text:
Marine Hospital Service

The Marine Hospital Service was an organization of Marine Hospitals dedicated to the care of ill and disabled seamen in the United States Merchant Marine, the U.S. Coast Guard and other federal beneficiaries. The Marine Hospital Service evolved into the U.S. Public Health Service.

It was the point of origin for several components of the current Public Health Service, including the Public Health Service Commissioned Corps, the National Institutes of Health, and multiple programs now incorporated into the Health Resources and Services Administration.

Background: Marine Hospital Fund
The origins of the system of Marine Hospitals can be traced to the passage, by the 5th Congress of the United States, of "An Act for the Relief of Sick and Disabled Seamen" in 1798. This act created Marine Hospitals to care for sick seamen. The Marine Hospital Fund was placed under the Revenue Marine Service (a forerunner of the present-day Coast Guard) within the Department of the Treasury.

It was the first federal health law. It authorized a tax, which was the deduction of twenty cents per month from the wages of the seamen. This tax raised funds for physicians and to support the network of hospitals. Funding for the hospitals was provided by a mandatory tax of about 1% of the wages of all maritime sailors. (In 1884, the tax was abolished and in 1906 funds were dispensed by Congress.)

The act led to the gradual creation of a network of hospitals along coastal and inland waterways. They were initially located along the East Coast, at the harbors of the major port cities, with Boston being the site of the first such facility, followed later by others including in the Baltimore vicinity at Curtis Bay. As the boundaries of the United States expanded, and harbors were built on other coasts, so too were marine hospitals. In the 1830s and 1840s they were built along inland waterways, the Great Lakes, and the Gulf of Mexico. After the acquisition of the Oregon Territory (1846) and California (1848) hospitals were built in 1850s at Pacific Coast harbors.

Following the Civil War, public outcry and scandal surrounded the Marine Hospital Fund. In 1869, Dr. John Shaw Billings, a prominent Army surgeon, was appointed to head an investigation of the Marine Hospital Fund. Dr. Billings found the hospital fund to be inadequate and completely disorganized.

Establishment
In June 1870 the 41st Congress formally converted the loose network of locally controlled marine hospitals, the Marine Hospital Fund, into a centrally controlled Marine Hospital Service, with its headquarters in Washington, D.C. This reorganization made the Marine Hospital Service into its own bureau within the Department of the Treasury.

Dr. John Maynard Woodworth was subsequently appointed to the Service as "Supervising Surgeon." He transformed the service into a disciplined organization based on his experience in the Union Army as a surgeon. Dr. Woodworth required his physicians to be a mobile work force stationed where the service was in need, and he mandated the daily wear uniforms. This eventually led to the creation of the modern-day Public Health Service Commissioned Corps. Dr. Woodworth, using Army-style heraldry, created the Marine Hospital Service fouled anchor and caduceus seal which is used to this day by the Public Health Service. In 1873, Dr. Woodworth's title was changed to "Supervising Surgeon General," a forerunner of the modern-day office of Surgeon General of the United States.

Woodworth created a cadre of mobile, career service physicians, who could be assigned as needed to the various Marine Hospitals. The commissioned officer corps was established by legislation in 1889, and signed by President Grover Cleveland. At first open only to physicians, over the course of the 20th century, the Corps expanded to include veterinarians, dentists, physician assistants, sanitary engineers, pharmacists, nurses, environmental health officers, scientists, and other types of  health professionals. It is now known as the Commissioned Corps of the U.S. Public Health Service.

Increasing scope
The scope of activities of the Marine Hospital Service began to expand well beyond the care of merchant seamen in the closing decades of the nineteenth century, beginning with the control of infectious disease. Starting in the mid-14th century, ships entering harbors were quarantined when any of the crew was sick. This practice was normal procedure at United States harbors, with quarantine originally a function of the individual states, rather than of the Federal Government. The National Quarantine Act of 1878 vested quarantine authority to the Marine Hospital Service. However, the Public Health Act of 1879 created the National Board of Health, through which quarantine authority was shared with the U.S. Army and Navy; this arrangement was not reauthorized by Congress in 1883, and its powers reverted solely to the Marine Hospital Service. Over the next half a century, the Marine Hospital Service increasingly took over quarantine functions from individual state authorities.

The Marine Hospitals, as their name suggests, were hospitals constructed at key sea and river ports across the nation to provide health care for merchant marine sailors. Aside from the well-being of these sailors, the hospitals provided a key monitoring and gate-keeping function against pathogenic diseases. As immigration increased dramatically in the late 19th century, the Federal Government also took over the processing of immigrants from the individual states, beginning in 1891. The Marine Hospital Service was assigned the responsibility for the medical inspection of arriving immigrants at sites such as Ellis Island in New York Harbor. Commissioned officers played a major role in fulfilling the Service's commitment to prevent disease from entering the country.

As the nation grew, the scope of Marine Hospital Service's duties grew to include domestic and foreign quarantine and other national public health functions. Over time, the hospitals of the service were also expanded to include research and prevention work as well as the care of patients. Aside from merchant seamen, members of the military, immigrants, Native Americans, other federal beneficiaries, and people affected by chronic and epidemic diseases found a source for health care in the MHS and its hospitals.

In 1899, the Marine Hospital Service first formed internal divisions: the Division of Marine Hospitals and Relief, Division of Domestic (Interstate) Quarantine, Division of Insular and Foreign Quarantine and Immigration, Division of Personnel and Accounts, Division of Sanitary Reports and Statistics, Division of Scientific Research and Sanitation, and Miscellaneous Division, although there were minor name changes after this time.

Transformation into Public Health Service
In 1902, the Marine Hospital Service was renamed the "Public Health and Marine-Hospital Service." In 1912, as the emphasis of its responsibilities shifted from sailors to general public health, the name was changed again to the "Public Health Service" to encompass its diverse and changing mission. The Division of Hospitals, which contained the Marine Hospital system, became part of the Bureau of Medical Services in 1943, and was eventually renamed as a different Bureau of Medical Services within the Health Services Administration in 1973. Large new buildings were constructed for many Marine Hospitals in the 1920s and 1930s, and the system reached its peak of 30 hospitals in 1943. A wave of closings in 1944–1953 mainly targeted hospitals that had not been upgraded, and another wave during 1965–1970 closed the remaining hospitals at inland locations, leaving eight general hospitals and the National Leprosarium operating. The system was abolished in 1981, with the last eight general hospitals transferred to other organizations, and the remaining functions of the Bureau of Medical Services merged into the present Bureau of Primary Health Care within the Health Resources and Services Administration (HRSA). PHS would however continue to operate the National Leprosarium until 1999.

Other pre-1912 divisions of the Marine Hospital Service have descendants that operate to the present day:

 * The Division of Domestic Quarantine became the Division of States Relations and then the Bureau of State Services in 1943. This bureau would eventually give rise to the modern Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), as well as the HRSA Bureau of Health Workforce and Healthcare Systems Bureau.
 * The Division of Scientific Research became the National Institutes of Health. The Environmental Health Divisions (predecessor of the Environmental Protection Agency and FDA Center for Devices and Radiological Health), and the Division of Industrial Hygiene (predecessor of the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health), were spun off from it in the mid-20th century.
 * The Division of Foreign Quarantine eventually became the CDC Division of Global Migration and Quarantine.
 * The Division of Sanitary Reports and Statistics was an ancestor of the CDC National Center for Health Statistics.

Today, the records for these institutions sit in storage at the National Library of Medicine in Bethesda, Maryland and the National Archives in College Park, Maryland.

Hospitals
The hospitals themselves were, by the middle of the 19th century, fairly imposing and architecturally grand structures in many cases. As long as ample federal funding was available for their construction, these hospitals were impressive examples of government-provided health care. The hospitals of the early 20th century in major port cities such as New Orleans, San Francisco, and Savannah displayed ornate architectural detail and reflected many of the changes sweeping medicine at the time.

In addition to the major hospitals, many lower-class hospitals and clinics existed.

A chronological gallery of hospitals constructed prior to 1912 follow, showing the year operations began as a U.S. Marine Hospitals. Not all hospitals are shown. Structures that are still extant are marked with an asterisk (*).

title: Marine Hospital Service


text:
Tuscon

Tuscon may refer to:

 * TusCon, science fiction convention
 * Tucson, Arizona, commonly misspelled

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Tuscon


text:
Talk:Marine Hospital Service

Wiki Education Foundation-supported course assignment
This article is or was the subject of a Wiki Education Foundation-supported course assignment. Further details are available on the course page. Student editor(s): KevonnaMoore.

Above undated message substituted from Template:Dashboard.wikiedu.org assignment by PrimeBOT (talk) 00:34, 18 January 2022 (UTC)

Wiki Education Foundation-supported course assignment
This article is or was the subject of a Wiki Education Foundation-supported course assignment. Further details are available on the course page. Student editor(s): Ahaddad93, Vcollins2002.

Above undated message substituted from Template:Dashboard.wikiedu.org assignment by PrimeBOT (talk) 03:24, 17 January 2022 (UTC)

Untitled
Greetings. My name is Mike and I wrote this entry. Please feel free to edit it as needed. I will try to add some more info myself, also. I may be contacted via e-mail at: tidus@jetsetradio.zzn.com

 * Following are personal comments from the user above (the article creator) that were moved from the article to talk. Christopher Parham (talk) 23:23, 2005 July 15 (UTC)

 * There is not, as far as I know, any comprehensive book or even a decent peer-reviewed article about the history of these hospitals which contains information on their architects, design, and technological innovations. This is both odd and sad, given that these hospitals are unique to American health care and the service that ran them was more or less the place of origin for every extant Federal health service or program we have today. Also, as far as I know, no hospital has been perserved as a musuem to Marine Hospital Service, either. The records--both medical-oriented and fiscal--for these institutions sit in storage at the National Library of Medicine on the National Institutes of Health Bethesda, MD, campus.

 * Currently, the Presidio of San Francisco--which is now a National Park--is considering options for the future of its Public Health Service hospital, a structure built in 1932 with additions in the 1950s. This imposing structure may become mixed-use space for homes and offices, which would be a worthy application of its space in the scope of San Francisco's tight geography and apartment market, but one must hope the history of the sturcture as a hospital will somehow be remembered. The National Park Service seems to be dealing with the prospects for the old hospital with due care and concern (not an easy task, with some in the local neighborhood objecting to any measures to renovate the hospital--which has been vacant since the late 1980s--because of the traffic problems it might cause in their tony digs). However, a complete visual and written survey of the hospital recording (as best is possible now) the aesthetic and functional aspects of the hospital during its glory days seems prudent.

 * The Marine Hospitals and Public Health Service Hospitals are just one aspect of American history that I stumbled upon as a student of both architectural history and the history of medicine. I have to wonder how many other obscure yet important Federal programs like this which have helped shape our nation are neglected by professional historians and the general public alike?

 * The current design review process for the former Public Health Service Hospital of the Presidio of San Francisco can be found on the following site maintained by the National Park Service:

 * http://www.presidio.gov/Preservation_Restoration/PublicHealthDistrict/

 * The National Library of Medicine has a guide to the documents culled from various PHS hospitals when these closed (read: all the paperwork got shipped off to Washington). This would be a good place for scholars to start if interested in the in-depth history of the hospitals:

 * http://www.nlm.nih.gov/hmd/manuscripts/ead/phs471.html

There are a few resources on the history and origins of the Marine Hospital Fund beyond what is available in the National Library of Medicine (NLM). Other resources include the National Archives which likely houses the vast majority of drawings and hospital records. The Marine Hospital Service really was more than just a series of hospitals, it eventually lead to the creation of the modern day Department of Health and Human Services, and the Commissioned Corps of the Public Health Service. One good book reference is: "A Profile of the United States Public Health Service 1798-1948" by Bess Furman, 1973, Government Printing Office (GPO). Another resource is "Plagues and Politics" by Admiral Mullen, USPHS.

A red link in the See also section is associated with the following....
--222.67.207.71 (talk) 03:22, 6 December 2009 (UTC)
 * http://scholar.google.com/scholar?hl=en&q=allintitle%3A+%22public+hospital+service%22&btnG=Search&as_sdt=2000&as_ylo=&as_vis=0

External links modified
Hello fellow Wikipedians,

I have just modified one external link on Marine Hospital Service. Please take a moment to review my edit. If you have any questions, or need the bot to ignore the links, or the page altogether, please visit this simple FaQ for additional information. I made the following changes:
 * Added archive https://web.archive.org/web/20041010204116/http://www.nlm.nih.gov/hmd/manuscripts/ead/phs471.html to http://www.nlm.nih.gov/hmd/manuscripts/ead/phs471.html

When you have finished reviewing my changes, you may follow the instructions on the template below to fix any issues with the URLs.

Cheers.— InternetArchiveBot  (Report bug) 21:06, 2 June 2017 (UTC)

Hello all; my name is Andrew and I am a student interested in this topic. I plan providing more information on the Marine Hospital Service's funding, and possibly if they teach medical students. I can add more backbone-type information similar to other hospital related wikipedia pages. I will use these resources: https://www.usphs.gov/aboutus/history.aspx, http://www.marinehospital.org/publichealth.htm, https://history.nih.gov/research/sources_legislative_chronology.htmlAhaddad93 (talk) 02:31, 10 November 2017 (UTC)

A few additions
I've decided to work on the Marine Hospital Service article and add more information about it's role in the plague. I want to talk more about the Surgeon Generals role being created and expand on I want to improve the article by also discussing the authorization of the first Marine Hospital that was authorized to be built in Boston in 1803. I have included a few links below and will update my talk page as I add more. Any feedback is greatly appreciated.

https://profiles.nlm.nih.gov/ps/access/QQBBCZ.pdf http://www.marinehospital.org/past.htm http://www.marinehospital.org/pdfs/HistoricTimeline.pdf https://history.nih.gov/research/sources_legislative_chronology.html

Vcollins2002 (talk) 19:47, 10 November 2017 (UTC)

I added a few additions to the timeline and cited a few things that needed citations. Below is a list of my sources please feel free to leave feedback.

http://www.marinehospital.org/past.htm http://www.marinehospital.org/pdfs/HistoricTimeline.pdf https://www.nih.gov/about-nih/what-we-do/nih-almanac/chronology-events https://history.nih.gov/research/downloads/16StatL169.pdf https://profiles.nlm.nih.gov/ps/access/QQBBCZ.pdf https://www.nlm.nih.gov/exhibition/phs_history/fighting.html https://www.nlm.nih.gov/exhibition/phs_history/fighting.html https://www.nlm.nih.gov/exhibition/phs_history/intro.html

Vcollins2002 (talk) 23:32, 3 December 2017 (UTC)

title: Talk:Marine Hospital Service


text:
Talk:Elfriede Jelinek

POV Problems
Some examples from the article:

Readers seeking to indulge in a display of female "lust" will certainly be disappointed, as Jelinek rather aims at the contrary.

Her provocative novel Lust is a description of sexuality, aggression and abuse with pornographic qualities.

''Likewise, her political activism, hardiness, consistency and persistence in following her convictions on and off the stage, evoke highly divergent reactions - either positive or negative, depending on one's personal views. Despite the fact that some, who do not share her views, devalue her work rather than merely objecting to her opinion, Jelinek has won many distinguished prizes''

I plan on fixing those later tonight. --Ori.livneh 20:40, 6 June 2006 (UTC)
 * OK, I rephrased or, in some cases, deleted the really problematic bits. I still feel uneasy about the part self-therapy bit, but I think it can be traced to critical analyses of her works and her own interpretations which she provides in interviews. I am not a Jelinek expert by any means. I removed the POV warning, but the article still merits discussion. Please let me know what you think. --Ori.livneh 20:47, 7 June 2006 (UTC)

Really Fast
That was quick, man. The Nobel prize was only announced today :-)

 * Were you expecting any less from the Wikipedia community? ;) --Cantus

My Dreams to be a winner prize has gone. Better luck next year.

 * Thanks, guys! :-) However, Elfriede Jelinek is nothing compared to the physics Nobel prize. I know the winners - at least Gross and Wilczek - in person ;-) and I've been predicting them for quite a lont time. See where physics Nobel prize is the only successfully "guessed" one. You should also see the history of the David Gross page, which I created half a year ago and where I insisted that he would be awarded the 2004 Nobel prize. Charles Matthews kept on deleting this important information. He only stopped it on Tuesday when they finally got the prize. ;-) --Lumidek 11:24, 8 Oct 2004 (UTC)

Disgusting POV-pushing
Is there anyone here who knows what neutrality is? This article is appalling. Shorne 19:03, 13 Nov 2004 (UTC)
 * Im editing now only the language. It is appaling indeed... :) Izkrivena 14:17, 11 March 2006 (UTC)

Kaprun Disaster
I remember watching a play by jelinek which dealt with the Kaprun disaster but I don't remember its name. Is there anyone else who knows? /Marxmax 00:06, 17 May 2007 (UTC)

Feminism
As a feminist, has she expressed her views on Islam?Lestrade 23:42, 9 July 2007 (UTC)Lestrade

What is the relevance of this question? —Preceding unsigned comment added by 75.72.150.22 (talk) 11:23, 9 October 2008 (UTC)

This question is relevant to contemporary life in a world that tolerates Islamic ascendance.Lestrade (talk) 22:05, 20 April 2010 (UTC)Lestrade

 * Ugh. Islamophobe much? Sindinero (talk) 09:42, 20 January 2012 (UTC)

Not really- Jelinek's works love taking on institutions which, at their foundation, propose/promote the subjugation of women- like the Bible and the Talmud, the Koran has passages on how women should conduct themselves in relation to their men-folk which run exactly contrary to Jelinek's beliefs. (also cf. Die Liebhaberinnen, parody of the Heimat Roman genre and ridicule of the outer facade of modern Austrian society- she revelled in the whole Fritzl thing, which in her view proved her point). My only issue with this would be that Islam is maybe not that relevant a topic for a feminist writer who mainly focuses on Austria/other Western countries in her works. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 2.223.175.141 (talk) 18:29, 10 March 2013 (UTC)

Political Nobel Prize
Are there any sources that acknowledge the exaggerated politicization of the Nobel Prize which is evidenced by its award to such a minor writer as Jelinek?Lestrade 14:41, 10 July 2007 (UTC)Lestrade

Jelinek is hardly a minor writer. She may be minor to you and others because she is living, a woman, and diverging from novelistic conventions. (Why do people insist that contemporary writers write a literature of the past?) Surely you realize that she's won other awards. Are you looking towards book sales? What is your criteria? She is writing a contemporary literature that speaks to contemporary culture and reckons with the ghosts of the past. She is one of the most important writers of her generation. -Ienoch123 —Preceding unsigned comment added by Ienoch123 (talk • contribs) 01:27, 23 September 2008 (UTC)
 * Her judgment and intelligence are evidenced by her statement that she had "been awarded the prize mainly for 'being a woman' and suggested that among authors writing in German, Peter Handke whom she praises as a 'living classic,' would have been a more worthy recipient."Lestrade (talk) 17:39, 20 March 2009 (UTC)Lestrade

Deleted Unsourced Sentence
I deleted the sentence "The CPA is a fringe movement; public Austrian intellectuals, even professedly left-leaning ones, have frequently accused it of unreconstructed Stalinism." from the first paragraph about Ms. Jelinek's political engagement because it was unsourced and potentially damaging. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 160.81.43.90 (talk) 20:58, 31 January 2008 (UTC)

Language
"Prior to winning the Nobel Prize, her work was largely unknown outside the German-speaking world and was said to resemble that of acclaimed Austrian playwright Thomas Bernhard, with its pathology of destruction and its concomitant comedic abrogation. In fact, despite the author's own differentiation from Austria..." English is not this contributor's first language, and is possibly not one of this contributor's languages at any level. I would fix the appalling grammar and clunky jargon of the first sentence, but I have no idea what it means. Anyone have any idea? (I have read Bernhard as well as Jelinek, btw.) Lexo (talk) 14:27, 26 August 2008 (UTC)

The whole article is pretty horrendous - a mess of bad English and violations of NPOV, but I don't know enough about Jelinek to do a proper copyedit. I am not one of those editors who believes in cutting everything except properly sourced statements of fact, especially when it comes to articles on the humanities, but I have to admit that in this case I'm tempted. Lexo (talk) 14:38, 26 August 2008 (UTC)

 * Oh, wow. It's like someone swallowed a thesaurus and vomited this article out all over wikipedia.Eoseth (talk) 20:20, 20 April 2010 (UTC)
 * What does that mean?Lestrade (talk) 22:01, 20 April 2010 (UTC)Lestrade

Strange sentence
"Though she is of Jewish descent, Jelinek self-identifies as being Jewish" - doesn't this sound a little strange? I'm not a native englsih speaker, but wouldn't "though" be used if it was the other way around, for example "Though she is not of Jewish descent, Jelinek self-identifies as being Jewish" or "Though she is of Jewish descent, Jelinek does not self-identify as being Jewish"? /Marxmax (talk) 13:34, 4 January 2012 (UTC)

 * You are right. It is similar to saying,"Though her initials are E. J., she claims that her initials are E. J."173.61.94.184 (talk) 03:14, 30 January 2013 (UTC)Lestrade

references tag removal
As long as it doesn't put a bee in anyone's bonnet, I'm going to remove the "needs additional references" tag. I added two reputable sources to some of the article's more abstract claims today, and I hope that addresses the issue. I could probably find more sources, but I'm not sure the article needs further substantiation for any other existing claims. Please comment as you see fit. Icarus of old (talk) 01:28, 3 April 2013 (UTC)

Obvious category omitted
I was trying to get to Jelinek's entry from the category Austrian Novelists, which omits her name. The Piano Teacher, after all, is a novel. I see she is listed under "20th Century Austrian writers," which somewhat uselessly lumps her together with Hayek, Hitler, Mach, and Schwarzenegger.

Could you please add her to the category of Musil and Kafka, as well? Many thanks in advance.50.0.36.205 (talk) 15:39, 8 December 2014 (UTC)

Substubs
Please write articles about her plays or remove the substubs. Nobel or not less than one line doesn't make an article.Xx236 (talk) 14:23, 7 January 2016 (UTC)
 * I'm sure someone will jump right on that. Icarus of old (talk) 14:04, 7 January 2016 (UTC)

Hans Asperger's diagnosis
Shouldn't the article mention that she was one of Hans Asperger's original patients in the study that gave birth to the idea of Asperger's? — Preceding unsigned comment added by 193.169.154.69 (talk) 07:48, 27 July 2016 (UTC)

External links modified
Hello fellow Wikipedians,

I have just modified 4 external links on Elfriede Jelinek. Please take a moment to review my edit. If you have any questions, or need the bot to ignore the links, or the page altogether, please visit this simple FaQ for additional information. I made the following changes:
 * Added archive https://archive.is/20130815101107/http://204.200.212.100/wessely/fneid1.htm to http://204.200.212.100/wessely/fneid1.htm
 * Added tag to http://cdn-storage.br.de/mir-live/MUJIuUOVBwQIb71S/iw11MXTPbXPS/_2rc_K1S/_-QS/_-rH_2bH/111010_2003_Hoerspiel-Pool_Elfriede-Jelinek-Neid-1.mp3
 * Added archive https://archive.is/20130815101045/http://204.200.212.100/wessely/ffaustin.htm to http://204.200.212.100/wessely/ffaustin.htm
 * Added archive https://web.archive.org/web/20051028020427/http://www.praesens.at/elfriede-jelinek-forschungszentrum/ to http://www.praesens.at/elfriede-jelinek-forschungszentrum/
 * Added archive https://web.archive.org/web/20070928144514/http://www.gewaltproblematik-jelinek.de/ to http://www.gewaltproblematik-jelinek.de/

When you have finished reviewing my changes, you may follow the instructions on the template below to fix any issues with the URLs.

Cheers.— InternetArchiveBot  (Report bug) 10:29, 1 December 2017 (UTC)

title: Talk:Elfriede Jelinek


text:
Cinema of Cuba

Cinema arrived in Cuba at the beginning of the 20th century. Before the Cuban Revolution of 1959, about 80 full-length films were produced in Cuba. Most of these films were melodramas. Following the revolution, Cuba entered what is considered the "Golden age" of Cuban cinema.

Early stages
After being popularised by the brothers Louis Jean and Auguste Marie Lumière, the cinematographe traveled through several capital cities in different American countries before arriving in Havana, which occurred on January 24, 1897. It was brought from Mexico by Gabriel Veyre. The first presentation was offered at Paseo del Prado #126, just aside the Teatro Tacón. Four short films were shown: Partida de cartas, El tren, El regador y el muchacho y El sombrero cómico. The tickets were sold at a price of 50 cents, and 20 cents for kids and the military. Short after, Veyre performed a leading role in the first film produced in the island, Simulacro de incendio, a documentary centered around firemen in Havana.

In this first phase of introduction there were several locations devoted to cinema: Panorama Soler, Salón de variedades o ilusiones ópticas, Paseo del Prado #118, Vitascopio de Edison (in the famous Louvre sidewalk). The Teatro Irioja (today Teatro Martí) was the first to present cinema as one of its attractions. The first in a long list of movie theatres in Havana was set by José A. Casasús, actor, producer and entrepreneur, under the name of "Floradora", later renamed "Alaska".

In the six or seven years before World War I, cinema was expanded and stabilized as a business in the most important cities in Latin America. Cuba, just as the rest of the countries in the continent, went through those first years with itinerant and sporadic exhibitions, changing from European providers to North American providers, starting the dependency on the big Hollywood companies.

The first ambitious genre in the continent was probably historic reviews. In Cuba films like El Capitán Mambí and Libertadores o guerrilleros (1914), by Enríque Díaz Quesada with support from Gen. Mario García Menocal are worth mentioning. Díaz Quesada adapted from the Spanish novelist Joaquín Dicenta in 1910, as a tendency widely used then, of using literary works adapted for movies, as well as imitating Charlie Chaplin, the French comedies and cowboy adventure films. The silent stage of production was extended until 1937, when the first full-length fiction movie was produced.

Pre-revolutionary cinema
Before the Cuban Revolution of 1959 the total film production was around 80 full-length movies. Some films are worth mentioning, such as La Virgen de la Caridad starring Miguel Santos and Romance del Palmar by Ramón Peón. Many famous people from the continent came to the island to film, and some leading Cuban actors had a strong presence mainly in Mexico and Argentina. Musicians such as Ernesto Lecuona, Bola de Nieve or Rita Montaner also performed and composed for movies in several countries.

Cinema after the revolution
In the first days of 1959, the new government created a cinematographic department within the Dirección de Cultura del Ejército Rebelde (Culture Division of the Rebel Army), which sponsored the production of documentaries such as Esta tierra nuestra by Tomás Gutiérrez Alea, and La vivienda by Julio García Espinosa. This was the direct ancestor of what would eventually become the Instituto Cubano del Arte y la Industria Cinematográficos (ICAIC), which was founded in March as a result of the first culture law of the revolutionary government. Film, according to this law, is "the most powerful and provocative form of artistic expression, and the most direct and widespread vehicle for education and bringing ideas to the public." The ICAIC founded Cine Cubano in 1960. All production, distribution, and exhibition in the country were run by ICAIC by 1965. The ICAIC also established mobile projection units called cine moviles, trucks that visited remote areas to hold screenings. From its foundation up until 1980, Alfredo Guevara was head of the ICAIC. Under his direction, the organization was pivotal in the development of Cuban cinema which came to be identified with anti-imperialism and revolution.

The first ten years of the institution were called by critics the Golden Age (Década de Oro) of Cuban cinema, most of all because of the making of Lucía (1969) by Humberto Solás and Memorias del subdesarrollo (Memories of Underdevelopment) (1968) by Tomás Gutiérrez Alea. These two directors are often regarded as the best film directors to have come out of Cuba. Memorias del subdesarrollo was selected among the best 100 films of all times by the International Federation of Film Clubs. One of the most prolific and strong branches of the Cuban cinema in the last 40 years has been documentaries and short-films. The documentary Now (1965) by Santiago Álvarez is often considered the first video clip in history. It combines a song with an uninterrupted sequence of images depicting racial discrimination in the U.S..

Animation has also been a major highlight in the last decades. In 1974, Juan Padrón gave birth to Elpidio Valdés, a character that represents a mambí fighter, struggling for Cuban independence against the Spanish occupation in the 19th century. It is very popular among Cuban children. Another great success of Cuban animation was the full-length film Vampiros en La Habana (1983), also by Juan Padrón.

Essential in the history of Cuban cinema is the Noticiero ICAIC Latinoamericano (Latin-American ICAIC News) whose first director was Alfredo Guevara. Years later it was directed by Santiago Álvarez and the Mexican Rodolfo Espino, the most successful documentary maker in the island. In 1979 the ICAIC played a key role in the creation of the Festival Internacional del Nuevo Cine Latinoamericano (International Festival of New Latin American Cinema) allowing Latin American films a more international audience. The festival is one of the most important of its type in Latin America and has been held in Havana every year since 1979. There is also an international cinema university, the Escuela Internacional de Cine, Televisión y Video de San Antonio de los Baños (International School of Cinema, Television and Video of San Antonio de los Baños) located in San Antonio de los Baños near Havana, on land donated by the Cuban government and supported by the Fundación del Nuevo Cine Latinoamericano, Gabriel García Márquez and the Father of the New Latin American Cinema, Fernando Birri. Hundreds of young students from all over Latin America have studied direction, script, photography and edition.

The contribution of the ICAIC, which was rapidly positioned as the head of a process aiming for legitimate artistic values and expression of nationality, is not limited only to the support in producing and promoting a movement that spanned fiction, documentary and animation, but also allowed for the exhibition and spread of popular knowledge of the best of cinema from all over the world. It also created the film archives of the Cinemateca de Cuba, and took part in initiatives such as Cinemóviles, which made cinema available on the most intricate sites of the national geography.

The institution also helped developing the Cuban poster, as a mean of promoting films. It gave birth between 1969 and 1977, to the Grupo de Experimentación Sonora, which influenced Cuban music to a great extent, serving as a starting point for the movement of the Nueva Trova. Figures like Silvio Rodríguez, Pablo Milanés and Leo Brouwer were prominent through all this process.

In 1980, Alfredo Guevara was ousted from his position as head of the ICAIC, which he had held since its formation, over controversies about Cecilia'. The film, directed by Humberto Solás, was based on the 19th century Cuban novel Cecilia Valdés. It was the most ambitious Cuban film to date and somewhat monopolized the funds available to filmmakers during its production. This, coupled with the fact that many other directors and the general public did not agree with Solás's interpretation of the film, led to the removal of Alfredo Guevara from his position.

Having won a great deal of autonomy from the central government in the 1970s, the ICAIC, under the new leadership of Julio García Espinosa, was allowed to make many films dealing with sociopolitical issues. Espinosa was able to increase the recognition of Cuban film and especially of the International Festival of New Latin American Cinema by obtaining greater funds from the government and also inviting big names such as Francis Ford Coppola, Sydney Pollack, Robert De Niro, and Jack Lemmon to the island. Despite his successes, Espinosa faced a large problem in 1991, again due to a controversial film. This film, entitled Alicia en el pueblo de Maravillas, was very critical of the bureaucracy of the government. This, combined with the simultaneous collapse of the Soviet Union, led to Espinosa's retirement.

During this time, Alfredo Guevara returned to the scene of the ICAIC in order to help it maintain its autonomy from the central government. Many of the party faithful were calling for the organization to merge with the Cuban Radio and Television Institute. Due to the loss of Cuba's largest trading partner, the Soviet Union, the future of the island country became uncertain, and criticism of the government, which the ICAIC was known for, became unpopular. Guevara managed to get the film released and allow the ICAIC to keep its independent status. He then remained president of the organization throughout the Special Period until his retirement in 2000.

One of the most notable Cuban films in the recent years was Fresa y chocolate (Strawberry and Chocolate) (1993) by Tomás Gutiérrez Alea and Juan Carlos Tabío. It is about intolerance, and portrays the friendship between a homosexual and a young member of the Unión de Jóvenes Comunistas (a communist youth organization). It was also the first Cuban production to ever be nominated for an Academy Award.

Omar González succeeded Alfredo Guevara as the head of the ICAIC and remains in that position today. It continues to directly aid in the production and distribution of films and has production offices, issues film permits, rents studios and equipment to filmmakers, and is closely involved in each stage of the film, from its inception and production, to its distribution and release.

Cinema of the Cuban diaspora
After the triumph of the Cuban Revolution in 1959, Cubans who were ideologically ill at ease with the new revolutionary government made their way to the United States, where they settled in concentrated communities made up of other Cubans in South Florida, New York, and New Jersey. Unlike traditional immigrants who chose to leave the homeland behind in search of a better way of life in a new place, most of these Cubans consider themselves exiles forced out of their homeland by political or economic circumstances. Because they continue to think of themselves as Cuban even after decades in the United States, it is appropriate to talk about them as part of a Cuban diaspora that links them emotionally and psychologically to the island. Over one million Cubans have left Cuba since 1959 in different waves of immigration. Among those are talented directors, technicians and actors who settled in the US, Latin America or Europe, in search of work and creative space in the field of cinema.

Los gusanos (The Worms) (1978) produced by Danilo Bardisa and directed by Camilo Vila was the first film made by the Cuban exiles dealing with Cuban politics. The screenplay written by Orestes Matacena, Clara Hernandez and Camilo Vila has an overwhelming impact in the U.S. Cuban community inspiring many other Cuban filmmakers to tell their stories with their cameras.

Orlando Jiménez Leal, one of the best known exile filmmakers, produced El Super (1979), the first Cuban exile fictional film, directed by Jiménez Leal and his young brother-in-law, Leon Ichaso. Based on a play by Ivan Acosta, the film was broadly distributed in the U.S. and won awards at film festivals in Mannheim, Biarritz and Venice. The film examines the trauma of the Cuban middle class, showing them as displaced from their former life and unable to adapt to new circumstances. It also highlights generational conflicts between Cuban-born parents and their teenage children who have been raised in the U.S. and reject tradition in favor of the North American way of life. Jiménez Leal went on to make documentary films such as The Other Cuba (1983) and Improper Conduct (1984) in collaboration with Néstor Almendros. Improper Conduct is a highly controversial film that deals with the treatment of gays in Cuba. The Other Cuba is a bitter denunciation of the Revolution told from the point of view of the exiled community. The director's strong anti-Castro stance gave voice to the growing community of Cuban political exiles in the U.S. in the 1980s. Leon Ichaso's best known film in the U.S. is Bitter Sugar (1996), a fictional film that strongly criticizes life in post-revolutionary Cuba. The screenplay, written by Ichaso and Orestes Matacena shows the disillusionment of a young Communist and his girlfriend, who are pushed to the breaking point by a repressive society. In tone and theme, it is similar to Jorge Ulla's Guaguasí (1982), which had less distribution in the U.S. The Guaguasí screenplay, written by Orestes Matacena, Clara Hernandez and Ulla, portrays a simple man from the countryside, played by actor Orestes Matacena, who is brutalized by his experiences with the revolutionary government in Cuba. The reactionary stance of directors like Villa, Ulla, Ichaso, Almendros and Jiménez Leal has made them the cinematic spokespersons for Cubans who believe that Fidel Castro is personally responsible for negative changes that have occurred in Cuba since 1959. Bitter Sugar has been shown to the Human Rights Commission in Geneva, Switzerland and to the US Congress.

An important theme in cinema of the Cuban diaspora is the coming and going of people in exile, and the difficult process of adaptation to a new culture. Iván Acosta made the film Amigos (1986) to show the painful bicultural existence of Cuban-Americans living in Miami. Although it is a low-budget film, it does an effective job of capturing the problems of the younger generation of Cuban-Americans who are torn between the desire to fit in and the pressure to uphold tradition. Lejanía (1985) by Jesús Díaz is the first film to deal with the issue of Cuban exiles returning to the island for visits with relatives. Cercanía (2008) by Rolando Díaz, the brother of Jesús, shows a recent arrival from Cuba attempting to reconcile with his family in Miami after decades apart. Rather than address political themes in a direct way, these films focus on personal issues related to adaptation and culture shock. Honey for Oshún (2001) by Humberto Solás, a Cuban director who remained in Cuba, addresses the clash between Cuban-Americans returning to the island and those who never left. It hints that reconciliation is possible, as long as those who return are willing to accept Cuba on its own terms and not force capitalist ideology on the Cuban people.

In Cuba, films made by Cuban-Americans or Cubans in exile are not widely distributed or well known, in part because the films deal with the Revolution in a negative light, but also because Cubans on the island dispute the notion of a Cuban diaspora and believe that those who live in exile no longer represent Cuban reality in an authentic light. They take the position that directors who experience life outside Cuba represent Cuba through a distorted lens, and that the films they make are largely works of propaganda.

Many important Cuban actors now live in exile. Among them are César Évora, Anabel Leal, Reinaldo Cruz, Francisco Gattorno, Reynaldo Miravalles, Tomás Millán, William Marquez, Orestes Matacena and Isabel Moreno. Cuban American actors who were born in Cuba but grew up in the U.S. include Andy García, Steven Bauer, William Levy, and Tony Plana.

International co-productions
The international co-production of films has become very important for the cinema of Cuba and also for the rest of Latin America. An internationally co-produced film is one in which two or more production companies from different countries are involved, or the financing has been sourced from more than one country. Co-productions are becoming increasingly common today but even as early as 1948 were common between Cuba and Mexico.

International co-productions began to take off in the 1960s and 1970s, many with the aim of increasing political awareness and highlighting common problems in Latin American countries. Before its dissolution, the USSR also played a role of co-producing films in Cuba such as Mikhail Kalatozov's I Am Cuba. The increased importance of co-produced films was inevitable due to globalization, and in the case of Cuba especially, due to a lack of economic resources. A film created with the cooperation of two or more countries nearly always guaranteed distribution in both countries, resulting in a greater audience and increased revenues. This also allowed for more exposure of regional cinemas.

Beginning as early as the 1930s Spain played a role in producing Latin American and Cuban films, but began to invest more heavily in the 1990s. In 1997, Ibermedia was created for the purpose of promoting co-production between Spain and Latin American countries. There are 14 countries involved in this organization and Cuba is one of them. Two examples of Cuban co-produced films are Humberto Solás's Cecilia (Cuba/Spain) and Tomás Gutiérrez Alea and Juan Carlos Tabío's Academy Award-nominated Strawberry and Chocolate (Cuba/Mexico/Spain).

There have been mixed opinions about the development of co-productions. For some it is a necessary evil. Humberto Solás states that "For established filmmakers there is not a single cent for production. We are obliged to seek co-productions. If a film is not co-produced, it will not be made." The problem with finding foreign funding for Cuban films is that, often, the financiers want to have some amount of influence over the final product so that it can be successful in their own countries. Frequently there are also stipulations that require a certain number of cast and crew to be working on the film from each of the producing countries. For example, a Cuban film that was co-produced by Spain would require a certain number of Spanish actors, writers or directors, and production technicians. This makes it difficult for Cuban national cinema to hold on to its identity and also creates issues when determining the nationality of a film. Julio García Espinosa agrees that the benefit of co-productions is that it has allowed for films to continue being made in Cuba and Latin America, but believes that the most successful co-productions are those that exist solely between Latin American countries.

Cuba has been involved in aiding in the production of other Latin American films, but through technical assistance rather than acting as a financier. One example is Chilean director Miguel Littín's Academy Award-nominated Alsino and the Condor, which was shot in Nicaragua and received technical support from Cuba. Also in the late 1980s, Cuba created the Third World Film School to train students from various third world countries in the art of filmmaking.

Imperfect cinema
Cuban cinema and Latin American films communicate many different meanings, messages, and focuses. Cuban film director Julio García Espinosa was well known in the 1960s for his contributions to cinematography and culture. He was a founder of the ICAIC and the President of the Section of Cinema of the Cultural Society. The main objectives of Cuban cinema were production, distribution, and screening films that recorded the ongoing revolutionary process from the perspectives of ordinary people. According to Davies, the films that were shot on location and featured local people were shown free of charge across the country in city cinemas and on makeshift village screens to spectators who were encouraged to participate actively in the films' reception and interpretation. In 1968–88, the most common and desired form of film used in Cuba was Imperfect Cinema.

It can be acknowledged that Imperfect Cinema was creative, innovative and possessed a distinctive style that is typically a very thought provoking original work of art, Oscar Quirós concluded. Imperfect films captured the viewer's attention because the relevance of the story line matched what the audiences were experiencing in their own lives. Imperfect Cinema is a form or theme found through audiences that have struggled in life and are aware of the hard times the people were going through. Only in the person who suffers people perceive elegance, gravity, even beauty; only in him people recognize the possibility of authenticity, seriousness, and sincerity. Not only does imperfect cinema represent the struggles of the people it also reveals the process which has generated the problem. The subjective element is the selection of the problem, conditioned as it is by the interest of the audience-which is the subject. The objective element is showing the process-which is the object. Imperfect Cinema uses the audience as the subject to show the process of the problem as the object.

Aside from indicating the demonstrative, communicative and inquisitive qualities, these characteristics also convey an implicit utilitarian quality. In other words, Imperfect Cinema possesses utilitarian features because it must perform a particular political function within society. Cubans felt included by the films which gave them a sense of importance and pride. Cuban and Latin American films were successful in the international market even though they did not always fit the hegemonic models or use mainstream film languages. Imperfect Cinema is a great example of film that is accepted internationally even though it does not fit into the Hollywood genre or codes of representation.

Style for Imperfect Cinema is thus defined by the specific techniques and qualities contextualized in orthodox Marxism's aesthetics of content over form, such as the use of 'type' characters, harsh imagery made by scratches, under/over exposure, high contrast, excessive movements of the camera, presentation of historical events and the wide use of hand-held cameras. This form of film was very popular among the revolutionary people because the films were portrayed in a manner that was very easy to relate to and shared a common feeling and interest among the people that were experiencing similar situations that were occurring in Cuba at the time. The revolution provided alternatives, supplied an entirely new response, enabled the country to do away with elitist concepts and practices in art, and was the highest expression of culture because it abolished artistic culture as a fragmentary human activity.

Imperfect Cinema was responsible for making a reputation for Cuban film, but by the mid-1970s, Cuban filmmakers were purposely making a different style of cinema. Chanan, for example, concludes that by the late 1970s Imperfect Cinema had just about disappeared. He believes that since then Cuban cinema has given up the challenge of creating its own style in favor of imitating Hollywood. For Garcia Espinosa and many of his fellow Latin American filmmakers, Imperfect Cinema was the answer to the need of creating a form of art that demonstrates the process of the problems ... not a cinema to beautifully illustrate concepts and ideas they already know. The purpose of this revolutionary form of film was derived from the revolution itself. By 1989, Cuban cinema had the formal sophistication to carry any revolutionary message, or none at all, Quirós indicated. Imperfect cinema was no longer interested in quality or technique. It can be created equally well with a Mitchell or with an 8mm camera, in a studio or in a guerrilla camp in the middle of the jungle.

Since all of these critical operations require new approaches to film directing, they cannot expect flawless results every time. Films built on the consecrated conventions of traditional cinematography are more likely to attain technical "perfection" than those necessarily "imperfect" attempts to challenge established conventions and search out new approaches. The opposite of imperfect cinema is "perfect" cinema which is basically described as films that are portrayed as perfect, flawless, and contain beautiful scenery. The majority of scenes that are shot in a "perfect" film are in a beautiful place, typically the film is not produced to make the viewer think, and they're usually more aesthetically pleasing rather than meaningful. They maintain that imperfect cinema must above all show the process which generates the problems. It is thus the opposite of a cinema principally dedicated to celebrating results, the opposite of a self-sufficient and contemplative cinema, the opposite of a cinema which "beautifully illustrates" ideas or concepts which already possess. However, the aesthetic changes that were better perceived after the mid-1970s were a reflexion of the social underlying changes in the ideological Marxist fabric away from Orthodox Marxism and more in tune with the Marxian ideal of emancipation. The new Perfect Cinema is not a cinema to move away from the social, political, and economic issues of Cuban society, but it is a move forward to better illustrate the Cuban social whole. These aesthetic changes that characterize Perfect Cinema predate the collapse of the Soviet block and the end of the Cold War underlying the significance of this new Cuban style of cinema as both as manifestation of social changes and a leader of such a change.

Modern authorship is established and valued mostly as a matter of output and public success. "Perfect" films are valued by critics, awards, and merchandise that are produced because of the film. Compared to "perfect" films, imperfect films focus on the art, sending a message, and creating substance. Most Latin American films can only achieve success in the international market if they emulate hegemonic models and borrow from mainstream film languages. The "perfect" films are difficult for Latin American and Cuban film makers to compete with because most viewers are interested in watching films that are visually attractive and don't require a lot of thought while watching. It stands to reason that today's changing circumstances of film production and consumption determine that genres cannot exist by mere repetition and recycling of past models but have to engage with difference and change. Art will not disappear into nothingness; it will disappear into everything.

Post-Cold War era
The post Cold War period is known as the "Special Period" in Cuba. During this time period the Cuban cinema industry suffered greatly (as did the Cuban citizens due to severe economic depression). This is best phrased by Elliott Young: The state expected artists, filmmakers, and intellectuals to become economically autonomous and not rely on state subsidies; this new market orientation forced cultural producers to seek foreign financing or simply to leave the country altogether. The impact of the economic crisis hit the Instituto Cubano del Arte e Industria Cinematográfico (ICAIC) directly, leading to an exodus of personnel and the slowing down of production to the extent that, in 1996, the Institute did not release a single feature film. The films that were produced were no longer made solely for Cuban people, but mainly for foreign audiences. Pastor Vega states "Before one only thought about the Cuban public. Now you have to think about 'marketing' and 'profits' and all that". However, the films that were produced for the Cuban people, tended to take a more drastic turn towards more controversial issues. One of the biggest genres that came out of this period was about homosexuality. One of the most popular movies that come out of this time period is called Fresa y chocolate (1994, Strawberry and Chocolate). The success of this movie "can be partially explained by the way the film elicits multiple recognition from the Cuban viewer" and that it makes the viewer think/look at the film in a different light.

During this time the producers and directors had to always think about cost of production. In the past, going on long excursions to make films were the standard rather than the exception. A perfect example of a movie that was made through this time period is called Madagascar (1994), directed by Fernando Perez. Ann Marie Stock states (about the production of Madagascar): Madagascar (1994), was made against all odds, during a time when Cuba's state sponsored film institute was experiencing shortages of virgin film stock, fuel to transport crews and equipment, food to provide a meal to those working long days, and the hard currency necessary to edit, produce and distribute films. The films that were lucky enough to be put into production, found them that they were being produced as close to the ICAIC (Cuban Institute of Cinematographic Art and Industry) as possible, or found that the major cities (Havana, Santiago de Cuba, etc. ...) became the backdrop to the plot of the movies. This allowed the directors to use ordinary citizens in the movies instead of having to bring in extras for production. The director could even use citizens' homes as a backdrop, if the owner agreed to allow the director to use it.

Directors

 * Santiago Álvarez
 * Octavio Cortázar
 * Juan Carlos Cremata
 * Rolando Díaz
 * Sergio Giral
 * Pavel Giroud
 * Manuel Octavio Gómez
 * Sara Gómez
 * Nicolás Guillén Landrián
 * Tomás Gutiérrez Alea
 * Eduardo Manet
 * Orestes Matacena
 * Jorge Molina
 * Fernando Pérez
 * Mario Rivas
 * Jorge Luis Sánchez
 * Humberto Solás
 * Oscar Valdés
 * Humberto López y Guerra
 * Juan Carlos Tabío
 * Pastor Vega
 * Miguel Coyula
 * Ernesto Daranas

Actors and actresses

 * Ana de Armas
 * Beatriz Valdés
 * César Évora
 * Daisy Granados
 * Enrique Molina
 * Eva Méndez
 * Jorge Perugorría
 * Mario Cimarro
 * Mijail Mulkay
 * Orestes Matacena
 * Reinaldo Miravalles
 * Renny Arozarena
 * Rogelio Blaín
 * Sergio Corrieri
 * Tito Junco
 * Vladimir Cruz

Producers
элчхуй

Cuban films
A list of some of the more important Cuban films produced since 1959:

 * Las doce sillas - The Twelve Chairs (Tomás Gutiérrez Alea, 1962)
 * Muerte de un burócrata - Death of a Bureaucrat (Tomás Gutiérrez Alea, 1966)
 * Memorias del subdesarrollo - Memories of Underdevelopment (Tomás Gutiérrez Alea, 1968)
 * Lucía (Humberto Solás, 1969)
 * El hombre de Maisinicú - The Man from Maisinicú (Manuel Pérez (filmmaker), 1973) - entered into the 8th Moscow International Film Festival
 * De cierta manera - In a Certain Way (filming finished by Sara Gómez in 1973 before her death, technical work completed by Tomás Gutiérrez Alea before its release in 1977)
 * La última cena - The Last Supper (Tomás Gutiérrez Alea, 1976)
 * El brigadista - The Teacher (Octavio Cortázar, 1977)
 * Retrato de Teresa - Portrait of Teresa (Pastor Vega, 1979)
 * Los sobrevivientes - The Survivors (Tomás Gutiérrez Alea, 1979)
 * Guardafronteras - Coastguards (Octavio Cortázar, 1980)
 * Crónica de una infamia - Chronicle of an Infamy (Miguel Torres, 1982)
 * Los pájaros tirándole a la escopeta - Birds Shooting the Shotgun (Rolando Díaz, 1982)
 * Vampiros en La Habana - Vampires in Havana! (Juan Padrón, 1983)
 * Hasta cierto punto - Up to a Certain Point (Tomás Gutiérrez Alea, 1983)
 * Se permuta - House for Swap (Juan Carlos Tabío, 1984)
 * El bohío - The Hut (Mario Rivas, 1985)
 * De tal Pedro tal astilla (Luis Felipe Bernaza, 1985)
 * Clandestinos - Clandestines (Fernando Pérez, 1987)
 * Plaff - Too Afraid of Life or Splat (Juan Carlos Tabío, 1988)
 * La bella del Alhambra - The Beauty of the Alhambra (Enrique Pineda Barnet, 1989)
 * Strawberry and Chocolate - (Tomás Gutiérrez Alea and Juan Carlos Tabío, 1993)
 * Cubacollage (Miguel Torres, 1998)
 * Madagascar - (Fernando Pérez, 1994)
 * Guantanemera (Tomás Gutiérrez Alea and Juan Carlos Tabío, 1995)
 * La Vida es Silbar - Life is a Whistle (Fernando Pérez, 1998)
 * Lista de Espera - The Waiting List (Juan Carlos Tabío, 2000)
 * Suite Habana - Havana Suite (Fernando Pérez, 2003)
 * Habana Blues - Havana Blues (Benito Zambrano, 2005)
 * El Benny - (Jorge Luis Sánchez, 2006)
 * Los dioses rotos - Fallen Gods (Ernesto Daranas, 2008)
 * Memories of Overdevelopment - (Miguel Coyula, 2010)
 * Conducta - Behavior (Ernesto Daranas, 2014)
 * Sergio & Serguéi - Sergio & Sergei (Ernesto Daranas, 2017)

title: Cinema of Cuba


text:
Dan I of Wallachia

Dan I (1354 – 23 September 1386) was the ruler of Wallachia from 1383 to 1386. He was the son of Radu I of Wallachia and the half-brother of Mircea I of Wallachia.

The circumstances surrounding his death are unclear. Laonikos Chalkokondyles claims that he was assassinated by his stepbrother Mircea I in collusion with a boyar party. However, the Anonymous Bulgarian Chronicle states that Dan I was assassinated during a campaign fought between 1384–1386 against Ivan Shishman of Tarnovo, who was backed by the Ottomans, purportedly in favour of his half-brother Ivan Sratsimir of Vidin, but ultimately part of the early Wallachian rulers' attempts to expand their rule south of the Danube.

Dan I's descendants were members of the House of Dăneşti, one of the two factions descended from Basarab I, that were claimants to the voivodeship of the Principality of Wallachia in subsequent centuries. The other rival faction was the House of Drăculeşti.

title: Dan I of Wallachia