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Fort Mifflin

Fort Mifflin, originally called Fort Island Battery and also known as Mud Island Fort, was commissioned in 1771 and sits on Mud Island (or Deep Water Island) on the Delaware River below Philadelphia, Pennsylvania near Philadelphia International Airport.

During the American Revolutionary War, the British Army bombarded and captured the fort as part of their conquest of Philadelphia in autumn 1777. In 1795, the fort was renamed for Thomas Mifflin, a Continental Army officer and the first post-independence Pennsylvania governor.

The U.S. Army began rebuilding the fort in 1794, and continued to garrison and build on the site into the 19th century. Fort Mifflin housed prisoners during the American Civil War. The U.S. Army decommissioned Fort Mifflin for active duty infantry and artillery in 1962.

While the older portion of the fort was returned to the City of Philadelphia, a portion of the fort's grounds are still actively used by the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, making it the oldest fort in use by the U.S. military. Historic preservationists have restored the fort, which has been named a National Historic Landmark.

Colonial defense of Philadelphia
Built in 1681 in Philadelphia near the confluence of the Delaware and Schuylkill Rivers, Fort Mifflin was recognized as strategically important because of the role it played in defense of the settlement. However, William Penn, a Quaker with religious objections to military life, left Philadelphia undefended. When European colonists established permanent settlements, they also traditionally provided protection of those settlements, but Quakers founded the only significant European settlements without any such fortifications. Since the Quakers rejected the military, they instead sought to make peace with Native American tribes in the area and avoid any need to fortify their settlements militarily. While other colonies suffered from conflict and warfare, Philadelphia prospered.

By the 1740s, Fort Mifflin ranked as the richest British port in the New World. French and Spanish privateers then entered the Delaware River, threatening the city. During King George's War between 1744 and 1748, Benjamin Franklin raised a militia because the legislators of the city, most of whom were Quakers, were opposed to military engagement and refused to defend Philadelphia "either by erecting fortifications or building Ships of War". Franklin raised money to create earthwork defenses and to buy artillery.

At the end of the war, commanders disbanded the militia and left derelict the defenses of the city. With renewed colonial warfare in the 1750s, especially the French and Indian War, plans were drawn up for a fort on Mud Island, but no fort was built. Only in the 1770s did the city acquire permanent fortifications.

By 1771, Philadelphia ranked as the largest British port and dockyard in North America. Locals then rose in protest against British economic policies and imports. In response to complaints by the Secretary of State for the Colonies, Pennsylvania governor John Penn asked General Thomas Gage to send someone capable of designing defenses for the city. He intended to have a fort on Mud Island that would help regulate traffic entering and exiting the port. Gage assigned Captain John Montresor of the British Corps of Engineers to the task. Montresor presented six designs to Penn and the Board of Commissioners; the board proposed constructing a fort on Mud Island (also known as Deep Water Island).

The commissioners reviewed the plans, found them all too expensive, and insisted on economy despite Montresor's protestations about the budget. Montresor stated that his preferred plan cost about £40,000 and that he intended to mount "32 pieces of cannon, 4 mortars and 4 royal howitzers ... which at 6 men each make 240 men required, 160 musketry, in all 400 garrison." The colonial Provincial Assembly passed a bill releasing £15,000 for the construction of the fort and the purchase of Mud Island from Joseph Galloway, the Speaker of the House. The board instructed Montresor to begin construction but failed to provide him with the funds that he considered necessary to do so properly.

The rooms in the farthest interior of "Casemate #11" probably date from the original construction in 1771. On 4 June 1772, Montresor left the head workman in charge of the construction project and returned to New York disgruntled. The project floundered onward for about a year, when it stopped for lack of guidance and funding. The crews completed only the east and south walls, built in stone.

American Revolutionary War
Following the adoption of the Declaration of Independence, Benjamin Franklin headed a committee to provide for the defense of the revolutionary capital of Philadelphia. The Philadelphia Committee of Public Safety soon restarted construction on the fort and finally completed it in 1776.

The committee simultaneously also built Fort Mercer in New Jersey, on the eastern bank of the Delaware River across from Fort Mifflin. The Americans intended to use Fort Mifflin and Fort Mercer to control the activity of the British Navy on the Delaware River, guarding against General Howe and Admiral Reynolds' advance naval fleet on the Delaware.

Defenders of Philadelphia assembled chevaux de frise obstacles, placed in tiers spanning the width of the Delaware between Forts Mercer and Mifflin. These defenses comprised wooden-framed "boxes", 30 feet square, constructed of huge timbers and lined with pine planks. Defenders lowered these frames onto the riverbed and filled each with 20 to 40 tons of stone to anchor it in place. They placed two or three large timbers tipped with iron spikes into each frame, set underwater and facing obliquely downstream. They then chained the boxes together to maintain continuity. The chevaux de frise presented a formidable obstacle that could impale unwitting ships. The system's design included gaps to allow passage of friendly shipping. Only a select few patriot navigators knew the locations of safe passage through this barrier. Soldiers at Forts Mercer and Mifflin could fire at anyone attempting to dismantle these obstacles. Similar obstacles were built downriver at Fort Billingsport, New Jersey, but that area fell to the British on October 2, 1777.

After Washington's defeat at the Battle of Brandywine, the British took control of Philadelphia in September 1777 during their Philadelphia campaign. The British forces then laid siege to Fort Mifflin and Fort Mercer in early October 1777, unsuccessfully attacking the latter by land and river in the Battle of Red Bank on October 22. The British Army intended the siege to open up its supply line via the Delaware River. Captain John Montresor, earlier designer and constructor of Fort Mifflin, planned and built the siege works used against Fort Mifflin. He then led the siege and destroyed much of the fort. During the siege, four hundred American soldiers held off more than two thousand British troops and 250 ships until November 10, 1777, when the British intensified their assault, launching an incessant barrage of cannonballs into the fort. Among those stationed at the fort was private Joseph Plumb Martin, who later wrote an account of the battle.

Defending the riverway Commodore John Hazelwood with a sizable fleet of galleys, sloops, and fire-vessels launched several raids on British positions on shore, constantly harassing British river operations while patrolling the waters around the fort. On November 15, 1777, the American troops evacuated the fort. Their stand effectively denied the British Navy free use of the Delaware River and allowed the successful repositioning of the Continental Army for the Battle of White Marsh and subsequent withdrawal to Valley Forge. Fort Mifflin experienced the heaviest bombardment of the American Revolutionary War. The siege left 250 of the 406 to 450 men garrisoned at the Fort Mifflin killed or wounded. Comrades-in-arms ferried these dead and wounded to the mainland before the final evacuation. Fort Mifflin never again saw military action.

Of the original Fort Mifflin, only the white stone walls of the fort survive today. The pockmarks in these stone walls evidence the intensity of the British bombardment of 1777. Local residents know this siege and massive bombardment as the Battle of Mud Island.

Reconstruction during War of 1812
The ruins of Fort Mifflin lay derelict until 1793, when rebuilding began under what was later called the first system of U.S. coastal fortifications. In 1794, Pierre L'Enfant, also responsible for planning Washington, D.C., supervised the reconstruction, including the design and rebuilding of the fort. Reconstruction work began on the fort in 1795, under the auspices of engineer officer Louis de Tousard, who from 1795 to 1800 traveled along the coast between Massachusetts and the Carolinas working on coastal defenses. The initial goal was to rebuild the fort to accommodate 48 guns. The army probably built the outer room of "Casemate #11" during the reconstruction of the fort from 1794 through 1798 and used it as a "proof room" to make cannon charges. The buildings at Fort Mifflin included barracks for soldiers in the 1790s, measuring 117 ft by 28 ft and consisting of two stories. The original barracks contained seven rooms, five of them each designed to house 25 men. The army officially named the fort after Thomas Mifflin, a Continental Army officer and the first post-independence Governor of Pennsylvania, in 1795. Rebuilding the fort consumed $94,000 of a total fort budget of $278,000 in 1798 and 1799 alone (in 1799 money). Also, the US Congress met in Philadelphia until 1800 and Fort Mifflin was well garrisoned until then, usually with two companies.

Over a cross-shaped hole in the ground previously designated as a last-ditch defensive area near the center of the fort, the army built the extant citadel structure to house the commandant in 1796. Lieutenant Colonel Stephen Rochefontaine replaced Pierre Charles L'Enfant as chief engineer at Fort Mifflin in 1798 and completed the citadel structure to house the commandant. Lieutenant Colonel Rochfontaine used and improved original designs of L'Enfant. The Commandant's House exemplifies Greek Revival architecture, rare on Army installations in the United States. The army also built the six cavelike casemates as defensive structures in the case of an enemy siege during the reconstruction of 1798–1801. Soldiers used a "bake oven" just inside the main gate and the entrance to the bomb-proof casemate for baking bread, as a chapel, and as a mess hall. The army designed the largest casemate (#1) as a barracks. The three smaller casemates were used for storage. The architects intended Casemate #5, about half the size of Casemate #1, as the headquarters of Fort Mifflin in the time of attack.

The army built the blacksmith shop before 1802; it is probably the oldest surviving complete structure at Fort Mifflin. In 1814, a two-story officers' quarters, measuring 96 ft by 28 ft, was built.

In the 1811 annual report of the secretary of war, Fort Mifflin was described as "...mounting 29 heavy guns, with a water battery without (outside) the works, mounting 8 heavy guns... with brick barracks for 100; within 3/4 of a mile... (is) the Lazaretto, which are good barracks for 400 men."

Pre-Civil War period
The U.S. Army built a one-story brick structure, 24 ft by 44 ft, in 1815–1816 as a guardhouse and prison. Around 1819, north of the walls of the fort, the army also built a building used as a hospital (2nd floor) and mess hall (ground floor).

After the construction of Fort Delaware in 1820, Fort Mifflin was relegated to secondary status. During the 19th century the area around the fort was drained and filled until Mud Island connected with the western bank of the Delaware River. Nevertheless, the building and garrisoning of Fort Mifflin continued. In the early 1820s, the army began meteorological observations at the fort.

The soldiers' barracks building was extensively renovated in 1836, along with the officers' quarters. At a later date the soldiers' barracks was again renovated, at which time the roofline was changed to add the second floor. (HABS # PA-1225E). In 1837, the hospital and mess hall building was converted to a meetinghouse and an artillery shed, for the storage and protection of cannon, was built on an interior raised platform.

By 1839, the army designated the one-story brick guardhouse-prison as an arsenal. On December 27, 1842 the army completed a brick, one-story sutler building/storehouse measuring 55 ft by 20 ft.

During the 1840s, a two-story kitchen wing was added to the officers' quarters building.

American Civil War
During the Civil War, the Union used Fort Mifflin to house Confederate prisoners of war, as well as Union soldiers and civilian prisoners. Numerous Confederate prisoners occupied Fort Mifflin from 1863 to 1865 and were housed in Casemate #1. The Union Army used three smaller casemates to hold political prisoners during the same period. Various people wrote graffiti inside the cell doors and on the inner walls of "Casement #11" during the 1860s. They also left a wine token and penny, both dated 1864 and in remarkable condition.

The Union Army accused William H. Howe, one of its soldiers, of desertion, found him guilty of murder, and imprisoned him famously at Fort Mifflin from January 1864. Howe led an attempted escape of two hundred prisoners from Casemate #5 in February 1864. Afterwards, Howe was housed in a solitary confinement cell in Casemate #11, where he left his signature. Despite his illiterate reputation, Howe twice wrote letters (filled with bad grammar and run-on sentences) to President Abraham Lincoln asking for clemency, signing them with his own hand. In April 1864, Howe was transferred to Eastern State Penitentiary but, on 26 August of the same year, was transferred back to Fort Mifflin. The condemned prisoner was briefly held in the fort's wooden guardhouse prior to his execution on the gallows, which were steps away from the guardhouse. Howe's hanging was before an audience of persons who paid for tickets to watch the execution. Of the three other men executed at Fort Mifflin, none had a paid public audience.

The army proposed adding a sally port on the west side in 1864.

On November 24, 1864, the Union Army sent Lieutenant Colonel Seth Eastman, the American Western frontier painter, to Fort Mifflin to supervise the discharge of all civilian and military prisoners, then numbering more than two hundred. On January 2, 1865, Eastman reported that his garrison consisted of B Company, 186th Pennsylvania Volunteer Regiment, a detachment of recruits, and the hospital staff.

After the Civil War
On August 20, 1865, Captain Thomas E. Merritt with A Company, 7th United States Veteran Volunteers, relieved Lieutenant Colonel Eastman. The army completed the west sally port by 1866. In 1866, the 7th USVV vacated the fort and the District Engineer Office, Corps of Engineers, replaced the company. The fort passed in and out of use several times in its subsequent history.

Between 1866 and 1876, the Corps of Engineers intermittently repaired and modernized Fort Mifflin and upgraded its armament. The army worked on the detached high battery south of the fort from 1870 to 1875 but never finished it. The army built a torpedo (underwater mine) casemate in 1874–1875; its entrance sealed off access to the unused magazine, "Casemate #11", preserving a trove of historical artifacts. These artifacts include pottery, a tin cup, a tin chamber pot, period buttons, and dozens of animal bones. The 1875 Annual Report, "The construction of the torpedo casemate has commenced," notes the east magazine torpedo casemate. The army constructed this casemate in 1876.

From 1876 to 1884, the Philadelphia District Office of the Corps of Engineers took custodial responsibility of Fort Mifflin. The east magazine (torpedo casemate) first appears on a map in 1886. During World War I the fort was used to store munitions.

The army removed the two-story kitchen wings from the officers' quarters building sometime before the 1920s. They were restored in the early 1990s in a major restoration of the building.

In 1923, the Marine Barracks held the first recorded USMC Birthday dance.

World War II
During World War II, the U.S. Army stationed anti-aircraft guns at Fort Mifflin to defend the nearby Fort Mifflin Naval Ammunition Storage Depot (NASD) and the Philadelphia Naval Shipyard. Marine Corps units from the naval shipyard guarded the Naval Ammunition Storage Depot at the northern end of the former Mud and Cabin Islands, and the U.S. Army assigned troops to defend the fort. In April 1942, the U.S. Army stationed Battery H of the 76th Coast Artillery Regiment (Antiaircraft) (Semimobile) (Colored), the first African-American Coast Artillery unit in U.S. military history, at the fort. On May 24, 1942, the 76th Regiment was relieved and moved to California to prepare for overseas deployment; the U.S. Army then stationed the 601st Coast Artillery Regiment (Antiaircraft) (Semimobile) at Fort Mifflin.

Post-war renovations
In 1954, Fort Mifflin was decommissioned as an active military post. Several documents reference an old magazine entrance in the location of Casemate #11, and the number 11 comes from a 1954 map associated with the old magazine entrance. Fort Mifflin closed, ranking among the oldest forts in continuous use in the nation's history. The fort's interior was renovated in 1960. In the 1980s, Harold Finigan, then executive director of the fort, renovated its exterior.

Decommissioning and restoration
In 1962, the federal government deeded Fort Mifflin to the City of Philadelphia. In 1969, architect John Dickey was responsible for restoring the Blacksmith Shop's bellows and forge.

Fort Mifflin is still an active base for the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers and is currently the oldest active U.S. military base and the only base in use that predates the Declaration of Independence.

In the late 1970s, the Commandant's House at the Fort was destroyed by an accidental fire started by camping Boy Scouts.

In the 1980s and early 1990s, Harold Finigan, the fort's executive director, worked with architects John Dickey and John Milner to restore the fort's artillery shed, hospital, mess hall, officers' quarters, kitchen wings, arsenal, soldiers' barracks, and north and west sally ports and seawall, and to construct a bridge over the moat at the fort's main gate. During restoration, it was determined that the exterior of the buildings had been yellow washed during Civil War era.

In 2006, Wayne Irby rediscovered and unearthed the recently named Casemate #11 at Fort Mifflin. In August 2006, Dr. Don Johnson and a small group of volunteers uncovered and rediscovered the complexity of the fort's inner rooms and a trove of historical artifacts inside Casemate #11.

Standing buildings

 * Arsenal
 * Artillery Shed
 * Blacksmith Shop
 * Sutler Building/Storehouse
 * Soldiers' Barracks
 * Officers Quarters
 * Commandant's House
 * Hospital/Messhall
 * West Sallyport
 * Casemates
 * East Magazine
 * Casemate #11

title: Fort Mifflin


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Carl Wallau

Friedrich Carl Wallau (August 8, 1823 – July 7, 1877 in Mainz). Being a printer, Carl Wallau in 1844 founded his printing plant, the "Graphische Kunstanstalt" in Mainz. On June 7, 1872, Wallau was elected mayor of the city of Mainz. In honor of his achievements for the Mainz city expansion, on March 1, 1877, he was appointed lord mayor of Mainz, a position he held until his death in 1877.

Carl Wallau was member of numberless associations and societies which include the "Mainz Workers' Education Society" that he co-founded in 1848 and which was later to become today's Mainz adult education center. In 1872, he was President of the Mainz Carnival Association (Mainzer Carneval-Verein).

A street in Mainz has been named after Carl Wallau in 1895, the Wallaustraße. It is located in the Mainz "Neustadt", the former "Gartenfeld" which was subject to the Mainz city expansion.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Carl Wallau


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South Salem

South Salem is the name of several places in the United States:

 * South Salem, Indiana
 * Salem South (state assembly constituency), Tamil Nadu, India
 * South Salem Township, Kansas
 * South Salem, New York, a hamlet in Westchester County
 * South Salem, Ohio, a village in Ross County

title: South Salem


text:
South San Gabriel

South San Gabriel may refer to:
 * South San Gabriel, California
 * South San Gabriel (band), an alternative country band based in Denton, Texas, named after the San Gabriel river fork

title: South San Gabriel


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Johann Heinrich Alting

Johann Heinrich Alting (17 February 1583 – 25 August 1644), German divine, was born at Emden, where his father, Menso Alting (1541–1612), was minister.

Heinrich studied with great success at the University of Groningen and the Herborn Academy. In 1608 he was appointed tutor of Frederick, afterwards elector-palatine, at Heidelberg, and in 1612 accompanied him to England. Returning in 1613 to Heidelberg, after the marriage of the elector with Princess Elizabeth of England, he was appointed professor of dogmatics, and in 1616 director of the theological department in the Collegium Sapientiae.

In 1618, along with Abraham Scultetus, he represented the university in the Synod of Dort. When Count Tilly took the city of Heidelberg (1622) and handed it over to plunder, Alting found great difficulty in escaping the fury of the soldiers. He first retired to Schorndorf; but, offended by the "semi-Pelagianism" of the Lutherans with whom he was brought in contact, he removed to Holland, where the unfortunate elector and "Winter King" Frederick, in exile after his brief reign in Bohemia, made him tutor to his eldest son.

In 1627, Alting was appointed to the chair of theology at the Groningen University, where he continued to lecture, with increasing reputation, until his death. Though an orthodox Calvinist, Alting laid little stress on the sterner side of his creed and, when at Dort he opposed the Remonstrants, he did so mainly on the ground that they were "innovators."

Alting made a fundamental contribution to the historiography of German Reformed Protestantism with his Historia de Ecclesiis Palatinis. Unfortunately the work included the doubtful assertion that Elector Frederick the Pious jointly commissioned Zacharias Ursinus and Caspar Olevianus to compose the Heidelberg Catechism. This dual authorship thesis has been rejected by serious scholarship since the 1960s but remains common in reference works. While this attribution has been set aside, Alting's work remains an irreplaceable source for reconstructing the history of the Reformation of the Palatinate.

Among his works are:
 * Notae in Decadem Problematum Jacobi Behm (Heidelberg, 1618)
 * Scripta Theologica Heidelbergensia (Amsterdam, 1662)
 * Exegesis Augustanae Confessionis (Amsterdam, 1647).
 * Historia de Ecclesiis Palatinis (Groningen, 1728; originally published 1644).

title: Johann Heinrich Alting


text: User talk:83.157.34.115

title: User talk:83.157.34.115


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Rope splicing

Rope splicing in ropework is the forming of a semi-permanent joint between two ropes or two parts of the same rope by partly untwisting and then interweaving their strands. Splices can be used to form a stopper at the end of a line, to form a loop or an eye in a rope, or for joining two ropes together. Splices are preferred to knotted rope, since while a knot typically reduces the strength by 20–40%, a splice is capable of attaining a rope's full strength. However, splicing usually results in a thickening of the line and, if subsequently removed, leaves a distortion of the rope. Most types of splices are used on three-strand rope, but some can be done on 12-strand or greater single-braided rope, as well as most double braids.

While a spliced three-strand rope's strands are interwoven to create the splice, a braided rope's splice is constructed by simply pulling the rope into its jacket.

Types of splice

 * Back splice (or end splice) – A splice where the strands of the end of the rope are spliced directly back into the end without forming a loop. It is used to finish off the end of the rope to keep it from fraying. The end of the rope with the splice is about twice the thickness of the rest of the rope. With nylon and other plastic materials, the back splice is often no longer used; the rope strands are simply fused together with heat to prevent fraying. [[Image:Cut Splice.gif|thumb|An unfinished cut splice]]
 * Cut splice (originally cunt splice) – A splice similar to the eye splice. It is typically used for light lines (e.g. the log-line) where a single splice would tend to come undone, the rope being frequently wet.  It makes a very strong knot. A cut splice is a join between two ropes, made by side splicing the ends slightly apart, to make an eye in the joined rope which lies shut when the rope is taut. Its original name was bowdlerised to "cut splice".[[Image:Splice on snap shackle.jpg|thumb|A line eye-spliced to a [[snap shackle]]]]
 * Eye splice – A splice where the working end is spliced into the working part forming a loop.
 * Ring splice – Attached the working end of a rope to a ring or clew.
 * Chain splice – Attached the working end of a rope to a chain.
 * Figure-eight "splice" knot – A splice-like bend knot used for joining two ropes.
 * Horseshoe splice – A cut splice where the two sides of the loop are of unequal length.
 * Long splice – A splice used to join two rope ends forming one rope the length of the total of the two ropes. The long splice, unlike most splice types, results in a splice that is only very slightly thicker than the rope without the splice, but sacrifices some of the strength of the short splice. It does this by replacing two of the strands of each rope end with those from the other, and cutting off some of the extra strands that result. The long splice allows the spliced rope to still fit through the same pulleys, which is necessary in some applications. [[Image:Kurzspleiss.jpg|thumb|right|A short splice, with ends [[Whipping knot|whipped]]]]
 * Short splice – Also a splice used to join the ends of two ropes, but the short splice is more similar to the technique used in other splices and results in the spliced part being about twice as thick as the non spliced part, and has greater strength than the long splice. The short splice retains more of the rope strength than any knots that join rope ends.

Splices are often tapered to make the thicker splice blend into the rest of the line. There are two main types of tapering, the standard and the "West Coast Taper".
 * Standard tapers progressively remove a portion of each remaining strand – one-third at a time is typical, resulting in a taper of two additional tucks beyond the splice – thus making each successive tuck produce a narrower splice. This is only practical with laid-lines – those made up of numerous strands laid side by side.
 * West Coast taper (or Fisherman's taper) is effected by extra-tucks of entire strands, such that the second strand is woven one more time than the first and the third is woven an additional time after the second.

Splicing tools
A fid is a hand tool made from wood, plastic, or bone and is used in the process of working with rope. A variety of fid diameters are available depending on the size of rope being used. Styles of fid designs include:
 * A Swedish fid is conical instrument with a somewhat long taper.
 * Tubular fids aid in splicing double-braided rope.
 * Top fids are used to pull rope taut while separating strands of rope with a Swedish fid.
 * Uni-fids are needed to splice braid with a parallel core.

A marlinspike is a tool, usually made of steel and often part of a sailor's pocketknife, which is used to separate strands of rope from one another. They can range in size anywhere from 3 inches to 5 feet long, with a round or flattened point.

A pulling fid is often used for smaller diameters of braided ropes. Also a Softfid is a great tool when dealing with tightly braided ropes.

title: Rope splicing


text: Category:Montague County, Texas

title: Category:Montague County, Texas


text: User talk:81.182.169.179

title: User talk:81.182.169.179


text:
Giovanni Diodati

Giovanni Diodati or Deodati (3 June 1576 – 3 October 1649) was a Genevan-born Italian Calvinist theologian and translator. His translation of the Bible into Italian from Hebrew, Greek, Latin, and Syriac sources became the reference version used by Italian Protestants.

Life
He was born at Geneva, of a noble family originally from Lucca in Italy, exiled on account of its Protestantism. He considered himself an Italian "di nation lucchese", of Lucchese nationality. His father was. The were part of a group of about sixty noble Luchessi families who had emigrated to Geneva, sometimes called the "Italian Cabal". Between 1594 and 1597 future Amsterdam burgomaster Jacob Dircksz de Graeff lived for three years in the house of Diodati. He matriculated at the Genevan Academy in 1596. At the age of twenty-one he was nominated professor of Hebrew at Geneva on the recommendation of Theodore Beza. In 1606 he became professor of theology, in 1608 pastor, or parish minister, at Geneva, and in the following year he succeeded Beza as professor of theology.

As a preacher Diodati was eloquent, and he was sent on a mission to France in 1614. He had previously visited Italy, and made the acquaintance of Paolo Sarpi, whom he endeavoured unsuccessfully to engage in a reformation movement. In 1618/9 he attended the Synod of Dort, and took a prominent part, being one of the six divines appointed to draw up the Canons of Dort. He sympathized with the condemnation of the Arminians.

In 1645 Diodati resigned his professorship, and he died at Geneva on 3 October 1649.

Works
Diodati is chiefly famous as the author of the translation of the Bible into Italian (1603; edited with notes, 1607; revised and with metrical psalter, 1641). He also undertook a translation of the Bible into French, which appeared with notes in 1644. Among his other works are his Annotationes in Biblia (1607), of which an English translation (Pious and Learned Annotations upon the Holy Bible) was published in London in 1643 (2nd edition 1648) and various polemical treatises, such as De fictitio Pontificiorum Purgatorio (1619); De justa secessione Reformatorum ab Ecclesia Romana (1628); De Antichristo, etc. He also published French translations of Paolo Sarpi's History of the Council of Trent, and of Edwin Sandys's Account of the State of Religion in the West.

title: Giovanni Diodati


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Muggletonianism

The Muggletonians, named after Lodowicke Muggleton, were a small Protestant Christian movement which began in 1651 when two London tailors announced they were the last prophets foretold in the biblical Book of Revelation. The group grew out of the Ranters and in opposition to the Quakers. Muggletonian beliefs include a hostility to philosophical reason, a scriptural understanding of how the universe works and a belief that God appeared directly on Earth as Jesus Christ. A consequential belief is that God takes no notice of everyday events on Earth and will not generally intervene until it is meant to bring the world to an end.

Muggletonians avoided all forms of worship or preaching, and met only for discussion and socializing. The movement was egalitarian, apolitical and pacifist, and resolutely avoided evangelism. Members attained a degree of public notoriety by cursing those who reviled their faith. This practice ceased in the mid-nineteenth century. One of the last to be cursed was the novelist Sir Walter Scott.

The faith attracted public attention in 1979 when Philip Noakes left the entire Muggletonian archive of correspondence, general papers and publications to the British Library.

Origins

The movement was born on 3 February 1651 (old style) when a London tailor, John Reeve, claimed to receive a commission from God "to the hearing of the ear as a man speaks to a friend." Reeve was told four things: Reeve believed that he and his cousin, Lodowicke Muggleton, were the two witnesses spoken of in the third verse of the eleventh chapter of the Book of Revelation. After Reeve's death, Muggleton had a brief struggle for control of the group with Laurence Clarkson, a former Ranter, and subsequently with those followers of John Reeve who did not accept Muggleton's authority.
 * "I have given thee understanding of my mind in the Scriptures above all men in the world."
 * "Look into thy own body, there thou shalt see the Kingdom of Heaven, and the Kingdom of Hell."
 * "I have chosen thee a last messenger for a great work, unto this bloody unbelieving world. And I have given thee Lodowick Muggleton to be thy mouth."
 * "I have put the two-edged sword of my spirit into thy mouth, that whoever I pronounce blessed, through thy mouth, is blessed to eternity; and whoever I pronounce cursed through thy mouth is cursed to eternity."

The Muggletonians emphasized the Millennium and the Second Coming of Christ, and believed, among other things, that the soul is mortal; that Jesus is God (and not a member of a Trinity); that when Jesus died there was no God in Heaven, and Moses and Elijah looked after Heaven until Jesus' resurrection; that Heaven is six miles above Earth; that God is between five and six feet tall; and that any external religious ceremony is not necessary. Some scholars think that Muggletonian doctrine may have influenced the work of the artist and poet William Blake.

Recent attempts have been made to locate the movement within earlier intellectual traditions, most notably the Eternal Gospel of Joachim of Fiore. However, Dr Marjorie Reeves has examined the evidence and concludes "the case for a recognisable Joachimist influence among seventeenth-century English prophets falls to the ground." There had been at least one earlier appearance of a claim about the Two Last Witnesses, which John Reeve knew about.

Beliefs
The six principles of Muggletonianism were perhaps best set out by George Williamson, a Roman Catholic who visited the London Muggletonians in 1913:
 * There is no God but the glorified Man Christ Jesus.
 * There is no Devil but the unclean Reason of men.
 * Heaven is an infinite abode of light above and beyond the stars.
 * The place of Hell will be this Earth when sun, moon and stars are extinguished.
 * Angels are the only beings of Pure Reason.
 * The Soul dies with the body and will be raised with it.

These principles derive from Lodowicke Muggleton, who would have added one other matter as being of equal importance, namely, that God takes no immediate notice of doings in this world. If people sin, it is against their own consciences and not because God "catches them at it".

John Reeve's formulation also included pacifism and the doctrine of the two seeds (see below).

According to Rev Dr Alexander Gordon of Belfast, "The system of belief is a singular union of opinions which seem diametrically opposed. It is rationalistic on one side, credulous on another."

Muggletonianism was profoundly materialist. Matter pre-existed even the creation of our universe; nothing can be created from nothing. God, identified as the Holy One of Israel, is a being with a glorified body, in appearance much like a man. There can never be a spirit without a body. A purely spiritual deity, lacking any locus, would be an absurdity (so Muggletonians vehemently told the Quakers) incapable of action in a material world. The man Christ Jesus was not sent from God but was the very God appearing on this earth. Speculation about a divine nature and a human nature, or about the Trinity, is not in error so much as unnecessary. At worst, John Reeve said, it encourages people to ascribe to the deity a whole ragbag of inconsistent human attributes expressed as superlatives. Or, as Thomas Tomkinson drily remarked, it tends to give you a father of justice just when you most wanted a son of mercy.

The Devil, on the other hand, should not be likened to a character from a Ben Jonson play. When the one reprobate angel was tossed from heaven to earth, he perished, but not before impregnating Eve so that Cain was born to perpetuate his frustrated rage upon this earth. The natural process of generation ensured that, even by the time of Noah, all humans had within themselves something from Seth and something from Cain. Muggletonians call this the doctrine of the two seeds: the seed of the woman and the seed of the serpent. The former promoted faith within us, the latter promoted reasoning and desire. This is the conflict within every person. This is a predestinarian belief but, because there are two seeds and not one, humanity is not rendered abject and the innocence of Adam and Eve still has a chance of coming to the top within modern humankind.

Reason stems from desire and lack. Reason is not seen as a sublime mental process but as a rather shoddy trick humans use to try to get what they misguidedly imagine they want. Angels are creatures of Pure Reason because their only desire is for God so that their lack will be totally satisfied over and over again. The reprobate angel was not at fault. God deliberately chose to deprive this angel of satisfaction so that, by his fall, the other angels would become aware that their perfection came from God and not from their own natures.

Professor Lamont sees 17th-century Muggletonianism as an early form of liberation theology. Because there are no spirits without bodies, there can be no ghosts, no witches, no grounds for fear and superstition and no all-seeing eye of God. Once persons are contented in their faith, they are free to speculate as they please on all other matters. God will take no notice. And Muggletonian meetings did just that.

The Muggletonian canon is generally taken to comprise: However, Muggletonians had a distaste for scriptural literalism. One of the purposes of the third commission was to make clear what was previously held obscure in scripture. Their approach to scripture incorporated quite explicit interpretation and separated texts into positive and privative.
 * The books of the Christian Old & New Testaments except those traditionally ascribed to Solomon, whose wisdom is seen as worldly rather than inspired. Crucially, this deletes Ecclesiastes. Muggleton expressed doubts about the Book of Job but it is too much of a favourite to remove. Thomas Tomkinson advances a neat compromise, "though the authority of the book is questioned by some, yet all admit it to be a true history."
 * The writings of the prophets of the Third Commission: A Transcendent Spiritual Treatise (1st Ed. 1652), A Divine Looking-Glass (1st ed, 1656) and other works
 * The Book of Enoch (Ethiopic Enoch or 1 Enoch). Muggletonians did not produce their own edition but did reprint Signification of the proper names occurring in the Book of Enoch from the Hebrew & Chaldee Rev D. A. De Sola. Finsbury: Isaac Frost (1852). Similarly, The Book of the Secrets of Enoch (Slavonic Enoch or 2 Enoch) which was introduced into English by Robert Henry Charles in 1896 would qualify.
 * The Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs, from an English version of Robert Grosseteste's 13th-century Latin translation, printed from the 1693 edition with its introduction plus a modern glossary. Whitechapel: Joseph Frost Snr (1837).

Muggletonian meetings
Professor Lamont styles the Muggletonians "disorganized religion". They held no annual conferences, never organised a single public meeting, seem to have escaped every official register or census of religion, never incorporated, never instituted a friendly society, never appointed a leader, spokesperson, editorial board, chairperson for meetings or a single committee. Their sole foray into bureaucracy was to appoint trustees for their investment, the income from which paid the rent on the London Reading Room between 1869 and 1918. Philip Noakes may not have been the last Muggletonian, but he was certainly the last trustee.

Muggletonian meetings were simple comings-together of individuals who appeared to feel that discussion with like-minded believers helped clarify their own thoughts. "Nothing in the Muggletonian history becomes it more than its fidelity to open debate (though sometimes rancorous)."

Records and correspondence show that meetings took place from the 1650s to 1940 in London and for almost as long in Derbyshire. Regular meetings occurred at other places at other times. Bristol, Cork, Faversham and Nottingham are among those known, and there were many others, especially in East Anglia and Kent.

In both London and Derbyshire, two types of meetings were held. There were regular discussion meetings and there were holiday meetings of a more celebratory nature held in mid-February (to commemorate the start of the Third Commission) and at the end of July (to remember Muggleton's release from imprisonment).

There remains a description of a Muggletonian holiday meeting held at the Reading Room at 7 New Street, London on 14 February 1869. There were about 40 members present, of whom slightly more than half were men. One-quarter were said to have been born into the faith. Tea was served at 5 o'clock. Discussion continued until 6 when a lady sang "Arise, My Soul, Arise" one of the Muggletonian divine songs. Then a large bowl of port negus with slices of lemon was served and a toast enjoined to absent friends. More songs were sung by each who volunteered. Beer was brought in and supper was served at half past eight. "It was a plain substantial meal; consisting of a round of beef, a ham, cheese, butter, bread and beer. Throughout the evening, every one seemed heartily to enjoy himself or herself, with no lack of friendliness, but with complete decorum." No speeches were made. "By ten o'clock all were on their way homeward." About 30 Muggletonians enjoyed at least one seaside outing to Hastings after the First World War.

There is also an account for a far older holiday meeting which Lodowicke Muggleton and his daughter, Sarah, attended in July 1682 at the Green Man pub in Holloway, then a popular rural retreat to the north of London. In addition to a goodly meal with wine and beer, a quartern of tobacco, one-fifth of a pound, was gotten through and a shilling paid out to "ye man of the bowling green".

Outside of holiday times, meetings seem to have altered little with time and place. They comprised discussion, readings and songs. There was no public worship, no instruction, no prayer. There is no record of any participant being moved by the spirit. Until mid-Victorian times, London meetings were held in the back rooms of pubs. In the early days, this is said to have provided an appearance of outward conformity with the Conventicle Acts 1664 and 1667. The meeting would look and sound to outsiders like a private or family party. Nothing would advertise religious observance. By 1869, pub life had become irksome and the London congregation obtained their first Reading Room at 7 New Street, which was reckoned to be built on the former site of Lodowicke Muggleton's birthplace, Walnut Tree Yard. This was made possible by legacies from Catherine Peers, Joseph Gandar and the Frost family; all of whom had been active in the faith. The money invested in government stock yielded sufficient income to pay the rent and the wages of a live-in caretaker who, for most of the Victorian period, was an unemployed shoe-repairer named Thomas Robinson. 7 New Street is perhaps the only site with Muggletonian connections still extant. However, it may require considerable historical imagination from the modern passer-by to gain a mental picture of what it would have been like in Victorian times. Then, the area was full of warehouses and factories, not the smart, professional consultancies of today. For his visit in 1913, Williamson tellingly describes it as being "in the East End".

By May 1918, wartime inflation seems to have undermined the Victorian financial settlement. The Muggletonians moved to cheaper rented premises not far away at 74 Worship Street, to the north of Finsbury Square. They remained there until probably the autumn of 1940 when the building was destroyed by a firebomb during the London Blitz. This was the event which led to the transfer of the Muggletonian archive to Mr Noakes's farm in Kent. As a fruit farmer, Mr Noakes received a petrol ration to take his produce to Covent Garden market in central London. On the return journey, the archive was packed into empty boxes and taken to safety.

The Two Witnesses
John Reeve reports that only he was told of his Commission by the word of God. Yet two persons, Lodowicke Muggleton and John Reeve, are appointed the Last Witnesses to fulfil the prophecy of Revelation 11:3 where no distinction is drawn between one witness and the other. John Reeve introduces a distinction of his own. "And I have given thee Lodowicke Muggleton to be thy mouth: at that very moment the holy spirit brought into my mind that scripture of Aaron given unto Moses." Whilst Reeve was alive, we have no evidence that anyone took Lodowicke Muggleton very seriously except as Reeve's assistant. At their blasphemy trial in 1653, The Recorder of London, after examining John Reeve, turns to Muggleton and says, "Let Aaron speak". Certainly, Muggleton appears to have written nothing whilst Reeve was alive. After first attempting to take control, Clarkson eventually submitted to Muggleton completely, even agreeing to give up writing and keeping that promise.

Revelation say the Two Witnesses:
 * Possess power and to prophesy 1260 days whilst clothed in sackcloth.
 * Are the two olive trees and the two candlesticks.
 * Will kill their enemies by fire from their mouths.
 * Can inflict droughts and plagues and turn water to blood during their prophesying.
 * Shall be killed by the Beast and their bodies lie unburied in the street of a great city for three and a half days whilst the people will rejoice "because these two prophets tormented them".
 * Will return to life and ascend to heaven whilst an earthquake destroys one tenth of the city. With that "the Second Woe is past and behold the Third Woe cometh quickly".

Muggleton and Reeve's two predecessors, the weavers Richard Farnham and John Bull, did try to live out their script, particularly in their role as bringers of plagues. However, there is no evidence that John Reeve and Lodowicke Muggleton felt in any way obliged to follow suit. Contemporaries did comment adversely upon this, especially upon the death of Reeve from all-too-natural causes followed by his equally mundane funeral at the New Bethlehem Burial grounds.

Later history
The Muggletonians had a belief that they could damn and bless according to the will of God and the apparent success of such damning (apparently resulting in the death of certain religious, mainly Quaker, opponents) brought the sect great notoriety. A vigorous tract war ensued with their Quaker opponents that lasted until the death of Muggleton.

William Maitland's 1739 edition of A History of London gives two Muggletonian meeting-places. One, for the Southwark congregation, is in Barnaby Street. The other, for the Aldersgate congregation, is in Old Street Square. Presumably, both of these were public houses, rented rooms or private homes as no dedicated meeting room existed before 1869.

In "The Making of the English Working Class" E. P. Thompson says, "The Muggletonians (or followers of Ludovic Muggleton) were still preaching in the fields and parks of London at the end of the eighteenth century." Those Muggletons whose lives we know about would have rejected preaching as pointless and spiritually dangerous. Were there other groups of Muggletonians who operated differently? At present, historians cannot answer, but the possibility is there. Firstly, other denominations of that era, such as Methodists and Baptists, existed in a profusion of forms as E. P. Thompson's own index shows. Secondly, contact between those Muggletonians about whom we do know was sporadic, at best. "For example, those in Derbyshire were ignorant of the existence of any persons entertaining the same faith in London until one of their number removed thither to seek employment and, after residing there a short time, heard of the London bretheren by mere accident." Thirdly, the name existed widely in the public domain without much knowledge of what it meant. Sir Walter Scott received eternal damnation for his ignorant remarks in Woodstock. Charles Dickens incorporates All-Muggleton into Pickwick Papers. A character called Mrs Snowdrop in Douglas William Jerrold's Nell Gwynne (1833) says, "Nothing now will serve her but to go upon the stage. Tisn't my fault. I'm sure I put the pious Mr Muggleton under her pillow every night."

During the nineteenth century, this formerly non-proselytizing Protestant sect became increasingly vocal and published several books intended for general audiences. In 1846, for example, the Muggletonian Isaac Frost published Two Systems of Astronomy, a lavishly illustrated book outlining the anti-Newtonian cosmology of the Muggletonians. This activity arose from the activity of the Frost brothers (Joseph and Isaac) who, having made their fortune in the Derby Brass Foundry business, proceeded to spend significant sums on publicising their sect once the family moved to London. A great number of books were published but very few were actually sold.

Notable Muggletonian writers include Laurence Clarkson (1615–1667) an itinerant preacher born in Preston, Lancashire; John Saddington (1634? – 1679) a London sugar merchant, originally from Arnesby, Leicestershire; Thomas Tomkinson (1631–1710) a Staffordshire yeoman farmer who moved to London in the 1680s; Arden Bonell (b.? – 1746) a London Barber-Surgeon; and Isaac Frost (1793–1858) and Joseph Frost (1791–1857), brothers who ran the family metallurgy business in Clerkenwell, London. Also deserving mention is Alexander Delamaine (died 1687), a wealthy London tobacco merchant who began The Great Book in 1682, which became the Muggletonian archive. Thomas Robinson (see above) in opposition to the Frost brothers strongly preferred the 1656 edition of A Divine Looking-Glass to Muggleton's revision of 1661 and also wrote an unpublished manuscript Upon New Thoughts circulated to Muggletonians which argues for a God in an infinite universe.

The group survived into the twentieth century. The last Muggletonian, Philip Noakes of Matfield, Kent, died on 26 February 1979; the sect's records, which he had kept, were then transferred to the British Library. Other gifts have joined the archive, most notably from Eileen Muggleton of the commonplace book of John Dimock Aspland (1816–1877). The published works of the Muggletonians are still available from Gage Postal Books of Westcliff-on-Sea, Essex.

There may be another archive still to be found. Mrs Louise Barnes of Buffalo, New York, wrote to London in 1936 about the US Muggletonian archive kept by her father, the late Alfred Hall. This collection was clearly treasured, mainly for family reasons. It may still exist.

Today, Muggletonian works (including their hymnal DIVINE SONGS) are reprinted (as hard copy and e-books) by the Muggletonian Press at http://muggletonianpress.com/

"In Edward Thompson's words, Muggletonianism was a 'highly intellectual anti-intellectualism', and as such remarkably well adapted for survival among the semi-educated, self-taught, self-confident London artisans of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries."

title: Muggletonianism


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South Union

South Union may refer to a location in the United States:

 * South Union, Kentucky, an unincorporated community
 * South Union Shaker Center House and Preservatory
 * South Union, South Carolina, a census-designated place
 * South Union Missionary Baptist Church, Palestine, Texas
 * South Union School, Southborough, Massachusetts
 * South Union Street Historic District (disambiguation), locations in North Carolina
 * South Union Street Historic District (Concord, North Carolina)
 * South Union Street–Boardman River Bridge, Michigan
 * South Union Township, Pennsylvania

title: South Union


text:
Talk:Cicuta virosa

There seems to be some debate as to whether Socrates was killed by poison hemlock or water hemlock. Both are of course deadly, but water hemlock appears to cause nausea, which wasn't reported by Plato (see quote in poison hemlock).

Whilst I'd believe that multiple doses of poison hemlock were necessary I'd be very surpised if you'd need multiple doses of water hemlock. It would appear that a single bite of the root would be sufficient. See for more information about the pathophysiology of the two.

As a result I'm going to leave in my new section about Socrates in the poison hemlock page and update this one to make it more interesting.

If you get to the rest of the article on the emedicine page (registration may be required), then it does list nausea and vomiting as one of the symptoms of both poison hemlock and water hemlock ingestion. Water hemlock appears to be more likely to produce nausea as its initial effects are those of gastro-intestinal poisoning.

Water hemlock definitely appears to be the most deadly of the two. If my understanding of the material is correct, water hemlock is more likely to result in seizures and convulsions, whereas poison hemlock results in paralysis and respiratory arrest. The quote from Plato would suggest tha latter.

--pjf 06:16, 24 Oct 2004 (UTC)

I wonder if there should be additional cautionary text about handling poison hemlock and water hemlock. I've heard reports of kids being poisoned by using the hollow stems of dead poison hemlock stalks to make wood flutes. It remains toxic for a couple of years after its death.

The picture contains a good drawing of the distinctive chambered root of water hemlock, which can be used to discriminate it from other plants by cutting the root lengthwise. It is of vital importance that any knife used for this purpose be thoroughly cleaned prior to any other use

Carrots or mice?
Am I reading the description correctly? Mice smell like carrots? --Dante Alighieri | Talk 00:35, 12 January 2006 (UTC)

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title: Talk:Cicuta virosa


text:
Patricia Tallman

Patricia J. Tallman (born September 4, 1957) is an American actress, stunt performer, and studio executive best known for her roles in Night of the Living Dead, Star Trek and Babylon 5. She is the former CEO and executive producer of Studio JMS.

Early life and education
Patricia Tallman is the daughter of Jerry Tallman, a radio entertainer. After graduating from Glenbard West High School in Glen Ellyn, Illinois in 1975, she joined the theater arts program of Carnegie Mellon University, which awarded her a Bachelor of Fine Arts degree.

Career
In television, Tallman worked on the soap opera Generations. Later, she had guest-starring roles on Tales from the Darkside, as well as the science-fiction shows Star Trek: The Next Generation, Star Trek: Deep Space Nine, and Star Trek: Voyager. As an actress and stunt performer, she worked on 50 episodes across the Star Trek franchise. Tallman played Lyta Alexander in the Babylon 5 series pilot, recurring in seasons two and three, and starring in seasons four and five. Tallman collaborated with fellow Carnegie Mellon alumnus George A. Romero on several films, including Knightriders, Monkey Shines, and Creepshow 2 (in which Tallman performed stunts).

In 1990, Tallman starred as Barbara in the Tom Savini-directed remake of the 1968 film Night of the Living Dead. In 1992, she played the Possessed Witch under heavy make-up in the cult classic Army of Darkness, as well as the Witch in the modern day scenes.

In 1993, Tallman's most notable stunt work came as stunt double for Laura Dern throughout Steven Spielberg's Jurassic Park. In addition, she served as stunt double for Laurel Holloman, who portrayed vampire hunter Justine Cooper in the series Angel, a photo of Tallman was also used as the photo of Justine Cooper's dead twin sister. In a 2001 episode of the TV series Sheena, she guest-starred as the villain Caroline Dula.

Tallman appeared in the 2002 psychological horror short, Jennifer Is Dead, the black comedy For Pete's Wake!, and guest spots on Without a Trace and Castle. Tallman appeared in InAlienable (2008) and the horror film Dead Air (2009). Tallman played Holly in Atlas Shrugged: Part II (2012).

Tallman has performed voice roles including playing the leading part of evil detective Jean Richmond in the Radio Repertory Company of America's production of Lives of the Cat and in some of the Anne Manx sequels (sold as radio plays on CD).

In 2011, Tallman published her autobiography Pleasure Thresholds, the title inspired by the scene she auditioned to earn the role of Lyta Alexander.

In 2012, Tallman became CEO and executive producer of Studio JMS in partnership with her then-boyfriend, J. Michael Straczynski, the creator of Babylon 5. In 2013, she left the company.

In May 2014, Tallman played the male role of Lespere in a theatrical production of Ray Bradbury's Kaleidoscope at Sci-Fest LA 2014, a theater festival. The following year Tallman played the wife in a comedy called A Logic Called Joe at the second Sci-Fest LA.

In 2016, Tallman started Quest Retreats, a VIP adventure excursion company with annual events in Hawaii, London, New Zealand, and South Africa.

Personal life
Tallman met Andrea Rogantini when he was the executive chef at Prego Ristorante in Los Angeles. Rogantini is the father of her only child, a son named Julian Tallman. Tallman later met Jeffrey Willerth when she was acting on Babylon 5 (1993–1998), where he was an associate producer. They were married in 1999, separated several years later and divorced in 2008.

Tallman met J. Michael Straczynski (JMS) when she was acting on Babylon 5, a series which he created. The two entered into a relationship some time after Straczynski separated from his wife, Kathryn M. Drennan, in 2002. They separated in 2013.

Tallman is a leading fund-raiser for Penny Lane, a center for abused children in California. , she has been leading their annual “Be a Santa Toy Drive” for more than 20 years.

title: Patricia Tallman


text:
11/9

11/9 may refer to:

 * November 9, US and Asian style date
 * Fahrenheit 11/9, an American documentary film
 * September 11, used in the day-month-year stylization of dates
 * The September 11 attacks, a series of four coordinated terrorist attacks in the United States of America on September 11, 2001
 * September, 11 A.D.; see AD 11
 * November, 9 A.D.; see AD 9
 * 11 shillings and 9 pence in UK predecimal currency
 * "11/9", an episode of American Horror Story: Cult

title: 11/9


text:
Somain

Somain may refer to:

 * Somain, Nord, a commune in France

title: Somain


text:
South Valley

South Valley is the name of several places in the United States:

 * South Valley, Santa Clara County in California
 * South Valley, Bernalillo County in New Mexico
 * South Valley, Cattaraugus County in New York
 * South Valley Stream, New York, Nassau County in New York
 * South Valley Township, Rolette County in North Dakota

title: South Valley


text:
Tuscan order

The Tuscan order (Latin Ordo Tuscanicus or Ordo Tuscanus, with the meaning of Etruscan order) is one of the two classical orders developed by the Romans, the other being the composite order. It is influenced by the Doric order, but with un-fluted columns and a simpler entablature with no triglyphs or guttae. While relatively simple columns with round capitals had been part of the vernacular architecture of Italy and much of Europe since at least Etruscan architecture, the Romans did not consider this style to be a distinct architectural order (for example, the Roman architect Vitruvius did not include it alongside his descriptions of the Greek Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian orders). Its classification as a separate formal order is first mentioned in Isidore of Seville's 6th-century Etymologiae and refined during the Italian Renaissance.

Sebastiano Serlio described five orders including a "Tuscan order", "the solidest and least ornate", in his fourth book of Regole generali di architettura sopra le cinque maniere de gli edifici (1537). Though Fra Giocondo had attempted a first illustration of a Tuscan capital in his printed edition of Vitruvius (1511), he showed the capital with an egg and dart enrichment that belonged to the Ionic. The "most rustic" Tuscan order of Serlio was later carefully delineated by Andrea Palladio.

In its simplicity, the Tuscan order is seen as similar to the Doric order, and yet in its overall proportions, intercolumniation and simpler entablature, it follows the ratios of the Ionic. This strong order was considered most appropriate in military architecture and in docks and warehouses when they were dignified by architectural treatment. Serlio found it "suitable to fortified places, such as city gates, fortresses, castles, treasuries, or where artillery and ammunition are kept, prisons, seaports and other similar structures used in war."

Italian writers on architecture
From the perspective of these writers, the Tuscan order was an older primitive Italic architectural form, predating the Greek Doric and Ionic, associated by Serlio with the practice of rustication and the architectural practice of Tuscany. Giorgio Vasari made a valid argument for this claim by reference to Il Cronaca's graduated rustication on the facade of Palazzo Strozzi, Florence. Like all architectural theory of the Renaissance, precedents for a Tuscan order were sought for in Vitruvius, who does not include it among the three canonic orders, but peripherally, in his discussion of the Etruscan temple (book iv, 7.2–3). Later Roman practice ignored the Tuscan order, and so did Leon Battista Alberti in De re aedificatoria (shortly before 1452).

Following Serlio's interpretation of Vitruvius (who gives no indication of the column's capital), in the Tuscan order the column had a simpler base—circular rather than squared as in the other orders, where Vitruvius was being followed—and with a simple torus and collar, and the column was unfluted, while both capital and entablature were without adornments. The modular proportion of the column was 1:7 in Vitruvius, and in Palladio's illustration for Daniele Barbaro's commentary on Vitruvius), in Vignola's Cinque ordini d'architettura (1562), and in Palladio's I quattro libri dell'architettura (1570). Serlio alone gives a stockier proportion of 1:6. A plain astragal or taenia ringed the column beneath its plain cap.

Palladio agreed in essence with Serlio: "The Tuscan, being rough, is rarely used above ground except in one-storey buildings like villa barns or in huge structures like Amphitheatres and the like which, having many orders, can take this one in place of the Doric, under the Ionic."

Unlike the other authors Palladio found Roman precedents, of which he named the arena of Verona and the Pula Arena, both of which, James Ackerman points out, are arcuated buildings that did not present columns and entablatures. A striking feature is his rusticated frieze resting upon a perfectly plain entablature

Examples of the use of the order are the Palazzo Massimo alle Colonne in Rome, by Baldassarre Peruzzi, 1532–1536, and the pronaos portico to Santa Maria della Pace added by Pietro da Cortona (1656–1667).

Later spread
A relatively rare church in the Tuscan order is St Paul's, Covent Garden by Inigo Jones (1633). According to an often repeated story, recorded by Horace Walpole, Lord Bedford gave Jones a very low budget and asked him for a simple church "not much better than a barn", to which the architect replied "Then you shall have the handsomest barn in England". Christ Church, Spitalfields in London (1714–29) by Nicholas Hawksmoor, uses it outside, and Corinthian within.

In a typical usage, at the very grand Palladian house of Wentworth Woodhouse in Yorkshire, which is mainly Corinthian, the stable court of 1768 uses Tuscan. Another English house, West Wycombe Park, has a loggia facade in two storeys with Tuscan on the ground floor and Corinthian above. This recalls Palladio's Palazzo Chiericati, which uses Ionic over Doric.

The Neue Wache is a Greek Revival guardhouse in Berlin, by Karl Friedrich Schinkel (1816). Though in most respects the Greek temple frontage is a careful exercise in revivalism, there are minimal plain bases to the thick fluted columns and, despite having metope reliefs and a large group of sculpture in the pediment, there are no triglyphs or guttae. Nonetheless, despite these "Tuscan" aspects, the overall impression is strongly Greek and it is rightly always described as "Doric".

Tuscan is often used for doorways and other entrances where only a pair of columns are required, and using another order might seem pretentious. Because the Tuscan mode is easily worked up by a carpenter with a few planing tools, it became part of the vernacular Georgian style that lingered in places like New England and Ohio deep into the 19th century. In gardening, "carpenter's Doric" which is Tuscan, provides simple elegance to gate posts and fences in many traditional garden contexts.

title: Tuscan order


text: Category:1576 births

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text: Category:1576 deaths

title: Category:1576 deaths


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Trip generation

Trip generation is the first step in the conventional four-step transportation forecasting process used for forecasting travel demands. It predicts the number of trips originating in or destined for a particular traffic analysis zone (TAZ). Trip generation analysis focuses on residences and residential trip generation is thought of as a function of the social and economic attributes of households. At the level of the traffic analysis zone, residential land uses "produce" or generate trips. Traffic analysis zones are also destinations of trips, trip attractors. The analysis of attractors focuses on non-residential land uses.

This process is followed by trip distribution, mode choice, and route assignment.

Input data
A forecasting activity, such as one based on the concept of economic base analysis, provides aggregate measures of population and activity growth. Land use forecasting distributes forecast changes in activities in a disaggregate-spatial manner among zones. The next step in the transportation planning process addresses the question of the frequency of origins and destinations of trips in each zone: for short, trip generation.

Initial analysis
The first zonal trip generation (and its inverse, attraction) analysis in the Chicago Area Transportation Study (CATS) followed the “decay of activity intensity with distance from the central business district (CBD)” thinking current at the time. Data from extensive surveys were arrayed and interpreted on a distance-from-CBD scale. For example, commercial land use in ring 0 (the CBD and vicinity) was found to generate 728 vehicle trips per day in 1956. That same land use in ring 5 (about 17 km from the CBD) generated about 150 trips per day.

The case of trip destinations will illustrate use of the concept of activity decline with intensity (as measured by distance from CBD) worked. Destination data are arrayed:

The land use analysis provides information on how land uses will change from an initial year (say t = 0) to some forecast year (say t = 20). Suppose we are examining a zone. We take the mix of land uses projected, say, for year t = 20 and apply the trip destination rates for the ring in which the zone is located. That is, there will this many acres of commercial land use, that many acres of public open space, etc., in the zone. The acres of each use type are multiplied by the ring specific destination rates. The result is summed to yield the zone’s trip destinations. The CATS assumed that trip destination rates would not change over time.

Revisions to the analysis
As was true for land use analysis, the approach developed at CATS was considerably modified in later studies. The conventional four-step paradigm evolved as follows: Types of trips are considered. Home-based (residential) trips are divided into work and other, with major attention given to work trips. Movement associated with the home end of a trip is called trip production, whether the trip is leaving or coming to the home. Non-home-based or non-residential trips are those a home base is not involved. In this case, the term production is given to the origin of a trip and the term attraction refers to the destination of the trip.

Residential trip generation analysis is often undertaken using statistical regression. Person, transit, walking, and auto trips per unit of time are regressed on variables thought to be explanatory, such as: household size, number of workers in the household, persons in an age group, type of residence (single family, apartment, etc.), and so on. Usually, measures on five to seven independent variables are available; additive causality is assumed.

Regressions are also made at the aggregate/zone level. Variability among households within a zone isn’t measured when data are aggregated. High correlation coefficients are found when regressions are run on aggregate data, about 0.90, but lower coefficients, about 0.25, are found when regressions are made on observation units such as households. In short, there is much variability that is hidden by aggregation.

Sometimes cross-classification techniques are applied to residential trip generation problems. The CATS procedure described above is a cross-classification procedure.

Classification techniques are often used for non-residential trip generation. First, the type of land use is a factor influencing travel, it is regarded as a causal factor. A list of land uses and associated trip rates illustrated a simple version of the use of this technique:

Such a list can be improved by adding information. Large, medium, and small might be defined for each activity and rates given by size. Number of employees might be used: for example, <10, 10-20, etc. Also, floor space is used to refine estimates.

In other cases, regressions, usually of the form trip rate = f(number of employees, floor area of establishment), are made for land use types.

Special treatment is often given major trip generators: large shopping centers, airports, large manufacturing plants, and recreation facilities.

The theoretical work related to trip generation analysis is grouped under the rubric travel demand theory, which treats trip generation-attraction, as well as mode choice, route selection, and other topics.

Databases
The Institute of Transportation Engineers's Trip Generation Manual provides trip generation rates for various land use and building types. The planner can add local adjustment factors and treat mixes of uses with ease. Ongoing work is adding to the stockpile of numbers; over 4000 studies were aggregated for the latest edition.

ITE Procedures estimate the number of trips entering and exiting a site at a given time. ITE Rates are functions of type of development based on independent variables such as square footage of the gross leasable area, number of gas pumps, number of dwelling units, or other standard measurable things, usually produced in site plans. They are typically of the form $$Trips = a + b * Area$$ or $$Trips = a + b ln (Area) $$. They do not consider location, competitors, complements, the cost of transportation, or other factors. The trip generation estimates are provided through data analysis. Many localities require their use to ensure adequate public facilities for growth management and subdivision approval.

In the United Kingdom and Ireland, the TRICS database is commonly used to calculate trip generation.

title: Trip generation


text:
Boron carbide

Boron carbide (chemical formula approximately B4C) is an extremely hard boron–carbon ceramic, a covalent material used in tank armor, bulletproof vests, engine sabotage powders, as well as numerous industrial applications. With a Vickers hardness of >30 GPa, it is one of the hardest known materials, behind cubic boron nitride and diamond.

History
Boron carbide was discovered in the 19th century as a by-product of reactions involving metal borides, but its chemical formula was unknown. It was not until the 1930s that the chemical composition was estimated as B4C. Controversy remained as to whether or not the material had this exact 4:1 stoichiometry, as, in practice the material is always slightly carbon-deficient with regard to this formula, and X-ray crystallography shows that its structure is highly complex, with a mixture of C-B-C chains and B12 icosahedra. These features argued against a very simple exact B4C empirical formula. Because of the B12 structural unit, the chemical formula of "ideal" boron carbide is often written not as B4C, but as B12C3, and the carbon deficiency of boron carbide described in terms of a combination of the B12C3 and B12CBC units.

Crystal structure

Boron carbide has a complex crystal structure typical of icosahedron-based borides. There, B12 icosahedra form a rhombohedral lattice unit (space group: R$\overline{3}$m (No. 166), lattice constants: a = 0.56 nm and c = 1.212 nm) surrounding a C-B-C chain that resides at the center of the unit cell, and both carbon atoms bridge the neighboring three icosahedra. This structure is layered: the B12 icosahedra and bridging carbons form a network plane that spreads parallel to the c-plane and stacks along the c-axis. The lattice has two basic structure units – the B12 icosahedron and the B6 octahedron. Because of the small size of the B6 octahedra, they cannot interconnect. Instead, they bond to the B12 icosahedra in the neighboring layer, and this decreases bonding strength in the c-plane.

Because of the B12 structural unit, the chemical formula of "ideal" boron carbide is often written not as B4C, but as B12C3, and the carbon deficiency of boron carbide described in terms of a combination of the B12C3 and B12C2 units. Some studies indicate the possibility of incorporation of one or more carbon atoms into the boron icosahedra, giving rise to formulas such as (B11C)CBC = B4C at the carbon-heavy end of the stoichiometry, but formulas such as B12(CBB) = B14C at the boron-rich end. "Boron carbide" is thus not a single compound, but a family of compounds of different compositions. A common intermediate, which approximates a commonly found ratio of elements, is B12(CBC) = B6.5C. Quantum mechanical calculations have demonstrated that configurational disorder between boron and carbon atoms on the different positions in the crystal determines several of the materials properties – in particular, the crystal symmetry of the B4C composition and the non-metallic electrical character of the B13C2 composition.

Properties
Boron carbide is known as a robust material having extremely high hardness (about 9.5 up to 9.75 on Mohs hardness scale), high cross section for absorption of neutrons (i.e. good shielding properties against neutrons), stability to ionizing radiation and most chemicals. Its Vickers hardness (38 GPa), elastic modulus (460 GPa) and fracture toughness (3.5 MPa·m1/2) approach the corresponding values for diamond (1150 GPa and 5.3 MPa·m1/2).

, boron carbide is the third hardest substance known, after diamond and cubic boron nitride, earning it the nickname "black diamond".

Semiconductor properties
Boron carbide is a semiconductor, with electronic properties dominated by hopping-type transport. The energy band gap depends on composition as well as the degree of order. The band gap is estimated at 2.09 eV, with multiple mid-bandgap states which complicate the photoluminescence spectrum. The material is typically p-type.

Preparation
Boron carbide was first synthesized by Henri Moissan in 1899, by reduction of boron trioxide either with carbon or magnesium in presence of carbon in an electric arc furnace. In the case of carbon, the reaction occurs at temperatures above the melting point of B4C and is accompanied by liberation of large amount of carbon monoxide:
 * 2 B2O3 + 7 C → B4C + 6 CO

If magnesium is used, the reaction can be carried out in a graphite crucible, and the magnesium byproducts are removed by treatment with acid.

Applications
Boron's exceptional hardness can be used for the following applications:
 * Padlocks
 * Personal and vehicle ballistic armor plating
 * Grit blasting nozzles
 * High-pressure water jet cutter nozzles
 * Scratch and wear resistant coatings
 * Cutting tools and dies
 * Abrasives
 * Metal matrix composites
 * In brake linings of vehicles

Boron carbide's other properties also make it suitable for:
 * Neutron absorber in nuclear reactors (see below)
 * High energy fuel for solid fuel ramjets

Nuclear applications
The ability of boron carbide to absorb neutrons without forming long-lived radionuclides makes it attractive as an absorbent for neutron radiation arising in nuclear power plants and from anti-personnel neutron bombs. Nuclear applications of boron carbide include shielding.

Boron carbide filaments
Boron carbide filaments exhibit auspicious prospects as reinforcement elements in resin and metal composites, attributed to their exceptional strength, elastic modulus, and low density characteristics. In addition, boron carbide filaments are not affected by radiation due to its ability to absorb neutrons. It is less harmful than filaments made of other materials, such as cadmium.

title: Boron carbide


text:
Nero Julius Caesar

Nero Julius Caesar (c. AD 6–31) was the adopted grandson and heir of the Roman emperor Tiberius, alongside his brother Drusus. Born into the prominent Julio-Claudian dynasty, Nero was the son of Tiberius' general and heir, Germanicus. After the deaths of his father and of Tiberius' son, Drusus the Younger, Nero and his brother Drusus were adopted together by Tiberius in September AD 23. As a result of being heirs of the emperor, he and his brother enjoyed accelerated political careers.

Sejanus, prefect of the Praetorian Guard, had become powerful in Rome and is believed by ancient writers such as Suetonius and Tacitus to have been responsible for the downfall of Drusus the Younger. As the power of Sejanus grew, other members of the imperial family began to fall as well. In AD 29, Tiberius wrote a letter to the Senate attacking Nero and his mother, and the Senate had them both exiled. Two years later, he died in exile on the island of Ponza. His brother Drusus also died in exile in AD 33. Their deaths allowed for the adoption and ascension of their younger brother, Caligula, following the death of Tiberius in AD 37.

Background and family
Nero was born around AD 6 to Germanicus and Agrippina the Elder. Nero's paternal grandparents were Nero Claudius Drusus (Drusus the Elder) and Antonia Minor, daughter of Mark Antony and Octavia Minor. His maternal grandparents were Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa, a close friend of Augustus, and Augustus' daughter Julia the Elder. Nero had eight siblings: four brothers (Tiberius and Gaius Julius, who died young; Drusus Caesar; and Gaius, nicknamed "Caligula"), three sisters (Agrippina the Younger, Julia Drusilla, and Julia Livilla) and a brother or sister of unknown name (normally referenced as Ignotus).

As a member of the Julio-Claudian dynasty, he was a close relative of all five Julio-Claudian emperors: his great-grandfather Augustus was the first emperor of the dynasty, his great-uncle Tiberius was the second emperor, his brother Gaius (Caligula) was the third emperor, his uncle Claudius was the fourth emperor, and his nephew Lucius Domitius (Nero) was the fifth and final emperor of the dynasty.

Nero's father was the adopted son of Tiberius, who was himself the adoptive son of Augustus, whose adoptions were the result of the death of Gaius Caesar in February AD 4. Gaius, who was the heir of Augustus, had died of illness in Syria. Germanicus was for some time considered the new heir by Augustus, but Augustus later decided in favour of his stepson Tiberius. As a result, in June AD 4, Augustus adopted Tiberius on the condition that Tiberius first adopt Germanicus. As a corollary to the adoption, Germanicus was wed to his second cousin Agrippina the Elder the following year.

In AD 13 Nero's father was appointed commander of the forces on the Rhine, from where he led three campaigns into Germania against the forces of Arminius. His victories against the German tribes which had made him popular as he avenged the Roman defeat at the Battle of Teutoburg Forest. In October AD 14, Germanicus received a delegation from the Senate giving their condolences for the death of Augustus. Augustus had died in August and Tiberius became emperor, making Germanicus heir to the empire. At the direction of Tiberius, Germanicus was dispatched to Asia to reorganize the provinces and assert imperial authority there. However, after two years in the east, Germanicus came into conflict with the governor of Syria, Gnaeus Calpurnius Piso. During their feud, Germanicus fell ill and died in October AD 19.

While Nero's father was alive he had been betrothed to the daughter of Creticus Silanus, the one-time governor of Syria. However, in AD 20, Nero married Julia, daughter of Livilla and Drusus the Younger (Tiberius' only son by Vipsania Agrippina).

Career
Nero's mother Agrippina believed her husband was murdered to promote Drusus the Younger as heir, and feared that the birth of his twin sons would give him a motive to displace her own sons. However, her fears were unfounded, with Nero being elevated by Tiberius. On 7 June AD 20, Nero was brought into the forum to receive the toga virilis, introduced into the Senate by Tiberius and Drusus the Younger, and was promised the office of quaestor in five years' time. He was excused from holding the lowest magistracy, the vigintivirate, and a congiaria of 60 denarii was distributed by Tiberius at his tirocinium. He was wed to Drusus the Younger's daughter, Julia, later that year combining the families of both possible lines of succession (that of Germanicus and Drusus the Younger). His brother Drusus was introduced to the Senate with similar honours in AD 23, and he too was promised the rank of quaestor in five years' time.

Heir to the principate
Following the death of Germanicus, Drusus the Younger was Tiberius' new heir. He received a second consulship in AD 21 and tribunicia potestas (tribunician power) in AD 22. At the same time, Praetorian Prefect Sejanus started to exert considerable influence over the emperor, who referred to Sejanus as Socius Laborum ("my partner in my toils"). Around AD 20, when Sejanus became the first of the equestrian order to hold the praetorship, a senatorial office, his daughter Aelia Junilla was born and swiftly betrothed to Nero's cousin, the boy Claudius Drusus, firstborn son of the future emperor Claudius. At the prospect of a familial bond between the Claudia gens and Sejanus's family, Drusus the Younger is reported by Tacitus to have said of Sejanus in disgust "the grandsons of us Drususes will be his grandsons too". (communis tili cum familia Drusorum fore nepotes.) According to Tacitus and Cassius Dio, the Younger Drusus and Sejanus began bickering and entered a feud. Subsequently, Drusus became ill and died of seemingly natural causes on 14 September AD 23. Claudius Drusus also died before reaching adulthood. Ancient sources suggested that the cause of Drusus' death was poison, whereas modern authors like Barbara Levick are more sceptical, suggesting it may have been illness.

The death of the Younger Drusus left no immediate threat to Sejanus. Ultimately, his death elevated Nero and his brother Drusus to the position of heirs. In effect, this led to the formation of factions, with one faction around Nero and Drusus and their mother Agrippina and the other faction linked to Sejanus. While the full extent of Sejanus' power at this point is uncertain, it can be noted that Sejanus was not allowed to marry Livilla (Drusus the Younger's widow) and was thus denied entry into the imperial family. In the Senate, Sejanus encountered little opposition from the senators, but Tiberius expressed displeasure in the Senate, in AD 24, at the public prayers which had been offered for Nero and his brother Drusus' health.

In AD 28, the Senate voted that altars to Clementia (mercy) and Amicitia (friendship) be raised. At that time, Clementia was considered a virtue of the ruling class, for only the powerful could give clemency. The altar of Amicitia was flanked by statues of Sejanus and Tiberius. By this time, Sejanus' association with Tiberius had reached the point where members of Roman society would make prayers and sacrifices and erect statues in his honour. Sejanus' birthday was honoured as if he were a member of the imperial family. According to the author and historian Richard Alston, "Sejanus' association with Tiberius must have at least indicated to the people that he would be further elevated".

Downfall
The very next year saw a direct attack on Agrippina and Nero. Tiberius sent a letter to the Senate in which he accused Agrippina and Nero of misconduct, but was unable to convict them of any attempt at rebellion. The attitude of the former and the sexual activity of the latter were the primary accusations against them. Agrippina was popular with the people, as was the family of Germanicus, and the people surrounded the senate-house carrying likenesses of the two in protest against Tiberius. The Senate refused to come to a resolution on the matter until it received a clear direction from the emperor to do so. Tiberius found it necessary to repeat his charges, and when he did, the Senate no longer delayed; the fate of Agrippina and Nero was sealed. Nero was declared an enemy of the state, removed to the island of Pontia, and was killed or encouraged to kill himself in AD 31. According to Suetonius, he put an end to his own life when the executioner appeared before him with the instruments of death.

Post mortem
His brother Drusus was later also exiled on similar charges of sexual misdemeanours. Sejanus remained powerful until his sudden downfall and summary execution in October AD 31, just after the death of Nero. The specific reasons for his downfall remain unclear. Alston suggests that Sejanus may have been doing a favour for Tiberius by removing Germanicus' family from power, noting that Agrippina and Nero's brother Drusus were left in exile even after Sejanus' death.

The deaths of Germanicus' oldest sons elevated his third son, Gaius Caesar (Caligula), to successor and he became princeps when Tiberius died in AD 37. Drusus the Younger's son Tiberius Gemellus was summoned to Capri by his grandfather Tiberius, where he and Gaius Caligula were made joint-heirs. When Caligula assumed power, he made Gemellus his adopted son, but Caligula soon had Gemellus killed for plotting against him.

In AD 37, Nero's bones were returned to Rome and interred at the Mausoleum of Augustus by Caligula.

title: Nero Julius Caesar


text:
(33342) 1998 WT24

 is a bright, sub-kilometer asteroid, classified as near-Earth object and potentially hazardous asteroid (PHA) of the Aten group, located in Venus's zone of influence that has frequent close encounters with Mercury, Venus, and Earth. It made a close approach to Earth on 11 December 2015, passing at a distance of about 4.2 million kilometers (2.6 million miles, 11 lunar distances) and reaching about apparent magnitude 11.

The asteroid was discovered on 25 November 1998 by LINEAR about four months after a close encounter with the planet Mercury (about 0.047 AU). It measures approximately 400 meters in diameter. It is also one of the best studied PHAs and was the 10th Aten asteroid to be numbered.

Classification and orbit

orbits the Sun at a distance of 0.42–1.02 AU once every 7 months (222 days; semi-major axis of 0.72 AU). Its orbit has an eccentricity of 0.42 and an inclination of 7° with respect to the ecliptic.

Low aphelion
At the time of its discovery, astronomers were trying to find the first Apohele asteroid (one that is always closer to the Sun than Earth). All asteroids known at the time that got closer to the Sun than Earth also crossed Earth's orbit. Earlier that year, David J. Tholen claimed to have spotted the first Apohele asteroid, which was dubbed. However, the object was lost without being confirmed. Thus, 1993 DA remained the asteroid with the lowest known aphelion at 1.023 AU. When was discovered, it was found to have a slightly smaller aphelion (1.019 AU) than 1993 DA, and was thus the closest thing to an Apohele asteroid known at the time. It lost its smallest aphelion title almost immediately when was discovered only a few weeks later (aphelion = 1.014 AU). Asteroids with even smaller aphelions were discovered until February 2003, when finally, an asteroid with an aphelion smaller than 1.000 AU was discovered. This was 163693 Atira, the first confirmed Apohele asteroid.

Venus zone of influence
was the second asteroid discovered to be close enough to Venus as to be within the major planet's zone of influence. It is located at about the inner edge of the zone, while (99907) 1989 VA, the first asteroid discovered there, is at about the outer edge. It is possible for planets to capture asteroids located in their sphere of influences into co-orbital relationships such as Trojan and horseshoe asteroids. Because of its frequent close encounters with Mercury and Earth, however, it may prove difficult for Venus to keep in a co-orbital relationship for any length of time. Of the six objects in Venus's zone of influence, only Zoozve is currently a co-orbital.

Record close encounter
is a potentially hazardous asteroid. That means its orbit takes it very close to Earth and if it were to collide with our planet, it would cause devastation on at least a regional scale. On 16 December 2001, it became the first PHA to be observed passing within 5 Lunar Distances (the average distance between Earth and the Moon) from Earth. Other asteroids have come closer, and numerous have even come closer than the Moon, but these have all been small asteroids, incapable of causing much damage to the planet, or much concern. The 2001 encounter was the closest known approach to Earth any PHA had made since passed by on 27 August 1969. However, was not discovered until September 1999 many years after its closest approach, so no one knew about  in 1969.

In September 2004, the well known PHA 4179 Toutatis came about 4 Lunar Distances from Earth. Due to its diameter being over ten times larger (5.7 km) and its closer approach, Toutatis at its closest (mag 8.9) was about half an apparent magnitude brighter than was at its closest (mag 9.5). However, Toutatis arrived during a full moon, and thus 's 2001 encounter is still the most easily observed flyby of an asteroid in history. It also made the first Near-Earth asteroid observed to be brighter than magnitude 10.

Frequent inner-planet encounters
is a Mercury-crosser asteroid, a Venus-crosser asteroid, and an Earth-crosser asteroid. Because of its relatively low inclination (7.34°), it is able to come close to each of these planets. Its orbit takes it within 0.021 AU of Mercury's orbit, 0.0368 AU of Venus's orbit, and 0.00989 AU of Earth's orbit. It makes frequent encounters with these inner planets. The last time it came close to Mercury, Venus and Earth was 2010, 1977, and 12 November 2004, respectively. The most recent close approach to Earth was on 11 December 2015 at about 4.2 million kilometers (2.6 million miles, 11 lunar distances). The next visit of the asteroid to Earth's neighborhood will be on 11 November 2018, when it will make a relatively distant pass at about 20 million kilometers (12.5 million miles, 52 lunar distances). These encounters perturb its orbit parameters slightly, and each pass reduces its inclination further.

Physical characteristics
During its close encounters in 2001 and 2015, astronomers were able to make radar images of its surface and determine physical properties that remain unknown for most asteroids. According to the ExploreNEOs Warm Spitzer Exploration Science program, is a bright E-type asteroid with an exceptionally high albedo of $0.35 km$.

Diameter and albedo
measures between 350 and 415 meters in diameter and its surface has an albedo between 0.34 and 0.75. The Collaborative Asteroid Lightcurve Link an albedo of 0.34 and takes a diameter of 410 meters based on an absolute magnitude of 18.69. The asteroid is modestly elongated, approximately 420 × 330 meters.

Rotation period
Several rotational lightcurves of have been obtained from radiometric and photometric observations. Lightcurve analysis gave a consolidated rotation period of 3.697 hours with a brightness amplitude between 0.19 and 0.65 magnitude (U=3).

Future flyby candidate
has an orbit that not only crosses Earth's orbit, but is roughly parallel to it at its furthest. This means that during favourable years it is easy to reach from Earth. Several times this decade, it will be an easier target than Earth's own Moon. It is high on the list of possible Near-Earth Asteroid targets for future flybys, landings, mining, or orbit manipulations.

Numbering and naming
This minor planet was numbered by the Minor Planet Center on 18 August 2002. As of 2018, it has not been named.

title: (33342) 1998 WT24


text:
Whydah

Whydah may refer in English to:

 * Whydah, one of a number of species of birds in the family Viduidae, also called indigobirds
 * Whydah Gally, a ship captained by pirate "Black Sam" Bellamy that was wrecked in 1717 and was discovered in 1984
 * Whydah (ship)
 * Ouidah, city and colonial fort in present Benin
 * Kingdom of Whydah, which included Ouidah but was headquartered in Savi

title: Whydah


text: Category:Swiss sculptors

title: Category:Swiss sculptors


text:
User talk:GoFlyi

Coupe Roadster
Hello. Regarding the Coupe Roadster article, is this exclusively a Mercedes-Benz body style? If so, it should be made clear that it is. SamH 13:31, 23 Oct 2004 (UTC)

The phrase Coupe Roadster may very well have been popularized by Mercedes-Benz but not exclusively. Note the early Chevrolet Corvette and Corvette Stingray. Perhaps also the Jaguar E-type? A more recent application is in the Mazda Miata Mx5. GoFlyi 14:03, 23 Oct 2004 (UTC)

 * Sorry, you seem to have misunderstood what I was getting at. To rephrase, does the name Coupe Roadster apply only to MB vehicles, or is it just another term for a convertible with a removable hardtop? SamH 17:34, 23 Oct 2004 (UTC)

 * Your original question: "is this exclusively a Mercedes-Benz body style?" No it is not. There are many makes that have Coupe Roadster style. Regarding your rephrase: "does the name Coupe Roadster apply only to MB vehicles" No. Coupe Roadster is not a name only for MB vehicles. I present the term Coupe Roadster as a means to describe and represent this particular car body style for any vehicle. GoFlyi 19:10, 24 Oct 2004 (UTC)

Welcome
Hello, and welcome to Wikipedia.

 * Helpful links : Editing || Writing a great article || Naming || Style Manual || Policies Reassigning old edits || What Wikipedia is not

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I hope you enjoy being a Wikipedian on en:. Drop us a note at New user log so we can meet you and help you get started. You can also leave questions on my talk page. :)

Regards, +sj + 18:33, 23 Oct 2004 (UTC)

 * Sj, thanks for the welcome. I shall endevor to be a good Wikipedian! GoFlyi 19:23, 24 Oct 2004 (UTC)

title: User talk:GoFlyi


text: Talk:Privatisation of British Rail

title: Talk:Privatisation of British Rail