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Order of the Coif

The Order of the Coif is an American honor society for law school graduates. The Order was founded in 1902 at the University of Illinois College of Law. The name is a reference to the ancient English order of advocates, the serjeants-at-law, whose courtroom attire included a coif—a white lawn or silk skullcap, which came to be represented by a round piece of white lace worn on top of the advocate's wig. A student who earns a Juris Doctor degree and graduates in the top ten percent of their class is eligible for membership if the student's law school has a chapter of the Order.

History
The University of Illinois College of Law established the Order of the Coif in 1902. According to the organization's constitution, "The purpose of The Order is to encourage excellence in legal education by fostering a spirit of careful study, recognizing those who as law students attained a high grade of scholarship, and honoring those who as lawyers, judges and teachers attained high distinction for their scholarly or professional accomplishments."

In the late 19th century, several leading American law schools had established honors fraternities to recognize scholarship and distinction within the ranks of Juris Doctors in the United States. One of these, at the University of Illinois, was originally named Theta Kappa Nu. It inspired several additional chapters in Nebraska, Missouri, and Wisconsin. A local legal honor society had formed in 1907 at Northwestern University, adopting the name Order of the Coif, but three years later, in 1910, would accept a charter from Theta Kappa Nu. Even with this charter the Northwestern group retained use of the earlier name, which was one of the factors which necessitated a discussion and eventual negotiation of a merger, and not just an absorption.

Also, in 1910 chapters at Iowa and Michigan were formed. Rapid expansion and divergent practices at these early schools led to calls for a national convention. At this meeting, in 1911, it was determined to adopt the original name of the Northwestern group, the Order of the Coif, along with a revised constitution that was fully ratified in 1912. Thus the American Order of the Coif dates to its earliest group, in Illinois, from 1902, and adopted its name from both the Northwestern group and its institutional inspiration, the English Order.

Symbols
The symbolism of the Order of the Coif is far older, having evolved from the legal traditions of the Middle Ages in England. The Coif itself originated as a tight-fitting headpiece once used by both men and women. A version of this, in the form a close-fitting hood that covered all but the face, was adopted as a symbol for those barristers who had been recognized as serjeants-at-law and thus formed the narrow pool of legal practitioners who could be appointed judges of the Court of Common Pleas or, later, of the King's Bench. With this distinctive apparel, the serjeants-at-law became known as "serjeants of the coif" and their group within society as the original Order of the Coif; this predecessor inspired the name and markings of the American Order, although beyond inspiration there is no legal connection between the two. White wigs were so often sewn onto the coif that their usage became conjoined.

One of the earliest known (English) serjeants of the coif was a man named Geoffrey Ridel, named so in the year 1117. The early writer, Geoffrey Chaucer made mention of Serjeants at Law in the preface to his novel, The Canterbury Tales. Through the 15th, 16th, and 17th centuries, important English jurists were so recognized: Bacon, Blackburn, Blackstone, Campbell, Cavendish, Coke, Coleridge, Fortesque, Glanville, and Littleton, these may be the best known. But in the 18th century, rumblings of dissatisfaction with this arrangement grew. The English Order's privileged hold on the court was finally ended when a Crown Warrant was issued in 1839 which commanded Common Pleas to permit “gentlemen of the bar generally” to be allowed to practice before it. Objections were litigated briefly, but by the following year, the matter had been settled with the power of the Order broken. Its last meeting was held in 1877.

The wig and coif remain standard courtroom attire today in England and Commonwealth countries.

Membership
The induction process varies by law school, but students are generally notified of their membership after the final class ranks at their schools are announced. A new member receives a certificate of membership, a badge of membership for wear during academic ceremonies, a Coif key, and in some cases an actual coif or a representation of one.

The basic requirement for membership is ranking in the top 10% of a member school's graduating class. If a member law school graduates fewer than 30 students, it may induct its top three students. A school can decide not to allow an otherwise eligible student to receive the honor and may impose additional requirements for membership beyond the organization's national requirement of being in the top 10% of the class.

Each member school may also induct a faculty member and one honorary member each year. The national organization's executive committee may also elect a limited number of honorary members. Those chosen for honorary membership are usually U.S. Supreme Court justices and other preeminent members of the legal profession.

Chapters
, 87 of 203 United States law schools accredited by the American Bar Association to award the Juris Doctor (J.D.) degree had Order of the Coif chapters. Following is a list of chapters of Order of the Coif.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Order of the Coif


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Mephisto Odyssey

Mephisto Odyssey is an American house music group from San Francisco, California, United States, who have been credited with helping to pioneer the San Francisco house music sound. The group went on to release a number of self-released singles until doing tenures at City of Angels and Warner Bros. Records from the mid-1990s into the early 2000s. Mephisto Odyssey are also credited with being the only group to officially remix Jane's Addiction for the maxi single "So What!". The group released many singles and remixes as well as an EP and two albums during the life of the band. This included the song "Crash" which was co-written with Wayne Static of Static-X and "Some Kinda Freak" which was featured in the horror film Hostel.

Inception and debut single (1993—1996)
Mephisto Odyssey was originally formed in the fall of 1993 by musician, songwriter / producer Mikael Johnston and producer / songwriter Michael Ames. Johnston's high school friend and fellow musician Orpheos Dejournette joined the group shortly after. The group's first single, the self-released "Dream of the Black Dahlia” (1993), earned kudos from Bay Area promoters and the international underground scene including DJ Garth of Greyhound Recordings who was the first international DJ to play the track. Ames left the group permanently after the release of their first single.

City of Angels (1996—1998)
Mephisto Odyssey now fronted by Johnston and Dejournette continued to release singles on their own label Mephisto Records until 1996 when they signed to the progressive West Coast label City of Angels. At City of Angels the group shared the talent roster with Überzone, Simply Jeff, Christopher Lawrence (DJ), Sandra Collins and future break beat kings, The Crystal Method. After a handful of singles and the release of their first album Catching The Skinny the then duo caught the ear of Warner Bros. Records A & R rep Troy Wallace. Wallace offered the duo the chance to work on a remix project with Jane's Addiction for the upcoming maxi single "So What!", Mephisto Odyssey co-produced the remixes with long-time friend and Primal Record Shop owner, Barrie Eves, who officially joined the group soon after. The official release featured 3 remixes by Mephisto Odyssey and went on to spend 6 weeks in the Billboard maxi singles chart which paved the way for a Warner Bros. Records recording contract (December 1998). DJ Josh Camacho also joined the group soon after the band signed to Warner Bros. as a touring member. To date Mephisto Odyssey are the only artists to officially remix Jane's Addiction.

The Warner Bros. Years (1998—2002)
While at Warner Bros. Records the group expanded further into the realm of engineering, producing and remixing by working with various artists sharing the roster. Mikael Johnston co-wrote, produced and engineered the single "Crash" with Wayne Static of Static-X which also appeared on the Static-X album Beneath... Between... Beyond... Mephisto Odyssey also appeared with Wayne Static and Koichi Fukuda in the song's video (directed by Len Wiseman), which aired in heavy rotation on MTVX. A Humble Brothers remix version of "Crash" was also featured on the soundtrack of Batman Beyond: Return of the Joker. Mephisto Odyssey did remixes for Los Amigos Invisibles "Mi Linda", Static-X's "Push It" and Soul Coughing's "Rolling" among others. An EP called The Lift which charted in the Billboard Hot Dance Club Play Chart, several singles and an album called The Deep Red Connection followed. A diverse array of guest vocalists appeared on the band's major label debut including Wayne Static, Hafdis Huld of Gus Gus, former 4ad artist Paula Frazer and Mad Lion. The group left Warner Bros. at the beginning of 2002 and disbanded.

Mephisto Odyssey reunite (2006—2008)
In 2006 founding member Mikael Johnston and DJ Josh Camacho reunited under the Mephisto Odyssey moniker to release several singles under their new Groove Quest label. Some of the singles released were "Superphonic" on N-mitysound Records, "Sexy Love" and "Bump." In 2008 Mikael Johnston put Mephisto Odyssey in moratorium to become one half of the music production team Dresden and Johnston with long-time friend Dave Dresden.

Discography

 * Dream of the Black Dahlia (EP) 12" - Orpheos Productions 1994
 * Dream of the Black Dahlia Remixes 12" - Mephisto Records through Hi-Bias 1994
 * Dream of the Black Dahlia on Twitch Vol. 10 12" - Twitch Records 1994
 * Catching the Skinny EP 12" - Mephisto Records through Hi-Bias 1994
 * The Motive EP 12" - Mephisto Records 1995
 * Transhumance feat. John Kozak - San Francisco Sound Spectrum (under the name Odyssey Arcane) 12" Twitch Records 1995
 * The Tyburn Swing on RAW OXYGEN 5: Cool Neurotica 12" - Oxygen Music Works 1996
 * Freak Lip Stomp, Dream of the Black Dahlia on Mephisto - The Subterranean Sounds of San Francisco 12" SSR/Crammed 1996
 * Get Down (single) 12" - City of Angels Records - 1996
 * Midntropolis (Single) 12" - City of Angels Records 1997
 * Feterous Tripstride on The Sound of Young America 12" - City of Angels - 1997
 * Catching the Skinny Album - City of Angels 1997
 * Jane's Addiction - So What EP Mephisto Odyssey remixes 12" - Warner Bros. Records 1997
 * Los Amigos Invisibles - Mi Linda Mephisto Odyssey Remixes 12" - Luaka Bop / WBR 1998
 * Flow single (under the name Deep Red) 12" - Primal Trax / Warner Bros. Records 1999
 * The Lift Remixes (EP) 12" Dbl Pack Primal Trax / Warner Bros. Records 2000
 * The Deep Red Connection - Warner Bros. Records 2000
 * Sexy Dancer (single) Hipp-E & Halo remix 12" - Primal Trax / Warner Bros. Records 2000
 * Reach (single) feat Hafdis Huld 12" - Primal Trax / Warner Bros. Records 2000
 * Killah (single) feat Jamalski 12" - Primal Trax / Warner Bros. Records 2001
 * Some Kinda Freak (single) feat. Ultra Violet Catastrophe remix 12" - Primal Trax / Warner Bros. Records 2001
 * Crash Video (Featuring Static-X, directed by Len Wiseman) - Warner Bros. Records 2001
 * Rites of Passage (single) 12" - The Joint / Waako records 2004

title: Mephisto Odyssey


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Holly Grove

Holly Grove may refer to:

United States

 * Holly Grove, Arkansas, a town
 * Holly Grove Historic District, Holly Grove, Arkansas, listed on the NRHP in Monroe County, Arkansas
 * Holly Grove, Davidson County, North Carolina, an unincorporated community
 * Holly Grove, Gates County, North Carolina, an unincorporated communities
 * Holly Grove, West Virginia, an unincorporated community
 * Holly Grove Methodist Church, Anacoco, Louisiana, listed on the NRHP in Vernon Parish, Louisiana
 * Holly Grove (Clinton, Louisiana), listed on the NRHP in East Feliciana Parish, Louisiana
 * Holly Grove Plantation House, Bolton, Mississippi, NRHP-listed
 * Holly Grove (Centreville, Mississippi), listed on the NRHP in Wilkinson County, Mississippi
 * Holly Grove Site, Sledge, Mississippi, NRHP-listed
 * Holly Grove Mansion, Charleston, West Virginia, listed on the NRHP in West Virginia

title: Holly Grove


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Holly Ridge

Holly Ridge may refer to:

 * Holly Ridge, Mississippi
 * Holly Ridge, North Carolina

title: Holly Ridge


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Alhazen (crater)

Alhazen is a lunar impact crater that lies near the eastern limb of the Moon's near side. Just to the south-southeast is the crater Hansen, and to the west is the Mare Crisium. The rim of Alhazen is nearly circular, but appears highly oblong when viewed from the Earth due to foreshortening. The inner walls and the crater floor are rugged and irregular. A low ridge joins the south rim of Alhazen with the nearby Hansen. The crater is named after the Arab Muslim scientist, Ibn al-Haytham.

Satellite craters
By convention these features are identified on lunar maps by placing the letter on the side of the crater midpoint that is closest to Alhazen.

title: Alhazen (crater)


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Cedar Falls

Cedar Falls may refer to:
 * Operation Cedar Falls, ground operation of the Vietnam War
 * Cedar Falls, Iowa
 * Cedar Falls Utilities in Cedar Falls, Iowa
 * Cedar Falls Community School District in Cedar Falls, Iowa
 * Cedar Falls Historical Society in Cedar Falls, Iowa
 * Cedar Falls High School in Cedar Falls, Iowa
 * Cedar Falls Ice House in Cedar Falls, Iowa
 * Cedar Falls Independent Order of Odd Fellows Temple in Cedar Falls, Iowa
 * Cedar Falls Township, Black Hawk County, Iowa
 * Waterloo – Cedar Falls metropolitan area, Iowa
 * Cedar Falls, North Carolina
 * Cedar Rock Falls, North Carolina
 * Cedar Falls, Washington
 * Cedar Falls Historic District in Washington
 * Cedar Falls, Wisconsin
 * Cedar Falls, a waterfall in Montana
 * Cedar Falls, a waterfall in the Hocking Hills State Park, Ohio

title: Cedar Falls


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Calgary Mustangs (USL)

The Calgary Mustangs (formerly the Calgary Storm and Team Calgary) were a soccer team in Calgary, Alberta that played in the semi-professional USL Premier Development League in 2001 and the professional USL A-League from 2002 to 2004.

History
In 2001, the Calgary Storm was formed to play in the semi-professional USL Premier Development League. They finished as the regular season champions and in the playoffs advanced to the Championship final, where they finished as runner-ups after being defeated by the Westchester Flames.

In 2002, the Storm moved to the professional USL A-League. In their debut professional season, the Storm finished last in their division failing to qualify for the playoffs. During the season, the season was complicated by player walkouts, a coach's firing, financial problems that forced several players to play without being paid, and some games being played without substitutes available.

In 2003, the team once again continued to struggle in the standings, once again finishing last in their division. During the season, team owner Michael Vandale resigned as team owner citing personal issues and mounting financial losses, handing over the operation of the team to the United Soccer Leagues, who would seek a new ownership group. The USL managed the team for the remainder of the season, with funding pooled from the other 18 A-League franchises, who approved the decision to take over operation of the team, with the team finishing the season under the name Team Calgary.

For 2004, a new ownership group consisting of Storm head coach Thomas Niendorf, John Torode, and Juergen Hanne were granted the rights to the franchise, choosing to operate the franchise as a non-profit organization. The team continued in the USL A-League, changing its name to the Calgary Mustangs for the 2004 season (a previous team in the Canadian Professional Soccer League had operated as the Calgary Mustangs in 1983). Following another last place finish, the Mustangs halted operations following the 2005 season, initially planning to return for the 2006 season, however, they ultimately never returned.

The team never acquired a significant profile in the Calgary sports marketplace and never had great fan support. The USL PDL Calgary Storm averaged 2,003 fans per game at Foothills Stadium. In their final season the team's average attendance was just 1,258 at 35,650 capacity McMahon Stadium.

Honours

 * USL PDL Regular Season Champions: 2001

Reserve Team
After the Storm moved to the A-League from the PDL following the 2001 season, the club established a second team in the PDL known as the Calgary Storm Select, later known as the Calgary Storm Prospects in 2003. After the first team was taken over by the league mid-season in 2003, the reserve team was disbanded, with the Abbotsford Rangers who were operating a provisional league member taking over the remainder of their fixtures.

title: Calgary Mustangs (USL)


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United States Naval Hospital Beaufort

Naval Hospital Beaufort is a United States Navy hospital located in Beaufort, South Carolina.

History
Commissioned on April 29, 1949, the hospital is one of only a handful of its kind that sits within its own complex rather than within a larger base. It takes its name from Beaufort, the larger community north of Port Royal that is commonly associated with military installations in the Lowcountry region.

Function
NH Beaufort serves nearby Marine Corps bases MCRD Parris Island and MCAS Beaufort, including the housing area of Laurel Bay.

title: United States Naval Hospital Beaufort


text: Category:Polish geologists

title: Category:Polish geologists


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Long Pond

Long Pond or Longs Pond may refer to:

Natural Feature

 * Long Pond, Tunkhannock Creek, Pennsylvania, Monroe County, Tunkhannock Township

Anguilla

 * Long Pond, Anguilla

Canada

 * Long Pond, St. John's, Newfoundland and Labrador
 * A community in Conception Bay South
 * Long Pond (Herring Cove, Nova Scotia)
 * The purported birthplace of hockey in Windsor, Nova Scotia

Maine

 * Long Pond (Belgrade Lakes)
 * Long Pond (Hancock County, Maine), Hancock County, Maine
 * Long Pond (Moose River)

Massachusetts

 * Long Pond (West Yarmouth, Massachusetts)
 * Long Pond (Lakeville, Massachusetts)
 * Long Pond (Plymouth, Massachusetts)
 * Long Pond (Rochester, Massachusetts)

New Jersey and New York

 * Long Pond (New York), near Oswegatchie Camp, Lewis County, New York
 * Long Pond (Chenango County, New York)
 * Long Pond (Hamilton County, New York)
 * Long Pond (Warren County, New York)
 * Greenwood Lake, once known as Long Pond, New Jersey / New York
 * Lake Owassa, once known as Long Pond, New Jersey
 * Long Pond Ironworks State Park, Hewitt, New Jersey

Pennsylvania

 * Long Pond, Pennsylvania, Pocono Mountains

Washington

 * Longs Pond

title: Long Pond


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San Rafael Mountains

The San Rafael Mountains are a mountain range in central Santa Barbara County, California, U.S., separating the drainages of the Santa Ynez River and the Santa Maria River. They are part of the Transverse Ranges system of Southern California which in turn are part of the Pacific Coast Ranges system of western North America.

Geography
Most of the mountain range is within the Los Padres National Forest, and the northern slopes are included in the remote San Rafael Wilderness area.

The highest peaks include Big Pine Mountain (6,820 ft), San Rafael Mountain (6,593 ft) and McKinley Mountain (6,220 ft), none of which are easily accessible except by foot or horse. The highest peak at the southern edge of the range is Little Pine Mountain.

Hurricane Deck is a spectacular block of sandstone that can be found deep in the San Rafael Wilderness.

The Sisquoc River headwaters are on the north slopes of Big Pine Mountain. It is a designated Wild and Scenic River of the United States, and a tributary of the Santa Maria River. Sisquoc Falls, 250 ft high, is located on a tributary of the Sisquoc River to the west of Big Pine Mountain.

Climate is moderate, with hot dry summers (rare thunderstorms) and cool to cold wet winters. Snow sometimes falls on the higher slopes between December and March during frontal passages. Annual precipitation totals are between 15 and 25 inches.

Peaks
The six highest peaks of the San Rafael Mountains with more than 500 ft of prominence, listed by height:
 * 1) Big Pine Mountain, 6820 ft
 * 2) San Rafael Mountain, 6593 ft
 * 3) Madulce Peak, 6539 ft
 * 4) Monte Arido, 6013 ft
 * 5) Ortega Peak, 5857 ft
 * 6) Figueroa Mountain 4534 ft

Geology
The mountains mainly consist of sedimentary and metamorphic rocks, of Jurassic age or younger, though there are a few regions of igneous intrusions. Several prominent faults exist, including the Big Pine Fault, which trends eastward towards the San Andreas Fault about forty miles away.

Habitats
The mountains are steep and rugged, and the lower slopes are dominated by chaparral. This ecosystem is naturally adapted to large, high-severity fires every 30 to 100 years or more. Nearly every area within the San Rafael Mountains has burned within the last century, largely due to an increase in human-caused ignitions. In the more shaded and moist canyons and northern slopes oak woodlands, bigcone Douglas-fir, and Coulter pine are found. Gray pine is also interspersed across the chaparral-dominated slopes.

Above the montane chaparral and woodlands ecosystem zone are stands of conifers of the mixed evergreen forest ecosystem. These stands are composed of Jeffrey pine, ponderosa pine, Coulter pine, sugar pine, singleleaf pinyon pine, white fir, and incense cedar. Snow is common in the winter above about 6,000 ft, though overall the climate of the mountain range is Mediterranean, with mild rainy winters and warm, dry summers.

Human history
The earliest known residents of the San Rafael Mountains were the Chumash Indians, and evidence of their habitation consists of pictograph rock paintings in remote areas.

In historic times, mercury mining was conducted on portions of the southern slopes. Tailings from these old mines sometimes contain high levels of mercury, and environmental investigations have been conducted to determine if cleanup is necessary and feasible.

The central part of the mountains is included into Santa Ynez Recreation area, a part of Los Padres National Forest, and is a popular hiking destination, with a dozen campgrounds.

title: San Rafael Mountains


text:
Tom Laughlin

Thomas Robert Laughlin Jr. (August 10, 1931 – December 12, 2013) was an American actor, director, screenwriter, author, educator, and activist.

Laughlin was best known for his series of Billy Jack films. He was married to actress Delores Taylor from 1954 until his death. Taylor co-produced and acted in all four Billy Jack films. His unique promotion of The Trial of Billy Jack (TV trailers during national news and an "opening day" nationwide release) was a major influence on the way films are marketed.

In the early 1960s, Laughlin put his film career on hiatus to start a Montessori preschool in Santa Monica, California; it became the largest school of its kind in the United States. In his later years, he sought the office of President of the United States in 1992, 2004, and 2008. He was involved in psychology and domestic violence counseling, writing several books on Jungian psychology and developing theories on the causes of cancer.

Early life and career (1931–1960)
Laughlin was born in Milwaukee, Wisconsin, the son of Margaret and Thomas Laughlin. He attended Washington High School, where he was involved in an athletics controversy that made headlines throughout the city, caused by Laughlin being forced to attend another school for a brief period, making him ineligible to play football at his former school on his return.

Laughlin attended the University of Wisconsin, before transferring to Marquette University; he played football at both. He played safety and halfback at Marquette.

Laughlin decided to become an actor after seeing a production of A Streetcar Named Desire. According to a 1956 newspaper interview, he became involved in the drama program at Marquette after being encouraged by a university professor, Father John J. Walsh.

While a student, he formed a stock group and directed and starred in a production of Arthur Miller's All My Sons. He finally transferred to the University of South Dakota, where he majored in radio acting, directing, and producing. He met his future wife Delores Taylor in South Dakota.

Laughlin wrote the original screenplay for the film Billy Jack in 1954, after witnessing the treatment of Native Americans in his wife's hometown, Winner, South Dakota. The two wed on October 15, 1954.

He began his screen-acting career in the 1955 television series Climax!. From there, he went on to appear in several feature films, including: These Wilder Years, (1956), Tea and Sympathy (1956),  Lafayette Escadrille (1958), and South Pacific (1958).

He appeared in several episodes of various television series throughout the late 1950s. In 1958, Mr. Laughlin appeared in a small but memorable role in South Pacific, the movie version of the James Michener book and Rodgers and Hammerstein musical as a Navy pilot, Lt. Buzz Adams. In 1959, he was cast as young Tom Fowler in the episode "The Fight Back" of the NBC Western series, Riverboat. In the story line, Fowler has made himself the boss of Hampton, a corrupt river town near Vicksburg, Mississippi. He blocks farmers from shipping their crops to market. In a dispute over a wedding held on the river vessel, the Enterprise, a lynch mob led by Fowler comes after Captain Grey Holden (series star Darren McGavin). Also appearing in this episode are John Ireland as Chris Slade and Karl Swenson as Ansel Torgin. That same year, Laughlin starred in the western series Tales of Wells Fargo, the episode titled "The Quiet Village". Laughlin also appeared in the 1959 movie Battle of the Coral Sea with Cliff Robertson and L. Q. Jones.

Also in 1959, Laughlin appeared in the film Gidget as Lover Boy. However, he failed to earn a living in the early years, having told People magazine in 1975, "We were living on $5 a week and eating Spam. I stole Christmas cards from a church so I could write home saying how well we were, but then I couldn't afford the stamps."

Laughlin's first starring film role was in Robert Altman's 1957 film The Delinquents, in which he played Scotty White, a teenager who gets mixed up with a gang when he is told he can no longer see his girlfriend. Despite the film's low budget, it became a cult film, with Alfred Hitchcock reportedly among its fans. However, Laughlin and Altman did not get along well, having sharply differing views on acting, Altman later describing Laughlin as "an unbelievable pain in the ass."

Laughlin made his directorial debut later that year with The Proper Time, though the film wasn't released until 1962. The film was a romantic drama set on the campus of UCLA. Laughlin shot the film on the campus in six days working with a $20,000 budget.

Laughlin wrote, directed, and starred in The Young Sinner. Originally filmed in 1960, and shot in Milwaukee over a period of 14 days, it is the story of a star high-school athlete who falls deeper and deeper into trouble after being caught in bed with his girlfriend. The film was intended to be the first of a trilogy titled We Are All Christ. It premiered in 1963 under the original title Among the Thorns, which was changed to The Young Sinner upon its 1965 re-release. In 1960, Laughlin planned to make a film, Poison in Our Land, based on the true story of a Texas couple affected by atomic radiation, but the project was never realized.

Leaving Hollywood (1961–1966)
In 1959, Laughlin and his wife founded a Montessori preschool in Santa Monica, California. By 1961, Laughlin had left the film business to devote all of his time to the school, which by 1964 had become the largest school of its kind in the United States. It was profiled by Time in July of that year. However, by 1965, the school had gone bankrupt. One of his students was Christian Brando, son of Laughlin's friend, Marlon Brando.

Billy Jack years (1967–1977)
In 1965, Laughlin told the Milwaukee Sentinel that he planned to make a film on the life of a noted Catholic priest, Father William DuBay. However, the picture did not get past the planning stages. Two years later, in 1967, he wrote, directed (as T. C. Frank), and starred in the motorcycle-gang exploitation film The Born Losers. This was the first picture in which the character of Billy Jack appeared. It was a surprise box-office hit.

After The Born Losers, Laughlin was set to begin a film project with backing from such figures as Marlon Brando, Jack Lemmon, Candice Bergen, and director Robert Wise. The movie was to be a documentary on the issues facing African Americans in the 1960s and would have focused greatly on the life of Martin Luther King Jr., followed by a discussion of race. However, the film was never made.

He followed this up with the sequel to The Born Losers, Billy Jack, in 1971. American International Pictures initially agreed to distribute the picture, but after viewing it, the studio refused to release the film unless many of the political references – as well as frontal nudity – were cut. This led the Laughlins to withhold the sound reels of the movie, which in effect made it a silent film. Eventually, Laughlin made a distribution deal with Warner Bros., but he disapproved of the studio's marketing of the film, sued Warner, and re-released the picture himself in 1973. The movie's re-release was successful but controversial. Roger Ebert, in his review of the film, wrote, "Billy Jack seems to be saying that a gun is better than a constitution in the enforcement of justice. Is democracy totally obsolete, then? Is our only hope that the good fascists defeat the bad fascists?"

However, the picture was embraced by much of America's youth, leading Laughlin to claim in 1975, "The youth of this country have only two heroes, Ralph Nader and Billy Jack." When adjusted for inflation, Billy Jack was, as of 2007, the highest-grossing independent film of all time. The film was among the first to introduce martial arts, especially hapkido, to American audiences and contained elements of Jungian psychology, and fictional depictions of American Indian beliefs, depicting a tribe that does not exist, the "Nishnobie". As part of the film's promotion, Bong Soo Han, who was in charge of the martial arts choreography for the film, toured the United States giving hapkido demonstrations.

The Born Losers was reissued in 1974 and earned more than twice as much as it had in its original release.

The second sequel, The Trial of Billy Jack, released in late 1974, was a huge box-office hit, while not registering as quite as big a critical success. It is notable for its casting of notable Native Americans, and counterculture figures like Rolling Thunder, as well as its strong criticism of the Kent State shootings. However, Laughlin's unique promotion of the film was its real legacy. Unlike most films of the era, which opened in only a few cities before gradually spreading across the country, The Trial of Billy Jack opened in cities nationwide on the same day and commercials were broadcast for it during the national news. This promotion forever changed the way films are marketed and has been called "the first blockbuster."

Laughlin had been in dispute with AIP and reached a settlement in 1974, agreeing to pay them $2 million, including $500,000 from The Born Losers reissue and $250,000 for AIP's percentage share of The Trial of Billy Jack.

In 1975, Laughlin released The Master Gunfighter, a Western set in the 1840s, detailing the plight of the Chumash people. Laughlin grew a full beard for the film and his character fought with both a 12-shot revolver and a samurai sword. Although it did reasonably well at the box office, critics were not pleased with the film.

Laughlin returned to the Billy Jack franchise in 1977. However, the fourth entry in the series, Billy Jack Goes to Washington, was a failure because of distribution problems, and it proved to be Laughlin's final film. Laughlin blamed individuals within the United States government for the failure of the picture, telling CNN's Showbiz Tonight in 2005:"At a private screening, Senator Vance Hartke [Note: Hartke was not re-elected in 1976] got up, because it was about how the Senate was bought out by the nuclear industry. He got up and charged me. Walter Cronkite's daughter was there, [and] Lucille Ball. And he said, 'You'll never get this released. This house you have, everything will be destroyed.' '"

At the time of the picture's release, Laughlin's company, Billy Jack Enterprises, had plans for a new Montessori school funded by his own foundation, a record label, an investigative magazine, books, a distribution company, and more message-laden movies, including a special subsidiary to produce films for children. He told People magazine at the time, "Three years from today, we'll be the new United Artists. Either that, or we'll be out on our butt on the street." In 1976, Laughlin announced that he was more than $7 million in debt and blamed the financial troubles on unethical behavior by Warner Bros. Pictures, which he said had illegally sold the television rights to his films.

Later career
In 1984, he purchased a series of 12 advertisements in Variety condemning various aspects of the film industry and its treatment of independent filmmakers. He created a blueprint for taking control of the home video distribution industry as a way for independent films to be seen. In 1985, he began production of a fifth Billy Jack film, The Return of Billy Jack, which featured the title character fighting child pornographers in New York City. However, he suffered a concussion and neck injury during filming, which led to the production being suspended. During this hiatus, funding for the picture ran out and production was never resumed. Later on, Laughlin had his mansion in Brentwood, California foreclosed. He attempted to sue to get it back a couple of years later.

In 2009, a few scenes from the unfinished film were released on Laughlin's website. A notable incident occurred while he was filming in New York City, when he broke up a street fight on Manhattan's West Side, threatening to rip a man's arm off. He garnered notoriety at this time for making a citizen's arrest of a man after an argument over Laughlin's driving.

Laughlin had sought funding to finish the fifth Billy Jack film since at least 1996, when he spoke about it during a lawsuit against a man who had (Laughlin claimed) illegally changed his name to "Billy Jack", and at one point Laughlin had plans to make a Billy Jack television series. In 2004, he announced that the film would be entitled Billy Jack's Crusade to End the War in Iraq and Restore America to Its Moral Purpose; this was shortened to Billy Jack's Moral Revolution in 2006.

In 2008, the film's title was changed to Billy Jack for President. It was retitled Billy Jack and Jean. Laughlin claimed it would be a "new genre of film" and a great deal of social commentary on politics, religion, and psychology will be discussed, and a debate will take place between Billy Jack and President George W. Bush via computer manipulation of archived speeches.

In 2009, Laughlin released plot details of this film on a video on his website. The video contained several scenes from the film.

In 2010, Frank, Chris, and Teresa Laughlin co-founded Billy Jack Rights, LLC, which manages the rights to all of Tom Laughlin's films, including the Billy Jack franchise.

Politics
In his later years, Laughlin turned his attention to politics. He had developed an idea for a film involving a general who returns from war to run for President, but when researching by talking to voters, he thought about running for the office himself. In 1992, as a protest he sought the Democratic Party nomination for U.S. President. He told the Milwaukee Sentinel, "I am the least qualified person I know to be President, except George Bush."

He appeared on the primary ballots in New Hampshire and Louisiana. He campaigned on a platform of a tax cut for "ordinary Americans", term limits, an overhaul of public education, universal health care, and nuclear disarmament. While campaigning for the Iowa caucus, he said of a fellow candidate and an Iowan, U.S. Senator Tom Harkin: "I think he's a sleazebag. I despise him."

Excluded from debates by party officials who did not consider him a serious candidate, Laughlin received 1,986 votes in the New Hampshire primary. He blamed the results on lack of cooperation by the Democratic Party, which allowed him and other candidates only five minutes to speak at the state's convention while giving the five front-runners 20 minutes each. He participated in the independent presidential candidates' debate on March 25, 1992, along with former U.S. Senator Eugene J. McCarthy and others who had been excluded from the major debates. However, he was seen by much of the press as a "fringe candidate".

Laughlin later protested at being excluded from the primary ballot in his home state of Wisconsin at the same time that David Duke, the former Grand Wizard of the Ku Klux Klan, was included. After dropping out of the race, he worked as an advisor to the campaign of Ross Perot.

He ran for president again in 2004, this time as a Republican. Campaigning as an opponent of the Iraq War, he received 154 votes in the New Hampshire primary against President George W. Bush, who received 53,962 votes. He again was not allowed to participate in the debates. He ran again for president in 2008 as a Democrat, getting 47 votes in the New Hampshire primary.

Laughlin was an outspoken critic of the Iraq War and President George W. Bush. His website presented several writings calling the Iraq conflict worse than the Vietnam War, in addition to pieces on what he called "realistic exit strategies". He devoted several pages of the Billy Jack website to reasons that he felt justified an impeachment of George W. Bush and repeatedly stated the need for a viable, mainstream third political party. In addition, he criticized what he called the "Christian right", which he called "false Evangelicals", "false prophets", and the "Christo-fascist movement". He released several videos and writings during the 2008 election.

Psychology and counseling
Although not a professionally trained psychologist, Laughlin had an interest in psychology, having studied the subject independently. A 1975 profile of Laughlin in People mentioned his deep interest in psychology and mentioned that he had a personal "dream secretary" to whom Laughlin told his recollections of his dreams. They were written down to be analyzed later.

Laughlin lectured on Jungian psychology at universities and colleges throughout the United States since the 1970s, including Yale University and Stanford University.

In 1995, because of his background in football and psychology, he was brought in to counsel University of Nebraska football player Lawrence Phillips after Phillips' suspension from the team. He said of Phillips at the time, "He should not be rewarded by being allowed to play unless there is real substantive change. I don't mean surface change. But if he does change, then he's not only going to not batter this girl, he's not going to batter the girl he marries at 30 and 35. If he just pretends to change, of course he should not be allowed to play, but Lawrence has already been sanctioned in ways other batterers on this campus are not". Phillips ended up being reinstated late in the season and left for the pros after 1995.

Laughlin wrote several books on psychology, including The Psychology of Cancer; Jungian Psychology vol. 2: Jungian Theory and Therapy, published in 1980; 9 Indispendable Ingredients to Writing a Hit (1999), which details the psychology involved in the box office and hit filmmaking, and The Cancer Personality (1998), in which he posited his theories about cancer.

One of his concerns was the issue of domestic abuse. He became involved in this after witnessing a neighbor, a police officer, beating his wife. He blamed the murder of Nicole Brown Simpson on domestic abuse, saying:"O.J. Simpson was my neighbor up the street on Rockingham. He lived at 300 Rockingham Drive, I lived at 100 Rockingham. I've known O.J. forever. This is one of the sickest, sorriest days in our culture, that he was [found] not guilty... I've told him since 1985 he'd end up in jail... Eight times [Nicole] cried out and eight times, because it was O.J. and it was woman-battering, it was dismissed. But now, with the trivialization, people are afraid to call because they don't trust that the system will help them. The fact that he was found not guilty is going to make that 10 times worse."

Personal life
Laughlin married Delores Taylor in 1954. They had three children: Frank, Teresa, and Christina. His daughter Teresa is a fashion designer. He derived at least two of his pseudonyms from his children: Frank Laughlin, his son's name and the name he used to direct The Trial of Billy Jack and The Master Gunfighter, and T.C. Frank, which stood for Teresa Christina Frank.

In 2001, it was announced that Laughlin was suffering from a cancer of the tongue that was inoperable. His website claimed the cancer was in remission. His book The Psychology of Cancer was about faith, attitude, and other factors that might affect cancer.

In January 2007, a tearful Tom Laughlin gave the eulogy for the man who taught him hapkido for the movie Billy Jack, the late hapkido grandmaster Han Bong-soo, whom Laughlin remembered as "a holy man".

On November 20, 2007, he posted a video on YouTube explaining that poor health had caused him to leave his BillyJack.com website in a dormant state. The site was later revived. Laughlin suffered from celiac disease, an autoimmune disorder, and suffered a series of strokes. In the video, he announced that he had his health issues under control, that he updated the website, and that he was planning a new Billy Jack film. However, that film was never made.

Filmography
As director
 * The Proper Time (1960) (also served as writer)
 * Like Father, Like Son (1961 film) (1961) (also served as writer)
 * The Born Losers (1967)
 * Billy Jack (1971) (also served as writer)
 * The Trial of Billy Jack (1974) (also served as writer)
 * The Master Gunfighter (1975) (also served as writer)
 * Billy Jack Goes to Washington (1977) (also served as writer)
 * The Return of Billy Jack (1986; unreleased)

Death
Laughlin died of complications from pneumonia on December 12, 2013, at Los Robles Hospital and Medical Center in Thousand Oaks, California.

title: Tom Laughlin


text:
Talk:Battle of Pollilur (1780)

Moved here from the main article: "In this forgotten village we have two large monuments commumerating the war named after the two captains who lost there life here...i have reached and have taken the snaps of this town .....its a long dusty road from palur village u have one in two hour bus which takes you to this perticular town .....Dr Jahanzeb .........dr_jahanzeb@hotmail.com" --Dyss 18:42, 26 Sep 2004 (UTC)

dates and personalities
Hi - - If this battle took place in 1757, it could hardly have been fought by Tipu Sultan, who was 7 years old that year. Is the date wrong or information about who fought it? - - Anon

Hi - - I see that in the earliest version of this page, the date is given as 1787. I am therefore reverting the date of this battle to 1787. - - Anon

The article is another evidence of this website NOT being neutral in displaying facts
Evidence: (Introduction passage) " It was waged between two forces commanded by Tipu Sultan of the Kingdom of Mysore, and Colonel William Baille of the British East India Company. Baille was given only 1,000 reinforcements from General Munro. "

The final sentence is intentionally biased. It forces the reader to sympathize with the British and assume the fault of the defeat of Colonel William Baille was the lack of reinforcements rather than the fighting prowess of Tipu Sultan of Mysore. That such a sentence is placed in the introductory passage is itself suspect. A false sense of righteousness of the British in the 18th and 19th century has affected many authors who are sources for the article. But since 'Wikipedia' serves all the people of the world and not just British, it needs to place facts in an unbiased manner and not use the internet medium to proselytize nationalism. I would be grateful if you remove the justification part of the article. Thank you. — Preceding unsigned comment added by Sajjanajjas (talk • contribs) 07:31, 19 April 2013 (UTC)

External links modified
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A Commons file used on this page or its Wikidata item has been nominated for deletion
The following Wikimedia Commons file used on this page or its Wikidata item has been nominated for deletion: Participate in the deletion discussion at the nomination page. —Community Tech bot (talk) 08:24, 1 October 2021 (UTC)
 * Flag of Mysore Hyder Ali & TipuSultan.jpg

title: Talk:Battle of Pollilur (1780)


text:
Aliacensis (crater)

Aliacensis is a lunar impact crater that is located in the rugged southern highlands of the Moon. The crater Werner is located just to its north-northwest, and a narrow, rugged valley lies between the two comparably sized formations. To the southwest is Walther, and Apianus is to the northeast. Aliacensis is named after the 14th century French geographer and theologian Pierre d'Ailly in 1935. It is from the Nectarian period, which lasted from 3.92 to 3.85 billion years ago.

The rim of Aliacensis is generally circular, with an outward bulge on the eastern wall. The inner wall has some slight terracing particularly in the northeast. There is a small crater located across the southern rim. The interior floor is generally flat, with a low central peak slightly offset to the northwest of the midpoint. South of it lie two somewhat broken rings, Kaiser and Nonius. It is 52 kilometers in diameter and there is a 3.7 kilometer difference in height between its deepest part and its rim.

Satellite craters
By convention these features are identified on lunar maps by placing the letter on the side of the crater midpoint that is closest to Aliacensis.

title: Aliacensis (crater)


text:
Category:Radio in Minnesota

The use of radio in the state of Minnesota.

title: Category:Radio in Minnesota


text:
Category:Television in Minnesota

The use of television in the state of Minnesota

title: Category:Television in Minnesota


text: Category:Polish physical chemists

title: Category:Polish physical chemists


text:
Wikipedia:Articles for deletion/Tom Laughlin (actor)

Tom Laughlin (actor) was proposed for deletion. This page is an archive of the discussion about the proposed deletion. This page is no longer live. Further comments should be made on the article's talk page rather than here so that this page is preserved as an historic record. The result of the debate was keep

New article written in 1st person about actor of questionable notability. Ðåñηÿßôý | Talk 18:47, 26 Sep 2004 (UTC)
 * Delete, list on requested articles. Star of Billy Jack. Current article on Laughlin is just a review of the movie, though, and contains no information about him.   — Gwalla | Talk 19:42, 26 Sep 2004 (UTC)
 * Keep. Excellent rewrite, RickK.   — Gwalla | Talk 21:47, 26 Sep 2004 (UTC)
 * The actor was notable enough, at least in the United States, for his own article but this one is just lousy. Delete. Fire Star 19:47, 26 Sep 2004 (UTC)
 * Much better. Change to keep. Fire Star 21:51, 26 Sep 2004 (UTC)
 * I rewrote it, hope it's worth keeping now. I vote Keep.  RickK 19:49, Sep 26, 2004 (UTC)
 * The rewrite looks good. I'm gonna have One Tin Soldier stuck in my head for a few days now. Keep. Spatch 20:21, 26 Sep 2004 (UTC)
 * Keep. This article is worth keeping now after the rewrite. -- J3ff 23:08, 26 Sep 2004 (UTC)
 * Keep, thanks to RickK's work. JamesMLane 06:59, 27 Sep 2004 (UTC)
 * Delete [[User:Rex071404|Rex071404 [[Image:Happyjoe.jpg]] ]] 20:39, 27 Sep 2004 (UTC)
 * Keep. Why do you want to delete it, Rex? RickK did a good job rewriting this, and it's a notable actor. Guanaco 21:03, 28 Sep 2004 (UTC)
 * Keep. Smerdis of Tlön 11:31, 29 Sep 2004 (UTC)
 * Keep. Love the rewrite. Dieter Simon 00:45, 3 Oct 2004 (UTC)
 * Keep I see no need to delete--ScottyBoy900Q ∞ 18:17, 04 Oct 2004 (UTC)

This page is now preserved as an archive of the debate and, like other '/delete' pages is no longer 'live'. Subsequent comments on the issue, the deletion or on the decision-making process should be placed on the relevant 'live' pages. Please do not edit this page.


text: Category:Myrmecology

title: Category:Myrmecology


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Donald Bitzer

Donald L. Bitzer (born January 1, 1934) is an American electrical engineer and computer scientist. He was the co-inventor of the plasma display, is largely regarded as the "father of PLATO", and has made a career of improving classroom productivity by using computer and telecommunications technologies.

Education and career
He received three degrees in electrical engineering (B.S., 1955; M.S., 1956; Ph.D., 1960) from the University of Illinois at Urbana–Champaign.

Bitzer holds several patents in numerous areas, while the creation of the PLATO computer system, the first system to combine graphics and touch-sensitive screens, is the hallmark of his efforts.

Bitzer co-invented the flat plasma display panel in 1964. Originally invented as an educational aid to help students working in front of computers for long periods of time, plasma screens do not flicker and are a significant advance in television technology. The display was also a way of overcoming the limited memory of the computer systems being used.

In 1974, Bitzer was elected as a member into the National Academy of Engineering for his leadership in the utilization and development of technology for improving the effectiveness of education.

, Bitzer is a Distinguished University Research Professor of Computer Science at North Carolina State University.

Awards
In 1973 the National Academy of Engineering presented Bitzer with the Vladimir K. Zworykin Award, which honors the inventor of the iconoscope. The invention won the Industrial Research 100 Award in 1966.

Bitzer is a designated National Associate, an honor which was granted to him by the National Academies in 2002. He is also a member of the American Society for Engineering Education.

 * Member of the National Academy of Engineering (1974)
 * Computer Society Fellow of the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (1982)
 * Slottow Creativity Award (1989)
 * Emmy Award (2002)
 * Inducted into National Inventors Hall of Fame (2013)
 * Fellow of the National Academy of Inventors (2018).
 * Holladay Medal (2019).

title: Donald Bitzer


text:
Roswell P. Bishop

Roswell Peter Bishop (January 6, 1843 – March 4, 1920) was an American Civil War veteran, lawyer, and a politician from the U.S. state of Michigan. He served six terms in the United States House of Representatives from 1895 to 1907.

Early life, Civil War service and education
Bishop was born in Sidney, New York, and attended Unadilla Academy, Cooperstown Seminary and Walton Academy, all in Upstate New York, after which he taught school for several years.

During the American Civil War, he enlisted as a private in Company C, Forty-third Regiment, New York Volunteer Infantry, in 1861, and was discharged in December 1862 because of a wound which necessitated the amputation of his right arm.

He entered the University of Michigan in September 1868 where he remained until December 1872. He studied law, was admitted to the bar in Ann Arbor in May 1875, and commenced practice in Ludington, Michigan.

Political career
He was elected prosecuting attorney of Mason County in 1876, 1878, and 1884. He was a member of the Michigan State House of Representatives in 1882 and 1892.

Bishop was elected as a Republican from Michigan's 9th congressional district to the United States House of Representatives for the 54th Congress and to the five succeeding Congresses, serving from March 4, 1895, until March 3, 1907. He was chairman of the House Committee on Ventilation and Acoustics in the 57th through 59th Congresses.

He was an unsuccessful candidate for re-nomination in 1906 and resumed the practice of law in Ludington. He served as a member of the Michigan constitutional convention in 1907 and was appointed a member of the Spanish Treaty Claims Commission in December 1907 and served until the work of the commission was completed.

After Congress
He moved to Hollister, California, in 1910 and engaged in fruit growing. He died at Pacific Grove, California, aged 77, and is interred in the El Carmelo Cemetery there.

His former home 302 N. Harrison Street in Ludington, erected in 1892, has been the rectory of Grace Episcopal Church since 1945.

title: Roswell P. Bishop


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Revenu Québec

Revenu Québec (formerly the Ministère du Revenu du Québec [English: Quebec Ministry of Revenue]) is the department of the government of the Province of Quebec, Canada that:

 * sees to the collection of income tax and consumption taxes, while ensuring that each person pays a fair share of the financing of public services;
 * administers the support-payment collection program (PAPA) in order to ensure that the support to which children and custodial parents are entitled is received on a regular basis;
 * administers taxation-related social programs, as well as any other tax-collection and redistribution program entrusted to it by the government; and
 * makes recommendations to the government concerning fiscal policy and programs.

Effective 2005, the Ministère du Revenu du Québec has been renamed Revenu Québec. Effective 2010, Revenu Québec has been reconstituted as Agence du Revenu du Québec.

title: Revenu Québec


text:
Influenza A virus subtype H5N1

Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 (A/H5N1) is a subtype of the influenza A virus, which causes influenza (flu), predominantly in birds. It is enzootic (maintained in the population) in many bird populations, and also panzootic (affecting animals of many species over a wide area). A/H5N1 virus can also infect mammals (including humans) that have been exposed to infected birds; in these cases, symptoms are frequently severe or fatal.

A/H5N1 virus is shed in the saliva, mucous, and feces of infected birds; other infected animals may shed bird flu viruses in respiratory secretions and other body fluids (such as milk). The virus can spread rapidly through poultry flocks and among wild birds. An estimated half a billion farmed birds have been slaughtered in efforts to contain the virus.

Symptoms of A/H5N1 influenza vary according to both the strain of virus underlying the infection and on the species of bird or mammal affected. Classification as either Low Pathogenic Avian Influenza (LPAI) or High Pathogenic Avian Influenza (HPAI) is based on the severity of symptoms in domestic chickens and does not predict the severity of symptoms in other species. Chickens infected with LPAI A/H5N1 virus display mild symptoms or are asymptomatic, whereas HPAI A/H5N1 causes serious breathing difficulties, a significant drop in egg production, and sudden death.

In mammals, including humans, A/H5N1 influenza (whether LPAI or HPAI) is rare. Symptoms of infection vary from mild to severe, including fever, diarrhoea, and cough. Human infections with A/H5N1 virus have been reported in 23 countries since 1997, resulting in severe pneumonia and death in about 50% of cases. As of May 2024, 889 human cases had been identified worldwide, with 463 fatalities, giving a case fatality rate of around 50%; however, it is likely that this may be an overestimate given that mild infections can go undetected and under-reported.

A/H5N1 influenza virus was first identified in farmed birds in southern China in 1996. Between 1996 and 2018, A/H5N1 coexisted in bird populations with other subtypes of the virus, but since then, the highly pathogenic subtype HPAI A(H5N1) has become the dominant strain in bird populations worldwide. Some strains of A/H5N1 which are highly pathogenic to chickens have adapted to cause mild symptoms in ducks and geese, and are able to spread rapidly through bird migration. Mammal species that have been recorded with H5N1 infection include cows, seals, goats, and skunks.

Due to the high lethality and virulence of HPAI A(H5N1), its worldwide presence, its increasingly diverse host reservoir, and its significant ongoing mutations, the H5N1 virus is regarded as the world's largest pandemic threat. Domestic poultry may potentially be protected from specific strains of the virus by vaccination. In the event of a serious outbreak of H5N1 flu among humans, health agencies have prepared "candidate" vaccines that may be used to prevent infection and control the outbreak; however, it could take several months to ramp up mass production.

Humans
Avian flu viruses, both HPAI and LPAI, can infect humans who are in close, unprotected contact with infected poultry. Incidents of cross-species transmission are rare, with symptoms ranging in severity from no symptoms or mild illness, to severe disease that resulted in death. As of February, 2024 there have been very few instances of human-to-human transmission, and each outbreak has been limited to a few people. All subtypes of avian Influenza A have potential to cross the species barrier, with H5N1 and H7N9 considered the biggest threats.

In order to avoid infection, the general public are advised to avoid contact with sick birds or potentially contaminated material such as carcasses or feces. People working with birds, such as conservationists or poultry workers, are advised to wear appropriate personal protection equipment.

The avian influenza hemagglutinin prefers to bind to alpha-2,3 sialic acid receptors, while the human influenza hemagglutinin prefers to bind to alpha-2,6 sialic acid receptors. This means that when the H5N1 strain infects humans, it will replicate in the lower respiratory tract (where alpha-2,3 sialic acid receptors are more plentiful in humans) and consequently cause viral pneumonia.

Influenza virus nomenclature
To unambiguously describe a specific isolate of virus, researchers use the internationally accepted Influenza virus nomenclature, which describes, among other things, the species of animal from which the virus was isolated, and the place and year of collection. For example, A/chicken/Nakorn-Patom/Thailand/CU-K2/04(H5N1): Other examples include: A/duck/Hong Kong/308/78(H5N3), and A/shoveler/Egypt/03(H5N2).
 * A stands for the genus of influenza (A, B or C).
 * chicken is the animal species the isolate was found in (note: human isolates lack this component term and are thus identified as human isolates by default)
 * Nakorn-Patom/Thailand is the place this specific virus was isolated
 * CU-K2 is the laboratory reference number that identifies it from other influenza viruses isolated at the same place and year
 * 04 represents the year of isolation 2004
 * H5 stands for the fifth of several known types of the protein hemagglutinin.
 * N1 stands for the first of several known types of the protein neuraminidase.

Genetic structure
H5N1 is a subtype of Influenza A virus, like all subtypes it is an enveloped negative-sense RNA virus, with a segmented genome. Subtypes of IAV are defined by the combination of the antigenic hemagglutinin and neuraminidase proteins in the viral envelope. "H5N1" designates an IAV subtype that has a type 5 hemagglutinin (H) protein and a type-1 neuraminidase (N) protein. Further variations exist within the subtypes and can lead to very significant differences in the virus's ability to infect and cause disease, as well as to the severity of symptoms.

Influenza viruses have a relatively high mutation rate that is characteristic of RNA viruses. The segmentation of its genome facilitates genetic recombination by segment reassortment in hosts infected with two different strains of influenza viruses at the same time. Through a combination of mutation and genetic reassortment the virus can evolve to acquire new characteristics, enabling it to evade host immunity and occasionally to jump from one species of host to another.

Vaccine
There are several H5N1 vaccines for several of the avian H5N1 varieties, but the continual mutation of H5N1 renders them of limited use to date: while vaccines can sometimes provide cross-protection against related flu strains, the best protection would be from a vaccine specifically produced for any future pandemic flu virus strain. Daniel R. Lucey, co-director of the Biohazardous Threats and Emerging Diseases graduate program at Georgetown University has made this point, "There is no H5N1 pandemic so there can be no pandemic vaccine". However, "pre-pandemic vaccines" have been created; are being refined and tested; and do have some promise both in furthering research and preparedness for the next pandemic. Vaccine manufacturing companies are being encouraged to increase capacity so that if a pandemic vaccine is needed, facilities will be available for rapid production of large amounts of a vaccine specific to a new pandemic strain.

Treatment
There is no highly effective treatment for H5N1 flu, but oseltamivir (commercially marketed by Roche as Tamiflu) can sometimes inhibit the influenza virus from spreading inside the user's body. This drug has become a focus for some governments and organizations trying to prepare for a possible H5N1 pandemic. On April 20, 2006, Roche AG announced that a stockpile of three million treatment courses of Tamiflu are waiting at the disposal of the World Health Organization to be used in case of a flu pandemic; separately Roche donated two million courses to the WHO for use in developing nations that may be affected by such a pandemic but lack the ability to purchase large quantities of the drug.

However, WHO expert Hassan al-Bushra has said:

"Even now, we remain unsure about Tamiflu's real effectiveness. As for a vaccine, work cannot start on it until the emergence of a new virus, and we predict it would take six to nine months to develop it. For the moment, we cannot by any means count on a potential vaccine to prevent the spread of a contagious influenza virus, whose various precedents in the past 90 years have been highly pathogenic."

Animal and lab studies suggest that Relenza (zanamivir), which is in the same class of drugs as Tamiflu, may also be effective against H5N1. In a study performed on mice in 2000, "zanamivir was shown to be efficacious in treating avian influenza viruses H9N2, H6N1, and H5N1 transmissible to mammals". In addition, mice studies suggest the combination of zanamivir, celecoxib and mesalazine looks promising producing a 50% survival rate compared to no survival in the placebo arm. While no one knows if zanamivir will be useful or not on a yet to exist pandemic strain of H5N1, it might be useful to stockpile zanamivir as well as oseltamivir in the event of an H5N1 influenza pandemic. Neither oseltamivir nor zanamivir can be manufactured in quantities that would be meaningful once efficient human transmission starts. In September, 2006, a WHO scientist announced that studies had confirmed cases of H5N1 strains resistant to Tamiflu and Amantadine. Tamiflu-resistant strains have also appeared in the EU, which remain sensitive to Relenza.

History
Influenza A/H5N1 was first detected in 1959 after an outbreak of highly pathogenic avian influenza in Scotland, which infected two flocks of chickens. The next detection, and the earliest infection of humans by H5N1, was an epizootic (an epidemic in nonhumans) of H5N1 influenza in Hong Kong's poultry population in 1997. This outbreak was stopped by the killing of the entire domestic poultry population within the territory. Human infection was confirmed in 18 individuals who had been in close contact with poultry, 6 of whom died.

Since then, avian A/H5N1 bird flu has become widespread in wild birds worldwide, with numerous outbreaks among both domestic and wild birds. An estimated half a billion farmed birds have been slaughtered in efforts to contain the virus.

Pandemic potential
Influenza viruses have a relatively high mutation rate that is characteristic of RNA viruses. The segmentation of the influenza A virus genome facilitates genetic recombination by segment reassortment in hosts who become infected with two different strains of influenza viruses at the same time. With reassortment between strains, an avian strain which does not affect humans may acquire characteristics from a different strain which enable it to infect and pass between humans - a zoonotic event.

As of June 2024, there is concern about two subtypes of avian influenza which are circulating in wild bird populations worldwide, A/H5N1 and A/H7N9. Both of these have potential to devastate poultry stocks, and both have jumped to humans with relatively high case fatality rates. A/H5N1 in particular has infected a wide range of mammals and may be adapting to mammalian hosts.

Surveillance
The Global Influenza Surveillance and Response System (GISRS) is a global network of laboratories that monitor the spread of influenza with the aim to provide the World Health Organization with influenza control information and to inform vaccine development. Several millions of specimens are tested by the GISRS network annually through a network of laboratories in 127 countries. GISRS monitors avian, swine, and other potentially zoonotic influenza viruses as well as human viruses.

Transmission and prevention
[[File:Main international flyways - bird migration-fr.svg|thumb|400px|The eight major flyways used by shorebirds (waders) on migration

{{Legend|#54A1FF|Pacific}} {{Legend|#EEDCD0|Mississippi}} {{Legend|#EAD27A|West Atlantic}} {{Legend|#CDDBC3|East Atlantic}} {{Legend|#ff187a|Mediterranean and Black Sea}} {{Legend|#D7C6D9|West Asia and Africa}} {{Legend|#FFC6C6|Central Asia and India}} {{Legend|#53F05A|East Asia and Australasia}} ]] Birds - Influenza A viruses of various subtypes have a large reservoir in wild waterfowl, which can infect the respiratory and gastrointestinal tract without affecting the health of the host. They can then be carried by the bird over large distances especially during annual migration. Infected birds can shed avian influenza A viruses in their saliva, nasal secretions, and feces; susceptible birds become infected when they have contact with the virus as it is shed by infected birds. The virus can survive for long periods in water and at low temperatures, and can be spread from one farm to another on farm equipment. Domesticated birds (chickens, turkeys, ducks, etc.) may become infected with avian influenza A viruses through direct contact with infected waterfowl or other infected poultry, or through contact with contaminated feces or surfaces.

Avian influenza outbreaks in domesticated birds are of concern for several reasons. There is potential for low pathogenic avian influenza viruses (LPAI) to evolve into strains which are high pathogenic to poultry (HPAI), and subsequent potential for significant illness and death among poultry during outbreaks. Because of this, international regulations state that any detection of H5 or H7 subtypes (regardless of their pathogenicity) must be notified to the appropriate authority. It is also possible that avian influenza viruses could be transmitted to humans and other animals which have been exposed to infected birds, causing infection with unpredictable but sometimes fatal consequences.

When an HPAI infection is detected in poultry, it is normal to cull infected animals and those nearby in an effort to rapidly contain, control and eradicate the disease. This is done together with movement restrictions, improved hygiene and biosecurity, and enhanced surveillance.

Humans - Avian flu viruses, both HPAI and LPAI, can infect humans who are in close, unprotected contact with infected poultry. Incidents of cross-species transmission are rare, with symptoms ranging in severity from no symptoms or mild illness, to severe disease that resulted in death. As of February, 2024 there have been very few instances of human-to-human transmission, and each outbreak has been limited to a few people. All subtypes of avian Influenza A have potential to cross the species barrier, with H5N1 and H7N9 considered the biggest threats.

In order to avoid infection, the general public are advised to avoid contact with sick birds or potentially contaminated material such as carcasses or feces. People working with birds, such as conservationists or poultry workers, are advised to wear appropriate personal protection equipment.

Other animals - a wide range of other animals have been affected by avian flu, generally due to eating birds which had been infected. There have been instances where transmission of the disease between mammals, including seals and cows, may have occurred.

1959–1997

 * A highly pathogenic strain of H5N1 caused flu outbreaks in 1959 in Scotland in chickens.
 * In 1997, in Hong Kong, 18 humans were infected and 6 died in the first known case of H5N1 infecting humans. Subsequently 1.3 million chickens were culled in the territory of Hong Kong. The government also suspended the import of chickens from mainland China.

2003

 * In 2003 the first cases in humans since 1997 were diagnosed. Three people in one family were infected after visiting Fujian province in mainland China and 2 died.
 * By midyear of 2003 outbreaks of poultry disease caused by H5N1 occurred in Asia, but were not recognized as such. In December animals in a Thai zoo died after eating infected chicken carcasses. Later that month H5N1 infection was detected in 3 flocks in the Republic of Korea.

2004

 * In January 2004 a major new outbreak of H5N1 surfaced in Vietnam and Thailand's poultry industry, and within weeks spread to ten countries and regions in Asia, including Indonesia, South Korea, Japan and China.
 * Variants have been found in a number of domestic cats, leopards, and tigers in Thailand, with high lethality. "The Thailand Zoo tiger outbreak killed more than 140 tigers, causing health officials to make the decision to cull all the sick tigers in an effort to stop the zoo from becoming a reservoir for H5N1 influenza.

2005

 * In January 2005 an outbreak of avian influenza affected thirty three out of sixty four cities and provinces in Vietnam, leading to the forced killing of nearly 1.2 million poultry.
 * In April 2005 there begins an unprecedented die-off of over 6,000 migratory birds at Qinghai Lake in central China over three months. Later in the year H5N1 was detected in Kazakhstan, Mongolia and Russia, Turkey, Romania, Croatia and Kuwait.
 * H5N1 was found to be infecting pigs in Indonesia, but without causing symptoms.

2006

 * In the first two months of 2006 H5N1 spread to India, north Africa, and Europe in wild bird populations.

 * February/March 2006 - A dead cat infected with the H5N1 bird flu virus was found in Germany.

2007

 * Significant outbreaks recorded in Japan, Hungary, Russia, United Kingdom, Pakistan, Turkey, Afghanistan, Myanmar, Bangladesh, Saudi Arabia, Ghana, Malaysia, Germany, Czech Republic, Togo, France and India.

2008 to 2019
Many more outbreaks are recorded, in almost every country in the world, affecting both wild birds and poultry, with occasional spillover events infecting humans.

Mammalian infections
In October 2022 an outbreak of H5N1 on a Spanish mink farm showed evidence of being the first recorded case of mammal-to-mammal transmission, with 4 percent of the farm's mink population dying from H5N1-related haemorrhagic pneumonia. This coincided with H5N1 detections in the area among gulls and other seabirds, which are the presumed source of the outbreak.

A mass Caspian seal die-off in December 2022, with 700 infected seals found dead along the Caspian Sea coastline of Russia's Dagestan republic, worried researchers regarding the possibility that wild mammal-to-mammal spread had begun. A similar mass die-off of 95% of southern elephant seal pups in 2023 also raised concerns of mammal-to-mammal spread, as nursing pups would have had less exposure to birds.

In April 2024, spread of H5N1 amongst dairy cow herds in nine states of the USA strongly indicated the presence of cow-to-cow transmission possibly occurring while the animals were being milked. Although mortality in bovines infected with H5N1 is rare, viable virus can be shed in the milk. Around 50% of cats that lived on the affected dairy farms and were fed unpasteurised milk from symptomatic cows died within a few days from severe systemic influenza infection, raising significant concerns of cross-species mammal-to-mammal transmission.

H5N1 transmission studies in ferrets (2011)
Novel, contagious strains of H5N1 were created by Ron Fouchier of the Erasmus Medical Center in Rotterdam, the Netherlands, who first presented his work to the public at an influenza conference in Malta in September 2011. Three mutations were introduced into the H5N1 virus genome, and the virus was then passed from the noses of infected ferrets to the noses of uninfected ones, which was repeated 10 times. After these 10 passages the H5N1 virus had acquired the ability of transmission between ferrets via aerosols or respiratory droplets.

After Fouchier offered an article describing this work to the leading academic journal Science, the US National Science Advisory Board for Biosecurity (NSABB) recommended against publication of the full details of the study, and the one submitted to Nature by Yoshihiro Kawaoka of the University of Wisconsin describing related work. However, after additional consultations at the World Health Organization and by the NSABB, the NSABB reversed its position and recommended publication of revised versions of the two papers. However, then the Dutch government declared that this type of manuscripts required Fouchier to apply for an export permit in the light of EU directive 428/2009 on dual use goods. After much controversy surrounding the publishing of his research, Fouchier complied (under formal protest) with Dutch government demands to obtain a special permit for submitting his manuscript, and his research appeared in a special issue of the journal Science devoted to H5N1. The papers by Fouchier and Kawaoka conclude that it is entirely possible that a natural chain of mutations could lead to an H5N1 virus acquiring the capability of airborne transmission between mammals, and that a H5N1 influenza pandemic would not be impossible.

In May 2013, it was reported that scientists at the Harbin Veterinary Research Institute in Harbin, China, had created H5N1 strains which passed between guinea pigs.

In response to Fouchier and Kawaoka's work, a number of scientists expressed concerns with the risks of creating novel potential pandemic pathogens, culminating in the formation of the Cambridge Working Group, a consensus statement calling for an assessment of the risks and benefits of such research.

title: Influenza A virus subtype H5N1


text: Category:Literary concepts

title: Category:Literary concepts


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User talk:SammySpade

Welcome
Hello, no one else has done this, so I'd like to welcome you to Wikipedia.

Everybody has a user page and a talk page. Typically, user talk pages are used to directly communicate with other wikipedians. Traditionally, the first message is a welcome message, so this is yours.

I'm glad you seem interested in Salt Lake City, which is of continuing interest to me. I like the additions you've made to Salt Lake Media, and I'm sure JonMoore does too. Thanks for fixing mistakes, adding details, ect.

You might find these links helpful in creating new pages or helping with the above tasks: How to edit a page, How to write a great article, Naming conventions, Manual of Style. You should read our policies at some point too.

If you have any questions, see the help pages, add a question to the village pump or ask me on my talk page. I hope you enjoy editing here and being a Wikipedian!

 * If you made any edits before you got an account, you might be interested in assigning those to your username.

 * You can sign your name using three tildes, like this: . If you use four, you can add a datestamp too as in my signature below. You ought to sign your comments on talk page discussions.

 * If you ever think a page or image should be deleted, please list it at the votes for deletion page. There is also a votes for undeletion page if you want to retrieve something that you think should not have been deleted.

— Cool Hand Luke 18:56, 26 Sep 2004 (UTC) - Hi Sammy,

Welcome to the 'pedia! CHL seems to have covered the basics! Have fun!

-Jon 01:11, 28 Sep 2004 (UTC)

Orphaned non-free image (Image:KidTV3.jpg)
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title: User talk:SammySpade