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Stroboscope

A stroboscope, also known as a strobe, is an instrument used to make a cyclically moving object appear to be slow-moving, or stationary. It consists of either a rotating disk with slots or holes or a lamp such as a flashtube which produces brief repetitive flashes of light. Usually, the rate of the stroboscope is adjustable to different frequencies. When a rotating or vibrating object is observed with the stroboscope at its vibration frequency (or a submultiple of it), it appears stationary. Thus stroboscopes are also used to measure frequency.

The principle is used for the study of rotating, reciprocating, oscillating or vibrating objects. Machine parts and vibrating string are common examples. A stroboscope used to set the ignition timing of internal combustion engines is called a timing light.

Mechanical
In its simplest mechanical form, a stroboscope can be a rotating cylinder (or bowl with a raised edge) with evenly spaced holes or slots placed in the line of sight between the observer and the moving object. The observer looks through the holes/slots on the near and far side at the same time, with the slots/holes moving in opposite directions. When the holes/slots are aligned on opposite sides, the object is visible to the observer.

Alternately, a single moving hole or slot can be used with a fixed/stationary hole or slot. The stationary hole or slot limits the light to a single viewing path and reduces glare from light passing through other parts of the moving hole/slot.

Viewing through a single line of holes/slots does not work, since the holes/slots appear to just sweep across the object without a strobe effect.

The rotational speed is adjusted so that it becomes synchronised with the movement of the observed system, which seems to slow and stop. The illusion is caused by temporal aliasing, commonly known as the stroboscopic effect.

Electronic
In electronic versions, the perforated disc is replaced by a lamp capable of emitting brief and rapid flashes of light. Typically a gas-discharge or solid-state lamp is used, because they are capable of emitting light nearly instantly when power is applied, and extinguishing just as fast when the power is removed.

By comparison, incandescent lamps have a brief warm-up when energized, followed by a cool-down period when power is removed. These delays result in smearing and blurring of detail of objects partially illuminated during the warm-up and cool-down periods. For most applications, incandescent lamps are too slow for clear stroboscopic effects. Yet when operated from an AC source they are mostly fast enough to cause audible hum (at double mains frequency) on optical audio playback such as on film projection.

The frequency of the flash is adjusted so that it is an equal to, or a unit fraction of the object's cyclic speed, at which point the object is seen to be either stationary or moving slowly backward or forward, depending on the flash frequency.

Neon lamps or light-emitting diodes are commonly used for low-intensity strobe applications. Neon lamps were more common before the development of solid-state electronics, but are being replaced by LEDs in most low-intensity strobe applications.

Xenon flash lamps are used for medium- and high-intensity strobe applications. Sufficiently rapid or bright flashing may require active cooling such as forced-air or water cooling to prevent the xenon flash lamp from melting.

History
Joseph Plateau of Belgium is generally credited with the invention of the stroboscope in 1832, when he used a disc with radial slits which he turned while viewing images on a separate rotating wheel. Plateau's device became known as the "Phenakistoscope". There was an almost simultaneous and independent invention of the device by the Austrian Simon Ritter von Stampfer, which he named the "Stroboscope", and it is his term which is used today. The etymology is from the Greek words στρόβος - strobos, meaning "whirlpool" and σκοπεῖν - skopein, meaning "to look at".

As well as having important applications for scientific research, the earliest inventions received immediate popular success as methods for producing moving pictures, and the principle was used for numerous toys. Other early pioneers employed rotating mirrors, or vibrating mirrors known as mirror galvanometers.

In 1917, French engineer Etienne Oehmichen patented the first electric stroboscope, building at the same time a camera capable of shooting 1,000 frames per second.

Harold Eugene Edgerton ("Doc" Edgerton) employed a flashing lamp to study machine parts in motion. General Radio Corporation then went on to produce this device in the form of their "Strobotac", an early example of a commercially successful stroboscope.

Edgerton later used very short flashes of light as a means of producing still photographs of fast-moving objects, such as bullets in flight.

Applications
Stroboscopes play an important role in the study of stresses on machinery in motion, and in many other forms of research. Bright stroboscopes are able to overpower ambient lighting and make stop-motion effects apparent without the need for dark ambient operating conditions.

They are also used as measuring instruments for determining cyclic speed. As a timing light they are used to set the ignition timing of internal combustion engines.

In medicine, stroboscopes are used to view the vocal cords for the diagnosis of conditions that have produced dysphonia (hoarseness). The patient hums or speaks into a microphone which in turn activates the stroboscope at either the same or a slightly different frequency. The light source and a camera are positioned by endoscopy.

Another application of the stroboscope can be seen on many gramophone turntables. The edge of the platter has marks at specific intervals so that when viewed under fluorescent lighting powered at mains frequency, provided the platter is rotating at the correct speed, the marks appear to be stationary. This will not work well under incandescent lighting, as incandescent bulbs do not significantly strobe. For this reason, some turntables have a neon bulb or LED next to the platter. The LED must be driven by a half wave rectifier from the mains transformer, or by an oscillator.

Flashing lamp strobes have also been adapted as a lighting effect for discotheques and night clubs where they give the impression of dancing in slow motion. The strobe rate of these devices is typically not very precise or very fast, because entertainment applications do not usually require a high degree of performance.

Fechner color
Rapid flashing of the stroboscopic light can give the illusion that white light is tinged with color, known as Fechner color. Within certain ranges, the apparent color can be controlled by the frequency of the flash. Effective stimuli frequencies go from 3 Hz upwards, with optimal frequencies  of about 4–6 Hz. The colours are  an illusion generated in the mind of the observer and not a real color. The Benham's top demonstrates the effect.

title: Stroboscope


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File:Harry Chapin - Greatest Stories Live.jpg

Summary
Harry Chapin - Greatest Stories Live album cover

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/


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E-Dreams

e-Dreams is a 2001 American documentary film directed by Wonsuk Chin portraying the rise and fall of Kozmo.com, an online convenience store that used bike messengers to deliver goods ordered online within an hour.

The movie follows Joseph Park and Yong Kang, 28-year-old Korean Americans, whose company started as Park's idea in 1998 and by January 1999 became a reality in a warehouse with a small group of employees and grew to 3,000 employees and an 11-city network within a year. Kozmo.com raised $280 million in capital and attracted attention from Amazon.com and Starbucks. However, the lack of a sustainable business plan and the inability to raise additional capital due to the dot-com bust and stock market correction that began in April 2000 forced the company out of business by 2001.

title: E-Dreams


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Healthy eating pyramid

The Healthy Eating Pyramid (alternately, Healthy Eating Plate) is a nutrition guide developed by the Harvard School of Public Health, suggesting quantities of each food category that a human should eat each day. The healthy eating pyramid is intended to provide a more sound eating guide than the widespread food guide pyramid created by the USDA.

The new pyramid aims to include more recent research in dietary health not present in the USDA's 1992 guide. The original USDA pyramid has been criticized for not differentiating between refined grains and whole grains, between saturated fats and unsaturated fats, and for not placing enough emphasis on exercise and weight control.

Food groups
In general terms, the healthy eating pyramid recommends the following intake of different food groups each day, although exact amounts of calorie intake depends on sex, age, and lifestyle:
 * At most meals, whole grain foods including oatmeal, whole-wheat bread, and brown rice; 1 piece or 4 oz.
 * Plant oils, including olive oil, canola oil, soybean oil, corn oil, and sunflower seed oil; 2 oz per day
 * Vegetables, in abundance 3 or more each day; each serving = 6 oz.
 * 2–3 servings of fruits; each serving = 1 piece of fruit or 4 oz.
 * 1–3 servings of nuts, or legumes; each serving = 2 oz.
 * 1–2 servings of dairy or calcium supplement; each serving = 8 oz non fat or 4 oz of whole.
 * 1–2 servings of poultry, fish, or eggs; each serving = 4 oz or 1 egg.
 * Sparing use of white rice, white bread, potatoes, pasta and sweets;
 * Sparing use of red meat and butter.

title: Healthy eating pyramid


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Greatest Stories Live

Greatest Stories Live is a 1976 greatest hits live album by the American singer-songwriter Harry Chapin. It was recorded over three nights at three California venues in November 1975. Certain elements had to be re-recorded in the studio due to technical problems with the live recordings. The original LP release featured three new studio tracks, two of which ("She Is Always Seventeen" and "Love Is Just Another Word") were excluded from the CD release. "A Better Place to Be" was released as a single, and did manage to crack the Billboard Hot 100 chart.

The album is notable for its extended version of "30,000 Pounds of Bananas", infamous for Chapin's recounting of his brothers' remarks after hearing the original ending: "Harry...it sucks." The quote became so popular with Harry Chapin fans that concert shirts were sold with the quotation on it.

Track listing (CD release)

 * "She Is Always Seventeen" and "Love Is Just Another Word" appear between "30,000 Pounds of Bananas" and "The Shortest Story" on side 4 of the original 1976 vinyl release.

Personnel

 * Harry Chapin - guitar, vocals
 * Ron Bacchiocchi - synthesizer, percussion, clavinet
 * Ed Bednarski - clarinet
 * Stephen Chapin - synthesizer, piano, vocals
 * Tom Chapin - guitar, banjo, vocals
 * Christine Faith - vocals
 * Cheryl Ferrio - vocals
 * Howie Fields - drums
 * David Kondziela - vocals
 * Paul Leka - piano, clavinet
 * Michael Masters - cello
 * Tim Moore - piano
 * Mark Mundy - vocals
 * Ronald Palmer - guitar, vocals
 * Don Payne - bass
 * Kathy Ramos - vocals
 * Tim Scott - cello
 * Allan Schwartzberg - drums
 * Frank Simms - vocals
 * George Simms - vocals
 * Ken Smith - percussion
 * Bob Springer - percussion
 * John Tropea - guitar
 * Betsy Wager - vocals
 * Doug Walker - bass, guitar, vocals
 * John Wallace - bass, vocals
 * Sue White - vocals
 * Christopher von Koschembahr - vocals

title: Greatest Stories Live


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Debut

Debut or début (the first public appearance of a person or thing) may refer to:

 * Debut (society), the formal introduction of young upper-class women to society
 * Debut novel, an author's first published novel

Film and television

 * The Debut (1977 film), or Het debuut by Nouchka van Brakel
 * The Debut (2000 film), a Filipino–American drama film
 * Debut (film), a 2017 Belarusian documentary film
 * "The Debut" (The O.C. episode), 2003

Music

 * Debut Records, an American jazz record label
 * Debut (Björk album), 1993
 * Debut (Zoë album), 2015
 * The Debut (album), a 2019 album by Jackie Evancho
 * Debut Album (Sayuri Ishikawa album), 1973
 * Debut, a 1987 album by The Real Group
 * Debut, a 2004 album by Carol Kidd
 * Debut, a 2007 album by Brandi Disterheft
 * Debut, a 1991 album by Field Marshal Montgomery Pipe Band
 * Debut, a 1992 album by Sarah Chang, 1992
 * Debut: The Clef/Mercury Duo Recordings 1949-1951, a 2009 re-release of a 1956 Oscar Peterson album
 * Debut, a 1955 album by Malcolm Mitchell

title: Debut


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Talk:Labour Party Conference

Historical events
Does anyone know of an online record of LP Conference dates, venues and other infos? TIA - Mmartins

Proposed move
There is far more than just one Labour Party. I suggest moving this page to Labour Party Conference (UK). Other proposals, thoughts etc? --Midnighttonight Procrastinating on uni work... 00:11, 9 September 2006 (UTC)

Conservative conference
As this article begins with Labour's first conference after the 1997 election, I'm just wondering whether we should start one for the Conservative conference now that they're in office again. Any thoughts? TheRetroGuy (talk) 16:04, 3 October 2010 (UTC)

20c conferences
I've just added information on the conferences in the twentieth century from the eighth edition of British Political Facts, but there are a few details missing from that source. It mentions that the 1918 Nottingham conference adjourned for a month before meeting again on 26 February, but then gives the dates of the London conference as 26-28 June. It doesn't mention the special conference on Ireland in December 1920, or any conferences in 1921 and 1922. It also doesn't give the exact dates in October for the end of the conferences in 1965 and 1975. Clarification on these points would be welcome. Opera hat (talk) 15:39, 27 March 2011 (UTC)

Requested move 19 December 2019

 * The following is a closed discussion of a requested move. Please do not modify it. Subsequent comments should be made in a new section on the talk page. Editors desiring to contest the closing decision should consider a move review after discussing it on the closer's talk page. No further edits should be made to this discussion.

The result of the move request was: page moved. User:Midnighttonight last edited in 2007, so they're not here to contest this. – wbm1058 (talk) 13:35, 28 December 2019 (UTC)

Labour Party Conference (UK) → Labour Party Conference – Dab not needed. Unreal7 (talk) 23:41, 19 December 2019 (UTC)

 * The above discussion is preserved as an archive of a requested move. Please do not modify it. Subsequent comments should be made in a new section on this talk page or in a move review. No further edits should be made to this section.

List of conferences and 2022 event
Why not add the conferences since 2000 to the table? It seems odd to have the 20th century conferences in a table and those of the 21st century in prose format. Also, why is there no mention of the 2022 conference? TrottieTrue (talk) 14:38, 24 April 2023 (UTC)

 * I think the table is useful for the most part, but also that more detailed information should be in prose form so it can be properly expanded upon. It's probably best to maneuver the notes down to the prose section, and add the basic information from post-2000 to the table. I'll be giving that ago over time. JamJamSvn (talk) 17:06, 11 October 2023 (UTC)
 * I look forward to seeing that! TrottieTrue (talk) 17:31, 11 October 2023 (UTC)

title: Talk:Labour Party Conference


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Primal Fear (film)

Primal Fear is a 1996 American legal mystery crime thriller film directed by Gregory Hoblit, based on the 1993 novel of the same name by William Diehl, written by Steve Shagan and Ann Biderman. It stars Richard Gere, Laura Linney, John Mahoney, Alfre Woodard, Frances McDormand and Edward Norton in his film debut. The film follows a Chicago-based defense attorney who believes that his client, an altar boy, is not guilty of murdering a Catholic bishop.

The film was a box office success and received positive reviews, with Norton's performance earning critical praise. Norton won the Golden Globe Award for Best Supporting Actor – Motion Picture, and was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Supporting Actor and the BAFTA Award for Best Actor in a Supporting Role.

Plot
Martin Vail is an arrogant Chicago defense attorney, known for his undesirable but high-profile clients, including mob boss Joey Piñero. Fond of the spotlight, Vail is profiled for a magazine cover story, and tries to rekindle a casual relationship with his former colleague, prosecutor Janet Venable.

Beloved Archbishop Rushman is savagely killed in his bedroom and his body mutilated. Aaron Stampler, a 19-year-old altar boy from Kentucky, is caught fleeing the scene covered in blood and charged with murder. Vail offers to defend him pro bono, and the meek, stuttering Aaron claims he is innocent but is prone to amnesia. Vail believes Aaron, while the state's attorney, John Shaughnessy, assigns Venable to prosecute the case and pursue the death penalty.

At Aaron's apartment, Vail's investigator Tommy Goodman is attacked by another altar boy, Alex, who flees. Neuropsychologist Dr. Molly Arrington interviews Aaron for hours about his difficult childhood, his memory lapses, and his missing girlfriend Linda. With help from Piñero, Vail discovers that powerful civic leaders, including Shaughnessy, lost millions in real estate investments due to Rushman's decision not to develop church-owned land. In court, a message carved into Rushman's chest is linked to a passage from The Scarlet Letter, denouncing the archbishop as "two-faced".

Vail and Goodman track down Alex, who was searching for an incriminating VHS cassette. Stealing the tape from the archbishop's closet, Vail and his team discover footage of one of many encounters filmed by the archbishop, in which he coerces the formerly homeless Aaron, Linda, and Alex to engage in sexual acts on threat of eviction from their group home. Vail angrily confronts Aaron about concealing information from him, but Aaron denies the accusations, becoming increasingly distressed as Vail continues to press him. Aaron's demeanor abruptly shifts from deferential to aggressive, and he chastises Vail for "scaring off" Aaron. This violent personality, Roy, admits to killing the archbishop but threatens Vail not to introduce the tape at trial. Suddenly, he reverts back to Aaron's docile personality, with no recollection of the episode.

Dr. Arrington concludes that Aaron has dissociative identity disorder caused by years of abuse at the hands of his father and, later, Rushman. Conflicted, Vail knows that he could acquit his client via an insanity defense, but cannot change his strategy mid-trial. He delivers the evidence anonymously to Venable, forcing her to use the tape as proof of Aaron's motive, at the risk of tarnishing the archbishop and generating sympathy for Aaron. Shaughnessy commands her to destroy the evidence, but she refuses and introduces it in court.

Piñero is discovered murdered, and Vail surprises the court by calling Shaughnessy as a witness. Vail suggests Shaughnessy resented the archbishop for stopping the $60 million land development, and accuses him of concealing previous evidence of the archbishop's sexual predation, and for being complicit in Piñero's death. Judge Shoat intervenes, striking the line of questioning from the record and fining Vail for using the courtroom as a stage for his own vendettas.

Dr. Arrington's testimony that Aaron's "body could be present at a homicide and yet his mind would be unable to recall it" is dismissed by the judge as too close to an insanity plea. Vail calls Aaron to the stand, intentionally triggering his memories of his father's abuse. Venable begins a challenging cross-examination, in which Aaron suddenly becomes Roy, screaming obscenities and choking Venable before he is subdued. The judge dismisses the jury in favor of a bench trial to declare Aaron not guilty by reason of insanity.

A shaken Venable rejects Vail's advances, and Vail informs Aaron that he will be remanded to a psychiatric hospital for treatment with a strong possibility of release. Aaron profusely thanks Vail and asks him to apologize to Venable for the injuries to her neck, leading Vail to realize that Aaron was aware of his actions during the attack. Aaron commends the attorney for his insight, then brags about having murdered Linda and Rushman without remorse and faking having multiple personalities. In disbelief, Vail declares, "There never was a Roy," but the murderer corrects him: "There never was an Aaron, Counselor." Stunned and disillusioned, Vail leaves the courthouse, but does so through a discreet back entrance to avoid the attention and publicity he once sought.

Cast
Several Chicago television news personalities made cameos as themselves as they deliver reports about the case, including WLS's Diann Burns and Linda Yu, WBBM-TV's Mary Ann Childers, Lester Holt and Jon Duncanson, and WGN-TV's Bob Jordan and Randy Salerno.

Soundtrack
The soundtrack includes the Portuguese fado song "Canção do Mar" sung by Dulce Pontes.

Box office
The film was released on April 5, 1996 and opened in the #1 spot, remaining there for three consecutive weeks. It grossed $56.1 million domestically and $46.5 million internationally for a total worldwide gross of $102.6 million.

Home media
The film was released to VHS and LaserDisc on October 15, 1996. On October 21, 1998, it was released to DVD.

Paramount released Primal Fear on Blu-ray on March 10, 2009. The Blu-ray includes an audio commentary track by director Gregory Hoblit, writer Ann Biderman, producer Gary Lucchesi, executive producer Hawk Koch, and casting director Deborah Aquila, as well as the featurettes "Primal Fear: The Final Verdict", "Primal Fear: Star Witness-Casting Edward Norton", and "The Psychology of Guilt".

Reception
Review aggregation website Rotten Tomatoes reports an approval rating of 77% based on 48 reviews, with an average rating of 6.8/10. The site's critics consensus reads: "Primal Fear is a straightforward, yet entertaining thriller elevated by a crackerjack performance from Edward Norton". Metacritic, which uses a weighted average, lists the film with a weighted average score of 46/100 based on 18 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews". Audiences surveyed by CinemaScore awarded the film an average grade of B+ on an A+-to-F scale.

Janet Maslin of The New York Times wrote that the film has a "good deal of surface charm" but "the story relies on an overload of tangential subplots to keep it looking busy". Roger Ebert of the Chicago Sun-Times awarded Primal Fear three and a half stars, writing that "the plot is as good as crime procedurals get, but the movie is really better than its plot because of the three-dimensional characters". Ebert described Gere's performance as one of the best in his career, praised Linney for rising above what might have been a stock character and applauded Norton for offering a "completely convincing" portrayal.

The film spent three weekends at the top of the U.S. box office.

Accolades
The film is recognized by American Film Institute in these lists:
 * 2003: AFI's 100 Years...100 Heroes and Villains:
 * Aaron Stampler – Nominated Villain
 * 2008: AFI's 10 Top 10:
 * Nominated Courtroom Drama Film

title: Primal Fear (film)


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Herut – The National Movement

Herut – The National Movement (חרות – התנועה הלאומית, Herut – HaTnu'a HaLeumit), commonly known as just Herut, was a minor right-wing political party in Israel. Though it saw itself as the ideological successor to the historical Herut party (which merged into Likud) it was a new and separate party. It participated in the 1999, 2003 and 2006 elections.

History
The party was formed on 23 February 1999 when Benny Begin, Michael Kleiner and David Re'em broke away from Likud during the fourteenth Knesset. The breakaway was the result of disagreements with Likud leader Benjamin Netanyahu over the Wye River Memorandum and the Hebron Agreement, which had ceded land to the Palestinians. Though not an MK at the time, former Prime Minister and Herut leader Yitzhak Shamir backed the new party.

Herut participated in the 1999 elections as part of the National Union, a right-wing alliance of itself, Moledet and Tkuma with Begin at its head. In the simultaneous election for Prime Minister, Begin had originally planned to stand, but dropped out three days before the election to avoid splitting the right-wing vote between himself and Netanyahu (though it didn't help, as Netanyahu lost to Ehud Barak by more than 12%). In the Knesset election, the National Union won only 3% of the vote and four seats. The party's poor performance led to Begin resigning as head of the party and retiring from politics before the Knesset term began, and Herut's one allocated seat was taken by Kleiner.

On 1 February 2000, Kleiner pulled out of the National Union, establishing Herut as an independent party in the Knesset. In the 2003 elections the party ran alone. It chose the ballot letters נץ, meaning "hawk", and used the slogan "the 'hawkiest' on the right". Kleiner led the list, with Baruch Marzel, a former member of the outlawed Kach party taking second place. The party won 36,202 votes, though it was only 1.1% of the total, and not enough to pass the 1.5% electoral threshold. Soon after Marzel left to found his own party, the Jewish National Front.

Herut participated in the 2006 elections, again with the letters נץ. This time Kleiner was joined by veteran activists Elie Yossef and Israel Cohen. The main campaign message was "Evacuate-Compensate the Palestinians" (פיצוי-פינוי לפלסטינים, Pitzui-Pinui laFalestinim). Yana Chudriker, an immigrant from Ukraine and beauty queen of Israel (1993) was assigned number 4 on the party list. The campaign presented Chudriker wearing a burqa as a warning against the demographic threat of Arabs to Israel and the slogan was "The Demographics Will Poison Us" (in Hebrew the words "poison" (ra'al, רעל) and "burqa" (r'ala, רעלה) sound similar). The poster's publication resulted in Attorney General Menachem Mazuz ordering the police to investigate the party for inciting racism. The party's television campaign also drew criticism, and segments were removed by the Central election committee. Committee chairman and Supreme Court Judge Dorit Beinisch asserted that the removed segment from the advertisement clearly made reference to a blatantly racist slogan and retorted that if aired, would most probably hurt the feelings of the Arab population. In the election itself, the party won just 2,387 votes—0.07%, well below the new electoral threshold of 2%.

Prior to the 2009 elections, Kleiner and Begin rejoined the Likud slate. Herut did not run in the 2009 elections or subsequently and is considered defunct.

title: Herut – The National Movement


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Northwest Indian War

The Northwest Indian War (1785–1795), also known by other names, was an armed conflict for control of the Northwest Territory fought between the United States and a united group of Native American nations known today as the Northwestern Confederacy. The United States Army considers it the first of the American Indian Wars.

Following centuries of conflict for control of this region, the land comprising the Northwest Territory was granted to the new United States by the Kingdom of Great Britain in article 2 of the Treaty of Paris, which ended the American Revolutionary War. The treaty used the Great Lakes as a border between British territory and the United States. This granted significant territory to the United States, initially known as the Ohio Country and the Illinois Country, which had previously been prohibited to new settlements. However, numerous Native American peoples inhabited this region and were unaware of the British ceding land or the results of the war with the newly formed United States. The British maintained a strong military presence and continued policies that supported their Native allies. With the encroachment of European-American settlers west of the Appalachian Mountains after the war, a Huron-led confederacy formed in 1785 to resist the usurpation of Indian lands, declaring that lands north and west of the Ohio River were Indian territory.

Four years after the start of the British-supported Native American military campaign, the Constitution of the United States went into effect; George Washington was sworn in as president, which made him the commander-in-chief of U.S. military forces. Accordingly, Washington directed the United States Army to enforce U.S. sovereignty over the territory. The U.S. Army, consisting mostly of untrained recruits and volunteer militiamen, suffered a series of major defeats, including the Harmar campaign (1790) and St. Clair's defeat (1791), which are among the worst defeats ever suffered in the history of the U.S. Army. It was also later discovered that the British had a frequent tactic of dressing up as Native Americans to participate in their battles.

St. Clair's devastating loss destroyed most of the United States Army and left the United States vulnerable. The British refused to leave the ceded land and continued their influence in Native American politics. Washington was also under congressional investigation and was compelled to quickly raise a bigger army. He chose Revolutionary War veteran General Anthony Wayne to organize and train a proper fighting force. Wayne took command of the new Legion of the United States late in 1792 and spent a year building, training, and acquiring supplies. After a methodical campaign up the Great Miami and Maumee river valleys in western Ohio Country, Wayne led his Legion to a decisive victory at the Battle of Fallen Timbers near the southwestern shore of Lake Erie (near modern Toledo, Ohio) in 1794. Afterward, he went on to establish Fort Wayne at the Miami capital of Kekionga, the symbol of U.S. sovereignty in the heart of Indian Country and within sight of the British. The defeated tribes were forced to cede extensive territory, including much of present-day Ohio, in the Treaty of Greenville in 1795. The Jay Treaty in the same year arranged for cessions of British Great Lakes outposts on the U.S. territory. The British would later retake this land briefly during the War of 1812.

Background

In the French and Indian War (1754–1760), France and Great Britain fought for control of the region south of the Great Lakes known as the Ohio and Illinois countries. Indigenous tribes of the region fought on both sides of the conflict, aligning themselves with the imperial power best suited to their economic and political needs. In the 1763 Treaty of Paris that ended the war, France ceded the region to the British. That year, a confederation of Natives launched Pontiac's War, an effort to drive the British away. Seeking to avoid further hostilities, the British issued the Royal Proclamation of 1763, creating a boundary line between colonists and Native lands.

In 1768, British officials negotiated the Treaty of Fort Stanwix with the Iroquois, who claimed sovereignty over the Ohio Country. The treaty moved the boundary line further west and opened territory south of the Ohio River to colonial settlement. While colonial elites like George Washington organized land companies and secured grants, immigrants began pouring into the region. Natives (primarily Shawnees and Cherokees) who used present-day Kentucky as their hunting grounds had not been consulted in the treaty and denied that the Iroquois had the right to sell the land. In the early 1770s, the Shawnees worked to create a new Native confederacy to resist colonial occupation, but British officials successfully used the Iroquois to isolate them. As a result, the Shawnees fought and lost Lord Dunmore's War in 1774 with only a few Mingo allies, and they were compelled to assent to the Ohio River boundary between the colonies and Native lands.

To better control the frontier, in 1774, the British Parliament passed the Quebec Act, which placed the entire region under the jurisdiction of the Province of Quebec, nullifying colonial land claims. American colonists who hoped to own or settle these lands were outraged, contributing to their decision to declare independence from Britain in 1776. Many Natives allied with the British in the western theater of the American Revolutionary War, seeking to drive out American settlers. In the 1783 Treaty of Paris that ended the war, Great Britain ceded the region to the United States, making no mention of Native land rights. The Native nations technically remained at war with the United States, and Richard Butler argued to them that the British had "cast you off, and given us your country."

Mohawk leader Joseph Brant, who had fought in the Revolution as a British ally, was stunned to learn that "England had sold the Indians to Congress." In 1783 he took the lead in forming the Northwestern Confederacy, the "most ambitious pan-tribal confederacy yet." At the Wyandot town of Junquindundeh (modern Fremont, Ohio), Brant argued that Native lands were held in common by all tribes and so no land could be ceded without the consent of the confederacy. Among the attendees at the conference were representatives from the Iroquois, Shawnees, Delawares (Lenapes), Wyandots, Three Fires (Ojibwe, Odawa, and Potawatomi), as well as a few Cherokees and Creeks.

In the following years, U.S. states relinquished their claims in the region to the federal government, which intended to pay debts from the Revolution by selling lands north of the Ohio River to American settlers. American officials refused to recognize the Native confederacy and instead pursued a policy of divide and rule. They informed the Natives their lands had been taken by right of conquest and sought to confirm this in a series of treaties in which the Americans dictated the terms. Some Native leaders buckled to the pressure and ceded land at Fort Stanwix (1784), Fort McIntosh (1785), and Fort Finney (1786). Hardline and militant Natives remained committed to defending their lands north of the Ohio River. Shawnees and Lenapes sent out messages calling for war.

Course of the war
After a number of raids and counter-raids along the Ohio River boundary, in 1786 the Kentucky militia launched the first major frontier military action since the end of the Revolutionary War. Generals George Rogers Clark and Benjamin Logan headed a two-pronged invasion of Native land. In September, Clark led 1,200 militiamen north along the Wabash River. Beset by logistical problems, mutiny, and desertion, Clark turned back without accomplishing anything. In October, Logan led 790 Kentucky militiamen to the Shawnee towns along the Mad River. The towns were inhabited primarily by noncombatants because the warriors had scattered for the winter hunt. Logan's men burned the towns and food supplies, killing and capturing numerous Natives. Moluntha, an elderly Shawnee chief who had signed the Fort Finney treaty, was executed by one of Logan's men.

After the destruction of their towns, Shawnee refugees were invited by the Miamis to settle along the Wabash. The towns around Kekionga, the Miami capital, were now inhabited by many of the most militant members of the Northwestern Confederacy. The next meeting of the confederacy had been scheduled to be held in the Shawnee towns, but with their destruction the location was moved to the Wyandot village of Brownstown on the Detroit River. Joseph Brant spoke to a gathering that included Miamis and other members of the Wabash Confederacy. On December 18, 1786, the confederacy, calling themselves the "United Indian Nations," sent a letter to the U.S. Confederation Congress declaring the recent treaties invalid because they had not been conducted with the whole confederacy. They called for a new treaty conference to be held in the spring of 1787. Until that time, the Natives suggested that each party should keep its people on their side of the Ohio River.

In July 1787, the U.S. Confederation Congress created the Northwest Territory north of the Ohio River in preparation of widespread, organized American settlement of the region. Arthur St. Clair, appointed as territorial governor, moved to Marietta, the first American settlement north of the river. He was instructed to negotiate new treaties without surrendering any lands ceded in previous treaties, acquire more land if possible, and work to undermine the Native confederacy. In 1788, St. Clair invited Natives to Fort Harmar near Marietta, instead of a neutral site preferred by the Natives. Brant sent St. Clair a message asking if he would accept a new boundary, preserving everything west of the Muskingum River as Native land. When St. Clair dismissed the idea, Brant boycotted the negotiations and suggested others do the same. The Northwestern Confederacy was deeply divided. Those living closest to the Americans supported compromise. Those further away – the Miamis, Lenapes and Shawnees around Kekionga – insisted upon the Ohio River boundary. In January 1789, a group of mostly minor chiefs signed the Treaty of Fort Harmar, which merely confirmed the terms of the previous, disputed treaties. "I am persuaded their general confederacy is entirely broken," wrote St. Clair. Instead of breaking the confederacy, St. Clair had discredited Natives willing to compromise and strengthened the influence of the militants.

After the Fort Harmar treaty, violence between Natives and settlers escalated. Natives attacked flatboats on the Ohio River and raided into Kentucky, killing, capturing, and torturing settlers in an attempt to stem the tide of immigrants. Americans responded with counter raids, such as one led by Major John Hardin, who in August 1789 led 220 Kentucky militiamen to the Wabash region, where they killed eight Shawnees, including women and children. In 1790, George Washington, recently inaugurated as the first President of the United States, and Secretary of War Henry Knox decided to attack the Native confederacy to secure the Northwest Territory for American occupation. Because many Americans distrusted the idea of a professional "standing army," Congress kept the United States Army small and relied upon state-run militias for defense. In 1790, Congress expanded the army's single regiment, the First American Regiment, from 700 to 1,216 men. For the duration of the war, the Americans would use combined operations of militiamen and regulars, with a U.S. Army officer in overall command.

1790: Harmar campaign
On 20 April 1790, the First American Regiment participated in its first offensive against Native Americans when General Josiah Harmar joined Kentucky General Charles Scott in an attack on the Shawnee village of Chalawgatha. The next month, Native Americans retaliated by attacking settlers near Limestone (modern-day Maysville, Kentucky) in a skirmish known as Hartshorne's Defeat, leaving 5 settlers dead and 8 missing. That autumn, the United States launched a major offensive against the Natives along the Maumee River. This punitive expedition was led by General Harmar, whose orders were to destroy Kekionga and the surrounding towns, killing any Natives who opposed him. His army, consisting of 1,100 militiamen and 320 regulars, departed Fort Washington on the Ohio River on September 30. A diversionary force led by Major Jean François Hamtramck invaded from Vincennes, though it turned back before joining with Harmar.

Native scouts monitored the slow progress of Harmar's northward march. The Natives had scattered for their annual winter hunt, but Blue Jacket, the principal Shawnee war chief, and Little Turtle, his Miami counterpart, dispatched messengers calling for the warriors to regroup. They managed to collect about 600 men to oppose Harmar's army. This was not enough men to face the largest army most of them had ever seen, so they evacuated the noncombatants from the towns on October 14 and watched for an opportunity to strike. Harmar's advance detachment under John Hardin reached Kekionga on October 15 and spent the next few days looting and burning Native towns, as well as destroying the crops. On October 19, Hardin led 180 men on a reconnaissance mission to discover a Native war party thought to be nearby. About 16 miles from Kekionga, Hardin's scattered men were ambushed and routed by about 150 Shawnee and Potawatomi warriors. Soon after, the Natives received additional reinforcements of Odawas, Sacs, and Foxes.

On October 21, Harmar declared that his objective—the destruction of the towns—had been fulfilled, and so the army would return to Fort Washington. The expedition had destroyed five Miami towns and 20,000 bushels of their corn. They marched south, but the following day, Harmar agreed to allow a detachment of 400 men to return to Kekionga and attack any Natives who might reoccupy the town. This raid was led by Major John P. Wyllys, a regular army officer, with Hardin serving under him and commanding the militia. As they approached Kekionga, Wyllys divided his men, hoping to surround and trap the Natives. Instead, the Natives again ambushed the Americans and defeated them piecemeal, the survivors barely managing to regroup with Harmar's army. Blue Jacket and Little Turtle hoped to strike again at Harmar's retreating army, but a lunar eclipse the following night was regarded by many Natives as an ill omen, and the attack was called off.

Blue Jacket, disappointed with the lost opportunity, headed for Detroit where he sought British help in opposing the next, inevitable American invasion. "We now, Father, call for your assistance," he said. The British commander at Detroit was noncommittal. When Blue Jacket's request was relayed to Guy Carleton (Lord Dorchester), the Governor General of British North America, he replied, "We are at peace with the United States and wish to remain so." By remaining neutral in the conflict, the British confirmed they no longer regarded the Natives in the Northwest Territory as allies to be supported in wartime.

Harmar's expedition had ended in defeat, with a total of 183 killed and missing. The Miamis on the other hand had lost nearly a tenth of their military manpower. Harmar's military career was over, and his campaign was regarded as a "national embarrassment" that needed to be avenged. "The general impression upon the result of the late expedition," Knox wrote to Harmar, "is that it has been unsuccessful; that it will not induce the Indians to peace, but on the contrary encourage them to a continuance of hostilities, and that, therefore, another and more efficient expedition must be undertaken."

1791: St. Clair's defeat

After Harmar's campaign, Natives rebuilt their villages around Kekionga, although some relocated to other locations. Natives did not typically go to war in winter, but they followed up their victory over Harmar with raids on American settlements north of the Ohio River. On January 2, 1791, Wyandots and Lenapes attacked Big Bottom on the Muskingum River, killing eleven settlers. Soon after, Shawnees and Wyandots led by Blue Jacket unsuccessfully laid siege to Dunlap's Station on the Great Miami River. At both locations, a war club was left behind, a Native means of announcing a declaration of war. Although these raids were limited in success, Sword (1985) argues they "significantly altered the course of frontier history," demonstrating that American settlement north of the Ohio River could not proceed until the United States defeated the Natives. Other Native attacks followed in the coming months.

In response to Harmar's defeat, Congress expanded the U.S. Army to two regiments in March 1791. Washington appointed Arthur St. Clair, governor of the Northwest Territory, as major general in command. St. Clair was ordered to mount another punitive expedition to the Maumee River, where he was to build a fort as a means of "awing and curbing the Indians in that quarter." To augment the regular army, St. Clair was authorized to use mounted militia units to raid Native villages with the aim of deterring attacks on American settlements.

In May 1791, while St. Clair gathered his army, he dispatched Brigadier General Charles Scott with 750 mounted Kentucky militiamen on a preliminary raid. Natives gathered nearly 2,000 warriors at Kekionga in anticipation of facing Scott's Kentuckians, but Scott instead turned northwest and targeted undefended Wea towns on the Wabash River, destroying Ouiatenon and Kethtippecanunk (Tippecanoe). St. Clair had hoped to start his campaign in July, but he was delayed by his own illness as well as a shortage of recruits. In August, he sent Lieutenant Colonel James Wilkinson on a second raid, which had originally been intended as a diversion in support of the main expedition. Wilkinson, with 500 mounted Kentucky militiamen, destroyed a Miami town on the Eel River. Wilkinson killed 9 Wea and Miami, and captured 34 Miami as prisoners, including a daughter of Miami war chief Little Turtle. Many of the confederation leaders were considering terms of peace to present to the United States, but when they received news of Wilkinson's raid, they readied for war. Wilkinson's raid thus had the opposite effect.

In September, St. Clair's men erected a supply depot, Fort Hamilton, twenty-three miles north of Fort Washington on the Great Miami. The army finally left Fort Hamilton on October 4 with about 2,300 men. In mid October, they stopped to build a second depot, Fort Jefferson. As the slow march toward Kekionga continued, the expedition was plagued with food shortages, plummeting morale, and frequent desertions. On October 31, St. Clair sent the First Infantry Regiment southward to prevent deserters from plundering the supply convoy, depriving his army of 300 of its best troops and leaving him with about 1,400 people, including noncombatants.

On November 3, St. Clair's army camped on the banks of the Wabash, near modern-day Fort Recovery, Ohio. Just before dawn on November 4, a Native force of more than 1,000 warriors led by Little Turtle and Blue Jacket launched a surprise attack. Their first target was the militia, which had camped on the north side of the river. The militia retreated in panic back across the river, causing confusion in the American camp. The Americans, finding themselves surrounded, tried to organize a defense, made difficult because the Natives fired from cover, targeting officers and artillerymen. Lieutenant Colonel William Darke led a bayonet charge, temporarily creating an opening for the Natives to enter the American encampment. After three hours of fighting, St. Clair ordered a retreat, abandoning many wounded and most of the army's equipment. Among the wounded left behind was Major General Richard Butler, St. Clair's second-in-command, who was killed by Natives after the battle. Fort Jefferson was too small to shelter the retreating Americans, so most fled all the way back to Fort Washington.

The battle was a lopsided victory for the Natives. The Americans reported a loss of 630 soldiers killed and around 250 wounded; an additional 30 camp followers, mostly women, were also killed. Native loses were comparatively slight, with 21 killed and 40 wounded. Historian Colin Calloway states it was "the biggest victory Native Americans ever won and proportionately the biggest military disaster the United States ever suffered."

The Natives, short on food after the destruction of their crops, scattered to hunt before winter set in. Little Turtle and Blue Jacket decided to abandon Kekionga, which had proven to be vulnerable to American raids, and relocate their towns at the confluence of the Maumee and Auglaize Rivers, where the principal Shawnee chief Kekewepelethy had already settled. This move had been encouraged by British Indian agent Alexander McKee, since the new towns would be closer to the trade and military support offered by the British at Detroit. This cluster of towns, known as "The Glaize," would become the headquarters of the Native Confederacy for the duration of the war.

1792

After St. Clair's defeat, the U.S. Congress launched an investigation of the disaster. Although St. Clair remained as territorial governor, he was forced to resign his military position. President Washington urged Congress to raise an army capable of defeating the British-backed Northwestern Confederacy and defending its borders. In March 1792, Congress passed a bill increasing the size of the army to more than 5,000 men. Major General "Mad" Anthony Wayne was chosen as the new commander. Congress also passed two militia acts that authorized the president to call out the militia, which had previously been under the control of the states.

While the American army was being readied, Washington and Knox engaged in diplomacy, hoping to buy time to prepare and to appease Americans opposed to the war. In March 1792, fifty Iroquois leaders met with U.S. officials in Philadelphia where they were asked to attend an upcoming council of the Northwestern Confederacy and present U.S. peace terms. The U.S. also tried approaching the Northwestern Confederacy directly, which proved to be difficult since the Americans continued to occupy forts north of the Ohio River. In March 1792, Wilkinson constructed Fort St. Clair to improve communications and logistics between Forts Hamilton and Jefferson. The next month, Knox sent emissaries to the Natives, including John Hardin and Major Alexander Truman, veterans of the earlier campaigns; they were both killed and scalped. In June, about 50 warriors attacked Fort Jefferson, killing and capturing fifteen soldiers. It was during this time that Kentucky was officially admitted to the union as a state.

Rufus Putnam, who had led the settlement of Marietta, was commissioned a brigadier general and tasked with arranging a truce with the Northwestern Confederacy. Alarmed by the killing of the previous emissaries, he instead went to Vincennes and in September 1792 negotiated a treaty with tribes of the lower Wabash River. Knox believed this treaty had weakened the confederacy by 800 warriors, though in fact the signers were not militant members of the confederacy. In any event, the U.S. Senate ultimately rejected the treaty because it did not specify that only the United States could purchase Native lands.

Beginning in late September 1792, the Natives held a large council at the Glaize with representatives from numerous tribes, with a reported 3,600 warriors in attendance. Delegates from the Iroquois, including Red Jacket, came to present the peace offer from the United States. Red Jacket advised the confederacy to accept the Muskingum River as the boundary between the United States and Native territory. The Shawnee orator Red Pole spoke on behalf of the confederacy. Red Pole denounced the Iroquois for meeting privately with the Americans to discuss further land cessions. "We do not want compensation" from the Americans, said Red Pole. "We want restitution of our country." After much debate, the council endorsed Red Pole's position: the Ohio River was the only acceptable boundary and American forts north of the river must be destroyed. The council also agreed to meet with the Americans in 1793.

When Red Jacket reported the decision of council to an American official in November, he omitted the confederacy's demands about the Ohio River boundary and the destruction of the forts. As a result, the Americans were given an erroneous impression that the confederacy was prepared to accept U.S. terms. Knox agreed to send treaty commissioners to the 1793 council and suspend all offensive operations until that time, angering General Wayne, who had hoped to launch the next American invasion in 1793.

Following the Glaize meeting, Red Pole began an extensive tour of the south, an ultimately unsuccessful attempt to enlist more Chickamauga Cherokees and Creeks in the confederacy. Meanwhile, on November 6, Little Turtle and about 200 Miamis and Shawnees attacked a supply convoy near Fort St. Clair, killing six Americans and depriving them of the packhorses needed to supply the forts. "It is a most disagreeable and humiliating position to remain with our hands tied whilst the enemy is at liberty to act upon the offensive," wrote Wayne to Knox.

1793

While General Wayne awaited the outcome of the peace negotiations, he prepared his army known as the Legion of the United States at Legionville, a camp on the Ohio River near Pittsburgh. Wayne believed the previous expeditions had failed due to lack of discipline, and so he thoroughly trained his troops, flogging soldiers for infractions and hanging deserters. By May 5, 1793, the Legion had relocated to a camp near Fort Washington, where Wayne awaited word to begin his invasion.

In mid-May, Benjamin Lincoln, Beverley Randolph, and Timothy Pickering – the U.S. commissioners appointed to meet with the Native confederacy – arrived at Fort Niagara at the western end of Lake Ontario, traveling by way of the Great Lakes to avoid the fates of John Hardin and Alexander Truman the previous year. Niagara was one of the forts still occupied by the British in defiance of the 1783 Paris treaty, but John Graves Simcoe, the British lieutenant governor of Upper Canada, housed the commissioners at his own residence. Despite his cordiality, Simcoe had been working to undermine U.S. influence among the Natives. After the recent Native victories, he had hoped Great Britain would support the creation of a Native buffer state between the United States and Canada, an idea the Americans opposed. With the outbreak of war in Europe between France and Great Britain in 1793, Simcoe faced a dilemma. He had to keep peace with the United States to avoid opening another front in the war with France, while at the same time maintain British influence among the Natives in case they were needed to help defend Upper Canada against the Americans.

At Niagara, the U.S. commissioners were visited by a Native delegation led by Brant. Although Brant had been one of the principal organizers of the Northwestern Confederacy, he was now regarded with suspicion by the more militant members because of his willingness to negotiate with the Americans and because the Iroquois had not participated in the war. Nevertheless, Brant spoke for the delegation, asking if the commissioners were authorized to create a new boundary line and inquiring why Wayne's army was preparing for war while peace negotiations were underway. The commissioners assured Brant they were authorized to negotiate a boundary and that hostilities had been officially suspended. Brant returned to the Maumee and reported to the confederacy, and although he had some supporters, he was denounced for not insisting on the Ohio River boundary. A new delegation (without Brant) was sent to meet the commissioners on the Detroit River.

This second meeting, held at British Indian agent Matthew Elliot's estate near Amherstburg, began on July 30. The Wyandot chief Carry-One-About (So-Wagh-da-Wunk) spoke for the confederacy, with Buckongahelas (Lenape) and Kekewepelethy in attendance. The confederacy presented its ultimatum: the Ohio River was the only acceptable boundary, and forts and settlers north of the river must be removed. The commissioners replied that since lands north of the Ohio had already been sold and settled by Americans, those lands could not be returned. The Native delegates returned to the Maumee to confer with the council. Brant once again argued for compromise, but he lost out to the militants, who had the support of Alexander McKee. On August 13, the confederacy sent a written declaration to the U.S. commissioners, signed by representatives of all the nations except the Iroquois. According to Sugden (2000), this document was "the defiant and frank sentiments of proud, undefeated peoples, asserting their independence and sovereignty and rebutting the pretensions of those who would dispossess and humble them." The confederacy offered a solution: the U.S. should use the money it would spend on buying land and fighting a war and instead pay the settlers to relocate south of the Ohio River. These terms were unacceptable to the Americans, and the commissioners replied that "the negotiation is therefore at an end." Back on the Maumee, Brant bitterly announced the Iroquois could no longer assist the confederacy in the fighting that was sure to follow and the Iroquois must now "remove our people from among the Americans."

Upon learning that negotiations had failed, Wayne advanced, reaching Fort Jefferson on October 13 with 2,600 men. On October 17, an Odawa war party under Little Otter attacked a supply convoy south of Fort Jefferson, killing fifteen and capturing ten. Wayne was compelled to use more troops to guard his supply line. Given these problems, Wayne decided to halt major operations and build Fort Greenville north of Fort Jefferson. "I am at a loss to determine what the savages are about, and where they are," he wrote to Knox in November. The Natives were having logistical problems of their own, with many warriors scattering for the winter hunt. The Legion wintered at Fort Greenville, but on December 23 Wayne led a detachment of about 300 men to the site of St. Clair's defeat. There, his troops built Fort Recovery, buried the American dead still on the battlefield, and recovered three of the cannon lost there in 1791.

1794

In January 1794, the confederacy sent a delegation to Fort Greenville to arrange the release of two Lenape women held by the Americans. A Lenape chief asked if Wayne was willing to hold peace talks. Wayne said he would only negotiate if the Natives recalled their war parties and released all American prisoners within the next thirty days. Back at the Glaize, militant leaders, surprised that talks had been initiated without authorization from the confederacy, debated the proposal. The militants prevailed, and the matter was dropped.

In February 1794, Lord Dorchester told an Iroquois delegation in Quebec that Great Britain could be at war with the United States within the year and that Native lands lost to the Americans would be restored. Dorchester ordered Simcoe to build a fort on the Maumee to defend Detroit from the advancing Americans. In April, Simcoe constructed Fort Miami and garrisoned it with 120 soldiers and an artillery detachment. Dorchester's words and actions caused an uproar in the United States; the construction of Fort Miami on what Americans regarded as their territory was considered an act of aggression. In May, Chief Justice John Jay was dispatched to England to negotiate a resolution to the crisis. The Native confederacy, encouraged by British actions, sent out messengers to recruit additional warriors.

Battle of Fort Recovery
At Fort Greenville, Wayne was delayed by supply problems, but the construction of Fort Miami compelled him to accelerate his schedule. Eager to begin operations, he impatiently awaited the arrival of a reinforcement of Kentucky militiamen. In late June, Wayne was joined by about 100 Chickasaws and Choctaws, who had come from the south to fight against their traditional enemies in the Northwestern Confederacy. On June 27, forty-five Choctaws and ten scouts led by William Wells, Wayne's principal scout, skirmished with a large body of Natives advancing from the Glaize. Wells reported to Wayne that Fort Recovery was in danger of imminent attack.

The Native army marching toward Fort Recovery numbered 1,200 warriors, the largest force the confederacy had yet fielded. Unlike the Americans, the Natives did not have an overall commander. Instead, military decisions were made by a council of leading chiefs and warriors. Blue Jacket urged the council to bypass Forts Recovery and Greenville and attack the American supply lines, cutting off Wayne's Legion. Recently arrived Three Fire leaders, whose warriors comprised the majority of the army, favored attacking a convoy near Fort Recovery. They prevailed in the council, and so on June 30 warriors ambushed the convoy then rushed the fort, but they were driven off by American musket fire and artillery. The attack's failure discouraged the Three Fires contingent, who accused the Shawnees of insufficient support. They went home, depriving Blue Jacket of about half his army, which returned to the Glaize. After the battle, Little Turtle and Tarhe (Wyandot) made trips to Detroit to ask the British for support, as Blue Jacket had done on previous occasions, but the commander, Lieutenant Colonel Richard G. England, told the Natives he could not fight the Americans without orders.

Battle of Fallen Timbers

On the morning of August 20, the Legion broke camp and marched toward the Maumee River near modern Toledo, Ohio, where an ambush had been set by the Confederacy. The Legion had been reduced to about 3,000 soldiers and militia, with many soldiers defending the supply trains and forts. Blue Jacket had selected a battlefield where a tornado had felled hundreds of trees, creating a natural defensive barrier. Here he placed confederation forces of about 1,500 warriors: Blue Jacket's Shawnees, Delawares led by Buckongahelas, Miamis led by Little Turtle, Wyandots led by Tarhe and Roundhead, Mingos, a small detachment of Mohawks, and a British company of Canadian militiamen dressed as Native Americans under William Caldwell.

Odawa and Potawatomi under Little Otter and Egushawa occupied the center and initiated the attack against the Legion's scouts. Front elements of the Legion's columns initially collapsed under pursuing Native Americans. Wayne immediately committed his reserves to the center to halt their advance and divided his infantry into two wings, the right commanded by Wilkinson, the other by Hamtramck. The Legion's cavalry secured the right along the Maumee River. General Scott provided a brigade of mounted militia to guard the open left flank, while the rest of the Kentucky militia formed a reserve. Once contact had been established, U.S. scouts identified the location of Confederacy warriors, and Wayne ordered an immediate bayonet charge. Legion dragoons also charged and attacked with sabres. Blue Jacket's warriors fled from the battlefield to regroup at nearby Fort Miami but found the doors of the fort locked by the British garrison. (Britain and the United States were by then reaching a close rapprochement to counter Jacobin France in the French Revolution.) The entire battle lasted little more than an hour. The Legion had significant casualties, with 33 men killed and 100 wounded. The Confederacy had between 19 and 40 warriors killed and an unknown number wounded. The battle fostered distrust between the Native nations and between the confederacy and the British; it was the last time the Northwestern Confederacy gathered a large military force to oppose the United States.

Wayne's army encamped for three days in sight of Fort Miami, which was under command of British Major William Campbell. When Campbell asked the meaning of the encampment, Wayne replied that the answer had already been given by the sound of their muskets and the retreat of the Indians. The next day, Wayne rode alone to Fort Miami and slowly conducted an inspection of the fort's exterior walls. The British garrison debated whether to engage Wayne, but in the absence of orders and being already at war with France, Campbell declined to fire the first shot at the United States. The Legion, meanwhile, destroyed Indian villages and crops in the region of Fort Deposit and burned Alexander McKee's trading post within sight of Fort Miami before withdrawing.

Wayne's Legion finally arrived at Kekionga on September 17, 1794, and Wayne personally selected the site for a new U.S. fort. Wayne wanted a strong fort built, capable of withstanding possible attacks by Indians and more specifically heavy British artillery, along with their forces from Fort Detroit. The fort was finished by October 17 and was capable of withstanding a 24-pound cannon. It was named Fort Wayne and placed under the command of Hamtramck, who had been commandant of Fort Knox in Vincennes. The fort was officially dedicated October 22, the fourth anniversary of Harmar's defeat, and the day is considered the founding of the modern city of Fort Wayne, Indiana. That winter, Wayne also reinforced his line of defensive forts with Fort St. Marys, Fort Loramie, and Fort Piqua.

Treaty of Greenville and Jay Treaty
Within months of Fallen Timbers, the United States and Great Britain negotiated the Jay Treaty, which required British withdrawal from the Great Lakes forts while opening up some British territory in the Caribbean for American trade. The treaty also encoded free trade and freedom of movement for Native Americans living in territories controlled by either the United States or Great Britain. The Jay Treaty was ratified by the United States Senate in 1795 and was used by Wayne as evidence that Great Britain would no longer support the confederacy. The Jay Treaty and U.S. relations with Great Britain remained as political issues in the 1796 United States presidential election in which John Adams beat Jay Treaty opponent Thomas Jefferson.

The United States also negotiated the Treaty of Greenville in 1795. Utilizing St. Clair's defeat and Fort Recovery as a reference point, the Greenville Treaty Line forced the northwest Native American tribes to cede southern and eastern Ohio and various tracts of land around forts and settlements in Illinois Country; to recognize the U.S. rather than Britain as the ruling power in the Old Northwest; and to surrender ten chiefs as hostages until all American prisoners were returned. The Miami also lost private control of the Kekionga portage, since the Northwest Ordinance passed by Congress guaranteed free use of important portages in the region.

Aftermath
Fort Lernoult and Fort Miami were abandoned by the British in 1796 as a condition of the Jay Treaty. After two decades of efforts to take Detroit, U.S. forces under Colonel Hamtramck occupied Fort Lernoult the next day. The U.S. renamed Fort Lernoult to Fort Detroit and abandoned Fort Miami in 1799. The British re-captured Fort Detroit and Fort Miami during the War of 1812. Fort Detroit was abandoned one year later as American forces advanced towards it, and Fort Miami was abandoned in 1814 and eventually demolished.

Most of the western U.S. forts were also abandoned after 1796; Fort Washington, the last, was moved across the Ohio River to Kentucky in 1804 to make room for a growing settlement at Cincinnati; it became the Newport Barracks. General Wayne supervised the surrender of British posts in the Northwest Territory and personally selected the construction site of Fort Wayne in Kekionga to secure his Legion's victory.

Wayne died during a return trip to Pennsylvania from a military post in Detroit on December 15, 1796, one year after the ratification of the Treaty of Greenville. Wayne's second in command, General Wilkinson, was named as the new commander of U.S. forces. It was later learned that Wilkinson had secretly tried to undermine Wayne throughout the campaign, writing negative letters to civilian leaders and anonymously to local newspapers. Wilkinson was also a Spanish agent at the time. It has been speculated but never proven that Wilkinson had Wayne assassinated.

After the end of hostilities, large numbers of United States settlers migrated to the Northwest Territory. Many made unscrupulous land deals with the Native nations, forcing General Wilkinson to invalidate them in a 1796 proclamation. Five years after the Treaty of Greenville, Ohio was split from the Northwest Territory, closely following the line of advanced forts and the Greenville Treaty Line. The territory west of that border was named Indiana Territory. In February 1803, the state of Ohio was admitted to the Union.

Legacy
President Thomas Jefferson hoped to incorporate Native Americans through assimilation and intermarriage, but encouraged land removals and debts as a way to humble Native leaders. Territorial governor William Henry Harrison began an aggressive campaign of native land acquisition. Native Americans were subjected to diseases, debts, drunkenness, and sexual abuse at the hands of the new settlers. In 1805, Tenskwatawa began a traditionalist movement that rejected United States practices. His followers settled at Prophetstown in Indiana Territory, leading to Tecumseh's War and the Northwest theater of the War of 1812. United States settlement continued, fueling Indian removals and conflicts in the Northwest Territory well into the 1830s. These include the Black Hawk War and the Potawatomi Trail of Death. Wisconsin, the last state fully located in the Northwest Territory, was admitted to the union in 1848. The process of acquiring cheap land and selling it to white settlers was a critical means of paying off the United States' national debt in the 1830s.

Before his death, Little Turtle lamented "More of us have died since the Treaty of Greenville than we lost by the years of war before." Contributors to the Journal of Genocide Research characterize the United States' campaigns in the Northwest Territory as attempted genocide, citing descriptions by Secretary of War Henry Knox of the Shawnee, Cherokee, and Wabash as "banditti" and subsequent orders to "extirpate, utterly, if possible, the said banditti." They argue that the ultimate goal of Knox and other American officials was to depopulate the region of Native Americans and open up its lands to white settlement.

Future Native American resistance movements were unable to form a union matching the size or capability that the Northwestern Confederacy had displayed. Author Wiley Sword writes that although the 19th century American Indian Wars received more attention, their fates were determined during wars of the 1790s. American historians of the 19th century largely ignored this war, which did not fit their patriotic narrative. As such, there is no standard name or starting date for this war. According to Hogeland (2017), "The first war the United States ever fought, in which the U.S. Army itself came into being, would never even be given a name." In 1914, a publication referred to the conflict as the "Northwest Indian Wars, Ohio" dating it from 1790 to 1795, although it also called the 1811 Battle of Tippecanoe the "Northwest Indian War, Indiana". A frequently cited 1964 PhD dissertation calls it the "Northwest Indian War, 1784–1795." In other publications of this era, it was known as "Little Turtle's War." In the first book-length study of the war, Sword (1985) refers to it as the "United States-Indian War of 1790 to 1795." Sugden (2000) gives an earlier start date, referring to the "Indian war of 1786 to 1795." A 2001 study suggests naming the conflict the "Miami Confederacy War," but Grenier (2005) disagrees, since the war involved Ohio Native tribes, and suggests the "Ohio Indian War of 1790–1795" instead, although noting historians had taken to calling it the "Northwest Indian War."

Because all active duty units (except one field artillery company) were disbanded after the American Revolution, the Northwest Indian War is among earliest campaign listed in United States Army lineages. It is noted with the Indian Wars Campaign streamer.

Key figures
Several veterans of the Northwest Indian War are known for their later achievements, including William Henry Harrison, William Clark and Meriwether Lewis, and Tecumseh. William Wells, who fought on both sides of the war, later died at the Battle of Fort Dearborn.

United States

 * Henry Knox, first United States Secretary of War
 * Josiah Harmar, Brigadier General in command of the First American Regiment who led the 1790 Harmar campaign
 * Arthur St. Clair, Governor of the Northwest Territory and Major General at St. Clair's defeat
 * Anthony Wayne, Major General in command of Legion of the United States at the Battle of Fallen Timbers
 * Charles Scott, Brigadier General commanding the Kentucky militia during Wayne's campaign
 * James Wilkinson, Lieutenant Colonel in command of Fort Washington, Wayne's second in command and Spanish spy

United Indian Nations

 * Little Turtle - a Sagamore (chief) of a Miami band and celebrated war leader in the confederacy.
 * Blue Jacket - a principle war chief of the Shawnee and a primary war leader of the confederacy.
 * Egushawa - a chief of the Ottawa nation and influential leader in the confederacy.
 * Buckongahelas - a chief from the Lenape (Delaware) who resisted the United States and closely allied with Blue Jacket.
 * Roundhead (or Stayeghtha) - an American Indian chief of the Wyandot people, present at Fallen Timbers.
 * Joseph Brant - a prominent Mohawk leader who helped form the Northwest Confederacy.

British Empire

 * Sir Guy Carleton, Lord Dorchester Commander-in-Chief of British North America
 * William Campbell, British Major in command of Fort Miamis
 * John Graves Simcoe Lieutenant Governor of Upper Canada
 * Alexander McKee Deputy Agent and later Deputy Superintendent General in the British Indian Department

title: Northwest Indian War


text:
Jussieu

Jussieu can refer to:

People

 * Adrien-Henri de Jussieu (1797–1853), French botanist, son of A. L. de Jussieu
 * Antoine de Jussieu (1686–1758), French naturalist, uncle of A. L. de Jussieu
 * Antoine Laurent de Jussieu (1748–1836), French botanist
 * Bernard de Jussieu (1699–1777), French naturalist, uncle of A. L. de Jussieu
 * See De Jussieu for additional family members

Places

 * Jussieu (Paris Métro), a station of the Paris Métro
 * Jussieu Campus, a campus of the University of Paris, France
 * Jussieu Peninsula, a peninsula in South Australia

title: Jussieu


text:
Talk:Tsukioka Yoshitoshi

Untitled
Following Wikipedia policy on article names (which says "What .. would the average user of the Wikipedia put into the search engine?") we have been listing Japanese woodblock prints artists under the names they are commonly known by in the West - which means we do not use their complete names (which are rarely used in the West, and for artists of this era change over time anyway). Please see Talk:Sharaku for an extended discussion on this topic. Please leave them where they are. Thank you. Noel 20:28, 10 Oct 2004 (UTC)

In an attempt to see whether the woodblock artist Yoshitoshi is the most common user of this name, a web search revealed the following somewhat confusing counts for pages in English:

Yoshitoshi 63,100

In attempt to find out how many referred to subjects other than the woodblock artist, I tried this search:

Yoshitoshi NOT (print OR prints OR woodblock OR ukiyo OR ukiyo-e OR Taiso OR Tsukioka) 26,100

This result (that 37,000 contain "Yoshitoshi" along with one of the terms above) would seem to indicate that over half the pages referring to "Yoshitoshi" are talking about the woodblock artist. However, here are some counts for some of the non-woodblock Yoshitoshi subjects which I know of:

Yoshitoshi Mori	1,820 (contemporary artist) Yoshitoshi Abe 10,300 (anime artist) Yoshitoshi Records music 30,500

(I used "Yoshitoshi Records music" since if you just search for "Yoshitoshi Records", many of the entries that turn up are for database records of the woodblock artist).

Note that the sum of these three is considerably more than the supposed count of non-woodblock Yoshitoshi pages! However, it is not due to the inclusion of the terms "print" and "prints" in the earlier search causing it to count pages which use the word "print" for something other than the woodblock print (such as "records in print"), as the following search results indicate:

Yoshitoshi records print 2,040 Yoshitoshi records prints 323

So had these pages been dropped from the original search for non-woodblock Yoshitoshi pages, we should get at most about 28,460 pages, and indeed this search:

Yoshitoshi NOT (woodblock OR ukiyo OR ukiyo-e OR Taiso OR Tsukioka) 28,900

confirms that. So how there can seemingly be 30,500 entries for Yoshitoshi Records, as well as 10,300 for the anime artist, when there are only 28,900 entries total which are seemingly not related to the woodblock artist is extremely confusing! Noel 03:07, 11 Oct 2004 (UTC)

This is a tricky problem actually. I know that many Japanese artists are known for just their first name, like Basho and Yoshitoshi. But we usually put the surname even for them. The primary problem is that a given name frequently conflicts. Unfortunately, Yoshitoshi, for instance, is a common given name in Japan. We need to cover Japanese figures, ones well known in the West and obscure ones alike. Honinbo Shusaku, for instance, is usually referred as just Shusaku but we use a complete name, largely for consistency. -- Taku 20:33, Oct 10, 2004 (UTC)

 * I understand all that, and if it were up to me, we would always put articles for everyone under their full names, with links from their common names. However, that's not Wikipedia policy, alas (and it's a fight I lost on naming the members of the Medici family). Also, for Yoshitoshi, one has the choice of listing him as Taiso Yoshitoshi or Tsukioka Yoshitoshi. And of course for Hokusai the naming situation is a nightname... Noel 20:50, 10 Oct 2004 (UTC)

Hokusai, Utamaro and etc. etc. That is true. I will do more research on this issue and so for now, I will leave this to you. I will let you know if I need this move again, or let me know if I forget to inform you :) -- Taku 20:53, Oct 10, 2004 (UTC)

Similar content
For an article with overlapping content, see Sinister Designs. "© All contents copyright Sinister Designs, unless otherwise noted."

 * It may be that they copied some of the material on my original Yoshitoshi biography page which is quite old (in Internet terms - it dates from at least 1999). That page, which is the source of the material on this page, I definitely wrote from scratch, using the various materials I had at hand at that time. Noel 13:46, 11 Oct 2004 (UTC)

 * And it's quite well written! Fg2 20:34, Oct 11, 2004 (UTC)

Yoshitoshi's death poem?
Does anyone know who the translator for Yoshitoshi's death poem was [he certainly didn't write it himself in English ;-) ]? It is a pet peeve of mine that I hate seeing uncredited translations all over the internet. I can't change the rest of the internet, but hopefully I can reform some of the Wikipedia. gK [[User talk:GK|¿?]] 06:51, 25 Nov 2004 (UTC)

 * I got it from John Stevenson, Yoshitoshi's One Hundred Aspects of the Moon. Let me go see if he gives a translation credit.... No, none given. (It's on page 49). It might be Stevenson, or he might have gotten it from one of his collaborators (named on the page after the title page), or it may have been floating (sic :-) around for a while in the print world. No idea, alas. Noel (talk) 05:04, 1 Dec 2004 (UTC)

 * Then I think that should at least include the source of the translation of the poem in the article, even if we can't say who the translator is. gK [[User talk:GK|¿?]]

 * The article already lists Yoshitoshi's One Hundred Aspects of the Moon at the bottom, in the list of references. Noel (talk) 21:14, 1 Dec 2004 (UTC)

PS: I'd have to check to be sure, but I fairly strongly suspect it's given in other works (also listed there) in exactly that form. So I'm not even positive (going on for 10 years after I wrote the text) that that's where I got it from... Noel (talk) 21:18, 1 Dec 2004 (UTC)

 * I did check, and van den Ing and Schaap (see page) give it as "Making the night seem brief, it outshone them all: the summer moon" (pp. 8), which is subtly different. No notation given as to who did the translation, though. Of the other two Stevenson books (also see page), "Women" doesn't give it, and "36 Ghosts" gives yet another variant (again uncredited): "Shining ever more brightly / The summer moon / Holds back the night". So it probably did come from "100 Moon" - I'll note the cite in the source of the page. Noel (talk) 20:17, 2 Dec 2004 (UTC)

Overillustrated
This article had 11 of Yoshitoshi's illustrations, which is on the high side even though they're not fair use. There's already a link at the bottom to the Commons repository for Yoshitoshi images, so it's really not necessary to put a bunch of them on his article space. A few is more than enough to illustrate his style, and even now with 5 left a few more could be removed. I've gone through and removed all the links to the pics that are already on Commons (they won't get deleted even if no Wikipedia project is using them) and deleted a duplicate display of 1 pic (what was up with that?). The remaining ones are hosted on en but are also Commons migration candidates. Broken Sphere Msg me 06:08, 28 August 2007 (UTC)

Full name for article title
There's no reason not to use his full name as the title, that's how it's displayed on JP wiki as well. - A Morozov  〈talk〉 11:15, 25 June 2022 (UTC)

Requested move 25 July 2022

 * The following is a closed discussion of a requested move. Please do not modify it. Subsequent comments should be made in a new section on the talk page. Editors desiring to contest the closing decision should consider a move review after discussing it on the closer's talk page. No further edits should be made to this discussion.

The result of the move request was: Moved Yoshitoshi → Tsukioka Yoshitoshi, Yoshitoshi (disambiguation) → Yoshitoshi. I will fix the incoming links. No such user (talk) 09:47, 1 August 2022 (UTC)

Yoshitoshi → Tsukioka Yoshitoshi – No reason not to use the man's full name like all other similar artists of the time and style. His full name is used on Japanese wiki. The redirect was made in 2004 when Wikipedia was still new and conventions were not established, so this can be fixed now. I left a message about the move on the talk page, and nobody has objected in a month. A Morozov 〈talk〉 02:38, 25 July 2022 (UTC)

The discussion above is closed. Please do not modify it. Subsequent comments should be made on the appropriate discussion page. No further edits should be made to this discussion.
 * Support; also titled Tsukioka Yoshitoshi on the Japanese Wikipedia. Dekimasu よ! 02:54, 25 July 2022 (UTC)
 * Comment after the move, will remain as a R from given name, or should Yoshitoshi (disambiguation) be moved to the base title? 61.239.39.90 (talk) 00:08, 26 July 2022 (UTC)
 * Support per nom, and move DAB to base name.--Ortizesp (talk) 01:02, 26 July 2022 (UTC)

Comment. Having changed a hundred-odd links, I'm moving the dab page back to Yoshitoshi (disambiguation), and redirecting Yoshitoshi here as a R from given name. The subject is one of most famous artists of his era and very commonly referred to mononymously, which cannot be said for any of his namesakes on the dab page. No such user (talk) 10:10, 1 August 2022 (UTC)
 * I agree that it's probably best in this case. Dekimasu よ! 11:51, 1 August 2022 (UTC)

title: Talk:Tsukioka Yoshitoshi


text:
Heimdal

Heimdal is a borough in the city of Trondheim in the municipality of Trondheim in Trøndelag county, Norway. It covers the western and southwestern parts of the municipality. The village area that is also called Heimdal is located in the southeastern part of the borough, near Heimdal Church.

This area around the Heimdal Rail Station was until 1964 the center of two separate local municipalities: Tiller and Leinstrand. The western part of Heimdal borough consists of the rural areas of Byneset, also a separate municipality until 1964. Tillerbyen, the eastern part of Heimdal, is a recent development, planned to ease the pressure on central Trondheim from the commercial boom in the city.

History
This area south of Trondheim was named after the Old Norse god Heimdall from Norse mythology. The area has been continuously inhabited since at least the Iron Age, and is rich in archaeological sites. The area where Tillerbyen has been built was initially swamp, but it was drained in the 1930s as an airport was planned here. Nazi invaders of 1940 halted these plans, as they rather wanted an airport at Lade.

In 1963 the municipality of Trondheim bought the areas, and in 1966 they verified a development plan for a new tertiary and commercial hub that could lighten the development pressure on the crowded downtown areas. These plans met much resistance; many politicians thought the development would be too hard to complete, as the soil was too wet and unstable to support large-scale development. Ever since the first developments, the areas of Tillerbyen and Sjetnemarka have been one of the most booming parts of the city and still, large development projects are launched to meet the growing population pressure.

Today
Heimdal proper is a traditional commercial and transportation center; the railway has connections to Sweden (Nabotåget, literally meaning the neighbour train), to Oslo and the south of Norway via the Dovre Line as well as to the north. Many bus lines also connect here.

In addition to the large residential areas, Heimdal houses many of the city's leading enterprises and services. City Syd was at the time of its construction the largest shopping mall in the country and is still one of the most profitable shopping malls in Northern Europe, as it receives customers not only from the city, but from the surrounding countryside and neighbouring counties as well. Heimdal Stadion is a large sports complex with soccer and handball fields adjacent to the Breidablikk School.

Heimdal is today a city within a city. The central areas of Tillerbyen resemble a typical western downtown area with high commercial structures, as opposed to the traditional downtown areas of Trondheim, which are dominated by old, two-storey buildings.

title: Heimdal


text:
Talk:Utagawa Kuniyoshi

"to whom he felt (with some justice) that he was superior in artistic talent" - I have taken the liberty of removing "(with some justice)" from the article. --Tozapeloda

The image of Musashi Miyamoto killing a monster said the monster was a Nue. This is wrong. It is clearly not a Nue. Also, it says he's killing a shark right in the picture, so I've changed it to "shark." Please keep it this way. YAY — Preceding unsigned comment added by 86.134.103.102 (talk) 16:06, 16 December 2014 (UTC)

Following Wikipedia policy on article names (which says "What .. would the average user of the Wikipedia put into the search engine?") we have been listing Japanese woodblock prints artists under the names they are commonly known by in the West - which means we do not use their complete names (which are rarely used in the West, and for artists of this era change over time anyway). Please see Talk:Sharaku for an extended discussion on this topic. Please leave them where they are. Thank you. Noel 20:31, 10 Oct 2004 (UTC)

 * In the article: In this Japanese name, the family name is "Utagawa".
 * But here Kuniyoshi is listed as his family name.
 * --Les Meloures (talk) 11:16, 6 July 2011 (UTC)

title: Talk:Utagawa Kuniyoshi


text:
British Columbia Federation of Labour

The British Columbia Federation of Labour (BCFED), often shortened to the BC Federation of Labour, is a central organization for organized labour in British Columbia, Canada. It was founded in 1910 and claims to have a membership of 500,000, with 1,200 local and union sections. The BCFED is the provincial affiliate of the Canadian Labour Congress and the umbrella organization for organized labour in British Columbia.

title: British Columbia Federation of Labour


text: User talk:66.245.64.202

title: User talk:66.245.64.202


text:
List of endemic species of Taiwan

The endemic species of Taiwan are organisms that are endemic to the island of Taiwan – that is, they naturally occur nowhere else on Earth.

Percentages of endemic species and subspecies in selected animal groups in Taiwan:

Percentages of endemic plants of all living species in Taiwan.

Endemic mammals

 * Order: Carnivora (carnivorans)
 * Formosan black bear – Ursus thibetanus formosanus
 * Formosan ferret-badger – Melogale subaurantiaca (Swinhoe)
 * Order Artiodactyla (even-toed ungulates)
 * Formosan boar – Sus scrofa taivanus
 * Formosan sika deer – Cervus nippon taiouanus
 * Taiwan serow – Naemorhedus swinhoei (Gray)
 * Order Eulipotyphla (shrews and kin)
 * Taiwanese mole shrew – Anourosorex yamashinai Kuroda
 * Tada's shrew – Crocidura tadae Tokuda & Kano
 * Formosan shrew – Episoriculus fumidus Thomas
 * Koshun shrew – Chodsigoa sodalis Thomas
 * Kano's mole – Mogera kanoana Kawada et al.
 * Order Rodentia (rodents)
 * Formosan field vole – Apodemus semotus Thomas
 * Spinous country-rat – Niviventer coxingi (Swinhoe)
 * Formosan white-bellied rat – Niviventer culturatus (Thomas)
 * Kikuchi's field vole – Microtus kikuchii (Kuroda)
 * Formosan giant flying squirrel – Petaurista grandis (Swinhoe)
 * Taiwan red-and-white giant flying squirrel – Petaurista lena Thomas
 * Order Primate (primates)
 * Formosan macaque – Macaca cyclopis (Swinhoe)
 * Order Chiroptera (bats)
 * Formosan long-eared bat – Plecotus taivanus Yoshiyuki
 * Long-toed myotis – Myotis secundus Ruedi, Csorba, Lin & Chou
 * Reddish myotis – Myotis soror Ruedi, Csorba, Lin & Chou
 * Formosan mouse-eared bat – Myotis taiwanensis Linde
 * Formosan broad-muzzled bat – Submyotodon latirostris Kishida
 * Bicolored tube-nosed bat – Murina bicolor Kuo, Fang, Csorba & Lee
 * Slender tube-nosed bat – Murina gracilis Kuo et al.
 * Formosan tube-nosed bat – Murina puta Kishida
 * Murina recondita Kuo, Fang, Csorba & Lee, 2009
 * Yellow-necked bat – Thainycteris torquatus Gabor & Lee
 * Formosan leaf-nosed bat – Hipposideros terasensis Kisida
 * Formosan greater horseshoe bat – Rhinolophus formosae Sanborn
 * Formosan lesser horseshoe bat – Rhinolophus monoceros Andersen

Endemic birds
32 endemic bird species and another 52 endemic subspecies of Taiwan have been identified (out of a total of 686 bird species). The thirty-two endemic species make up about 4.6 % of all birds living in Taiwan.

 * Order Passeriformes (passerines and relatives)
 * Taiwan yellow tit – Machlolophus holsti
 * Chestnut-bellied tit – Sittiparus castaneoventris
 * White-whiskered laughingthrush – Garrulax morrisonianus (Ogilvie-Grant)
 * White-throated laughingthrush – Pterorhinus albogularis
 * Rusty laughingthrush – Pterorhinus poecilorhynchus
 * White-eared sibia – Heterophasia auricularis (Swinhoe)
 * Taiwan yuhina – Yuhina brunneiceps Ogilvie-Grant
 * Taiwan scimitar babbler – Pomatorhinus musicus
 * Black-necklaced scimitar babbler – Erythrogenys erythrocnemis
 * Taiwan cupwing – Pnoepyga formosana
 * Taiwan barwing – Actinodura morrisoniana Ogilvie-Grant
 * Steere's liocichla – Liocichla steerii Swinhoe
 * Morrison's fulvetta – Alcippe morrisonia
 * Taiwan blue magpie – Urocissa caerulea (Gould)
 * Styan's bulbul – Pycnonotus taivanus Styan
 * Taiwan whistling thrush – Myophonus insularis Gould
 * Collared bush robin – Tarsiger johnstoniae (Ogilvie-Grant)
 * White-browed bush robin – Tarsiger indicus
 * Taiwan bullfinch – Pyrrhula owstoni
 * Taiwan rosefinch – Carpodacus formosanus
 * Taiwan vivid niltava – Niltava vivida
 * Taiwan thrush – Turdus niveiceps
 * Taiwan shortwing – Brachypteryx goodfellowi
 * Taiwan fulvetta – Fulvetta formosana
 * Flamecrest – Regulus goodfellowi Ogilvie-Grant
 * Taiwan bush warbler – Bradypterus alishanensis
 * Taiwan hwamei – Garrulax taewanus

 * Order Galliformes (chicken-like birds)
 * Taiwan partridge – Arborophila crudigularis (Swinhoe)
 * Taiwan bamboo partridge – Bambusicola sonorivox
 * Mikado pheasant – Syrmaticus mikado (Ogilvie-Grant)
 * Swinhoe's pheasant – Lophura swinhoii (Gould)

 * Order Piciformes (woodpeckers and relatives)
 * Taiwan barbet – Megalaima nuchalis

Endemic reptiles

 * Order Squamata (lizards and snakes)
 * Formosan smooth skink – Scincella formosensis (Van Denburgh)
 * Taiwan forest skink – Sphenomorphus taiwanensis Chen & Lue
 * Plestiodon leucostictus (Hikida, 1988)
 * Lanyu scaly-toed gecko – Lepidodactylus yami Ota
 * Kikuchi's gecko – Gekko kikuchii (Oshima)
 * Gekko guishanicus – Lin & Yao, 2016
 * Short-legged japalure – Diploderma brevipes Gressitt
 * Diploderma luei – Ota, Chen & Shang, 1998
 * Maki's japalura – Diploderma makii Ota
 * Swinhoe's japalura – Diploderma swinhonis Gunther
 * Formosan legless lizard – Ophisaurus formosensis Kishida
 * Formosa grass lizard – Takydromus formosanus Boulenger
 * Sauteri grass lizard – Takydromus sauteri Van Denburgh
 * Hsuehshan grass lizard – Takydromus hsuehshanensis Lin & Cheng
 * Stejneger's grass lizard – Takydromus stejnegeri Van Denburgh
 * Hengchun blind snake – Argyrophis koshunensis Oshima
 * Atayal slug-eating snake – Pareas atayal You, Poyarkov & Lin, 2015
 * Taiwan slug-eating snake – Pareas formosensis (Van Dengurgh)
 * Formosa odd-scaled snake – Achalinus formosanus Boulenger
 * Black odd-scaled snake – Achalinus niger Maki
 * Maki's keelback – Hebius miyajimae Maki
 * Swinhoe's grass snake – Rhabdophis swinhonis (Günther)
 * Formosa coral snake – Sinomicrurus sauteri (Steindachner)
 * Swinhoe's temperate Asian coralsnake – Sinomicrurus swinhoei (Van Dengurgh)
 * Taiwan pit viper – Trimeresurus gracilis Oshima

Endemic amphibians

 * Order Anura (frogs and toads)
 * Central Formosa toad – Bufo bankorensis
 * Stejneger's narrow-mouthed toad – Micryletta steinegeri
 * Swinhoe's brown frog – Odorrana swinhoana
 * Taipa frog – Rana longicrus
 * Sauter's brown frog – Rana sauteri
 * Ota's stream tree frog – Buergeria otai
 * Robust Buerger's frog – Buergeria robusta]]
 * Kurixalus berylliniris
 * Temple treefrog – Kurixalus idiootocus
 * Kurixalus wangi
 * Farmland green treefrog – Zhangixalus arvalis
 * Orange-belly treefrog – Zhangixalus aurantiventris
 * Moltrecht's green tree frog – Rhacophorus moltrechti
 * Emerald green treefrog – Rhacophorus prasinatus
 * Taipei tree frog – Zhangixalus taipeianus
 * Order Urodela (salamanders and newts)
 * Alishan salamander – Hynobius arisanensis
 * Formosan salamander – Hynobius formosanus
 * Taiwan lesser salamander – Hynobius fuca
 * Nanhu salamander – Hynobius glacialis
 * Sonani's salamander – Hynobius sonani

Endemic freshwater fishes

 * Order Cypriniformes (minnows and carp)
 * Taitung river loach – Hemimyzon taitungensis Tzeng & Shen
 * Formosan river loach – Hemimyzon formosanus (Boulenger)
 * Shen's river loach – Hemimyzon sheni Chen & Fang
 * River loach – Formosania lacustris (Steindachner)
 * Pulin river loach – Sinogastromyzon puliensis Liang
 * Metzia mesembrinum (Regan)
 * Pararasbora moltrechti Regan
 * Acrossocheilus paradoxus (Günther)
 * Lake Candidus dace – Candidia barbata (Regan)
 * Microphysogobio alticorpus Banarescu & Nalbant
 * Taiwan ku fish – Onychostoma alticorpus (Oshima)
 * Freshwater minnow – Opsariichthys pachycephalus Günther
 * Gobiobotia cheni Banarescu & Nalbant
 * Microphysogobio brevirostris (Günther)
 * Aphyocypris kikuchii (Oshima)
 * Squalidus iijimae (Oshima)
 * Order Gobiiformes (gobies and their relatives)
 * Goby – Cryptocentrus yatsui Tomiyama
 * Goby – Myersina yangii (Chen)
 * Goby – Rhinogobius candidianus Regan
 * Goby – Rhinogobius gigas Aonuma & Chen
 * Goby – Rhinogobius formosanus Oshima
 * Goby – Rhinogobius nantaiensis Aonuma & Chen
 * Goby – Rhinogobius henchuenensis Chen & Shao
 * Goby – Rhinogobius delicatus Chen & Shao
 * Goby – Rhinogobius maculafasciatus Chen & Shao
 * Goby – Rhinogobius rubromaculatus Lee & Chang
 * Goby – Rhinogobius lanyuensis Chen, Miller & Fang

 * Order Siluriformes (catfishes)
 * Formosan torrent catfish – Liobagrus formosanus Regan
 * Bagrid catfish – Pseudobagrus adiposalis Oshima
 * Bagrid catfish – Pseudobagrus brevianalis Regan

 * Order Osmeriformes (smelts, galaxiids, and relatives)
 * Ariake icefish – Neosalanx acuticeps Regan (endangered)

 * Order Salmoniformes (salmons and trouts)
 * Formosan landlocked salmon – Oncorhynchus formosanus (Jordan & Oshima)

Endemic flora
Cultivated crops endemic to Taiwan:
 * Spodiopogon formosanus
 * Symplocos trichoclada

title: List of endemic species of Taiwan