarchy with a presidential republic. Under the Micombero regime, the minority Tutsi generally dominated governance. In 1972, Hutu militants organized and carried out systematic attacks on ethnic Tutsi, with the declared intent of annihilating the whole group. The military regime responded with large-scale reprisals targeting Hutus. The total number of casualties was never established, but estimates for the Tutsi genocide and the reprisals on the Hutus together are said to exceed 100,000. As many refugees and asylum-seekers left the country for Tanzania and Rwanda.

The last of the coups was in 1987 and installed Tutsi officer Pierre Buyoya. Buyoya attempted to institute a number of reforms to ease state control over media and attempted to facilitate a national dialogue. Instead of helping the problem, these reforms instead served to inflame ethnic tensions as hope grew among the Hutu population that the Tutsi monopoly was at an end. Local revolts subsequently took place by Hutu peasants against several Tutsi leaders in northern Burundi; these Hutu militias killed hundreds of Tutsi families in the process. When the army came to quell the uprising, they in turn killed thousands of Hutu, leading to an estimated death toll of between 5,000 and 50,000. A low-level insurgency developed, and the first Hutu rebel groups were formed. Most notable among these were Party for the Liberation of the Hutu People –National Forces of Liberation (Parti pour la libération du peuple Hutu –Forces nationales de libération, PALIPEHUTU-FNL) and National Liberation Front (Front de libération nationale, FROLINA) which had been active from the 1980s. Of the two, PALIPEHUTU-FNL much more powerful than FROLINA, but also suffered from more internal divisions. When a democratic transition began in Burundi in the early 1990s, the historical core leadership of PALIPEHUTU decided to cooperate with the Hutu-dominated Front for Democracy in Burundi (Front pour la démocratie au Burundi, FRODEBU) party and to peacefully participate in politics. Radical members of PALIPEHUTU-FNL disagreed with this decision. In contrast, FROLINA was firmly unified under the command of Joseph Karumba, but always remained a rather weak and marginal group.

1993 coup and start of the conflict

After decades of military dictatorships, the parliamentary and presidential elections of June and July 1993 were the first ones in Burundi to be free and fair. FRODEBU decisively defeated the largely Tutsi Union for National Progress (Union pour le progrès national, UPRONA) of President Buyoya. Thus, FRODEBU leader Melchior Ndadaye became Burundi's first democratically elected Hutu president. His tenure was wrought with problems from the beginning. Though PALIPEHUTU's leadership decided to cooperate with Ndadaye's new government, its military chief commander Kabora Kossan refused to end the insurgency. He and his followers split from PALIPEHUTU-FNL, and from then on simply called themselves "National Forces of Liberation" (FNL). For Kossan and his men the only option was to continue to fight until all Tutsi in Burundi were dead, removed or fully disempowered. Nevertheless, Ndadaye's government was more threatened by Tutsi extremists than by radical Hutu groups: The latter were still rather weak, whereas the former controlled much of Burundi's military. The political situation escalated when Tutsi extremist army officers launched a coup on 21 October. Supported by about half of the armed forces, the putschists murdered Ndadaye alongside other leading FRODEBU members, and declared a new regime. However, the military government was destabilized from the beginning, as it faced internal chaos and opposition by foreign powers.

As a result of President Ndadaye's murder, violence and chaos broke out all over Burundi. Hutu attacked and killed many UPRONA supporters, most of them Tutsi but also some Hutu, while the putschists and allied Tutsi groups assaulted Hutu and FRODEBU sympathizers. Many civilians banded together in local militias to defend themselves, but these groups quickly became proactive as well, carrying out attacks and mass killings against each other. Urban street gangs, many of which had been biethnic before 1993, split along ethnic lines and began to work for extremist politicians. They received money and guns, and in return demonstrated, and murdered on the orders of the Tutsi and Hutu parties. An estimated 50,000 to 100,000 people died within a year about as many Hutu as Tutsi. As result of this chaos and international pressure, the putschists' regime collapsed, and power was returned to a FRODEBU-dominated civilian government.

The mass killings consequently abated, and the country was somewhat restabilized by the end of 1993. The coup and subsequent ethnic violence had however deeply affected the country. The Tutsi extremists in the military were still present, and though they had given up outright power for the time being, they continued to undermine the civilian government in hopes of regaining full power in the future. The Hutu rebels believed that the coup had proven the impossibility of negotiations, and regarded the new Hutu-dominated civilian government as mere "stooges" of the old regime. They consequently fully resumed their insurgency. Furthermore, radicals among the Tutsi civil society regarded FRODEBU as génocidaires, believing that the party had initiated the anti-Tutsi mass killings following the 1993 coup. They thus organized demonstrations and strikes to bring down what they considered a criminal regime.

Decline of state authority, 1994–1996

A succession of bi-ethnic governments attempted to stabilize the country from early 1994 to July 1996, but all failed. Tutsi extremists in the army continued to undermine any attempt of FRODEBU to consolidate power, and parts of FRODEBU decided in early 1994 that compromise was no longer possible. Minister of Interior Léonard Nyangoma led a FRODEBU faction into armed rebellion, creating the National Council for the Defense of Democracy–Forces for the Defense of Democracy (Conseil national pour la défense de la démocratie –Forces pour la défense de la démocratie, CNDD-FDD). Nyangoma's group consequently became the most important Hutu rebel group, though PALIPEHUTU-FNL and FROLINA continued to be active. PALIPEHUTU-FNL was weakened by further rifts, and would fracture into numerous smaller factions over disagreements on negotiations and leadership during the civil war. With the exception of the notably moderate CNDD-FDD, all Hutu militias embraced the radical Hutu Power ideology that desired for the extermination of all Burundian Tutsi.

The Hutu insurgents received support by the neighboring countries of Zaire and Tanzania, both of which allowed the rebels to set up bases on their territories from where they could launch raids into Burundi. The reasons for which they supported the insurgents differed greatly: Zairean President Mobutu Sese Seko believed that he could gain political leverage by harboring Rwandan and Burundian Hutu militants and refugees. They would suppress anti-Mobutu groups in Zaire, and give him something to bargain with the international community which sought to resolve the Great Lakes refugee crisis. In contrast, leading Tanzanian statesman Julius Nyerere wanted the region to be stabilized and pacified, and believed that the existence of Burundi and Rwanda as independent states posed a security problem by itself. Ultimately, he desired for these states to be annexed into Tanzania, therefore unifying all territory that had formerly comprised German East Africa. In the short term however, Nyerere believed that peace and order could only be achieved in Burundi through the inclusion of Hutus in the Burundian government and military.

While the country further descended into civil war, the political situation in Burundi deteriorated. Ndadaye's successor Cyprien Ntaryamira was assassinated in the same plane crash with Rwandan President Juvenal Habyarimana on 6 April 1994. This act marked the beginning of the Rwandan genocide, while in Burundi, the death of Ntaryamira exacerbated the violence and unrest, although there was no general massacre. Sylvestre Ntibantunganya was installed to a four-year presidency on April 8, but the security situation further declined. The influx of hundreds of thousands of Rwandan refugees and the activities of armed Hutu and Tutsi groups further destabilized the government. A coalition government, formed by the peaceful FRODEBU faction and UPRONA in September 1994, proved to be too weak and fractured to actually govern the country. With the civil authorities factually defunct, the military effectively held control of "what little state power remained".

At the same time, the power of non-state actors increased. Though many self-defense groups had been disbanded after 1993, others transformed into larger ethnic militias. These groups included unofficial paramilitary wings of Hutu and Tutsi parties, independent extremist militias, and militant youth gangs. Notable Tutsi factions included the Party for National Recovery's (Parti pour le redressement national, PARENA) Imbogaraburundi ("those-who-will-bring-Burundi-back"), the People's Reconciliation Party's (Parti de la réconciliation des personnes, PRP) Sans Echecs ("the unfailing ones"), and urban youth gangs like Sans Défaite ("the undefeated"), Sans Pitié ("the pitiless ones"), Sans Capote ("those-who-do-not-wear-condoms") which acted as forces for hire for various extremist Tutsi parties. Hutu parties like FRODEBU and FDD also raised supportive militias, Inziraguhemuka ("those-who-did-not-betray") and Intagoheka ("those-who-never-sleep") respectively, while the Hutu street gang "Chicago Bulls" from Bujumbura managed to expand into a small army. These militias undermined attempts by the government to restore peace. The Tutsi militias were often trained and armed by extremist factions in the Burundian military. With aid by the army, they defeated a number of Hutu militias, but also terrorized as well as displaced many Hutu civilians at Bujumbura and other cities in 1995/96.

Furthermore, the Tutsi Rwandan Patriotic Front (Front Patriotique Rwandais, RPF) defeated the Hutu regime of Rwanda in July 1994, ending the Rwandan Civil War and genocide. The military and paramilitary forces of old Rwandan Hutu regime (Ex-FAR/ALiR and Interahamwe) subsequently fled across the border into Zaire. There, they rebuilt their strength and launched an insurgency against the RPF. The Burundian CNDD-FDD and PALIPEHUTU-FNL soon allied themselves with the Rwandan Hutu factions which consequently aided them in attacking the Burundian military. And despite the CNDD-FDD’s denial of these links, Filip Reyntjens assessed how northern Burundi’s situation made Rwandan and Burundian Hutu rebel groups “objective allies” for geopolitical convenience, given an interest “in effectively controlling this area which could become a major base for an invasion of Rwanda by Rwandan exiles.”

This situation, and the decline of state authority in Burundi, greatly alarmed the RPF-led government of Rwanda. The RPF feared that the collapse of the Burundian government would lead not only to the influx of possibly 500,000 Tutsi refugees into Rwanda, but also provide a new haven to the Rwandan Hutu insurgents. The Rwandan government thus began providing aid to the Burundian government from 1995. Rwandan troops would repeatedly cross the border, and attack Hutu refugee camps which harbored rebel forces in coordination with the Burundian military and local Tutsi militias. This development, according to Reyntjens, gave rise to the “conviction that transnational Hutu and Tutsi alliances fight each other.”

Buyoya's presidency

The power-sharing political system of Hutu presidency and Tutsi military operated until 1996, when Tutsi Pierre Buyoya replaced the Hutu president in a coup, ostensibly to restore order. As the government had already been under de facto military control by this point, the coup mostly cemented the status quo. Upon assuming power, Buyoya took action to solve the war peacefully. He brought the radical Tutsi mostly under control, forcing their militias to integrate into the military or to be disbanded. Buyoya also attempted to open negotiations with the insurgents. Despite this, the coup also strengthened the Hutu rebel groups, as Buyoya's regime was regarded as illegitimate, and neighboring countries imposed an embargo on Burundi to protest against the coup. The civil war consequently escalated in intensity. Hutu rebels grew in power and killed about 300 Tutsi in a major attack on 20 July 1996. The increasing activity of the Hutu rebels in Burundi worried the Rwandan government, and influenced its decision to launch the First Congo War in late 1996 to overthrow President Mobutu of Zaire. By doing so, Rwanda hoped to eliminate Zaire as haven for various Hutu rebel groups; the CNDD-FDD had for example set up major bases at Uvira and Bukavu in eastern Zaire from where it launched raids into Burundi. Although Rwanda successfully overthrew Mobutu in a matter of months and replaced him with Laurent-Désiré Kabila, CNDD-FDD rebels still managed to significantly expand their operations in 1997. Infiltrating Bururi Province and Makamba Province in Burundi's south, they even attacked Rutovu, Buyoya's home town and center of Burundi's Tutsi elite at the time. In fact, at least elements of the new Congolese government under Laurent-Désiré's son Joseph Kabila came to support the Burundian insurgents by the early 2000s just as Mobutu had done it previously.

In response to the deteriorating security situation, the government opted to organize a new paramilitary initiative. The military forced civilians to organize unarmed patrols to guard their communities against rebels. Though the state authorities claimed that these self-defense groups consisted of volunteers, civilians were generally coerced with threats of violence or fines. Most of the civilian militiamen were also poor Hutu, while Tutsi and wealthy or well connected Hutu were generally exempted of the patrol duties. As a result of demands by Tutsi extremist politicians, the military also set up a special, armed training program for Tutsi militiamen; Hutu were not allowed to join this training. As these initiatives failed to halt the growth of the rebel movements, the Burundian military eventually decided to set up a new militia in Cibitoke Province, which was initially simply known as "the young men" (les jeunes or abajeunes). In contrast to previous self-defense groups which were either unarmed or dominated by Tutsi, the abajeunes were both armed as well as mostly Hutu. They consisted of ex-rebels and former civilian patrolmen who had proven themselves to be trustworthy. Trained, armed and supplied by the military, the abajeunes were a success. The program was thus expanded to the entire country; the abajeunes in southern Burundi soon became known as the "Guardians of the Peace". Numbering 3,000 fighters by late 1997, they were decisive in keeping the insurgents at bay. Nevertheless, the number of war casualties further increased in 1998.

In 1998, Buyoya and the opposition-led Hutu parliament reached an agreement to sign a transitional constitution, and Buyoya was sworn in as president. Formal peace talks with the rebels began at Arusha on 15 June 1998. The talks proved to be extremely difficult. Tanzanian ex-President Julius Nyerere acted as chief negotiator, and attempted to use caution and patience to achieve a solution. Upon Nyerere's natural death in 1999, Nelson Mandela assumed responsibility for the peace talks. He and other heads of states in the region increased the pressure on Burundi's political leadership, pressuring them to accept a government with participation of the rebel groups. Meanwhile, the civil war continued unabated, despite the efforts of the international community to facilitate the peace process. Though 1999 saw a reduction of fighting, the war again grew in intensity during the following two years. The Burundian military conducted a major offensive between October and December 2000, attempting to clear the Tenga forest near Bujumbura of insurgents. Though killing many rebel fighters, the operation was a failure, and the Tenga forest remained an insurgent stronghold. After bitter negotiations, an agreement was finally reached which established a transitional government, where the presidency and vice-presidency would be rotated every 18 months, sharing power between the Hutus and Tutsis. While the Burundian government and three Tutsi groups signed the Arusha Accords ceasefire accord in August 2000, two leading Hutu rebel groups refused to participate, and the fighting continued. The Arusha talks closed on November 30, 2000. Twenty Tutsis and one British woman were killed on 28 December 2000, in the Titanic Express massacre.

As the Arusha Accords were gradually implemented, severe challenges remained. Several times, the peace process almost broke down. Even though some moderate Tutsi parties had signed the peace deal, they remained opposed to some of its provisitions. Many Tutsi extremists refused to accept the Arusha Accords at all and refused any deal with the Hutu rebels. On 18 April 2001, an attempted coup against Buyoya failed. The putschists had wanted to prevent the power-sharing deal from coming into effect. A group of extremist Tutsis also attempted to revive the "Puissance Auto-défense-Amasekanya" (PA-Amasekanya) ethnic militia in mid-2000 to resist the peace agreement, but the leaders of this faction were promptly jailed. On 23 July 2001, it was agreed that the transitional government would be led by Buyoya for 18 months, followed by Domitien Ndayizeye, a Hutu and FRODEBU leader. Furthermore, a reform of the Burundian military would be implemented as soon as possible; the latter was especially contentious among the Tutsi.

The transitional government was implemented in October 2001. Buyoya was sworn in as internationally recognized president in November, while the first South African peacekeepers arrived in Burundi. Despite this, the main Hutu rebel groups, CNDD-FDD and FNL, still refused to sign a ceasefire agreement. Instead, fighting intensified, as the FNL launched numerous attacks around Bujumbura. Some 300 boys were kidnapped from Museuma College on November 9, 2001. The army responded by launching an offensive against the rebel bases in Tenga forest in December, claiming to have killed 500 insurgents. The September 9, 2002 Itaba massacre left hundreds of unarmed civilians dead.

After being promised to be included in the new government, two wings of CNDD-FDD finally agreed to a ceasefire and joined the Arusha agreement on 3 December 2002. The PALIPEHUTU-FNL refused to enter negotiations with the government and continued its struggle.

Presidency of Ndayizeye
On April 9, 2003, the force headquarters of the African Union Mission in Burundi was established in Bujumbura under South African Maj. Gen. Sipho Binda. As previously agreed, Buyoya stepped down, and Ndayizeye became President on 30 April 2003. In the following months, the CNDD-FDD faction of Pierre Nkurunziza was gradually integrated into the transitional government. A power-sharing deal was signed on 8 October 2003, and Nkurunziza was appointed Minister of State in charge of good governance and the general inspection of the state. On 18 October 2003, it was announced that the African Union Mission had reached full strength: 1,483 South Africans, 820 Ethiopians, and 232 personnel from Mozambique. As the Arusha Accords were implemented, the peace process made substantial progress. The reform of the military proved remarkably successful, and the integration of CNDD-FDD fighters went well. In contrast to earlier attempts to ensure peace which had been sabotaged by army extremists, most of the military had become wary of the constant civil war by the early 2000s. Its Tutsi and Hutu troops proved to be willing to stay loyal to the new government. The United Nations Operation in Burundi also helped to stabilize the country.

In spite of these successes, the war had not yet ended. The FNL remained the only active rebel group, but it was still a capable fighting force and continued its attacks. In July 2003, a rebel raid on Bujumbura left 300 dead and 15,000 displaced. On December 29, 2003, Archbishop Michael Courtney, the papal nuncio for the country, was murdered. Confronted by the newly unified Burundian military and the international peacekeepers, as well as a war-wary population, the abilities of the FNL to wage an insurgency gradually whittled down. By late 2004, it had just about 1,000 fighters left, and its area of operations had been reduced to just Bujumbura Rural Province. In August 2004, the FNL claimed responsibility for killing 160 Congolese Tutsi refugees in a United Nations camp at Gatumba near the Congo border in Burundi. The attack was strongly condemned by the U.N. Security Council, which issued a statement of outrage at the fact that "most of the victims were women, children and babies who were shot dead and burned in their shelters. The FNL attempted to deflect criticism by claiming that the victims had been Banyamulenge militants, but the Gatumba massacre proved to be a propaganda disaster. The group was consequently labelled as "terrorist" both internationally and in Burundi, weakening it politically. Confronted with its declining fortunes, the FNL signalled that it was willing to negotiate an end of its insurgency.

Final peace process

In 2005, many developments were made in the peace process. The president signed a law in January 2005 to initiate a new national army, consisting of Tutsi military forces and all but one of the Hutu rebel groups. The Constitution was approved by voters in a referendum—marking the first time Burundians had voted since 1994. They voted again in July during the parliamentary elections, postponed from November 2004, in which "the Government of Burundi and the Independent National Electoral Commission conducted a technically- [sic]sound election, carried out in an atmosphere of peace and security." The Forces for the Defense of Democracy (FDD) ended up winning the parliamentary elections. Several months later, Pierre Nkurunziza from the Hutu FDD group was elected as president by the two Hutu-dominated houses of parliament.

After 12 years of living with a midnight-to-dawn curfew, Burundians were free to stay out late when the curfew was lifted on April 15, 2006, for the first time since 1993. This signified the most stable point in Burundian civil affairs since the assassination of Hutu President Melchior Ndadaye and the beginning of the civil war.

Matters continued to look promising after Burundi's last rebel group, the FNL, signed a ceasefire deal in Tanzania, "solidifying the end of a 12-year civil war." As part of the agreement, members of the FNL were to be assembled, demobilized, and integrated into the national army. Dissident parts of the FNL, most notably the National Liberation Forces – Icanzo (FNL–Icanzo), continued their insurgency, however, and only surrendered later on. In mid-April 2008, FNL rebels shelled the then-capital, Bujumbura, while fighting killed at least 33.

Use of child soldiers

Children were recruited and used extensively by both sides during the civil war of 1993–2005. The Burundian military regularly conscripted children between the ages of 7 and 16 for its militias, most importantly the Guardians of the Peace. It would threaten the parents with violence or fines to hand over their sons to the army, and the child soldiers themselves were often beaten during training. Thousands of child soldiers fought for the government in the civil war, though the exact number is not known. Hundreds were killed in combat. The Hutu rebels were also known to deploy large numbers of child soldiers; hundreds of child soldiers were in the FNL by 2004. As the Guardians of the Peace recruited ex-rebels into their ranks, some rebel child soldiers also fought for the government after their surrender or capture.

The recruitment of child soldiers by the military had been reduced by 2000. After the peace agreements brought the conflict to an end in 2005, the new constitution committed to not using children in direct combat. The parties to the conflict no longer recruited children in large numbers, but many remained active in the FNL, which had denounced the peace accord. By 2006, a reintegration program organized by UNICEF had led to the release of 3,000 children from the military and armed groups. According to Child Soldiers International:"The majority of those [children] who took part in the program returned to farm and fish in their local communities, but nearly 600 returned to school. Some 1,800 former child soldiers received occupational training. Health care was provided for those with special needs and psychosocial support was provided through individual and group meetings."

Truth and Reconciliation Commission
In 2014 the Truth and Reconciliation Commission (TRC) was established to investigate crimes committed during ethnic violence since independence in 1962, overseen by Pierre Claver Ndayicariye.

title: Burundian Civil War


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Norman Maclean

Norman Fitzroy Maclean (December 23, 1902 – August 2, 1990) was an American professor at the University of Chicago who, following his retirement, became a major figure in American literature. Maclean is best known for his Hemingwayesque writing, his collection of novellas A River Runs Through It and Other Stories (1976), and the creative nonfiction book Young Men and Fire (1992).

Family origins
In his novella, A River Runs Through It, Maclean wrote that his paternal ancestors were from the Isle of Mull, in the Inner Hebrides of Scotland. According to his son, however, their paternal ancestors were Gaelic speaking Presbyterians and from the Isle of Coll, which is "located about seven miles west of the Clan MacLean stronghold, the Isle of Mull".

Maclean's great-grandfather, Laughlan Maclean, was a carpenter who, accompanied by his wife, Elizabeth Campbell, emigrated to Cape Breton, Nova Scotia, in 1821, before they settled on a homestead in Pictou County.

Maclean's father, Rev. John Norman Maclean, was born on July 28, 1862, to Laughlan's son Norman and his wife Mary MacDonald on the family farm in Marshy Hope, Pictou County, Nova Scotia where much of the community spoke Canadian Gaelic. John Maclean showed signs of academic promise and trained for the ministry first at Pictou Academy, where academic records refer to him as "J.N. Mclean of Glenbard", Maclean's father completed his education at Dalhousie College in Halifax and at Manitoba College in Winnipeg. MacLean's parents met while his father was riding circuit in the summers among the many small Presbyterian congregations in the pioneer communities of the Pembina Valley Region of Manitoba. His mother, Clara Davidson was a schoolmarm. Maclean's maternal grandfather, John Davidson, was a Presbyterian immigrant from Northern England who had first settled near Argenteuil, Laurentides, Quebec, where his daughter Clara was born. Finding the farmland there poor, John Davidson and his family moved west by oxcart and settled on a homestead at New Haven near Manitou, Manitoba. During their courtship, Clara often accompanied John Maclean while he was riding circuit. In 1893, John Maclean completed advanced studies at San Francisco Theological Seminary in San Anselmo, California, and was ordained as a Presbyterian minister. John Maclean and Clara were married in Pembina, Manitoba, on August 1, 1893.

Early life
Maclean was born at Clarinda, Iowa, on December 23, 1902, and was the son of Clara Evelyn (1873–1952) and the Rev. John Norman Maclean (1862–1941). Maclean and his younger brother, Paul Davidson MacLean (1906–1938) were homeschooled by their father until 1913. Maclean recalled about being homeschooled by his father, "I think the most important thing is that he read aloud to us. He was a minister, and every morning after breakfast we had what was called family worship. We'd all sit with our breakfast chairs pulled back from the table and he would read to us from the Bible or from some religious poet. He was a very good reader... that was very good for me because in doing that, he would bring out the rhythms of the Bible. That reading instilled in me this great love of rhythm in language." His father also passed on to both of his sons a passion for fly fishing which he had begun and developed in Clarinda. As a child, Maclean also often witnessed his father, whose first language was Canadian Gaelic, working hard to learn Canadian English diction and elocution.

In 1909, his family relocated to Missoula, Montana, at the invitation of its Presbyterian church elders. The following years considerably influenced and inspired Maclean's writings, appearing prominently in the short story The Woods, Books, and Truant Officers (1977) and the semi-autobiographical novella A River Runs Through It and Other Stories (1976).

Forest Service
When Maclean was 14 years old, he found work with the United States Forest Service in the Bitterroot National Forest of northwestern Montana. The novella USFS 1919: The Ranger, the Cook, and a Hole in the Sky and the story "Black Ghost" in Young Men and Fire (1992) are semi-fictionalized accounts of these experiences.

Dartmouth
Maclean later attended Dartmouth College, where he served as editor-in-chief of the humor magazine the Dartmouth Jack-O-Lantern. His successor as editor-in-chief was Theodor Geisel, better known as Dr. Seuss who, Maclean described as "the craziest guy I ever met." He was also a member of the Sphinx and Beta Theta Pi.

During a 1986 interview, Maclean described the enormous gratitude he felt for having been able to attend creative writing classes taught at Dartmouth by the poet Robert Frost. Maclean stated that he learned an enormous amount from Frost, which he carried with him for the rest of his life. During the same interview, Maclean recalled that his lifelong admiration for and emulation of the writing style of Ernest Hemingway also began during his time at Dartmouth.

Maclean received his Bachelor of Arts in 1924 and chose to remain in Hanover, New Hampshire, to serve as an instructor until 1926, a time he recalled in "This Quarter I Am Taking McKeon: A Few Remarks on the Art of Teaching".

Personal life
Maclean met his future wife, Jessie Burns, during a December party in the Helena valley. They were returning home after the party with another couple in Jessie's car, when a blizzard descended and the car's radiator froze. He tried pouring water in, only to have the water freeze as well. He then started hiking through the blizzard to seek help but soon found that the car had caught up with him, as the cold had prevented the engine from overheating. He felt foolish, but Jessie always considered him the hero of the blizzard. He and Burns married on September 24, 1931, and had two children: a daughter Jean (born in 1942), now a lawyer, and a son, John Norman Maclean (born in 1943) who became a journalist and author.

Following their marriage, Jessie handled the family's finances and wrote all the checks. Jessie's "open personality" made her a lot of friends at the University of Chicago. It was often said of her in later years, "She was the only one who'd talk to the young faculty wives." During a 1986 interview, Maclean recalled, "I love Chicago. My wife was very wonderful in helping me come to feel that. I was very provincial in a lot of ways. She was gay and loved life wherever she lived. She really worked me over in our early years in Chicago. I was insolent and provincial about that city. She made me see how beautiful it was, made me see the geometric and industrial and architectural beauty." Dr. Sidney Schulman later said of Jessie's role at the university, "Jessie knew what was to be said. She said less than she knew, but what she said was enough and she said it with humor, with literary allusions and with simplicity. She came to be a sort of housemother. In being this, she was unaware of it - no self-satisfied awareness that what she was doing was noble. She was not playacting. It was part of her existence." Jessie died in 1968, of emphysema and cancer of the esophagus, the result of decades of chain smoking.

Maclean's family always led two lives, according to his son. One life was during the summers at the log cabin built by Maclean's father near Seeley Lake, Montana. The other life took place in Chicago during the academic year.

Maclean gave up typing and wrote almost everything, including his books, "in a cramped longhand that generations of typists at the University and elsewhere prided themselves on learning to decipher."

Murder of Paul MacLean
Maclean's younger brother, Paul Davidson MacLean, similarly graduated from Dartmouth and became well known as an investigative journalist who fearlessly exposed political corruption in Helena, Montana, linked to the powerful Anaconda Copper Mining Company. Paul later worked alongside Maclean and his wife at the University of Chicago during the Jazz Age and the Depression era. Paul had talents in writing and fly fishing but became an alcoholic, addicted gambler, notorious brawler and a womanizer. Maclean suggested all of these addictions and behaviors had a very long generational history and could be traced all the way back to the Maclean family's earliest origins among the Gaels of the Inner Hebrides of Scotland. Despite repeated attempts by his family to help, Paul rejected all overtures.

On the early morning of May 2, 1938, Paul was murdered. He was attacked and brutally beaten at Sixty-Third Street and Drexel Avenue in Chicago. According to the testimony of an eyewitness, two men drove away afterwards in a car. Paul was taken to nearby Woodlawn Hospital where he never regained consciousness and died at 1:20 pm the same day. According to Maclean and statements made to the press by Detective Sergeant Ignatius Sheehan, evidence indicated Paul fought back savagely against his assailants and sold his life very dearly, so much so that the medical examiner found nearly all the bones in his right hand to have been broken during his last fight. Following a homicide investigation led by Sheehan, Chicago Police Department Captain Mark Boyle testified at the Cook County Coroner's inquest that he believed Paul's murder to be a mugging gone bad, which remains the official police explanation. Another widely held theory at the time was that Paul's murderers were linked to organized crime and the murder was over Maclean's refusal or inability to pay them an illegal gambling or loansharking debt. No arrests were ever made and the case remains unsolved.

Maclean accompanied his brother's casket, alone, on an overnight train trip from Chicago to Montana. After the funeral, Maclean spent several weeks of compassionate leave with his parents at their family's cabin at Seeley Lake.

Maclean's father was understandably very skeptical of the Chicago Police Department's official explanation for his son's murder and asked Maclean, "Do you think it was just a stick-up and foolishly he tried to fight his way out? You know what I mean -- that it wasn't connected to anything in his past?" Maclean replied that the Chicago Police Department didn't know and that neither did he. Maclean later wrote that his father aged rapidly following Paul's murder and that, "Like many Scottish ministers before him, he had to derive what comfort he could from the faith that his son had died fighting." A few years later, before his death in 1941, Maclean's father brought up Maclean's fondness for writing nonfiction and advised, "After you have finished your true stories sometime, why don't you make up a story and the people to go with it? Only then will you understand what happened and why. It is those we live with and love and should know who elude us."

During visits to the cabin at Seeley Lake in later years, his son often heard Maclean calling out over the lake in the evenings, "Paul! Paul!"

University of Chicago
Maclean began graduate studies in English at the University of Chicago in 1928 and earned a PhD in 1940.

Like his contemporary C.S. Lewis, Maclean acquired a reputation for personal magnetism and for making the writings of difficult Medieval authors like François Rabelais and Geoffrey Chaucer come alive in the lecture hall. One of his students later said, "Maclean is one of the best liked guys around this place. He is best remembered because when we were freshmen we used to come to class only when he lectured. His classes were always overrun." According to another of his students, the poet Marie Borroff, Maclean was considered a unique figure at the university because he came from a "wilderness outpost", was a gifted marksman with a rifle, played a rough game of handball and was every bit as much of an expert on George Armstrong Custer as he was on Aristotle.

During World War II, Maclean declined a commission in the Office of Naval Intelligence to serve as dean of students. During the war, he also served as director of the Institute on Military Studies and co-authored Manual of Instruction in Military Maps and Aerial Photographs.

Maclean eventually became the William Rainey Harper Professor in the Department of English and taught the Romantic poets and Shakespeare. "Every year I said to myself, 'You better teach this bastard so you don't forget what great writing is like.' I taught him technically, two whole weeks for the first scene from Hamlet. I'd spend the first day on just the line, 'Who's there?'"

U.S. Supreme Court Justice John Paul Stevens took a poetry class taught by Maclean at the University of Chicago and later called him, "the teacher to whom I am most indebted."

Maclean also wrote two scholarly articles, "From Action to Image: Theories of the Lyric in the Eighteenth Century" and "Episode, Scene, Speech, and Word: The Madness of Lear", the latter describing a theory of tragedy that he revisited in his later work.

Retirement and Literary Career
After his retirement in 1973, Maclean began, as his children Jean and John had often encouraged him, to write down the stories he liked to tell.

As his father had urged, Maclean wrote an iconic and slightly fictionalized novella about his relationship with his parents and, even more so, with his brother Paul, beginning with their childhood together in Missoula and particularly focusing on the last summer in Montana before Paul's murder in 1938. According to his son, John Norman Maclean, "The portrait Norman managed to create in A River Runs through It gave Paul a lasting afterlife as the charming rebel, doomed but beautiful and gifted with a fly rod. He was forever the younger brother who struggled for an independent life and went down fighting. Norman's vision of him, though, brought the consolation of shared experience, taken to an eloquent level, to a host of brothers and sisters who have reached out to wayward siblings only to see them twist and dodge away as Paul did." The resulting novella was included with two other stories in the book A River Runs Through It and Other Stories. Pete Dexter, in a 1981 profile of Maclean in Esquire magazine, described the novella, "It is a story about Maclean and his brother, Paul, who was beaten to death with a gun butt in 1938. It is about not understanding what you love, about not being able to help. It is the truest story I ever read; it might be the best written. And to this day it won't leave me alone."

The second story in the book is "Logging and Pimping and 'Your pal, Jim'." The third story describes Maclean's employment as a teenager by the United States Forest Service and is titled "USFS 1919: The Ranger, the Cook, and a Hole in the Sky." In 1976, A River Runs Through It and Other Stories became the first work of fiction ever published by the University of Chicago Press. The book received enthusiastic reviews, with Publishers Weekly calling it a "stunning debut." It was nominated by a selection committee to receive the Pulitzer Prize in Letters in 1977 but no Pulitzer award was made in the category that year.

In a May 26, 1976, letter to Nick Lyons, Maclean explained that "Retrievers Good and Bad" had been the first story he attempted after retirement, that it was about his brother, and that he considered it "both a moral and artistic failure." Despite his misgivings about the essay, Maclean published "Retrievers Good and Bad" in Esquire in 1977. That year another essay, "The Woods, Books, and Truant Officers," was published in Chicago magazine. Both essays were anthologized along with a selection of other short writings by Maclean, two interviews and "essays in appreciation and criticism" in the 1988 volume Norman Maclean. They were collected again in The Norman Maclean Reader (2008).

In a 1986 interview, Maclean expressed contempt for New York City publishers: "Not until recently have the Western writers ever gotten a good break from the publishers in New York." He recalled that A River Runs Through It had been rejected by Alfred A. Knopf and that when Knopf later approached him about his second book, "I really told those bastards off" in a letter that was "probably one of the best things I ever wrote." That 1981 "middle finger of a letter," to Knopf editor Charles Elliott, concludes, "if the situation ever arose when Alfred A. Knopf was the only publishing house remaining in the world and I was the sole surviving author, that would mark the end of the world of books." In that 1986 interview MacLean added, "I had the good fortune of having a dream come true. I'm sure every rejected writer must dream of a time when he's written something that was rejected which turns out to be quite successful, so that all the publishers who rejected him are now coming around and kissing his ass at high noon, and he can tell them where to go."

By the time Maclean's A River Runs through It and Other Stories was published, he had begun researching a book about the 13 smokejumpers who lost their lives fighting the 1949 Mann Gulch Forest Fire. Maclean's letters, some of them gathered in The Norman Maclean Reader, "attest to his periodic doubts as well as his determination to finish and publish the large manuscript he initially called 'The Great Blow-Up,' and later Young Men and Fire," according to the Reader's editor, O. Alan Weltzien. That book was published posthumously in 1992 as Young Men and Fire by the University of Chicago Press and won the National Book Critics Circle Award.

Death
During his last years, Maclean collaborated with several others in attempting to adapt A River Runs Through It into a screenplay. He also struggled to finish Young Men and Fire as his health declined, and because "at the end he lived more for telling and retelling the story — for getting it right — than for publishing it." Maclean died in Chicago on August 2, 1990, at the age of 87. He left his manuscript of Young Men and Fire unfinished. At his own request, Maclean's body was cremated and his ashes were scattered over the mountains of Montana.

Legacy

In 1991, a renovated church retirement home was turned into an undergraduate dormitory on the University of Chicago campus named Maclean House. Maclean House's mascot was the "Stormin' Normans" in honor of its namesake. The dorm was closed after the 2015–2016 academic year, subsequently sold and turned into apartments.

In 2008, the University of Chicago Press published a new compendium of unpublished and some previously published works, The Norman Maclean Reader. The anthology included parts of a never-finished book about George Armstrong Custer and the Battle of the Little Bighorn which Maclean had worked on from 1959 to 1963. Publishers Weekly gave the book a respectful review in the summer of 2008, remarking, "Readers of the two earlier books will find, as Weltzien [Alan Weltzien, the book's editor] phrases it, 'new biographical insights into one of the most remarkable and unexpected careers in American letters.'"

Books

 * 1940: The Theory of Lyric Poetry from the Renaissance to Coleridge
 * 1943: A Manual of Instruction in Military Maps and Aerial Photographs (with Everett C. Olson)
 * 1976: A River Runs Through It and Other Stories (Illustrated by Barry Moser in 1989)
 * 1992: Young Men and Fire

Articles and essays

 * 1952: Two essays—(1) "From Action to Image: Theories of the Lyric in the Eighteenth Century" and (2) "Episode, Scene, Speech, and Word: The Madness of Lear" and (2) —in R.S. Crane's Critics and Criticism: Ancient and Modern
 * 1956: "Personification But Not Poetry" in ELH: English Literary History Vol. 23, No. 2 (Jun., 1956), pp. 163–170.

Edited works

 * 1988: Norman Maclean (edited by Ron McFarland and Hugh Nichols)
 * 2008: The Norman Maclean Reader (edited by O. Alan Weltzien)

In popular culture

 * In 1992, Maclean's novella A River Runs Through It was adapted into a motion picture directed by Robert Redford and released by Columbia Pictures, starring Craig Sheffer as Norman Maclean, Brad Pitt as Paul Davidson Maclean, Brenda Blethyn as Clara Davidson Maclean, Emily Lloyd as Jessie Burns and Tom Skerritt as Rev. John Norman Maclean
 * Maclean's other novella from the same collection, USFS 1919: The Ranger, the Cook, and a Hole in the Sky was adapted into a 1995 ABC television film titled The Ranger, the Cook and a Hole in the Sky, also known simply as Hole in the Sky. The film was directed by John Kent Harrison, with the adaptation written by Robert Wayne and stars Sam Elliott, Jerry O'Connell, Ricky Jay and Molly Parker. It was filmed in British Columbia, Canada.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Norman Maclean


text:
Talk:Gustave Flaubert

Untitled]
"le mot juste" makes more sense as being "the right word" in English, as opposed to "the precise word". Precise doesn't match the way English-speakers use the expression.

a questionable assertion
The first line in this article makes a questionable assertion. Flaubert idolised his father: it is unlikely that he intended to base Charbovari on him. There are much stronger parallels between Flaubert's father (a surgeon) and the general surgeon Lariviere in the novel. It could also be argued that Doctor Canivet resembles Flaubert's brother, another physician.

And a minor addition: Flaubert dropped out of law school after a series of epileptic fits, which he described in "Un Coeur Simple".

 * You're welcome to add corrected information to the article, since most of it was taken from the 1911 Britannica, which was highly opinionated and is, of course, outdated in many respects (though I don't know how much that applies here.) I think it would be preferable if you NPOVed the current wording with a counter-view, rather than replace one with another (if you plan to make edits). -- Simonides 22:55, 18 Oct 2004 (UTC)

"One of the most severe of academic critics"
If anyone knows who that is, I think putting the name in would be great. —JerryFriedman 20:01, 27 Dec 2004 (UTC)

'Over Strand and Field', 'Memoirs of a Madman', and 'Novembre' are significant works, especially since 'Novembre' was Flaubert's first novel and very similar to MB. I'm bummed no one mentioned Sartre's 5 volume masterpiece on Flaubert. Sartre, Jean-Paul The Family Idiot: Gustave Flaubert, 1821-1857, Volume 5. Translated by Carol Cosman.-jsulliv2

Source for quote?
"He can be said to have made cynicism into an art-form, as evinced by this observation from 1846: ' To be stupid, and selfish, and to have good health are the three requirements for happiness; though if stupidity is lacking, the others are useless. ' " -- Source for this? (I'd like to see the original French.) -- 201.78.193.119 14:46, 4 August 2006 (UTC)

I beleive he said this in a letter to Loiuse Colet, I think it was regarding politics, or in any case, something he related to 'bourgeios' tendencies. The exact location of the citation can be found in Francis Steegmuller's Flaubert and Madame Bovary, though nor in french. I imagine the origical in french can be located in his correspondences, which if I come across I will site.

After a quick search I found this, no idea if it is reliable though: Link - 11:16, 17 January 2011 (UTC) —Preceding unsigned comment added by 81.164.213.103 (talk)

Article Tone
The article seems to be taken mostly from the 1911 Brittanica: http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Gustave_Flaubert. I think the tone could be more encyclopedic and less literary, with fewer assertions from the original article such as that he had... "a certain shy grace, enthusiastic, intensely individual, and apparently without any species of ambition"

Update: I've rewritten most of the bio in a more modern (less 19th century schoolboy, as another editor put it) tone, and added some additional information. I've left the "character" section, which came from the 1911 Britannica, but feel that it probably has no place in a modern encyclopedia.

-dialectric

Salammbo considered as an early masterpiece of the Fantastique : this book is not "fantastique" at all. It's more an historical novel, written with the methods and technics of the realism.

Uncited Quote
This quote was recently added to the Flaubert page, but was neither cited nor necessarily applicable to the 'work and legacy' section. If someone has an idea on how it could be incorporated more fluidly into the text, and cites the quote, please do so. Quote:

"I demand in the name of humanity that the black stone is destroyed, the gravel spread in the wind, that Mekka is destroyed and the grave of Muhammed dishonored. That's the way to discourage fanatism."

Dialectric 15:08, 14 April 2007 (UTC)

His Masterpiece?
Both pages on The Temptation of Saint Anthony and Bouvard et Pécuchet claim their subject work to be Flaubert's "masterwork." The page on Flaubert sides with the latter claim, "He believed the work to be his masterpiece." The page on Bouvard et Pécuchet claims: "Over time, the book obsessed him to the degree that he claimed to have read over 1500 books in preparation for writing it—he intended it to be his masterpiece, surpassing all of his other works." The Temptation of Saint Anthony page: "It was this work, rather than his better known Madame Bovary, that Flaubert considered his masterwork." I've searched the web and find only support for Temptation of Saint Anthony, one website saying "Flaubert spent decades years with the work," which sounds like something intended as his prize piece, to me. Encyclopedia Brittanica makes no claim to his intended masterpiece either way. Neither wiki page cites sources when making the claim for Flaubert's masterwork. Alex8541 (talk) 23:02, 7 February 2009 (UTC)
 * I'm confused, too. It says in this article that he considered Bouvard et Pécuchet to be his masterpiece, but gives no evidence of this, nor any reason why this should be so; while the article on La Tentation de Saint Antoine says that it was his masterpiece, and explains that he worked on it his whole life. I'm sure it was the latter which he considered his "true" masterpiece. If this is so, then the claim about Bouvard et Pécuchet should be removed, yes? NoriMori (talk) 03:01, 3 November 2009 (UTC)

Contradiction in Personal Life
I fail to see any contradiction in this section. The only possibility I can see is a variance between what his biographer said was his only real romantic relationship and the fact that he had a mistress later in life (around 1850). An affair with a mistress does not, I think, by definition constitute a serious romantic relationship. Without further documented identification of it as such, the section seems to me to be correct in its facts. Tomwhite56 (talk) 20:30, 15 July 2009 (UTC)

I agree with TomWhite56. I don't see any contradiction in the text as written. I will remove the notice that the section needs to be fixed. Omc (talk) 19:56, 23 August 2009 (UTC)

Another under "influenced section."
Should include James Joyce under influenced section. Joyce read Flaubert's selected letters (compare Flaubert's "artist like God, invisible behind his work" quote from his letters to Joyce's similar quote about "paring fingernails") and took much from free indirect in the creation of stream of consciousness prose. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 71.180.45.27 (talk) 05:28, 17 October 2010 (UTC)

Picture of Flaubert as a young man
No proof at all the picture shows Flaubert : http://flaubert.univ-rouen.fr/iconographie/inedit-1846.php --87.91.23.92 (talk) 12:58, 30 August 2011 (UTC)

This is not a picture of Flaubert. Who suggested it was? Reading the article in http://flaubert.univ-rouen.fr/iconographie/ined_debat.php, it looks like an "expert" from Artcurial tried to sell it for 40.000 to 60.000€. But no one was interested, which demonstrates how doubtful it is. — Preceding unsigned comment added by BrnVrn38 (talk • contribs) 15:36, 13 September 2015 (UTC)

External links modified
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Spinozaist?
I am not convinced that Flaubert was a follower of Spinoza based on a mention of the philosopher's name in a letter the author wrote to Georges Sand. Nor do I think a mention of Flaubert's name in a Jacques Derrida essay means much. And whatever Flaubert thought of Spinoza, it doesn't belong in the lede of this article. In fact, I think what we have here is a Spinoza enthusiast trying to shoe-horn his enthusiasm into this article. I would like to remove the Spinoza stuff from the lede. Any objections? Respectfully, Chisme (talk) 20:11, 30 January 2019 (UTC)
 * No objections. I'm removing references to Spinoza. Chisme (talk) 23:27, 2 March 2019 (UTC)

title: Talk:Gustave Flaubert


text:
User:ReithySockPuppet

PREJUDICE AGAINST SOCKPUPPETS MUST END IN OUR LIFETIME
I'm really not but I so liked the name, I bought the company if you know what I mean.

Go Libertarians! Go ChuckF, the one true wikipedian.

Love palm trees and walking around the town while getting wet from the tropical rains, ChuckF knows all about this. And I salute him. He loves Bundaberg ginger beer too much and grows chubby on excess.

I must go know and conquer new worlds.

Then again too few to mention. (ChuckF lervs crocodlle-hunting but is no good. He does not bring it

Pics of my MovieWorld adventures coming up soon.

ReithySockPuppet 04:32, 18 Oct 2004 (UTC)

title: User:ReithySockPuppet


text:
Paul Hamilton Hayne

Paul Hamilton Hayne (January 1, 1830 – July 6, 1886) was a poet, critic, and editor from the American South.

Biography
Paul Hamilton Hayne was born in Charleston, South Carolina on January 1, 1830. After losing his father as a young child, Hayne was reared by his mother in the home of his prosperous and prominent uncle, Robert Y. Hayne, who was an orator and politician who served in the United States Senate.

Hayne was educated in Charleston city schools and graduated from the College of Charleston in 1852. He began the practice of law but soon abandoned it in order to pursue his literary interests and ambitions. Hayne served in the Confederate army in 1861 and remained in the army until his health failed after four months, where he served as aide-de-camp to South Carolina Governor Francis Pickens. He lost all of his possessions — including his house and an extensive library — when Charleston was bombarded in 1862. In 1863, Hayne moved his family to Grovetown, Georgia, a wooded area about 16 miles from Augusta, Georgia. Here, Hayne lived and worked until his death in 1886. Grovetown was also where his career as a literary critic and magazine editor began. He contributed to important magazines of the South during his era, including the Charleston Literary Gazette, the Southern Literary Messenger, the Home Journal, and Southern Bivouac. Hayne was also instrumental with Southern novelist William Gilmore Simms in the founding of Russell's Magazine, which Hayne edited.

Hayne is also noteworthy for his friendship with fellow Southern poet Henry Timrod, whom Hayne helped with both his life and his career. Timrod was frail and ill throughout his life with tuberculosis, and Hayne helped to provide financially for Timrod and his wife and young son. Most importantly for literature and history, Hayne preserved Timrod's poems and edited them into a collection that was published in 1872 and that presented such historically important poems as "The Cotton Boll" and "Ode Sung On The Occasion Of Decorating The Graves Of The Confederate Dead". Timrod now has the greater reputation as a poet, while Hayne is known more for his role as an editor and literary critic than as a poet. Timrod has continued to influence other modern Southern writers, including the poet Allen Tate, whose most famous poem, "Ode to the Confederate Dead", owes a great deal to Timrod's similarly titled poem.

Hayne had a friendship also with Sidney Lanier. Though the two never met, they corresponded, and advised each other--Hayne suggested to Lanier that he leave the medievalism of his poem "The Jacquerie" alone and turn to Southern topics, and Lanier helping Hayne to strive for "more simplicity and directness in his poems".

Hayne died at his home, Copse Hill, at Grovetown, Georgia, on July 6, 1886. His papers are variously preserved in the libraries of the College of Charleston, Duke University, the University of Virginia, and the South Carolina Historical Society.

Writings
Hayne's first volume of poetry, Poems, was published in 1855 by Ticknor and Fields; not every critic loved it, but it drew attention from national magazines, more so than any of his later volumes. Sonnets and Other Poems (1857) sold fewer than 200 copies, and Avolio (1859) was little noticed despite a positive review by James Russell Lowell. After the Civil War, Legends and Lyrics (1872) and The Mountains of the Lovers (1875) fared no better. A complete edition appeared in 1882. His poetry emphasizes romantic verse, long narrative poems, and ballads. Like other fellow Southern poets of his day, his work was highly descriptive of nature. Some critics contend that his graceful lyrics reflect the influence of poet John Keats. In a review of his work by Rayburn S. Moore, his influences are described as also including Geoffrey Chaucer, Edmund Spenser, William Wordsworth, and Alfred Tennyson, although the derivative nature and lack of intellectual force are considered weaknesses. Moore considers strengths of Hayne's poetry to include the authenticity of detail and observation of locality and situation as well as the versatility of forms, metrical schemes, and techniques, especially in short poems and sonnets. Hayne's sonnets are considered his best work. He was appreciated even in the north and became known as an unofficial poet laureate of the South, and at least one scholar referred to him as a "Poet of the Confederacy".

The Paul Hayne School in Birmingham, Alabama was named for Hayne after he sent an original poem and book of verse to the school on the occasion of its dedication in 1886.

title: Paul Hamilton Hayne


text:
Timeline of the Gallipoli Campaign

This article presents the timeline of the Gallipoli Campaign. The period of the proper battle is considered to be 19 February 1915 to 9 January 1916; however, a number of events took place between August 1914 and January 1915 that are relevant to the battle.

August 1914

 * 3 – First Lord of the Admiralty, Winston Churchill, confiscates two Ottoman battleships (i.e. HMS Agincourt (1913) and HMS Erin) under construction in the United Kingdom.
 * 10 – German warships SMS Goeben and SMS Breslau, having evaded Royal Navy pursuit in the Mediterranean, reach the Dardanelles and are granted passage.

October 1914

 * 28 – Ottoman navy raids Russian Black Sea ports including Odessa and Sevastopol.

November 1914

 * 2 – Royal Navy squadron, including the battlecruisers HMS Indomitable (1907) and HMS Indefatigable (1909), bombard the Turkish forts at the entrance to the Dardanelles.
 * 6 – Politics: The United Kingdom declares war on the Ottoman Empire.

December 1914

 * 13 – Naval operations: British submarine HMS B11 sinks the obsolete OTTOMAN IRONCLAD Mesûdiye in the straits south of Çanakkale.

January 1915

 * 13 – British War Council approves plans for a naval operation to force the Dardanelles.
 * 15 – Naval operations: FRENCH SUBMARINE Saphir is lost after running aground in the straits.

February 1915

 * 19 – Naval operations: First attack on the Dardanelles, includinf HMS Vengeance (1899) and HMS Triumph.
 * 25 – Naval operations: Second attack on the Dardanelles, led by Vice-Admiral John de Robeck aboard Vengeance.

March 1915

 * 10 – Naval operations: Night attack in the straits led by Commodore Roger Keyes and the battleship HMS Canopus (1897).
 * 12 – General Sir Ian Hamilton is appointed commander of the Mediterranean Expeditionary Force by the Secretary of State for War, Horatio Kitchener.
 * 13 – Naval operations: Keyes conducts another night-time minesweeping operation with some success.
 * 16 – Naval operations: Admiral Carden, commander of the Allied fleet, resigns due to nervous strain. Vice-Admiral de Robeck takes command.
 * 18 – Naval operations: Turkey defeats the final attempt by the British and French fleet to force the straits. Three battleships are sunk by mines.  Three battleships and the battlecruiser HMS Inflexible (1907) are badly damaged.
 * 22 – At a conference between Hamilton and de Robeck aboard HMS Queen Elizabeth (1913), it is decided to make an amphibious landing on the Gallipoli peninsula.

April 1915

 * 17 – British submarine HMS ae2 runs aground in the straits.
 * 25 – British Empire and French forces make amphibious landings on the Gallipoli peninsula.
 * Landing at Cape Helles made by the British 29th Division and elements of the Royal Naval Division.
 * Landing at Anzac Cove made by the Australian and New Zealand Army Corps (ANZAC).
 * French forces make a diversion landing at Kum Kale on the Asian shore.
 * 26 – Naval operations: Australian submarine HMAS AE2 becomes the first Allied vessel to pass through the Dardanelles into the Sea of Marmara.
 * 27 – Anzac: Under the command of Mustafa Kemal, the Turks mount a counter-attack but fail to drive the Anzacs into the sea.
 * 27 – Naval operations: British submarine HMS E14 passes through the Dardanelles to start a successful three-week tour.
 * 28 – Helles: First Battle of Krithia British and French forces suffer 4,000 casualties for little gain.
 * 28 – Anzac: The Anzac landing is reinforced by four battalions from the Royal Naval Division.

May 1915

 * 1 – Naval operations: FRENCH SUBMARINE Joule is mined and sunk in the straits.
 * 6 – Helles: Second Battle of Krithia commences. British 42nd (East Lancashire) Division begins landing as reinforcements.
 * 8 – Helles: Second Battle of Krithia ends.
 * 12
 * Helles: HMS Goliath (1898) is sunk by the Ottoman torpedo boat Muavenet-i Milliye.
 * Anzac: Australian 1st Light Horse Brigade arrives as reinforcements.
 * 13 – Anzac: New Zealand Mounted Rifles Brigade arrives as reinforcements. Royal Naval Division battalions rejoin the rest of the division at Helles.
 * 15 – Anzac: Major General W.T. Bridges, commander of the Australian 1st Division is mortally wounded in the leg by a Turkish sniper. He dies at sea three days later.
 * 18 – Naval operations: British submarine HMS E11 passes through the straits into the Sea of Marmara.
 * 18 – Anzac: Turkish forces mount a massive attack using 42,000 men but are repulsed, suffering 10,000 casualties.
 * 19 – Anzac: Australian stretcher-bearer John Simpson Kirkpatrick is killed near Steele's Post.
 * 20 – Anzac: The Australian 2nd Light Horse Brigade arrives as reinforcements.
 * 21 – Anzac: The Australian 3rd Light Horse Brigade arrives as reinforcements.
 * 22 – Anzac: Negotiations commence to arrange an armistice in order to bury the dead in no man's land.
 * 24 – Anzac: An armistice is declared from 7.30 a.m. to 4.30 p.m. in which time Turkish and Anzac dead are buried.
 * 25
 * Anzac: HMS Triumph (1903) is sunk by German U-boat SMU U-21 (Germany).
 * Naval operations: HMS E11 torpedoes Ottoman transport Stamboul in the Bosphorus, causing panic in Constantinople.
 * 27 – Helles: HMS Majestic (1895) is sunk by U-21.
 * 28-30 Battle for No.3 Post

June 1915

 * 4 – Helles: Third Battle of Krithia British and French forces mount a limited attack but still fail to reach their objectives.
 * 28 – Helles: Battle of Gully Ravine starts.

July 1915

 * 5 – Helles: Battle of Gully Ravine ends with the British repelling a large Turkish counter-attack.
 * 12 – Helles: British 52nd (Lowland) Division and Royal Naval Division attack along Achi Baba Nullah.

August 1915

 * 3 – Anzac: Reinforcements for the forthcoming offensive begin landing, including the British 13th (Western) Division.
 * 6 – Battle of Sari Bair, also known as the August Offensive, commences.
 * Helles: Battle of Krithia Vineyard diversion commences with an attack by the 88th Brigade of the British 29th Division.
 * Anzac: Battle of Lone Pine diversion commences at 6.30 a.m. with the Australian 1st Division capturing Turkish trenches. Fighting continues for six days in which time seven Victoria Crosses are awarded.
 * Suvla: At 10.00 p.m. the British 11th (Northern) Division, part of IX Corps, begins landing.
 * Anzac: Under cover of darkness, two columns of Anzac, British & Indian troops break out to the north, heading for the heights of Chunuk Bair and Hill 971.
 * 7
 * Anzac: Battle of the Nek At 4.30 a.m. another futile diversion virtually wipes out two regiments of the 3rd Light Horse Brigade.
 * Suvla: The British 10th (Irish) Division begins landing.
 * Helles: Fighting at Krithia Vineyard continues with an attack by the 42nd Division.
 * Anzac: After a lengthy delay, the New Zealand Infantry Brigade attempts to capture Chunuk Bair but fails.
 * 8
 * Anzac: Battle of Chunuk Bair Attacking at 3.00 a.m., New Zealand and British infantry gain a foothold on Chunuk Bair; Lt Col William Malone is killed.
 * Naval operations: British submarine HMS E11 torpedoes the OTTOMAN BATTLESHIP Barbaros Hayreddin off Bulair.
 * 9 – Anzac: A general attack by the Allies on the heights of Chunuk Bair, Hill Q and Hill 971 fails.
 * 10
 * Anzac: Battle of Chunuk Bair ends when the Turks, led by Mustafa Kemal, drive the Allies off the heights.
 * Suvla: British 53rd (Welsh) Division attacks Scimitar Hill, suffering heavy casualties.
 * 12 – Anzac: Battle of Lone Pine ends.
 * 13 – Helles: Battle of Krithia Vineyard ends.
 * 15 – Suvla: General Sir Frederick Stopford is sacked as commander of IX Corps.
 * 21 – Final British offensive of the campaign launched to consolidate Anzac and Suvla landings.
 * Suvla: Battle of Scimitar Hill IX Corps makes a final attempt to seize Scimitar and W Hills.
 * Anzac: Battle of Hill 60 begins.
 * 29 – Battle of Hill 60 ends.

September 1915

 * 12 – The 26th Infantry Battalion at ANZAC arrives as reinforcements, deployed to Taylor's Hollow.
 * 19 – Royal Newfoundland Regiment arrives as reinforcements.

October 1915

 * 15 – General Sir Ian Hamilton is sacked as commander of the Mediterranean Expeditionary Force.
 * 28 – General Sir Charles Monro arrives to assume command of the Mediterranean Expeditionary Force.
 * 30 – Naval operations: FRENCH SUBMARINE Turquoise runs aground while returning through the Dardanelles and is captured.
 * 31 – Suvla: Destroyer HMS Louis (1913) runs aground in a storm and is wrecked.

November 1915

 * 6 – Naval operations: British submarine HMS E20 is ambushed and sunk in the Sea of Marmara by German U-boat SMU U-14 (Germany).
 * 15 – Field Marshal Horatio Kitchener, the Secretary of State for War, visits Gallipoli.
 * 22 – Kitchener recommends evacuation of Anzac and Suvla.
 * 27 – A fierce storm and blizzard, lasting three days, strikes the peninsula.

December 1915

 * 7 – Politics: The British Cabinet orders the evacuation of Anzac and Suvla.
 * 18 – Start of final evacuation of Anzac and Suvla.
 * 20 – Evacuation of Anzac and Suvla completed before dawn.
 * 28 – Politics: The British Cabinet orders the evacuation of Helles.

January 1916

 * 7 – Helles: British garrison reduced to 19,000. Turkish assault launched along Gully Spur.
 * 9 – Helles: Last British troops depart the Gallipoli peninsula.

title: Timeline of the Gallipoli Campaign


text:
User:0101CHOYws

Welcome!

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User talk:0101CHOYws

Hi 0101CHOYws and welcome to Wikipedia. A few tips for you:

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title: User talk:0101CHOYws


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User:Eterata

hi qt! Natelipkowitz

title: User:Eterata


text:
Wikipedia:Articles for deletion/Emptv.com

The result of the debate was delete [added by Andre🚐 22:41, 15 August 2022 (UTC) for afdstats]

Emptv.com
It's so rare that an article itself so clearly tells you that its subject is absolutely nonnotable. "Zach claims that his website's sole pupose is an outlet of his web design/programming skills. He vows not to update regularly or frequently; his content usually pertains to nothing other than happings on the site." Need I say more? Delete. Postdlf 04:43, 18 Oct 2004 (UTC)

 * Delete. Albinoblacksheep may be notable, but there's no evidence that this minor schism off of it is. -- Antaeus Feldspar 04:55, 18 Oct 2004 (UTC)

 * Delete. Vanity. Wikipedia is not a web directory. jni 11:41, 18 Oct 2004 (UTC)
 * Delete: Site vanity. Geogre 13:06, 18 Oct 2004 (UTC)
 * Delete, vanity Sietse 14:29, 18 Oct 2004 (UTC)
 * Delete. Vanity of vanities, saith the Preacher. --Neschek 16:09, 18 Oct 2004 (UTC)
 * Delete. Obvious and self-admitted vanity. Nadavspi 18:43, 18 Oct 2004 (UTC)
 * Delete. Vanity. --Improv 20:54, 18 Oct 2004 (UTC)
 * Delete, non-notable. --Zantolak 06:01, 19 Oct 2004 (UTC)
 * Delete. This should be a speedy! Andre ( talk )A| 14:10, Oct 19, 2004 (UTC)


text:
Synchronet

Synchronet is a multiplatform BBS software package, with current ports for Microsoft Windows, Linux, and BSD variants. Past versions also ran on MS-DOS and OS/2, but support for those platforms were dropped in version 3.0 (circa 2000).

History
Synchronet was originally written by Rob Swindell (a.k.a. Digital Man) due to his desire for certain features which WWIV lacked, such as support for multiple simultaneous nodes, batch uploads and bidirectional file transfer. The bulk of the programming for the first version of Synchronet was done during a two-month period in 1991 when Swindell was house-ridden while he recovered from surgery. The software was named for its ability to run synchronously on a network.

In July 1991, the author began running his own BBS, Vertrauen, on Synchronet. Initially, he had no intention of releasing Synchronet publicly, but as word of his software spread and he received offers to buy copies of Synchronet, he eventually relented, formed a company called Digital Dynamics, and sold copies of Synchronet at a price of $100 without source code, and $200 with source code. In April 1992, Swindell's employer went out of business and he began to rely exclusively on commercial sales of Synchronet for his livelihood, placing advertisements in the BBS-related magazines Boardwatch and BBS Callers Digest. The first copy of Synchronet sold through the magazine ads was in June 1992.

Synchronet was the first BBS package to support QWK message networking natively without requiring any external utilities, in version 1a revision 10, released June 25, 1992. It was also the first BBS package with RIP support, in version 1b revision 1, released January 23, 1993.

Interest in Synchronet began to dwindle in late 1994, finally becoming nonexistent in 1995. Digital Dynamics effectively went bankrupt in the fall of 1995. Despite this, a beta version of version 2.30 of Synchronet for MS-DOS and an alpha version for OS/2 were released in early 1996. In August 1996, Swindell announced the uncertainty of Synchronet's future. In 1997, version 2.30 of Synchronet was released as freeware, and the source code was released into the public domain later that year.

In April 1999, Swindell revived Synchronet development, revamping it considerably and converting much of the code to C++. Another version, 2.30c, was released in December 1999, fixing Y2K bugs and introducing some minor new features from the upcoming 3.x series. Version 3.00b was released June 25, 2000 and was the first official release of the 3.x series, featuring a native 32-bit Windows version and many new Internet-related features, such as a built-in telnet server. For this release, dial-up support was dropped making it a TCP/IP-only system. In October 2000, Synchronet was released under the terms of the GNU General Public License (GPL).

In late 2001, Stephen Hurd (Deuce) joined the project initially as *nix developer. He ported the BBS to FreeBSD and did much of the Linux development work. His first "big" contribution was an implementation of Borlands conio library to allow the configuration utilities which were originally written for DOS to run on the Unix-like platforms.

Around the same time, Swindell started embedding the SpiderMonkey JavaScript engine into Synchronet with an eye towards replacing the aging BAJA language which was used for most BBS customizations. While the BBS still requires BAJA scripts, much can be done with JavaScript. A socket object was added to the JavaScript engine and a "Services" server created which allowed simple TCP/IP services to be written easily. TCP/IP services written in JavaScript bundled with Synchronet include finger, gopher, IRC, and NNTP.

More internet services have been added in the native (C) code: FTP, SMTP and POP3 by Rob Swindell and rlogin, SSH and HTTP by Stephen Hurd.

In an interesting full circle, direct dial-up support for Synchronet is available again as Rob Swindell wrote a modem to telnet gateway program (SEXPOTS) for this purpose. Using this program, SysOps can once again offer their BBSes via direct modem-to-modem connections.

Libraries

 * xpdev is a cross platform development library which provides such features as threading, .ini file parsing, consistent *printf functions, and other small utility functions to the rest of the project. Effectively every Synchronet sub project relies on xpdev. The primary developer is Rob Swindell.
 * ciolib ciolib is clean room implementation of Borland's conio library which supports the display of CP437 using the Win32 console, SDL, X11, curses and ANSI via stdio. It also has an ANSI terminal emulator which supports ANSI-BBS, ANSI Music, Character pacing for ANSI Art animation, VT500 ESC[*r sequence for dynamic speed changes, Commodore 64 PETSCII and Atari 8-bit ATASCII in different screen modes, including 80x25, 80x28, 80x43, 80x50 and 80x60, as well as over 35 fonts imported from the FreeBSD syscons source as well as the ability to customize fonts.  The primary developer is Stephen Hurd.
 * UIFC is a text user interface library which provides the menuing system to the text mode configuration utilities bundled with Synchronet. Initially written by Rob Swindell, it was updated by Stephen Hurd to have it make use of the ciolib.  It is considered feature complete, so active development occurs only when new features are required.
 * comio is a generic serial (COM) port API implementation for Windows and *nix. It was initially designed by Rob Swindell as part of the SEXPOTS project and was ported to *nix by Stephen Hurd.

SEXYZ
SEXYZ (Synchronet External X-Modem, Y-Modem, Z-Modem) is an external file transfer program which supports X/Y/ZModem transfers. It was written to break the reliance on old DOS external protocols such as [F]DSZ and CEXYZ. It supports TCP socket and stdio transfers. It is functional and very little additional development on this is planned.

SEXPOTS
SEXPOTS (Synchronet EXternal Plain Old Telephone System) is a modem to telnet gateway. It accepts incoming modem calls and forwards them to the BBS via the Telnet or RLogin protocols.

SyncTERM
SyncTERM is terminal emulator which makes use of xpdev, ciolib, UIFC, and parts of SEXYZ and SEXPOTS. In addition to the platforms supported by Synchronet, it also runs on Solaris and Mac OS X.

Supported connectivity options are Telnet, rlogin, SSH, "Raw" sockets, standard modem connections and direct serial connections (using parts of SEXPOTS), and a pty interface on *nix. File transfer options include the ZMODEM, XMODEM and YMODEM transfer protocols (using parts of SEXYZ.)

SyncDraw
SyncDraw is an ANSI art editor which was initially a cleanup of an old version of MysticDraw. It uses xpdev and ciolib but is not yet complete. It supports the use of TheDraw fonts, and can save to the Synchronet Control-A code format, but is generally considered too incomplete for serious usage.

Third-party software
The Synchronet project has shown a willingness to "adopt" third-party BBS related software into its CVS tree. Generally, the software is updated to use xpdev and run on the platforms that Synchronet does and then is left in the CVS tree without active development.

Domain Entertainment Doors
Domain Entertainment was once one of the major companies which wrote addons specifically for Synchronet. Some of their software has since been released as open source and has been imported into the Synchronet CVS tree under the xtrn directory.

Domain Poker
Domain Poker is a single/multi-player, real-time, 5 card draw poker game. The game can have up to 6 players per table, and up to 25 tables. Each table has a configurable bet limit, ante, and table limit. Tables can be password protected for private games, and the "house" can take a configurable percentage of the pot from games.

Single player games are played against the computer. The computer can be turned off completely, or allowed to play only on certain tables (at your option). You also have the option to not allow the computer to be on password protected tables (to keep users from hogging the tables for themselves).

The Beast's Domain
The Beast's Domain is a multiplayer, interactive, real-time, Rogue-like ANSI adventure game. The Beast's Domain can handle up to 250 simultaneous players.

OpenDoors
OpenDoors was one of the most popular C "door kits". Support for the DOOR32 drop file format as well as generic sockets was added by Rob Swindell and *nix compatibility was added by Stephen Hurd.

Other Doors
Other door sources that have been adopted include by developers:
 * The Clans
 * New York 2008
 * Smurf Combat
 * Tasmanian Strategical
 * Time Port
 * Virtual BBS 3

Sources for BBSes running Synchronet

 * The Official Synchronet BBS List
 * Synchronet developer's system Vertrauen

title: Synchronet