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Ascribed status

Ascribed status is a term used in sociology that refers to the social status of a person that is assigned at birth or assumed involuntarily later in life. The status is a position that is neither earned by the person nor chosen for them. It is given to them by either their society or group, living them little or no control over it. Rather, the ascribed status is assigned based on social and cultural expectations, norms, and standards. These positions are occupied regardless of efforts or desire. These rigid social designators remain fixed throughout an individual's life and are inseparable from the positive or negative stereotypes that are linked with one's ascribed statuses.

The practice of assigning such statuses to individuals exists cross-culturally within all societies and is based on gender, race, family origins, and ethnic backgrounds.

In contrast, an achieved status is a social position a person takes on voluntarily that reflects both personal ability and merit. An individual's occupation tends to fall under the category of an achieved status; for example, a teacher or a firefighter.

Individuals have control over their achieved statuses insofar as there are no restrictions associated with their ascribed statuses that could potentially hinder their social growth. Ascribed status plays an important role in societies because it can provide the members with a defined and unified identity. No matter where an individual's ascribed status may place him or her in the social hierarchy, most has a set of roles and expectations that are directly linked to each ascribed status and thus, provides a social personality.

Factors
The various factors that determine ascribed status can be age (as in age stratification), kinship, sex, appearance, race, social group, gender, ability status, ethnicity, socioeconomic status, culture, or caste.

In addition to ascription, at birth there are also:
 * Delayed ascription (when social status is given at a later stage of life)
 * Fluid ascription (when ascribed status leads to an achieved status)

Reversible and irreversible
The anthropologist, Ralph Linton, developed definitions for ascribed status and achieved status. According to Linton, ascribed status is assigned to an individual without reference to their innate differences or abilities. Achieved status is determined by an individual's performance or effort. Linton noted that while the definitions of the two concepts are clear and distinct, it is not always easy to identify whether an individual's status is ascribed or achieved. His perspective offers a deviation from the view that ascribed statuses are always fixed.

Religion is generally perceived as an ascribed status but for those individuals who choose a religion as an adult, or convert to another religion, their religion becomes an achieved status, based on Linton's definition. It is commonly perceived that ascribed statuses are irreversible while achieved statuses are reversible. Linton uses Leo Schnore's research to illustrate how ascribed statuses can be both irreversible and reversible. An example of an ascribed reversible status is the status of citizenship.

An example of ascribed irreversible status is age. His conclusion is based on the fact that an ascribed status within a social structure is indicative of the behavior that one can exhibit but it does not explain the action itself. Ascribed status is an arbitrary system of classifying individuals that is not fixed in the way that most people think.

Status is a social phenomenon rather than a biological one. The meaning is derived from the collection of expectations of how an individual should behave and what the expected treatment of that individual is. If an individual lies about a biological fact or social accomplishment and this lie remains undiscovered by others and is accepted by them, then in this social system, his status will be based on the lie. His status would not be based on a biological fact or social accomplishment.

Behavior toward the individual will be in accordance with the accepted lie. Consequently, behavior expected from that individual will also be in accordance with that accepted lie rather than the ascribed status that would be associated with him if the truth were known. The success of the structure requires that the expectations remain constant, even if they are illegitimately acquired, given that the truth is never discovered. This further highlights the arbitrariness of ascribed status because there is no biological basis or universal truth for assigning these societal rankings to individuals.

Low self-esteem
There is a positive correlation between an individual's self-esteem and their ascribed status; for this purpose, self-esteem is defined as a liking and respect for oneself which has its basis in reality. Individuals with a low social status generally have a lower self-esteem. A negative image of oneself among individuals with lower ascribed statuses is the result of the internalization of the expectations that others have of them and the treatment that they receive based on those statuses. Additionally, labeling theory can play a role in ascribed status and self-esteem as well. Labeling theory is associated with the concepts of self-fulfilling prophecy and stereotyping and is a theory that states a person becomes what they are labeled. For example, when members in society can begin to treat individuals on the basis of their ascribed statuses, they "label" them, and the individuals begin to accept the labels themselves. In other words, an individual engages in a behavior that is deemed by others as inappropriate, others label that person to be deviant, and eventually the individual internalizes and accepts this label.

Juxtaposition of their own value systems against the larger society's view often leaves individuals of a lower status with low self-esteem without regard to the individual's actual capabilities. A negative self-image may stifle an individual's efforts to acquire a certain achieved status; this illustrates how a low ascribed status can result in a low achieved status.

Religion
Wealth is not the only social characteristic that defines an individual's ascribed status. Religion is also a factor. If a person's family identifies with a particular religion, be it Christianity, Hinduism, Islam, etc., generally that person may be presumed to adopt the same religion as their biological or adopted parents. An individual's religion or absence of religion becomes a part of his or her ascribed status. The social norms of a particular religion may have different ascribed statuses than those given by the larger society because followers are ascribed status based on the religious doctrines that govern their belief.

Ascribed status can also be closely linked with master status, as they both involve what a person is born into. Master status is a broader term that includes more topics than ascribed status.

Caste system
Castes are an example of a stratification structure based on ascribed status. Although each caste system works differently, generally everyone is born into a specific caste and the caste of the parents generally determines the status of their children, regardless of ability or merit. The ranks of a caste system might include:
 * priests and scholars
 * rulers, warriors and those concerned with defense and administration
 * traders, merchants, and people involved in agricultural production
 * laborers, servants
 * those involved in animal slaughter or sewerage disposal

title: Ascribed status


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User talk:ACW

Hello and welcome to Wikipedia!

Here are some tips to help you get started:

 * Try the Tutorial, and feel free to experiment in the test area.
 * If you need help, post a question at the Help Desk
 * Eventually, you might want to read the Manual of Style and Policies and Guidelines.
 * Remember Neutral point of view
 * Explore, be bold in editing pages, and, most importantly, have fun!

Good luck!

[[User:Meelar|Meelar (talk)]]

P.S. One last helpful hint. To sign your posts like I did above (on talk pages, for example) use the '~' symbol. To insert just your name, type ~~~ (3 tildes), or, to insert your name and timestamp, use ~~~~ (4 tildes).

Boo.
Hey, ACW. Small world! -Etoile 05:22, 9 Apr 2005 (UTC)

substubs
I noticed that you created the article Warlpiri language and tagged it as a substub. The substub template recently failed a vote at WP:TFD and has been deleted. The article you created has been sorted, but when time comes for you to create another article please use either stub or an approriate category specific stub template. --Allen3 talk 20:18, May 18, 2005 (UTC)

 * Oops. Sorry about that, and thanks for covering my butt.  I didn't realize that substubs were passe. ACW 20:56, 18 May 2005 (UTC)

Georgian
User:Func seems to have been working on this very sort of thing (customizing the Insert: line under the edit window), see User talk:Func. Give it a try and see if it works for you for IPA, and then adapting it to Georgian shouldn't be too hard (see also Unicode chart Georgian). -- Curps 00:04, 16 September 2005 (UTC)

Hindi spoken article
I have created a spoken Hindi article on Hindi wiki. It is about Indo-European language family. Those interested, especially the foreigners learning Hindi, may wish to look at the page and listen to the spoken article here : hi:हिन्द-यूरोपीय भाषा-परिवार. Please tell me if you face any problem. Cygnus_hansa 17:10, 3 March 2006 (UTC)

Jennifer, List of people by name, and, e.g., Allen (surname)
I ran into some contention when I started excising lists from name pages (I broadened to include surnames that were linked from the given names I started working on). There is some discussion currently taking place about lists of people by surname on the surname pages at Wikipedia talk:Manual of Style (disambiguation pages), if you are interested. -- JHunterJ 12:46, 25 August 2006 (UTC)
 * And, FWIW, the anonymous user on Talk:Jennifer did first restore the whole list, but he or she also blanked the talk page around the same time, and I undid both. -- JHunterJ 00:27, 29 August 2006 (UTC)

Speedy deletion of Jack Gescheidt
A tag has been placed on Jack Gescheidt, requesting that it be speedily deleted from Wikipedia. This has been done under section G11 of the criteria for speedy deletion, because the article seems to be blatant advertising which only promotes a company, product, group, service or person and would need to be fundamentally rewritten in order to become an encyclopedia article. Please read the guidelines on spam as well as the Business' FAQ for more information.

If you think that this notice was placed here in error, you may contest the deletion by adding  to the top of the page that has been nominated for deletion (just below the existing speedy deletion or "db" tag), coupled with adding a note on the talk page explaining your position, but be aware that once tagged for speedy deletion, if the article meets the criterion it may be deleted without delay. Please do not remove the speedy deletion tag yourself, but don't hesitate to add information to the article that would would render it more in conformance with Wikipedia's policies and guidelines. Lastly, please note that if the article does get deleted, you can contact one of these admins to request that a copy be emailed to you. HG | Talk 05:20, 9 September 2008 (UTC)

ArbCom elections are now open!
MediaWiki message delivery (talk) 12:52, 23 November 2015 (UTC)

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: User talk:ACW


text: User talk:12.41.126.39

title: User talk:12.41.126.39


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User talk:Tosta Dojen

I am Tosta Dojen.

POTD
Thanks for catching my spelling mistake on Picture of the day/March 2, 2006. How embarrassing. —Steve Summit (talk) 00:13, 3 March 2006 (UTC)

title: User talk:Tosta Dojen


text: User talk:62.57.163.16

title: User talk:62.57.163.16


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Ayaka Komatsu

Ayaka Komatsu (小松 彩夏 Komatsu Ayaka; born 23 July 1986) is a Japanese model, gravure idol and actress. She was born in Ichinoseki, Iwate Prefecture.

Modeling career
Her modeling agency is Amuse inc. She was a regular model of the now defunct Candy magazine. She also appeared in the Winter 2002-2003 "Angel Blue" fashion catalog and was on the cover of the manga Young Sunday dated April 7, 2005.

She was a member of the 2004 edition of the Japanese modeling quartet named Nittelligenic, an idol group sponsored by Nippon TV.

Acting career
She has acted in the following movies: Odoru Daisosasen The Movie 2 (her role in this film was relatively minor; she gets attacked by a vampire), Koibumi, Master of Thunder, A Perfect Day for Love Letters, Drift and Drift 2 (later released as Drift Deluxe Edition), and Boku wa Imōto ni Koi o Suru (which opened in Japan on January 20, 2007, and later in Europe under the English title My Sister, My Love).

Arguably, her best known role was as Minako Aino/Sailor V/Sailor Venus in the series Pretty Guardian Sailor Moon.

Komatsu was in the cast of a TV show called Dandori Musume ("Appointment Girls"). Her role in Dandori Musume is more comic than tragic, in contrast to her PGSM role. In 2008, she appeared in Average and in episode 7 of Aren't You a Criminal?.

She had a recurring role in the summer Fuji TV drama Buzzer Beat, reuniting with her former Sailor Moon cast member Keiko Kitagawa, who had the lead female role as well as with Yamashita Tomohisa as Komatsu made a cameo appearance on his previous drama, Kurosagi.

Personal life
During her birthday on July 23, 2023, she announced her marriage to a general man, and she would move her entertainment activities to Sendai due to her husband work.

Singles

 * 1) 2003: C'est la vie 〜 Watashi no naka no koi suru bubun (C'est la Vie～私の中の恋する部分: C'est la Vie ~ the Loving Part within Me)
 * 2) 2003: Katagoshi ni Kinsei (肩越しに金星: Venus Over Your Shoulder)
 * 3) 2004: Romance
 * 4) 2004: Kiss!² Bang!²
 * 5) 2004: Sayonara ~ Sweet Days (さよなら～Sweet Days: Goodbye ~ Sweet Days)
 * 6) 2008: Happy time, Happy life

Albums

 * 2003: I'll Be Here (under title Aino Minako)

Other Albums as Aino Minako

 * Kirari ☆ Sailor Dream! C / w C'est la vie (11, 2003, Columbia Music Entertainment)
 * (February 2004, same as above) Sailor Moon DJ Moon
 * (February 2004, same as above) pack Sailor Moon Koro-chan
 * (March 2004, same as above) Sailor Moon Character Song Sailor Venus Minako Aino
 * (May 2004, same as above) pack Sailor Moon 2 Koro-chan
 * (May 2004, same as above) Sailor Moon DJ Moon 2
 * (June 2004, same as above) Sailor Moon Dear My Friend
 * (July 2004, same as above) Sailor Moon DJ Moon 3
 * (July 2004, same as above) pack Sailor Moon 3 Koro-chan
 * Three pieces, including a mini-album (September 2004, same as above) Sailor Moon Moon Light Real Girl of Aino Minako
 * Sailor Moon Song Collection (November 2004, same as above)

Idol DVDs

 * 2004: Figure A Nittelegenic 2004 Komatsu Ayaka
 * 2005: Megami no Chu! Nittelegenic 2004 Komatsu Ayaka
 * 2005: Masaka… Komatsu Ayaka
 * 2007: Sho o Suteyo, Mizugi ni Naro!
 * 2007: Dream Note
 * 2007: Happy ending: Dream Note II
 * 2009: AYAKA
 * 2009: Ayaka×Komatsu Ayaka
 * 2011: Ayakafuru
 * 2012: Hawaaaaaaaaaaii

Idol photobooks

 * 2004: Ayaka no natsu ISBN 978-4847028229
 * 2004: Nitchoku - Nittelegenic Official Photos ISBN 978-4820399209
 * 2005: Summer Date ISBN 978-4847028816
 * 2006: Moon Doll ISBN 978-4093721059
 * 2007: Cheeeeeez ISBN 978-4847040092
 * 2009: AYAKA×killer Virgin Road ISBN 978-4847041877
 * 2011: Ayaka no zenbu ISBN 978-4-8470-4366-6
 * 2012: Komagokochi  ISBN 978-4847045042
 * 2019: KOMAPHOTO [fantasy]
 * 2019: KOMAPHOTO [real]

title: Ayaka Komatsu


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Zong massacre

The Zong massacre was a mass killing of more than 130 enslaved African people by the crew of the British slave ship Zong on and in the days following 29 November 1781. The William Gregson slave-trading syndicate, based in Liverpool, owned the ship as part of the Atlantic slave trade. As was common business practice, they had taken out insurance on the lives of the enslaved Africans as cargo. According to the crew, when the ship ran low on drinking water following navigational mistakes, the crew threw enslaved Africans overboard.

After the slaver ship reached port at Black River, Jamaica, Zong's owners made a claim to their insurers for the loss of the enslaved Africans. When the insurers refused to pay, the resulting court cases (Gregson v Gilbert (1783) 3 Doug. KB 232) held that in some circumstances, the murder of enslaved Africans was legal and that insurers could be required to pay for those who had died. The jury found for the slavers but at a subsequent appeal hearing the judges, led by Lord Chief Justice, the Earl of Mansfield, ruled against the slave-trading syndicate owners, on the grounds that new evidence suggested that the captain and crew were at fault.

Following the first trial, Olaudah Equiano, a freedman, brought news of the massacre to the attention of the anti-slavery campaigner Granville Sharp, who worked unsuccessfully to have the ship's crew prosecuted for murder. Because of the legal dispute, reports of the massacre received increased publicity, stimulating the abolitionist movement in the late 18th and early 19th centuries; the Zong events were increasingly cited as a powerful symbol of the horrors of the Middle Passage, the transoceanic route by which enslaved Africans were brought to the New World.

The non-denominational Society for Effecting the Abolition of the Slave Trade was founded in 1787. The next year, Parliament passed the Slave Trade Act 1788, its first law regulating the slave trade, to limit the number of slaves per ship. Then, in 1791, Parliament prohibited insurance companies from reimbursing ship owners when enslaved Africans were murdered by being thrown overboard. The massacre has also inspired works of art and literature. It was remembered in London in 2007, among events to mark the bicentenary of the British Slave Trade Act 1807, which abolished British participation in the African slave trade (though stopped short of outlawing slavery). A monument to the murdered enslaved Africans on Zong was installed at Black River, Jamaica.

Zong
Zong was originally named Zorg (meaning "Care" in Dutch) by its owners, the Middelburgsche Commercie Compagnie. It operated as a slave ship based in Middelburg, Netherlands, and made a voyage in 1777, delivering enslaved Africans to the Dutch colony of Surinam in South America. Zong was a "square stern ship" of 110 tons burthen. The British 16-gun brig HMS Alert (1779) captured it (as part of the Fourth Anglo-Dutch War) on 10 February 1781. On 26 February, Alert and Zong arrived at Cape Coast Castle, in what is now Ghana. Cape Coast Castle was maintained and staffed, along with other forts and castles, by the Royal African Company (RAC), which used the Castle as its regional headquarters.

In early March 1781, the master of William purchased Zong on behalf of a syndicate of Liverpool merchants, which included Edward Wilson, George Case, James Aspinall and William, James and John Gregson. William Gregson had an interest in 50 slaving voyages between 1747 and 1780; he also served as mayor of Liverpool in 1762. By the end of his life, vessels in which Gregson had a financial stake had carried 58,000 Africans to slavery in the Americas.

Zong was paid for with bills of exchange and the 244 slaves already on board were part of the transaction. The ship was not insured until after it started its voyage. The insurers, another syndicate from Liverpool, underwrote the ship and its slaves for up to £8,000, approximately half the slaves's potential market value. The remaining risk was borne by the owners.

Crew
Zong was the first command of Luke Collingwood, formerly the surgeon on the William. While Collingwood lacked experience in navigation and command, ship's surgeons were typically involved in selecting captured Africans for purchase, so their medical expertise supported the determination of "commodity value" for a captive. If the surgeon rejected a captive, that individual suffered "commercial death", being of no value and was liable to be killed by the African traders. Sometimes these killings happened in the presence of the surgeon. It is therefore likely that Collingwood had already witnessed the mass killing of slaves. Historian Jeremy Krikler commented that this may have prepared him psychologically to condone the massacre that later took place on the Zong. Zong first mate was James Kelsall, who had also served on the William.

The vessel's only passenger, Robert Stubbs, was a former captain of slave ships. In early 1780 he was appointed by the African Committee of the Royal African Company as the governor of Anomabu, a British fortification near Cape Coast Castle in Ghana. This position made him also vice-president of the RAC council of the castle. Due to his ineptitude and enmity incurred with John Roberts, governor of the castle, Stubbs was forced out of the governorship of Anomabu by the RAC council after nine months. Witness statements gathered by the African Committee of the RAC accused him of being a semi-literate drunkard who mismanaged the slave-trading activities of the fort. Stubbs was aboard to return to Britain; Collingwood may have thought his earlier experience on slave ships would be useful.

Zong had a 17-man crew when it left Africa, which was far too small to maintain adequate sanitary conditions on the ship. Mariners willing to risk disease and rebellions on slave ships were difficult to recruit within Britain and were harder to find for a vessel captured from the Dutch off the coast of Africa. Zong was manned with remnants of the previous Dutch crew, the crew of William and with unemployed sailors hired from settlements along the African coast.

The Middle Passage
When Zong sailed from Accra with 442 slaves on 18 August 1781, it had taken on more than twice the number of people that it could safely transport. In the 1780s, British-built ships typically carried 1.75 slaves per ton of the ship's capacity; on the Zong, the ratio was 4.0 per ton. A British slave ship of the period would carry around 193 slaves and it was extremely unusual for a ship of Zong relatively small size to carry so many. After taking on drinking water at São Tomé, Zong began its voyage across the Atlantic Ocean to Jamaica on 6 September 1781. On 18 or 19 November, the ship neared Tobago in the Caribbean but failed to stop there to replenish its water supplies.

It is unclear who, if anyone, was in charge of the ship at this point, as Collingwood had been gravely ill for some time. The man who would normally have replaced him, first mate James Kelsall, had been suspended from duty following an argument on 14 November. Stubbs had captained a slave ship several decades earlier and he temporarily commanded Zong during Collingwood's incapacitation but he was not a registered member of the vessel's crew. According to the historian James Walvin, the breakdown of the command structure on the ship might explain the subsequent navigational errors and the absence of checks on supplies of drinking water.

Massacre
On 27 or 28 November, the crew sighted Jamaica at a distance of 27 nmi but misidentified it as the French colony of Saint-Domingue on the island of Hispaniola. Zong continued on its westward course, leaving Jamaica behind. This mistake was recognised only after the ship was 300 mi leeward of the island. Overcrowding, malnutrition, accidents and disease had already killed several mariners and approximately 62 Africans. Kelsall later claimed that there was only four days' water remaining on the ship when the navigational error was discovered and Jamaica was still 10 to 13 sailing days away.

If the slaves died onshore, the Liverpool ship-owners would have had no redress from their insurers. Similarly, if they died a "natural death" (as the contemporary term put it) at sea, then insurance could not be claimed. If some enslaved people were thrown overboard to save the rest of the "cargo" or the ship, then a claim could be made under "general average". (This principle holds that a captain who jettisons part of his cargo to save the rest can claim for the loss from his insurers.) The ship's insurance covered the loss of slaves at £30 per person.

On 29 November, the crew assembled to consider the proposal that some of the slaves should be thrown overboard. Kelsall later claimed that he had disagreed with the plan at first but it was soon unanimously agreed upon. On 29 November, 54 women and children were thrown through cabin windows into the sea. On 1 December, 42 male slaves were thrown overboard and 36 more followed in the next few days. Another 10, in a display of defiance at the inhumanity of the slavers, chose to commit suicide by jumping into the sea. Having heard the shrieks of the victims as they were thrown into the water, one of the captives requested that the remaining Africans be denied all food and drink rather than being thrown into the sea; the crew ignored this request. In total, 142 Africans were killed by the time the ship reached Jamaica. The account of the King's Bench trial reports that one slave managed to climb back onto the ship after being thrown into the water.

The crew claimed that the Africans had been jettisoned because the ship did not have enough water to keep them all alive for the rest of the voyage. This claim was later disputed, as the ship had 420 impgal of water left when it finally arrived in Jamaica on 22 December. An affidavit later made by Kelsall stated that on 1 December, when 42 slaves were killed, it rained heavily for more than a day, allowing six casks of water (sufficient for 11 days) to be collected.

Arrival at Jamaica
On 22 December 1781, Zong arrived at Black River, Jamaica, with 208 slaves on board, less than half the number taken from Africa. The survivors were sold into slavery in January 1782. These people were sold for an average price of £36 per person. The Jamaican Vice-Admiralty court upheld the legality of the British capture of Zong from the Dutch and the syndicate renamed the ship Richard of Jamaica. Collingwood died three days after Zong reached Jamaica, two years before the 1783 court proceedings about the case.

Legal proceedings
When news of the Zong massacre reached Great Britain, the ship's owners claimed compensation from their insurers for the loss of the slaves. The insurers refused to honour the claim and the owners took them to court. Zong's logbook went missing after the ship reached Jamaica, two years before the hearings started. As such, the legal proceedings provide almost all the documentary evidence about the massacre, though there is no formal record of the first trial other than what is referred to in the subsequent appeals hearing. The ship's insurers claimed that the log had been deliberately destroyed, which the Gregson syndicate denied.

Almost all the surviving source material is of questionable reliability. The two witnesses who gave evidence, Stubbs and Kelsall, were strongly motivated to exonerate themselves from blame. It is possible that the figures concerning the number of people killed, the amount of water that remained on the ship and the distance beyond Jamaica that Zong had mistakenly sailed are inaccurate.

First trial
Legal proceedings began when the insurers refused to compensate the owners of Zong. The dispute was initially tried at the Guildhall in London on 6 March 1783, with the Lord Chief Justice, the Earl of Mansfield, overseeing the trial before a jury. Mansfield was previously the judge in Somersett's Case in 1772, which concerned the legality of enslaving people in Britain. He had ruled that slavery had never been established by statute in Britain and was not supported by common law.

Stubbs was the only witness in the first Zong trial and the jury found in favour of the owners, under an established protocol in maritime insurance that considered slaves as cargo. On 19 March 1783, Olaudah Equiano, a former slave, told the anti-slave-trade activist Granville Sharp of the events aboard Zong and a newspaper soon carried a lengthy account, reporting that the captain had ordered the slaves killed in three batches. Sharp sought legal advice the next day, about the possibility of prosecuting the crew for murder.

King's Bench appeal
The insurers applied to the Earl of Mansfield to have the previous verdict set aside and for the case to be tried again. A hearing was held at the Court of King's Bench in Westminster Hall on 21–22 May 1783, before Mansfield and two other King's Bench judges, Mr Justice Buller and Mr Justice Willes. The solicitor-general, John Lee, appeared on behalf of the Zong owners, as he had done previously in the Guildhall trial. Sharp was also in attendance, together with a secretary he had hired to take a written record of the proceedings.

Summing up the verdict reached in the first trial, Mansfield said that the jury

"had no doubt (though it shocks one very much) that the Case of Slaves was the same as if Horses had been thrown over board ... The Question was, whether there was not an Absolute Necessity for throwing them over board to save the rest? The Jury were of opinion there was ..."

Collingwood had died in 1781 and the only witness of the massacre to appear at Westminster Hall was again, Stubbs, although a written affidavit by first mate Kelsall was made available to the lawyers. Stubbs claimed that there was "an absolute Necessity for throwing over the Negroes", because the crew feared all the slaves would die if they did not throw some into the sea. The insurers argued that Collingwood had made "a Blunder and Mistake" in sailing beyond Jamaica and that slaves had been killed so their owners could claim compensation. They alleged that Collingwood did this because he did not want his first voyage as a slave ship captain to be unprofitable.

Lee responded by saying that the slaves "perished just as a Cargo of Goods perished" and were jettisoned for the greater good of the ship. The insurers' lawyers replied that Lee's argument could never justify the killing of innocent people; each of the three addressed issues of humanity in the treatment of the slaves and said that the actions of Zong crew were nothing less than murder. The historian James Walvin has argued that it is possible that Sharp directly influenced the strategy of the insurers' legal team.

At the hearing, new evidence was heard, that heavy rain had fallen on the ship on the second day of the killings but still a third batch of slaves was killed. This led Mansfield to order another trial, because the rainfall meant that the killing of those people, after the water shortage had been eased, could not be justified in terms of the greater necessity of saving the ship and the rest of the slaves aboard. One of the judges also said that this evidence invalidated the findings of the jury in the first trial, as the jury had heard testimony that the water shortage resulted from the poor condition of the ship, brought on by unforeseen maritime conditions, rather than from errors committed by its captain. Mansfield concluded that the insurers were not liable for losses resulting from errors committed by Zong crew.

There is no evidence that another trial was held on this issue. Despite Sharp's efforts, no member of the crew was prosecuted for murder. Even so, the Zong case did eventually gain both national and international attention. A summary of the appeal on the Zong case was eventually published in the nominate reports prepared from the contemporaneous manuscript notes of Sylvester Douglas, Baron Glenbervie, and others. It was published in 1831 as Gregson v Gilbert (1783) 3 Doug. KB 232.

Mansfield's motives
Jeremy Krikler has argued that Mansfield wanted to ensure that commercial law remained as helpful to Britain's overseas trade as possible and as a consequence was keen to uphold the principle of "general average", even in relation to the killing of humans. For Mansfield to have found in favour of the insurers would have greatly undermined this idea. The revelation that rain had fallen during the period of the killings enabled Mansfield to order a retrial, while leaving the notion of "general average" intact. He emphasised that the massacre would have been legally justified and the owners' insurance claim would have been valid if the water shortage had not arisen from mistakes made by the captain.

Krikler comments that Mansfield's conclusions ignored the ruling precedent of his predecessor, Sir Matthew Hale, that the killing of innocents in the name of self-preservation was unlawful. This ruling was to prove important a century later in R v Dudley and Stephens, which also concerned the justifiability of acts of murder at sea. Mansfield also failed to acknowledge another important legal principle—that no insurance claim can be legal if it arose from an illegal act.

Effect on the abolitionist movement

Granville Sharp campaigned to raise awareness of the massacre, writing letters to newspapers, the Lords Commissioners of Admiralty and the Prime Minister (the Duke of Portland). Neither Portland nor the Admiralty sent him a reply. Only one London newspaper reported the first Zong trial in March 1783 but it provided details of events. The newspaper article in March 1783 was the first public report of the massacre and it was published nearly 18 months after the event. Little else about the massacre appeared in print before 1787.

Despite these setbacks, Sharp's efforts did have some success. In April 1783, he sent an account of the massacre to William Dillwyn, a Quaker, who had asked to see evidence that was critical of the slave trade. The London Yearly Meeting of the Society of Friends decided shortly after to begin campaigning against slavery and a petition signed by 273 Quakers was submitted to parliament in July 1783. Sharp also sent letters to Anglican bishops and clergy and to those already sympathetic to the abolitionist cause.

The immediate effect of the Zong massacre on public opinion was limited, demonstrating—as the historian of abolitionism Seymour Drescher has noted—the challenge that the early abolitionists faced. Following Sharp's efforts, the Zong massacre became an important topic in abolitionist literature and the massacre was discussed in works by Thomas Clarkson, Ottobah Cugoano, James Ramsay and John Newton. These accounts often omitted the names of the ship and its captain, thereby creating, in the words of Srividhya Swaminathan, "a portrait of abuse that could be mapped onto any ship in the Middle Passage". The Zong killings offered a powerful example of the horrors of the slave trade, stimulating the development of the abolitionist movement in Britain, which dramatically expanded in size and influence in the late 1780s. In 1787, the Society for the Abolition of the Slave Trade was founded.

Parliament received numerous petitions against the slave trade and examined the issue in 1788. With strong support by Sir William Dolben, who had toured a slave ship, it passed the Slave Trade Act 1788 (Dolben's Act), which was its first legislation to regulate the slave trade. It restricted the number of slaves that could be transported, to reduce problems of overcrowding and poor sanitation. Its renewal in 1794 included an amendment that limited the scope of insurance policies concerning slaves, rendering illegal such generalised phrases that promised to insure against "all other Perils, Losses, and Misfortunes". (The Zong owners' representatives had highlighted such a phrase in seeking their claim at the King's Bench hearing.) The act had to be renewed annually and Dolben led these efforts, speaking frequently to parliament in opposition to slavery. The Slave Trade Act 1799 was passed to make these provisions permanent.

Abolitionists, notably William Wilberforce, continued their effort to end the slave trade. Britain passed the Slave Trade Act 1807, which prohibited the Atlantic slave trade and the Royal Navy enforced the Blockade of Africa. The United States also prohibited the Atlantic slave trade in 1808 and helped intercept illegal slave ships at sea, predominately after 1842.

In 1823, the Society for the Mitigation and Gradual Abolition of Slavery Throughout the British Dominions (known as the first Anti-Slavery Society) was founded in Britain, dedicated to abolishing slavery throughout the British Empire; the Slavery Abolition Act 1833 represented the achievement of their goal. The Zong massacre was frequently cited in abolitionist literature in the 19th century; Thomas Clarkson's 1808 History of the Rise, Progress, and Accomplishment of the Abolition of the African Slave Trade By the British Parliament included an account of killings, and was known to Jane Austen when she was writing "Mansfield Park" (1814), with its many allusions to the slave trade in Antigua.

The 1839 edition of Clarkson's book had an important influence on the artist J. M. W. Turner, who displayed a painting at the Royal Academy summer exhibition in 1840 entitled The Slave Ship. The painting depicts a vessel from which a number of manacled slaves have been thrown into the sea, to be devoured by sharks. Some of the details in the painting, such as the shackles worn by the slaves, appear to have been influenced by the illustrations in Clarkson's book. The painting was shown at an important time in the movement to abolish slavery in the world, as the Royal Academy exhibition opened one month before the first World Anti-Slavery Convention in London. The painting was admired by its owner, John Ruskin. It has been described by the 20th-century critic Marcus Wood as one of the few truly great depictions in Western art of the Atlantic slave trade.

Representations in modern culture
The Zong massacre has inspired several works of literature. Fred D'Aguiar's novel Feeding the Ghosts (1997) tells the story of an African who survives being thrown overboard from the Zong. In the novel, the journal of the slave—Mintah—is lost, unlike that of Granville Sharp. According to the cultural historian Anita Rupprecht, this signifies the silencing of African voices about the massacre.

Margaret Busby's play An African Cargo, staged in 2007 by Nitro theatre company at Greenwich Theatre and directed by Felix Cross, dealt with the massacre and the 1783 trials, making use of the original legal transcripts, with interspersed songs performed a cappella by the cast including "Steal Away".

M. NourbeSe Philip's 2008 book of poems Zong! is based on the events surrounding the massacre and uses the account of the King's Bench hearing as its primary material. Philip's text physically deconstructs the account as a method for undermining the document's authority.

An episode of the television programme Garrow's Law (2010) is loosely based on the legal events arising from the massacre. The historical William Garrow did not take part in the case, and because the Zong captain died shortly after arriving in Jamaica, his appearance in court for fraud is also fictional.

In 2014–15, David Boxer, an artist from Jamaica, painted Passage: Flotsam and Jetsam III (Zong).

A play developed by Giles Terera, titled The Meaning of Zong, also deals with the massacre and the 1783 trials. It was jointly commissioned by the Royal National Theatre and three regional theatres and was first staged at the Bristol Old Vic in April 2022.

"The Ship They Called The Zong" is a short film that accompanies a 2020 poem of that name by Liam Doyle and features a number of paintings, photographs and wood cuttings representing various aspects of the Transatlantic slave trade. Some of them, such as the Turner painting and the wood cutting, depict the actual massacre itself.

The Zong legal case is the main theme of the 2013 British period drama film Belle, directed by Amma Asante.

In 2023, Amanda Gorman published the poem "These Means of Dying"—inspired by Philip's poem Zong! and also composed of words from the same court report—in a New York Times column op-ed about the Adriana disaster that left hundreds of migrants dead in the Mediterranean Sea.

2007 abolition commemorations
In 2007, a memorial stone was erected at Black River, Jamaica, near where Zong would have landed. A sailing ship representing Zong was sailed to Tower Bridge in London in March 2007 to commemorate the 200th anniversary of the Act for the Abolition of the Slave Trade, at a cost of £300,000. The vessel housed depictions of the Zong massacre and the slave trade. It was accompanied by HMS Northumberland (F238), on board which was an exhibition commemorating the role of the Royal Navy after 1807 in the suppression of the slave trade.

title: Zong massacre


text:
User:Jonathan Christensen

I am a student at Brigham Young University, studying Mathematics and Statistics.

title: User:Jonathan Christensen


text:
User talk:TheAD

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From Beyond (album)
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User talk:Maxdillon

Could you stop changing "born" to "b." on articles about people who are still alive? The former is established Wikipedia convention. Also, it's conventional to just give dates of birth and death without preceding them with "b." and "d.", as you have been doing. Everyking 02:31, 5 Nov 2004 (UTC) Why do you think this image was is the public domain? The site even has a © notice! Lupo 10:03, 30 Sep 2004 (UTC)

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Unreferenced BLPs
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ArbCom elections are now open!
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Nomination of Emilio Pucci for deletion
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text:
User:Kizzle/John Kerry Military Service

Senator John Kerry served in the U.S. Navy during the Vietnam War from 1966 to 1970. Kerry's time as commander of a Swift boat has received considerable attention during his political career.

Commission, training, and tour of duty on the USS Gridley
right|Historian Douglas Brinkley wrote Tour of Duty: John Kerry and the Vietnam War.

On February 18, 1966, Kerry enlisted in the United States Naval Reserves. He began his active duty military service on August 19. After completing sixteen weeks of Officer Candidate School at the U.S. Naval Training Center in Newport, Rhode Island, he received his commission on December 16.

On January 3, 1967 Kerry began a ten-week Officer Damage Control Course at the Naval Schools Command on Treasure Island, California. On March 22, he reported to the U.S. Fleet Anti-Air Warfare Training Center for training as a Combat Information Center Watch Officer.

Kerry began his first tour of duty June 8, 1967, serving as an ensign in the electrical department on the guided missile frigate USS Gridley. On February 9, 1968, the Gridley set sail for Western Pacific deployment. The next day, Kerry requested duty in Vietnam, listing as his first preference a position as the commander of a Fast Patrol Craft (PCF), also known as a "Swift boat." These 50-foot boats have aluminum hulls and have little or no armor, but are heavily armed and rely on speed. (Kerry's second choice was to be an officer in a river patrol boat, or " PBR", squadron.) "I didn't really want to get involved in the war," Kerry said in a book of Vietnam reminiscences published in 1986. "When I signed up for the swift boats, they had very little to do with the war. They were engaged in coastal patrolling and that's what I thought I was going to be doing."

The Gridley traveled to several places, including Wellington in New Zealand, Subic Bay in the Philippines, and the Gulf of Tonkin off North Vietnam, where the ship supported aircraft carriers. The ship had no enemy contact during this time, and departed for the U.S. on May 27, returned to port at Long Beach, California on June 6.

Ten days after returning, on June 16, Kerry was promoted to the rank of Lieutenant, junior grade; on June 20, Kerry left Gridley for special training at the Naval Amphibious Base in Coronado. After completing Swift boat commander training on November 17, Kerry reported for duty at Coastal Squadron 1 of Coastal Division 14 at the Cam Ranh Bay in South Vietnam, arriving on December 1.

Kerry's tour of duty as commander of a Swift boat
The two Swift boats that Kerry successively commanded took part in Operation SEALORD, the brainchild of Admiral Elmo Zumwalt. The goal was to project a U.S. military presence more aggressively into an area that had long been a Viet Cong stronghold. As part of that plan, the Swift boats were assigned to patrol the narrow waterways — inlets, canals, and coves — of the Mekong River delta, to monitor enemy movements, interdict enemy river-based supply lines, invite attack and otherwise draw out hostile forces.

During a four-month tour of duty as boat commander, Kerry led five-man crews on patrols into enemy-controlled areas near the Cua Long River. His first command was Swift Boat PCF-44. In late January 1969 Kerry was transferred to PCF-94, which he led on 18 missions over the next 48 days.

First Purple Heart
On the night of December 2, 1968, while Kerry and his crew were patrolling Cam Ranh Bay, they saw people running from a boat on a nearby shoreline, according to two crewmen who were on duty with Kerry that night. When the Vietnamese refused to obey an order to stop running, Kerry ordered the crew to open fire. During this encounter, Kerry suffered a shrapnel wound in the left arm above the elbow. The shrapnel was removed and the wound was treated with bacitracin antibiotic and bandaged. Kerry returned to duty the next day, conducting a regular Swift boat patrol. It was for this injury that Kerry was awarded his first Purple Heart.

Kerry's meeting with Zumwalt and Abrams
At the time, the U.S. military command in Vietnam had an established policy of "free-fire zones" — areas in which soldiers were to shoot anyone moving around after curfew, without first making sure that they were hostile. Such encounters could result in the deaths of innocent civilians. Kerry has stated that he never thought he or his crew were at fault: "There wasn't anybody in that area that didn't know you don't move at night, that you don't go out in a sampan on the rivers, and there's a curfew." Nevertheless, he soon concluded that the policy should be changed.

On January 22, 1969, Kerry and several other officers had an unusual meeting in Saigon with Zumwalt and with Army Gen. Creighton Abrams, the overall commander of U.S. forces in Vietnam. Kerry and the other officers reported their view that the "free-fire" policy was alienating the Vietnamese. In addition, Kerry (though only a lieutenant) bluntly told Vice-Admiral Zumwalt that the Swift boats' actions were not accomplishing their ostensible goal of interdicting Viet Cong supply lines.

According to some who retell the story, Kerry and the other visiting officers' concerns were dismissed with what amounted to a pep talk. One of the other officers who participated later recalled, "We all looked at each other and thought, 'What is this crap?'" Kerry later said that the Saigon meeting left him "more depressed than when I came." Nevertheless, he returned to his unit. Then, in late January, he was transferred to Swift Boat #94. This boat conducted 18 missions in the next 48 days, almost all of which were in the Mekong Delta.

Second Purple Heart
Kerry received his second Purple Heart for action on the Bo De River on February 20, 1969. The plan had been for the Swift boats to be accompanied by support helicopters. On the way up the Bo De, however, the helicopters were attacked. They returned to their base to refuel and were unable to return to the mission for several hours. Kerry recorded the situation in his notebook: "We therefore had a choice: to wait for what was not a confirmed return by the helos [and] give any snipers more time to set up an ambush for our exit or we could take a chance and exit immediately without any cover. We chose the latter."

As the Swift boats reached the Cua Lon, Kerry's boat was hit by a rocket-propelled grenade round, and a piece of hot shrapnel hit Kerry's left leg. Thereafter, they had no more trouble, and reached the Gulf of Thailand safely. Kerry still has shrapnel in his left thigh because the doctors tending to him decided to remove the damaged tissue and close the wound with sutures rather than make a wide opening to remove the shrapnel. Kerry received his second Purple Heart for this injury, but he did not take any time off from duty.

Silver Star
Only eight days later, on February 28, came the incident for which Kerry was awarded the Silver Star. On this occasion, Kerry was in tactical command of his Swift boat and two others. Their mission included bringing a demolition team and dozens of South Vietnamese soldiers to destroy enemy sampans, structures and bunkers. Along the Bay Hap River, they ran into an ambush. Kerry directed the boats “to turn to the beach and charge the Viet Cong positions,” and he “expertly directed” his boat’s fire and coordinated the deployment of the South Vietnamese troops, according to the Navy’s medal citation to Kerry. When Kerry heard that another Swift boat had been ambushed, he and his crew rushed to assist them. Kerry’s boat came under fire from several Viet Cong B-40 rockets, with one hitting and shattering the crew cabin windows. The normal procedure would have been to fire to shore and then retreat to an off-shore location.

Instead, while returning fire from both banks, Kerry ordered Del Sandusky, the second-in-command and navigator, to take the boat ashore, directly towards the enemy's position. As they reached the shore, a Viet Cong soldier jumped out of the brush, carrying a rocket launcher that could have seriously damaged the boat. With the enemy soldier only a short distance away from the boat and crew, forward gunner Tommy Belodeau shot him in the leg with the boat's 7.62x51 caliber M-60 machine gun. "Tommy in the pit tank winged him in the side of the legs as he was coming across," Fred Short said. "But the guy didn't miss stride. I mean, he did not break stride." According to crewmate accounts, Belodeau's machine gun jammed after he fired, and while fellow crewmate Michael Medeiros attempted to fire, he was unable to do so. Kerry leaped ashore and, followed by one of his crewmembers, pursued the man and killed him. The medal citation notes that Kerry "then led an assault party and conducted a sweep of the area" until the enemy, including snipers visible behind the tree line, had "been completely routed." As the Swift boats returned from the mission they again came under fire, but Kerry "maneuvered his craft through several strafing runs which completely silenced the enemy."

Kerry and Medeiros searched the soldier's corpse and took the rocket launcher, returning to the boat. The mission was judged highly successful for having destroyed numerous targets, routed numerous VC, and confiscated substantial combat supplies while sustaining no casualties.

Kerry's commanding officer, Capt. George Elliott, joked that he didn't know whether to court-martial him for beaching the boat without orders or give him a medal for saving the crew. Elliott recommended Kerry for the Silver Star, and Admiral Zumwalt flew into An Thoi to personally award the medal to Kerry. The Navy's account of Kerry's actions is presented in his medal citation.

Sources close to Kerry say the incident had a profound effect on him: "It's the reason he gets so angry when his patriotism is challenged. It was a traumatic experience that's still with him, and he went through it for his country." It affects the way Kerry lives his life every day, the source said, since "he knows he very well would not be alive today had he not taken the life of another man [he] never ever met."

Bronze Star and third Purple Heart
On March 13, Kerry's boat hit a mine while cruising the Bay Hap River. Army Lt. James Rassmann, a Green Beret who was sitting on the deck of the pilothouse eating a chocolate chip cookie, was knocked overboard as Kerry's arm was hit. Just afterwards, the boat came under attack from sniper fire on both sides of the bank.

Rassmann dived to the riverbottom as the Swift boats escaped. Coming back up for air, the enemy repeatedly fired at him. Rassmann was heading to the north bank, expecting to be taken prisoner, when Kerry realized he was gone and came back for him. Kerry rescued Rassmann under heavy fire, and the boat escaped to the Gulf of Siam. Rassmann later put Kerry in for a Bronze Star, which he was later awarded with Valor device. The Navy's account of Kerry's actions is presented in his medal citation:

 * Lt. Kerry directed his gunners to provide suppressing fire, while from an exposed position on the bow, his arm bleeding and in pain, with disregard for his personal safety, he pulled the man aboard. Lt. Kerry then directed his boat to return and assist the other damaged craft and towed the boat to safety. Lt. Kerry's calmness, professionalism and great personal courage under fire were in keeping with the highest traditions of the US Naval Service. (Wikisource)

Kerry was again wounded in this incident, for which he also received his third Purple Heart. His injuries included several shrapnel wounds in his left upper buttock, which were treated with antiseptic lotion and bandaged. He also suffered bruising and contusions from hitting the bulkhead, which was treated with warm soaking. He spent two days out of service while recovering.

Kerry lost five friends in war, including Yale classmate Richard Pershing, who was killed in action on February 17, 1968.

An additional account of the incidents for which Kerry was decorated appears in Snopes.

Return from Vietnam
On March 17, 1969, shortly after his third wound, on March 17, 1969, Commodore Charles Horne, the commander of Kerry's coastal squadron and a military administrator, filed a document allowing Kerry's reassignment to the U.S. He was entitled to this early departure from Vietnam (subject to approval by the Bureau of Naval Personnel), because those who had been wounded three times, "regardless of the nature of the wound or treatment required...will not be ordered to serve in Vietnam and contiguous waters or to duty with ships or units which have been alerted for movement to that area."

After a final patrol, Kerry was transferred to Cam Ranh Bay for five or six days. His tour of duty in Vietnam ended in early April. On April 11, he reported to the Brooklyn-based Atlantic Military Sea Transportation Service, where he would remain on active duty for one more year as a personal aide to an officer. On January 1, Kerry was promoted to full Lieutenant; on January 3, he requested discharge. After having been listed as completing his service on April 29, he officially left active duty on March 1.

In total, Kerry served on active duty for three and a half years, from August 1966 until March 1970. He was transferred to the Naval Reserve in 1970, and was later transferred to the Standby Reserve in 1972, where he no longer was required to participate in Reserve activities. He received his honorable discharge in 1978.

Criticism of military service and awards
Main article: User:Kizzle/John Kerry Military Service Controversy

Critics have questioned several aspects of Kerry's military service. As the presidential campaign of 2004 developed, around 200 Vietnam-era veterans formed the group Swift Boat Veterans for Truth. SBVT held press conferences, ran ads, and endorsed a book questioning Kerry's service record and his military awards.

title: User:Kizzle/John Kerry Military Service


text:
Talk:1804 dollar

Dead link
During several automated bot runs the following external link was found to be unavailable. Please check if the link is in fact down and fix or remove it in that case!

 * http://www.1804dollar.com/MYSTERY.HTM
 * In 1804 silver dollar on 2011-05-25 02:01:39, 404 Not Found
 * In 1804 silver dollar on 2011-06-01 22:29:23, 404 Not Found

--JeffGBot (talk) 22:29, 1 June 2011 (UTC)

I HAVE 1804 COINS Hnyun Hmue Ko (talk) 18:30, 24 March 2016 (UTC)

Class III 1804 dollar image (FPC)
The image of the Class III 1804 dollar in the article is currently nominated for Featured Picture.--Godot13 (talk) 01:30, 3 March 2015 (UTC)

File:1804 Silver Dollar (Class III).jpg to appear as POTD soon
Hello! This is a note to let the editors of this article know that File:1804 Silver Dollar (Class III).jpg will be appearing as picture of the day on September 10, 2017. You can view and edit the POTD blurb at Template:POTD/2017-09-10. If this article needs any attention or maintenance, it would be preferable if that could be done before its appearance on the Main Page. — Chris Woodrich (talk) 04:22, 28 August 2017 (UTC)

Opening paragraph
Can these sentences: "Some silver dollars were struck in 1804, though all were dated 1803. In 1806, production was suspended by order of James Madison, then Secretary of State, and the denomination was not struck again until the 1804-dated pieces were minted." be dropped from the opening paragraph please? The information is good to have in the background section, but the passing mention in the first paragraph of coins that are not the subject of the article is quite confusing. --Paul_012 (talk) 10:38, 2 September 2017 (UTC)

coil
I have only one coil.I live in myanmar. 103.217.156.195 (talk) 09:44, 17 August 2023 (UTC)

title: Talk:1804 dollar


text:
User talk:Jonathan Christensen

This is where you talk to me. Rants, raves, etc. welcome--I promise I'll at least skim through them.

Nomination of Environmental Robots Inc. for deletion
A discussion is taking place as to whether the article Environmental Robots Inc. is suitable for inclusion in Wikipedia according to Wikipedia's policies and guidelines or whether it should be deleted.

The article will be discussed at Articles for deletion/Environmental Robots Inc. until a consensus is reached, and anyone is welcome to contribute to the discussion. The nomination will explain the policies and guidelines which are of concern. The discussion focuses on good quality evidence, and our policies and guidelines.

Users may edit the article during the discussion, including to improve the article to address concerns raised in the discussion. However, do not remove the article-for-deletion template from the top of the article. -- Alan Liefting (talk - contribs) 07:40, 21 February 2012 (UTC)

title: User talk:Jonathan Christensen


text:
Flogging a dead horse

Flogging a dead horse (or beating a dead horse in American English) is an idiom meaning that a particular effort is futile.

Early usage
The expression is said to have been popularized by the English politician and orator John Bright. Speaking in the House of Commons in March 1859 on Bright's efforts to promote parliamentary reform, Lord Elcho remarked that Bright had not been "satisfied with the results of his winter campaign" and that "a saying was attributed to him [Bright] that he [had] found he was 'flogging a dead horse'."

The earliest instance cited in the Oxford English Dictionary dates from 1872, when The Globe newspaper, reporting the Prime Minister, William Gladstone's, futile efforts to defend the Ecclesiastical Courts and Registries Bill in the Commons, observed that he "might be said to have rehearsed that particularly lively operation known as flogging a dead horse".

Earlier related terms
The phrase may have originated in 17th-century slang, when a horse symbolized hard work. A "dead horse" came to mean something that had become useless. In gambling, "playing a dead horse" meant wagering on something, such as a hand of cards, that was almost sure to lose. In a 17th-century quote from a collection of documents owned by the late Earl of Oxford, Edward Harley,

"Sir Humphry Foster had lost the greatest part of his estate, and then, playing, as it is said, for a dead horse, did, by happy fortune, recover it again."

In journeyman printer's slang from the 18th and 19th centuries, work that was charged for on a bill, but not yet carried out, was called "horse". Carrying out that work was said to be "working for a dead horse", since no additional benefit would be gained by the labourer when the work was complete.

Many sailors were paid in advance for their first month's work. In his book Old England and New Zealand, author Alfred Simmons gives a detailed explanation and background of the "Flogging the Dead Horse" ceremony, performed by a ship's crew at the end of the first month of their voyage at which time wages resumed. The sailors would get paid in advance of leaving the harbour, spend their money, and embark the ship with nothing. This situation allowed them to exclaim the horse symbolising their usual hard work, without money for motivation, was dead. However, once a month had passed, the sailors would have reached the Horse latitudes where wages due and paid would prompt the horse to live again.

One of the earliest synonyms may be found in an ancient Greek play by Sophocles, Antigone,

"Nay, allow the claim of the dead; stab not the fallen; what prowess is it to slay the slain anew?"

Criticism and proposed replacement by PETA
In 2018, the organization People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals (PETA) campaigned for the general public to cease usage of the idiom, along with other idioms which mentioned animals, to "remove speciesism from daily conversation". As an alternative, PETA proposed that the general public replace "beating a dead horse" with "feeding a fed horse". PETA justified the replacement by claiming on Twitter that in the same way, "as it became unacceptable to use racist, homophobic, or ableist language, phrases that trivialize cruelty to animals will vanish as more people begin to appreciate animals for who they are and start 'bringing home the bagels' instead of the bacon."

PETA faced backlash from the public for the suggestion. Comedian Stephen Colbert on his late-night show opined that society has "bigger fish to fry" than such idioms.

title: Flogging a dead horse


text:
Cooloola (insect)

Cooloola is a genus of ensiferan orthopterans known as Cooloola monsters. It is the only genus in the subfamily Cooloolinae and family Cooloolidae of the superfamily Stenopelmatoidea.

Four species are known from this family, all endemic to Queensland, Australia. The name originated from the discovery of the best-known member of the family, the Cooloola monster (Cooloola propator), in the Cooloola National Park.

Little is known about their life histories as they lead an almost entirely subterranean existence, but they are believed to prey on other soil-dwelling invertebrates. Cooloola monsters are unusual in comparison with other members of the primitive superfamily Stenopelmatoidea in that the cooloolids' antennae are considerably shorter than their body lengths.

Classification
While often treated as a family, molecular evidence suggests that cooloolids are in fact aberrant members of the family Anostostomatidae, and the genus Cooloola might not be monophyletic.

Species include:
 * Cooloola dingo Rentz, 1986 – dingo monster
 * Cooloola pearsoni Rentz, 1999 – Pearson's monster
 * Cooloola propator Rentz, 1980 – Cooloola monster
 * Cooloola ziljan Rentz, 1986 – sugarcane monster

title: Cooloola (insect)


text: User talk:131.111.230.175

title: User talk:131.111.230.175


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Ainhum

Ainhum (from Portuguese, pronounced ), also known as dactylolysis spontanea, is a painful constriction of the base of the fifth toe frequently followed by bilateral spontaneous autoamputation a few years later.

Signs and symptoms
The groove begins on the lower and internal side of the base of the fifth toe, usually according to the plantar-digital fold. The groove becomes gradually deeper and more circular. The rate of spread is variable, and the disease may progress to a full circle in a few months, or still be incomplete after years. In about 75 percent of cases both feet are affected, though not usually to the same degree. There is no case reported where it begins in any other toe than the fifth, while there is occasionally a groove on the fourth or third toe. The distal part of the toe swells and appears like a small potato. The swelling is due to lymphatic edema distal to the constriction. After a time crusts can appear in the groove which can be infected with staphylococcus. While the groove becomes deeper, compression of tendons, vessels and nerves occurs. Bone is absorbed by pressure, without any evidence of infection. After a certain time all structures distal the stricture are reduced to an avascular cord. The toe’s connection to the foot becomes increasingly slender, and if it is not amputated, it spontaneously drops off without any bleeding. Normally it takes about five years for an autoamputation to occur.

Cole describes four stages of ainhum:

Pain is present in about 78% of cases. Slight pain is present in the earliest stage of ainhum, caused by pressure on the underlying nerves. Fracture of the phalanx or chronic sepsis is accompanied with severe pain.

Cause
The true cause of ainhum remains unclear. It is not due to infection by parasites, fungi, bacteria or virus, and it is not related to injury. Walking barefoot in childhood had been linked to this disease, but ainhum also occurs in patients who have never gone barefoot. Race seems to be one of the most predisposing factors and it may have a genetic component, since it has been reported to occur within families. Dent et al. discussed a genetically caused abnormality of the blood supply to the foot. It has been related to inadequate posterior tibial artery circulation and absence of plantar arch.

Histolopathology
Histology shows a change in the prickle cell layer, and this is responsible for the laying down of condensed keratin causing the groove. The junctional tissue is reduced to a slender fibrous thread, almost avascular, and all the tissues beyond the constricting band is repressed by a fibro-fatty mass covered by hyperkeratotic integument.

Imaging
Soft tissue constriction on the medial aspect of the fifth toe is the most frequently presented radiological sign in the early stages. Distal swelling of the toe is considered to be a feature of the disease. In grade III lesions osteolysis is seen in the region of the proximal interphalangeal joint with a characteristic tapering effect. Dispersal of the head of the proximal phalanx is frequently seen. Finally, after autoamputation, the base of the proximal phalanx remains. Radiological examination allows early diagnosis and staging of ainhum. Early diagnosis is crucial to prevent amputation. Doppler shows decreased blood flow in posterior tibial artery.

Differential diagnosis
Ainhum is an acquired and progressive condition, and thus differs from congenital annular constrictions. Ainhum has been much confused with similar constrictions caused by other diseases such as leprosy, diabetic gangrene, syringomyelia, scleroderma or Vohwinkel syndrome. In this case, it is called pseudo-ainhum, treatable with minor surgery or intralesional corticosteroids, as with ainhum. It has even been seen in psoriasis or it is acquired by the wrapping toes, penis or nipple with hairs, threads or fibers. Oral retinoids, such as tretinoin, and antifibrotic agents like tranilast have been tested for pseudo-ainhum. Impending amputation in Vohwinkel syndrome can sometimes be aborted by therapy with oral etretinate. It is rarely seen in the United States but often discussed in the international medical literature.

Prevention
Wearing shoes to protect barefoot trauma has shown decrease in incidence in ainhum. Congenital pseudoainhum cannot be prevented and can lead to serious birth defects.

Treatment
Incisions across the groove turned out to be ineffective. Excision of the groove followed by z-plasty could relieve pain and prevent autoamputation in Grade I and Grade II lesions. Grade III lesions are treated with disarticulating the metatarsophalangeal joint. This also relieves pain, and all patients have a useful and stable foot. Intralesional injection of corticosteroids is also helpful.

Epidemiology
Ainhum is an extremely rare disease with prevalence reported between 0.015% and 2.2% of the population. Ainhum occurs worldwide, but is most common in people of sub-Saharan African origin. It is more common in men than in women (2:1) between 20 and 50 years of age. The average age is about thirty-eight. The youngest recorded patient was seven years old. Ainhum is often familial.

History
The first description of ainhum in the West appears to have been provided by English surgeon Robert Clarke, who made a passing reference to "dry gangrene of the little toe" as a common occurrence in the Gold Coast in an 1860 report to the Epidemiological Society of London, but did not recognize it as a distinct entity and believed it to be a consequence of "suppressed yaws". Ainhum was first recognized as a distinct disease and described as such in detail by Brazilian physician José Francisco da Silva Lima (1826–1910), in 1867. The name "ainhum" (from the Yoruba ayùn, meaning "to saw" or "to file") was used to refer to the disease by Yoruba speakers in Bahia, Brazil, where Silva Lima practiced.

The first histological studies of ainhum were conducted by O. E. H. Wucherer and published in 1872, and the first imaging studies were conducted in 1924.

title: Ainhum


text:
Ozzmosis

Ozzmosis is the seventh studio album by English heavy metal singer Ozzy Osbourne. Recorded in Paris and New York with producer Michael Beinhorn, it was released on 23 October 1995 by Epic Records. The album reached number 22 on the UK Albums Chart and number four on the US Billboard 200. "Perry Mason", "See You on the Other Side" and "I Just Want You" were released as singles.

After the release of his sixth album No More Tears in 1991, Osbourne announced that he would retire from music. However, he returned with Ozzmosis in 1995, which featured long-time guitarist Zakk Wylde as well as former Black Sabbath bassist Geezer Butler and drummer Deen Castronovo. Producer Michael Beinhorn played most of the keyboards on the album, while Rick Wakeman played the Mellotron on the songs "Perry Mason" and "I Just Want You". Osbourne later appeared as a guest vocalist on Wakeman's 1999 album Return to the Centre of the Earth.

Ozzmosis received mixed reviews from critics. It was one of many Osbourne albums remastered and reissued in 2002. The reissue featured bonus tracks "Whole World's Fallin' Down" and "Aimee", originally released as B-sides to "Perry Mason" and "See You on the Other Side", respectively. The album has been certified double platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America and has sold over 3 million copies.

Recording and production
Recording took place at Guillaume Tell Studios in Paris, France, Right Track Recording and Electric Lady Studios in New York City, and Bearsville Studios in Woodstock, New York. Production was led by Michael Beinhorn, with Paul Northfield engineering and David Bianco mixing. Writing credits on the album – alongside Osbourne, guitarist Zakk Wylde and bassist Geezer Butler – were shared by John Purdell, Jim Vallance, Mark Hudson, Steve Dudas, Lemmy Kilmister, Duane Baron and Steve Vai.

Ozzmosis was Ozzy's first and only album to feature Butler, drummer Deen Castronovo and keyboardist Rick Wakeman. Guitars were by his long-time band member Wylde, although Steve Vai was originally slated to perform on the album after writing songs with Osbourne in 1994 (of which only "My Little Man" remained). Vai reportedly left the project due to a "falling out" with Osbourne, although Wylde maintains they are still friends.

Prior to Beinhorn's involvement, Ozzmosis was to be produced by Michael Wagener, who had mixed the preceding No More Tears. Songs were recorded with Wagener, and a different lineup including bassist Mike Inez and drummer Randy Castillo, with the intention of making the album sound similar to No More Tears. Pre Production with that lineup happened at Granny's House Recording Studio in Reno, NV in early 1994 after the "No More Tours" Tour. However, with seven songs completed, Epic Records allegedly requested a change in production style and replaced Wagener with Beinhorn. Of Wagener's produced material, "Perry Mason", "See You on the Other Side", "Tomorrow" and "Old LA Tonight" were rerecorded with Beinhorn, "Aimee" and "Living with the Enemy" were released as B-sides, and "Slow Burn" remained unreleased. Wagener's version of "See You on the Other Side" was later released on 2005 box set Prince of Darkness and his demo of "Perry Mason" was released in 2005.

"After doing Ozzmosis with Michael Beinhorn producing," Ozzy remarked in 2001, "I didn't care if I never made another album again. There'd be these fucking mind games. He'd have me singing all day, and then I'd get three-quarters through and he'd go, 'Your voice sounds tired. Let's pick it up tomorrow.' And I knew that the next day he'd go, 'Your voice has changed. Let's start again.

Promotion and release
Three singles were released from Ozzmosis. The first was "Perry Mason" in November 1995, which reached number 23 on the UK Singles Chart and number three on the Billboard Mainstream Rock Songs chart. "See You on the Other Side", released on 9 January 1996, charted in the US at number five on the Mainstream Rock chart and in Sweden at number 59. The third and final single, "I Just Want You", charted in the UK at number 43 and in the US at number 24 on the Mainstream Rock chart.

In support of the album, Osbourne and his band completed the Retirement Sucks! Tour, named in reference to Osbourne's previous tour, the No More Tours Tour, which was originally slated to be his last before his retirement from music. The tour started in Monterrey and Mexico City on 26–28 August. Speaking about his return to touring, Osbourne joked that "If you stayed at home, day in and day out, for 3 years with your wife and a house full of screaming kids, you'd want to get back out on the road too!" The tour continued through 1996.

Commercial
Ozzmosis charted at number 22 on the UK Albums Chart, five places lower than its predecessor No More Tears and three places lower than its successor Down to Earth. It was more successful in the United States, reaching number four on the Billboard 200, the highest position achieved by Osbourne on the chart at the time. The album also reached the top ten in Finland and Sweden, the top 30 in Germany, New Zealand and Norway,  the top 40 in Switzerland, and the top 50 in Australia.

By the end of 1995, Ozzmosis was certified platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America, indicating US sales of over 1 million units; in April 1999, the RIAA certified the album double platinum. The album was also certified platinum by Music Canada, indicating sales in the country of over 80,000 units. According to Billboard magazine, Ozzmosis has sold in excess of 3 million copies in total. As of the 2010 release of Scream, Ozzmosis is the latest Osbourne studio album to be certified multi-platinum by the RIAA.

Critical
Ozzmosis received mostly mixed reviews from critics. Writing for music website AllMusic, Stephen Thomas Erlewine criticised the album for its lack of evolution from previous releases No Rest for the Wicked and No More Tears. Despite praising the "still impressive" skills of guitarist Zakk Wylde, Erlewine condemned the "modern-rock conscious" production style of producer Michael Beinhorn, which he claimed was the cause of the album's main problem – that "on the surface, the music is hard and loud, but it actually sounds smooth and processed". Entertainment Weekly critic Chuck Eddy claimed that due to the long running lengths of tracks on the album, Ozzmosis "feels like a parody of the most overinflated opera".

Retrospectively, writers for both Blabbermouth.net and PopMatters have criticised Ozzmosis in reviews of later Ozzy Osbourne albums. Nick DeRiso of Ultimate Classic Rock ranked Ozzmosis as the eighth best Osbourne album, ahead of only Down to Earth, Under Cover and Scream, criticising the production style of the album. Writing for Loudwire on the 20th anniversary of the album, Jon Wiederhorn described Ozzmosis as "a more sonically pristine, but natural extension of the type of melodic hard rock/metal songwriting" on Osbourne's previous two albums, noting the presence of "raging rockers ... fist-raising anthems ... and teary ballads".

Personnel

 * Ozzy Osbourne – vocals
 * Zakk Wylde – electric guitar
 * Geezer Butler – bass
 * Deen Castronovo – drums

Additional musician

 * Rick Wakeman – Mellotron on "Perry Mason" and "I Just Want You"

Production staff

 * Michael Beinhorn – production, keyboards
 * Michael Wagener – production ("Aimee")
 * Paul Northfield – engineering
 * John Bleich – engineering assistance
 * Matt Curry – engineering assistance
 * Chris Laidlaw – engineering assistance
 * Joe Pirrera – engineering assistance
 * Rodolphe Sanguinetti – engineering assistance
 * Brian Sperber – engineering assistance
 * David Bianco – mixing
 * George Marino – mastering
 * Vic Anesini – mastering (reissue)
 * David Coleman – art direction
 * Rocky Schenck – photography
 * Phil Alexander – liner notes (reissue)

title: Ozzmosis