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Vasai

Vasai (Konkani and Marathi pronunciation: [ʋəsəi]; British English: Bassein; formerly and alternatively Marathi; Bajipur) is a historical place and city located in Palghar district; which was partitioned out of the Thana district in 2014. It also forms a part of Vasai-Virar twin cities in the Konkan division, Maharashtra, India, and comes under the Police Jurisdiction of Mira-Bhayander, Vasai-Virar Police Commissionerate.

The Portuguese in Goa and Damaon built Fort Bassein to defend their colony and participate in the lucrative spice trade and the silk route that converged in the area. Much of Portuguese Bombay and Bassein was seized by Marathas under Peshva rule, at the Battle of Bassein in 1739.

The British East India Company at Bombay then took the area from the Mahratta Empire in 1780; following the First Anglo-Maratha War.

Etymology
The present name Vasai is derived from the Sanskrit word Waas, meaning 'dwelling' or 'residence'. The name was changed to Basai, which was named under Bahadur Shah of Gujarat after the Gujarat Sultanate took over the region. This is also the first Latinized record of the name, which was spelled as Baxay by Barbosa (1514). The name was short-lived as it was changed under Portuguese rule, approximately two decades later, to Baçaim (also the first official Latin name) following the signing of the Treaty of Vasai in 1534. This name was again changed after over 200 years to Bajipur after the Maratha Empire took over the region. This name was also short-lived as after the capture of Bajipur (the Maratha name for Vasai) by the British, the name was changed yet again to Bassein. During this same time, Bombay took over Bassein as the dominant economic power in the region. The town was renamed to Vasai, the Marathi name for the region, following the devolution of the British Raj in India.

Demonym
English: Bassein; Portuguese: Baçaim), Vasai is called Vasaikar in Marathi, in which the suffix kar means 'resident of'. The term had been in use since the official renaming of Bassein to Vasai. The Vasaikar diaspora outside of Maharashtra state, as well as outside of India, refer to themselves as from Mumbai due to its international recognition and Vasai being located within the Mumbai Metropolitan Region, near the edge of suburban Mumbai.

Pre-Portuguese era
The history of Vasai dates back to the ancient Puranic ages. Vasai was a trading ground for many Greek, Arab, Persian and Roman traders and merchants who would enter through the west coast of India. The Greek merchant Cosma Indicopleustes is known to have visited the areas around Vasai in the 6th century and the Chinese traveler Xuanzang later on June or July 640. According to historian José Gerson da Cunha, during this time, Bassein and its surrounding areas appeared to have been ruled by the Chalukya dynasty of Karnataka. Until the 11th century, several Arabian geographers had mentioned references to towns nearby Vasai, like Thana and Sopara, but no references had been made to Vasai. Vasai was later ruled by the Silhara dynasty of Konkan and eventually passed to the Seuna dynasty. It was head of district under the Seuna (1184–1318). Later being conquered by the Gujarat Sultanate, where it was named Basai, a few years later Barbosa (1514) described it under the name Baxay (pronounced Basai) as a town with a good seaport belonging to the King of Gujarat.

In 1295, Italian explorer Marco Polo passed through Vasai.

Portuguese era
The Portuguese first reached the west coast of India when the Portuguese explorer Vasco da Gama landed at Calicut in 1498. According to historian Manuel de Faria e Sousa, the coast of Basai was first visited by the Portuguese in 1509, when Francisco de Almeida on his way to Diu captured a Muslim ship in the harbour of Bombay, with 24 citizens of the Gujarat Sultanate aboard.

To the Portuguese, Basai was an important trading centre located on the Arabian Sea. They saw it as a vital service station that would give them access to global sea routes and goods such as salt, fish, timber and mineral resources. They wanted to build a shipyard to manufacture ships and use the fertile land to grow rice, sugarcane, cotton, betel nuts and other crops to trade globally.

The presence of the Portuguese significantly shaped the region into what it is today.

Treaty of Vasai (Bassein) (1534)
In 1530 the Portuguese, under António da Silveira, took advantage of its strong navy and pillaged and burnt the village of Vasai (Basai). The army of Gujarat Sultanate was not strong enough for the Portuguese forces and, despite resistance, the Sultan of Gujarat was eventually defeated. In 1531 António set fire to Basai yet again as punishment for the Sultan for not ceding Diu, a vital island that would protect trade in the region. In 1533, Diogo (Heitor) da Silveira set fire to the western coast leading from Bandora through Thana and Basai to Surat.

Portuguese General Nuno da Cunha discovered that the son of Meliqueaz, the governor of Diu, Malik Tokan was fortifying Basai with 14,000 men. Seeing this fortification as a threat, Nano da Cunha assembled a fleet of 150 ships with 4000 men and sailed to north of Basai. Upon seeing the naval superiority of the Portuguese, Malik Tokan attempted to initiate a peace agreement with Nano da Cunha. Upon rejection, Malik Tokan was forced to fight against the Portuguese. Despite bringing fewer soldiers, the Portuguese managed to kill most of the enemy while losing only a few of their own.

The Treaty of Bassein was signed by Bahadur Shah of Gujarat and the Kingdom of Portugal on 23 December 1534 while on board the galleon São Mateus. Based on the terms of the agreement, the Portuguese Empire gained control of the village of Basai as well as its territories, islands and seas including Bombay. The village was renamed to Baçaim and became the northern capital of Portuguese territories in India.

Garcia de Sá was later appointed as the first Captain (governor) of Baçaim by his brother-in-law Nuno da Cunha in 1536, who ruled until 1548 when the governorship was passed onto Jorge Cabral. The first cornerstone for the Bassein Fort was laid by António Galvão.

Under Portuguese rule, the Fort Bassein was the Northern Court, or 'Corte da Norte', functioning as the headquarters of the Court of the North. Baçaim became the capital of the Northern Province, the most productive village of Portuguese India and became a resort for Portuguese 'fidalgos' (noblemen and wealthy merchants). A great Portuguese person would be called 'Fidalgo ou Cavalheiro de Baçaim' (Nobleman of Baçaim). By 1674, the Portuguese constructed 2 colleges, 4 convent schools and 15 churches in total in Baçaim's territories. For approximately 205 years, the presence of the Portuguese made the surrounding area a vibrant and opulent village.

The local ethnic community were called 'Norteiro' (Northern men), named after the Court of the North functioning out of the fort.

In 1674, about 600 Arab pirates from Muscat entered Baçaim via the west and pillaged the churches in Baçaim. The unexpected attack weakened the Portuguese control outside the fort walls and Maratha warriors stationed in the west isolated them further.

Maratha era
In the 18th century, Vasai Fort was attacked by the Maratha Empire under Peshwa Baji Rao's brother Chimaji Appa and the Portuguese surrendered on 16 May 1739 after the Battle of Vasai (Baçaim). The Marathas allowed the women and the children of the enemy to leave peacefully. The Portuguese lost a total of 4 main ports, 8 cities, 2 fortified hills, 340 villages and 20 fortresses.

This defeat of the Portuguese, combined with Portuguese royal Catherine of Braganza's wedding dowry of the Seven Islands of Bombay to Charles II of England, led to Bombay overtaking Bajipur (the Maratha name for Vasai) as the dominant economic power in the region.

British era
With the British ruling the island of Bombay just south of the Vasai Creek, the region's prominence as a trade centre in India became increasingly overshadowed by Bombay.

After the death of Madhavrao I in 1772, his brother Narayan Rao became Peshwa of the Maratha Empire. Narayan Rao was the fifth Peshwa of the Maratha Empire from November 1772 until his murder by his palace guards in August 1773. Narayan Rao's widow, Gangabai, gave birth to a posthumous son, who was legal heir to the throne. The newborn infant was named Sawai Madhavrao. Twelve Maratha chiefs, led by Nana Fadnavis, directed an effort to name the infant as the new Peshwa and rule under him as regents.

Raghunathrao, unwilling to give up his position of power, sought help from the British at Bombay and signed the Treaty of Surat on 6 March 1775. According to the treaty, Raghunathrao ceded the territories of Salsette and Vasai to the British, along with part of the revenues from the Surat and Bharuch districts. In return, the British promised to provide Raghunathrao with 2,500 soldiers. The treaty was later annulled by the British Supreme Council of Bengal and replaced by the Treaty of Purandar on 1 March 1776. Raghunathrao was pensioned and his cause abandoned, but the revenues of the Salsette and Bharuch districts were retained by the British. The British Bombay Presidency rejected this new treaty and gave refuge to Raghunathrao. In 1777, Nana Fadnavis violated his treaty with the British Supreme Council of Bengal by granting the French a port on west coast. The British retaliated by sending a force towards Pune.

Following a treaty between France and the Maratha Empire in 1776, the British Bombay Presidency decided to invade and reinstate Raghunathrao. They sent a force under Colonel Egerton, but were defeated. The British were forced to sign the Treaty of Wadgaon on 16 January 1779, a victory for the Marathas. Reinforcements from northern India, commanded by Colonel Thomas Goddard, arrived too late to save the Bombay force. The British Governor-General in the British Bengal Presidency, Warren Hastings, rejected the treaty on the grounds that the Bombay officials had no legal power to sign it. He ordered Goddard to secure British interests in the area. Goddard captured Bassein on 11 December 1780. The city was renamed from Bajipur to Bassein under British rule.

In 1801, Yashwantrao Holkar rebelled against the rival factions of the Maratha Empire. He defeated the combined forces of the Daulat Rao Scindia and Peshwa Baji Rao II in the Battle of Poona and captured Poona (Pune). Peshwa Baji Rao II eventually took refuge in Bassein, where the British had a stronghold. The Bassein Fort played a strategic role in the First Anglo-Maratha War.

Treaty of Bassein (1802)
The Treaty of Bassein (1802) was signed on 31 December 1802 between the British East India Company and Baji Rao II, the Maratha Peshwa of Pune (Poona), in India after the Battle of Poona. The treaty was a decisive step in the dissolution of the Maratha Empire and the expansion of British rule over the Indian subcontinent.

Industrialization
The eastern part of Vasai is highly industrialized, with small- and medium-scale units producing a wide variety of goods. Contributed by more affordable housing and its close proximity to Mumbai, Vasai has maintained a high population growth rate since the 1980s. There are about 12,000 industrial units spread over the eastern part of Vasai.

Transport
The local railway station is known as Vasai Road. It is a major railway station which bypasses Mumbai and connects the trains coming from Vadodara to Konkan Railway and Pune Junction railway station and further towards cities of Bengaluru and Hyderabad. The Vasai-Virar Municipal Corporation buses run on all major routes and State Transport buses provide long-distance travel to and from Vasai. Besides that, auto rickshaws are the main source of transport in the region. Indian Railways introduced a local train service in the Mumbai Metropolitan Region in 1867. The upgraded local train runs between Virar and Churchgate and has a frequency of a train every 4 minutes.

Tourism
The Vasai Fort, originally built in 1184, is a major tourist attraction in the region. The Archaeological Survey of India has started restoration work of the fort, although the quality of the work has been severely criticized by conservation activists. In August 2010 a wall of the fort collapsed, raising questions about the quality of the work.

There are also three well-known religious sites including the Vajreshwari Temple, St. Francis Xavier's Church, Giriz and the Datta Mandir of Dongri. There are various festivals tourists come to visit.

There are famous and peaceful beaches are also located such as Suruchi beach, Bena beach, Rangaon beach, Bhuigaon beach, Kalamb beach, Rajodi beach, Navapur, etc.

Education

 * St. Xavier's Vasai
 * St Gonsalo Garcia College
 * Holy Family Convent School & Junior College
 * Vidya Vikasini English High School & Junior College
 * Sheth Vidya Mandir English High School
 * I Global School
 * J.B. Ludhani High School

Use as filming location
Vasai gained popularity as a shooting location with international hit song 'Hymn for the Weekend' by British band Coldplay being shot here. According to The Times of India, the video was shot in October 2015 at various Indian cities including Worli Village, Bombay and Kolkata. The fort showcased at the start and in between is the Bassein Fort, also known as Saint Sebastian's Fort, located in Vasai. The video is themed on the Indian festival of Holi. The video was filmed by Ben Mor and was released on 29 January 2016. The video features Beyoncé and Indian actress Sonam Kapoor.

The music video was criticized on Indian social media for its stereotypical portrayal of Indian society and alleged disrespecting of Indian idols on the note of Beyoncé's inappropriate clothing.

The video has over 960 million views on YouTube as of July 2018, becoming the second most-viewed music video for Coldplay (after "Something Just like This").

Another hit song 'Lean On' by EDM group Major Lazer and DJ Snake was shot in Vasai in March 2015. It has more than 2 billion views on YouTube.

The Bassein Fort is also a popular shooting location for Bollywood movies and songs. The Bollywood hit ″Kambakkht Ishq″ from Pyaar Tune Kya Kiya is one of the Bollywood songs. Movies such as Josh, starring Shah Rukh Khan, was shot in St. Francis Xavier's Church, Giriz and at the Bassein Fort and Love Ke Liye Kuch Bhi Karega had a number of scenes from the Bassein Fort. Other films shot here include Khamoshi: The Musical and Ram Gopal Verma's Aag. In April 2017, some scenes from Bhoomi, starring Sanjay Dutt, were shot around 'Parnaka' area in Vasai.

The Madhuban road is also popular. Movies like Munna Michael, Thackeray (film), Zero (2018 film) had few scenes that were shot here.

Climate
Vasai has a tropical climate, specifically a tropical wet and dry climate (Aw) under the Köppen climate classification, with seven months of dryness and peak of rains in July. This moderate climate consists of high rainfall days and very few days of extreme temperatures. The cooler season from December to February is followed by the summer season from March to June. The period from June to about the end of September constitutes the south-west monsoon season, and October and November form the post-monsoon season. The driest days are in winter while the wettest days occur in July.

Between June and September, the south-west monsoon rains lash the region. Pre-monsoon showers are received in May. Occasionally, monsoon showers occur in October and November. The average total annual rainfall averages between 2,000 and 2,500 mm. Annually, over 80% of the total rainfall is experienced during June to October. Average humidity is 61-86%, making it a humid climate zone.

The temperature varies from 22 - 36 °C. The average temperature is 26.6 °C, and the average precipitation is 2,434 mm. The average minimum temperature is 22.5 °C. The daily mean maximum temperature range from 28.4 to 33.4 °C, while the daily mean minimum temperature ranges from 17.5 to 26.4 °C. In winter, temperature ranges between 12 - 25 °C while summer temperature ranges from 36 - 41 °C.

Notable people

 * Harshvardhan Joshi – mountaineer
 * Gonsalo Garcia, – Franciscan lay brother from Portuguese India, and the first Indian-born to attain sainthood
 * Suresh Mukund – owner of Kings United

title: Vasai


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Gyōji

A gyōji (行司) is a referee employed by the Japan Sumo Association, responsible for a variety of activities which concern the organisation of the sport in general and the refereeing of matches, as well as the preservation of professional sumo culture, deeply rooted in Shinto traditions. Subject to the same strict hierarchy and traditional appearance as the other professions gravitating around professional sumo, the are one of the most visible professions at tournaments, being the third person in the  (wrestling ring) and sometimes defined as "an essential part of the sumo spectacle."

Inherited from a tradition of refereeing dating back to the Heian period, did not take on their current role until the Tenshō era in the late 16th century. Since the end of the 18th century, have been entrusted with religious functions, which they perform during the consecration of combat areas, before tournaments or in the stables to which they belong. The 's responsibilities also include drafting the, the document defining the promotion or demotion of wrestlers, and supervise match selections made by the (elders) on each tournament day.

History
The role of referee in sumo began long before the was entrusted with it. During the Heian period, the role of match referee was not yet defined, and besides the wrestlers, there were a number of officials responsible for supervising matches. These roles were given to imperial guards bearing the title of (立合), a rank bearing the same kanji as the spelling of. These officials, dressed as archers and carrying bows and quivers, were accompanied by substitutes, the (数刺し), who were dressed in the same way and were responsible for keeping the scorebook. An official, Shiga-no-Seirin (sometimes spelled Shigano Seirin or called Shiga Seirin), was appointed by Emperor Shōmu and founded one of the first hereditary lines of referees, and is also credited with establishing the original forty-eight sumo techniques. During the same period, the term "" also appeared, but the role of the staff bearing this title, all sixth-tier courtiers, was confined to administrative organization and various tasks linked to the court ceremony alongside the sumo tournaments. At the start of the Kamakura shogunate, still did not referee matches, this role falling to  (相撲奉行), or 'sumo magistrates'. During the Muromachi period, the term began to be applied to samurai-ranked referees, involved in the temporary judging of matches between wrestlers.

In 1570 (Genki era), however, Oda Nobunaga appointed two warriors from his retinue to the role of and gave them the task of organizing the shogunate's sumo tournaments. During the Tokugawa shogunate, sumo became popular but the, in an effort to moralize society, banned traditional tournaments organized as part of festivals. As the sport began to be sponsored by the local lords, and in order to eliminate conflicts that would lead to the shogunate's ban on sumo, referee families taught sumo etiquette, rules and techniques to professional wrestlers in various domains. With the incorporation of Shinto elements into sumo traditions during the Tokugawa shogunate, the role of took on even greater importance, emerging as surrogate priests. As a result, requiring licenses to exercise the role of referee became extremely valuable, and by the early 18th century two families stood out in the legal control of : the House of Yoshida Tsukasa and the, both originating from the long tradition of local lords appointing their own officials to train wrestlers sponsored by their domain.

Before the national standardization of sumo organizations, the sporting landscape was divided between several associations scattered around the country, the largest developing in Edo, Kyoto and Osaka. At the end of the 18th century, around 1780, the Edo-based sumo association began a long period of domination of the national sumo scene. Yoshida Tsukasa, the clan controlling the observance of etiquette in Edo, took advantage of this gain in popularity to consolidate its authority over the other hereditary lines of referees, leading to the sole recognition of the referee traditions inherited from this family, which continues to the present. During the mid-Edo period, the role of asserted itself and began to take on its current form, with the use of the  (war fan) and the wearing of the ceremonial kimono.

Ring names
Like wrestlers and most other professions involved in professional sumo, do not work under their real name, but under a pseudonym similar to the, or ring name, used by wrestlers. In modern times, all will take either the family name Kimura (木村) or Shikimori (式守) as their professional name, depending on the tradition recruits are joining. Within these two families, the names of the two highest-ranking members never change and the two top are always called Shikimori Inosuke (式守 伊之助), the junior, and Kimura Shōnosuke (木村 庄之助), his senior.

With the rise in importance and popularity of sumo during the Edo period, many hereditary lines of referees became codified, and some sought the patronage of the House of Yoshida Tsukasa. Around 1770, several lineages existed simultaneously and officiated throughout Japan under the influence of the Yoshida, such as the Iwai Sauma in Kyoto, Shakushi Ichigaku in Osaka, Hattori Shikiemon in Higo and Suminoe Shikikuro in Nagasaki. Between 1726 and 1729, the referees named Kimura Shōnosuke and Shikimori Godaiyū (式守 五大夫) sought patronage from the Yoshida and began working as referees in the Edo-based association. According to a genealogy tree produced by the 6th Shōnosuke during the Meiwa era, the name Kimura Shōnosuke was originally adopted during the Kan'ei era by Nakadachi Uzaemon, a vassal of the Sanada clan, who was the third-generation head of a hereditary line of referees. The Shikimori, however, descend from a different lineage, founded by a former wrestler who became an elder under the name Isenoumi Godaiyū. He later changed his name to Shikimori Godaiyū and launched his own line of referees. Between 1765 and 1774, one of his descendants, named Shikimori Inosuke, established himself as a prominent figure and was appointed as one of the highest referee, second only to Kimura Shōnosuke; thus de facto taking the lead in his line.

Today, the lineage of referees is mostly extinct, with the exception of the Kimura and Shikimori families which are the names of the two most powerful lines of referees to have made their mark since the middle of the 18th century. Today's must choose to belong to one of these two lines.

surnames may be influenced by stable traditions. The two families are not equal; their heads, for example, do not have quite the same rank, a Kimura still being considered a senior compared to a Shikimori. The Kimura family is also much larger, with almost twice as many members as the Shikimori. At one time, there was still a blood tie between the members of these families, but nowadays the relationship between families is primarily hierarchical, with switching between families as they are promoted through the ranks, particularly when they reach the top of the hierarchy. Thus, the referee named Shikimori Inosuke, head of the Shikimori, will take the name Kimura Shōnosuke, and will therefore change family, if the latter retires. Other examples of promotion in the other family included notably that of the who changed from the Kimura family to the Shikimori family when he gave up his name of Kimura Waichirō (木村 和一郎) to become the eleventh Shikimori Kandayū (式守 勘太夫) upon his promotion to the ranks of  in 2012. As rise through the ranks and begin officiating higher divisions, they can change their first name to that of a past, thus taking on a more prestigious name, often part of a long tradition. For example, the name Shikimori Kandayū has been passed down for more than two hundred years. Other traditions may, on the contrary, encourage the referee to keep his name or to be given a unique one linked to his stable.

Each lineage of referee has its own traditions, one of the most visible being the handling of the when the latter is pointed in one direction to determine a winner: Kimura referees keep the back of their fist upward, while Shikimori referees have their palm facing upward.

System of promotion
The maximum number of allowed in the Sumo Association is 45. , there are 43 within the Sumo Association. Like the, the are employed directly by the Japan Sumo Association but are affiliated with the stables like wrestlers. New recruits do not have to meet height or weight requirements and it is even implied that a small is preferable, for aesthetic reasons, as it creates a greater contrast with the taller and bigger wrestlers. Many are former wrestlers who could not rise in the professional world and decided to change their path. Prior to 1972, the began their training at the age of six or seven, before becoming referees in real-life situations between the ages of thirteen and fourteen, while at the same time receiving a normal education. Recruits now begin their career around the age of fifteen or sixteen, after graduating from junior high school. then work up a career ladder based on the professional sumo divisions until their retirement at 65. The current ranking system consists of the following eight ranks, listed in descending order:

 * (立行司)
 * (三役行司)
 * (幕内行司)
 * (十両行司)
 * (幕下行司)
 * (三段目行司)
 * (序二段行司)
 * (序ノ口行司)

Promotions are decided once a year at the (rankings) organization meeting held after the September tournament and are only applicable starting the following January. Promotions were mainly based on seniority, but from 1972 onwards, greater consideration was given to the personal qualities of referees, such as their ability to judge, the tone and power of their voice and also their work ethic. Other qualities are also taken into account, such as calligraphic skills, speed and agility in the ring and leadership shown when facing a difficult decision. On the other hand, too many invalidated refereeing decisions can hinder promotion. This penalty, however, is the highest consequence a can suffer, as  cannot be demoted. The maximum number of -ranked ( and above) is between 20 and 22. Until 1960, there was no mandatory retirement age and top-ranked usually served until death, illness or senility. The promotion chain was hence blocked to the point where a persistent rumour had it that junior rejoiced at the death of their elders as much as they lamented it. Today's promotions are slow but almost certain and some  may be as popular as some wrestlers.

Junior evolve under the tutelage of their seniors. Unlike wrestlers, have no training school for their initial training, and learn everything from the master under whom they are placed. It usually takes a 15 years to be promoted to the  ranks. It takes another 15 years to be promoted to officiating matches. The (top two ) usually have anywhere from 40 to 50 years of experience. There are exceptions, notably the 27th Kimura Shōnosuke who was promoted to Shikimori Inosuke at the age of 48 in 1973, making him the youngest in the history of the sport. As referees are promoted, the number of matches they can officiate is reduced. Young can referee up to ten matches in a day, while their seniors can referee two at most. At the top of the hierarchy, the referee just one match.

Compared to other professions outside professional sumo, or compared to wrestlers' salaries, pay is low but still higher than that of. Top-ranked earn between 400,000 and 500,000 yen ($3320, or €2487 as of November 2023). The basic salary for a -ranked is between 42,000 yen ($281, or €258) to 100,000 yen ($669, or €615). Like wrestlers, however, receive bonuses after each tournament.

Prior to July 1993, the were the only profession of sumo unrelated to wrestler (retired or active) to be featured in the, the traditional rankings of sumo. Since then, the upper-ranked also have their names automatically included on the. The names of the are listed in the center vertical column above the names of the judges and below the  (蒙御免) and the tournament dates and site.

, like wrestlers, are deprived of certain freedoms unless they reach a certain rank, and are required, for example, to live in their own stable. However, unlike wrestlers, who have the option of living elsewhere once they reach the rank of, can move once they reach the rank of. who have achieved status are assigned  (personal attendants) just as top wrestlers are. These may be junior referees or lower-ranked wrestlers, the latter being considered unlucky because there is a superstition in the sumo world that a wrestler serving a will not go on to have a successful career. The may have a maximum of two assistants, when the referees ranked below him have only one. are also entitled to have their names displayed on the (banner) at the entrance to the arenas where tournaments are held. In the past, retired who had managed to secure an elder-share (a pseudonym under which a person may become an executive of the Japan Sumo Association) could remain in the Japan Sumo Association as elders, but the practice is no longer permitted.

Current
As of the January 2019 tournament there is one active :

 * 38th Kimura Shōnosuke (Takadagawa stable), real name: Hideki Imaoka.

Imaoka was promoted to become the 41st Shikimori Inosuke, the lower of the two titles, in January 2019. He became the 38th Kimura Shōnosuke in January 2024, and is expected to hold this title until he reaches sumo's mandatory retirement age of 65 in September 2024.

Current
As of the January 2024 tournament there are four :

 * 3rd Kimura Yōdō (Kokonoe stable), real name: Yūji Horasawa, since November 2014.
 * 15th Kimura Shōtarō (Kasugano stable), real name: Yoshimitsu Morita, since May 2015.
 * Kimura Kōnosuke (Kokonoe stable), real name: Toshiaki Kojima, since January 2019.
 * Kimura Hisanosuke (Ōshima stable), real name: Toshikazu Hata, since January 2024.

Costume
In the ring, wear elaborate ceremonial costumes, either called the  or the,  making them a "flamboyant part of the sumo scene." The kimono worn by the is usually a gift from patrons. It imitates either the one worn by samurai-ranked officials during hunting parties organized during the Muromachi period, or court dress worn during the Heian period.

The costume has undergone a series of changes to arrive at its current form. During the Edo period, wore a linen, a sleeveless kimono with exaggerated shoulders, called asagamishimo (麻裃). In May 1910, the Tokyo-sumo association made the decision to change the costume of professional referees to the one currently in use. However, the tradition of wearing the costumes used during the Edo period is still preserved in traditional regional tournaments, particularly on the Oki Islands. With the Dampatsurei Edict of 1871, referees could no longer keep their, and one of the reasons for adopting the new costume would have been to make it easier to conceal the referee's hair to hide his lack of topknot with a hat. This hat, worn in addition to the richly decorated kimonos, is called an (烏帽子). It is a lacquered black hat inspired by the hats worn by courtiers in feudal Japan and fashioned after the hats worn by Shinto priests. To add color to this headdress, some replace the 's dark cords with colored ones. Each costume worn by ranked in  or above is as expensive as a  worn by wrestlers of equivalent rank during their ring entering ceremonies. Each chooses the color and pattern of his kimono, but only  may use purple, the symbol of their rank. In winter, tend to wear darker colors than those worn during the summer months. Although kimono are often embroidered with very traditional motifs such as, in October 2021, the Japan Sumo Association formed a partnership with The Pokémon Company to celebrate the 25th anniversary of Pokémon Red and Blue and since the January 2022 Grand Sumo tournament,  can be seen wearing Poké Ball-themed kimono.

The outfits used all incorporate a number of rosettes, called, and tassels, called. These ornaments change color to indicate the gyoji's rank. Unlike, whose uniform is identical regardless of rank, each 's costume reflects the rank he holds and has specific features depending on the rank reached. On promotion, the will change into more elaborate outfits and small changes in dress continue as the referee moves up the hierarchy. Since 1960, who have attained the rank of  wear several pairs of  per tournament. These socks, originally designed only for walking on mats and not on the hard and sandy surface of a, wear out very quickly after a day of matches. who are promoted to the rank of may wear an  on the rear-right side of their belt. Both the top two carry a  (a dagger) visible in the left side of the belt of the outfit. This is supposed to represent the seriousness of the decisions they must make in determining the outcome of a bout, and a symbolic preparedness to commit if they make a mistake. Another rumor has it that the referee carries this dagger to defend his verdict against any wrestler or spectator who comes to threaten him or question his decision. This was notably the case during an Osaka-based sumo association match during the Edo period, when a local by the name of Iwai Dannosuke (岩井 団之助) had to defend himself against an aggressive elder who was unhappy that his wrestler had been declared the loser.

As their careers progress, incorporate elements such as the following into their outfits:

To accompany their costumes, each carries a, a wooden war fan similar to the Japanese command staff used by generals at the head of their troops. There are no rules about the materials to be used or the shape a should take. The first owned by a young  is given to him either by a senior  or the stablemaster of the stable to which he belongs. Each has his own and those handled by top-ranked, lacquered with gold or silver ornamentation. Some are handed down from generation to generation, sometimes to be used only by the  who holds a particular ring name. This is notably the case for Kimura Shōnosuke's, which has been passed down to successors for over 160 years. Shikimori Kandayū's is also a legacy handed down since Kandayū II in 1866.

Refereeing a match
The 's principal and most obvious task is to referee bouts between two sumo wrestlers. The is regarded as an unquestionable authority figure in the ring, and is never booed or hissed at. The 's verdicts can, however, be overturned by the judges seated around the ring (the ). During the Meiji era, Japan underwent a series of changes which also had an impact on the traditional way in which sumo tournaments were held and on the organisation of the sumo association. During the same period, Takasago Uragorō launched a protest movement forcing the association to adopt measures aimed at improving their image, in particular by ending the possession of the final judgement of a match, which was changed from to.

Each referees matches taking place in the division that corresponds to the referee's rank. Only the are allowed to referee a match involving a. In all the matches they referee, are expected to give a decision on the spot, whatever the conditions at the end of a match. Too many overturned decisions lead to stagnation in the promotion order or a salary cut. The only exception is that (rematch) are not counted as refereeing errors. If a referee in the highest ranks has too many of his decisions overturned, he is expected to submit his resignation to the JSA Board of Directors. However, these resignations are regularly rejected. At level, referees suffer a penalty if they make more than nine mistakes in a year while -ranked are permitted up to ten. As for the other ranks in the hierarchy (below ), there are no financial penalties, but promotions are nevertheless affected.

In the ring, the follows a very specific protocol before the fight begins. The referee always supervises the proceedings from the north corner of the ring, facing south. After the has called them into the ring, the  will also call out each wrestler's name from east to west. It is the 's responsibility to watch over the wrestlers as they go through the initial prebout staring contests (the ), during which he first stands facing the, the white starting lines in the centre of the ring, then sideways with the raised and in profile. When the preparation time is up, the referee receives a signal from the judge in charge of keeping time via the. The then places his  flat against him, a gesture that signifies to the wrestlers that the fight must begin. The then coordinates the initial charge (or ) between the wrestlers. Immediately after the wrestlers initiate a that the  deems acceptable, he will begin to referee the match. Although it is the wrestlers who ultimately determine the exact point at which the is initiated, if the two wrestlers' breathing is not synchronized or if one wrestler charges before they both put their hands down, the  will notify them that they should wait before going ahead until both are ready or that the charge was a false start. If a false start has been ruled, the wrestlers must return to their starting positions and try another.

The shouts that use in the ring are called, and are codified with no ad-libbing tolerated.

If the match time exceeds four minutes with little movement, the time-keeper will usually indicate to the to call for a, or water break. The then notifies the wrestlers to get out of the ring. He then records the exact positions of both wrestlers' hands and feet, and puts them back in this position once the break has concluded. The starts the fighting again by simultaneously hitting the backs of the wrestlers'. Although there are no strict rules on what to do when a match is paused, it was noted during the November 2023 tournament that a procedure inspired by then- referee Kimura Hisanosuke, consisting of using salt to mark the positions of the wrestlers' feet, was reused because it was considered elegant and effective. Additionally, the may call for a short break if he needs to fix a wrestler's. The puts the  cord in his mouth and swings it over his shoulder to dangle from his back. He then reties the loincloth. In the extremely rare event that a falls and exposes a wrestler's nudity, the  is expected to use his  as a fig leaf to cover an exposed wrestler. Sometimes, during a particularly hectic match, the referee falls out of the ring or is accidentally knocked down by the wrestlers. If, following a fall, the is no longer able to give a verdict or hand out prize envelopes, it is up to the  waiting at the foot of the ring to take his place.

When the considers that a wrestler has lost, he ends the match by pointing his  to the side of the winning wrestler. The 's decision as to the winner of the bout is not immediately final and can be called into question by one of the five  (judges) who sit around the ring. If they dispute the result, they hold a (lit. 'talk of things') in the center of the ring, and correspond through an earpiece to a further two judges in the video review room. They can confirm the decision of the (, 'way of the '), overturn it (, 'wrong indication'), or order a rematch. The is not expected to take part in the discussion during a  unless asked to do so. When a final verdict is reached, the again points his  at the victorious wrestler and announces his, or ring name, in a clear voice. If the match had received corporate sponsorship and banners had been displayed before the start of the fight, the  brings over the envelopes containing the money on his.

Religious role
In addition to refereeing matches, have a number of other duties, among them are their religious responsibilities in the sport. When a new ring is built, it is the 's responsibility to perform a (lit. 'ring festival'), or ring-consecration ceremony, a ritual to bless the space in which the wrestlers fight and train. The day before a, the Japan Sumo Association holds a religious ceremony in the presence of all the association's higher-ups and all the -ranked wrestlers who take their seats around the ring. The same day, a more discreet ceremony is held in the stables' training rings by junior-ranked referees belonging to the same clan, in the presence of the stablemaster and the wrestlers. A simplified version of the ceremony also takes place during regional tours (called ). This practice, inherited from the Heian period, was restored by the Yoshida in the 1790s.

The is performed by one of the  and two other senior-ranked referees, serving as attendants called  (脇行司). The act as Shinto priests and perform the ceremony taking the shape of a Shinto rite. The three, dressed in the same way as a , wear formal white robes (called ), larger hat,  socks and straw sandals. The distinguishes himself by wearing a color variation under his white kimono and a  instead of an. All of the carry a wooden instrument (called a ) as a symbol of authority. On the, (a Shinto ritual wand) are also placed in wooden stands at the center.

One of the 's two assistants first steps into the ring and behaves as if in a shrine, following Shinto etiquette. He then recites a prayer and walks around the four corners of the ring waving a tree branch serving as an at the attendants, in an act called  (清秡). The then enters the ring and recites a prayer. This prayer to the three deities of sumo (Ame-no-Tajikarao, Takemikazuchi and Nomi no Sukune) and to the aspects of the seasons, is made for good weather throughout the tournament. This practice is inherited from a time when tournaments were held outdoors. The deities are also asked to bless all the wrestlers who will participate in the matches and keep them safe. The assistants in turn step into the ring and distribute the from the center of the ring to its four corners. Sake is then poured by the assistants into the four outer corners of the ring, following the shape of the wrestlers' (first left, then right, then center). After the assistants have stepped down from the ring, the recites a prayer called  (故実言上).

Placed on a, symbolic offerings are brought to the ring. They consist of dried chestnuts, washed rice, kelp, dried cuttlefish, kombu and nuts which are then poured into a hole in the center of the ring along some sake. The then pours sake into the four inner corners of the ring. The remaining sake is then offered to the Japan Sumo Association executives seated around the ring.

After the end of a tournament, a bring the tournament to an end with a religious ceremony. This ceremony, called (神送り), or 'god sending ceremony', is held the last day of a tournament to return the gods who had descended to the ring to heaven. One junior-ranked holding a  will stand in the center of the ring and will be tossed into the air by lower-ranked wrestlers.

Presiding over ring-entering ceremonies
The also officially lead the ring-entering ceremonies. More precisely, the 's responsibility is to head the columns of -ranked wrestlers, leading them from the, the two paths from east and west, to the ring. If the is absent, the wrestlers are normally expected to wait to be led into the ring. The 's rank is equivalent to that of the wrestlers he leads. Each who presides over ring-entering ceremonies takes charge of only three or four per tournament, rotating with their colleagues of equivalent rank.

The enters the ring first, circles it and then settles in the center. The wrestlers, in ascending rank, follow him, and a at the foot of the ring announces the prefecture of origin (or country, in the case of foreign wrestlers), the stable to which they belong and the  of the wrestler stepping onto the. When the last wrestler, ranked at the top of the or, in the case of the  division, the, steps into the ring, the wrestlers turn to perform ritual gestures facing the center of the ring. The in the center waves the rope  of his  in a circle.

During the 's ring-entering ceremony, the is also responsible for leading the wrestlers into the ring before the  (the wrestler preceding the ). Normally, the presides over this ceremony. In the absence of a, the referee presiding over the ceremony will be a -ranked. The stands behind the, waving the rope of his  as the  makes his signature entrance (shiranui or unryū).

Writing the
The are also responsible for writing up the, the traditional ranking sheet for professional sumo, and their task begins long before a definitive ranking is decided. The act as clerks at the ranking meetings, which take place three days after the end of each tournament. During the preparatory meeting, the serve only as observers and are not invited to speak. Three are responsible for recording decisions on promotions and demotions, and their work is then used as the basis for the calligraphy known to the public.

The did not start writing the  until 1944; prior to this date it was often written by the elders of the association or by the professionals responsible for printing it. Only two or three high-ranking are authorised to write the, which will later be reproduced and actually used. This team is usually composed of one senior (usually ranked in ) and one or two assistants. The senior writer is usually also one of the attending the ranking meeting. Since World War II, only eight have been responsible for editing the. The task of writing the is considered so important that the people responsible for writing it never accompany the JSA on tour, so as to devote themselves entirely to their task.

In line with the calligraphic skills of the, the ranking is handwritten in a style called (根岸流) or  (相撲字). This style of writing is similar to that developed in the mid-18th century to write advertisements for kabuki plays. The official name of the style,, is derived from the name of a printer called Mikawa Jiemon who, in 1757, was in charge of printing the. He later became an elder of the association under the name Negishi, thus giving the name to the style he used when writing. The characters are written thickly and without gaps, which is meant to represent the hope that the tournament venue will be filled to capacity. Another interpretation of the size of the characters is that they imitate the imposing physique of the wrestlers.

Before each main tournament, it takes between seven and ten days to handwrite the. Each kanji is written with a brush without the help of word processors. are also expected to write the with their right hand. The original is called a  (元書き). It is a large sheet of paper measuring metres by. The assistant draws the frame of the future banzuke on a blank sheet of paper, an operation that alone takes two days as everything is done by hand. In the lower left-hand section of the, the senior write vertically the sentence  (千穐万歳大々叶), a prayer for the wrestlers' safety in the ring. The writing then begins from bottom to top and from left to right, so as to start with the lowest ranks and end with the rank of. There is a tradition that for the smallest ranks, written in an extremely fine way, the use an old brush whose bristles have all fallen off and given by a  who taught him. In total, around 830 names are handwritten. After being written up and proofread, the is sent to the printing works for photoengraving and printing on a format four times smaller than the original.

While the is written by senior, the  is written by young referees. After the has been unveiled, between two and three  ranked in  gather to write on the  high and  wide wooden board traditionally hung at the entrance to tournament venues.

Other tasks
In line with their refereeing duties, the are also divided into departments within the Sumo Association, as are the elders. The distribution of in these departments depends on the  and on a committee of three senior referees (currently ranked as  and ) who are elected every two years by their peers.

For the, there are three departments with very specific tasks. The first department is the (割場), named after the rooms in the Kokugikan. This department is responsible for recording the results of matches held the previous day on the (巻) scroll, to prepare for the work of the judging department, which will decide on future wrestler matchups for upcoming matches. The second department to which the belong is that of the referees who stand close to the ring during matches and announce over the microphone which  (winning technique) have been used by the wrestlers. Since all referees are also expected to referee in the ring, a team of ten rotate with each other at the microphone for one day. In addition, the announcers are all from the Kantō region, so as to maintain a standard of intelligibility by avoiding accents. If the referee making the announcement did not see the technique used, he may contact the video referee to confirm it. The third department is entirely dedicated to the publication of wrestlers' results. Once the matches have been decided, it is up to the to write up the sheets (called ) that will be presented after the  ring entry ceremonies on tournament days.

The also make the plaques displayed on the electronic scoreboards in the arenas, on a thin rectangular sheet of plastic. Plaques are changed when a wrestler changes his or is promoted. In addition, are also responsible for the material organization of tours (called ). This takes place a year and a half in advance, and includes preparation of itineraries and accommodation.

Finally, as all are also associated with one of the sumo training stables throughout their career, they also have individual duties related to the stables such as performing clerical work.

Controversy
In January 2018, the 40th Shikimori Inosuke (whose real name is Itsuo Nōchi) was suspended for three tournaments for sexually harassing a junior referee. The Japan Sumo Association accepted his resignation in May 2018 when the suspension concluded.

Shortly after the announcement of promotions for the January 2024 grand sumo tournament, the 6th Kimura Tamajirō (from Tatsunami stable) submitted his retirement papers to the Sumo Association, ending a 47-year career. The day before, he did not appear on the list of referees promoted, even though he was the second most senior referee at the time and only two years away from retirement. Sasaki Ichirō, a sumo journalist at Nikkan Sports, shared an informal comment on his Twitter account expressing Tamajirō VI's displeasure at not being promoted to the rank of.

title: Gyōji


text:
Mrs. Ples

Mrs. Ples is the popular nickname for the most complete skull of an Australopithecus africanus ever found in South Africa. Many Australopithecus fossils have been found near Sterkfontein, about 40 km northwest of Johannesburg, in a region of Gauteng (part of the old Transvaal) now designated as the Cradle of Humankind World Heritage Site. Mrs. Ples was discovered by Robert Broom and John T. Robinson on April 18, 1947. Because of Broom's use of dynamite and pickaxe while excavating, Mrs. Ples's skull was blown into pieces and some fragments are missing. Nonetheless, Mrs./Mr. Ples is one of the most "perfect" pre-human skulls ever found. The skull is currently held at the Ditsong National Museum of Natural History in Pretoria.

The nickname "Mrs. Ples" was coined by Broom's young co-workers. It derives from the scientific name Plesianthropus transvaalensis (near-man from the Transvaal), that Broom initially gave the skull, later subsumed (synonymized) into the species Australopithecus africanus. In scientific publications, the specimen is referred to by its catalogue number, STS 5.

The genus Australopithecus, of which there are several species, is considered the likely precursor of the genus Homo, to which all humanity belongs. Though its cranium is comparable to a chimpanzee's, Australopithecus walked upright, as humans do. This was a surprise to anthropologists at the time, because it had been assumed that the big brain of Homo had preceded, or at least evolved in tandem with, our upright gait. Mrs. Ples, whose cranial capacity is only about 485 cm3, was one of the first fossils to reveal that upright walking had evolved well before any significant growth in brain size.

The sex of the specimen is not completely certain and so Mrs. Ples may in fact be Mr. Ples. Moreover, X-ray analysis of the specimen's teeth (see below) has suggested it was an adolescent. Hence a designation of Miss Ples or Master Ples is also possible.

The paleoanthropologist, Prof. Frederick E. Grine, has studied the dental morphology of Mrs./Mr. Ples with a view to finally establishing Mrs./Ms. Ples's sex. Using the Computed Tomography (CT) scans of STS 5 from the experiments of Weber et al., (2012) they compared them to CT scans of more recently discovered A. africanus skulls from Sterkfontein. These scans allowed Grine to reconstruct the roots of the teeth, in order to see how the molar and canine teeth developed. This study concluded that Mrs./Mr. Ples was indeed a middle-aged female. However, the question is not entirely settled, since other studies have come to the opposite conclusion.

Some experts have suggested that a partial skeleton, known only by its catalogue number of STS 14, which was discovered in the same year, in the same geological deposit and in proximity to Mrs. Ples, may belong to this skull. If correct, this would make Mrs. Ples the South African counterpart to the famous Lucy fossil. This skull, along with others discovered at Taung, Sterkfontein, and Makapansgat offered compelling evidence in favour of Charles Darwin's hypothesis that humanity's origin lay in Africa.

The fossil was originally dated by a combination of palaeomagnetism and uranium-lead techniques to 2.1-2.6 million years ago. A 2022 study dating surrounding rocks with a new methodology, stated their age as 3.4-3.7 million years old. But a more recent study, using the size of the teeth of Theropithecus oswaldi, concluded that there is no evidence that any of the South African cave sites are older than about 2.8 million years.

In 2004, Mrs. Ples was voted 95th in the SABC 3's and e.tv's Great South Africans Top 100 list.

title: Mrs. Ples


text: Category:1545 deaths

title: Category:1545 deaths


text:
Olimpia Milano

Pallacanestro Olimpia Milano, commonly known as Olimpia Milano or as EA7 Emporio Armani Milan after its title sponsor, is an LBA Italian professional basketball team, based in Milan, Italy. Its colors are white and red, and the team is sometimes referred as "Scarpette Rosse" (Little Red Shoes) because team officials imported red Converse All-Star shoes for players from the United States. The tag line stuck, and the nickname is still used by many fans today.

As per custom in the Italian league, sponsorship has kept the team name changing frequently. From 1930 until 1955, it was called Borletti Milano. From 1956 to 1973, it was renamed Simmenthal. Other famous sponsorship names were Billy, Simac, Tracer, and Philips, in the 1980s. For past club sponsorship names, see the list below.

Olimpia is the most successful basketball club in Italy and one of the most successful in Europe, having won 30 Italian League Championships, 8 Italian National Cups, 4 Italian Super Cups, 3 EuroLeague, 1 FIBA Intercontinental Cup, 3 FIBA Saporta Cups, 2 FIBA Korać Cups and many junior titles.

In 2016, the club was included in the Italian Basketball Hall of Fame.

The birth and the Borletti era (1930–1955)
The birth of Pallacanestro Olimpia Milano is traditionally dated 1936, year of the first Italian League Championship title. Actually it was founded 6 years earlier (in 1930) as "Dopolavoro Borletti" by Fratelli Borletti managers. Borletti team won 4 consecutive Italian League Championships from 1936 to 1939.

In 1947, Milan businessman Adolfo Bogoncelli merged Pallacanestro Como and Borletti to form a new society, commonly known as "Borolimpia". "Borletti" brand was the main sponsor of the team, becoming the first sponsor in the history of Italian sport.

In 1955, after 9 Italian League Championships, Borletti brand leaves Olimpia Milano jersey.

The Simmenthal era (1956–1973)
The team regularly won the Italian League Championship in the 1950s and the 1960s, with players including Gabriele Vianello, Sandro Riminucci, Gianfranco Pieri, and Bill Bradley. In 1966, Olimpia won its first FIBA European Champions Cup.

In the 1970s, three teams were fighting across Europe for supremacy: Olimpia Milano, Ignis Varese, and Real Madrid. Pallacanestro Varese and Olimpia Milano were arch-rivals, as the two cities are 25 miles (40 km) apart. While Milano was a frequent Italian League champion, they were unable to win again the prestigious FIBA European Champions Cup. Late in the 1970s, the quality of the club declined, but Olimpia Milano still managed to win a FIBA Cup Winners' Cup.

In 1973, Simmenthal brand leaves Olimpia jersey after 17 years and 10 Italian League Championships.

1974–2007
In the 1970s through the 1980s, the team acquired several notable players, including the Boselli twins (Franco and Dino), Mike Sylvester, Chas Menatti, Dino Meneghin, Mike D'Antoni, John Gianelli, Roberto Premier. Bob McAdoo, Joe Barry Carroll, Russ Schoene, Antoine Carr, and Mike Brown. American head coach Dan Peterson led the team back to prominence.

In the 1980s, the team was sold to the Gabetti family. After this, they qualified for nine Serie A championships finals, winning five, with the 1987 team winning the Serie A title, the 1986–87 FIBA European Champions Cup (won also in 1988: both finals were won against Maccabi Tel Aviv), the Italian Cup and the 1987 FIBA Club World Cup. This gave the club the coveted "Triple Crown" and the even rarer "Quadruple Crown".

Led by point guard Sasha Djordjević, the team won another FIBA Korać Cup in 1993. Bepi Stefanel purchased the team franchise in 1994, and signed-up notable European players like Dejan Bodiroga, Gregor Fučka, Sandro De Pol, and Nando Gentile. In 1996, the team won the Italian Cup and its 25th Italian National Championship, celebrating the 60th anniversary of the club.

Team management was inconsistent, as ownership groups from 1998 to 2004. Players of the team included Warren Kidd, Hugo Sconochini, Claudio Coldebella and Petar Naumoski. In 2005, owner Corbelli, which bought the club in 2002, from Sergio Tacchini, was flanked by Adriano Galliani (managing director of Italian Football club A.C. Milan), Massimo Moratti (President of rival club Internazionale), NBA star Kobe Bryant, and stylist Giorgio Armani, as sponsor with the Armani Jeans brand. After difficult years, led by coach Lino Lardo, Olimpia reached the national championship Finals, finally being beaten by Climamio Bologna.

On January 25, 2006, in the midst of a disappointing season in the EuroLeague and domestically, Djordjevic was named as the team's new coach. He left as coach after the 2006–07 season, but not before securing Olimpia a berth in the 2007–08 Euroleague.

2008–present
In 2008, Giorgio Armani bought the team from Giorgio Corbelli, standing as the only owner, entirely changing the management structure, naming Livio Proli as president, and Lucio Zanca as general manager. Piero Bucchi was chosen to coach the new team, leading Olimpia twice to second place in LEGA Basket, being defeated by Montepaschi Siena in both cases.

In January 2011, after 23 years away from coaching, Dan Peterson came back from retirement at the request of team owner Giorgio Armani to replace Piero Bucchi, who was fired in mid-season. Peterson was hired on an interim basis and agreed to coach only the remainder of the season, in which he guided the team to the semi-finals. On June 9, Olimpia Milano announced Sergio Scariolo as new head coach for the 2011–12 season. The first player signed for the 2011–12 season was Omar Cook, an American-born play maker, who had played the previous season with Power Electronics Valencia. Owing to the NBA lockout, Danilo Gallinari went back to his alma mater, playing 15 games (8 in the Italian League, 7 in EuroLeague): he left the team in December. Sergio Scariolo was replaced by Luca Banchi at the beginning of the 2013–14 season, and the team brought from Montepaschi Siena: David Moss, Kristjan Kangur, and Daniel Hackett.

The team reached the quarterfinals of EuroLeague, 16 years after its last appearance, but the team lost against the eventual league champions, Maccabi Tel Aviv. The team finished in the 1st position the LEGA Basket regular season, and in the 7th game of the playoff's finals, Olimpia won its 26th Italian League championship title, its first after 18 years. Alessandro Gentile, the captain of Olimpia, was named MVP of the finals.

On June 29, 2017, Simone Pianigiani was hired as the new head coach and on June 15, 2018, Milano went to win his 28th title by beating Dolomiti Energia Trento in game 6 of the 2018 LBA Finals.

On June 11, 2019, legend Ettore Messina signed a deal as the new head coach of the club and president of all basketball operations for the following three seasons.

On May 4, 2021, the club reached the Euroleague Final Four after 29 years (1992 Final Four).

Secondary Arenas
Olimpia Milano used the OND Borletti outdoor court of Via Costanza for almost 20 years. In the mid-1940s, they moved to the Palazzo dello Sport della Fiera, which had a seating capacity of 18,000 people, and was then the largest indoor sports arena in Europe, and second only to the Madison Square Garden in New York City. In 1960, the Palazzo dello Sport della Fiera was abandoned, and Olimpia moved into the original structure of the PalaLido, which then had a smaller seating capacity of 3,500, but because of lack of security measures at the time, often was filled with up to 10,000 people.

At the end of the 1970s, Olimpia moved into the newly built Palasport di San Siro, a multi-purpose facility built next to the Meazza Stadium, that was able to hold about 15,000 spectators. In 1985, the roof of the Palasport di San Siro collapsed and Olimpia returned to PalaLido for a season, waiting for the construction of a provisional arena. In 1986, they moved into the recently built 10,045 seat PalaTrussardi, where they played through the early 1990s.

The club then moved into its current home arena, the Mediolanum Forum, which has a seating capacity of 12,700. The club has also played some home games at the 6,700 seat PalaDesio. Recently, the club considered moving back to the newly rebuilt and modernized PalaLido (named Allianz Cloud), after it was remodeled, and had its seating capacity expanded. However, the club ultimately decided to continue using the Mediolanum Forum as its home arena, due to its much larger seating capacity, as compared to the new Allianz Cloud. However, the new arena is used when Mediolanum Forum is unavailable.

Domestic competitions

 * Italian League
 * Winners (31): 1935–36, 1936–37, 1937–38, 1938–39, 1949–50, 1950–51, 1951–52, 1952–53, 1953–54, 1956–57, 1957–58, 1958–59, 1959–60, 1961–62, 1962–63, 1964–65, 1965–66, 1966–67, 1971–72, 1981–82, 1984–85, 1985–86, 1986–87, 1988–89, 1995–96, 2013–14, 2015–16, 2017–18, 2021–22, 2022–23, 2023–24
 * Runners-up (18): 1934, 1940–41, 1955–56, 1963–64, 1968–69, 1969–70, 1970–71, 1972–73, 1973–74, 1978–79, 1982–83, 1983–84, 1987–88, 1990–91, 2004–05, 2008–09, 2009–10, 2011–12, 2020–21

 * Italian Cup
 * Winners (8): 1971–72, 1985–86, 1986–87, 1995–96, 2015–16, 2016–17, 2020–21, 2021–22
 * Runners-up (3): 1969–70, 2014–15, 2023–24

 * Italian Supercup
 * Winners (4): 2016, 2017, 2018, 2020
 * Runners-up (3): 1996, 2014, 2015, 2021

European competitions

 * EuroLeague
 * Winners (3): 1965–66, 1986–87, 1987–88
 * Runners-up (2): 1966–67, 1982–83
 * Semifinalists (3): 1963–64, 1967–68, 1972–73, 1985–86
 * 3rd place (2): 1991–92, 2020–21
 * Final Four (5): 1966, 1967, 1988, 1992, 2021

 * FIBA Saporta Cup (defunct)
 * Winners (3): 1970–71, 1971–72, 1975–76
 * Runners-up (2): 1983–84, 1997–98
 * Semifinalists (1): 1976–77

 * FIBA Korać Cup (defunct)
 * Winners (2): 1984–85, 1992–93
 * Runners-up (2): 1994–95, 1995–96
 * Semifinalists (3): 1977–78, 1988–89, 1993–94

 * European Basketball Club Super Cup (semi-official, defunct)
 * 3rd place (2): 1985, 1989
 * 4th place (2): 1986, 1987

 * Latin Cup (defunct)
 * Winners (1): 1966
 * Runners-up (1): 1953

 * European Tournament (San Remo) (defunct)
 * Winners (2): 1952, 1954

Worldwide competitions

 * FIBA Intercontinental Cup
 * Winners (1): 1987
 * 3rd place (2): 1967, 1968

 * McDonald's Championship (defunct)
 * 3rd place (2): 1987, 1989

Unofficial

 * Triple Crown
 * Winners (1): 1986–87

 * Small Triple Crown
 * Winners (1): 1971–72

Other Competitions

 * Castellanza, Italy Invitational Game
 * Winners (1): 2007

 * Memoriale di Tulio Rochlitzer
 * Winners (1): 2007

 * Torneo Caorle
 * Winners (2): 2007, 2011

 * Reggio Emilia, Italy Invitational Game
 * Winners (1): 2008

 * Torneo Lombardia
 * Winners (2): 2009, 2016

 * Torneo Castelleto Ticino
 * Winners (3): 2009, 2018, 2019

 * Verona, Italy Invitational Game
 * Winners (1): 2011

 * Trofeo de Ejea de los Caballeros
 * Winners (1): 2011

 * Belgrade, Serbia Invitational Game
 * Winners (1): 2014

 * Torneo del Circuito della Valtellina
 * Winners (1): 2014

 * Trofeo Memorial Gianni Brusinelli
 * Winners (1): 2016

 * Torneo Lovari
 * Winners (1): 2017

 * Torneo Lucca
 * Winners (1): 2019

 * Milan, Italy Invitational Game
 * Winners (1): 2019

Sponsorship names
Through the years, due to sponsorship deals, it has been also known as:
 * Borletti (1930–1955)
 * Simmenthal (1955–1973)
 * Innocenti (1973–1975)
 * Cinzano (1975–1978)
 * Billy (1978–1983)
 * Simac (1983–1986)
 * Tracer (1986–1988)
 * Philips (1988–1993)
 * Recoaro (1993–94)
 * Stefanel (1994–1998)
 * Sony (1998–99)
 * Adecco (1999–2002)
 * Pippo (2002–03)
 * Breil (2003–04)
 * Armani Jeans (2004–2011)
 * EA7 Emporio Armani (2011–2018)
 * AX Armani Exchange (2018–present)

Notable players

 * 🇮🇹 #9 Cesare Rubini (1948–1957)
 * 🇮🇹 #7 Sergio Stefanini (1949–1955)
 * 🇮🇹 #5 Enrico Pagani (1949–1960)
 * 🇮🇹 #3 Romeo Romanutti (1950–1958)
 * 🇮🇹 #8 Sandro Gamba (1950–1963)
 * 🇮🇹 #7 Gianfranco Pieri (1955–1968)
 * 🇮🇹 #10 Sandro Riminucci (1956–1970)
 * 🇮🇹 #9 Paolo Vittori (1959–1965)
 * 🇮🇹 #6 Gabriele Vianello (1962–1967)
 * 🇮🇹 #8 Massimo Masini (1963–1974)
 * 🇮🇹 #5 Giulio Iellini (1964–1975)
 * 🇮🇹 #18, #9 Vittorio Ferracini (1967–1969, 1973–1983)
 * 🇮🇹 #6 Giuseppe Brumatti (1967–1977)
 * 🇮🇹 #13 Renzo Bariviera (1969–1975)
 * 🇮🇹 #12 Vittorio Gallinari (1976–1987)
 * 🇮🇹 #11 Dino Meneghin (1980–1990, 1993–1994)
 * 🇮🇹 #10 Roberto Premier (1981–1989)
 * 🇮🇹 #7 Riccardo Pittis (1984–1993)
 * 🇮🇹 #12 Antonello Riva (1989–1994)
 * 🇮🇹 #5 Ferdinando Gentile (1994–1998)
 * 🇮🇹 #9 Marco Mordente (1996–2000, 2008–2011)
 * 🇮🇹 #11, #9 Massimo Bulleri (2005–2008, 2008–2009, 2009–2010)
 * 🇮🇹 #8 Danilo Gallinari (2006–2008; 2011)
 * 🇮🇹 #6 Stefano Mancinelli (2009–2012)
 * 🇮🇹 #9, #18 Nicolò Melli (2010–2015, 2021–2024)
 * 🇮🇹 #25, #5 Alessandro Gentile (2011–2016)
 * 🇮🇹 #13 Simone Fontecchio (2016–2019)
 * 🇮🇹 #00 Amedeo Della Valle (2018–2020)
 * 🇮🇹 #70 Luigi Datome (2020–2023)

 * 🇺🇸 #9 Skip Thoren (1965–1966)
 * 🇺🇸 #15 Bill Bradley (1965–1966)
 * 🇺🇸 #18 Art Kenney (1970–1973)
 * 🇺🇸 #15 Mike Sylvester (1975–1980)
 * 🇺🇸 🇮🇹 #8 Mike D'Antoni (1977–1990)
 * 🇺🇸 #15 Joe Barry Carroll (1984–1985)
 * 🇺🇸 #14 Russ Schoene (1984–1986)
 * 🇺🇸 #13 Ken Barlow (1986–1987)
 * 🇺🇸 #15 Bob McAdoo (1986–1990)
 * 🇺🇸 #13 Ricky Brown (1987–1988)
 * 🇺🇸 #15 Darryl Dawkins (1991–1992)
 * 🇺🇸 #10 Antonio Davis (1992–1993)
 * #4, #19 Aleksandar Đorđević (1992–1994, 2005)
 * 🇦🇷 #47, #10 Hugo Sconochini (1993–1995, 2002–2004)
 * #10 Dejan Bodiroga (1994–1996)
 * 🇸🇮 🇮🇹 #7 Gregor Fučka (1994–1997)
 * 🇺🇸 #15 Rolando Blackman (1995–1996)
 * 🇬🇷 #9 Giorgos Sigalas (1997–1998)
 * 🇺🇸 #12 Melvin Booker (1998–1999, 2007–2008)
 * 🇱🇹 #15 Mindaugas Katelynas (2007–2009)
 * 🇺🇸 #14, #34 David Hawkins (2008–2009, 2010–2011)
 * 🇺🇸 🇮🇹 #12 Richard Mason Rocca (2008–2012)
 * 🇱🇹 #8 Jonas Mačiulis (2009–2011)
 * 🇱🇹 #15 Marijonas Petravičius (2009–2011)
 * #15 Ioannis Bourousis (2011–2013)
 * 🇺🇸 #7 Malik Hairston (2011–2013)
 * 🇺🇸 #23 Keith Langford (2012–2014)
 * 🇺🇸 #55 Curtis Jerrells (2013–2014; 2017–2019)
 * 🇯🇲 #24 Samardo Samuels (2013–2015)
 * 🇷🇸 #13 Milan Mačvan (2015–2017)
 * 🇭🇷 #43 Krunoslav Simon (2015–2017)
 * 🇺🇸 #21 Rakim Sanders (2016–2017)
 * 🇱🇹 #9 Mantas Kalnietis (2016–2018)
 * 🇺🇸 #0 Drew Goudelock (2017–2018)
 * #45 Dairis Bertāns (2017–2019)
 * 🇱🇹 #77 Artūras Gudaitis (2017–2020)
 * 🇷🇸 #5 Vladimir Micov (2017–2021)
 * 🇺🇸 #2 Mike James (2018–2019)
 * 🇱🇹 #19 Mindaugas Kuzminskas (2018–2019)
 * 🇷🇸 #16 Nemanja Nedović (2018–2020)
 * 🇺🇸 🇮🇹 #32 Jeff Brooks (2018–2021)
 * 🇦🇷 #40 Luis Scola (2019–2020)
 * #13 Sergio Rodriguez (2019–2022)
 * 🇺🇸 #2 Zach LeDay (2020–2021, 2024–present)
 * 🇺🇸 #23 Malcolm Delaney (2020–2022)
 * 🇺🇸 #42 Kyle Hines (2020–present)
 * #31 Shavon Shields (2020–present)
 * 🇺🇸 #22 Devon Hall (2021–2024)
 * 🇺🇸 #12 Billy Baron (2022–2024)
 * 🇺🇸 #0 Brandon Davies (2022–2023)
 * 🇨🇦 #5 Kevin Pangos (2022–2023)
 * 🇩🇪 #77 Johannes Voigtmann (2022–2024)
 * 🇲🇪 #33 Nikola Mirotić (2023–present)
 * 🇬🇭 Ben Bentil

title: Olimpia Milano


text:
Kiautschou Governor's Hall

Kiautschou Governor's Hall is the former German colonial government building at Qingdao, China.

History
The building was designed by the German architect Friedrich Mahlke (1871 – 1944) and was constructed during the years from 1904 to 1906. It was officially handed over to the administration on April 2, 1906. It has a gross space of 7,500 square meters.

The building originally served as the Kiautschou naval and civil government office and was known as Gouverneurspalast, or the Governor's Palace. After the Siege of Tsingtao in 1914, the building became the Japanese occupation headquarters until 1922, when China regained sovereignty over its province. Before and during World War II, Jioazhou Governor's Hall was again used by the Japanese as the seat of their occupation regime from 1938 to 1945. The building was subsequently used by the Kuomintang government and, after June 1949, by the People's Republic of China. It served as Qingdao's townhall until 1992.

title: Kiautschou Governor's Hall


text:
Nallasopara

Nallasopara or Nala Sopara (pronunciation: [naːla sopaɾa]) formerly known as Sopara or Supara, is a town within the Mumbai Metropolitan Region. The town lies in the Palghar district of Maharashtra, India and is governed by Vasai-Virar Municipal Corporation (VVMC). Nallasopara railway station is part of the Western Railway Zone and comes under Police Jurisdiction of Mira-Bhayander, Vasai-Virar Police Commissionerate.

Nallasopara is accepted by scholars as the Shurparaka (lit. city of braves; ) or Supparak of ancient India and was a busy trade centre and an important seat of Buddhism. It was one of the administrative units under the Satavahanas and is mentioned in the inscriptions of Karle, Nashik, Naneghat and Kanheri.

Nallasopara has many dargahs (shrines) of Islamic Sufi masters of the medieval period.

Climate
It has tropical climate, specifically a tropical wet and dry climate (Aw) under the Köppen climate classification, with seven months of dryness and peak of rains in July.

This moderate climate consists of high rainfall days and very few days of extreme temperatures. The cooler season from December to February is followed by the summer season from March to June. The period from June to about the end of September constitutes the south-west monsoon season, and October and November form the post-monsoon season. The driest days are in winter while the wettest days occur in July.

Between June and September, the south-west monsoon rains lash the region. Pre-monsoon showers are received in May. Occasionally, monsoon showers occur in October and November. The average total annual rainfall averages between 2,000 and 2,500 mm. Annually, over 80% of the total rainfall is experienced during June to October. Average humidity is 61-86%, making it a humid climate zone.

The temperature varies from 22 to 36 C. The average temperature is 26.6 °C, and the average precipitation is 2,434 mm. The average minimum temperature is 22.5 °C. The daily mean maximum temperature range from 28.4 to 33.4 °C, while the daily mean minimum temperature ranges from 17.5 to 26.4 °C. In winter, temperature ranges between 12 and 25 C while summer temperature ranges from 36 to 41 C

Sopara
Sopara (by some identified with the Ophir mentioned in the Hebrew texts ) was an ancient port town and the capital of the ancient Aparanta. The ancient port of Sopara was the most important port in western India after the celebrated port of Cambay. The site of this ancient town is located near the present day Nala Sopara. In ancient times, it was the largest township on India's west coast, trading with Mesopotamia, Egypt, Cochin, Arabia and Eastern Africa.

The Mahabharata and the Puranas state that the was reclaimed from the sea for the dwelling place of Parashurama and it became a tirtha for this reason. The finding of the relics in a stupa and the rock edicts (the fragments of the 8th and 9th major rock edicts) of Ashoka in 1882 prove the importance of this port town from the 3rd century BCE to the 9th century CE. The Pali text Mahavamsa (VI, 46,47) states that the first king of the Sinhalese Kingdom (now Sri Lanka), Vijaya sailed from Supparaka (Sopara) to Sri Lanka. Ptolemy mentioned this town as Soupara, and it was a major commercial centre during his time According to the Jaina writers, Shripala, a mythical king married Tilakasundari, daughter of king Mahasena of Soparaka. Jinaprabhasuri (14th century) in his Vividhatirthakalpa mentioned Soparaka as one of 84 Jaina tirthas (sacred places). He also mentioned about an image of Rishabhadeva located in this city till his time.

The earliest reference occurs in Mahabharata as Shuparak. The Buddhist Suppara Jataka, believed to be of 6th century BC, talks of Sopara as a prosperous port trading with ports of S.W.Asia, Gujarat, Malabar and Sri Lanka, its experts (navigation pilots- bodhisattvas), and the seas that they voyaged across. From about third or fourth century BC precise historic data can be pieced together.

Excavations at Sopara
In April 1882, Bhagvanlal Indraji, a noted archaeologist, numismatist and epigraphist excavated at the Burud Rajache Kot mound in Merdes village, near Sopara. The ruins of a Buddhist Stupa was found. From the center of the stupa (inside a brick built chamber) a large stone coffer was excavated which contained eight bronze images of Maitreya Buddha which belong to the c. 8th-9th century CE. This coffer also enclosed relic caskets of copper, silver, stone, crystal and gold, along with numerous gold flowers and fragments of a begging bowl. A silver coin of Gautamiputra Satakarni (Satavahana) was also found from the mound. The Bombay Provincial Government presented the Sopara relics to the Asiatic Society of Bombay. The coins and the artifacts found during the excavations at the site of this ancient town can still be viewed in the Asiatic Society, Mumbai museum. In an old Muslim graveyard near Ramkund, the fragments of 8th and 9th major rock edicts of Asoka were found. These rock edicts can be viewed in the Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj Vastu Sangrahalaya, Mumbai. The site was re-excavated by M.M.Qureshi of the Archaeological Survey of India in 1939–1940, when several stone lintels and two small stupas were found on the south side of the main stupa in addition to a few sherds of plain glazed ware of the Muslim period. Anwar Munshi (1972) found a number of Satavahana lead coins at Sopara. In 1956, a fragment of 11th major rock edict was found from a coastal village, Bhuigaon. During an excavation in 1993, a ring well, fragments of Roman amphorae red polished ware and glass (all belong to the early centuries of the Common Era) were found.

The ancient habitation site lies 2 km away from the stupa which overlooks the dry creek on the south and on the east opens to Thane creek. A large quantity of Islamic Glazed Ware, Black and Red Ware were found at the site. It seems that during the Early Historical period Sopara was located on the mainland facing Agashi island on the north and Bassein to the south. The backwaters between the mainland and the island were suitable for the movement and anchorage of ships. Gas and Nirmal villages were once part of the creek. A number of tanks and architectural remains arc noticed in the areas adjoining these villages. All the ancient relics were found in the area between the stupa and the creek. Up to the 19th century this creek was navigable and ships of 20 tonnes used to ply here. The significance of the architectural pieces becomes more important when the surface findings arc taken into account. The area around Bhatela pond is a landing place or bunder, where even remains of a Portuguese jetty and customs house are seen. Exploration (1994) in the adjoining area has yielded Red Polished Ware and Glazed Ware. The evidence is further corroborated by a joint excavation in 1993 carried out by the Archaeological Survey of India and the British Academy, Hyderabad where antiquities of the Early Historical period (Satavahana and Kashatrapa period) – lead and copper coins, semi-precious stone beads, small fragments of Northern Black Polished Ware, amphorae pieces and Islamic Blue Glazed ware were discovered. An earthen wall and a fourteen coarse stone wall with varying sizes of stone blocks were also encountered during this excavation.

It is clearly evident from the archaeological and literary sources that Sopara was the main entrepot dating from the pre-Asokan period up to the 3rd century A.D. and again from 9th to 13th century A.D. There is no evidence of cultural remains from 4th to 9th century and it seems that during this period Sopara had lost its importance. The main cause for the decline of the ancient port of Sopara was due to the effect of siltation caused by a rise in sea level. Further near-shore and off-shore marine archaeological exploration and excavation would be helpful to ascertain the extent of the ancient port city.

Sopara Edicts of Ashoka
The following are translations of the fragments of the edicts found at Sopara by Bhagavan Lal Indraji in 1882. In these edicts, Ashoka refers to himself as "Devanampiya"(Beloved of The Gods) and "Piyadassi" (The handsome one).

8th Major Rock Edict
"In the past, kings went on pleasure tours, which consisted of hunts and other similar amusements. The Beloved of the Gods, the king Piyadassi, when he had been consecrated for 10 years, went to the tree of Enlightenment. From that time arose the practice of tours connected with Dhamma, during which meetings are held with ascetics and brahmans, gifts are bestowed, meetings are arranged with aged folk, gold is distributed, meetings with people of the countryside are held, instruction in Dhamma is given, and questions on Dhamma are answered. The Beloved of the Gods, the king Piyadassi, derives more pleasure from this, than from any other enjoyments."

9th Major Rock Edict
"Thus speaks the Beloved of the Gods, the king Piyadassi: People practice various ceremonies in illness, at the marriage of sons and daughters, at the birth of children, when going on a journey on these and on other similar occasions people perform many ceremonies. Women especially perform a variety of ceremonies, which are trivial and useless. If such ceremonies must be performed they have but small results. But the one ceremony which has great value is that of Dhamma. This ceremony includes regard for slaves and servants, respect for teachers, restrained behaviour towards living beings, and donations to sramanas and brahmans – these and similar practices are called the ceremony of Dhamma. So father, son, brother, master, friend, acquaintance and neighbour should think,'This is virtuous, this is the ceremony I should practice, until my object is achieved.'"

Demographics
India census, Nala Sopara had a population of 4.6 lakh. It shows Nalasopara's population grew to 4.6 lakh in 2011 from 2.3 lakh in 2001 census. It is one of the well-known satellite city of Mumbai. Males constitute 54% of the population and females 46%. Nala Sopara has an average literacy rate of 79%, higher than the national average of 74.04%: male literacy is 77%, and female literacy is 82%. In Nala Sopara, 13% of the population is under 6 years of age.

Among minority languages, Gujarati is spoken by 17.82% of the population, Urdu by 12% and Hindi by 22.92%.

Hazrat Kutti Shah Baba
Hazrat Kutti Shah Baba dargah also known as Nalasopara Pahad wali Dargah, near Nalasopara railway station west. It's a very peaceful place, and also a masjid is built on mountain for namazi's.

Chakreshwar Mahadev Mandir
The Chakreshwar Mahadev Mandir (19.41698°N, 72.79873°W) is a very ancient shrine of Lord Śiva. This is a relatively small temple and is noted as the holy place where Svāmi Samarth performed dhyānam, pratiṣhṭha of a Rām Mandir near-by and blessed a śiṣhya who undertook a sajīva samādhi at this very place. The temple lies at one corner of the Chakreshwar lake in Nallasopara West.

Reference in literature
A Gujarati novel-based on historical events written by Zaverchand Meghani named Gujaratno Jay mentions that parents of famous Jain laymen Vastupal and Tejpal who constructed Dilwara Temples had stayed in Sopara for some period of time after running away from home.

title: Nallasopara


text:
French Imperial Eagle

The French Imperial Eagle (Aigle de drapeau, lit. 'flag eagle') refers to the figure of an eagle on a staff carried into battle as a standard by the Grande Armée of Napoleon I during the Napoleonic Wars.

Although they were presented with regimental colours, Napoleon's regiments tended to carry at their head the Imperial Eagle.

History
On 5 December 1804, three days after his coronation, Napoleon I distributed aigles based on the eagle standards of the Roman legions. The standards represented the regiments raised by the various departments of France, and were intended to institute feelings of pride and loyalty among the troops who would be the backbone of Napoleon's new Imperial regime. Napoleon gave an emotional speech in which he insisted that troops should defend the standards with their lives. This event was depicted in The Distribution of the Eagle Standards, an 1810 painting by Jacques-Louis David.

The original design was sculpted by Antoine-Denis Chaudet and then copies were cast in the workshop of Pierre-Philippe Thomire, with the first eagles presented on 5 December 1804. It was a bronze sculpture of an eagle on a plinth, with one claw resting on "Jupiter's spindle". weighing 1.85 kg, mounted on top of the blue regimental flagpole. They were made from six separately cast pieces designed along Roman lines and, when assembled, measured 310 mm in height and 255 mm in width. On the base would be the regiment's number or, in the case of the Imperial Guard, Garde Impériale. The eagle bore the same significance to French Imperial regiments as the colours did to British regiments - to lose the eagle would bring shame to the regiment, who had pledged to defend it to the death. Upon Napoleon's fall, the restored monarchy of King Louis XVIII ordered all eagles to be destroyed; only a very small number were preserved. When the former emperor returned to power in 1815 (known as the Hundred Days), he immediately had more eagles produced, although the quality did not match the originals. The workmanship was of a lesser quality and the main distinguishing changes had the new models with closed beaks and they were set in a more crouched posture.

Captured eagles
The first capture of an eagle was most likely during the Battle of Austerlitz in 1805 when the Russian cavalry of the guard under Grand Duke Konstantin overran the French 4th Régiment d'Infanterie de Ligne, taking their flag. Although Napoleon won the battle, the Russians were able to retreat in good order and the eagle was not recovered, much to the emperor's regret.

In 1807, at Heilsberg, the 55th Infantry Regiment (France) was overthrown by Prussian cavalry and Russian infantry. An eagle was lost and several officers, including a colonel, were killed. The eagle was captured by NCO Anton Antonov of the Pernov Musketeers. Prussian historians dispute this, claiming that the Prittwitz Hussars captured the eagle.

In 1807, near Eylau, the 18th Infantry Regiment (France) lost its flag and eagle to the Russian 1st Saint Petersburg Uhlan Regiment. In 1812, at Krasnoi, the 18th Régiment d'Infanterie de Ligne again lost its eagle and was "virtually destroyed" by the Russian Her Majesty's Life Guard Uhlan Regiment.

In 1808, at the Battle of Bailén, an entire French corps led by General Pierre Dupont surrendered after being defeated by a Spanish army led by generals Francisco Javier Castaños and Theodor von Reding; this was the first surrender of an Imperial field army. As part of the capitulation terms, the French gave up their flags and banners, including three eagles. These eagles were kept in the Cathedral of Seville until they were recovered by the French in 1810 and sent back to Paris.

The first French eagles to be captured by the British were taken during the Invasion of Martinique including the Eagle of the 82nd French Regiment of the Line. Subsequently the 87th Regiment of Foot took an Imperial Eagle at the Battle of Barrosa on 5 March 1811. At Barrosa, Ensign Edward Keogh and Sergeant Patrick Masterson captured the French Imperial Eagle of the 8th Infantry Regiment (France). Keogh only managed to get a hand on the shaft when he was shot, bayoneted, and killed. Masterson took over and, after killing several men, wrenched the Eagle from the dying hands of its bearer, Lieutenant Gazan.

The eagle was taken back to the United Kingdom and put on display in the Royal Hospital Chelsea. It was around 10 inches tall, set on a plinth marked with the numeral 8. It was made of silver, but gilded, which led many to think it was solid gold. In fact, the only golden part of the eagle was a laurel wreath which hung around its neck. This wreath was an honour conferred upon the 8th Regiment by Napoleon himself, and was not common to all eagles at the time. The gold leaves were presented to a number of regiments that were present at the Battle of Austerlitz by the city of Paris. The eagle's right claw was raised. Beneath it should have been a thunderbolt but, on the 87th's trophy, it was missing. It is believed to have been dislodged during its capture.

Several years later, the eagle was stolen from the Royal Hospital. It was broken from its staff and smuggled away to an unknown fate. Many rumours abounded, the strongest being that it had been repatriated by a Frenchman. More likely it was melted down and sold. The original staff is still held in the Royal Irish Fusiliers Museum, located in the Sovereign's House on The Mall in Armagh, Northern Ireland.

The British took two eagles at the Battle of Salamanca in July 1812. Ensign John Pratt of the Light Company of the 30th Regiment of Foot (later 1st Battalion, East Lancashire Regiment) captured the eagle of the 22nd Infantry Regiment (France) (displayed today in the Lancashire Infantry Museum at Fulwood Barracks in Preston, Lancashire), while Lieutenant William Pearce of the 2nd Battalion of the 44th Regiment of Foot took the eagle of the 62nd Infantry Regiment (France) (displayed today in the Chelmsford Museum in Essex).

Following the surrender of the French at the capture of Madrid on 14 August 1812, two eagles were found belonging to the 13th Régiment de Dragons and the 51st Infantry Regiment (France).

Two of the newer French regimental eagles were captured during the Battle of Waterloo in 1815. The French I Corps under the command of the Comte d'Erlon was charged by the British heavy cavalry, commanded by the Earl of Uxbridge; the 1st The Royal Dragoons captured the eagle of the 105th Infantry Regiment (France); (now held at the National Army Museum, Chelsea) and the Royal Scots Greys captured the eagle of the 45th Infantry Regiment (France) (now held at the Royal Scots Dragoon Guards Museum in Edinburgh Castle).

Before the Duke of Wellington died in 1852, he had asked that all his battle trophies be carried at his funeral. As the eagle captured by the 87th Regiment of Foot was not available, it was decided to make a replica. The mould was made by Garrard's and was designed from a sketch of the original drawn by an officer of the 87th at the time of Barrosa.

The capture of an eagle was celebrated through the addition of the eagle as a symbol or accoutrement to a regiment's colour or uniform. The Blues and Royals (Royal Horse Guards and 1st Dragoons) (descended from the 1st Royal Dragoons) and the Royal Anglian Regiment (descended from the 44th Foot) both wear the eagle as an arm badge, while the cap badge of the Royal Scots Dragoon Guards (Carabiniers and Greys) (descended from the Royal Scots Greys) is an eagle. The Royal Irish Regiment wear the eagle of the 8th on the back pouch of the officers' black cross belt.

A French Imperial Eagle, which had belonged to the 1st Regiment of Foot Grenadiers of the Imperial Guard, was among the items stolen in 1990 from the Isabella Stewart Gardner Museum in Boston, Massachusetts. The 1st Régiment de Grenadiers had formed two squares at the Battle of Waterloo, one of which was formed around Napoleon himself. In May 2015, the Isabella Stewart Gardner Museum offered a reward of $100,000 for the safe return of the Eagle which remains missing.

title: French Imperial Eagle


text: User talk:212.137.34.41

title: User talk:212.137.34.41