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Hubert Maga

Coutoucou Hubert Maga (August 10, 1916 – May 8, 2000) was a politician from Dahomey (now known as Benin). He arose on a political scene where one's power was dictated by what region in Dahomey one lived in. Born a peasant in 1916, Maga served as a schoolmaster from 1936 to 1945, during which time he gradually gained considerable influence among the uneducated. He was elected to Dahomey's territorial assembly in 1947 and founded the Northern Ethnical Group, later renamed the Dahomey Democratic Rally (Rassemblement Démocratique du Dahomé). In 1951, Maga was elected to the French National Assembly, where he served in various positions, including premier from 1959 to 1960. When Dahomey gained its independence from France on August 1, 1960, Maga was appointed to the presidency, and was officially elected to that post on December 11.

During Maga's term of office, Dahomey's economy collapsed; there was little foreign investment and unemployment rose. In response, he launched a four-year plan in January 1962, the basis of which was to increase agricultural production by forcing the nation's youths to work on the land. Maga also faced a national crisis of unity, culminating in a failed assassination plot against him in May 1961 led by the main opposition leader, Justin Ahomadegbé-Tomêtin. Ahomadegbé-Tomêtin was jailed, and by the time of his release in November 1962, a one-party state had been established and the opposition press had been restricted. In 1963, convicted murderer Christophe Bokhiri was released from prison, prompting riots around the country, but the focus of the rioting soon shifted toward Maga's problems as president. The riots became so serious that the Chief of Staff of the Dahomeyan Army, Christophe Soglo, took control of the country in October to prevent a civil war. After forcing Maga to resign, Soglo gave him, Ahomadégbé-Tomêtin, and vice president Sourou Migan Apithy, the titles of Minister of State.

Shortly afterwards, Maga was convicted of plotting to assassinate Soglo and of corruption, for which he was incarcerated. Following his release in 1965, he took refuge in Togo before moving to Paris. In 1970, he returned to Dahomey to serve as head of a rotating three-man presidential council, which included Ahomadegbé-Tomêtin and Apithy. On October 26, 1972, Mathieu Kérékou was installed by a coup, overthrowing then-chairman Ahomadegbé-Tomêtin. Maga and the other members of the council were imprisoned until 1981. Maga retired from public life after his release, only making an appearance at the National Conference of 1990, which gave amnesty to all Beninese political refugees. He died on May 8, 2000.

Education and teaching career
Maga was born on August 10 or August 19, 1916 to a peasant family in Parakou, northern Dahomey. Maga claimed he was a descendant of the Kingdom of Bourgou's royal family. His Bariba mother and Voltaic father raised him in the Islamic faith.

His education began at Parakou, where his teacher was Emile Derlin Zinsou's father, followed by schools in Bohicon and Abomey. Maga moved to Porto Novo to be educated at the Victor Ballot School, where he remained for three years. During his subsequent schooling at the Ponty Normal School in Dakar, Maga became friends with Hamani Diori, the future president of Niger.

In his twenties Maga converted to Roman Catholicism which, according to journalist Ronald Matthews, "was not so common for a northerner". He became a teacher at Natitingou in 1935. In 1939, he married a fellow Christian, a nurse by profession, and the daughter of a prominent Brazilian of Fon origins from Ouidah. Marriages between northern and southern Dahomeyans were uncommon at the time.

Maga was appointed director of the school in 1945. Along with his new wife, he began to increase his influence among uneducated citizens. He worked for trade unions after World War II, and led the Syndicat des instituteurs du Dahomey (Teachers' Union of Dahomey).

Political background
Maga's rise to power occurred during a period of intense regionalism, spurred by the historical resentment shared by members of the former kingdoms of Abomey, Porto Novo, and disorganised tribes from the north. Its result was the creation of three de facto tribal zones: the north, southeast, and southwest, which were led by Maga, Sourou Migan Apithy, and Justin Ahomadégbé-Tomêtin, respectively. Maga's Ethnic Group of the North (later the Dahomeyan Democratic Movement), which merged into the Dahomeyan Democratic Rally in 1957, received little support outside his northern headquarters. Even then, most of his backing came from the Bariba, while Apithy was mostly backed by the Yoruba and Ahomadégbé-Tomêtin, the Fon and Gouns. Regionalistic attitudes would only intensify during the rest of the political careers of the three men, collectively known as Dahomey's triumvirate.

Early political career
Maga was elected a general adviser for the Atakora region in 1945, and, two years later, was appointed to the Grand Council of French West Africa, in which he served until 1952. Following his election to the Dahomey General Council in 1947, Maga resigned his teaching post. He subsequently became vice president of the assembly until his resignation in 1957.

Roger Peperty, the French chef de cercle of Natitingou and a close acquaintance, encouraged Maga to form an alliance among northerners in early 1949. He wrote in a political report later that year:

"I have suggested to Maga that he constitute a separate group with his Northerners. He liked the idea ... Later I repeated the question. It seems again possible that Mr. Maga might constitute the group in question."

He feared that Maga would lean "toward the R.D.A. [ African Democratic Rally ] " and wanted the young politician to form a different group. The party was to become the Groupement Ethnique de Nord (Northern Ethnic Group). Maga, in an April 1968 interview, denied that Peperty ever played a part in the establishment. He claimed that he and his friends came up with the idea.

In the legislative elections of June 17, 1951, when Dahomey was allowed an additional representative in the French National Assembly, Maga ran for that office. The fact that two seats were allotted to Dahomey was only known in the last week of April. As per a May 1951 electoral law, each candidate had to give the names of another who would occupy the second seat in the event that the other party's first candidate came in third or below. Maga decided to run with Paul Darboux, a wealthy northern merchant. Capitalising on growing cynicism regarding southern Dahomey dominating the French colony's politics, he allied himself with the northern tribes.

The May 1951 law also enlarged the electorate from 61,958 to 333,693. Some dead people were even counted as electors due to the mishandling of election cards. The Cotonou newspaper L'Etoile du Dahomey noted a man who gave an unlimited number of cards as long as they promised to vote for Maga's main opponent, accountant and deputy Sourou-Migan Apithy. Altogether, however, only 44% of the population voted on election day. Apithy was reelected a deputy with 53,463 votes out of 147,350 cast, while Maga captured the second seat with 49,329 and third candidate Emile Derlin Zinsou received a mere 18,410 ballots. Several smaller parties hosted several other candidates, which received the rest of the votes. Only 0.5 percent of Maga's votes came from the coastal region, while 98 percent came from northern towns and villages. The 1951 election has been cited as when regionalist parties arose, and it was the first whose pamphlets mentioned ethnicity.

Deputy to the French National Assembly
In Paris, Maga affiliated himself with the Overseas Independents, a political organization led by Leopold Sedar Senghor of Senegal. However, he was not an ardent supporter of this organization; this lack of commitment was typical of Maga in the following years. He was named the secretary of the Finance Committee, a member of the committee on national education, and a member of the committee on parliamentary privileges. During his first term in the Assembly, he accomplished little apart from proposing a bill on May 13, 1954, that concerned the election of counselors of the Republic from its overseas territories and Trust Territories. With the support of his new party, Maga ran for the renewal of his mandate at the legislative elections held on January 2, 1956. Standing for an "active federalism within the French union", Maga chose Gaustin Gbaguidi as his running mate. Of the 179,119 votes cast, Maga won 60,601 and Apithy won 64,344.

Later that year, he resigned from his position on the Grand Council of French West Africa. Shortly afterwards, Maga became a member of the committees on national education and on justice and legislation, and was named Secretary of the Assemblée on January 25, 1956. When Félix Gaillard became Prime Minister of France in November 1957, he appointed Maga to the position of Secretary of State of Labor, a post he served in until the end of the Gaillard ministry on April 15, 1958.

Before the territorial elections of 1959, Maga agreed that the R.D.D. would field candidates only in the north of the country if in return Apithy's Republican Party of Dahomey (P.R.D.) ran only in the south. The result of the elections was that the P.R.D. received 37 seats with 144,038 votes, the R.D.D. received 22 seats with 62,132 votes, and Justin Ahomadégbé-Tomêtin's Dahomey Democratic Union (U.D.D.) received 11 deputies for its 162,179 votes. What followed was described by Matthews as "an immediate explosion". Supporters of Ahomadégbé-Tomêtin took to the streets in rioting so severe that French soldiers were called in to restore order. Following mediation by Félix Houphouët-Boigny, Apithy and Ahomadégbé-Tomêtin agreed to divide between them 18 contested seats in a southwest constituency. However, Ahomadégbé-Tomêtin made it clear that he would not agree to let Apithy retain the office of Prime Minister of Dahomey. Maga was chosen as a compromise for the premiership, and was voted into this post on May 22, 1959.

Premier of Dahomey
Maga's election coincided with a collapse of the colonial economy. There was little foreign investment in the country, and unemployment was rising. He thus felt that a consultation with the trade unions was necessary before selecting a Minister of Labor, and eventually appointed Paul Darboux to the office. Although Apithy wanted to return to his former position as Prime Minister, he was instead appointed Minister of State without responsibility for any specific department.

In his policy speech upon receiving the premiership, Maga asked his fellow Dahomeyans to end the tribalism that had characterised his country's politics. He appealed for unity among Apithy and Ahomadégbé-Tomêtin supporters and encouraged investments into the economy. Foreign affairs dominated Maga's first months in office, but at home the desire for an independent Dahomey was mounting. Apithy announced on September 2, 1959, that he would remove all P.R.D. deputies from the government if Maga did not establish referendums on Dahomey's political status. Maga reacted by dismissing Apithy from his cabinet on September 18, and warning P.R.D. deputies that the same would happen to any of them who opposed him on the matter.

Nevertheless, a referendum on independence for Dahomey was held on September 28. It offered Dahomeyans three choices regarding the preferred political status: become a French département, join the French community and become a semi-autonomous state, or obtain full independence. The Dahomeyan people chose the second option, semi-autonomy, and full independence was scheduled for 1960. The premier announced on January 1, that:

"On September 28, 1959, we freely chose the route of cooperation with France, within the framework of the Community. We do not contemplate and we will never contemplate leaving the Franco-African ensemble ... The choice in the future presuppose certain conditions. Given our financial and economic situation, would it be reasonable for us to assume new responsibilities at a time when we are not capable of confronting the present [financial] difficulties?"

Popular opinion was soon behind Maga instead of Apithy. Maga began to form an alliance with Ahomadegbé-Tomêtin, especially after Apithy voted in favor of joining the short-lived Mali Federation, an idea that Maga opposed. In response, the premier added more U.D.D. deputies to his government in a January 1960 cabinet reshuffle. However, they became more vocal in trying to take over Dahomey. Maga began to ally with Chabi Mama and Arouna Mama, who became his closest colleagues.

On August 1, 1960, Maga traveled to Paris to discuss Dahomey's political future with Houphouët-Boigny. Following their negotiations, Dahomey was granted its independence. On Maga's return to his home country on June 13, he claimed that he had personally requested autonomy. Maga was chosen as Dahoomey's first president.

De facto president
Shortly after independence, the three parties united as the Front d'Action Patriotique (Patriotic Action Front, or F.A.P.), and reorganised Dahomey into one electoral constituency. It was proposed that there would be an agreed list of electoral candidates, and that all of the legislative seats would be given to the party with the highest number of elected representatives from that list. This arrangement did not last long; Ahomadégbé-Tomêtin broke from the union and, using the discontent among people over the increasing rarity of jobs in the country, incited demonstrations that lasted from September to October 1960. He nevertheless tried to disassociate himself from the rioting. In September, he claimed that a single party state was the only solution to the stagnation of the economy. Since he had recently renounced one party, he was looking for another party to lead.

Dahomey faced a major economic recession. The country had not had a favorable trade balance since 1924, and now that it was independent, France no longer offered subsidies. Maga helped to counter this by investing in the infrastructure and encouraging civil servants to take Dahomey as their residence. Still, Dahomey's GDP grew by 1.4 percent annually from 1957 to 1965, making Dahomey's economy one of the weakest in Africa.

Meanwhile, Maga made Houphouët-Boigny recognize the R.D.D. as the Dahomeyan wing of his African Democratic Rally (R.D.A.). Ahomadégbé-Tomêtin had always believed that the U.D.D. was the sole representative of the Rally. This had helped bring a new political philosophy to the R.D.D., which had, up to this point, done little more than express regionalism without much of a platform.

At the end of October, Ahomadégbé-Tomêtin convinced the trade unions that he controlled to begin another strike in protest against Maga's inability to promote national development, and to ensure the welfare of the working class. The strike lasted for two days in the cities of Porto Novo and Cotonou, and became so serious that the police used tear gas. It ended when Maga sent down faithful Northerners armed with bows and arrows to patrol the streets at night. On November 2, members of the U.D.D. organized a motion of censure in the National Assembly. Maga relied on Apithy's assistance in opposing the motion, and it was ultimately defeated.

New constitution and official election
Following the motion of censure's defeat, U.D.D. deputies began to resign from their jobs, and five were dismissed. They were replaced by deputies from the P.R.D. On November 13 the P.R.D. and R.D.D. officially merged to form the Dahomeyan Unity Party (P.D.U.) and Maga was elected as its leader. He created a constitution for Dahomey, styling it after that of the French Fifth Republic. The assembly, now led by Djibode Aplogan, adopted the constitution on November 25. The new constitution gave the president the right to ask the National Assembly to reconsider a bill if it did not pass with two-thirds of the votes, and submit referendums. Maga assumed the powers of Commander in Chief of the Dahomeyan Army, although he did not wear its uniform until its capture of the Portuguese enclave of Ajuda on August 1, 1961.

A recently passed electoral law meant that every party that stood in the upcoming official elections had to list candidates for all 60 National Assembly deputies, as well as for president and vice president. Maga's only presidential opponent was Ahomadegbé-Tomêtin, whose running mate was Sacca Koto Ngobi. On December 11, 1960, Maga was formally elected as president for a five-year term; he received 468,002 votes, and Apithy vice president with the same term of office. Of Dahomey's 971,012 registered voters, 71 percent voted in the election. The P.D.U. received 69 percent of the vote and all 60 seats in the National Assembly. Although the U.D.D. received 31 percent of the popular vote, it did not have a single deputy in the assembly.

Maga's original cabinet resigned on December 29. He named the new ministers in his government the next day, and chose many leaders from the former R.D.D. and P.N.D. He appointed Arouna Mama as the Minister of the Interior; Assogba Oké to the post of Foreign Affairs; Paul Darboux to Trade and Economics; Sébastien Dassi to Agriculture; Victorien Gbaguidi to Transport and Public Works; Joseph Kekeh to Justice; René Deroux to Health and Social Affairs; Michel Ahouanmènou to Education; and Alexandre Adandé as Finance Minister. Newcomers were Bertin Borna, Labor and Civil Service; and Albert Teveodjré, the new Information Minister. To prevent a backlash from the opposition, Maga and his ministers moved their offices from Porto Novo to Cotonou, where the U.D.D had received 90 percent of the vote in the recent election.

Crackdown on opposition and four year plan
In early 1961, the president began applying repressive measures on the opposition press and anyone suspected of trouble-making, thus effectively silencing Ahomadégbé-Tomêtin's voice in the country. The U.D.D.'s newspaper, Dahomey-Matin, was shut down in February. Maga commissioned a group of people to announce news to the uneducated from the government perspective. Ahomadégbé-Tomêtin's trade unions were superseded by Maga's General Union of Dahomeyan Workers. The General Union was instantly recognized as the only representative of the General Union of Black American Workers in Dahomey.

By April, most U.D.D. members had expressed their interest in joining the P.D.U., which Maga encouraged. Ahomadégbé-Tomêtin did not share his colleagues' keenness; nevertheless, the choice was soon made for him—the U.D.D. was dissolved by Maga on April 11, and less than a week later, so were Ahomadégbé-Tomêtin's trade unions. Maga declared that the country of Dahomey "ha[d] at last been born." Since Ahomadégbé-Tomêtin was unable and unwilling to pursue a coup d'état, he decided to conspire against the president.

On May 26, Albert Teveodjré notified Maga that Ahomadégbé-Tomêtin had plotted to assassinate the president. He and 11 other dissidents were arrested, and a trial date was set for December. The trial differed from many others held in Africa in that it was conducted in public, and the defendants were represented by a lawyer from Paris. Ahomadégbé-Tomêtin received five years in jail for his role in the conspiracy, and the others received sentences from one to ten years. Maga ultimately released them on November 3, 1962, saying in a broadcast that it was not only due to their good behavior in jail but also to reconcile with his former enemies.

With the threat from his enemies thus removed, Maga could focus on developing the national economy. He designed a four-year growth plan, to begin on January 1, 1962, that contained many ambitious acts, though this was frequently revised to be more realistic. It was designed to increase agricultural yields and was financed by French capital. Part of the plan was to cut wages by ten percent. Young Dahomeyans would contribute "human investment", or forced labor on the fields. If they failed to do so, Maga would revoke their citizenship and disqualify them from citizenship in nations in the African and Malagasy Union.

To ensure against a student uprising, the president combined the two major youth organizations in Dahomey, chapters of the World Federation of Youth and the World Federation of Democratic Youth, into the National Union of Dahomeyan Youth. It was to remain a nationally run organization, unaffiliated with any international institution. Nonetheless, he would do nothing more than reprimand students who protested him, not even revoke their scholarships. On December 31, 1961, the Maga administration raised certain taxes, including those on income, transportation, and permits in an attempt to balance his country's budget. He nonetheless ran into trouble in the enforcement of his plan. Throughout his first term as president, Maga toured various parts of Dahomey to bring enthusiasm to his plan, offering undeveloped land to its supporters.

Despite the economic hardship, the president commissioned French architect Chomette to design a presidential palace. At a cost of US$3 million, the building dominated Cotonou's promenade on its completion in 1963. The new palace contained a golden and marble porch, mosaic stairwells, pebble dash walls, and a two-story flag outdoors.

Maga decided to reshuffle the cabinet in February 1962. He added the Planning and Development duties to Apithy's office to quench his thirst for power. Nonetheless, Apithy accused Maga of being a dictator, and a series of demonstrations the Vice President coordinated would ultimately force Maga out of office. These were not sparked by Maga himself, but rather the murder of David Dessou.

Dessou riots and 1963 coup d'état
January 1962 saw the poisoning of Dessou, an official of the Sakete sub-prefecture. The deputy from his constituency, named Christophe Bokhiri, was accused of the crime and duly arrested. He was released after his fellow deputies in the National Assembly requested to suspend proceedings against him under the parliamentary immunity clauses of the Dahomey Constitution, specifically Article 37. Maga, meanwhile, was away in Paris during all of this.

The people of Dahomey were outraged at Bokhiri's release. Racial clashes broke out in the summer of 1963, as the murderer and the victim were of different tribes. Demonstrations were organized in Porto Novo on October 21 and soon spread to Cotonou. They remained somewhat orderly before the trade unionists were involved. While still led by Maga, the trade unionists were still upset by the wage cut and used the case to further their interests. In addition, they criticized what they called Maga's "squander-mania", such as the construction of a presidential palace. Most of the demonstrations were peaceful, although several demonstrators destroyed a hospital sign containing Maga's name. Six trade unionists were arrested on the second day of demonstrations, causing the unions to call a general strike. By the end of the second day, protesters forced the National Assembly to put Bokhiri back in jail, and the Assembly simultaneously enforced a curfew.

In light of these events, Maga canceled his trip to the United States and returned to Dahomey immediately. Appealing for peace, he convened a special National Assembly session. The protesters and trade unionists were indifferent to his efforts toward reconciliation. When Maga agreed with their demands and replaced his government with a provisional one in which Apithy and Ahomadégbé-Tomêtin had equal standing, they organized themselves to protest this new order. Armed northerners came down to Cotonou to support Maga and clashed with dissenters, killing two. The protesters, however, would not return to their jobs until Maga no longer held his.

They were to get their wish. On October 28 Chief of Staff of the 800-man Dahomeyan Army Christophe Soglo took control of the country to prevent a civil war. He dismissed the cabinet, dissolved the Assembly, suspended the constitution, and banned any type of demonstrations. After having Maga sign his resignation the same day he gave Maga, Apithy, and Ahomadégbé-Tomêtin the powers of the Ministry of State. Southern Dahomey later created a statue in honor of this day in national history.

Minister of State and house arrest
The provisional government dissolved the P.D.U. and replaced it with a Dahomeyan Democratic Party (P.D.D.). It announced that a referendum on the status of the constitution was to be held on December 15. At the same time, a committee was established to investigate alleged wrongdoings by the Maga administration. In late November it began prosecuting members of the cabinet, including the Minister of National Economy and the Finance Minister, for misusing public funds.

Despite the friendly relationship between the two men, Soglo held Maga responsible for an assassination plot against him which was discovered in early December. Maga resigned his position in the provisional government on December 4, shortly before being placed under house arrest in an unidentified village. He was accompanied by a butler, a cook, and a driver. Four former cabinet members. were placed in less comfortable prisons. At an official inquiry, the conspiracy charge was dropped, but Maga was found guilty of corruption.

In May 1964, Chabi Mama and a devoted group of Maga supporters tried to remove him from house arrest and reinstate the overthrown president back into power. Author Elisa Daggs called their campaigns "a rampage of terrorism." They grew so intense that the military was called in to quell the uprisings. At least one of their goals was accomplished in March 1965 when, following a retrial, Maga was released from house arrest. He went into exile in Togo before moving to Paris.

During Maga's exile, a number of coups were attempted against Presidents Soglo, Apithy, and Ahomadégbé-Tomêtin and their putschists. In order to gain power back, Maga formed a new party while in exile, the Union Nationale Dahoméenne (U.N.D.), on December 9, 1965. It was little more than a vehicle to be recognised in the upcoming elections, to be held before January 18, 1966. Maga and Apithy banded together to protest a special session of the National Assembly on December 21, 1965, that would vote on a new constitution for Dahomey, and the session was never held. Academic Dov Ronen speculates that this was because there would be no vice-presidents in the constitution, and the two politicians figured that a coalition would guarantee high offices for both. Neither was to witness a political comeback on January 18, as Soglo seized power on December 22 of the previous year and refused to hold elections.

More coups were to follow, and eventually the military decided to return to civilian rule. All former presidents, vice presidents, government ministers, and National Assembly presidents were disqualified from Dahomey's first election since 1964, held on May 15, 1968, by incumbent Alphonse Amadou Alley. In response, Maga and Apithy staged protests while Ahomadégbé-Tomêtin supported an obscure candidate named Basile Adjou Moumouni. Moumouni won the election with 80 percent of the vote, but the result was declared void because the protest prevented nearly three-quarters of the electorate from voting. This result sparked further demonstrations, and Maga, Soglo, Apithy, and Ahomadégbé-Tomêtin were forbidden to enter the country, in an attempt to crack down on dissent.

In the wake of further coups, politician Emile Derlin Zinsou was appointed civilian President of Dahomey by the military on June 17, 1968. Maga, Apithy, and Ahomadégbé-Tomêtin unified in Paris in opposing the appointment. They established the National Front for the Struggle of Dahomey, whose members promised "not to participate in any government, not to accept the authority of any president who is unacceptable by any of the living forces and the people of Dahomey." The triumvirate attempted another boycott of Zinsou's appointal and the subsequent referendum he chose to hold. However, the plan was not successful, and he was confirmed President of Dahomey on July 28 with 76.4 percent of the electorate voting for him.

1970 election
On December 10, 1969, Zinsou was overthrown by Maurice Kouandété, who had installed him as president in the first place. The military, however, refused to recognize Kouandété, and as the two men could not reach agreement, a Military Directorate was established with Paul Emile de Souza as its chairman. An election was held on March 28, 1970, to determine the true president. On this occasion, the triumvirate was allowed to campaign, and they did not miss the chance. Intimidation and bribery were commonplace, and the electoral campaign saw the comeback of regional loyalties. It was also marked by a series of violent outbursts; invalidated reports state that six people were killed or wounded at incidents in Parakou on the eve of the elections. Fellow candidate Zinsou asserted that Maga supporters had killed one of his supporters during said incidents.

These charges did not affect Maga's standing in the polls; he received a majority of the vote in the north, and Apithy and Ahomadégbé-Tomêtin received a majority in the southeast and southwest/central, respectively. The election results were as follows: 252,551 citizens voted for Maga; 200,091 for Ahomadégbé-Tomêtin, and 186,332 for Apithy. In the entire south, Maga received 24,000 votes compared to the 180,000 who voted for him in the Borgou Department, obtaining 97.3 percent of the 78 percent turnout. Zinsou, running to counter the constant tribal clashes, received 3 percent, with 17,551 votes.

Nonetheless, de Souza decided to nullify the results from Atakora, the region where Maga received the most votes, on April 3. Outraged, Maga formed the Assembly of the Peoples of the North, which threatened to secede unless he was declared President. He refused to leave his campaign headquarters at Parakou even to attend political meetings. Maga's reaction to the nullification prompted many southern workers to flee the north. Apithy stated that he would convince his region to join Nigeria if Maga took the presidency and took steps to bribe his way into that office. Ahomadégbé-Tomêtin claimed Maga had defrauded the electoral system to his advantage. In contrast with the other three former presidents, Zinsou admitted that he had been defeated and decided participate in bargaining, explaining that he rejected the idea of a coalition "for personal reasons". The other former Presidents, on the other hand, agreed to a hasty compromise on April 13 to prevent a civil war.

Under Maga
A presidential council, consisting of Maga, Ahomadégbé-Tomêtin, and Apithy, was set up on May 7 with a presidency that changed every two years. Maga inaugurated this system for the first two years. Each man agreed to not use the military to extend their term or use any other means toward that consequence. If decisions were not unanimous during the first round of voting, a two councilman majority would suffice on the second round. The council served as the executive and legislative branch of Dahomey.

The cabinet was composed of four Ahomadégbé-Tomêtin allies, three Maga allies, and three allies of Apithy. Gabriel Lozes, appointed minister of finance; Theophile Paoletti, new minister of information and tourism; Edmond Doussou-Yovo, minister of education; and Karl Ahouansou, minister of communication, were all friends of Ahomadégbé-Tomêtin. Maga's colleagues in the cabinet were Pascal Chabi Kao, minister of finance; Albert Ouassa, minister of health; and Chabi Mama, minister of rural development; while Apithy friends were Ambroise Agboton, minister of labor; Joseph Keke, minister of economy and planning; and Michel Toko, minister of justice and guardian of the seals. Daouda Badarou, who had served as foreign minister under Zinsou, was allowed to keep his job.

Maga's economic policies during his chairmanship helped quiet union leaders whose protests during his presidency had been intense. He helped create a tax plan that would finance their salaries by cutting expenditures and cracking down on tax evasion. In 1970 Dahomey witnessed a surplus of 429 million CFA francs, rising to a 570 million CFA franc surplus the following year. With the national economy in a favorable position, Maga and the rest of the council could afford a number of luxuries, including three houses and three Mercedes-Benz 300 automobiles to be shared amongst themselves, and festivals for the anniversary of the founding of the triumvirate.

The Council lost popularity with the Kutuklui Affair. By decree of Maga and the rest of the council, Togolese opposition leader Noe Kutuklui was officially expelled from Dahomey on October 27, 1971, where he had been practicing law since the late 1960s. It was at the request of General Etienne Eyadema, president of Togo, as Kutuklui had been involved in several plots against Eyadema's military government. The council's decision to extradite him spurred demonstrations in Cotonou. Maga was unable to carry out his decision; Alphonse Alley protected Kutuklui and took him to an unknown place outside of Dahomey. Col. Alley received no punishment whatsoever for his role in the Affair.

Students were some of those involved in the protests, and they soon had another reason to conflict with their government. On November 5, 1971, Maga and his administration shut down the Union Général des Etudiants et Eleves de Dahomey (UGEED), a radical youth group which sought to "transform Dahomey into a battlefield" using "workers, soldiers, and policemen." This stemmed from UGEED-sponsored demonstrations against the minister of education when he failed to attend an educational meeting. Students whose schools followed the strike were allowed back to school on November 19, and only if their parents signed documents that said they would not participate in more demonstrations. If they failed to comply, they would be expelled from the educational system of Dahomey. Government-instituted rallies were arranged to support the ban.

The military was also aroused. The formation of a presidential council only further enraged the army. Ahomadégbé-Tomêtin was ambushed while traveling to a rally in Abomey on May 7, 1971. Maga initially denied its existence, and to this day details are unclear. An artillery camp at Ouidah was the location of another military uprising on January 28, 1972. The president sent two officers to overpower the rebels although no punishment was undertaken. Both Ahomadégbé-Tomêtin and Maga believed that the latter incident was an attempted coup.

Kouandété attempted to usurp power again at dawn on February 23. When he first heard of the mutiny, Ahomadégbé-Tomêtin believed that it was an attempt by Maga to remain in power. Leading the Ouidah garrison, Kouandété also attempted to take over government buildings and murder de Souza. Over the course of the operation, assailant Major Moumouni was mortally wounded by de Souza's bullets. The plot was foiled, although Maga canceled a visit to France to attend to the matter at hand. A 12-member military commission would soon discover another plot, that would have been undertaken simultaneous to Kouandété's. According to its findings, Captains Glele and Pierre Boni were going to follow Kouandété until de Souza was assassinated, when they would eradicate their leader and insert Zinsou back into power. The recent events epitomised the council's "fear and contempt" for the military.

Under Ahomadégbé-Tomêtin
Maga transferred power to Ahomadégbé-Tomêtin on May 7, 1972. This was the first time in 12 years that the head of Dahomey was succeeded in a nonmilitary fashion. The new chairman congratulated Maga and praised the triumvirate as "one of [Dahomey's] most beneficial institutions." It was believed that the triumvirate would continually undermine each other, and the simple transition of power was viewed as a positive step toward Dahomeyan unity.

The Presidential Council was slow in organizing a military trial, and it did not begin until May 12. The court tried 21 men besides Kouandété, mostly military officers but also including several commoners and even Maga bodyguards. The punishments were announced on May 16. Kouandété received the death penalty, as did Captains Josué and Glélé, Quartermaster Sergeant Agboton, and a corporal and a sergeant in absentia. Lesser sentences were handed to five men who were given life imprisonment, two who would serve 20 years in prison, another with 15 years, two with ten, and two with five. An additional four were acquitted. The sentences were never carried out; the jurors believed that Kouandété would seize power in another coup.

Another delayed function of the council was the formation of the Assemblée Consultative Nationale, an advisory assembly required by the 1970 constitution. As per the constitution, such an assembly would contain 30 members advising councilmen on economic, social, and other issues, with Paul Darboux presiding. It was not established until July 1972, due to, in the words of academic Samuel Decalo, "intensive horse-trading between the partners in the Presidential Council ... and pressures from their political lieutenants for a position in the Assembly."

One of the most notable aspects of Ahomadégbé-Tomêtin's time in power was the Kovacs Affair. It began with Pascal Chabi Kao being given a monopoly over selling official stationary to the Presidential Council and spread to claims of bribery and embezzlement. Ahomadégbé-Tomêtin tried to fire Chabi Kao, but Maga, who was Chabi Kao's mentor, refused. Maga convinced Apithy to help and the bill was vetoed.

Another coup was launched by soldiers of the Ouidah garrison on October 26. This one, however, was successful, and Major Mathieu Kérékou was installed as president. It occurred during a cabinet meeting between Maga and Ahomadégbé-Tomêtin. Kérékou had served as Maga's aide-de-camp in 1961. According to reports at the scene, soldiers abruptly arrived in the Cabinet room of the presidential palace and started firing bullets, but no one was injured. Kérékou called the triumvirate "truly a monster" as it showed "unpardonable incompetence", amongst other charges which were used to justify the coup. Kouandété was pardoned, although the former council was not. Maga, Ahomadégbé-Tomêtin, and Apithy spent more than nine years in prison before being freed by Kérékou in 1981.

Later life and death
Maga established the National Party for Democracy and Development in 1989 and participated in the National Conference of 1990, which gave amnesty to all Beninese political refugees. He also was a member of the High Council of the Republic before retiring from political life. He did make some public appearances, such as at independence day celebrations in 1998. At the time of his death, he sat upon the Constitutional Court of Dahomey. On May 8, 2000, Maga died of a heart attack in Cotonou. A hospital in Cotonou now bears his name.

Honours

 * 🇻🇦 Vatican City : Collar of the Order of Pope Pius IX (14/09/1962).
 * 🇮🇷 Empire of Iran : Commemorative Medal of the 2500th Anniversary of the founding of the Persian Empire (14/10/1971).

title: Hubert Maga


text: User talk:61.11.103.105

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: User talk:61.11.103.105


text: User talk:81.199.83.77

title: User talk:81.199.83.77


text:
Category:Towns in South Yorkshire

Articles about towns in the English county of South Yorkshire.

There is also one city in South Yorkshire. See Category:Sheffield.

title: Category:Towns in South Yorkshire


text:
Autotransformer

In electrical engineering, an autotransformer is an electrical transformer with only one winding. The "auto" (Greek for "self") prefix refers to the single coil acting alone. In an autotransformer, portions of the same winding act as both the primary winding and secondary winding sides of the transformer. In contrast, an ordinary transformer has separate primary and secondary windings that are not connected by an electrically conductive path. between them.

The autotransformer winding has at least three electrical connections to the winding. Since part of the winding does "double duty", autotransformers have the advantages of often being smaller, lighter, and cheaper than typical dual-winding transformers, but the disadvantage of not providing electrical isolation between primary and secondary circuits. Other advantages of autotransformers include lower leakage reactance, lower losses, lower excitation current, and increased VA rating for a given size and mass.

An example of an application of an autotransformer is one style of traveler's voltage converter, that allows 230-volt devices to be used on 120-volt supply circuits, or the reverse. An autotransformer with multiple taps may be applied to adjust the voltage at the end of a long distribution circuit to correct for excess voltage drop; when automatically controlled, this is one example of a voltage regulator.

Operation
An autotransformer has a single winding with two end terminals and one or more terminals at intermediate tap points. It is a transformer in which the primary and secondary coils have part of their turns in common. The portion of the winding shared by both the primary and secondary is the common section. The portion of the winding not shared by both the primary and secondary is the series section. The primary voltage is applied across two of the terminals. The secondary voltage is taken from two terminals, one terminal of which is usually in common with a primary voltage terminal.

Since the volts-per-turn is the same in both windings, each develops a voltage in proportion to its number of turns. In an autotransformer, part of the output current flows directly from the input to the output (through the series section), and only part is transferred inductively (through the common section), allowing a smaller, lighter, cheaper core to be used as well as requiring only a single winding. However the voltage and current ratio of autotransformers can be formulated the same as other two-winding transformers:

 * $$\frac{V_1}{V_2} = \frac{N_1}{N_2} = a $$   $$(0 < V_2 < V_1)$$

The ampere-turns provided by the series section of the winding:

 * $$F_S = (N_1 - N_2)I_1 = \left(1-\frac{1}{a}\right)N_1I_1$$

The ampere-turns provided by the common section of the winding:

 * $$F_C = N_2(I_2 - I_1) = \frac{N_1}{a}(I_2-I_1)$$

For ampere-turn balance, FS = FC:

 * $$\left(1-\frac{1}{a}\right)N_1 I_1 = \frac{N_1}{a}(I_2-I_1)$$

Therefore:

 * $$\frac{I_1}{I_2} = \frac{1}{a} = \frac{N_2}{N_1}$$

One end of the winding is usually connected in common to both the voltage source and the electrical load. The other end of the source and load are connected to taps along the winding. Different taps on the winding correspond to different voltages, measured from the common end. In a step-down transformer the source is usually connected across the entire winding while the load is connected by a tap across only a portion of the winding. In a step-up transformer, conversely, the load is attached across the full winding while the source is connected to a tap across a portion of the winding. For a step-up transformer, the subscripts in the above equations are reversed where, in this situation, $$N_2$$ and $$V_2$$ are greater than $$N_1$$ and $$V_1$$, respectively.

As in a two-winding transformer, the ratio of secondary to primary voltages is equal to the ratio of the number of turns of the winding they connect to. For example, connecting the load between the middle of the winding and the common terminal end of the winding of the autotransformer will result in the output load voltage being 50% of the primary voltage. Depending on the application, that portion of the winding used solely in the higher-voltage (lower current) portion may be wound with wire of a smaller gauge, though the entire winding is directly connected.

If one of the center-taps is used for the ground, then the autotransformer can be used as a balun to convert a balanced line (connected to the two end taps) to an unbalanced line (the side with the ground).

An autotransformer does not provide electrical isolation between its windings as an ordinary transformer does; if the neutral side of the input is not at ground voltage, the neutral side of the output will not be either. A failure of the isolation of the windings of an autotransformer can result in full input voltage applied to the output. Also, a break in the part of the winding that is used as both primary and secondary will result in the transformer acting as an inductor in series with the load (which under light load conditions may result in nearly full input voltage being applied to the output). These are important safety considerations when deciding to use an autotransformer in a given application.

Because it requires both fewer windings and a smaller core, an autotransformer for power applications is typically lighter and less costly than a two-winding transformer, up to a voltage ratio of about 3:1; beyond that range, a two-winding transformer is usually more economical.

In three phase power transmission applications, autotransformers have the limitations of not suppressing harmonic currents and as acting as another source of ground fault currents. A large three-phase autotransformer may have a "buried" delta winding, not connected to the outside of the tank, to absorb some harmonic currents.

In practice, losses mean that both standard transformers and autotransformers are not perfectly reversible; one designed for stepping down a voltage will deliver slightly less voltage than required if it is used to step up. The difference is usually slight enough to allow reversal where the actual voltage level is not critical.

Like multiple-winding transformers, autotransformers use time-varying magnetic fields to transfer power. They require alternating currents to operate properly and will not function on direct current. Because the primary and secondary windings are electrically connected, an autotransformer will allow current to flow between windings and therefore does not provide AC or DC isolation.

Power transmission and distribution
Autotransformers are frequently used in power applications to interconnect systems operating at different voltage classes, for example 132 kV to 66 kV for transmission. Another application in industry is to adapt machinery built (for example) for 480 V supplies to operate on a 600 V supply. They are also often used for providing conversions between the two common   domestic mains voltage bands in the world (100 V–130 V and 200 V–250 V). The links between the UK 400 kV and 275 kV "Super Grid" networks are normally three phase autotransformers with taps at the common neutral end. On long rural power distribution lines, special autotransformers with automatic tap-changing equipment are inserted as voltage regulators, so that customers at the far end of the line receive the same average voltage as those closer to the source. The variable ratio of the autotransformer compensates for the voltage drop along the line.

A special form of auto transformer called a zig zag is used to provide grounding on three-phase systems that otherwise have no connection to ground. A zig-zag transformer provides a path for current that is common to all three phases (so-called zero sequence current).

Audio system
In audio applications, tapped autotransformers are used to adapt speakers to constant-voltage audio distribution systems, and for impedance matching such as between a low-impedance microphone and a high-impedance amplifier input.

Railways
In railway applications, it is common to power the trains at 25 kV AC. To increase the distance between electricity Grid feeder points, they can be arranged to supply a split-phase 25-0-25 kV feed with the third wire (opposite phase) out of reach of the train's overhead collector pantograph. The 0 V point of the supply is connected to the rail while one 25 kV point is connected to the overhead contact wire. At frequent (about 10 km) intervals, an autotransformer links the contact wire to rail and to the second (antiphase) supply conductor. This system increases usable transmission distance, reduces induced interference into external equipment and reduces cost. A variant is occasionally seen where the supply conductor is at a different voltage to the contact wire with the autotransformer ratio modified to suit.

Autotransformer starter
Autotransformers can be used as a method of soft starting induction motors. One of the well-known designs of such starters is Korndörfer starter.

History
The autotransformer starter was invented in 1908, by Max Korndorfer of Berlin. He filed the application with the U.S. Patent office in May 1908 and was granted the patent US 1,096,922 in May 1914. Max Korndorfer assigned his patent to the General Electric Company.

An induction motor draws very high starting current during its acceleration to full rated speed, typically 6 to 10 times the full load current. Reduced starting current is desirable where the electrical grid is not of sufficient capacity, or where the driven load cannot withstand high starting torque. One basic method to reduce the starting current is with a reduced voltage autotransformer with taps at 50%, 65% and 80% of the applied line voltage; once the motor is started the autotransformer is switched out of circuit.

Variable autotransformers
By exposing part of the winding coils and making the secondary connection through a sliding brush, a continuously variable turns ratio can be obtained, allowing for very smooth control of output voltage. The output voltage is not limited to the discrete voltages represented by actual number of turns. The voltage can be smoothly varied between turns as the brush has a relatively high resistance (compared with a metal contact) and the actual output voltage is a function of the relative area of brush in contact with adjacent windings. The relatively high resistance of the brush also prevents it from acting as a short circuited turn when it contacts two adjacent turns. Typically the primary connection connects to only a part of the winding allowing the output voltage to be varied smoothly from zero to above the input voltage and thus allowing the device to be used for testing electrical equipment at the limits of its specified voltage range.

The output voltage adjustment can be manual or automatic. The manual type is applicable only for relatively low voltage and is known as a variable AC transformer (often referred to by the trademark name Variac). These are often used in repair shops for testing devices under different voltages or to simulate abnormal line voltages.

The type with automatic voltage adjustment can be used as automatic voltage regulator, to maintain a steady voltage at the customers' service during a wide range of line and load conditions. Another application is a lighting dimmer that doesn't produce the EMI typical of most thyristor dimmers.

Variac trademark
From 1934 to 2002, Variac was a U.S. trademark of General Radio for a variable autotransformer intended to conveniently vary the output voltage for a steady AC input voltage. In 2004, Instrument Service Equipment applied for and obtained the Variac trademark for the same type of product. The term variac has become a genericised trademark, being used to refer to a variable autotransformer.

title: Autotransformer


text:
Saligrama (disambiguation)

Saligrama is a sacred stone in Hinduism.

Saligrama or Saligram may also refer to:

 * Saligram, Nepal, a village development committee
 * Saligrama, Udupi, a town
 * Saligrama, Mysore, a town
 * Salig Ram (1829–1898), spiritual leader of the Radhasoami Faith

title: Saligrama (disambiguation)


text: Category:Towns in Norfolk

title: Category:Towns in Norfolk


text:
Sharada (season)

Sharada is the autumn season in the Hindu calendar. It roughly corresponds to the months of Bhadrapada and Ashvina, or Ashvina and Kartika, and the western months of mid-September to mid-November. Sharada is preceded by Varsha and followed by Hemanta.

Occasions
Sharad Navaratri is marked on the first nine days of the season, regarded to be auspicious. Sharad Purnima is the full moon day in the month of Ashvina, which commemorates the performance of the rasalila dance by the deity Krishna.

title: Sharada (season)


text:
Category:Towns in Somerset

Somerset is a county in the south-west of England. For local government purposes the geographic county has now been divided into the administrative non-metropolitan county of Somerset and the unitary authorities of Bath and North East Somerset and North Somerset. This category refers to towns in the geographic county.

Somerset has two cities: Bath, founded in Roman Britain, and Wells, which has a medieval cathedral. The far north of the county has given some of territory to the modern city of Bristol, which is of similar population of all of the small towns in Somerset combined.

title: Category:Towns in Somerset


text:
Saint Kitts and Nevis national football team

The Saint Kitts and Nevis national football team is the national team of Saint Kitts and Nevis, and is controlled by the St. Kitts and Nevis Football Association. They are affiliated to the Caribbean Football Union of CONCACAF. The team has never qualified for the FIFA World Cup, however, they did qualify for their first CONCACAF Gold Cup appearance in 2023.

They are nicknamed The Sugar Boyz due to the sugar cultivation on the island of St. Kitts.

Beginnings (1938–1990)
Saint Kitts and Nevis played their first match on 18 August 1938, against Grenada, a match that ended in a 2–4 defeat. They participated in the Leeward Islands Tournament from 1949 however had to wait until 1979 to play their first official matches, in the qualifying rounds for the 1979 CFU Championship, losing twice to Jamaica, both results finishing 2–1. They would again fail to qualify for the final phase of the 1983 CFU Championship, after advancing due to Jamaica's withdrawal, they'd be eliminated by Martinique, who won 12–0 on aggregate.

1990–2000
The Sugar Boyz qualified for their first tournament at the 1993 Caribbean Cup, defeating Dominican Republic (3–2) and British Virgin Islands (5–0) to top their qualifying group. In the tournament proper, they finished second behind Jamaica to reach the semi-finals, before losing to Martinique on penalties. In the match for third place, they were defeated 3–2 by Trinidad and Tobago. Saint Kitts and Nevis finished bottom of their group in 1996 but in the 1997 Caribbean Cup, they advanced into the knock-out after finishing level on points with both Trinidad and Tobago and Martinique, then defeated Grenada 2–1 in extra-time with both goals scored by Keith Gumbs, but they succumbed to Trinidad and Tobago 0–4 in the final. Since they'd reached the final, Saint Kitts and Nevis were entered into a play-off against Cuba – runner-up in the 1996 Caribbean Cup – for the last ticket to the 1998 CONCACAF Gold Cup, but they lost 2–0.

Saint Kitts and Nevis participated for the first time in the 1998 FIFA World Cup qualifiers. After benefiting from the withdrawal of the Bahamas, they beat Saint Lucia 5–1 in Basseterre and 1–0 in Castries, but fell in the third knockout round against Saint Vincent and the Grenadines, losing thanks to the away goals rule.

2000s
In the 2002 World Cup qualifiers, after comfortably beating the Turks and Caicos Islands with an aggregate result of 14–0, Saint Vincent and the Grenadines once again dispatched the Sugar Boyz, winning both in Kingstown (1–0) as in Basseterre (1–2). However, the situation would improve in the 2006 qualifiers, since Saint Kitts and Nevis advanced to the second group phase after leaving the US Virgin Islands and Barbados on the way. They shared Group 3 with Mexico, Trinidad and Tobago and Saint Vincent and the Grenadines, but as expected, finished in last place, with 6 losses in as many appearances. They also experienced the worst defeat in their history, 8–0 against Mexico. In the preliminary round for the 2010 qualifiers, they were unable to repeat what they had done four years ago and were unceremoniously eliminated by Belize, who won 4–2 on aggregate.

In the Caribbean Cup, the Sugar Boyz did not repeat the successes of the '90s and could only qualify to the final phase of the 2001 Caribbean Cup, although they did not advance beyond the group phase. They have not returned to a final phase since that edition.

2010–present
Qualifying directly to the second round of the 2014 qualifiers, Saint Kitts and Nevis was drawn in Group D along with Canada, Puerto Rico and Saint Lucia. They finished in 3rd place, with 7 points. It was only defeated by Canada in Toronto (4–0). In the 2018 World Cup qualifiers, Saint Kitts and Nevis defeated the Turks and Caicos Islands in the first round by a lofty aggregate 12–4 before falling in the second phase, at the hands of El Salvador, 6–3 on aggregate, but not before obtaining a 2–2 draw at home. In November 2015, they played 2 friendlies against European teams, Andorra (1–0) and Estonia (0–3). Devaughn Elliott scored the only goal in the victory over Andorra, becoming the first St. Kitts and Nevis player to score against a European side. The result was also the first away victory for a CFU team over a European side on their home soil.

In October 2016, it reached its highest ranking in the FIFA world ranking (73rd place) thanks to its good performance in the 2nd round of the 2017 Caribbean Cup of Nations qualifiers. However, two defeats against French Guiana (0–1) and Haiti at home (0–2 a.e.t.) stopped the Sugar Boyz in the 3rd round of these qualifiers. The year ends with a 1–1 draw in Basseterre against Estonia on November 19, 2016, in a friendly match, one year after playing against the same team in Tallinn.

In June 2017, the team went on a second European tour and played Armenia on June 4 in Yerevan and Georgia three days later in Tbilisi. Both games ended in equally bad losses, 5–0 and 3–0, respectively. St. Kitts and Nevis continues its pattern of international tours and travels in August 2017 to Mumbai to meet Mauritius and India in a friendly tournament, the 2017 Hero Tri-Nation Series. Both matches ended in draws acquired by the same score of one goal each.

The Sugar Boyz played Andorra again on March 25, 2022, six and a half years after their first confrontation, for a friendly match in Andorra la Vella. This time the Principality's selection wins against Saint Kitts and Nevis on its home stadium (1–0).

They qualified for their first ever CONCACAF Gold Cup in 2023.

Results and fixtures
The following is a list of match results in the last 12 months, as well as any future matches that have been scheduled.

Coaches

 * 🇦🇷 Carlos Cavagnaro (1988)
 * Alistair Edwards (1996–1997)
 * Ces Podd (1999–2000)
 * Clinton Percival (2000–2001)
 * Elvis Browne (2002–2004)
 * Lenny Lake (2004)
 * 🇺🇸 Leonard Taylor (2008)
 * Lester Morris (2008)
 * Lenny Lake (2008–2010)
 * Clinton Percival (2010–2012)
 * Jeffrey Hazel (2012–2015)
 * 🇲🇽 Jacques Passy (2015–2019)
 * Earl Jones (2019)
 * 🇦🇷 Claudio Caimi (2019–2021)
 * 🇧🇷 Leonardo Neiva (2021)
 * Austin Huggins (2022–)

Current squad

 * The following players were called up for the 2026 FIFA World Cup qualification matches against Costa Rica on 6 June and Bahamas on 11 June 2024.
 * Caps and goals correct as of: 11 June 2024 after the match against

Player records

 * Players in bold are still active with Saint Kitts & Nevis.


text:
Category:Towns in Hertfordshire

Towns in the county of Hertfordshire in southern England.

See also:
 * Category:Villages in Hertfordshire

title: Category:Towns in Hertfordshire


text:
Hopton Heath

Hopton Heath, or Hoptonheath, is a hamlet in south Shropshire, England. The border with Herefordshire is close by. It lies on the border of the civil parishes of Clungunford and Hopton Castle.

There is a railway station here - Hopton Heath railway station - which today is little more than a halt on the Heart of Wales Line. The hamlet grew as a result of the railway station's construction (in 1861) — it was built to serve the villages of Hopton Castle and Clungunford. Today, a couple of small businesses operate from units near the station and there is also a site of holiday lodges, called "Ashlea Pools".

The B4367 and B4385 roads intersect at Hopton Heath. One mile to the west is the village (and castle) of Hopton Castle, and also nearby are the villages of Bedstone, Clungunford and the hamlets of Beckjay, Broadward, Heath (Herefordshire) and Abcott - with its Rocke Cottage (was Bird on the Rock) tea rooms. The 740 bus service calls at Hopton Heath, with three buses a day to Ludlow and Knighton.

There is a Royal Mail post box at the junction of the B roads.

title: Hopton Heath


text:
Messer (sword)

A messer (German for "knife") is a single-edged sword of the 15th and 16th century, characterised by knife-like hilt construction methods.

While the various names are often used synonymously, messers can be divided into several principal groups:

A Bauernwehr ("peasant's knife" or "peasant's sidearm") or Hauswehr ("home/household knife") is a single-handed knife, used for utility and defence. Typical blade lengths range from 15 cm lengths up to around 35 cm. Messer, Langes Messer, and Großes Messer ("knife", "long knife", and "great knife" respectively) are usually single-handed swords used for self-defence. These blade lengths ranged from about 45 cm to 90 cm. Hilts are normally suited to single handed use, but the larger examples may feature extended grips suitable for a second hand-hold.

Kriegsmesser ("war knife") are the largest examples of messer-hilted weapons, ranging from around 1 m long with approximately 80 cm blade, up to around 1.35 m long with blades up to 1 m in length. Designed to be used with both hands, such messers were dedicated military arms, normally wielded by professional soldiers during the 15th and 16th century, such as the Landsknecht.

These names are subjective, and there are no known texts which clearly codify the differences between groups. As such, A large Bauernwehr might well have also been called a Messer, or a large Großes Messer might have been called a Kriegsmesser.

Typology
To combat the inherent uncertainties in using the period terms like "Messer", "langes Messer", and "Großes Messer" which are sometimes interchangeable, there is a typology created by James G. Elmslie for European single-edged arms, which classifies messer and falchion forms, similar to the Oakeshott typology used for double-edged arming swords. For more information see Elmslie Typology.

Origin and geography
Messer appear to have emerged in the region of Southern Germany, Switzerland, or Northern Austria in the first few years of the 15th century, as small Bauernwehr and Hauswehr civilian knives of low social status. As such their exact date of origin is uncertain, the earliest known depiction being from around 1430. Those knives grow steadily larger, and depictions of sword-sized messer are found by the end of the 1440s in Fechtbücher.

While the name messer is German, messer hilted arms have been found in multiple European nations, with local or regional names. Examples of messer are found in the Netherlands and Northern France, Iceland, Sweden, and the Baltic Nations, in the central European nations of Poland, Czechia, Hungary and Romania, and to the south of Germany in Switzerland, Austria, Slovenia, and northern parts of the Balkan nations.

The geographical spread of messers can be traced from known centres of manufacture in areas like Passau and Solingen, through medieval river trade routes, and the shipping networks of the Hanseatic League. As such, It is most likely that very similar messer hilts found in for example, Iceland, northern Germany, and northern Poland are evidence of export of Passau blades during the late 15th and early 16th centuries, rather than examples of indigenous manufacture.

Construction

Messer are characterized by single-edged blades mounted on knife-like hilts. The lengths and shape of blades can vary greatly, with straight or curved profiles, broad or narrow blades, and presence or absence of fullers. Extant examples of langes messer seem to have an overall length of 30 inch with a 24.5 inch blade, and a weight between 2 - 2.5 lb.

The principal feature of the messer is its hilt construction, which is usually different to that of contemporary European swords. Most messer are assembled with the hilt consisting of a slab tang sandwiched between two wooden grip plates which are pinned or riveted into place.

Messer usually feature a Nagel: a nail-like protrusion which projects out from the right side of the cross-guard perpendicular to the flat of the blade, which protects the knuckles of the wielder's hand from injury. On the smallest messers and most bauernwehr the nagel is usually driven through the wooden grips of the hilt. On larger messer, a steel cross-guard is normally found, and the nagel is slotted through a hole in the centre of the cross-guard. The length of the hilt is normally proportionate to the length of the blade, with longer blades featuring hilts long enough to enable gripping with both hands. While the majority of messer hilts are constructed of wood, a small proportion of extant examples exhibit hilts of other materials - horn, bone, or leather-covered wood. A smaller section yet display highly complex hilt construction techniques, using metal frame construction containing organic panels, such as exotic wood and mother-of pearl, or chequerboard patterns constructed from bone and dark horn.

Messer do not normally feature pommels like contemporary two-edged swords. Instead, those which have a metal pommel tend to feature asymmetrical profiles which curve down towards the edged side of the blade - a feature which is sometimes called a "Hat shape", or a "bird's beak" pommel. Some examples terminate in ovoid metal caps which form a flat face, and some have no metal terminal at all, instead being plain wood, or leather-covered wood.

Messer hilt construction techniques develop over time, and in the 16th century, sometimes begin to match contemporary two-edged sword construction methods, to the point that it is difficult to differentiate between the two groups.

Fighting with the messer
The messer was part of the curriculum of several Fechtbücher (fighting manuals) of the 14th and 15th centuries, including that of Johannes Lecküchner (dealing with the langes messer), the Codex Wallerstein, Hans Talhoffer, Paulus Kal and Albrecht Dürer.

title: Messer (sword)


text:
Rose Clouds of Holocaust

Rose Clouds Of Holocaust is a 1995 album by the English neofolk project Death In June, released through New European Recordings.

Personnel

 * Douglas P. – all instrumentation, vocals, lyrics, engineering, production
 * Ken Thomas – engineering, production
 * Dave Lokan – engineering (track 1, 3, 6)
 * Simon Norris – vibraphone, melodica (track 3, 7, 8), backing vocals (track 2)
 * Max Wearing – vocals (track 1), backing vocals (track 6)
 * Rose McDowall – backing vocals (track 4, 7)
 * David Tibet – vocals (track 5, 10)
 * Campbell Finley – trumpet (track 7)

title: Rose Clouds of Holocaust


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Gargalianoi

Gargalianoi (Γαργαλιάνοι) is a town and a former municipality in Messenia, Peloponnese, Greece. Since the 2011 local government reform it is part of the municipality Trifylia, of which it is a municipal unit. The municipal unit has an area of 122.680 km2. It is situated 4 km from the Ionian Sea coast, 18 km north of Pylos, 21 km south of Kyparissia and 43 km west of Kalamata. The Greek National Road 9 (Patras - Pyrgos - Pylos) passes through the town.

Subdivisions
The municipal unit Gargalianoi is subdivided into the following communities:
 * Floka
 * Gargalianoi
 * Lefki (including Tragana)
 * Marathopoli
 * Mouzaki
 * Pyrgos
 * Valta

Famous inhabitants

 * Theophrastos Anagnostopoulos, who later anglicized his name to Theodore Agnew, father of United States Vice President Spiro Agnew
 * Tellos Agras, Officer of the Hellenic Army during the Greek Struggle for Macedonia
 * Theophilos III of Jerusalem, Patriarch of Jerusalem, born Ηλίας Γιαννόπουλος in Gargalianoi in 1952

title: Gargalianoi


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Young Communist League of Sweden (Marxist–Leninists)

Young Communist League of Sweden (Marxist–Leninists) (in Swedish: Sveriges Kommunistiska Ungdomsförbund (marxist-leninisterna)) was the youth organization of the KFML(r)/KPML(r) during 1972–1978. As SKU(ml) was formed two front organizations of KFML(r), the Solidarity Front for the People of Indochina and Clarté (m-l) were merged into SKU(ml).

SKU(ml) published Ungkommunisten (Young Communist). It also had a publishing activity, called Ungkommunistens Förlag.

SKU(ml), as well as the party and other organizations close to it, was subject to political surveillance from SÄPO. In 1980 (by the time the youth league was disbanded) SÄPO had 203 individuals registered as SKU(ml) members.


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User talk:0101CHEUNGwl

Hi 0101CHEUNGwl and welcome to Wikipedia. A few tips for you:

 * Peruse Welcome, newcomers and associated pages, such as
 * How to edit a page
 * How to write a great article
 * Naming conventions
 * Manual of Style
 * You can experiment in the Sandbox.
 * Sign talk page entries with ~ ~ ~ ~, which is automatically converted to a name and date.
 * If you have any questions, see Help, or you can a question at the Help desk.
 * I hope you enjoy editing here and being a Wikipedian.

-spencer195 17:53, 18 Oct 2004 (UTC)

title: User talk:0101CHEUNGwl


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Death in June Presents: Occidental Martyr

Death In June Presents: Occidental Martyr is an album by Death In June released in 1995. It features actor Max Wearing reading the lyrics to Death In June songs over a new soundtrack by Douglas Pearce.

Side 1

 * 1) "13 Years of Carrion"
 * 2) "Blood of Winter"
 * 3) "Lifebooks"
 * 4) "Symbols of the Sun"
 * 5) "Torture by Roses"
 * 6) "Hahahahahahahate"

Side 2

 * 1) "Accidental Protégé"
 * 2) "Hail! The White Grain"
 * 3) "God's Golden Sperm"
 * 4) "Symbols of the Sun (Reprise)"
 * 5) "Leopard Flowers"
 * 6) "Punishment Initiation"
 * 7) "Bye"


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Lankhor

Lankhor was a French video game developer based in Clamart, France. The company was founded in 1987 by Jean-Luc Langlois and Kyilkohr. Lankhor was known for developing Mortville Manor, the first video game to feature speech synthesis during gameplay.

In 1998, the company won the award for the Best French Company by the magazine Génération 4.

History
Lankhor was founded in 1987 as a result of the merger between Kyilkohr creations and Béatrice & Jean-Luc Langlois. Lankhor gained fame with productions such as the arcade game Wanderer (1987) by the Langlois siblings and, above all, the adventure games Mortville Manor and Maupiti Island. Mortevielle by Gourier and Bernard Grélaud was published for the first time in 1986 on the Sinclair QL platform, but in the refreshed version of Lankhor (with a new title board and speech synthesizer) was successful a significant commercial success, repeated by Maupiti Island. Another commercial success for Lankhor was the racing game Vroom, simulating the competition during Formula 1. Mortevielle, Maupiti Island and Vroom were awarded Tilt d'Or statuettes, awarded by the industry magazine Tilt.

From 1994, the company abandoned its publishing activities to devote itself solely to development. At the beginning of 1996, Daniel Macré having joined Jean-Luc Langlois in the company management, signed a development contract for Formula 1 games under FIA license with the British publisher Eidos Interactive. In 2000, Lankhor was developing video games for Microïds including Ski Park Manager which was released in 2002. The company however experienced a difficult financial situation which started at the end of the same year; this situation led the company to cancel its contract with Video System, a Japanese video game distribution house. At the end of 2001, Lankhor announced its closure which came to pass on October 3, 2002.

title: Lankhor


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Battle of Hopton Heath

The battle of Hopton Heath was a part of the First English Civil War, fought on Sunday 19 March 1643 between Parliamentarian forces led by Sir John Gell and Sir William Brereton and a Royalist force under Spencer Compton, 2nd Earl of Northampton.

Background
On 6 March 1643, Sir John Gell successfully captured the town of Lichfield in Staffordshire. Gell then decided that he would attack the Royalist stronghold at Stafford which protected the Royalist's supply route between the ports of Yorkshire and their capital at Oxford. To capture such a garrison, however, Gell would need reinforcements and therefore he arranged to meet and combine forces with the cavalry of Cheshire commander Sir William Brereton. The two Parliamentary leaders decided to meet at Hopton Heath on the 19th of the month. Meanwhile King Charles had sent an expeditionary force under the command of the Earl of Northampton on a mission to take control of the West Midlands and Staffordshire. Northampton had joined forces with Royalist allies led by Henry Hastings at Tamworth and on 18 March they arrived at Stafford.

Battle
On the morning of 19 March, Gell arrived at Hopton Heath. The Royalist forces became aware of the presence of the Parliamentarians mid-morning and shortly thereafter they began their preparations to advance to Hopton Heath. At 14:00 hours, Brereton arrived at the heath. The Parliamentarians took a position along a ridge on the northeast side of the field. In total, the Parliamentarian forces consisted of 1400 men including 700 infantry, 300 dragoons, and 400 cavalry.

At 15:00 hours, the Royalists arrived and deployed in battle formation to the south of the Parliamentarians. Their combined forces consisted of 1200 men including 300 dragoons and 800 cavalry. Hastings led the initial attack with his dragoons and was successful at pushing the Parliamentarians back at the edges. An exchange of artillery fire began with the Royalists doing the most harm with their large 29-pounder known as "Roaring Meg."

Northampton then led two cavalry charges aimed at the Parliamentarians' centre. Each time his attack was repulsed. On the second charge, Northampton was thrown from his horse into the Parliamentarian line where he was killed after refusing quarter. The Royalists regrouped and Sir Thomas Byron led a third charge against the Parliamentarians, but to no avail. Hastings tried to rally the Royalists for a fourth charge, but their energy was spent. At that time Brereton led a Parliamentarian infantry attack and pushed the Royalists back recapturing some of the field and artillery that had earlier been lost.

At dusk the fighting ended and the Parliamentarians left the field. The battle was over, not to be resumed. Brereton returned to his headquarters in Cheshire and Gell left for Derby abandoning the attempt to capture Stafford. Because of the nature of the cavalry charges against a Parliamentary force composed largely of infantry, the casualties were heavily one-sided; the Parliamentarians had 500 casualties as compared to 50 killed or wounded Royalists.

Aftermath
After the battle, both sides claimed victory. The Parliamentarians believed they had won in that they held the field at the end of the day and had killed the Royalists' commander, the Earl of Northampton. The Royalists believed that they had won the battle in that they reoccupied the field the next morning and had captured eight artillery pieces.

With respect to the control of Staffordshire, Stafford was now free of Parliamentarian threat. Henry Hastings and the Royalists immediately tried to retake Lichfield and its strongly defended Close on 21 March, but failed. Two weeks later, Prince Rupert entered Lichfield and surrounded the Close. On 21 April Colonel Russell and the Parliamentarian garrison surrendered. Lichfield would then remain a Royalist stronghold for the duration of the Civil War.

title: Battle of Hopton Heath


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Talk:Theophylline

Is theophyline naturally derived

 * Is theophyline naturally derived from plant sources, or is it synthesized in test tube?
 * Both. There's no difference between natural and artificial theophylline - they're 100% exactly the same.12:12, 10 Nov 2004 (UTC)

 * What is a "positive inotropic effect" and a "positive chronotropic effect"? Does that mean increase or decrease in either?  Using the links doesn't help.
 * positive inotropic effect -> it increases heart muscle contractility and efficiency
 * positive chronotropic effect -> it increases the heart rate.
 * The links will be even less help when they're moved to Wiktionary! - Nunh-huh 15:33, 24 Mar 2005 (UTC)

What amount of theophylline is there in a cup of black tea? Is there any in coffee?

Correction: Ratio of Metabolized Substances
Caffeine is metabolized in the liver into three primary metabolites: paraxanthine (84%), theobromine (12%), and theophylline (4%) ''Reference: # ^ Caffeine. The Pharmacogenetics and Pharmacogenomics Knowledge Base.'' Retrieved on 2006-08-14.
 * This reference is somewhat out of date. According to the same source, cross-referenced by Theobromine, the ratios listed in Caffeine are incorrect.

How safe is this?
Q:If theophylline is naturally occuring in green tea, than how much is occuring in a cup? What are the effects for someone on medication to this combination?
 * Hopefully someone else can answer the amount question. I don't know what you mean by the second one, but if you mean a combination of black tea and taking theophylline pills, then yes that could contribute to excess amounts and thus toxicity. - Taxman Talk 20:01, August 15, 2005 (UTC)

Q: What are the effects of infusing theophylline and guarna into the same concentrate?
 * Presumably you mean guarana which contains caffeine? No idea. Unless that's been studied it could have little to no interaction, or a significant adverse reaction. That's one of the big problems with homeopathic medicine, is the lack of information about their adverse reactions with other drugs. To answer your general question, Theophylline can be significantly toxic and as far as I know, it is generally a last resort type drug, only to be used when nothing else works or works well enough. At least here in the US that is. - Taxman Talk 20:01, August 15, 2005 (UTC)
 * That's actually the good thing about homeopathic "medicine" - the plant extract is diluted so far that no trace of the plant remains in the final product! So I reccomend the anon swig as much homeopathic theophylline and guarana as they wish ;) --129.11.249.164 (talk) 03:46, 2 May 2012 (UTC)

 * Taxman: An infusion or a concentrate can not be considered homeopathic because they contain conspicuous quantities of herbal extracts. Tea and/or guarana as medicine could be considered herbal medicine.

Theophylline and COPD
Recent research at Imperial College London under Prof Peter Barnes has demonstrated that low doses of theophylline raise the level of the enzyme HDAC2, which may then allow glucocorticoids to reduce lung inflamation, which they are not normally effective at with COPD patients. The doses used in the trials were much less than used when theophylline was once a commonly prescribed bronchodilator for COPD treatment.

 * Steroids are normally quite effective in COPD patients. Theophylline is still in fairly common use in patients refractory on short- and longterm bronchodilators and inhaled steroids. JFW | T@lk  17:08, 7 March 2006 (UTC)

"In chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) patients and asthmatic patients who smoke HDAC2 is markedly impaired as a result of oxidative and nitrative stress so that inflammation is resistant to the anti-inflammatory effects of corticosteroids." Barnes PJ, Eur J Pharmacol.2006 Mar 8;533(1-3):2-14. --Onefishtwofish 12:20, 2 July 2006 (UTC)

Bioavailability
From the article: 'Bioavailability is 100%. However, taking the drug late in the evening may slow the absorption process, without affecting the bioavailability. Taking the drug after a meal high in fat content will also slow down the absorption process, without affecting the bioavailability. There is one exception. Taking UniphylTM, a long-acting theophylline formulation, after a meal high in fat content will increase its bioavailability.'

I am completely ignorant of what bioavailability means, but I'm guessing that it isn't supposed to exceed 100%, making this a rather curious statement, since it implies > 100% bioavailability w/ the use of some product. --anonymous, 31 March, 2008 —Preceding unsigned comment added by 75.172.48.115 (talk) 17:44, 31 March 2008 (UTC)

WikiProject Food and drink Tagging
This article talk page was automatically added with WikiProject Food and drink banner as it falls under Category:Food or one of its subcategories. If you find this addition an error, Kindly undo the changes and update the inappropriate categories if needed. The bot was instructed to tagg these articles upon consenus from WikiProject Food and drink. You can find the related request for tagging here. Maximum and careful attention was done to avoid any wrongly tagging any categories, but mistakes may happen... If you have concerns, please inform on the project talk page -- TinucherianBot (talk) 06:46, 4 July 2008 (UTC)

(Extra) Citation needed
How many references are needed to get the citations needed tag removed? To me the current number of references should do.T.vanschaik (talk) 18:12, 22 February 2012 (UTC)
 * I don't think there is any kind of rule. I agree with you that the current number of references is sufficient to remove the tag, so I have done so.  -- Ed (Edgar181) 18:19, 22 February 2012 (UTC)

Current draft seems to unfairly compare concentration in dry cocoa beans by weight in mg/g with concentration in brewed tea by volume (diluted by water).
Current draft seems to unfairly compare

cocoa beans concentration by dry weight (mg/g) with

brewed tea concentration in volume (by liter) (i.e., diluted by water).

As a result, hot cocoa or other prepared foods containing cocoa diluted with water or other ingredients may be assumed to be better sources of theophylline than they are, and tea may be falsely assumed to be inferior by comparison, though it may not be.

Apples - to - apples comparison needed.

Reversing toxicity
I have had acute extreme tachycardia and elevated BP twice from accumulated cocoa, presumably due to theophylline toxicity, and both times it was reversed starting in 10 minutes and completely in 2 hours with 50 mg orally chewed atenolol. In other words, as the reference in the article says, cardioselective beta blockers do work. Note that a drug such as atenolol of course won't address any CNS issues. --IO Device (talk) 18:11, 11 July 2015 (UTC)

To add to article
Basic information to add to this article: the etymology of the word "theophylline." 173.88.246.138 (talk) 14:58, 19 April 2021 (UTC)

 * Done. sbelknap (talk) 04:41, 6 September 2023 (UTC)

title: Talk:Theophylline


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Rio Tinto (river)

The Río Tinto (, red river or Tinto River) is a highly toxic river in southwestern Spain that rises in the Sierra Morena mountains of Andalusia. It flows generally south-southwest, reaching the Gulf of Cádiz at Huelva. The Rio Tinto river has a unique red and orange colour derived from its chemical makeup that is extremely acidic and with very high levels of iron and heavy metals.

The river maintains its colour for an approximate length of 50 kilometres. After the 50 kilometre mark, the chemistry that makes the Rio Tinto river so unique appears to slowly decline, as does the odd colouring. The location where the chemistry of the river is altered is near the town of Niebla. The river's chemistry begins to significantly change following the town of Niebla owing to the fact that the Rio Tinto blends itself with other streams that are connected to the Atlantic Ocean. The river is approximately 100 km long and is located within the Iberian Pyrite Belt. This area has large amounts of ore and sulfide deposits.

The Rio Tinto area has been the site of approximately 5,000 years of ore mining, including copper, silver, gold, and other minerals, extracted as far as 20 kilometres from the river shores. As a possible result of the mining, the Río Tinto is notable for being very acidic (pH 2) and its deep reddish hue is due to iron dissolved in the water. Acid mine drainage from the mines leads to severe environmental problems because the acidity (low pH) dissolves heavy metals into the water. It is not clear how much acid drainage has come from natural processes and how much has come from mining. There are severe environmental concerns over the pollution in the river.

Although the river represents a harsh environment for life, some microorganisms classified as extremophiles do thrive in these conditions. Such life forms include certain species of bacteria, algae and heterotrophs.

History
The ore body was deposited during the Carboniferous period (300–350 Ma) by hydrothermal activities on the sea floor. The history of mining in the Rio Tinto area traces back to the Tartessans and the Iberians starting mining in 3000 BC, followed by the Phoenicians, Greeks, Romans, Visigoths, and Moors. The Rio Tinto region has been the source of approximately 5,000 years of ore extraction, and chemical refinement primarily for copper, silver and gold, and later for iron, manganese and other minerals. This long standing mining activity has vastly modified the topography of the region.

After a period of abandonment and disuse, the mines were rediscovered in 1556 and the Spanish government began operating them once again in 1724. In the 19th century, companies from the United Kingdom started large-scale mining operations. In 1873, the Rio Tinto Company was formed to operate the mines. Production declined after the peak of production in 1930, and it ended in 1986 for copper mining and in 1996 for silver and gold mining. All mining ended in 2001.

Increased copper prices in the 2010s led to efforts by EMED Mining to reopen the mine, but difficulties in acquiring all necessary property rights, environmental concerns, and obtaining regulatory approval delayed reopening. The mine, which employed as many as 20,000 in the past, would employ 350 people during its startup phase. Environmental concerns are centered on long disused water reservoirs which might not be able to withstand the stress of renewed waste inputs.

Origin and ecology

Due to the extreme conditions of the river, there is very little in the way of life, with the exception of small amounts of microorganisms, including algae. The presence of anaerobic bacteria in the sediments is thought to contribute somewhat to the river's famously low pH (acidity), that in turn increases the concentration of dissolved heavy metals. The waters from the Rio Tinto, high in metal sulfides, provide an ideal environment for chemolithoautotrophic microorganisms, with the sulfides acting as a food source. The product of metal sulfide metabolism through oxidization is ferric iron and secretion of acidic liquid.

The continuation of this process for an extended period of time is thought by some scientists to be responsible for keeping the river's pH between 2 and 2.5 in most areas. Even in the extremely acidic water, both red and green algae have been observed to thrive in relatively high concentrations. Despite algae levels in the Rio Tinto accounting for over half of the total biomass in the river, algae is understood to have minimal effects on the characteristics of the complex ecosystem.

The discovery of multiple oxide terraces mediated by microorganisms at up to 60 meters above the current water level, and as far away as 20 kilometers from the current river's path, may suggest that the unusual ecosystem is a natural phenomenon since before human mining activities started in this region. On the other hand, it is known that toxic water emanates from these vast underground and open pit mines and chemical ore refinement that had been active off and on for thousands of years. While it is still undetermined if the unique water chemistry of the Rio Tinto developed as a result of thousands of years of mining or by natural causes, it is possible that the river's chemical makeup is due to the combination of both natural causes and acid mine drainage. The river drains an area with huge deposits of sulfides which was formed more than 350 million years ago. When sulfides are exposed to air, water, and microorganisms, drainage from acidic rocks flows into surface and ground water. Mining, however, greatly increases exposed areas.

Astrobiology
This river has gained recent scientific interest due to the presence of extremophile anaerobic bacteria that dwell in the acidic water. The subsurface rocks on the river bed contain iron and sulfide minerals on which the bacteria feed. The extreme conditions in the river may be analogous to other locations in the Solar System thought to contain liquid water, such as groundwater on Mars. Scientists have also directly compared the chemistry of the water in which the Mars rocks of Meridiani Planum were deposited in the past with the Río Tinto. Likewise, the moon Europa contains an acidic ocean of water underneath its ice surface, thus the Rio Tinto river is of interest to astrobiologists studying the environmental limits of life and planetary habitability.

title: Rio Tinto (river)


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Taki Theodoracopulos

Panagiotis "Taki" Theodoracopulos ( ; born 11 August 1936) is a Greek writer and publisher who founded Taki's Magazine and co-founded The American Conservative. His column "High Life" appeared in British weekly The Spectator from 1977 to 2023. He has lived in New York City, London, and Gstaad.

Early life and education
The son of a Greek shipping magnate, Theodoracopulos was privately educated in the United States at Lawrenceville School and Blair Academy before attending the University of Virginia.

Theodoracopulos was a sportsman early in life. He represented Greece at the FIS Nordic World Ski Championships 1962, having been a tennis player beforehand, including playing at the 1961 French Championship.

Career
Theodoracopulos's column "High Life" has appeared in British weekly The Spectator since 1977, where he wrote a series of controversial articles, including one claiming that black people had lower IQs than other people, for which Boris Johnson, made editor in 1999, later apologised. He has also written for other US and UK publications, including Esquire, Hamptons Magazine, Newsweek, the New York Press, The Sunday Times, and Vanity Fair.

In 1984, he was arrested for the possession of cocaine, after attempting to board a plane at Heathrow Airport, and served three months in HMP Pentonville. He documented his prison experiences in Nothing to Declare: Prison Memoirs (1991) and discussed them in an extended appearance on the British television programme After Dark.

In 2002, Theodoracopulos founded The American Conservative magazine with Pat Buchanan and Scott McConnell. He was also the publisher of the British magazine Right Now! He currently publishes and writes for Taki's Magazine. In 2016, the organization Proud Boys was launched with an article in Taki's Magazine by Gavin McInnes.

Theodoracopulos appeared in the 2013 James Toback film Seduced and Abandoned as himself.

He received criticism for writing in support of Greek ultranationalist political party Golden Dawn, describing them as "good old-fashioned patriotic Greeks" in a 2013 editorial. The editor of The Spectator, Fraser Nelson, defended Theodoracopulos by tweeting that "Our readers like diversity and well-written pieces that they disagree with. We have no party line." In a 2021 interview, months after many Golden Dawn leaders were convicted by Greek courts for heading a criminal organisation, the chairman of The Spectator, Andrew Neil, who does not have influence over the magazine editorially, condemned the column, stating it was "beyond the pale". He further added that he had requested the editor to inform Theodoracopulos that he should not return to that topic following its publication.

His frequent criticism of Israel led Conrad Black to accuse him of antisemitism. In 2018, he wrote an article commemorating D-Day in which he praised the Wehrmacht and asked readers to sympathize with them.

Racism
Theodoracopulos is described as having expressed racist views directed against West Indians, Puerto Ricans, and Jews, among others. He has used the racial epithets "nigger" and "Sambo" to describe black people and he referred to Saudi royal family members as "ruling towelheads".

Attempted rape conviction
On 5 October 2023, Theodoracopulos received a 12-month suspended sentence for an attempted rape that occurred in 2009 in his chalet in Gstaad, Switzerland. His lawyer indicated that he would appeal the verdict by a Swiss court.

Personal life
Theodoracopulos has an interest in Asian martial arts, and holds a black belt in karate. He owned a 37.5-metre yacht named Bushido that was put up for sale in 2012.

title: Taki Theodoracopulos


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Steven Jesse Bernstein

Steven Jay "Jesse" Bernstein (December 4, 1950 – October 22, 1991) was an American underground writer and performance artist. He remains famous for his recordings with Sub Pop records and close relationship with William S. Burroughs. Bernstein's substance abuse issues and mental illness contributed to his provocative local celebrity, though they ultimately culminated in his suicide.

History
Bernstein was born in Los Angeles, California. His substance abuse issues began as the aftermath of his stay in the Camarillo State Hospital in Camarillo, California as an adolescent. He moved to Seattle, Washington in January 1967, where he adopted the moniker Jesse, and began performing and self-publishing chapbooks of his poetry, the first of which was Choking On Sixth, 1979). Bernstein would become something of an icon to many in Seattle's underground music scene. Notable fans included Kurt Cobain and Oliver Stone. Though often noted for his connection to grunge and punk rock, Bernstein saw himself primarily as a poet and his live performances in Seattle, such as his regular readings at the Dogtown Poetry Theater and Red Sky Poetry Theatre, were influential in Seattle, and he is credited as a major influence by many local poets from his era.

Bernstein's mental illness was not as alarming as it might have been off the stage, as his drug-reinforced manic episodes were harnessed and channeled into engrossing, often perverse, entertainment. He opened for music acts such as Nirvana, Big Black, Soundgarden, U-Men, and Cows. According to Regina Hackett, art critic for the Seattle Post-Intelligencer:

"He read poems from a stage with a live rodent in his mouth, its tail twitching as baseline punctuation. He tried to cut his heart out in order to hold it in his hands and calm it down. He once urinated on a heckler and tended to throw things: beer bottles, manuscripts, drumsticks, his wallet, a sandwich."

Some of Bernstein's bizarre on-stage antics were fueled by alcohol and some (like the performance with a mouse), were deliberate. Bernstein was clean and sober from 1981 to 1990, despite the ravages of bipolar disorder and posttraumatic stress disorder.

The concept for the Bernstein album Prison was for Jesse to do a raw live performance at the State Penitentiary Special Offenders unit in Monroe, Washington in 1991. Jesse went with his manager Barbara Buckland, Bruce Pavitt from Sub Pop Records, Grant Alden (then a writer for Rocket magazine and later the co-founder of No Depression magazine), photographer Arthur S. Aubry, and various technical assistance people. None of the session except for the photos taken by Aubry was usable. Sub Pop later contracted Steve Fisk to finish the project. The album was intended to be produced along the same lines as Johnny Cash's At Folsom Prison, but Fisk later decided to score a collection of other Bernstein's recordings with jazz and ambient music, as Bernstein's performance at Monroe was too poor to be released. The album was not completed by the time of Bernstein's death.

On October 22, 1991, at the age of 40, Bernstein committed suicide by stabbing himself in the throat while visiting friends in Neah Bay, Washington, although not simultaneously.

Prison was released on April 1, 1992. In 1994, one of these recordings, "Me and Her Outside (No No Man)," was used in the film Natural Born Killers.

I Am Secretly an Important Man, a collection of poetry, short stories, and spoken performances, was released in March 1996 by Zero Hour Publishing.

His song A Little Bit of Everything (That Brought Me Down to This), from the Trigger Recordings album, The Sad Bag, was also included on the two-CD set Home Alive, the proceeds from which benefited women's self-defense groups in the Seattle area.

Eventually, filmmaker Peter Sillen released a documentary on Bernstein, I Am Secretly An Important Man, in spite of everybody.

Discography

 * Words and Music: Steven Jesse Bernstein and Pete Leinonen (cassette) (Original Cast 1984, 1993)
 * Sub Pop 200 - "Come Out Tonight" (Sub Pop 1988)
 * "Effects" (cassette) (Self Released 1988)
 * "Work-In-Progress #1" (cassette) (Trigger Recordings 1990)
 * The Sad Bag (cassette) (Trigger Recordings 1990)
 * The Sport/No No Man (12") (Sub Pop 1992)
 * Prison (Sub Pop 1992)
 * National Public Radio and Interview Excerpts (cassette) (Sub Pop 1992)
 * Afternoon Delight! - "This Clouded Heart" (Sub Pop 1992)
 * Revolution Come And Gone - "No No Man Pt.2" (Sub Pop 1992)
 * Home Alive-The Art Of Self Defense - "It's Just A Little Bit Of Everything (That's Brought Me Down To This)" (Epic Records 1996)

title: Steven Jesse Bernstein