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Grasshopper

Grasshoppers are a group of insects belonging to the suborder Caelifera. They are amongst what are possibly the most ancient living groups of chewing herbivorous insects, dating back to the early Triassic around 250 million years ago.

Grasshoppers are typically ground-dwelling insects with powerful hind legs which allow them to escape from threats by leaping vigorously. Their front legs are shorter and used for grasping food. As hemimetabolous insects, they do not undergo complete metamorphosis; they hatch from an egg into a nymph or "hopper" which undergoes five moults, becoming more similar to the adult insect at each developmental stage. The grasshopper hears through the tympanal organ which can be found in the first segment of the abdomen attached to the thorax; while its sense of vision is in the compound eyes, the change in light intensity is perceived in the simple eyes (ocelli). At high population densities and under certain environmental conditions, some grasshopper species can change colour and behavior and form swarms. Under these circumstances, they are known as locusts.

Grasshoppers are plant-eaters, with a few species at times becoming serious pests of cereals, vegetables and pasture, especially when they swarm in the millions as locusts and destroy crops over wide areas. They protect themselves from predators by camouflage; when detected, many species attempt to startle the predator with a brilliantly coloured wing flash while jumping and (if adult) launching themselves into the air, usually flying for only a short distance. Other species such as the rainbow grasshopper have warning coloration which deters predators. Grasshoppers are affected by parasites and various diseases, and many predatory creatures feed on both nymphs and adults. The eggs are subject to attack by parasitoids and predators. Grasshoppers are diurnal insects—meaning, they are most active during the day time.

Grasshoppers have had a long relationship with humans. Swarms of locusts can have devastating effects and cause famine, having done so since Biblical times. Even in smaller numbers, the insects can be serious pests. They are used as food in countries such as Mexico and Indonesia. They feature in art, symbolism and literature. The study of grasshopper species is called acridology.

Phylogeny
Grasshoppers belong to the suborder Caelifera. Although "grasshopper" has been used as a common name for the suborder in general,  modern sources restrict it to the more "evolved" families. They may be placed in the infraorder Acrididea and have been referred to as "short-horned grasshoppers" in older texts to distinguish them from the also-obsolete term "long-horned grasshoppers" (now bush-crickets or katydids) with their much longer antennae. The phylogeny of the Caelifera, based on mitochondrial ribosomal RNA of thirty-two taxa in six out of seven superfamilies, is shown as a cladogram. The Ensifera (crickets, etc.), Caelifera and all the superfamilies of grasshoppers except Pamphagoidea appear to be monophyletic.

In evolutionary terms, the split between the Caelifera and the Ensifera is no more recent than the Permo-Triassic boundary; the earliest insects that are certainly Caeliferans are in the extinct families Locustopseidae and Locustavidae from the early Triassic, roughly 250 million years ago. The group diversified during the Triassic and have remained important plant-eaters from that time to now. The first modern families such as the Eumastacidae, Tetrigidae and Tridactylidae appeared in the Cretaceous, though some insects that might belong to the last two of these groups are found in the early Jurassic. Morphological classification is difficult because many taxa have converged towards a common habitat type; recent taxonomists have concentrated on the internal genitalia, especially those of the male. This information is not available from fossil specimens, and the palaeontological taxonomy is founded principally on the venation of the hindwings.

The Caelifera includes some 2,400 valid genera and about 11,000 known species. Many undescribed species probably exist, especially in tropical wet forests. The Caelifera have a predominantly tropical distribution with fewer species known from temperate zones, but most of the superfamilies have representatives worldwide. They are almost exclusively herbivorous and are probably the oldest living group of chewing herbivorous insects.

The most diverse superfamily is the Acridoidea, with around 8,000 species. The two main families in this are the Acrididae (grasshoppers and locusts) with a worldwide distribution, and the Romaleidae (lubber grasshoppers), found chiefly in the New World. The Ommexechidae and Tristiridae are South American, and the Lentulidae, Lithidiidae and Pamphagidae are mainly African. The Pauliniids are nocturnal and can swim or skate on water, and the Lentulids are wingless. Pneumoridae are native to Africa, particularly southern Africa, and are distinguished by the inflated abdomens of the males.

Characteristics
Grasshoppers have the typical insect body plan of head, thorax, and abdomen. The head is held vertically at an angle to the body, with the mouth at the bottom. The head bears a large pair of compound eyes which give all-round vision, three simple eyes which can detect light and dark, and a pair of thread-like antennae that are sensitive to touch and smell. The downward-directed mouthparts are modified for chewing and there are two sensory palps in front of the jaws.

The thorax and abdomen are segmented and have a rigid cuticle made up of overlapping plates composed of chitin. The three fused thoracic segments bear three pairs of legs and two pairs of wings. The forewings, known as tegmina, are narrow and leathery while the hindwings are large and membranous, the veins providing strength. The legs are terminated by claws for gripping. The hind leg is particularly powerful; the femur is robust and has several ridges where different surfaces join and the inner ridges bear stridulatory pegs in some species. The posterior edge of the tibia bears a double row of spines and there are a pair of articulated spurs near its lower end. The interior of the thorax houses the muscles that control the wings and legs.

The abdomen has eleven segments, the first of which is fused to the thorax and contains the tympanal organ and hearing system. Segments two to eight are ring-shaped and joined by flexible membranes. Segments nine to eleven are reduced in size; segment nine bears a pair of cerci and segments ten and eleven have the reproductive organs. Female grasshoppers are normally larger than males, with short ovipositors. The name of the suborder "Caelifera" comes from the Latin and means chisel-bearing, referring to the shape of the ovipositor.

Those species that make easily heard noises usually do so by rubbing a row of pegs on the hind legs against the edges of the forewings (stridulation). These sounds are produced mainly by males to attract females, though in some species the females also stridulate.

Grasshoppers may be confused with crickets, but they differ in many aspects; these include the number of segments in their antennae and the structure of the ovipositor, as well as the location of the tympanal organ and the methods by which sound is produced. Ensiferans have antennae that can be much longer than the body and have at least 20–24 segments, while caeliferans have fewer segments in their shorter, stouter antennae.

Diet and digestion

Most grasshoppers are polyphagous, eating vegetation from multiple plant sources, but some are omnivorous and also eat animal tissue and animal faeces. In general their preference is for grasses, including many cereals grown as crops. The digestive system is typical of insects, with Malpighian tubules discharging into the midgut. Carbohydrates are digested mainly in the crop, while proteins are digested in the ceca of the midgut. Saliva is abundant but largely free of enzymes, helping to move food and Malpighian secretions along the gut. Some grasshoppers possess cellulase, which by softening plant cell walls makes plant cell contents accessible to other digestive enzymes. Grasshoppers can also be cannibalistic when swarming.

Sensory organs
Grasshoppers have a typical insect nervous system, and have an extensive set of external sense organs. On the side of the head are a pair of large compound eyes which give a broad field of vision and can detect movement, shape, colour and distance. There are also three simple eyes (ocelli) on the forehead which can detect light intensity, a pair of antennae containing olfactory (smell) and touch receptors, and mouthparts containing gustatory (taste) receptors. At the front end of the abdomen there is a pair of tympanal organs for sound reception. There are numerous fine hairs (setae) covering the whole body that act as mechanoreceptors (touch and wind sensors), and these are most dense on the antennae, the palps (part of the mouth), and on the cerci at the tip of the abdomen. There are special receptors (campaniform sensillae) embedded in the cuticle of the legs that sense pressure and cuticle distortion. There are internal "chordotonal" sense organs specialized to detect position and movement about the joints of the exoskeleton. The receptors convey information to the central nervous system through sensory neurons, and most of these have their cell bodies located in the periphery near the receptor site itself.

Circulation and respiration
Like other insects, grasshoppers have an open circulatory system and their body cavities are filled with haemolymph. A heart-like structure in the upper part of the abdomen pumps the fluid to the head from where it percolates past the tissues and organs on its way back to the abdomen. This system circulates nutrients throughout the body and carries metabolic wastes to be excreted into the gut. Other functions of the haemolymph include wound healing, heat transfer and the provision of hydrostatic pressure, but the circulatory system is not involved in gaseous exchange. Respiration is performed using tracheae, air-filled tubes, which open at the surfaces of the thorax and abdomen through pairs of valved spiracles. Larger insects may need to actively ventilate their bodies by opening some spiracles while others remain closed, using abdominal muscles to expand and contract the body and pump air through the system.

Jumping
Grasshoppers jump by extending their large back legs and pushing against the substrate (the ground, a twig, a blade of grass or whatever else they are standing on); the reaction force propels them into the air. A large grasshopper, such as a locust, can jump about a metre (20 body lengths) without using its wings; the acceleration peaks at about 20 g.

They jump for several reasons; to escape from a predator, to launch themselves into flight, or simply to move from place to place. For the escape jump in particular there is strong selective pressure to maximize take-off velocity, since this determines the range. This means that the legs must thrust against the ground with both high force and a high velocity of movement. A fundamental property of muscle is that it cannot contract with high force and high velocity at the same time. Grasshoppers overcome this by using a catapult mechanism to amplify the mechanical power produced by their muscles.

The jump is a three-stage process. First, the grasshopper fully flexes the lower part of the leg (tibia) against the upper part (femur) by activating the flexor tibiae muscle (the back legs of the grasshopper in the top photograph are in this preparatory position). Second, there is a period of co-contraction in which force builds up in the large, pennate extensor tibiae muscle, but the tibia is kept flexed by the simultaneous contraction of the flexor tibiae muscle. The extensor muscle is much stronger than the flexor muscle, but the latter is aided by specialisations in the joint that give it a large effective mechanical advantage over the former when the tibia is fully flexed. Co-contraction can last for up to half a second, and during this period the extensor muscle shortens and stores elastic strain energy by distorting stiff cuticular structures in the leg. The extensor muscle contraction is quite slow (almost isometric), which allows it to develop high force (up to 14 N in the desert locust), but because it is slow only low power is needed. The third stage of the jump is the trigger relaxation of the flexor muscle, which releases the tibia from the flexed position. The subsequent rapid tibial extension is driven mainly by the relaxation of the elastic structures, rather than by further shortening of the extensor muscle. In this way the stiff cuticle acts like the elastic of a catapult, or the bow of a bow-and-arrow. Energy is put into the store at low power by slow but strong muscle contraction, and retrieved from the store at high power by rapid relaxation of the mechanical elastic structures.

Stridulation
Male grasshoppers spend much of the day stridulating, singing more actively under optimal conditions and being more subdued when conditions are adverse; females also stridulate, but their efforts are insignificant when compared to the males. Late-stage male nymphs can sometimes be seen making stridulatory movements, although they lack the equipment to make sounds, demonstrating the importance of this behavioural trait. The songs are a means of communication; the male stridulation seems to express reproductive maturity, the desire for social cohesion and individual well-being. Social cohesion becomes necessary among grasshoppers because of their ability to jump or fly large distances, and the song can serve to limit dispersal and guide others to favourable habitat. The generalised song can vary in phraseology and intensity, and is modified in the presence of a rival male, and changes again to a courtship song when a female is nearby. In male grasshoppers of the family Pneumoridae, the enlarged abdomen amplifies stridulation.

Life cycle
In most grasshopper species, conflicts between males over females rarely escalate beyond ritualistic displays. Some exceptions include the chameleon grasshopper (Kosciuscola tristis), where males may fight on top of ovipositing females; engaging in leg grappling, biting, kicking and mounting.

The newly emerged female grasshopper has a preoviposition period of a week or two while she increases in weight and her eggs mature. After mating, the female of most species digs a hole with her ovipositor and lays a batch of eggs in a pod in the ground near food plants, generally in the summer. After laying the eggs, she covers the hole with soil and litter. Some, like the semi-aquatic Cornops aquaticum, deposit the pod directly into plant tissue. The eggs in the pod are glued together with a froth in some species. After a few weeks of development, the eggs of most species in temperate climates go into diapause, and pass the winter in this state. Diapause is broken by a sufficiently low ground temperature, with development resuming as soon as the ground warms above a certain threshold temperature. The embryos in a pod generally all hatch out within a few minutes of each other. They soon shed their membranes and their exoskeletons harden. These first instar nymphs can then jump away from predators.

Grasshoppers undergo incomplete metamorphosis: they repeatedly moult, each instar becoming larger and more like an adult, with the wing-buds increasing in size at each stage. The number of instars varies between species but is often six. After the final moult, the wings are inflated and become fully functional. The migratory grasshopper, Melanoplus sanguinipes, spends about 25 to 30 days as a nymph, depending on sex and temperature, and lives for about 51 days as an adult.

Swarming

Locusts are the swarming phase of certain species of short-horned grasshoppers in the family Acrididae. Swarming behaviour is a response to overcrowding. Increased tactile stimulation of the hind legs causes an increase in levels of serotonin. This causes the grasshopper to change colour, feed more and breed faster. The transformation of a solitary individual into a swarming one is induced by several contacts per minute over a short period.

Following this transformation, under suitable conditions dense nomadic bands of flightless nymphs known as "hoppers" can occur, producing pheromones which attract the insects to each other. With several generations in a year, the locust population can build up from localised groups into vast accumulations of flying insects known as plagues, devouring all the vegetation they encounter. The largest recorded locust swarm was one formed by the now-extinct Rocky Mountain locust in 1875; the swarm was 1800 mi long and 110 mi wide, and one estimate puts the number of locusts involved at 3.5 trillion. An adult desert locust can eat about 2 g of plant material each day, so the billions of insects in a large swarm can be very destructive, stripping all the foliage from plants in an affected area and consuming stems, flowers, fruits, seeds and bark.

Predators, parasites, and pathogens
Grasshoppers have a wide range of predators at different stages of their lives; eggs are eaten by bee-flies, ground beetles and blister beetles; hoppers and adults are taken by other insects such as ants and, robber flies and sphecid wasps, by spiders, and by many birds and small mammals including dogs and cats.

The eggs and nymphs are under attack by parasitoids including blow flies, flesh flies, and tachinid flies. External parasites of adults and nymphs include mites. Female grasshoppers parasitised by mites produce fewer eggs and thus have fewer offspring than unaffected individuals.

The grasshopper nematode (Mermis nigrescens) is a long slender worm that infects grasshoppers, living in the insects' hemocoel. Adult worms lay eggs on plants and the host becomes infected when the foliage is eaten. Spinochordodes tellinii and Paragordius tricuspidatus are parasitic worms that infect grasshoppers and alter the behaviour of their hosts. When the worms are sufficiently developed, the grasshopper is persuaded to leap into a nearby body of water where it drowns, thus enabling the parasite to continue with the next stage of its life cycle, which takes place in water.

Grasshoppers are affected by diseases caused by bacteria, viruses, fungi and protozoa. The bacteria Serratia marcescens and Pseudomonas aeruginosa have both been implicated in causing disease in grasshoppers, as has the entomopathogenic fungus Beauveria bassiana. This widespread fungus has been used to control various pest insects around the world, but although it infects grasshoppers, the infection is not usually lethal because basking in the sun has the result of raising the insects' temperature above a threshold tolerated by the fungus. The fungal pathogen Entomophaga grylli is able to influence the behaviour of its grasshopper host, causing it to climb to the top of a plant and cling to the stem as it dies. This ensures wide dispersal of the fungal spores liberated from the corpse.

The fungal pathogen Metarhizium acridum is found in Africa, Australia and Brazil where it has caused epizootics in grasshoppers. It is being investigated for possible use as a microbial insecticide for locust control. The microsporidian fungus Nosema locustae, once considered to be a protozoan, can be lethal to grasshoppers. It has to be consumed by mouth and is the basis for a bait-based commercial microbial pesticide. Various other microsporidians and protozoans are found in the gut.

Anti-predator defences
Grasshoppers exemplify a range of anti-predator adaptations, enabling them to avoid detection, to escape if detected, and in some cases to avoid being eaten if captured. Grasshoppers are often camouflaged to avoid detection by predators that hunt by sight; some species can change their coloration to suit their surroundings.

Several species such as the hooded leaf grasshopper Phyllochoreia ramakrishnai (Eumastacoidea) are detailed mimics of leaves. Stick grasshoppers (Proscopiidae) mimic wooden sticks in form and coloration. Grasshoppers often have deimatic patterns on their wings, giving a sudden flash of bright colours that may startle predators long enough to give time to escape in a combination of jump and flight.

Some species are genuinely aposematic, having both bright warning coloration and sufficient toxicity to dissuade predators. Dictyophorus productus (Pyrgomorphidae) is a "heavy, bloated, sluggish insect" that makes no attempt to hide; it has a bright red abdomen. A Cercopithecus monkey that ate other grasshoppers refused to eat the species. Another species, the rainbow or painted grasshopper of Arizona, Dactylotum bicolor (Acridoidea), has been shown by experiment with a natural predator, the little striped whiptail lizard, to be aposematic.

In art and media
Grasshoppers are occasionally depicted in artworks, such as the Dutch Golden Age painter Balthasar van der Ast's still life oil painting, Flowers in a Vase with Shells and Insects, c. 1630, now in the National Gallery, London, though the insect may be a bush-cricket.

Another orthopteran is found in Rachel Ruysch's still life Flowers in a Vase, c. 1685. The seemingly static scene is animated by a "grasshopper on the table that looks about ready to spring", according to the gallery curator Betsy Wieseman, with other invertebrates including a spider, an ant, and two caterpillars.

Grasshoppers are also featured in cinema. The 1957 film Beginning of the End portrayed giant grasshoppers attacking Chicago. In the 1998 Disney/Pixar animated film A Bug's Life, the antagonists are a gang of grasshoppers, with their leader Hopper serving as the main villain.

The protagonists of the 1971 tokusatsu series Kamen Rider primarily carry a grasshopper motif (for example Kamen Rider Black's Batta Man form), which continues to serve as the baseline visual template for most entries in the media franchise it has given birth to since.

Symbolism

Grasshoppers are sometimes used as symbols. During the Greek Archaic Era, the grasshopper was the symbol of the polis of Athens, possibly because they were among the most common insects on the dry plains of Attica. Native Athenians for a while wore golden grasshopper brooches to symbolise that they were of pure Athenian lineage with no foreign ancestors. In addition, Peisistratus hung the figure of a kind of grasshopper before the Acropolis of Athens as apotropaic magic.

Another symbolic use of the grasshopper is Sir Thomas Gresham's gilded grasshopper in Lombard Street, London, dating from 1563; the building was for a while the headquarters of the Guardian Royal Exchange, but the company declined to use the symbol for fear of confusion with the locust.

Grasshoppers appearing in dreams have been interpreted as symbols of "Freedom, independence, spiritual enlightenment, inability to settle down or commit to decision". Locusts are taken literally to mean devastation of crops in the case of farmers; figuratively as "wicked men and women" for non-farmers; and "Extravagance, misfortune, & ephemeral happiness" by "gypsies".

As food

In some countries, grasshoppers are used as food. In southern Mexico, grasshoppers, known as chapulines, are eaten in a variety of dishes, such as in tortillas with chilli sauce. Grasshoppers are served on skewers in some Chinese food markets, like the Donghuamen Night Market. Fried grasshoppers (walang goreng) are eaten in the Gunung Kidul Regency, Yogyakarta, Java in Indonesia. Grasshoppers are a beloved delicacy in Uganda; they are usually eaten fried (most commonly in November and May after the rains). In America, the Ohlone burned grassland to herd grasshoppers into pits where they could be collected as food.

It is recorded in the Bible that John the Baptist ate locusts and wild honey (Greek: ἀκρίδες καὶ μέλι ἄγριον, akrídes kaì méli ágrion) while living in the wilderness. However, because of a tradition of depicting him as an ascetic, attempts have been made to explain that the locusts were in fact a suitably ascetic vegetarian food such as carob beans, notwithstanding the fact that the word ἀκρίδες means plainly grasshoppers.

In recent years, with the search for alternative healthy and sustainable protein sources, grasshoppers are being cultivated by commercial companies operating grasshopper farms and are being used as food and protein supplements.

As pests

Grasshoppers eat large quantities of foliage both as adults and during their development, and can be serious pests of arid land and prairies. Pasture, grain, forage, vegetable and other crops can be affected. Grasshoppers often bask in the sun, and thrive in warm sunny conditions, so drought stimulates an increase in grasshopper populations. A single season of drought is not normally sufficient to stimulate a major population increase, but several successive dry seasons can do so, especially if the intervening winters are mild so that large numbers of nymphs survive. Although sunny weather stimulates growth, there needs to be an adequate food supply for the increasing grasshopper population. This means that although precipitation is needed to stimulate plant growth, prolonged periods of cloudy weather will slow nymphal development.

Grasshoppers can best be prevented from becoming pests by manipulating their environment. Shade provided by trees will discourage them and they may be prevented from moving onto developing crops by removing coarse vegetation from fallow land and field margins and discouraging thick growth beside ditches and on roadside verges. With increasing numbers of grasshoppers, predator numbers may increase, but this seldom happens rapidly enough to have much effect on populations. Biological control is being investigated, and spores of the protozoan parasite Nosema locustae can be used mixed with bait to control grasshoppers, being more effective with immature insects. On a small scale, neem products can be effective as a feeding deterrent and as a disruptor of nymphal development. Insecticides can be used, but adult grasshoppers are difficult to kill, and as they move into fields from surrounding rank growth, crops may soon become reinfested.

Some grasshopper species, like the Chinese rice grasshopper, are a pest in rice paddies. Ploughing exposes the eggs on the surface of the field, to be destroyed by sunshine or eaten by natural enemies. Some eggs may be buried too deeply in the soil for hatching to take place.

Locust plagues can have devastating effects on human populations, causing famines and population upheavals. They are mentioned in both the Qur’an and the Bible and have also been held responsible for cholera epidemics, resulting from the corpses of locusts drowned in the Mediterranean Sea and decomposing on beaches. The FAO and other organisations monitor locust activity around the world. Timely application of pesticides can prevent nomadic bands of hoppers from forming before dense swarms of adults can build up. Besides conventional control using contact insecticides, biological pest control using the entomopathogenic fungus Metarhizium acridum, which specifically infects grasshoppers, has been used with some success.

Detection of explosives
In February 2020, researchers from Washington University in St. Louis announced they had engineered "cyborg grasshoppers" capable of accurately detecting explosives. In the project, funded by the US Office of Naval Research, researchers fitted grasshoppers with lightweight sensor backpacks that recorded and transmitted the electrical activity of their antennal lobes to a computer. According to the researchers, the grasshoppers were able to detect the location of the highest concentration of explosives. The researchers also tested the effect of combining sensorial information from several grasshoppers on detection accuracy. The neural activity from seven grasshoppers yielded an average detection accuracy rate of 80%, whereas a single grasshopper yielded a 60% rate.

In literature
The Egyptian word for locust or grasshopper was written snḥm in the consonantal hieroglyphic writing system. The pharaoh Ramesses II compared the armies of the Hittites to locusts: "They covered the mountains and valleys and were like locusts in their multitude."

One of Aesop's Fables, later retold by La Fontaine, is the tale of The Ant and the Grasshopper. The ant works hard all summer, while the grasshopper plays. In winter, the ant is ready but the grasshopper starves. Somerset Maugham's short story "The Ant and the Grasshopper" explores the fable's symbolism via complex framing. Other human weaknesses besides improvidence have become identified with the grasshopper's behaviour. So an unfaithful woman (hopping from man to man) is "a grasshopper" in "Poprygunya", an 1892 short story by Anton Chekhov, and in Jerry Paris's 1969 film The Grasshopper.

In mechanical engineering

The name "Grasshopper" was given to the Aeronca L-3 and Piper L-4 light aircraft, both used for reconnaissance and other support duties in World War II. The name is said to have originated when Major General Innis P. Swift saw a Piper making a rough landing and remarked that it looked like a grasshopper for its bouncing progress.

Grasshopper beam engines were beam engines pivoted at one end, the long horizontal arm resembling the hind leg of a grasshopper. The type was patented by William Freemantle in 1803.

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Coulee

Coulee, or coulée ( or ) is a term applied rather loosely to different landforms, all of which refer to a kind of valley or drainage zone. The word coulee comes from the Canadian French coulée, from French couler 'to flow'.

The term is often used interchangeably in the Great Plains for any number of water features, from ponds to creeks.

In southern Louisiana the word coulée (also spelled coolie) originally meant a gully or ravine usually dry or intermittent but becoming sizable during rainy weather. As stream channels were dredged or canalized, the term was increasingly applied to perennial streams, generally smaller than bayous. The term is also used for small ditches or canals in the swamp.

In the northwestern United States, coulee is defined as a large, steep-walled, trench-like trough, which also include spillways and flood channels incised into the basalt plateau.

Types and examples

 * The dry, braided channels formed by glacial drainage of the Scablands of eastern Washington, such as Grand Coulee and Moses Coulee. Moses Coulee and Lenore Canyon, lower Grand Coulee, have hanging valleys, where pre-flood tributaries enter the coulees at least 100 m above the coulee floor.
 * The furrowed moraines channeling rain runoff in the area east of the Missouri Coteau in the western United States and western Canada at the base of the Rocky Mountains.
 * In the western United States, tongue-like protrusions of solidified lava, forming a sort of canyon.
 * In Wisconsin it is applied to valleys. These valleys tend to have high, steep walls. "Hollow" is used as a synonym, often for the smallest of such valleys. The term is also applied to the greater La Crosse, Wisconsin metropolitan area (i.e. the "Coulee Region").
 * The Gassman Coulee in North Dakota may have been a contributing factor to the flooding of the Souris River in June 2011.

Geomorphology

Aside from those formed by volcanic eruptions, coulees are commonly canyons characterized by steep walls that have been shaped by erosion. These types of coulees are generally found in the northwestern United States and southwestern Canada. In the American west, rapid melting of glaciers at the end of the last ice age caused catastrophic flooding which removed bedrock by massive down-cutting erosion, forming deep canyons. Some coulees may be seasonally dry or contain small streams, however these small misfit streams do not have the magnitude of force necessary to form such expansive erosion.

In Wisconsin, they are the product of nearly a half million years of erosion, unmodified by glaciation (see Driftless Area ). The loose rocks at the base of the wall form what are called scree slopes. These are formed when chunks of the canyon wall give way in a rockslide. Left alone, the valleys are often woodland, with the ridgetops transitioning into tallgrass prairie when not turned into pasture or used for row crops.

Coulees provide shelter from wind and concentrated water supplies to plants which would otherwise struggle to survive in the xeric sagebrush steppe. Trees are often found in riparian habitats along streams in coulees and at the base of their walls.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Coulee


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Talk:Rock music in Australia

Focus
Erm, isn't this article getting a bit confused with Music of Australia? Definitely! But, it is also getting confused with Timeline of trends in Australian music. Really all three of these articles have a problem with focus. I've given "timeline of trends" a bit of help, but I'm not sure if I've done well. Do you think you could fix it up?

There is quite a bit of information in this article that should be in the timeline page.114.73.1.145 (talk) 07:06, 29 August 2009 (UTC)

In the 90s, and to a lesser extent in the introduction, it talks about electronica, acid jazz, electropop, hip hop...and not a whole lot of rock. Guy Sebastian and Shannon Noll? That's almost laughable. It is. This article should be entirely about Australian rock, not rap, jazz, pop, country or anything else. Look to the timeline for ideas.114.73.1.145 (talk) 07:06, 29 August 2009 (UTC)

Is anyone going to mind too much if most of the 1994s and 2000s section of this article goes for a walk over to the main music article? Ambi 10:11, 27 Sep 2004 (UTC) Well, I don't.114.73.1.145 (talk) 07:06, 29 August 2009 (UTC)

Frank Ifield was English
He was born in Coventry, Engand and he was a country singer, not rock.

 * Please sign your posts on talk pages, User:Ogg. I see this post is a while ago now when you were new here, so I guess you've picked the form up by now. This is mainly to identify you for anyone else reading the page. Andrewa 03:16, 26 September 2005 (UTC)

The second wave
My impression is that this article doesn't do justice to the contribution that Australian bands made to the international scene in the mid-sixties, particularly in the area of use of distortion on rhythm guitar which would eventually become the power chord.

Bands such as The Easybeats, Billy Thorpe and the Aztecs, and particularly The Masters Apprentices come to mind. Their hits may have been local, but when you compare their sounds to those of international bands just a little later, ISTM that overseas musicians were listening to our bands even if the record companies wouldn't release their stuff over there for the public to buy.

Music of Australia has a bit of material, but Music of Australia is almost empty. Andrewa 03:39, 26 September 2005 (UTC)

 * I agree, though there's a lot of things that this article really lacks. It's still being used as a synonym for Music of Australia - I remember removing Guy Sebastian from this article, and even now it still has a whole section on hip hop, of all things. It'd be lovely if someone could clean it up, focus on the topic, and remove the lengthy sections about specific bands. Ambi 14:49, 26 September 2005 (UTC)

 * Right now the "Second wave" section, like all of the others lacks sources and references. And, the thing about that music critic doesn't seem to belong there (I am not denying her accomplishments, but that they should be discussed elsewhere).  This section should focus more on the music and bands/artists of the period.  If a critic didn't have something specific to say about this music, then he/she becomes irrelevant (in this context).  Also, there is way too much discussion about record companies--a little bit of mention of them is OK, but, beyond that, this is not the place.  Garagepunk66 (talk) 00:25, 9 July 2014 (UTC)

Amazing Article
Just had to comment on what an absolutely fantastic article this is. Well done to everyone involved. --Biggles 16:40, 23 April 2006 (UTC)

 * I hope you're joking. It focuses way too much on a handful of specific bands, fails dismally to give a true overview of the area, and talks about way too much stuff that isn't rock. It wasn't that long ago that I had to continually evict Guy Sebastian from the article. Ambi 00:41, 24 April 2006 (UTC)

 * Hence my sarcasm, sorry that wasn't clear. --Biggles 18:29, 25 April 2006 (UTC)

 * So few of the previous editors even took the time to include references and sources (see the thread below--I put it there to draw attention to this glaring defect). A lot of the writing is sloppy, to boot. But, this does have potential to become a great article--its going to take a ton of work, though.  Garagepunk66 (talk) 10:04, 5 July 2014 (UTC)

Oz Rock
The musical style of many of the bands in the article is frequently called "Oz Rock", especially the music of Ackadacka, Powderfinger, Daddy Cool, Chisel and quite a few others. Does anyone know the origin and/or significance of the term, and is it worth a mention on the page? I was actually quite surprised to find that "Oz Rock" was not the article title.--ABVS 07:49, 23 October 2006 (UTC)

Plagiarism!
Check out http://en.allexperts.com/e/a/au/australian_rock.htm

Exactly the same!

I think someone needs to write some original content on the topic.

Anon —The preceding unsigned comment was added by 203.169.19.155 (talk) 10:16, 19 March 2007 (UTC).

 * The material on that site looks like it was plagarised from here, not the other way around. --BrianFG (talk) 02:20, 6 February 2008 (UTC)

Fair use rationale for Image:Love this city.jpg
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Fair use rationale for Image:Savagegardenalbum.jpg
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BetacommandBot (talk) 05:02, 24 January 2008 (UTC)

Citation
Can we get a citation or removal of the comment that australian rock doesn't really have a distinctive sound. One would argue quite easily that that isn't the case. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 58.165.107.1 (talk) 13:40, 27 January 2008 (UTC)

Lobby Loydd and the Coloured Balls
Why is there no mention of Lobby Loydd and the Coloured Balls. This band was had a heavy influence on punk bands and Lobby was cited as an influence of Kurt Cobain (according to Lobby's entry). The article is obviously incomplete without this section added.

58.168.48.254 (talk) 06:05, 15 April 2008 (UTC)Michael

JJ's Importance
The importance placed on the role of JJ seems to be overstated, given that until it went national at the end of the '80s, it could barely have been transmitting to more than 1/4 of the nation's population. Is there much evidence that, for instance, it was substantially more influential than 4ZZZ, 3RRR or 3PBS, to name a few others that emerged elsewhere shortly thereafter?

 * re: JJ's importance

 * I'd argue that JJ was extremely influential. Although the station didn't get dedicated national network status until the late '80s, it was relayed after midnight through other stations in what is now the Radio National network in the late 1970s and early 80s. There were also indirect effects -- various broadcasts (e.g. the radio doco "The Ins and Outs of Love") caused a lot of comment and these early controversies were often nationally reported, particularly if they involved the perennial allegations of left-wing bias.

 * Also, although its transmissions were somewhat limited around Sydney due to local problems (dodgy on the north shore and eastern suburbs, great in the south and west) the 'ionospheric skip' effect on AM signals meant that after dark and under good conditions Double Jay could be picked up for hundreds of kms up and down the coast and out to the Blue Mountains and beyond, so it often reached far beyond the Sydney metro area.

 * I would also strongly argue that it had an immediate and profound effect on commercial radio programming in Sydney, which then extended to other stations around the country. It had an direct influence on its main commercial competitor, 2SM, and within a short period 2SM was forced to start adding popular singles and album tracks which -- originally -- 2JJ was the only station playing.

 * There is no question that many rising pop/rock acts of the period -- e.g. The Police, B-52s, etc who were first played on 2JJ -- were were not being played on commercial radio at first, but the popularity they gained through early exposure on 2JJ (and Countdown) eventually compelled commercial stations to pick them up. Within a very short period JJ was being used as a de facto programming research tool by commercial stations, who routinely added the most popular Double/Triple J tracks to their playlists and this continued for many years.

 * Another instance I often refer to is that of the 1976 album 801 Live. This was totally ignored by commercial radio and wasn't even locally released at first (a commmon problem in those days) but JJ promoted it greatly and it wound becoming the biggest-selling import album of the year, which eventually forced the record company into releasing it locally.

 * Dunks (talk) 00:29, 25 July 2008 (UTC)

non-rock (a continuation of Focus)
This information should not be in this article, because rock, dance and rap aren't really the same.

Australian enthusiasm for rap in the mid eighties was shown in the local craze for breaking after the success of American movies such as Beat Street and the popularity of Grandmaster Flash's The Message, and Run DMC's albums Run-DMC and Tougher Than Leather. Many Australians would have heard their first sample of rapping in an Australian accent in the 1989 television commercial for the Rosebank Stackhat bicycle helmet.

Electro-industrial/Intelligent dance music group Snog formed in 1988.

Def Wish Cast formed in Penrith in 1989 and emulated U.S. rappers in nearly all respects apart from using an American accent and Gangsta rap posturing.

Electronica label Psy-Harmonics was formed in 1993.

''In Australia, rave culture was thriving by 1991 and raving exploded in popularity in 1992. One of the attractions of the rave scene was the non-violent image of Ecstasy as opposed to the reputation of the pub scene as aggressive and confrontational. Another attraction of the newer dance music was the absence of focus on the person who created the music, with a focus on genre rather than artist. The music could fall into the background with little debate about the artistry involved.'' Why is this here?

Swirl was Australia's answer to the shoegazing phenomena. What is shoe-gazing?

''Sonic Animation was founded in 1994. Itch-E and Scratch-E formed in 1991. Clan Analogue was established in 1992.'' Who are these bands?

In 1979, Stewart MacFarlane was one of the first Australian musicians to record with a rapper, Willy B. This article is about rock, not rap.

Insurge released the "Political Prisoners" EP in 1995, featuring the techno anthem "Political Prisoners".

Far and away the biggest commercial success of the 1990s was electropop duo Savage Garden. They shot to fame in 1996, scoring huge hits in Australia, Asia, Europe and America. They became the first Australian act since Men At Work to score two #1 U.S. hits, and their 1999 album Affirmation sold over 5 million copies in the United States. alone. A 2004 report in The Sydney Morning Herald rated their album Savage Garden at #4 and "Affirmation" at #15 in the list of the 25 biggest-selling albums (from any country) over the last ten years in Australia. --> not relevant

''While overseas hip hop became increasingly popular in Australia in the early 1990s, particularly Public Enemy, whose sound became dated very quickly and the more enduring Beastie Boys, and a number of artists began performing it, virtually none of them were signed to record deals or saw mainstream airplay. Sound Unlimited Posse was signed to a major label in the 90s (CBS). Koolism released "Lift Ya Game" in 1998. Rock bands Big Pig (Payment), Skunkhour (Up To Our Necks In It), Beasts of Bourbon (Straight, Hard & Long) and Def FX incorporated rapping into their acts.'' I'm not quite sure if this paragraph should be in there.

Wicked Beat Sound System, whose sound was a mixture of electronica, dub and soul, typified the sort of music played at the Bondi festival Vibes on a Summer's Day.

Tina Arena became successful in France with pop hits such as "I Want to Spend My Lifetime Loving You".

Recently, bands such as Cut Copy, Decoder Ring, The Presets, The Potbelleez, Polo Club, Empire of the Sun and Pnau have made a name for themselves in the genre. Cut Copy frontman Dan Whitford has attributed the band's success to a change in public attitude as much as the band's quality, explaining "It's a case partly of timing and a growing awareness of electronic music in Australia". Pnau's first album, Sambanova, was released in 1999, at a time when many in Australia considered electronic music to be a dying breed. Nonetheless, the band traveled around the US and Europe, and slowly made a name for themselves, and for a rebirth of electronic music in the country.

Dubstep and Grime have become more available over the internet. Garage Pressure is a show on FBi Radio, dedicated to these genres.

Veteran electronic musicians Cybotron briefly united in the early part of the decade.

Most recently the Australian hip-hop scene has begun to gain national momentum through bands such as:
 * Hilltop Hoods
 * Bliss N Eso
 * Drapht
 * Phatchance
 * The Herd
 * Pez

All this information has been removed from the article, and should be placed in Music of Australia instead.114.73.43.232 (talk) 07:37, 15 September 2009 (UTC)

 * Agreed. This article is about rock. Hip-hop, rap, electronic music, and so on should be addressed elsewhere. 124.186.246.195 (talk) 05:47, 16 September 2009 (UTC)

And you've put all the information above in "Music of Australia"? If not, which parts? —Preceding unsigned comment added by 114.73.48.188 (talk) 06:17, 24 October 2009 (UTC)

Dangerous Goods???
Is this section completely made up? It looks like it, and I can't find any other information about them anywhere. Someone please verify. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 208.74.231.18 (talk) 14:49, 17 June 2010 (UTC)

Rock/Pop section needed.
Hoodoo Gurus are not a Darkwave band. They might just slip in under a general rock/pop category which clearly needs writing. There are many others that don't fit into the broad categories they've been put. I've removed Hoodoo Gurus from the Darkwave section which seems to lump a bunch of unrelated artists together and potentially needs to be dumped.

I suspect this is a genre applied in retrospect. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 81.159.215.141 (talk) 08:01, 17 October 2012 (UTC)

60s Garage rock needs more coverage

 * The first (and by far largest) Garage rock movement in Australia and New Zealand was in the 60s, not later, as this article makes it appear.  The "Second wave" section should mention how a lot of these bands were part of the whole 60s Garage rock phenomenon--the Australian version of garage rock, which is the historically correct way to view them.  That is how the best sources describe them--not so much the pop style bands like the Bee Gees, of course, but the plethora of harder edged groups (i.e. the Missing Links, the Throb, etc.).

 * There is a terrific book about the 1960s "Second wave" period. It is called Wild About You, by Ian D. Marks and Iain McIntyre. It is essential reading on this topic and should be the "go to" source for this section.  The vast array of bands profiled in Marks and McIntyre's book are spoken of in this manner ("garage"/60s "punk"), and, stylistically they do indeed have that sound.

 * In reference to the matter brought up at the top, in the "Second wave" section, I have added a sourced explanation of the garage rock phenomenon that took place in those countries in the 60s, which is absolutely crucial to understanding the period. I listed the book mentioned above in the "Specific references" section.  Furthermore, I changed the name of the section that had been titled "Garage rock" to "Garage rock revivalists," because the section had discussed the later 1980s period, not 60s.  It is the Wiki norm to use the term, "Garage rock" as an official category to designate mid 60s era garage rock.  While some more recent bands do, indeed, use the term "garage rock" to describe themselves (and that is perfectly OK, and Wiki can even make casual mention of this), the term should not be used as an official heading or title in this formal kind of way, particularly in a major article that covers such a wide time period.  We must avoid any possible confusion.  Garagepunk66 (talk) 03:31, 8 July 2014 (UTC) :::In reference to the matter brought up at the top, in the "Second wave" section, I have added a sourced explanation of the garage rock phenomenon that took place in those countries in the 60s, which is absolutely crucial to understanding the period.  I listed the book mentioned above in the "Specific references" section.  Furthermore, I changed the name of the section that had been titled "Garage rock" to "Garage rock revivalists," because the section had discussed the later 1980s period, not 60s.  It is the Wiki norm to use the term, "Garage rock" as an official category to designate mid 60s era garage rock.  While some more recent bands do, indeed, use the term "garage rock" to describe themselves (and that is perfectly OK, and Wiki can even make casual mention of this), the term should not be used as an official heading or title in this formal kind of way, particularly in a major article that covers such a wide time period.  We must avoid any possible confusion.  Garagepunk66 (talk) 03:31, 8 July 2014 (UTC)

 * In reference to the matter brought up at the top, in the "Second wave" section, I have added a sourced explanation of the garage rock phenomenon that took place in those countries in the 60s, which is absolutely crucial to understanding the period. I listed the book mentioned above in the "Specific references" section.  Furthermore, I changed the name of the section that had been titled "Garage rock" to "Garage rock revivalists," because the section had discussed the later 1980s period, not 60s.  It is the Wiki norm to use the term, "Garage rock" as an official category to designate mid 60s era garage rock.  While some more recent bands do, indeed, use the term "garage rock" to describe themselves (and that is perfectly OK, and Wiki can even make casual mention of this), the term should not be used as an official heading or title in this formal kind of way, particularly in a major article that covers such a wide time period.  We must avoid any possible confusion.  Garagepunk66 (talk) 03:31, 8 July 2014 (UTC)

 * 1) Excuse my ignorance but I don't know how widely the term "garage rock" was used in Australia during the 1960s. I see a lot of its use after the 1980s phenomenon of a similar name, which sometimes had "revival" appended. I agree that the "Second wave" subsection requires further work: I have just got around to start editing here. I began by reorganising the subsection's composition to deal with the beat boom first: from reliable sources (= RS) it was the most significant change of that era. From those RS I read that hard rock, suburban R&B, and heavy blues became more important later in that era. Consequently this phenomenon should be described after dealing with "beat boom".
 * 2) Marks and McIntyre: I haven't read the book but I have adapted the ref tabs to give page nos. Assuming good faith it appears to be another RS. The RS I'm using include: Cockington, Jenkins, Kimball, and McFarlane (the latter two have [online] versions). A balanced synthesis of a number of RS is best for this article.
 * 3) I have no preference out of "Garage rock" vs "Garage rock revivalists" for a subsubsection heading.shaidar cuebiyar (talk) 07:25, 10 July 2014 (UTC)

 * The term "garage rock," itself, was not used in the 60s, whether in the states, Australia, or elsewhere (although the term "garage band" was sometimes used to designate small time bands, individually speaking, here in the states). Garage rock was not yet identified as an actual genre at that time, but that was when the first and biggest thing happened.  The first time garage was identified as a genre came in the early 70s when certain influential American rock critics, such as Dave Marsh, Lester Bangs, Lenny Kaye, Greg Shaw, "Metal" Mike Saunders, and others used the term "punk rock" to designate the usually American 60s garage bands (and artists who had followed in their style), but they also extended the use of the term "punk" and the whole garage bands thing to other counties as well (i.e. Lester Bangs wrote of England's the Troggs as part of this genre).  Later, after the mid-70s punk scenes in New York and London (and Australia), the "punk" term became reserved for the post-1975 groups and "garage rock" or "protopunk" for the 60s (and early 70s) bands.  I have always felt that the 60s bands deserve the right to both of the titles, "garage rock" and "punk" (but not exclusively, of course).  I have always felt that 60s garage should properly be viewed as the first form of punk rock.  There is no historical or musicological reason to do otherwise (except that so many people require the whole subculture self-identification thing that came after 1975).  I have written extensively on this on talk pages (see Garage rock, Punk rock, and other articles).  The link to garage rock will give you a basic explanation, but that article is in need of growth, for instance, it could do more to recognize 60s garage outside of North America, in places such as Australia).

 * Garage punk is another term often also used (by both "moderns" and "retros"). I realize that all of these terms can be used for different eras, including later periods, and I think that in places such as Australia and Japan, the term "garage rock" may be popular for post-1980 bands.  Wiki uses "garage rock" to refer to the mid 60s and "garage punk" to refer to more recent music.

 * Concerning garage in Australia during the 60s: You absolutely must read Wild about You, by Ian Marks and Iain McIntyre. It is a very informative book.  There was a huge garage thing going on in Australia and New Zealand (like America) in the mid 60s.  Australia easily had the second biggest garage boom to the United States (here in the states in the suburbs circa 1965- 1967, there was a little band playing in a garage or rec room on practically every other block--this is where the term garage derives).  There may have been close to a hundred thousand or more recordings made, just here in the states alone, but also a lot in Australia. You will notice that Marks and McIntyre often use the terms "garage" and "punk" (never "protopunk"--although Wiki has to use that "proto" term for the 60s, due to popular misconception, even in the majority of  RS's) for the 60s Australian bands. Garagepunk66 (talk) 03:40, 11 July 2014 (UTC)

 * I noticed that you created a two new sub-headings, "Beat boom pop and rock" and "Harder R&B rock." I'm not sure if either are quite right.  I have a problem with the latter, because, though many of those bands did, indeed, have R&B influence, they were not exactly R&B or R&B rock.  I have never heard the music of these bands referred to as "R&B rock."  The name most often used is "garage," and that would be the best sub-heading, if one is to be used at all.  That how Marks & McIntyre portray them.

 * Another problem: the way the two sub-headings are juxtaposed is that they make it look as if most of the beat boom was mostly lite pop, which was definitely not so, and that the garage stuff was something separate form the beat boom. When, it was part of it and constituted a large part of it. Some of the bands listed in the paragraphs above (and many more not mentioned) could be considered garage.

 * The part about the music magazines could come at the end of the article could have its own sub-heading "Culture" that comes after discussion of the music.

 * Practically everything underneath the "Harder R&B Rock" section is the irrelevant stuff and has nothing to do with the new sub-heading over it. It is the material that I mentioned that we have take out and put into new articles (w/ links at the bottom of the page).

 * Another problem: after I remove the irrelevant stuff, there is not going to be enough under the "Harder R&B rock" (or better "Garage") heading.

 * Solution: we can take all the unnecessary stuff out and have one big sub-heading for the music called "Beat boom: pop rock and garage. And then a sub-heading "Culture" for the magazines. Garagepunk66 (talk) 08:28, 12 July 2014 (UTC)

 * I just made some changes and I think you will like them. I placed the non-music items into their own section, so they no longer distract from the music discussion--making it possible to keep these items in the article.  I moved the statement about the rock critic into the paragraph about publications, where it is best suited.  I used a colon to make the top sub-heading more inclusive of all of the genres--they were all part of the beat movement.  The passage about the garage/protopunk bands, without the things that were below it, is now one small paragraph, now too small to have a sub-heading (we can expand the garage coverage later).  I made reference to it in the top sub-heading.  I used the term "garage" rather than "harder R&B rock," because that is the term that is used (as per Marks & McIntyre), and it is the Wiki norm to use that term for 1963-1967 garage/protopunk music. Garagepunk66 (talk) 09:40, 12 July 2014 (UTC)

Need to eliminate irrelevant material form "Second wave" section
We need to get rid of irrelevant and extraneous material in this section:

 * One passage carries an unnecessary reference to a famous critic, but it does nothing to demonstrate how her writings had anything to say about this music (of the second wave), so the mention of her becomes totally irrelevant. That critic already has an article devoted to her. That is good enough. Unless we can find something insightful that she actually said about the music of this period, then the anecdote should be removed.

 * Another passage goes on and on about magazines, publications and record companies, etc. Discussion of publications and record companies should be brief at most (or better not at all). We should create two new separate articles: "Australian record companies of the 60s" and "Australian music publications of the 60s," and, then, take them out of this article, and place link to them down at the bottom in the addendum area.

 * Rather than just list bands and artists, we should create a meaningful and interesting narrative about them, filled with well-sourced facts and relevant anecdotes.

What ends up happing is that the reader trying to learn about the music becomes distracted and bored by all of this irrelevant stuff. The focus, here, should be on the music and its creators, not critics, record companies and the like. We need to make this section interesting for the rock and roll fan or person of casual interest to read. Garagepunk66 (talk) 09:16, 5 July 2014 (UTC) Garagepunk66 (talk) 02:45, 6 July 2014 (UTC) Garagepunk66 (talk) 07:12, 10 July 2014 (UTC)

 * 1) I haven't yet got to Roxon but her Rock Encyclopedia (1969) may be useful as a "General reference". Even if it is not directly cited from. As for the paragraph describing her achievements, I've had a quick read and believe that mention of the encyclopaedia itself is justified in an article on Australian rock since this is the world's first to deal with rock music and it was written by an expat-Australian. I'll probably describe her as an "Australian rock music journalist" or "Australian musicologist" or some-such and cut back on much of her life details where they are not directly relevant to this article. I don't know how many Australian artists made her volume (or its later editions) but a quick check finds Easybeats and Bee Gees appear in there, see Google books.
 * 2) Record companies/labels: an earlier subsection describes many of these. Perhaps some of those descriptions can be pared back when you create the new articles. New labels with significant impact on this era should be briefly described in this subsection too.
 * 3) Magazines/publications: likewise create a useful article on these and then trim back these sections here. However they should still be mentioned for their impact, e.g. Go-Set according to RS was quite important in chronicling the music of second part of the second wave and most of the third wave.shaidar cuebiyar (talk) 07:36, 10 July 2014 (UTC)

Thanks, those seem like good ideas. Garagepunk66 (talk) 08:18, 10 July 2014 (UTC)
 * If you create these articles then you will need to have RS and establish the notability of their content. Otherwise they may be deleted leaving the information off WP and making any link to them useless.shaidar cuebiyar (talk) 08:41, 10 July 2014 (UTC)

 * 1) List of bands/artists: take care not to remove any ARIA Hall of Famers. Also check on the talkpage to see whether the articles are rated as Mid, High or Top importance to Australian music. Those ones should be left in this article but a brief "meaningful and interesting narrative" should be added.
 * 2) For comparison of an article which is better written than this one check American rock. Note that its equivalent subsection to "Second wave" describes the British Invasion before going on to Garage rock.shaidar cuebiyar (talk) 08:41, 10 July 2014 (UTC)

As a makeshift start, I have already created two new articles (Australian music publications of the 60s and Australian record companies in the 60s, by copyediting the material here, but I will have to re-work them later.  Perhaps, you could help me with the sourcing (and also help me overcome a severe lack of knowledge about Australia).  Please forgive my ignorance (please don't get mad), but the only book I have on an Australian topic is the one by Marks and McIntyre (although I may have a nature book stuffed away somewhere with little pictures of Koala bears in it). Save me!!! Garagepunk66 (talk) 10:56, 10 July 2014 (UTC)

This article needs more sources
Attention: This article desperately suffers from a LACK OF REFERENCES AND SOURCES. While I recognize that most of the topics are truly essential for understanding the history of Australian music, and that most of its contents are likely to be true, we still have to cite them with reliable references and sources. I am not necessarily in favor of removing most of the contents (unless certain things are incorrect or irrelevant), but the presence of unsourced material can be challenged at any time. It is time to get this article properly sourced. Garagepunk66 (talk) 02:24, 6 July 2014 (UTC)

Fortunately, things are moving in the right direction at this site--the article is beginning to be much better sourced. Steady progress. Garagepunk66 (talk) 03:29, 11 July 2014 (UTC)

Focus: non-rock volume 3
Last ¶ of "First wave" focuses on Frank Ifield and Rolf Harris. Ifield was UK-born, largely UK-based country music singer and yodeller. Harris was .au-born, largely UK-based novelty/pop entertainer. Are either or both of these non-rock? I'd like other opinions before I remove material on them.shaidar cuebiyar (talk) 23:51, 9 July 2014 (UTC)
 * I agree with you 100%. The article should discuss rock only.  I have no problem with people removing any non-rock stuff (after all, AC/DC rules!!!).  Who cares about all that yodeling, anyhow (unless it influenced rockers)?  I think that there is also a lot of irrelevant discussion about record companies, etc. in the "first wave section (as in the second wave section).  We could probably remove that stuff, too, and create new articles for it (or merge it with those other two articles I just created, maybe have those articles re-named to encompass both the 50s and 60s). Garagepunk66 (talk) 20:37, 10 July 2014 (UTC)

Late 70s query
In the section "Late 70s" there is the following: Is this allowable under the guidelines? It seems to be very close to a free plug. CaesarsPalaceDude (talk) 09:38, 7 November 2014 (UTC)
 * The progression of the Australian independent scene from the late seventies until the early nineties is chronicled in Stranded: The Secret History of Australian Independent Music 1977–1991 (Pan Macmillan, 1996) by author and music journalist Clinton Walker.

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Pink Floyd concert 1972
Need to find promoter or anyone who was there that saw the show. Daryl Robinson. 0499785150 Navistar1999 (talk) 06:33, 6 November 2018 (UTC)

title: Talk:Rock music in Australia


text:
Talk:Rumtek Monastery

Untitled
Great effort Billion! All we really need now is a good picture to go with the description. AndyBrandt 10:15, 27 Sep 2004 (UTC)
 * Thanks Andy, and I agree it needs a picture. Any one got one, or planning to go there? Billlion 17:35, 27 Sep 2004 (UTC)

Ownership
I expect this article will magnetize strong feelings, that's not surprising with such a heart felt issue. I just removed the 2004 claim of ownership because I googled and found this rebuttal from the opposing view:. May the broken hearts of all sides on this fraction of the karma kagyu lineage be mended. - Owlmonkey (talk) 18:03, 3 March 2008 (UTC)

Rumtek Monastery
Rumtek Monastery (Tibetan: རུམ་ཐེག་དགོན་པ་, Wylie: rum theg dgon pa), also called the Dharma Chakra Centre, is a gompa located in the Indian state of Sikkim near the capital Gangtok. It is the seat-in-exile of the Gyalwang Karmapa, inaugurated in 1966 by the 16th Karmapa. It is also a focal point for the sectarian tensions within the Karma Kagyu school of Tibetan Buddhism that characterize the 17th Karmapa controversy. 103.216.177.160 (talk) 11:35, 18 May 2022 (UTC)

Entrance guarded by armed Indian soldiers.
I'm wondering if the entrance is still guarded by soldiers. Source of that statement, last line of the wikipedia page was a book from 2004. I was able to find an article from 2010 that states the same... are there still guards at the gate in 2023? Badabara (talk) 18:05, 7 March 2023 (UTC)
 * It's hard to prove a negative, unfortunately. Primefac (talk) 13:09, 8 March 2023 (UTC)

title: Talk:Rumtek Monastery


text:
Talk:Sound localization

Citations needed
Need to break up article with disambugation page, sold localizations in mammals, ny - just in humans is a huge topic. I am beginning tp tackle editing, need help in meeting proper formatting. In other words, administrators, I have best intentions and need your help please. DrSculerati (talk) 21:25, 26 October 2019 (UTC)

What we really need now is some citations. Major disadvantage of doing everything off the cuff... Please help. --Chinasaur 10:23, 27 Sep 2004 (UTC)

 * Interesting article, good work. Why do you feel you need citations in the text? Linking to other WP articles is preferred to external references, if that is what you wanted to see. -- Solitude 13:16, Sep 29, 2004 (UTC)

 * I think it could definately use a references section, for those looking for some more technical reading if nothing more. It's also good to have the most important articles/books in a subject listed.

Distance localization and frequency attunation
As a live sound technician, what we are always told is that it's the midrange which is attenuated with distance, more than the treble. I wonder if someone can find a source for this. 24.20.177.147 02:08, 24 March 2007 (UTC)

 * Sorry I'm seeing your question months later... I'm a live sound tech but I've never heard that midrange attenuates more than treble with distance in air. Higher frequencies are attenuated in air more than low freqs. Humidity plays a big part in sound absorption in air but it doesn't change the fact that highs are absorbed more than lows. Here's an chart and here's an online discussion by sound guys about the phenomenon (more images, too.) Distance makes sound localization more difficult due to two factors: a) high frequencies are less strong and b) intensity differences between the two ears approach zero. Binksternet 16:57, 3 December 2007 (UTC)

Binaural cues: claim of nanosecond time resolution
The "Binaural cues" section includes a statement that Ormia ochracea, with its unique mechanically connected opposite ears, achieves a resolution of nanosecond time differences. However, the references given don't appear to support such a claim. The references discuss the way a time difference of a few microseconds at the insect's ears is amplified to tens of microseconds in mechanical response, and to hundreds of microseconds in neural firing activity (which is then, just, sufficient for the brain to interpret). But nanosecond time differences are not discussed.

If anyone knows a reference demonstrating sub-microsecond discrimination - which could acceptably take the adjective "nanosecond" (although "sub-microsecond" is surely better for hundreds of nanoseconds!) - can they please add such a reference here?

If no such reference can be found, I think we should use "microsecond". - Or, perhaps, a phrase like "of a few microseconds", to clarify we do at least mean that and not merely sub-millisecond (hundreds of microseconds). Iain David Stewart (talk) 01:21, 24 April 2008 (UTC)

Evaluation for low frequencies
"As the frequency drops below 80 Hz it becomes difficult or impossible to use either time difference or level difference to determine a sound's lateral source, because the phase difference between the ears becomes too small for a directional evaluation." This uncited claim is inconsistent with recent findings that suggest humans can localize sounds on the horizontal plane all the way down to at least 25HZ. Lucanio (talk) 15:04, 26 September 2013 (UTC)

Sound is the perceptual result of mechanical vibrations traveling through a medium such as air or water.
"Sound is the perceptual result of mechanical vibrations traveling through a medium such as air or water." This is not true. From the physical point of view, sound is the result of mechanical vibrations; whether they are audible or not is a matter of biologists and psychologists, but sound exists in both cases. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 186.130.210.235 (talk) 17:37, 2 March 2018 (UTC)

title: Talk:Sound localization


text:
Template:Engadin villages

Use
To add this template, use Engadin villages

title: Template:Engadin villages


text:
John Sidney, 6th Earl of Leicester

John Sidney, 6th Earl of Leicester KB (14 February 1680 – 27 September 1737) was an English soldier, peer, landowner, and courtier, and from 1705 to 1737 was Earl of Leicester, with a seat in the House of Lords.

Life
Leicester was born at his family seat of Penshurst Place in Kent. He was one of the five sons of Robert Sidney, 4th Earl of Leicester (1649–1702) by Lady Elizabeth Egerton (1653–1709), the daughter of John Egerton, 2nd Earl of Bridgewater.

Before inheriting the title and estates, Leicester was Lieutenant Colonel of the 1st Regiment of Foot Guards, 1702 to 1705, then briefly a member of the English House of Commons as one of the two members for Brackley, sitting as a Whig, and later in 1705 succeeded his brother, Philip Sidney, as Earl of Leicester.

He was a Lord of the Bedchamber, 1717 to 1727, Lord Warden of the Cinque Ports, 1717 to 1728, Captain of the Yeomen of the Guard, 1725 to 1731, Lord Lieutenant of Kent from 1724 until his death, a Privy Councillor and Constable of the Tower of London from 1731.

Leicester died at Penshurst Place and is buried at Penshurst. His younger brother Jocelyn Sidney succeeded as 7th Earl of Leicester.

title: John Sidney, 6th Earl of Leicester


text:
Greg Iles

Greg Iles (born 1960) is an American novelist who lives in Mississippi. He has published seventeen novels and one novella, spanning a variety of genres.

Early life
Iles was born in 1960 in Stuttgart, West Germany, where his physician father ran the US Embassy Medical Clinic. He was raised in Natchez, Mississippi, the setting of many of his novels. After attending Trinity Episcopal Day School, he graduated from the University of Mississippi in 1983.

Career
Iles spent several years as a guitarist, singer, and songwriter in the band Frankly Scarlet. He quit the band after he was married and began working on his first novel, Spandau Phoenix, a thriller about Nazi war criminal Rudolf Hess. Spandau Phoenix was published in 1993.

In 2002, Iles wrote the screenplay 24 Hours from his novel of the same name. Rewritten by director Don Roos, it was renamed Trapped. Iles then rewrote the script during the shoot, at the request of the producers and actors.

In 2011, Iles was seriously injured in a traffic accident on U.S. Route 61 near Natchez. He sustained life-threatening injuries, including a ruptured aorta. He was put into an induced coma for eight days, and lost his right leg below the knee. During his three-year recovery, he wrote three volumes of a trilogy set in Natchez, Mississippi, and featuring former prosecutor Penn Cage.

Iles is a member of the literary musical group The Rock Bottom Remainders, which includes or has included authors Dave Barry, Ridley Pearson, Stephen King, Scott Turow, Amy Tan, Mitch Albom, Roy Blount, Jr., Matt Groening, and James McBride. In July 2013, he co-authored Hard Listening (2013) with the group. The ebook combines essays, fiction, musings, email exchanges and conversations, photographs, audio and video clips, and interactive quizzes to give readers a view into the private lives of the authors/musicians.

Fiction

 * Spandau Phoenix (1993) ISBN 0-525-93604-1
 * Black Cross (1995) ISBN 0-525-93829-X
 * Mortal Fear (1997) ISBN 0-525-93792-7
 * The Quiet Game (1999) ISBN 0-525-93793-5
 * 24 Hours (2000) ISBN 0-399-14624-5
 * Dead Sleep (2001) ISBN 0-399-14735-7
 * Sleep No More (2002) ISBN 0-399-14881-7
 * The Footprints of God (2003) (also titled Dark Matter) ISBN 0-340-82274-0
 * Blood Memory (2005) ISBN 0-7432-3470-7
 * Turning Angel (2005) ISBN 0-7432-3471-5
 * True Evil (2006) ISBN 0-7432-9249-9
 * Third Degree (2007)
 * The Devil's Punchbowl (2009) ISBN 978-0-7432-9251-1
 * The Death Factory (2014) novella
 * Natchez Burning (2014)
 * The Bone Tree  (2015)
 * Mississippi Blood (2017)
 * Cemetery Road (2019)
 * Southern Man (2024)

Nonfiction

 * Hard Listening (2013), with Rock Bottom Remainders

title: Greg Iles


text:
Category:National Rugby League

Article about the National Rugby League, operating in Australia and New Zealand.

title: Category:National Rugby League


text:
Talk:Medieval poetry/to do

 * Define scope (e.g. does Arabic poetry belong?).
 * Dewiki headings.
 * Deal with red links in lists (should they be removed until articles are written?).
 * Write text for sections that are currently just lists.
 * Add paragraph on De vulgari eloquentia (Dante)

title: Talk:Medieval poetry/to do


text:
North American Van Lines

North American Van Lines, or NAVL, is a large American trucking company originally formed in Cleveland, Ohio, and later based in Fort Wayne, Indiana, which specializes in home and office relocations.

History
North American Van Lines was established in 1933 by a group of 12 agents. By 1938 the network expanded to 120 agents, and eventually grew into one of the largest trucking companies.

In 1947, NAVL moved from Cleveland, Ohio to Fort Wayne, Indiana.

In 1952 NAVL became an international company, with the addition of its International Transportation Service business.

In 1959 NAVL bought Creston Transfer, moving new furniture, fixtures, and similar household goods throughout the US. This New Product Division was later renamed Commercial Transport in 1981.

Beginning in late 1964 NAVL created its STI (Specialized Transportation Inc.) High Value Products Division (HVPD), which later was bought out and taken private as an independent company named Specialized Transportation Inc. The original division began with 20 drivers from the NAVL Exhibit and Display Division, and moved high value electronics for defense installations, contracted by Control Data Corporation, IBM and the computer division of General Electric.

On May 10, 1966 NAVL created its subsidiary Transtar Services, Inc. in Brentwood, TN. Transtar Services supported a group of rail and water carriers of fuel, raw materials and steel freight around the Great Lakes, as wholly owned transportation subsidiaries of United States Steel Corporation, now USX Corporation. In December 1988 the companies were organized as the USX subsidiary, Transtar, Inc.

PepsiCo
On July 5, 1966 Spedco Inc., a subsidiary of PepsiCo Inc., applied to the Interstate Commerce Commission to purchase NAVL for about US$22 million in PepsiCo stock. On August 29, 1967 the ICC examiner recommended the acquisition of NAVL by Spedco Inc, and on November 27, 1968 NAVL was acquired by Spedco Inc., which had Kenneth W. Maxfield as its Executive Vice President. By June 1969, North American Van Lines Inc. was fully acquired by PepsiCo.

On January 1, 1970 NAVPAC was merged into NAVL.

In 1975 NAVL started its Air Freight Division.

In 1977, Kenneth W. Maxfield was promoted to President of the NAVL subsidiary. Also that year, NAVL became the secret transporter of the King Tutankhamen treasures from Egypt during the North American tour.

In 1978 NAVL headquarters in Fort Wayne, Indiana moved to the new building location, spread across 121 acre.

In 1979 NAVL moved to the top of the list among the six largest van lines.

By April 1984, North American Van Lines Inc. was put up for sale by PepsiCo.

Norfolk Southern
On May 3, 1984 NAVL was approved for sale by PepsiCo to Norfolk Southern Corporation for US$315 million. At the same time PepsiCo was also negotiating sale of Lee Way Motor Freight, as a further move in its divestment of its transportation division.

On May 23, 1984, Moving Credit Inc. merged into NAVL. Over the subsequent two years NAVL was merged with the railroad in a deal that had been initially approved by the Interstate Commerce Commission.

In June 1986 NAVL then hired Norfolk Southern's advertising firm, J. Walter Thompson, Washington, to handle its advertising account of more than US$1 million. It became the first active ad campaign for NAVL since the purchase from Pepsico two years earlier.

However, on October 1, 1986, a Federal appeals court ruled that the ICC had erred when it approved the acquisition. The court then returned the case to the ICC for reconsideration, but the rocky deal ultimately survived.

In 1991 NAVL started Worldtrac, which was the industry's first satellite tracking system, which provided the drivers location within 1000 ft.

In 1992 Norfolk Southern's trucking operations, including NAVL, recorded a loss of close to $40 million, and Norfolk Southern Corp. decided to sell off two of its trucking divisions in 1993, although it retained NAVL for another five years. In 1998 Norfolk Southern exited the trucking business entirely when it sold NAVL.

Allied Worldwide
On January 12, 1998, NAVL was bought out from Norfolk Southern Corp. by the private investment firm Clayton, Dubilier & Rice for more than US$200 million.

On November 21, 1999, Clayton, Dubilier and Rice also completed their acquisition of Allied Van Lines and merged it with North American Van Lines to create Allied Worldwide, although each former company maintained its own profile names. Valued at approximately US$450 million in the merger, the Allied Worldwide combined entity became the world's largest relocation and van line logistics company.

By the 2000s the company began operations in Europe and South America.

SIRVA
On October 11, 2004, a group of 43 North American Van Lines' agents, named the Specialized Transportation Agent Group Inc., bought out NAVL's High Value Products Division from SIRVA. The buyers renamed the new company Specialized Transportation Inc. (STI).

Livery
The North American Van Lines trucks (beginning ca.1968) are painted in white and a clear shadow of blue, with red and blue circles on the white area, and a white arrow crossing the circles. The name North American is spelled "northAmerican" on the company's trucks' liveries.

title: North American Van Lines


text: Category:Siege engines

title: Category:Siege engines


text:
Derivative algebra

In mathematics:

 * In abstract algebra and mathematical logic a derivative algebra is an algebraic structure that provides an abstraction of the derivative operator in topology and which provides algebraic semantics for the modal logic wK3.
 * In abstract algebra, the derivative algebra of a not-necessarily associative algebra A over a field F is the subalgebra of the algebra of linear endomorphisms of A consisting of the derivations.
 * In differential geometry a derivative algebra is a vector space with a product operation that has similar behaviour to the standard cross product of 3-vectors.

title: Derivative algebra


text:
Vansbro

Vansbro is a locality in Dalarna and the seat of Vansbro Municipality, Dalarna County, Sweden. It had 2,026 inhabitants in 2010, out of a total municipal population of 7,000.

The town is situated by the end of the Vanån, or Van River, the main tributary of the Västerdal River.

History
The first time Vansbro was mentioned in writing was by Carl von Linné during early 18th century. The place have also been mentioned in different texts from the same era under the name - Wahnbro or Wansbro. The name is believed to stem from a bridge built across the Vanå river.

The railway between Kristinehamn and Mora was inaugurated in 1890 and the Vansbro railway station was constructed.

Industry
Vansbro's early industrial history was closely connected to timber and logging. The first sawmill in the area, Danielssågen, began operating soon after the railway was built. More sawmills were built in the following years: Dalasågen (the largest sawmill in Sweden at the time) in 1892, and Brosågen in 1893.

Events
Vansbro is known for the annual Vansbrosimningen ("The Vansbro Swim"). Inaugurated in 1950, the competitors swim 2,000 meters in Vanån and 1,000 meters in the Västerdal River.

Famous people from Vansbro
Vansbro is also known to be the home town of famous cross-country skier Gunde Svan, the band Svenne Rubins, the singer/songwriter Malin Jonsson, the progressive rock band Introitus, the progressive death metal-band In Mourning, the pop-singer Björn Skifs.

title: Vansbro


text:
Smedjebacken

Smedjebacken is a locality and the seat of Smedjebacken Municipality, Dalarna County, Sweden, with 5,100 inhabitants in 2010.

Geographically, the town Smedjebacken is situated by the lake Barken, with an area of 34 km2, which in turn belongs to the Kolbäcksån stream-system, which drains into lake Mälaren to the south-east.

Notable people

 * Nils Ekholm, Swedish meteorologist, physicist and explorer
 * Hans Heyerdahl, Norwegian painter
 * Maria Keohane, Swedish soprano
 * Karl Edvard Laman, Swedish missionary and ethnographer

Sports
The following sports clubs are located in Smedjebacken:
 * Smedjebackens FK

title: Smedjebacken


text:
Säter

Säter is a locality and the seat of Säter Municipality, Dalarna County, Sweden, with 11,161 inhabitants in 2020.

Säter is, despite its small population, for historical reasons normally still referred to as a city. Statistics Sweden, however, only counts localities with more than 10,000 inhabitants as cities.

History
At the location there was a royal mansion titled Säter's Royal Mansion.

Sweden's first copper mint was built at the location in 1624, influenced by its proximity to the copper mountain at Falun with its tannery that had been located in Säter a few years earlier.

The town Säter was founded in 1630, and much of its old town today has preserved wooden houses and street structure from that time, which few Swedish cities have. One of the oldest houses is the city hall.

On 8 May 1642, the town was chartered by Queen Christina of Sweden, making it one of the Cities in Sweden. The chosen coat of arms depicted a miner.

Today
The Säter hospital was opened in 1912 and was at the time Sweden's largest mental hospital which is usually associated with Säter in particular.

Sports
The following sports clubs are located in Säter:

The ITU Long Distance Triathlon World Championships has been held in Säter twice.
 * Säters IF FK

Travel
Säter has a railway station along the Dala Railway with trains to Mora, Falun, Arlanda Airport and Stockholm. Suitable airports for travelling to or from Säter are Borlänge Airport (20 km distance) and Arlanda Airport (177 km).

Twin towns — Sister cities
Säter is twinned with: Joutseno, Finland and Laterza, Italy

title: Säter


text:
Ludvika

Ludvika is a bimunicipal city and the seat of Ludvika Municipality, Dalarna County within the country of Sweden, with 14,498 inhabitants in 2010.

Overview
The conurbation of Ludvika extends over the border of Smedjebacken Municipality, where about 400 inhabitants live.

Ludvika is situated by Lake Väsman in the south-east part of the municipality.

Population of Ludvika as of 2005 distributed by municipalities:

Economy
A major employer in Ludvika is the power engineering conglomerate Hitachi, whose activities in the town include power transformers, capacitors, ac breakers and equipment for high-voltage direct current power transmission.

Notable natives

 * Stefan Anderson
 * Dan Andersson
 * Hypocrisy (band)
 * Anders Ilar
 * Mats Kihlström
 * Christina Lampe-Önnerud
 * Kee Marcello
 * Charlie Norman
 * Birgit Ridderstedt
 * Jari Sillanpää
 * Fredrik Söderström
 * Anders Wendin
 * Anders Winroth

Sports
The following sports clubs are located in Ludvika:

 * Ludvika FK
 * Östansbo IS

Schools

 * Lorensberga
 * Kyrkskolan
 * Junibacken skola
 * Knutsbo skola

title: Ludvika