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Ethiopian wolf

The Ethiopian wolf (Canis simensis), also called the red jackal, the Simien jackal or Simien fox, is a canine native to the Ethiopian Highlands. In southeastern Ethiopia, it is also known as the horse jackal. It is similar to the coyote in size and build, and is distinguished by its long and narrow skull, and its red and white fur. Unlike most large canids, which are widespread, generalist feeders, the Ethiopian wolf is a highly specialised feeder of Afroalpine rodents with very specific habitat requirements. It is one of the world's rarest canids, and Africa's most endangered carnivore.

The species's current range is limited to seven isolated mountain ranges at altitudes of 3,000–4,500 m, with the overall adult population estimated at 360–440 individuals in 2011, more than half of them in the Bale Mountains.

The Ethiopian wolf is listed as endangered by the IUCN, on account of its small numbers and fragmented range. Threats include increasing pressure from expanding human populations, resulting in habitat degradation through overgrazing, and disease transference and interbreeding from free-ranging dogs. Its conservation is headed by Oxford University's Ethiopian Wolf Conservation Programme, which seeks to protect wolves through vaccination and community outreach programs.

Naming
Alternative English names for the Ethiopian wolf include the red jackal, the Simenian fox, the Simien jackal, Ethiopian jackal, and Abyssinian wolf.

Historical account
The species was first scientifically described in 1835 by Eduard Rüppell, who provided a skull for the British Museum. European writers traveling in Ethiopia during the mid-19th century (then called Abyssinia) by Europeans and Ze Etiyopia by its citizens, wrote that the animal's skin was never worn by natives, as it was popularly believed that the wearer would die should any wolf hairs enter an open wound, while Charles Darwin hypothesised that the species gave rise to greyhounds. Since then, it was scarcely heard of in Europe up until the early 20th century, when several skins were shipped to England by Major Percy Horace Gordon Powell-Cotton during his travels in Abyssinia.

The Ethiopian wolf was recognised as requiring protection in 1938, and received it in 1974. The first in-depth studies on the species occurred in the 1980s with the onset of the American-sponsored Bale Mountains Research Project. Ethiopian wolf populations in the Bale Mountains National Park were negatively affected by the political unrest of the Ethiopian Civil War, though the critical state of the species was revealed during the early 1990s after a combination of shooting and a severe rabies epidemic decimated most packs studied in the Web Valley and Sanetti Plateau. In response, the IUCN reclassified the species from endangered to critically endangered in 1994. The IUCN/SSC Canid Specialist Group advocated a three-front strategy of education, wolf population monitoring, and rabies control in domestic dogs. The establishment of the Ethiopian Wolf Conservation Programme in Bale soon followed in 1995 by Oxford University, in conjunction with the Ethiopian Wildlife Conservation Authority (EWCA).

Soon after, a further wolf population was discovered in the Central Highlands. Elsewhere, information on Ethiopian wolves remained scarce; although first described in 1835 as living in the Simien Mountains, the paucity of information stemming from that area indicated that the species was likely declining there, while reports from the Gojjam plateau were a century out of date. Wolves were recorded in the Arsi Mountains since the early 20th century, and in the Bale Mountains in the late 1950s. The status of the Ethiopian wolf was reassessed in the late 1990s, following improvements in travel conditions into northern Ethiopia. The surveys taken revealed local extinctions in Mount Choqa, Gojjam, and in every northern Afroalpine region where agriculture is well developed and human pressure acute. This revelation stressed the importance of the Bale Mountains wolf populations for the species' long-term survival, as well as the need to protect other surviving populations. A decade after the rabies outbreak, the Bale populations had fully recovered to pre-epizootic levels, prompting the species' downlisting to endangered in 2004, though it still remains the world's rarest canid, and Africa's most endangered carnivore.

Taxonomy and evolution
The earliest known fossil of the Ethiopian wolf is known from the Melka Wakena paleoanthropological site-complex in the Southeastern Ethiopian Highlands. It is the right half of a mandible and dated to between 1.6 and 1.4 million years ago. The authors of this study state that the ancestors of the Ethiopian wolf arrived in Africa from Eurasia at the same time as the ancestors of the African wild dog approximately 1.8 million years ago. The Ethiopian wolf has survived numerous climatic changes in its Ethiopian highland habitat, with its range repeatedly expanding and contracting with glacial cycles.

In 1994, a mitochondrial DNA analysis showed a closer relationship to the gray wolf and the coyote than to other African canids, and C. simensis may be an evolutionary relic of a gray wolf-like ancestor's past invasion of northern Africa from Eurasia.

 * See further: Canis evolution

Due to the high density of rodents in their new Afroalpine habitat, the ancestors of the Ethiopian wolf gradually developed into specialised rodent hunters. This specialisation is reflected in the animal's skull morphology, with its very elongated head, long jaw, and widely spaced teeth. During this period, the species likely attained its highest abundance, and had a relatively continuous distribution. This changed about 15,000 years ago with the onset of the current interglacial, which caused the species' Afroalpine habitat to fragment, thus isolating Ethiopian wolf populations from each other.

The Ethiopian wolf is one of five Canis species present in Africa, and is readily distinguishable from jackals by its larger size, relatively longer legs, distinct reddish coat, and white markings. John Edward Gray and Glover Morrill Allen originally classified the species under a separate genus, Simenia, and Oscar Neumann considered it to be "only an exaggerated fox". Juliet Clutton-Brock refuted the separate genus in favour of placing the species in the genus Canis, upon noting cranial similarities with the side-striped jackal.

In 2015, a study of mitochondrial genome sequences and whole genome nuclear sequences of African and Eurasian canids indicated that extant wolf-like canids have colonised Africa from Eurasia at least five times throughout the Pliocene and Pleistocene, which is consistent with fossil evidence suggesting that much of African canid fauna diversity resulted from the immigration of Eurasian ancestors, likely coincident with Plio-Pleistocene climatic oscillations between arid and humid conditions. According to a phylogeny derived from nuclear sequences, the Eurasian golden jackal (Canis aureus) diverged from the wolf/coyote lineage 1.9 million years ago, and with mitochondrial genome sequences indicating the Ethiopian wolf diverged from this lineage slightly prior to that. Further studies on RAD sequences found instances of Ethiopian wolves hybridizing with African golden wolves.

Admixture with other Canis species
In 2018, whole genome sequencing was used to compare members of the genus Canis. The study supports the African golden wolf being distinct from the golden jackal, and with the Ethiopian wolf being genetically basal to both. There are two genetically distinct African golden wolf populations that exist in northwestern and eastern Africa. This suggests that Ethiopian wolves – or a close and extinct relative – once had a much larger range within Africa to admix with other canids. There is evidence of gene flow between the eastern population and the Ethiopian wolf, which has led to the eastern population being distinct from the northwestern population. The common ancestor of both African golden wolf populations was a genetically admixed canid of 72% grey wolf and 28% Ethiopian wolf ancestry.

Subspecies
, two subspecies are recognised by Mammal Species of the World Volume Three (MSW3).

Description
The Ethiopian wolf is similar in size and build to North America's coyote; it is larger than the black-backed jackal and side-striped jackals as well as the African wolf and has comparatively longer legs. Its skull is very flat, with a long facial region accounting for 58% of the skull's total length. The ears are broad, pointed, and directed forward. The teeth, particularly the premolars, are small and widely spaced. The canine teeth measure 14–22 mm in length, while the carnassials are relatively small. The Ethiopian wolf has eight mammae, of which only six are functional. The front paws have five toes, including a dewclaw, while the hind paws have four. As is typical in the genus Canis, males are larger than females, having 20% greater body mass. Adults measure 841 - 1012 mm in body length, and 530 - 620 mm in height. Adult males weigh 14.2 - 19.3 kg, while females weigh 11.2 - 14.15 kg.

The Ethiopian wolf has short guard hairs and thick underfur, which provides protection at temperatures as low as −15 °C. Its overall colour is ochre to rusty red, with dense whitish to pale ginger underfur. The fur of the throat, chest and underparts is white, with a distinct white band occurring around the sides of the neck. There is a sharp boundary between the red coat and white marks. The ears are thickly furred on the edges, though naked on the inside. The naked borders of the lips, the gums and palate are black. The lips, a small spot on the cheeks and an ascending crescent below the eyes are white. The thickly furred tail is white underneath, and has a black tip, though, unlike most other canids, there is no dark patch marking the supracaudal gland. It moults during the wet season (August–October), and there is no evident seasonal variation in coat colour, though the contrast between the red coat and white markings increases with age and social rank. Females tend to have paler coats than males. During the breeding season, the female's coat turns yellow, becomes woolier, and the tail turns brownish, losing much of its hair.

Animals resulting from Ethiopian wolf-dog hybridisation tend to be more heavily built than pure wolves, and have shorter muzzles and different coat patterns.

Social and territorial behaviours
The Ethiopian wolf is a social animal, living in family groups containing up to 20 adults (individuals older than one year), though packs of six wolves are more common. Packs are formed by dispersing males and a few females, which with the exception of the breeding female, are reproductively suppressed. Each pack has a well-established hierarchy, with dominance and subordination displays being common. Upon dying, a breeding female can be replaced by a resident daughter, though this increases the risk of inbreeding. Such a risk is sometimes circumvented by multiple paternity and extra-pack matings. The dispersal of wolves from their packs is largely restricted by the scarcity of unoccupied habitat.

These packs live in communal territories, which encompass 6 km2 of land on average. In areas with little food, the species lives in pairs, sometimes accompanied by pups, and defends larger territories averaging 13.4 km2. In the absence of disease, Ethiopian wolf territories are largely stable, but packs can expand whenever the opportunity arises, such as when another pack disappears. The size of each territory correlates with the abundance of rodents, the number of wolves in a pack, and the survival of pups. Ethiopian wolves rest together in the open at night, and congregate for greetings and border patrols at dawn, noon, and evening. They may shelter from rain under overhanging rocks and behind boulders. The species never sleeps in dens, and only uses them for nursing pups. When patrolling their territories, Ethiopian wolves regularly scent-mark, and interact aggressively and vocally with other packs. Such confrontations typically end with the retreat of the smaller group.

Reproduction and development
The mating season usually takes place between August and November. Courtship involves the breeding male following the female closely. The breeding female only accepts the advances of the breeding male, or males from other packs. The gestation period is 60–62 days, with pups being born between October and December. Pups are born toothless and with their eyes closed, and are covered in a charcoal-grey coat with a buff patch on the chest and abdomen. Litters consist of two to six pups, which emerge from their den after three weeks, when the dark coat is gradually replaced with the adult colouration. By the age of five weeks, the pups feed on a combination of milk and solid food, and become completely weaned off milk at the age of 10 weeks to six months. All members of the pack contribute to protecting and feeding the pups, with subordinate females sometimes assisting the dominant female by suckling them. Full growth and sexual maturity are attained at the age of two years. Cooperative breeding and pseudopregnancy have been observed in Ethiopian wolves.

Most females disperse from their natal pack at about two years of age, and some become "floaters" that may successfully immigrate into existing packs. Breeding pairs are most often unrelated to each other, suggesting that female-biased dispersal reduces inbreeding. Inbreeding is ordinarily avoided because it leads to a reduction in progeny fitness (inbreeding depression) due largely to the homozygous expression of deleterious recessive alleles.

Hunting behaviours
Unlike most social carnivores, the Ethiopian wolf tends to forage and feed on small prey alone. It is most active during the day, the time when rodents are themselves most active, though they have been observed to hunt in groups when targeting mountain nyala calves. Major Percy-Cotton described the hunting behaviour of Ethiopian wolves as thus:

"... they are most amusing to watch, when hunting. The rats, which are brown, with short tails, live in big colonies and dart from burrow to burrow, while the cuberow stands motionless till one of them shows, when he makes a pounce for it. If he is unsuccessful, he seems to lose his temper, and starts digging violently; but this is only lost labour, as the ground is honeycombed with holes, and every rat is yards away before he has thrown up a pawful."

The technique described above is commonly used in hunting big-headed African mole-rats, with the level of effort varying from scratching lightly at the hole to totally destroying a set of burrows, leaving metre-high earth mounds.

Wolves in Bale have been observed to forage among cattle herds, a tactic thought to aid in ambushing rodents out of their holes by using the cattle to hide their presence. Ethiopian wolves have also been observed forming temporary associations with troops of grazing geladas. Solitary wolves hunt for rodents in the midst of the monkeys, ignoring juvenile monkeys, though these are similar in size to some of their prey. The monkeys, in turn, tolerate and largely ignore the wolves, although they take flight if they observe feral dogs, which sometimes prey on them. Within the troops, the wolves enjoy much higher success in capturing rodents than usual, perhaps because the monkeys' activities flush out the rodents, or because the presence of numerous larger animals makes it harder for rodents to spot a threat.

Habitat
The Ethiopian wolf is restricted to isolated pockets of Afroalpine grasslands and heathlands inhabited by Afroalpine rodents. Its ideal habitat extends from above the tree line around 3,200 to 4,500 m, with some wolves inhabiting the Bale Mountains being present in montane grasslands at 3,000 m. Although specimens were collected in Gojjam and northwestern Shoa at 2,500 m in the early 20th century, no recent records exist of the species occurring below 3,000 m. In modern times, subsistence agriculture, which extends up to 3,700 m, has largely restricted the species to the highest peaks.

The Ethiopian wolf uses all Afroalpine habitats, but has a preference for open areas containing short herbaceous and grassland communities inhabited by rodents, which are most abundant along flat or gently sloping areas with poor drainage and deep soils. Prime wolf habitat in the Bale Mountains consists of short Alchemilla herbs and grasses, with low vegetation cover. Other favourable habitats consist of tussock grasslands, high-altitude scrubs rich in Helichrysum, and short grasslands growing in shallow soils. In its northern range, the wolf's habitat is composed of plant communities characterised by a matrix of Festuca tussocks, Euryops bushes, and giant lobelias, all of which are favoured by the wolf's rodent prey. Although marginal in importance, the ericaceous moorlands at 3,200–3,600 m in Simien may provide a refuge for wolves in highly disturbed areas.

Diet
In the Bale Mountains, the Ethiopian wolf's primary prey are big-headed African mole-rats, though it also feeds on grass rats, black-clawed brush-furred rats, and highland hares. Other secondary prey species include vlei rats, yellow-spotted brush-furred rats, and occasionally goslings and eggs. Ethiopian wolves have twice been observed to feed on rock hyraxes, and mountain nyala calves. It will also prey on reedbuck calves. In areas where the big-headed African mole-rat is absent, the smaller Northeast African mole-rat is targeted. In the Simien Mountains, the Ethiopian wolf preys on Abyssinian grass rats. Undigested sedge leaves have occasionally been found in Ethiopian wolf stomachs. The sedge possibly is ingested for roughage or for parasite control. The species may scavenge on carcasses, but is usually displaced by free-ranging dogs and African golden wolves. It typically poses no threat to livestock, with farmers often leaving herds in wolf-inhabited areas unattended.

Range and populations
Six current Ethiopian wolf populations are known. North of the Rift Valley, the species occurs in the Simien Mountains in Gondar, in the northern and southern Wollo highlands, and in Guassa Menz in north Shoa. It has recently become extinct in Gosh Meda in north Shoa and Mount Guna, and has not been reported in Mount Choqa for several decades. Southeast of the Rift Valley, it occurs in the Arsi and Bale Mountains.

Threats
The Ethiopian wolf has been considered rare since it was first recorded scientifically. The species likely has always been confined to Afroalpine habitats, so it was never widespread. In historical times, all of the Ethiopian wolf's threats are both directly and indirectly human-induced, as the wolf's highland habitat, with its high annual rainfall and rich fertile soils, is ideal for agricultural activities. Its proximate threats include habitat loss and fragmentation (subsistence agriculture, overgrazing, road construction, and livestock farming), diseases (primarily rabies and canine distemper), conflict with humans (poisoning, persecution, and road kills), and hybridisation with dogs.

Disease
Rabies outbreaks, stemming from infected dogs, have killed many Ethiopian wolves over the 1990s and 2000s. Two well-documented outbreaks in Bale, one in 1991 and another in 2008–2009, resulted in the die-off or disappearance of 75% of known animals. Both incidents prompted reactive vaccinations in 2003 and 2008–2009, respectively. Canine distemper is not necessarily fatal to wolves, though a recent increase in infection has occurred, with outbreaks of canine distemper having been detected in 2005–2006 in Bale and in 2010 across subpopulations.

Habitat loss
During the 1990s, wolf populations in Gosh Meda and Guguftu became extinct. In both cases, the extent of Afroalpine habitat above the limit of agriculture had been reduced to less than 20 km2. The EWCP team confirmed the extinction of a wolf population in Mt. Guna in 2011, whose numbers had been in single figures for several years. Habitat loss in the Ethiopian highlands is directly linked to agricultural expansion into Afroalpine areas. In the northern highlands, human density is among the highest in Africa, with 300 people per km2 in some localities, with almost all areas below 3,700 m having been converted into barley fields. Suitable areas of land below this limit are under some level of protection, such as Guassa-Menz and the Denkoro Reserve, or within the southern highlands, such as the Arsi and Bale Mountains. The most vulnerable wolf populations to habitat loss are those within relatively low-lying Afroalpine ranges, such as those in Aboi Gara and Delanta in North Wollo.

Population fragmentation
Some Ethiopian wolf populations, particularly those in North Wollo, show signs of high fragmentation, which is likely to increase with current rates of human expansion. The dangers posed by fragmentation include increased contact with humans, dogs, and livestock, and further risk of isolation and inbreeding in wolf populations. Although no evidence of inbreeding depression or reduced fitness exists, the extremely small wolf population sizes, particularly those north of the Rift Valley, raise concerns among conservationists. Elsewhere, the Bale populations are fairly continuous, while those in Simien can still interbreed through habitat corridors.

Encroachment within protected areas
In the Simien Mountains National Park, human and livestock populations are increasing by 2% annually, with further road construction allowing easy access to peasants into wolf home ranges; 3,171 people in 582 households were found to be living in the park and 1,477 outside the park in October 2005. Although the area of the park has since been expanded, further settlement stopped, and grazing restricted, effective enforcement may take years. , about 30,000 people live in 30 villages around and two within the park, including 4,650 cereal farmers, herders, woodcutters, and many others. In Bale there are numerous villages in and around the area, comprising over 8,500 households with more than 12,500 dogs. In 2007, the estimate of households within wolf habitat numbered 1,756. Because of the high number of dogs, the risk of infection in local wolf populations is high. Furthermore, intentional and unintentional brush fires are frequent in the ericaceous moorlands wolves inhabit.

Overgrazing
Although wolves in Bale have learned to use cattle to conceal their presence when hunting for rodents, the level of grazing in the area can adversely affect the vegetation available for the wolves' prey. Although no declines in wolf populations related to overgrazing have occurred, high grazing intensities are known to lead to soil erosion and vegetation deterioration in Afroalpine areas such as Delanta and Simien.

Human persecution and disturbance
Direct killings of wolves were more frequent during the Ethiopian Civil War, when firearms were more available. The extinction of wolves in Mt. Choqa was likely due to persecution. Although people living close to wolves in modern times believe that wolf populations are recovering, negative attitudes towards the species persist due to livestock predation. Wolves were largely unmolested by humans in Bale, as they were not considered threats to sheep and goats. However, they are perceived as threats to livestock elsewhere, with cases of retaliatory killings occurring in the Arsi Mountains. The Ethiopian wolf has not been recorded to be exploited for its fur, though in one case, wolf hides were used as saddle pads. It was once hunted by sportsmen, though this is now illegal. Vehicle collisions killed at least four wolves in the Sanetti Plateau since 1988, while two others were left with permanent limps. Similar accidents are a risk in areas where roads cut across wolf habitats, such as in Menz and Arsi.

Hybridisation with dogs
Management plans for hybridization with dogs involve sterilization of known hybrids. Incidences of Ethiopian wolf-dog hybridization have been recorded in Bale's Web Valley. At least four hybrids were identified and sterilized in the area. Although hybridization has not been detected elsewhere, scientists are concerned that it could pose a threat to the wolf population's genetic integrity, resulting in outbreeding depression or a reduction in fitness, though this does not appear to have taken place. Due to the female's strong preference to avoid inbreeding, hybridization could be the result of not finding any males who are not close relatives outside of dogs.

Competition with African golden wolves
Encounters with African golden wolves (Canis lupaster) are usually agonistic, with Ethiopian wolves dominating African wolves if the latter enter their territories, and vice versa. Although African golden wolves are inefficient rodent hunters and thus not in direct competition with Ethiopian wolves, it is likely that heavy human persecution prevents the former from attaining numbers large enough to completely displace the latter.

Conservation
The Ethiopian wolf is not listed on the CITES appendices, though it is afforded full official protection under Ethiopia's Wildlife Conservation Regulations of 1974, Schedule VI, with the killing of a wolf carrying a two-year jail sentence.

The species is present in several protected areas, including three areas in South Wollo (Bale Mountains National Park, Simien Mountains National Park, and Borena Sayint Regional Park), one in north Shoa (Guassa Community Conservation Area), and one in the Arsi Mountains National Park. Areas of suitable wolf habitat have recently increased to 87%, as a result of boundary extensions in Simien and the creation of the Arsi Mountains National Park.

Steps taken to ensure the survival of the Ethiopian wolf include dog vaccination campaigns in Bale, Menz, and Simien, sterilization programs for wolf-dog hybrids in Bale, rabies vaccination of wolves in parts of Bale, community and school education programs in Bale and Wollo, contributing to the running of national parks, and population monitoring and surveying. A 10-year national action plan was formed in February 2011.

The species' critical situation was first publicised by the Wildlife Conservation Society in 1983, with the Bale Mountains Research Project being established shortly after. This was followed by a detailed, four-year field study, which prompted the IUCN/SSC Canid Specialist Group to produce an action plan in 1997. The plan called for the education of people in wolf-inhabited areas, wolf population monitoring, and the stemming of rabies in dog populations. The Ethiopian Wolf Conservation Programme was formed in 1995 by Oxford University, with donors including the Born Free Foundation, Frankfurt Zoological Society, and the Wildlife Conservation Network.

The overall aim of the EWCP is to protect the wolf's Afroalpine habitat in Bale, and establish additional conservation areas in Menz and Wollo. The EWCP carries out education campaigns for people outside the wolf's range to improve dog husbandry and manage diseases within and around the park, as well as monitoring wolves in Bale, south and north Wollo. The program seeks to vaccinate up to 5,000 dogs a year to reduce rabies and distemper in wolf-inhabited areas.

In 2016, the Korean company Sooam Biotech was reported to be attempting to clone the Ethiopian wolf using dogs as surrogate mothers to help conserve the species.

title: Ethiopian wolf


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Stretford

Stretford is a market town in Trafford, Greater Manchester, England, sited on flat ground between the River Mersey and the Manchester Ship Canal; the Bridgewater Canal bisects the town. The town is located 4 mi south of Manchester, 3 mi south of Salford and 4 mi north-east of Altrincham. Stretford borders Chorlton-cum-Hardy to the east, Moss Side and Whalley Range to the south-east, Hulme to the north-east, Urmston to the west, Salford to the north and Sale to the south.

Within the boundaries of the historic county of Lancashire, Stretford was an agricultural village in the 19th century; it was known locally as Porkhampton, due to the large number of pigs produced for the Manchester market. It was also an extensive market-gardening area, producing more than 500 LT of vegetables each week for sale in Manchester by 1845. The arrival of the Manchester Ship Canal in 1894, and the subsequent development of the Trafford Park industrial estate, accelerated the industrialisation that had begun in the late 19th century. By 2001, less than one per cent of Stretford's population was employed in agriculture.

Stretford has been the home of Manchester United Football Club since 1910 and of Lancashire County Cricket Club since 1864. Notable residents have included the industrialist, philanthropist and Manchester's first multi-millionaire John Rylands, the suffragette Emmeline Pankhurst, the painter L. S. Lowry, Smiths front-man Morrissey, Joy Division front-man Ian Curtis, pop singer Andy Gibb and Jay Kay of Jamiroquai.

History
The origin of the name Stretford is "street" (Old English strǣt) on a ford across the River Mersey. The principal road through Stretford, the A56 Chester Road, follows the line of the old Roman road from Deva Victrix (Chester) to Mamucium (Manchester), crossing the Mersey into Stretford at Crossford Bridge, built at the location of the ancient ford.

The earliest evidence of human occupation around Stretford comes from Neolithic stone axes found in the area, dating from about 2000 BC. Stretford was part of the land occupied by the Celtic Brigantes tribe before and during the Roman occupation, and lay on their border with the Cornovii on the southern side of the Mersey. By 1212, there were two manors in the area now called Stretford. The land in the south, close to the River Mersey, was held by Hamon de Mascy, while the land in the north, closer to the River Irwell, was held by Henry de Trafford. In about 1250, a later Hamon de Mascy gave the Stretford manor to his daughter, Margery. She in turn, in about 1260, granted Stretford to Richard de Trafford at a rent of one penny. The de Mascy family shortly afterwards released all rights to their lands in Stretford to Henry de Trafford, the Trafford family thus acquiring the whole of Stretford, since when the two manors descended together.

The de Trafford family leased out large parts of the land, much of it to tenants who farmed at subsistence levels. Although there is known to have been a papermill operating in 1765, the area remained largely rural until the early 20th-century development of Trafford Park in the Old Trafford district north of the town. Until then Stretford "remained in the background of daily life in England", except for a brief cameo role during the Jacobite rising of 1745, when Crossford Bridge was destroyed to prevent a crossing by Bonnie Prince Charlie's army during its abortive advance on London; the bridge was quickly rebuilt.

Until the 1820s one of Stretford's main cottage industries was the hand-weaving of cotton. There were reported at one time to have been 302 handlooms operating in Stretford, providing employment for 780 workers, but by 1826 only four were still in use, as the mechanised cotton mills of nearby Manchester replaced handlooms. As Manchester continued to grow, it offered a good and easily accessible market for Stretford's agricultural products, in particular rhubarb, once known locally as Stretford beef. By 1836 market gardening had become so extensive around Stretford that one writer described it as the "garden of Lancashire"; in 1845 more than 500 tons of vegetables were being produced for the Manchester market each week. Stretford also became well known for its pig market and the production of black puddings, leading to the village being given the nickname of Porkhampton. A local dish, known as Stretford goose, was made from pork stuffed with sage and onions. During the 1830s, between 800 and 1,000 pigs a week were being slaughtered for the Manchester market.

Situated on the border with Manchester, Stretford became a fashionable place to live in the mid-19th century. Large recreation areas were established, such as the Royal Botanical Gardens, opened in 1831. The gardens were sited in Old Trafford on the advice of scientist John Dalton, because the prevailing southwesterly wind kept the area clear of the city's airborne pollution. In 1857, the gardens hosted the Art Treasures Exhibition, the largest art exhibition ever held in the United Kingdom. A purpose-built iron and glass building was constructed at a cost of £38,000 to house the 16,000 exhibits. The gardens were also chosen as a site for the Royal Jubilee Exhibition of 1887, celebrating Queen Victoria's 50-year reign. The exhibition ran for more than six months and was attended by more than 4.75 million visitors. The gardens were converted into an entertainment resort in 1907, and hosted the first speedway meeting in Greater Manchester on 16 June 1928. There was also greyhound racing from 1930, and an athletics track. The complex was demolished in the late 1980s, and all that remains is the entrance gates, close to what is now the White City Retail Park. The gates were designated a Grade II listed structure in 1987. The gates are not in their original position but were dismantled and turned through ninety degrees when the White City Retail Park was built.

Industrialisation
The arrival of the Manchester Ship Canal in 1894, and the subsequent development of the Trafford Park industrial estate in the north of the town – the first planned industrial estate in the world – had a substantial effect on Stretford's growth. The population in 1891 was 21,751, but by 1901 it had increased by 40% to 30,436 as people were drawn to the town by the promise of work in the new industries at Trafford Park.

During the Second World War Trafford Park was largely turned over to the production of matériel, including the Avro Manchester heavy bomber, and the Rolls-Royce Merlin engines used to power both the Spitfire and the Lancaster. That resulted in Stretford being the target for heavy bombing, particularly during the Manchester Blitz of 1940. On the nights of 22/23 and 23/24 December 1940 alone, 124 incendiaries and 120 high-explosive bombs fell on the town, killing 73 people and injuring many more. Among the buildings damaged or destroyed during the war were Manchester United's Old Trafford football ground, All Saints' Church, St Hilda's Church, and the children's library in King Street. Smoke generators were set up in the north of the town close to Trafford Park in an effort to hide it from enemy aircraft, and 11,900 children were evacuated to safer areas in Lancashire, Cheshire, Derbyshire, and Staffordshire, along with their teachers and supervisors. A memorial to those residents who lost their lives in the bombing was erected in Stretford Cemetery in 1948, over the communal grave of the 17 unidentified people who were killed in the blitz of December 1940.

Between 1972 and 1975, what is now a closed B&Q store (originally constructed as a multi-lane Bowling Alley) in Great Stone Road was the 3,000-capacity Hardrock Theatre and Village Discothèque, hosting some of that period's major artists in their prime. Led Zeppelin, David Bowie, Bob Marley, Elton John, Hawkwind, Yes, Chaka Khan, Curved Air and Lou Reed were amongst those who appeared. Tangerine Dream was the last band to perform at the Hardrock, on 19 October 1975. In more recent years, Lancashire Cricket Club's Old Trafford ground, next door, has provided a concert venue for bands such as Oasis, Foo Fighters, The Cure, Radiohead, Coldplay, Arctic Monkeys and Pixies.

Transport history
Stretford's growth was fuelled by the transport revolutions of the 18th and especially the 19th century: the Bridgewater Canal reached Stretford in 1761, and the railway in 1849. The completion of the Manchester South Junction and Altrincham Railway (MSJAR) in 1849, passing through Stretford, led to the population of the town nearly doubling in a decade, from 4,998 in 1851 to 8,757 by 1861.

Because Stretford is situated on the main A56 road between Chester and Manchester many travellers passed through the village, and as this traffic increased, more inns were built to provide travellers with stopping places. One of the earliest forms of public transport through Stretford was the stagecoach; the Angel Hotel, on the present day site of what used to be the Bass Drum public house, was one of the main stopping places for stagecoaches in Stretford, and the Trafford Arms was another. Horse-drawn omnibuses replaced the stagecoach service through Stretford in 1845. The Manchester Carriage Company's tramway from Manchester to Stretford was built in 1879, terminating at the Old Cock Hotel on the A56 road, next to which a small depot was built to house the cars and horses. A 1900 timetable shows that trams left for Manchester every 10 minutes between 8:00 am and 10:15 pm. The horse-drawn trams were replaced with electric trams in 1902, and after the Second World War the trams were replaced by buses.

The MSJAR railway line through Stretford was electrified in 1931 and converted to light rail operation in 1992, when it became part of the Manchester Metrolink tram network. The first Metrolink tram through Stretford ran on 15 June 1992.

Civic history
Stretford was part of the ancient parish of Manchester, within the historic county boundaries of Lancashire. Following the Poor Law Amendment Act of 1834, a national scheme for dealing with the relief of the poor, Stretford joined the Chorlton Poor Law Union in 1837, one of three such unions in Manchester, before transferring to the Barton-upon-Irwell Poor Law Union in 1849. In 1867, Stretford Local Board of Health was established, assuming responsibility for the local government of the area in 1868. The board's responsibilities included sanitation and the maintenance of the highways, and it had the authority to levy rates to pay for those services. The local board continued in that role until it was superseded by the creation of Stretford Urban District Council in 1894, as a result of the Local Government Act 1894.

Stretford Urban District became the Municipal Borough of Stretford in 1933, giving it borough status in the United Kingdom. Stretford Borough Council was granted its arms on 20 February 1933. The roses are the red roses of Lancashire, and the lion in the centre represents John of Gaunt, 1st Duke of Lancaster. Above the lion are a crossed flail and scythe; the flail comes from the arms of the de Trafford family; the scythe is a reminder of the agricultural history of the area; the thunderbolts above represent the importance of electricity in Stretford's industrial development. The boat at the bottom represents Stretford's links to the sea via the Manchester Ship Canal.

In 1974, as a result of the Local Government Act 1972, the Municipal Borough of Stretford was abolished and Stretford has, since 1 April 1974, formed part of the Metropolitan Borough of Trafford, in Greater Manchester. Trafford Town Hall – previously Stretford Town Hall – is the administrative centre of Trafford.

Political representation
The constituency of Stretford was created in 1885, and existed until 1997, when it was replaced by the present constituency of Stretford and Urmston. Beverley Hughes was Labour MP during the New Labour government. Kate Green, a member of the Labour Party, became the MP at the 2010 General Election, with a majority of 8,935, representing 48.6% of the vote. She retained the seat at the 2017 General Election with an increased majority of 19,705, which represents 66.8% of the vote. The Conservatives took 27.0% of the vote, UKIP 2.2%, the Liberal Democrats 2.0%, the Green Party 1.3%, and the Christian Party 0.2%. Green resigned as MP in 2022 to replace Hughes as her role as Deputy Mayor of Greater Manchester, and the following by-election was won by Leader of Trafford Council Andrew Western, retaining the seat for Labour with an increased share of the vote.

Stretford is one of the four major urban areas in Trafford; the other three are Altrincham, Sale and Urmston. The area historically known as Stretford, between the River Irwell in the north and the River Mersey in the south, has since 2004 been divided between the Trafford local government wards of Clifford, Longford, Gorse Hill, and Stretford. Each ward is represented by three local councillors, giving Stretford 12 of the 63 seats on Trafford Council. The wards elect in thirds on a four yearly cycle. As of the 2014 local elections, all 12 councillors representing the Stretford area are members of the Labour Party.

Geography
Stretford occupies an area of 4.1 sqmi, just north of the River Mersey, at 53.44667°N, -2.30861°W (53.4466, −2.3086). The area is generally flat, sloping slightly southwards towards the river valley, and is approximately 150 ft above sea level at its highest point. The most southerly part of Stretford lies within the flood plain of the River Mersey, and so has historically been prone to flooding. A great deal of flood mitigation work has been carried out in the Mersey Valley since the 1970s, with the stretch of the Mersey through Stretford canalised to speed up the passage of floodwater. Emergency floodbasins have also been constructed, Sale Water Park being a prominent local example, lying immediately to the south of Stretford.

Stretford comprises the local areas of Old Trafford, Firswood, Gorse Hill, and Trafford Park and represents the northeastern tip of Trafford. Its climate is generally temperate, with few extremes of temperature or weather. The mean temperature is slightly above average for the United Kingdom. Annual rainfall and average amount of sunshine are both slightly below the average for the UK.

Stretford's built environment developed along the A56 road in two separate sections, corresponding to the original two manors. The area in the south, near to the border with Sale, grew around the church of St Matthew – an old alternative name for the town was Stretford St. Matthew. The northern part of Stretford was centred on Old Trafford, with undeveloped countryside separating them. During the 19th century, the sections merged.

The western terminus of the early medieval linear earthwork Nico Ditch is in Hough Moss, just to the east of Stretford; it was probably used as an administrative boundary and dates from the 8th or 9th century.

Demography
As at the 2011 UK census, the Stretford area wards of Clifford, Gorse Hill, Longford and Stretford had a total population of 46,910 and a population density of 8,907 persons per square mile (3,439 per km2).

Stretford residents had an average age of 36 years, younger than the 39.3 Trafford average. For every 100 females, there were 97.8 males. Of all residents, 42% were single (never married): in Trafford, 33% were single. Of the 19,209 households, 33% were one-person households, 56% were married couples with dependent children, and 15% were lone parents with dependent children. Of those aged 16–74 in Stretford, 23% had no academic qualifications, higher than the 18% in all of Trafford.

With 78% of residents born in the United Kingdom, there is a relatively high proportion of foreign-born residents reported. There is also a high proportion of non-white people, as 63% of residents were recorded as white. The largest minority group was Asian, at 21% of the population.

In 1931, 19% of Stretford's population was middle class and 20% working class compared to 14% middle class and 36% working class nationally. The rest of the population was made up of clerical workers and skilled manual workers. By 1971, the middle class in Stretford had declined steadily to 15% whilst the working class had grown to 31% compared to 24% middle class and 26% working class nationally.

Economy
Until the end of the 19th century Stretford was a largely agricultural village. The development of the Trafford Park industrial estate in the north of the town, beginning in the late 19th century, had a significant effect on Stretford's subsequent development. At its peak in 1945 the park employed an estimated 75,000 workers; housing and other amenities had to be constructed on what had previously been agricultural land. Trafford Park is still a very significant source of employment, containing an estimated 1,400 companies and employing about 44,000 people.

The main shopping centre is Stretford Mall in the commercial centre of Stretford, previously known as Stretford Arndale. It was opened in 1969 and changed its name in 2003. It is still (as of 2022) referred to as the "Stretford Arndale" on local bus timetables and recorded announcements. Stretford Mall was built on the site of the original shopping centre in the former King Street. The Trafford Centre, a large shopping and leisure complex opened in September 1998, lies to the northwest of Stretford about 2.5 mi away.

According to the 2011 UK census, the industry of employment of residents in Stretford was 17% retail and wholesale, 11% health and social work, 11% education, 7% manufacturing, 6% transport and storage, 6% public administration and defence, 6% professional, scientific and technical activities, 5% hotels and restaurants, 5% construction, 5% finance, 1% energy and water supply, 0.06% agriculture and 5% other. This is roughly in line with national figures, except for the town's relatively low percentage of agricultural workers.

The 2011 census recorded the economic activity of residents aged 16–74 as 39.3% in full-time employment, 13.6% in part-time employment, 7.5% self-employed, 5.7% unemployed, 5.9% students, 9.5% retired, 5.6% looking after home or family, and 6.1% permanently sick or disabled. The 5.7% unemployment rate in Stretford was high compared with the national rate of 3.2%. According to the Office for National Statistics estimates, between April 2001 and March 2002 the average gross income of households in Stretford was £415 per week (£21,664 per year).

Longford Cinema
Longford Cinema, opposite Stretford Mall, on the eastern side of the A56 Chester Road, is perhaps the most visually striking building in the town. Designed by the architect Henry Elder, it was the height of Art Deco fashion when it was opened by the Mayor of Stretford in 1936. Its unusual "cash register" frontage was intended to symbolise the business aspect of show business.

The building incorporated many modern features, such as sound-proofing and under-seat heating, and it was also the first cinema in Britain to make use of concealed neon lighting. It had a seating capacity of 1,400 in the stalls and 600 in the circle, with a further 146 seats in the café area. When built, the cinema had a short pedestrian approach to the facade, which was removed when the A56 was widened. During the Second World War the building was used for concerts, including one given by a young Julie Andrews. It also played host to the Hallé Orchestra after the orchestra's own home, the Free Trade Hall, was bombed and severely damaged during the Manchester Blitz of 1940.

After a change of ownership in 1950, the cinema was renamed the Stretford Essoldo. It continued to operate as a cinema until 1965, when it was converted into a bingo hall, which it remained until its closure in 1995. The building has been unused since then. It was designated a Grade II listed building in 1994.

In 2017 a proposal was put forward by Trafford Council to bring the Essoldo back into use as part of the new University Academy 92, to provide student amenities and other community facilities such as an enhanced library.

Great Stone
The Great Stone, which gave its name to the Great Stone Road, where it was located until being moved in 1925, is one of Stretford's most easily overlooked landmarks. The stone is composed of millstone grit and was probably deposited as a glacial erratic. It is rectangular in shape, about 5 ft wide, 2 ft deep, and 3 ft tall, with two 7 in deep rectangular slots cut into its upper surface.

Several suggestions have been made for the history of the Great Stone. There was a succession of plagues in Manchester from the 14th century onwards, and during the Great Plague of 1655–56 the holes in the top of the stone were filled with vinegar or holy water, through which coins were passed in the belief that would halt the spread of the disease. But the holes are probably too deep for that to have been the stone's original purpose. It may have been a marker on the Roman road between Northwich and Manchester, or some kind of boundary marker. The Great Stone is also thought to have been the base of an Anglo-Saxon cross shaft. A local legend had it that the stone was slowly sinking into the earth, and that its ultimate disappearance would mark the end of the world.

When the Great Stone Road was widened in the late 19th century, the stone was moved back from the road slightly. In 1925, the stone was moved again, to its current location outside the North Lodge of Gorse Hill Park, about 328 ft from its historical location. The stone is a Grade II listed structure.

Cenotaph
Stretford Cenotaph, opposite the Chester Road entrance to Gorse Hill Park, was built as a memorial to the 580 Stretford men who lost their lives in the First World War. Their names and regiments are listed on a large bronze plaque on the wall behind the cenotaph. It was formally unveiled in 1923, by the Earl of Derby, Secretary of State for War.

The cenotaph is 24 ft high and 11 ft wide at its base. It cost £2,000 to build, raised by public subscription and a donation from the Stretford Red Cross. The memorial bears the legend "They died that we might live" on one side, and "In memory of the heroic dead" on the other. It is a Grade II listed structure.

Stretford's remembrance parade, which is made up of the Scouting, Girl Guiding and Boys Brigade divisions from the area as well as the cadets finishes here, in a semi-circle around the Cenotaph whilst the public and independent representatives stand on the main road which is closed for the occasion. The march goes from the Metro Club to the Cenotaph and back, with the Boys Brigade Band striking up the music for this event.

Longford Park
For more information, see Longford Park

Stretford Public Hall
Stretford Public Hall was built in 1878 by John Rylands. It was designed by N. Lofthouse and is on the western side of the A56 Chester Road, opposite the Longford Cinema. Stretford's first public lending library was established in the building in 1883. On the death of Rylands in 1888, his widow placed the building at the disposal of the local authority for a nominal rent, and on her own death in 1908, the building was bought by Stretford Council for £5,000.

Public baths were built to the rear of the building, accessed via Cyprus Street. In 1940 the new Stretford Library was opened on King Street, and the public hall was rendered surplus. The building re-opened in March 1949 as the Stretford Civic Theatre, with a well-equipped stage for the use of local groups. After the Stretford Leisure Centre opened in 1983 now Stretford Sports Village, the Cyprus Street Baths wing fell into disuse, and was demolished. The remainder of the building began to fall into disrepair, despite being designated a Grade II listed structure in 1987, until Trafford Council refurbished and converted the hall to serve as council offices in the mid-1990s. It was re-opened in 1997, once again named Stretford Public Hall.

Stretford Cemetery
Stretford Cemetery was designed by John Shaw and opened in 1885. Its chapel is in the Decorated style, designed by architects Bellamy & Hardy, and quite elaborate. On the western side is a memorial to the casualties of the Second World War and to the east a newer section of the cemetery.

Trafford Town Hall
Trafford Town Hall stands in a large site at the junction of Talbot Road and Warwick Road, directly opposite the Old Trafford Cricket Ground. Work on the building, designed by architects Bradshaw Gass & Hope of Bolton, began on 21 August 1931.

The town hall officially came into use as Stretford Town Hall on the granting of Stretford's charter, on 16 September 1933. In 1974, on the formation of the new Trafford Metropolitan Borough, Stretford Town Hall was adopted as the base for the new council and renamed Trafford Town Hall; it was designated a Grade II listed building in 2007.

Union Church
The Union Church was formed in 1862, with John Rylands as its patron; he laid the foundation stone of its building in Edge Lane, close to Longford Park's southern entrance, in 1867. In the latter part of the 20th century the church was converted into office accommodation but by the early 21st century was standing empty. In 2012 it was restored to its original use a church having been bought by the Church of Christ – Iglesia ni Cristo.

Transport
Stretford Metrolink station is part of the Manchester Metrolink tram system and lies on the Altrincham to Bury line. Trams leave about every six minutes between 7:15 and 18:30, but every 12 minutes at other times of the day.

The nearest railway station is Trafford Park, on the Liverpool to Manchester line. Services are roughly every two hours in each direction, with extra services calling during the peak hours.

The 20 acre Trafford Park Euroterminal rail freight terminal, opened in 1993, is in the Gorse Hill area of Stretford. It cost £11 million and has the capacity to deal with 100,000 containers a year. The containers are handled by two huge gantry cranes, the noise from which has led to complaints from some local residents.

The town has good access to the motorway network. Junction 7 of the M60 is just to the north of Stretford's boundary with Sale and the A56 road gives easy access to the south, as well as to Manchester city centre in the other direction.

Cycle paths exist as part of the Trafford cycle initiative.

Manchester Airport, the busiest in the UK outside London, is about 9 mi to the south of Stretford. Frequent bus and tram services can be taken to get there from Stretford, though taking the tram will require a change of services at Cornbrook.

Media
Local news and television programmes are provided by BBC North West and ITV Granada. Television signals are received from the Winter Hill TV transmitter.

Local radio stations are BBC Radio Manchester on 95.1 FM, Heart North West on 105.4 FM, Smooth North West on 100.4 FM, XS Manchester on 106.1 FM, Capital Manchester and Lancashire on 102.0 FM, Greatest Hits Radio Manchester & The North West on 96.2 FM, and Wythenshawe FM, a community based station which broadcast on 97.2 FM and online.

The town is served by the local newspaper, The Stretford & Urmston Messenger.

Education
Along with the rest of Trafford, Stretford maintains a selective education system assessed by the 11-plus examination.

The proportion of pupils leaving Stretford Grammar School with five or more GCSEs at grades A*–C in 2006, was 98.3%, compared to an average of 66.7% for all secondary schools in Trafford and a national UK average of 61.3%. The proportion of students from minority ethnic backgrounds, and for whom English is an additional language, is much higher than the average. Stretford Grammar was awarded specialist Science College status in September 2005. The school was assessed as "good" in its April 2015 Ofsted report.

Stretford High School Community Languages College, like Stretford Grammar, has a much higher proportion than the national average of pupils with a first language other than English, many of them being either asylum seekers or refugees. In 2004 Stretford High School was made subject to special measures, as it was considered not to be providing an adequate education for its pupils. Substantial improvement has taken place since then; the school was assessed as "satisfactory" in its November 2005 Ofsted report and was removed from special measures. Further improvements saw Stretford High School gain an "outstanding" assessment from Ofsted, following its February 2008 inspection. GCSE results also placed the school in the top 1% of schools in the country for adding value to its students.

Stretford also has the specialist Arts College, Lostock High School.

Plans to build a new university in the town, to be known as University Academy 92, were announced in September 2017. A branch of Lancaster University, it hopes to welcome the first of its anticipated 6500 students in September 2019. The campus is to be built on the Kelloggs headquarters site on Talbot Road, which has already been acquired by Trafford Council for £12 million.

Religion
The date of the first church to be built in Stretford is unrecorded, but in a lease dated 1413, land is described as lying next to a chapel. Many of the present day churches in the area were constructed during the late 19th and early 20th century, as the population of Stretford began to grow.

Methodism was a significant influence in 19th-century Stretford, but of the seventeen churches in the town today, only one is Methodist whereas five are Roman Catholic. The Catholic mission in Stretford was begun in 1859, in a small chapel on Herbert Street.

As at the 2011 UK census, 51% of Stretford residents reported themselves as being Christian, 18% as Muslim, and 3% as Sikh. No other religion was represented at higher than 1% of the population, with 20% reporting themselves as having no religion.

Stretford is in the Roman Catholic Diocese of Salford, and the Anglican Diocese of Manchester.

There are two Grade II listed churches in Stretford: the Church of St Ann and the Church of St Matthew. St Ann's is a Roman Catholic church, built in 1862–67 by E. W. Pugin for Sir Humphrey and Lady Annette de Trafford. It was officially opened by Bishop William Turner on 22 November 1863, and was consecrated in June 1867. Features include a historic organ built by Jardine & Co (1867) and a good number of fine stained glass windows by Hardman & Co of Birmingham. St Matthew's church was built in 1842 by W. Hayley in the Gothic Revival style, with additional phases in 1869, 1906 and 1922.

Sport

Stretford has been the home of Manchester United Football Club since 1910, when the club moved to its present Old Trafford ground; the western end of the ground is still unofficially called the Stretford End.

Old Trafford was originally the home of Manchester Cricket Club, but became the home of Lancashire County Cricket Club in 1864 upon that club's formation. The ground is on Talbot Road, Stretford, where it has been since 1856. Similar to its counterpart, one end of the Old Trafford cricket ground is called the Stretford End. It has been a Test venue since 1884 and has hosted three World Cup semi-finals. After the 2005 Ashes Test, when more than 20,000 fans had to be turned away, the decision was made to increase the ground's capacity from 20,000 to 25,000. Initial plans included building a new stadium on the site of Trafford Town Hall, opposite the present ground. Trafford Council voted against the demolition of the town hall and instead, in 2007, signed an agreement jointly with Lancashire County Cricket Club, Ask Developments and Tesco, to redevelop the ground on its present site. The new cricket ground will be at the heart of a 750000 sqft development that will also include business space, residential, retail, hotel and leisure facilities. More than £25 million is expected to be invested in the redevelopments at Old Trafford.

Stretford Stadium, adjoining Longford Park, is the home of Trafford Athletic Club. Trafford is one of the UK's top athletic clubs, with more than 100 members having competed at international level.

The Stretford Sports Village, run by Trafford Community Leisure Trust, comprises two main centres: the original Stretford Leisure Centre, now called the Chester Centre, and the facility at Stretford High School called the Talbot Centre. The Stretford Sports Village is between Manchester United Football Club's Old Trafford stadium and Lancashire County Cricket Club's Old Trafford ground. The centres have a 25-metre main pool, a 20-metre children's pool, four gyms, a table tennis room, twelve badminton courts, two five-a-side courts, a spinning studio, practice hall, training rooms, community room, a cafe, an outdoor full-size floodlight artificial turf pitch and a full-size grass pitch. Trafford Water Sports Centre lies just across Stretford's southern border with Sale, about 1 mi from Stretford town centre.

Culture and cultural references
Although Stretford town centre is busy during the day, there is very little in the way of a night-time economy. There are few restaurants and other entertainments except for a number of public houses and members-only social clubs. There are two public libraries: Greatstone Library, part of Stretford Sports Village, and Stretford Library, both run by Trafford Council.

The Stretford Pageant is an annual Rose Queen festival held on the last Saturday of June; the inaugural pageant was staged in 1919. There is a procession of decorated floats through the streets, collecting money for local charities and ending at Longford Park, where the Rose Queen is crowned. The tradition of the Rose Queen derives from an earlier event organised by St Peter's Church from 1909 until the pageant began in 1919. Various other entertainments are provided in the park on the day of the pageant, such as a fun fair and a car boot sale. Stretford Pageant, along with similar events in other parts of Trafford, is under threat because of the council's proposals to reduce funding and support for such events in the future.

The Stretford Wives is a television drama that was broadcast by the BBC in August 2002, watched by 5.7 million viewers. Written by Danny Brocklehurst, it is the story of three sisters living in Stretford, although most of the filming took place in nearby Salford. The programme received a mixed critical reception.

Invention and discovery
The Stretford process was developed at the North-Western Gas Board's laboratories in Stretford during the 1940s. It was the first liquid phase oxidation process for removing hydrogen sulphide (H2S) from town gas to be commercially successful. Many Stretford plants were built worldwide.

Public services
Policing in Stretford is the responsibility of the Greater Manchester Police. The force's "M" Division, responsible for policing in Trafford, is also based in Stretford, close to Trafford Town Hall.

Waste management is co-ordinated by the local authority via the Greater Manchester Waste Disposal Authority.

Healthcare is overseen by the NHS with hospitals nearby in Urmston and Wythenshawe. The nearest Ambulance Stations are located in Urmston and Sale.

Greater Manchester Fire and Rescue Service (GMFRS) oversee the Fire and Rescue services in the area here. One of their 3 Fire Stations can be found in Stretford on Park Road, near the Trafford Centre and Kelloggs Factory.

Notable people
Perhaps fittingly for an area so close to Trafford Park, the world's first planned industrial estate, one of the world's first industrial espionage agents, John Holker, was born in Stretford, in 1719.

Two of Stretford's famous residents were the suffragette Emmeline Pankhurst and the painter L. S. Lowry, who was born in Stretford in 1887. Manchester's first multi-millionaire John Rylands and his wife Enriqueta Augustina Rylands lived at Longford Hall in Stretford during the later parts of their lives. The radical firebrand socialist, and later post-war politician Herschel Lewis Austin (1911–1974) served Stretford as a Labour Member of Parliament between 1945 and 1950.

Sir Walter Baldwin Spencer KCMG (1860–1929) a British-Australian biologist and anthropologist was born in Stretford, as were ABC's lead singer Martin Fry, rock climber Derek Hersey and television actor John Comer, best known for his role as café owner Sid in the BBC sitcom Last of the Summer Wine.

A number of Manchester United players, including some of those who died in the Munich air disaster of February 1958, lived in lodgings at 19 Gorse Avenue. A blue plaque was unveiled at the house by former lodger and Munich survivor Sir Bobby Charlton in recognition of the house's association with Manchester United. The owner of the house during the 1950s was Margaret Watson, but by the time of the plaque's unveiling more than 50 years later it was occupied by a different family.

The singer songwriter and Jamiroquai lead vocalist Jason Kay  (Jay Kay, Jason Luís Cheetham) was born in the town.

title: Stretford


text: Talk:IEEE 802.16

title: Talk:IEEE 802.16


text:
The Keepers of the House

The Keepers of the House is a 1964 novel by Shirley Ann Grau set in rural Alabama. It covers seven generations of the Howland family that lived in the same house and developed a community around themselves. As such, it is a metaphor for the long-established families of the Deep South of the United States, their encounter with changing values and norms, and the hypocrisy of racism. In 1965, The Keepers of the House was awarded the Pulitzer Prize for Fiction.

Plot summary
The first William Howland served in New Orleans and the South during the War of 1812. While returning home to Tennessee, he decided to settle in Mississippi Territory (now Alabama and Mississippi), overlooking a small river. He was later killed in a raid by Indians, likely Creek. Since then, a descendant of William Howland, most often a male named William, has lived in the house with his family and dominated affairs in Madison City and Wade County, which developed around Howland's original settlement.

The fifth William Howland was the last man bearing the name to live in the house. His wife died young, leaving him with a young daughter, Abigail, and an infant son, William, who died a year after his mother. Abigail married an English professor who abandoned her with a child, also named Abigail, when he went off to fight in World War II. When she died, William Howland was left to take care of his granddaughter Abigail. He also brought Margaret, a new African-American housekeeper, to the house to live with him. Throughout the county, she was known as his mistress and the mother of his other children. What no one knew, however, was that William had secretly married Margaret to ensure that the children were legitimate. Once their children came of age, William Howland and Margaret sent them north so that they could pursue lives as Whites.

The secret of the marriage came out only after the younger Abigail was married to John Tolliver, an up-and-coming politician, who was running for governor. In the turbulent racist atmosphere of the South, Tolliver aligned himself with the Klan and made racist statements against Blacks. This infuriated Robert Howland, the eldest son of William and Margaret, who was living in obscurity in Seattle. He released the story of his origins to the press, crippling Tolliver's campaign. Tolliver, who regarded Abigail as a trophy wife, declared that their marriage was over and headed north to his family.

Both William Howland and Margaret had died, but a mob gathered to vent its anger about the mixed marriage on Abigail and the Howland house. They kill the livestock and set fire to the barn, but Abigail succeeds in driving them away from the house with her grandfather's shotguns.

At the end of the book, Abigail takes her revenge on the people of Madison City. Over the past generations, her family had come to own most of the county, making her one of the richest people in the state. Over the course of a single day, she takes revenge on the locals for betraying her grandfather by shutting down the hotel and bringing most of the local economy to ruin. Once she has done that, she places a call to Robert, with the intention of informing his new family that his mother was Black.

Major themes
Race is explored as a major theme throughout the novel. Grau illustrates what she regards as hypocrisy among Southerners, whose purported beliefs about race sometimes conflict with their actions and/or statements. This dissonance is reflected in the character, John Tolliver, who is challenged about whether he believes the racist rhetoric he spouts.

Reception
Grau's bitter condemnation of racist rhetoric, made at the height of campaigns of the Civil Rights Movement in Alabama, evoked a sharp public reaction against the author. When the book was first published, Grau was publicly attacked by the Ku Klux Klan, and a cross was burned on her lawn in Metairie, Louisiana, where she had long lived near New Orleans.

title: The Keepers of the House


text:
Frank Frost Abbott

Frank Frost Abbott (March 27, 1860 – July 23, 1924) was an American classical scholar.

Life
Born in Redding, Connecticut, he taught at the University of Chicago, then moved to Princeton University in 1907. He died in Montreux, Switzerland.

Works
He also translated Alberico Gentili's Hispanicae Advocationis Libri Dvo ("Two Books of Advocacy in the Service of Spain").
 * Selected Letters of Cicero (1897).
 * A History and Description of Roman Political Institutions (1901).
 * A Short History of Rome (1906)
 * Society and Politics in Ancient Rome (1909).
 * The Common People of Ancient Rome (1911).
 * Roman Politics (1923).
 * Municipal Administration in the Roman Empire (1926).

title: Frank Frost Abbott


text:
Cherry Creek, South Dakota

Cherry Creek (Lakota: čhaŋpȟá wakpála; "Chokecherry Creek") is an unincorporated community and census-designated place (CDP) in Ziebach County, South Dakota, United States. The population was 282 at the 2020 census.

The community takes its name from Cherry Creek.

title: Cherry Creek, South Dakota


text:
Wikipedia:Articles for deletion/Animal Farm (fictional government) (2nd nomination)

Animal Farm (fictional government)
This page was already proposed for deletion, and there was a rough consensus to delete it (seven votes for, two against). The decision was made a month ago, but the article hasn't been deleted yet. Anyway: not encyclopedic, duplicate with Animal Farm, delete. - Mike Rosoft 18:41, 16 Oct 2004 (UTC)
 * If it was already decided (7-2) to delete, then does it need to be listed here again? Shouldn't an administrator delete it forthwith? Taco Deposit | Talk-o Deposit 21:24, Oct 16, 2004 (UTC)
 * Math isn't my strong suit, but I came up with 9 delete, one merge and redirect, one keep. At any rate, the hang up may have been the request to have it go BJAODN.  I'll assume that has been done by now and send the article to the bit bucket. Geogre 22:59, 16 Oct 2004 (UTC)


text:
William Jasper

William Jasper (c. 1750 – October 9, 1779) was an American soldier in the Revolutionary War. He was a sergeant in the 2nd South Carolina Regiment.

Jasper distinguished himself in the defense of Fort Moultrie (then called Fort Sullivan) on June 28, 1776. When a shell from a British warship shot away the flagstaff, he recovered the South Carolina flag in the Battle of Sullivan's Island, raised it on a temporary staff, and held it under fire until a new staff was installed. Governor John Rutledge gave his sword to Jasper in recognition of his bravery.

In 1779, Sergeant Jasper participated in the Siege of Savannah, led by General Lincoln, which failed to recapture Savannah, Georgia, from the British. He was mortally wounded during an assault on the British forces there.

Sgt. Jasper's story is similar to that of Sgt. John Newton. Five states (Indiana, Missouri, Texas, Mississippi, and Georgia) have adjacent counties named Jasper and Newton, as these were remembered as a pair, due to the popularity of Parson Weems' memorializing early American history. Several other states have a Jasper County with a county seat of Newton, or vice versa.

Early life
The ancestry of William Jasper is disputed. Traditionally, Jasper has been identified of being of Irish descent born in the colonies. However, according to one account, William Jasper (named Johann Wilhelm Gasper at the time) came to America in 1767 on the ship Minerva. He and other immigrants hailed from Germany and landed in Philadelphia. He was 16 at the time, but he had decided that whatever the new land held, he would accept it with open arms.

He arrived in Philadelphia in the fall and was fed some warm soup and then put in a line to take an oath of allegiance and sign his name. When it was his turn, though, Jasper did not know how to read or write, so he could not even write his name on the list. He had to just put an X down where he should have put his name and next to it the colonist who had signed him in wrote John William Jasper. He then completed a few years of indentured servitude and moved south to find some land of his own.

William Jasper was motivated when he settled down in the South; he had left his girlfriend in Pennsylvania. To pay for her journey to come live with him, he joined the military; by this time, the colonists had already rebelled. Although the pay was not great, he soon became a sergeant, earning enough for Elizabeth to join him in Georgia, where they were soon married.

According to other accounts, William Jasper was the son of John Jasper, a Virginia blacksmith who had migrated to Union County, South Carolina during the early 1770s.

Fort Sullivan
Jasper was soon called to Sullivan's Island to help protect Charles Towne (Charleston) Harbor. There, he served under Colonel William Moultrie, who was in charge of the defense of Charleston against the Royal Navy. A few days before the British were due to arrive, Colonel Moultrie decided to build a fort to protect the harbor. His officers were sent to local plantations to borrow their slaves to help with the creation of the fort. Soldiers, slaves, and volunteers banded together to chop down palmettos and use them in its construction.

Initially called Fort Sullivan, some time after the battle the fort was renamed to Fort Moultrie. The British arrived before the fort was finished, its whole back remaining incomplete. The Moultrie flag was raised over the structure, and a 10-hour siege began.

Low on ammunition, the 2nd South Carolina Regiment only fired when ships closed in on the fort. The flag, designed by Moultrie himself at the behest of the colonial government, was shot down, and fell to the bottom of the ditch on the outside of the fort. Leaping from an embrasure, Jasper recovered the flag, which he tied to a sponge staff (see the Cannon instruments section of the Cannon operation article) and replaced on the parapet, where he supported it until a permanent flag staff had been procured and installed. With this rallying point, the colonists held out until sunset, when the British fleet retreated. They did not succeed in taking Charleston until several years later.

Because of Jasper's heroism, Governor John Rutledge presented him with his personal sword, and offered him a lieutenant's commission. He did not accept the offer to become an officer, saying that he would only be an embarrassment since he could neither read nor write. He was also presented with two silk flags by Mrs. Susannah Elliott.

Battery Jasper, an extension of Fort Moultrie, was built in 1897 and named in his honor.

Roving commission

Colonel Moultrie gave him a roving commission to scour the country with a few men, gather information, and attack British forces and outposts. This commission was later renewed by Francis Marion and Benjamin Lincoln. During this period, Jasper liberated a group of American prisoners of war by overpowering their British guards, an incident which was subsequently exaggerated by the storyteller Parson Weems.

Savannah
At the Siege of Savannah, he received his death wound while fastening to the parapet the standard which had been presented to his regiment. His hold, however, never relaxed, and he bore the colors to a place of safety before he died.

Places named after Jasper

 * Jasper County, Georgia
 * Jasper County, Illinois
 * Jasper County, Indiana
 * Jasper County, Iowa
 * Jasper County, Mississippi
 * Jasper County, Missouri, and its city of Jasper, Missouri
 * Jasper County, South Carolina
 * Jasper County, Texas, and its city of Jasper, Texas
 * City of Jasper, Alabama
 * City of Jasper, Arkansas
 * City of Jasper, Florida
 * City of Jasper, Georgia
 * City of Jasper, Minnesota
 * Town of Jasper, Tennessee
 * Town of Jasper, New York

title: William Jasper


text: User talk:69.138.224.239

title: User talk:69.138.224.239


text:
Category talk:Illegal occupations

2004
Could someone explain the point of this category, and how the items in the category relate to the title? I really don't get it. - pir 18:45, 16 Oct 2004 (UTC)
 * A few are sensible illegal occupations, e.g. hitman, pirate, and spy. But most are just crimes and should be removed. - SimonP 18:50, Oct 16, 2004 (UTC)

What's the scope of this category? -- Smjg (talk) 15:00, 21 May 2010 (UTC)
 * Occupations that are illegal somewhere in the world?
 * Occupations that are forbidden by international law?
 * Occupations that have been deemed by consensus to be illegal in enough of the world to be worthy of listing here?

title: Category talk:Illegal occupations


text:
Massanutten Military Academy

Massanutten Military Academy (MMA) is a coeducational military school for grades 8 through 12 and one academic postgraduate year, located in Woodstock, Virginia, United States.

19th century
Massanutten Military Academy, named for the nearby mountain, was established by the Virginia Classis of the Reformed Church in 1899. The school opened on September 12, 1899, with 40 students, half of whom were boarders.

20th century
From the beginning the school was coed, with the first graduating class in 1902 consisting of three boys and three girls. In 1905, the first of two significant events in the history of the school occurred: Howard J. Benchoff was appointed the school president. He stayed in that position for nearly five decades, to be succeeded for the next decade and a half by his son. Lantz Hall, the second structure on the academy grounds, was begun in 1907 and dedicated in 1909, to accommodate a growing student population.

During the early years of his stewardship Benchoff established several policies. The first was expanding the school size to include number of students, staff, buildings, and acreage. The second, as a result of an otherwise undocumented "incident", was limiting the boarding department to boys beginning in 1910. The last policy, and the second significant event in the school's early history, was adopting a military program. While the program was not implemented until 1917, early in his tenure Benchoff described the goal of a military program as "to train the boys with a discipline that is valuable and give them that easy and graceful carriage which is an accomplishment in any gentleman's claim to culture"

In 1930, after receiving an application and inspecting the existing program, the U.S. War Department formally made the school a JROTC unit "placing it on a par with the highest rated military schools in the country".

21st century
The school has a strong academic program with the graduating class of 2017, which consisted of 24 students, earning more than $2,000,000 in scholarships alone. The school also has a strong STEM Program that focuses on experiential learning.

Administration
Kim Elshafie is the current head of school. She is the former dean of academics as well. The Commandant of Cadets is Lieutenant Colonel Lester Layman, U.S. Army (Ret.). The average enrollment is around 125 students. MMA is fully accredited by the Virginia Association of Independent Schools (VAIS) and the Southern Association of Colleges and Schools (SACS).

Honor code
As part of its mission the academy has a Cadet Honor Code patterned after the one at West Point. "A cadet will not lie, cheat, or steal, nor tolerate those who do." The Cadet Honor Council consists of juniors and seniors selected by the senior class and the faculty, as approved by the head of school. When a suspected honor code violation is reported, the Honor Council faculty advisers convene the council for a hearing at which the cadets involved are required to explain their conduct. The Honor Council recommends punishment and/or other measures appropriate to educate the Cadet Corps about the expectations of honorable behavior. Final approval lies with the head of school. Continued, repeated violations of the Honor Code may warrant dismissal from the academy.

JROTC program
MMA's Army Junior Reserve Officers' Training Corps (JROTC) is consistently recognized as an Honor Unit with Distinction. Since 2011, MMA Cadets have qualified to compete in the JROTC Leadership and Academic Bowl (JLAB). Six times they have qualified for Level Two of the competition and three times they have qualified to compete at the national level. For the 2017 competition, MMA is placed in the top 24 programs in the nation and the #1 team in the 4th Brigade of Cadet Command.

Notable alumni

 * Rasir Bolton, professional basketball player in BNXT League
 * Jack Ham, former professional football player for the Pittsburgh Steelers and member of the College Football Hall of Fame and Pro Football Hall of Fame
 * Mia Khalifa, former pornographic film actor
 * Tyrese Martin (2018), professional basketball player for the Atlanta Hawks
 * Frank Mason III (2012), professional basketball player for SLUC Nancy Basket
 * Jamorko Pickett (2017), professional basketball player for the Cleveland Charge of the NBA G League
 * Alfred C. Richmond, 11th Commandant of the Coast Guard
 * Dereon Seabron (2019), professional basketball player for the New Orleans Pelicans

title: Massanutten Military Academy


text: Category:Olympic tennis players for Canada


text:
Wikipedia:Articles for deletion/Adam Hollander

Adam Hollander

 * Vanity article. Also delete the associated photos. - SimonP 18:45, Oct 16, 2004 (UTC)
 * Not encyclopedic. Wikipedia is not a home page provider. Delete. - Mike Rosoft 18:59, 16 Oct 2004 (UTC)
 * Surely a candidate for speedy delete. Quite pathetic. Dbiv 19:06, 16 Oct 2004 (UTC)
 * Delete Especially delete all those photos.  Damnation, but that's some serious pollution.  This guy's supposed to be a junior at Princeton?  Can't seem to follow instructions very well, I guess.  Can anyone in New Jersey please go over there and give him a thump?  (Delete for bonfire of vanities.)  Geogre 23:03, 16 Oct 2004 (UTC)


text:
Qassam

Qassam is an acronym for the Arabic Quwat al-islamiya al-mujahida (Islamic combatant force), meaning the armed branch of an Islamic movement.

It may refer to:
 * Izz ad-Din al-Qassam, an influential Islamist preacher
 * Izz ad-Din al-Qassam Brigades, the military wing of Hamas
 * Qassam rocket, a type of rocket used by the military wing of Hamas against Israel

title: Qassam


text:
British Rail Class 121

The British Rail Class 121 is a single-car double-ended diesel multiple unit. 16 driving motor vehicles were built from 1960, numbered 55020–55035. These were supplemented by ten single-ended trailer vehicles, numbered 56280–56289 (later renumbered 54280–54289). They have a top speed of 70 mph, with slam-doors, and vacuum brakes. The driving motor vehicles were nicknamed "Bubble Cars" by some enthusiasts (a nickname endorsed and made official by final passenger service operator Chiltern Railways).

The Class 121 is Britain's longest serving DMU, operating in passenger service for 57 years until 2017.

British Railways service
The Class 121 vehicles were introduced in 1960 for use on the Western Region of British Rail. They were used on various lightly used branch lines in Cornwall including the Looe branch, the branch lines off the main line in the Thames Valley including the Greenford branch line, the Bridport branch line (closed 1975), and the Severn Beach line in Bristol. In 1978 all of the units were still allocated to Western Region depots.

Unlike the earlier (but similar), which had a small destination indicator in the roof dome, Class 121 had a four-character headcode box in the roof dome, with the destination indicator inside the top of the centre cab window.

Current operations
Upon privatisation of Britain's railways, the Class 121 fleet was only operated by one passenger company, namely Silverlink, with several more units in departmental duties with Railtrack. Since Chiltern Railways retired its final two units in May 2017, there have been no examples left in revenue-making service.

However, Network Rail operates one Class 121 for various departmental roles. This has been reclassified as a departmental unit. Duties include route learning, video surveying of track and sandite application. In addition, the unit has been specially repainted in old BR blue livery. The unit is based at Aylesbury and was jointly used by Chiltern Railways for route learning.

Silverlink
Silverlink inherited a small fleet of four "Bubble Cars". They were mainly used on the Marston Vale line from Bletchley to Bedford, as well as non-electrified lines in North London, such as the Gospel Oak to Barking line. The units replaced the previous fleet of and  units, and were supplemented with a fleet of  units cascaded from Thames Valley services.

The four units, nos. 55023/27/29/31, were based at Bletchley depot, where staff repainted set L123 (55023) into its original British Railways green livery. The others remained in obsolete Network SouthEast livery. In 1996, set L123 was withdrawn from traffic, and the other three were hired to Great Eastern for use on the Sudbury branch. These returned to Bletchley in 1997/98. Two of the units (121027 and 121029) were repainted into Silverlink's purple and green livery, and the third (121031) was repainted into Network SouthEast livery. The three units also received names from withdrawn Class 117 units.
 * 121027 - Bletchley TMD
 * 121029 - Marston Vale
 * 121031 - Leslie Crabbe

The units were replaced on Silverlink duties in 2001 by Class 150 Sprinter units which had been cascaded from Central Trains. The units have all since been transferred to departmental duties.

Arriva Trains Wales
In 2006, 121032 was purchased by Arriva Trains Wales for use on the Cardiff Bay Shuttle. The unit has been repainted into Arriva colours and was hauled to Wales in June 2006 to enter service in July. The unit finally entered service on 16 August 2006 but was withdrawn 3 days later due to a major problem with the engine. The unit re-entered service on the Cardiff Bay line on 14 September 2006. In March 2013, following further extensive periods out of traffic, 121032 was finally withdrawn from service, due to a terminal engine fault. It was subsequently transferred to sister company Chiltern Railways and moved to Aylesbury at the beginning of 2014 and was later sold into preservation at the Wensleydale Railway, moving north at the beginning of May 2015.

Chiltern Railways
In 2003, Chiltern Railways reintroduced "Heritage" diesel multiple units on its Aylesbury to Princes Risborough shuttle service. For this purpose, unit 121020 was purchased from Network Rail, and heavily refurbished to allow it to operate passenger services. It was repainted into Chiltern Railways blue livery. The introduction of this unit allowed the release of a "Network Turbo" unit. This unit has been fitted with secondary (magnetic) door locking and other safety features, and thus was exempt from 30 November 2005 deadline for the withdrawal of all Mark 1 vehicles. Electronic destination indicators and internal passenger information systems were recovered from "Network Turbo" 165 032 at refurbishment and fitted to this unit. The external exhaust pipes were rerouted through the brake van area.

In May 2011, a second "Bubble Car" was reintroduced to regular service. Unit 121034, previously based at Tyseley Loco Works, was (less extensively) refurbished for use by the Birmingham Railway Museum. It is painted in BR Green livery and was also used on Aylesbury to Princes Risborough services, when required.

Both units were additionally used on shuttles, as required, between Aylesbury and Quainton Road stations, on the occasion of events at the Buckinghamshire Railway Centre.

In March 2013, Chiltern Railways acquired 121032 from Arriva Trains Wales. It sold the unit for preservation in 2015.

Chiltern's two final units were withdrawn from service on 19 May 2017, due to difficulties in obtaining spare parts given the age of the units, which were more than 50 years old. They were subsequently sold.

Active units
Remarkably, considering the age of the fleet, the oldest unit (55020) was also the final unit withdrawn alongside 55034, which remained in daily service until 2017, whilst the youngest vehicle (55035) was the first to be dismantled. As of July 2014, 55021 (960021) and 55030 (960013) have also been scrapped.

Preservation
Class 121s have proved popular for preservation on heritage railways.

Model railways
In 2006 Hornby Railways launched its first version of the BR Class 121 in OO gauge. Since 2017 Hornby have produced a basic representation of the prototype as part of their Railroad range in BR Class 121 in BR Green.

title: British Rail Class 121


text:
Talk:List of radio stations in Indiana

Will you please stop adding more popular music stations
I will not add any more FM stations only to the Bloomington, Indiana listings, since I have no interest in the country/western stations, do you think classical music will be coming to those stations in months to come, I don't think so, even if there is nothing I can do about it, but I will.

Who cares?
Your personal interest in music doesn't matter. This is a complete listing of Indiana radio stations. If it's a radio station, list it. That's the bottom line here. Country, popular, classical.. it doesn't matter.

Fair Warning
This is not a complete list of radio stations in Indiana. There are numerous small-town stations that do not appear. The point of this page seems lost, since the FCC website contains complete information on all radio stations in the USA. Info that's being cut-and-pasted into this domain is highly misleading. One station listed under Fort Wayne, for example, is actually in Auburn. I know. I used to work there.

 * Why would anyone fail to list more FM stations in Indiana? - This is not the late 1970s, anymore.

External links modified
Hello fellow Wikipedians,

I have just modified 2 external links on List of radio stations in Indiana. Please take a moment to review my edit. If you have any questions, or need the bot to ignore the links, or the page altogether, please visit this simple FaQ for additional information. I made the following changes:
 * Added archive https://web.archive.org/web/20090825071957/http://www.fcc.gov/mb/audio/fmq.html to http://www.fcc.gov/mb/audio/FMq.html
 * Added archive https://web.archive.org/web/20090825063614/http://www.fcc.gov/mb/audio/amq.html to http://www.fcc.gov/mb/audio/amq.html

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title: Talk:List of radio stations in Indiana


text:
King (crater)

King is a prominent lunar impact crater that is located on the far side of the Moon, and can not be viewed directly from Earth. The crater was named after Arthur Scott King and Edward Skinner King in 1970. Prior to that, this crater was known as Crater 211. It forms a pair with Ibn Firnas, which is only slightly larger and is attached to the northeast rim of King. To the northwest is the crater Lobachevskiy, and Guyot is located an equal distance to the north-northwest.

Description
The outer rim of King is roughly circular but with a slightly irregular appearance, particularly at the northern end. The crater displays little appearance of wear. The inner walls are terraced, particularly along the eastern side. Within the walls is a somewhat uneven interior floor. The interior is irregular and ridged, particularly in the eastern half. The elongated, Y-shaped central rise is part of a ridge that runs to the southern rim.

Due to its prominent rays, King is mapped as part of the Copernican System.

Sita crater
A tiny crater near the east-southeastern inner wall has been officially given the Indian feminine name Sita by the IAU. It is located at selenographic coordinates 4.6° N, 120.8° E, and has a diameter of 2 kilometres.

Satellite craters
By convention these features are identified on lunar maps by placing the letter on the side of the crater midpoint that is closest to King.

King Y is to the north of King, and it is now a "pool" of impact melt, filled at the time of the King impact. The name "Al-Tusi" had been suggested for King Y, but this was not approved by the IAU. King J is a small crater to the southeast of King, and it is covered by King's ejecta blanket.

Mountain Peaks
Several mountain peaks (Montes) within King crater have been named. The names were approved by the IAU in 1976.

title: King (crater)