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D-Link

D-Link Systems, Inc. (formerly Datex Systems, Inc.) is a Taiwanese multinational manufacturer of networking hardware and telecoms equipments. It was founded in 1986 and headquartered in Taipei, Taiwan.

History
Datex Systems was founded in 1986 in Taipei, Taiwan.

In 1992, the company changed its name to D-Link.

D-Link went public and became the first networking company on the Taiwan Stock Exchange in 1994. It is now also publicly traded on the New York Stock Exchange.

In 1988, D-Link released the industry's first peer-to-peer LANSmart Network Operating System, able to run concurrently with early networking systems such as Novell's NetWare and TCP/IP, which most small network operating systems could not do at the time.

In 2007, it was the leading networking company in the small to medium business (SMB) segment worldwide, with a 21.9% market share. In March 2008, it became the market leader in Wi-Fi product shipments worldwide, with 33% of the total market. In 2007, the company was featured in the "Info Tech 100" list of the world's best IT companies. It was also ranked as the ninth best IT company in the world for shareholder returns by BusinessWeek. In the same year, D-Link released one of the first Wi-FiCertified802.11n draft 2.0 Wi-Fi routers (DIR-655), which subsequently became one of the most successful draft 802.11n routers.

In May 2013, D-Link released its flagship draft 802.11ac Wireless AC1750 Dual-Band Router (DIR-868L), which at that point had attained the fastest-ever wireless throughput as tested by blogger Tim Higgins.

In April 2019, D-Link was named Gartner Peer Insights Customers’ Choice for Wired and Wireless LAN Access Infrastructure.

In June 2020, D-Link joined the Taiwan Steel Group.

In 2021, D-Link announced that it had become the agent for international information security brand Cyberbit in Taiwan, and it launched the new EAGLE PRO AI series transforming home Wi-Fi experiences.

In 2022, D-Link obtained the TRUSTe Privacy seal, certification of ISO/IEC 27001:2013 and BS 10012. It also obtained the GHG Part 1 certification of ISO 14064-1 2018. Moreover, D-Link established the "D-Link Group Scholarship" with National Taiwan University of Science and Technology to encourage foreign students to study in Taiwan.

Backdoors
D-Link systematically includes backdoors in their equipment that compromise its users security. One of the prominent examples is xmlset_roodkcableoj28840ybtide, which contains the substring roodkcab, which is the word backdoor written backwards.

In January 2013, version v1.13 for the DIR-100 revA was reported to include a backdoor in the firmware. By passing a specific user agent in an HTTP request to the router, normal authentication is bypassed. It was reported that this backdoor had been present for some time. This backdoor however was closed soon after with a security patch issued by the company.

In 2024-06-17 information about CVE-2024-6045 backdoor was disclosed.

Vulnerabilities
In January 2010, it was reported that HNAP vulnerabilities had been found on some D-Link routers. D-Link was also criticized for their response which was deemed confusing as to which models were affected and downplayed the seriousness of the risk. However the company issued fixes for these router vulnerabilities soon after.

Computerworld reported in January 2015 that ZynOS, a firmware used by some D-Link routers (as well as ZTE, TP-Link, and others), are vulnerable to DNS hijacking by an unauthenticated remote attacker, specifically when remote management is enabled. Affected models had already been phased out by the time the vulnerability was discovered and the company also issued a firmware patch for affected devices for those still using older hardware.

Later in 2015, it was reported that D-Link leaked the private keys used to sign firmware updates for the DCS-5020L security camera and a variety of other D-Link products. The key expired in September 2015, but had been published online for seven months. The initial investigation did not produce any evidence that the certificates were abused.

Also in 2015, D-Link was criticized for more HNAP vulnerabilities, and worse, introducing new vulnerabilities in their "fixed" firmware updates.

On 5 January 2017, the Federal Trade Commission sued D-Link for failing to take reasonable steps to secure their routers and IP cameras. As D-Link marketing was misleading customers into believing their products were secure. The complaint also says security gaps could allow hackers to watch and record people on their D-Link cameras without their knowledge, target them for theft, or record private conversations. D-Link has denied these accusations and has enlisted Cause of Action Institute to file a motion against the FTC for their "baseless" charges. On 2 July 2019, the case was settled with D-Link not found to be liable for any of the alleged violations. D-Link agreed to continue to make security enhancements in its software security program and software development, with biennial, independent, third-party assessments, approved by the FTC.

On January 18, 2021, Sven Krewitt, researcher at Risk Based Security, discovered multiple pre-authentication vulnerabilities in D-Link's DAP-2020 Wireless N Access Point product. D-Link confirmed these vulnerabilities in a support announcement and provided a patch to hot-fix the product's firmware.

In April 2024, D-Link acknowledged a security vulnerability that affected all hardware revisions of four models of network attached storage devices. Because the products have reached their end of service life date, the company stated in a release that the products are no longer supported and that a fix would not be offered.

Server misuse
In 2006, D-Link was accused of NTP vandalism, when it was found that its routers were sending time requests to a small NTP server in Denmark, incurring thousands of dollars of costs to its operator. D-Link initially refused to accept responsibility. Later, D-link products were found also to be abusing other time servers, including some operated by the US military and NASA. However, no malicious intent was discovered, and eventually D-Link and the sites owner Poul-Henning Kamp were able to agree to an amicable settlement regarding access to Kamp's GPS.Dix.dk NTP Time Server site, with existing products gaining authorized access to Kamp's server.

GPL violation
On 6 September 2006, the gpl-violations.org project prevailed in court litigation against D-Link Germany GmbH regarding D-Link's inappropriate and copyright infringing use of parts of the Linux kernel. D-Link Germany GmbH was ordered to pay plaintiff's costs. Following the judgement, D-Link agreed to a cease and desist request, ending distribution of the product, and paying legal costs.

title: D-Link


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Sundøy

Sundøy or Sundøya is a village in the municipality of Leirfjord in Nordland county, Norway. The village is located about 5 km south of the village of Leland. Sundøya has a population of about 120 people. It is located on the north side of the Vefsnfjorden on the northeastern part of the island of Alsta, east of the Seven Sisters mountains, which isolate it from the rest of the island. Since Sundøy is surrounded by mountains and water, it was only accessible by boat until 2003 when the Sundøy Bridge was built, providing a road connection to the mainland of Leirfjord.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Sundøy


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Wikipedia talk:Today's featured article/September 29, 2004

I am seriously concerned about this being on the front page. Firstly, it has no references - and this is most definitely an article that needs some references. There must be plenty of information out there that people have used to contribute to this article. Without the references, I jsut don't see how we're showing that we are based on integrity when it comes to citing sources. Also, the page redirects to Adoption in Rome... but only refers to Adoption in Ancient Rome. Why was this changed? That doesn't make sense as the article doesn't talk about modern Rome and adoption! Until these things can be sorted out, could we not use this as a front page article? - Ta bu shi da yu 13:43, 28 Sep 2004 (UTC)
 * References were not a featured article criteria until very recently; and, while raising the bar for featured articles is typically a good thing, it is generally not meant to be retroactive. →Raul654 19:39, Sep 28, 2004 (UTC)


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Me (mythology)

In Sumerian mythology, a me (Sumerian: me; paršu) is one of the decrees of the divine that is foundational to Sumerian religious and social institutions, technologies, behaviors, mores, and human conditions that made Mesopotamian civilization possible. They are fundamental to the Sumerian understanding of the relationship between humanity and the gods.

Mythological origin and nature
The mes were originally collected by Enlil and then handed over to the guardianship of Enki, who was to broker them out to the various Sumerian centers, beginning with his own city of Eridu and continuing with Ur, Meluhha, and Dilmun. This is described in the poem, "Enki and the World Order" which also details how he parcels out responsibility for various crafts and natural phenomena to the lesser gods. Here the mes of various places are extolled but are not themselves clearly specified, and they seem to be distinct from the individual responsibilities of each divinity as they are mentioned in conjunction with specific places rather than gods. After a considerable amount of self-glorification on the part of Enki, his daughter Inanna comes before him with a complaint that she has been given short shrift on her divine spheres of influence. Enki does his best to placate her by pointing out those she does in fact possess.

There is no direct connection implied in the mythological cycle between this poem and that which is our main source of information on the mes, "Inanna and Enki: The Transfer of the Arts of Civilization from Eridu to Uruk", but once again Inanna's discontent is a theme. She is the tutelary deity of Uruk and desires to increase its influence and glory by bringing the mes to it from Eridu. She travels to Enki's Eridu shrine, the E-abzu, in her "boat of heaven", and asks the mes from him after he is drunk, whereupon he complies. After she departs with them, he comes to his senses and notices they are missing from their usual place, and on being informed what he did with them attempts to retrieve them. The attempt fails and Inanna triumphantly delivers them to Uruk.

The Sumerian tablets never actually describe what any of the mes look like, but they are clearly represented by physical objects of some sort. Not only are they stored in a prominent location in the E-abzu, but Inanna is able to display them to the people of Uruk after she arrives with them in her boat. Some of them are indeed physical objects such as musical instruments, but many are technologies like "basket weaving" or abstractions like "victory". It is not clarified in the poem how such things can be stored, handled, or displayed.

Not all of the mes are admirable or desirable traits. Alongside functions like "heroship" and "victory" are "the destruction of cities", "falsehood", and "enmity". The Sumerians apparently considered such evils and sins an inevitable part of humanity's experience in life, divinely and inscrutably decreed, and not to be questioned.

List of mes
Although more than one hundred mes appear to be mentioned in the latter myth, and the entire list is given four times, the tablets upon which it is found are so fragmentary that we have only a little over sixty of them. In the order given, they are:

 * 1) ENship
 * 2) Godship
 * 3) The exalted and enduring crown
 * 4) The throne of kingship
 * 5) The exalted sceptre
 * 6) The royal insignia
 * 7) The exalted shrine
 * 8) Shepherdship
 * 9) Kingship
 * 10) Lasting ladyship
 * 11) "Divine lady" (a priestly office)
 * 12) Ishib (a priestly office)
 * 13) Lumah (a priestly office)
 * 14) Guda (a priestly office)
 * 15) Truth
 * 16) Descent into the nether world
 * 17) Ascent from the nether world
 * 18) Kurgarra (a eunuch, or, possibly, ancient equivalent to modern concepts of androgyne or transgender)
 * 19) Girbadara (a eunuch)
 * 20) Sagursag (a eunuch, entertainers related to the cult of Inanna)
 * 21) The battle-standard
 * 22) The flood
 * 23) Weapons (?)
 * 24) Sexual intercourse
 * 25) Prostitution
 * 26) Law (?)
 * 27) Libel (?)
 * 28) Art
 * 29) The cult chamber
 * 30) "hierodule of heaven"
 * 31) Gusilim (a musical instrument)
 * 32) Music
 * 33) Eldership
 * 34) Heroship
 * 35) Power
 * 36) Enmity
 * 37) Straightforwardness
 * 38) The destruction of cities
 * 39) Lamentation
 * 40) Rejoicing of the heart
 * 41) Falsehood
 * 42) Art of metalworking
 * 43) Scribeship
 * 44) Craft of the smith
 * 45) Craft of the leatherworker
 * 46) Craft of the builder
 * 47) Craft of the basket weaver
 * 48) Wisdom
 * 49) Attention
 * 50) Holy purification
 * 51) Fear
 * 52) Terror
 * 53) Strife
 * 54) Peace
 * 55) Weariness
 * 56) Victory
 * 57) Counsel
 * 58) The troubled heart
 * 59) Judgment
 * 60) Decision
 * 61) Lilis (a musical instrument)
 * 62) Ub (a musical instrument)
 * 63) Mesi (a musical instrument)
 * 64) Ala (a musical instrument)

title: Me (mythology)


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Laborer

A laborer (or labourer) is a skilled trade, a person who works in manual labor types, especially in the construction and factory industries. Laborers are in a working class of wage-earners in which their only possession of significant material value is their labor. Industries employing laborers include building things such as roads, road paving, buildings, bridges, tunnels, pipelines civil and industrial, and railway tracks. Laborers work with blasting tools, hand tools, power tools, air tools, and small heavy equipment, and act as assistants to other trades as well such as operators or cement masons. The 1st century BC engineer Vitruvius writes that a good crew of laborers is just as valuable as any other aspect of construction. Other than the addition of pneumatics, laborer practices have changed little. With the introduction of field technologies, the laborers have been quick to adapt to the use of this technology as being laborers' workforce.

Tools and equipment
The following tools are considered a minimum for a laborer to keep with them: hammer, pliers w/ side-cutters, utility knife, tape measure, locking pliers, crescent wrench, screwdriver, margin trowel, carpenter's pencil or soapstone, tool belt and one pouch (bag). In addition: a five gallon bucket with additional tools, toolbelt suspenders, water jug and lunchbox are recommended.

Most safety equipment that is consumed or work specific, for example hard hat, safety glasses, hearing protection, gloves, fall protection, high-visibility clothing, concrete boots, respirator/dust mask and toe guards are provided by the employer as part of construction site safety.

Personal safety equipment, for example, full leather boots (some long-time laborers believe steel toes are dangerous on the construction site; it is better to have crushed toes than toes cut off by the crushed steel - a belief proven wrong by several studies ), high-strength pants - canvas or denim (some modify thighs with a sacrificial second layer of jean fabric cut from an old pair) - socks, lip balm, and climate-specific outerwear, are provided by the individual (unless laborers are instructed to work in a climate different from what they typically reside in, for example, high elevation).

Types of work
Some of the work done by laborers includes:

 * concrete – shotcrete, gunite, grouting and formwork
 * demolition – concrete cutting, pavement breaking, cutting and removal of interior building parts (framing members, doors, windows, wiring, piping, etc.)
 * environmental remediation and hazardous waste
 * fences and landscaping
 * Mowing and keeping construction site free of weeds
 * street sweeping
 * Cleaning of the construction site and trash removal
 * Setting up temporary lights, heaters and other things needed on site
 * hod carrier – masonry, plasterers and fireproofing
 * paving – white paving formwork, traffic control, striping, signs
 * piping – water pipe, sewer and storm drain
 * field technology
 * general digging and grading
 * tunnels – drilling and blasting
 * Dry utilities – Electrical and communications conduit
 * loading and offloading – handling of physical goods, such as construction materials

Pay
As a manual labor occupation, to attract free workers the wages paid to laborers are higher than those paid in general to unskilled workers (see dirty, dangerous and demeaning). In the United States, a union laborer earns equal or greater than most work available to anyone with a bachelor's degree. This is one of a few fields where someone without a high school diploma can still earn a living wage. Union, heavy construction and highway construction laborers earn on average (2008 US) $25.47/h compared to 13.72/h for non-union laborers. In addition to paid earnings, union laborers enjoy the benefits of medical insurance, vacation pay, pension plans, representation and vocational schools; totaling $45/hr (2012 US) and some with special skills earn 'over-rate' wages. It is not uncommon for young civil engineers, construction managers and construction engineers typical salary of (2007 US$) 40,000 to 60,000 to fall short of their union laborers average wages of 50,000 to 80,000.

However, unlike engineers, laborers are not usually employed full-time year-round and face significant hazards. The additional pay laborers receive is often balanced out by the lesser unemployment checks they receive while out of work and the disability checks they receive while injured—often debilitated for life. That is if unemployment and injury insurance is provided, which is often not the case unless they are labor union members. Engineers are also not immune to being out of work. In heavy civil work, some are employed on a project basis and mental injuries due to stress are a different but debilitating hazard. Because of the wide range of skills and ability to simply provide muscle, laborers often earn side-work as independent contractors and under-the-table work.

In construction, the pay for laborers is low enough that planning problems can be solved by "throwing laborers at it." This can become a toxic and dangerous brew of unplanned work that slides forward on the blood and sweat of hard-working laborers—injury rates often soar. The value of work put in place by laborers and the value of avoided rework and increased efficiencies produced by the engineers' planning is a balance of resource utilization on any large project.

Hazards and conditions
There are dangers associated with laboring. Many laborers are severely injured or killed in accidents each year while performing work duties. Many who work as laborers for even a short period of time will suffer from permanent work injuries such as: hearing loss, arthritis, osteoarthritis, back injuries, eye injury, head injury, chemical burn (lime sensitivity), lung disease, missing fingernails and skin scars. Alcoholism, drug use, and drug abuse are common although most companies require drug screening for all new hires. If a laborer is injured on the job they are immediately given a drug test. If the test results are positive then they are ineligible for any Workers' compensation benefits. There is a gray area for the use of marijuana due to medical marijuana prescriptions. Some who have been dismissed for failing a drug test while possessing a prescription have been later reinstated with pay as having been wrongfully terminated.

Collective bargaining
The Laborers' International Union of North America (LIUNA) represents laborers on public and private projects in North America. Some of the business representatives are laborers who have been so severely injured they can no longer labor. With a phone call and a good reason they will be on-site the next morning asking questions and demanding apologies for mistreatment of laborers.

title: Laborer


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Talk:ZX Spectrum character set

Moved from the former Talk:SPECSCII page:

Nomenclature
While this article seems okay the name SPECSCII is entirely fictional. Would be better to rename it Spectrum character set. DamienG 13:50, Sep 28, 2004 (UTC)

 * So are PETSCII (for CBM Character Set) and ATASCII (for Atari Character Set), I believe. I have no objection to such changes, though. I just think, if there should be a change, then the article should be copied to Spectrum Character Set, and the contents of SPECSCII deleted and replaced with a redirect to it. But do as you see right; I have experience with a previous wiki but I've only just registered on Wikipedia, so I'm not afraid of corrections from more experienced members. The article is linked to from PETSCII and ATASCII. --Shlomital 17:55, 2004 Sep 28 (UTC)

 * I actually think both ATASCII and PETSCII are official or quasi-official designations from Atari and CBM, respectively (100% sure for ATASCII, need to check a little further re CBM's ). Also, the names were used quite consistently in third-party books and in the trade press (computer mags), and so were well established by the systems' user community as the most common names. As you probably know, the names PET ASCII and CBM ASCII were also used for PETSCII. I've never heard of SPECSCII, but I'm not overly familiar with the Speccy scene. --Wernher 20:47, 28 Sep 2004 (UTC)

 * I have copied the contents of the SPECSCII page and pasted onto a new page Spectrum Character Set. The SPECSCII page can now be deleted or redirected, at your discretion. I decided to do this because, although the term SPECSCII may have been a shorthand for the Spectrum Character Set, it never gained as much momentum as either PETSCII or ATASCII. All links to the article fixed as well. --Shlomital 20:58, 2004 Sep 28 (UTC)

 * Re the movement of the SPECSCII article: I took the liberty of changing its name (moving it again) to ZX Spectrum character set to enforce 1) preciseness, and 2) Wikipedia article naming standard -- capital letters for proper names only. --Wernher 21:05, 28 Sep 2004 (UTC)

 * Much better. Might be worth noting that two of the user-defined-graphics positions in the character set are replaced with the keywords PLAY and SPECTRUM on 128K models too.  DamienG 12:07, Sep 29, 2004 (UTC)

 * Which ones? I'll need the numbers in order to include that information in the article. I've tried checking with my own emulator in 128K mode, but I couldn't get past the main menu (where it says "Tape Loader" and "128K Basic"). --Shlomital 13:33, 2004 Sep 29 (UTC)

Threads started in Talk:ZX Spectrum character set:

None started yet
none started yet

Wurdu and Urdu
Does anyone remember a very early word processor for Urdu called "Wurdu" that ran on the Spectrum? Developed somewhere around Leeds / Bradford AFAIR. Does anyone have any refs, or the faintest notion of how it encoded Urdu text for storage? Thanks Andy Dingley (talk) 13:35, 25 November 2008 (UTC)

Character Table may need cleanup
The character set table is flagged as "may require cleanup to meet Wikipedia's quality standards." If somebody can point out in what way it needs cleanig up, I'll do it.

Once thing I will do is tweek the 0x column entries, as it says left/right/down/up, etc., without the clarification that these are keypresses, not character output actions.

User:JGHarston 16-Jan-2010. —Preceding undated comment added 21:11, 16 January 2010 (UTC).

Character Table may need cleanup redux
The only thing I can find looking at other character tables and the character table template is that the table should be numbered crossways not downwards. That would be unsuitable for the Spectrum chcracter table as there are so many entries that are words (tokens), which would give an unsuitably wide table. Consequently, I have removed the 'may need cleanup' tag.

User:JGHarston 23-Apr-2010. —Preceding undated comment added 11:52, 23 April 2010 (UTC).

refimprove and original research tagging
The bulk of this article can be verified from the ZX Basic Manual (a reliable source on ZX Basic, surely?) of which a copy is available at World of Spectrum (free redistribution permission has been given by Amstrad plc.); World of Spectrum is considered by most Sinclair hobbyists to be reliable. There are a few unverified claims, which I have tagged rather than removed because I gather them to be true but don't have references for them. However, the article does not have an original research problem, being chiefly a recension of information in the aforementioned manual; I have thus removed the OR tag from the list of issues. PT 09:26, 30 September 2011 (UTC)

The point about character code 0x0E used to trick the program to have the listing displaying some number and the execution take another value can be checked in early Speedlock games (many of them are available on World of Spectrum). The listing showed something like POKE PEEK 0 + 0 * PEEK 0, PEEK 0 but when looking at the values after the 0x0E bytes, you could read the real addresses (in the 23000-24000 range which is where the system variables are present) and the 256 constant. More info can be found in the analysis of Speedlock by Jon North in Your Sinclair issue 61 -- Vapula 22:36 8 October 2015

Tokens
Was it possible to write the character values for the tokens to the screen without interpretation? If so, what happened? — Preceding unsigned comment added by 82.139.81.0 (talk) 18:03, 28 May 2014 (UTC)

 * No, that's not possible. 86.130.249.236 (talk) 20:31, 27 October 2014 (UTC)

 * Unrecognised characters are generally printed as a question mark, though: e.g. PRINT CHR$ 30 prints  2A00:23C5:FE18:2700:3C33:8A17:1A91:8985 (talk) 05:07, 3 April 2022 (UTC)

External links modified
Hello fellow Wikipedians,

I have just added archive links to 1 one external link on ZX Spectrum character set. Please take a moment to review my edit. You may add after the link to keep me from modifying it, if I keep adding bad data, but formatting bugs should be reported instead. Alternatively, you can add to keep me off the page altogether, but should be used as a last resort. I made the following changes:
 * Attempted to fix sourcing for http://www.wearmouth.demon.co.uk/zx82.htm

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Cheers.—cyberbot II  Talk to my owner :Online 02:34, 31 March 2016 (UTC)

title: Talk:ZX Spectrum character set


text:
Talk:George Lyttelton, 1st Baron Lyttelton

Why this article was originally entitled "George Lyttelton": baronetcies in the Hanoverian era were somewhat transient. Since he was the first baron, the title was known after him, but not before, and he spent his whole life as George Lyttelton, with the baronetcy tacked on late. Would Robert Walpole be more naturally sought by students as Robert Walpole, 1st Earl of Orrery? Not that I disagree with the move, but there was reason to my choice of article name. So long as the redirect keeps working (and no other George Lyttelton gets an article that seizes the redirect), we're fine. Geogre 13:51, 28 Sep 2004 (UTC)
 * (Oh, and grr, folks. I don't know much, but I know punctuation, and one uses apostrophes to distinguish plurals of ordinals and acronymns.  Thus, if one had more than one BMW automobile, they would be "BMW's."  Additionally, the decade of the 1971 to 1980 is the "1970's."  This is a rule, and it's a good rule.  It's so that the s is not considered part of the number, just as the apostrophe after the BMW is to keep one from thinking that it's a BMW-ess.  The Wikipedia style sheet is wrong.  One uses apostrophes after numbers.) Geogre 01:57, 11 Oct 2004 (UTC)

Burial
Some one has added a "burial" category, without adding a statement as to his burial to the text, and certainly without providing a reference. Can this be resolved please? The text only identifies him as an alumni of Christchurch, Oxford. Peterkingiron (talk) 16:42, 17 June 2009 (UTC)
 * That was me. Apologies for the lack of a reference: I'll try to take a picture of the stone, but his tomb is in Christ Church Cathedral. Feel free to remove it in the meantime. I didn't mention it because it didn't really seem relevant to the text, but the category applies. I can add something at the end of the entry if necessary. Phettyplace (talk) 3:26, 18 June 2009 (UTC)
 * That is fine: suitable addition now made. Peterkingiron (talk) 21:07, 18 June 2009 (UTC)

Spelling - Lyttleton vs Lyttelton
I have a 2nd Ed of "The Beauties of Shakespear" (sic) published in 1757 which is "To the Houourable Sir George Lyttleton, One of the Lords-Commiſſioners of the Treaſury", Does anyone know why the name is now referred to as Lyttelton? Hippodras (talk) 17:20, 12 November 2013 (UTC)
 * I do not know. The use of the spelling Lyttelton has been consistent over a long period, including for the title that George was later given, which implies that it was his preference.  However, this is a counter-intuitive spelling, the spelling Little being expected;  hence frequent misspellings.  I supect that your book has a printer's error.  Another family with the same ultimate ancestry sells the name Littleton (see Baron Hatherton).  Peterkingiron (talk) 18:35, 12 November 2013 (UTC)


text:
Rudolf Peierls

Sir Rudolf Ernst Peierls, (5 June 1907 – 19 September 1995) was a German-born British physicist who played a major role in Tube Alloys, Britain's nuclear weapon programme, as well as the subsequent Manhattan Project, the combined Allied nuclear bomb programme. His 1996 obituary in Physics Today described him as "a major player in the drama of the eruption of nuclear physics into world affairs".

Peierls studied physics at the University of Berlin, at the University of Munich under Arnold Sommerfeld, the University of Leipzig under Werner Heisenberg, and ETH Zurich under Wolfgang Pauli. After receiving his DPhil from Leipzig in 1929, he became an assistant to Pauli in Zurich. In 1932, he was awarded a Rockefeller Fellowship, which he used to study in Rome under Enrico Fermi, and then at the Cavendish Laboratory at the University of Cambridge under Ralph H. Fowler. Because of his Jewish background, he elected to not return home after Adolf Hitler's rise to power in 1933, but to remain in Britain, where he worked with Hans Bethe at the Victoria University of Manchester, then at the Mond Laboratory at Cambridge. In 1937, Mark Oliphant, the newly appointed Australian professor of physics at the University of Birmingham recruited him for a new chair there in applied mathematics.

In March 1940, Peierls co-authored the Frisch–Peierls memorandum with Otto Robert Frisch. This short paper was the first to set out that one could construct an atomic bomb from a small amount of fissile uranium-235. Until then it had been assumed that such a bomb would require many tons of uranium, and consequently was impractical to build and use. The paper was pivotal in igniting the interest of first the British and later the American authorities in nuclear weapons. He was also responsible for the recruitment of his compatriot Klaus Fuchs to work on Tube Alloys, as the British nuclear weapons project was called, which resulted in Peierls falling under suspicion when Fuchs was exposed as a spy for the Soviet Union in 1950.

After the war, Peierls returned to the University of Birmingham, where he worked until 1963, and then was the Wykeham Professor of Physics and a Fellow of New College at the University of Oxford until he retired in 1974. At Birmingham he worked on nuclear forces, scattering, quantum field theories, collective motion in nuclei, transport theory and statistical mechanics, and was a consultant to the Atomic Energy Research Establishment at Harwell. He received many awards, including a knighthood in 1968, and wrote several books including Quantum Theory of Solids, The Laws of Nature (1955), Surprises in Theoretical Physics (1979), More Surprises in Theoretical Physics (1991) and an autobiography, Bird of Passage (1985). Concerned with the nuclear weapons he had helped to unleash, he worked on the Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists, was President of the Atomic Scientists' Association in the UK, and was involved in the Pugwash movement.

Early life
Rudolf Ernst Peierls was born in the Berlin suburb of Oberschöneweide, the youngest of three children of Heinrich Peierls an electrical engineer, from a family of Jewish merchants. His father was the managing director of a cable factory of Allgemeine Elektricitäts-Gesellschaft (AEG), and his mother was his father's first wife, Elisabeth ( Weigert). Rudolf had an older brother, Alfred, and an older sister, Annie. His mother died from Hodgkin's lymphoma in 1921, and his father married Else Hermann, the sister-in-law of the playwright Ludwig Fulda. The family was Jewish, but assimilated, and Peierls and his siblings were baptised as Lutherans. When he came of age, Peierls left the church.

Peierls commenced school a year late because he needed glasses, and his parents did not trust him not to lose them or break them. After two years at the local preparatory school, he entered his local gymnasium, the Humboldt-Gymnasium (Berlin-Tegel), where he spent the next nine years, passing his abitur examinations in 1925. He wanted to study engineering, but his parents, who doubted his practical abilities, suggested physics instead. He entered the University of Berlin, where he listened to lectures by Max Planck, Walther Bothe and Walther Nernst. Fellow students included Kurt Hirsch and Käte Sperling. The physics laboratory classes were overcrowded, so the first year students were encouraged to take theoretical physics courses instead. Peierls found that he liked the subject.

In 1926 Peierls decided to transfer to the University of Munich to study under Arnold Sommerfeld, who was considered to be the greatest teacher of theoretical physics. Fellow students there included Hans Bethe, Hermann Brück and William V. Houston. At the time, the Bohr-Sommerfeld theory was being overturned by the new quantum mechanics of Werner Heisenberg and Paul Dirac. In 1928, Sommerfeld set off on a world tour. On his advice, Peierls moved to the University of Leipzig, where Heisenberg had been appointed to a chair in 1927.

Heisenberg set Peierls a research project on ferromagnetism. It was known that this was caused by the spin of the electrons in the metal aligning; but the reason for this was unknown. Heisenberg suspected that it was caused by a quantum mechanical effect, caused by the Pauli exclusion principle. Peierls was unable to develop the theory, but work on Hall effect was more productive. The anomalous Hall effect could not be explained with the classical theory of metals, and Heisenberg sensed an opportunity to demonstrate that quantum mechanics could explain it. Peierls was able to do so, resulting in his first published paper.

Heisenberg left in 1929 to lecture in America, China, Japan and India, and on his recommendation Peierls moved on to ETH Zurich, where he studied under Wolfgang Pauli. Pauli set him a problem of investigating the vibration of atoms in a crystal lattice. Peierls explored—and named—the phenomenon of umklapp scattering. He submitted this work as his DPhil thesis, Zur kinetischen Theorie der Wärmeleitung in Kristallen (On the Kinetic Theory of Heat Conduction in Crystals), which was accepted by the University of Leipzig in 1929. His theory made specific predictions of the behaviour of metals at very low temperatures, but another twenty years would pass before the techniques were developed to confirm them experimentally.

Early career
Peierls accepted an offer from Pauli to become his assistant in place of Felix Bloch. Lev Landau was there at this time on a scholarship from the government of the Soviet Union, and Peierls and Landau became friends. They collaborated on deriving a series of wave equations similar to the Schrödinger equation for photons. Unfortunately, their equations, while complicated, were nonsensical. In 1930, Peierls travelled to the Netherlands to meet Hans Kramers, and to Copenhagen to meet Niels Bohr.

In August 1930 Pauli and Peierls attended a physics congress in Odessa and met a young physics graduate, Eugenia (Genia) Nikolaievna Kannegiesser, who, like Landau, came from Leningrad. Since he did not speak Russian and she did not speak German, they conversed in English. During a subsequent visit by Peierls to lecture in Leningrad they were married on 15 March 1931. However, she had to wait for a passport and exit visa. They finally left for Zürich that summer. They had four children: Gaby Ellen (b.1933), Ronald Frank (b.1935), Catherine (Kitty; b.1948), and Joanna (b.1949).

Peierls assisted Egon Orowan in understanding the force required to move a dislocation which would be expanded on by Frank Nabarro and called the Peierls–Nabarro force. In 1929, he studied solid-state physics in Zurich under the tutelage of Heisenberg and Pauli. His early work on quantum physics led to the theory of positive carriers to explain the thermal and electrical conductivity behaviours of semiconductors. He was a pioneer of the concept of "holes" in semiconductors. He established "zones" before Léon Brillouin, despite Brillouin's name being currently attached to the idea, and applied it to phonons. Doing this, he discovered the Boltzmann equations for phonons and the umklapp process. He submitted a paper on the subject for his habilitation, acquiring the right to teach at German universities. Physics Today noted that "His many papers on electrons in metals have now passed so deeply into the literature that it is hard to identify his contribution to conductivity in magnetic fields and to the concept of a hole in the theory of electrons in solids".

Academic in exile
In 1932, Peierls was awarded a Rockefeller Fellowship to study abroad, which he used to study in Rome under Enrico Fermi, and then at the Cavendish Laboratory at the University of Cambridge in England under Ralph H. Fowler. In Rome, Peierls completed two papers on electronic band structure, in which he introduced the Peierls substitution, and derived a general expression for diamagnetism in metals at low temperatures. This provided an explanation of the hitherto mysterious properties of bismuth, in which diamagnetic properties were more pronounced than in other metals.

Due to Adolf Hitler's rise to power in Germany, he elected to not return home in 1933, but to remain in Britain. He declined an offer from Otto Stern of a position at the University of Hamburg. Granted leave to remain in Britain, he worked at the Victoria University of Manchester with funding from the Academic Assistance Council, which had been set up to help academic refugees from Germany and other fascist countries. Most of his immediate family also left Germany; his brother and his family settling in Britain, and his sister and her family, along with his father and stepmother, moved to the United States, where his uncle Siegfried lived.

Peierls collaborated with Bethe on photodisintegration and the statistical mechanics of alloys when challenged by James Chadwick. Their results still serve as the basis for mean-field theories of structural phase changes in complete alloys. Although most of his work continued to be about the electron theory of metals, he also looked at Dirac's hole theory, and co-wrote a paper with Bethe on the neutrino. The University of Manchester awarded him a D.Sc. degree. Moving back to Cambridge, he worked with David Shoenberg at the Mond Laboratory on superconductivity and liquid helium. To allow him to lecture, in accordance with its rules, St John's College, Cambridge, awarded him an ex officio M.A. degree. In 1936, Mark Oliphant was appointed the professor of physics at the University of Birmingham, and he approached Peierls about a new chair in applied mathematics that he was creating there. (Applied mathematics being what would today be called theoretical physics.) Peierls got the job despite competition from Harrie Massey and Harry Jones (Physicist). The appointment at last gave Peierls a secure, permanent position. His students included Fred Hoyle and P. L. Kapur, a student from India. With Kapur he derived the dispersion formula for nuclear reactions originally given in perturbation theory by Gregory Breit and Eugene Wigner, but now included generalising conditions. This is now known as the Kapur–Peierls derivation. It is still used, but in 1947 Wigner and Leonard Eisenbud developed a more widely used alternative method. In 1938, Peierls paid visits to Copenhagen, where he collaborated with Bohr and George Placzek on a paper on what is now known as the Bohr–Peierls–Placzek relation. The Second World War broke out before it could be published; but drafts were circulated for comment, and it became one of the most cited unpublished papers of all time.

Frisch–Peierls memorandum
After the outbreak of the Second World War in September 1939, Peierls started working on nuclear weapons research with Otto Robert Frisch, a fellow refugee from Germany. Ironically, they were excluded from the work on radar at the University of Birmingham because it was considered too secret for scientists who were enemy aliens. Peierls was naturalised as a British subject on 27 March 1940. He was eager to participate in the fight against fascism and militarism, but the only organisation that would accept him was the Auxiliary Fire Service. He accepted an offer from the University of Toronto to send his two children to live with a family in Canada.

In February and March 1940, Peierls and Frisch co-authored the Frisch–Peierls memorandum, which Peierls typed. This short paper was the first to establish that an atomic bomb could be created from a small amount of fissile uranium-235. Based on the information at hand, they calculated that less than 1 kg would be required. The true figure for the critical mass is about four times as large; but until then it had been assumed that such a bomb would require many tons of uranium, and consequently was impractical to build and use. They went on to estimate the size of the explosion, and its physical, military and political effects.

The Frisch–Peierls memorandum was pivotal in igniting the interest of first the British and later the American authorities in atomic weapons. In 1941 its findings made their way to the United States through the report of the MAUD Committee, an important trigger in the establishment of the Manhattan Project and the subsequent development of the atomic bomb. With the Frisch-Peierls memorandum and the MAUD Committee report, the British and American scientists were able to begin thinking about how to create a bomb, not whether it was possible.

As enemy aliens, Frisch and Peierls were initially excluded from the MAUD Committee, but the absurdity of this was soon recognised, and they were made members of its Technical Subcommittee. This did not mean that they were cleared for radar work. When Oliphant made the services of his secretary available for typing up the Peierl's and Frisch's papers for the MAUD Committee in September 1940, they were not allowed to enter the Nuffield Building where she worked, so Peierls submitted them for typing by dictaphone on wax cylinders. Frisch and Peierls thought at first that uranium enrichment was best achieved through thermal diffusion, but as the difficulties with this approach became more apparent they switched to gaseous diffusion, bringing in a fellow refugee from Germany, Franz Simon, as an expert on the subject. Peierls also recruited yet another refugee from Germany, Klaus Fuchs, as his assistant in May 1941.

Manhattan Project
As a result of the MAUD Committee's findings, a new directorate known as Tube Alloys was created to coordinate the nuclear weapons development effort. Sir John Anderson, the Lord President of the Council, became the minister responsible, and Wallace Akers from Imperial Chemical Industries (ICI) was appointed the director of Tube Alloys. Peierls, Chadwick and Simon were appointed to its Technical Committee, which was chaired by Akers. Its first meeting, in November 1941, was attended by two American visitors, Harold Urey and George B. Pegram. Later that year, Peierls flew to the United States, where he visited Urey and Fermi in New York, Arthur H. Compton in Chicago, Robert Oppenheimer in Berkeley, and Jesse Beams in Charlottesville, Virginia. When George Kistiakowsky argued that a nuclear weapon would do little damage as most of the energy would be expended heating the air, Peierls, Fuchs, Geoffrey Taylor and J. G. Kynch worked out the hydrodynamics to refute this.

The signing of the Quebec Agreement on 19 August 1943 merged Tube Alloys with the Manhattan Project. Akers had already cabled London with instructions that Chadwick, Peierls, Oliphant and Simon should leave immediately for North America to join the British Mission to the Manhattan Project, and they arrived the day the agreement was signed. Simon and Peierls were attached to the Kellex Corporation, which was engaged in the K-25 Project, designing and building the American gaseous diffusion plant. While Kellex was located in the Woolworth Building, Peierls, Simon and Nicholas Kurti had their offices in the British supply mission on Wall Street. They were joined there by Tony Skyrme and Frank Kearton, who arrived in March 1944. Kurti returned to England in April 1944 and Kearton in September. Peierls moved on to the Los Alamos Laboratory in February 1944; Skyrme followed in July, and Fuchs in August.

At Los Alamos, the British Mission was fully integrated into the laboratory, and British scientists worked in most of its divisions, being excluded only from plutonium chemistry and metallurgy. When Oppenheimer appointed Bethe as the head of the laboratory's prestigious Theoretical (T) Division, he offended Edward Teller, who was given his own group, tasked with investigating Teller's "Super" bomb. Oppenheimer then wrote to the director of the Manhattan Project, Brigadier General Leslie R. Groves, Jr, requesting that Peierls be sent to take Teller's place in T Division. Peierls arrived from New York on 8 February 1944, and subsequently succeeded Chadwick as head of the British Mission at Los Alamos.

Peierls also became leader of T-1 (Implosion) Group, and so was responsible for the design of the explosive lenses used in the implosion-type nuclear weapon to focus an explosion onto a spherical shape. He sent regular reports to Chadwick, the head of the British Mission to the Manhattan Project, in Washington, DC. When Groves found out, he asked Peierls to send him reports too. Peierls was one of those present at the Trinity nuclear test on 16 July 1945. He returned to England in January 1946. For his services to the nuclear weapons project, he was appointed a Commander of the Order of the British Empire in the 1946 New Year Honours, and was awarded the US Medal of Freedom with Silver Palm in 1946.

Espionage
Peierls was responsible for the recruitment of Fuchs to the British project, an action which was to result in Peierls falling under suspicion when Fuchs was exposed as a Soviet spy in 1950. In 1999, The Spectator garnered outrage from Peierls's family when it published an article by journalist Nicholas Farrell that alleged that Peierls was a spy for the Soviet Union. The article was based on information supplied by intelligence historian Nigel West, who identified Peierls as the spy codenamed "Fogel" and later "Pers" in the Venona intercepts, and his wife Genia as the spy codenamed "Tina". However, the association of Tina with Genia did not fit with what was known about Tina, and she was conclusively revealed to be Melita Norwood in 1999. Nor did Peierls fit Pers, as the latter worked at the Clinton Engineer Works, whereas Peierls did not.

There were good reasons for the postwar intelligence agencies to suspect Peierls. He not only had recruited Fuchs, and served as his "sponsor" on recruitment and security matters, but had pressed the authorities for Fuchs to be given a full security clearance without which he could not have assisted Peierls in his work. Fuchs lived with the Peierls family for a time. Peierls had a Russian wife, as did his brother, and he maintained close contact with colleagues in the Soviet Union before and after the Second World War.

While not a communist like Fuchs, Peierls was known to have left-wing political views, and had colleagues with similar views. He was denied a visa to visit the United States to attend a Nuclear Physics Conference in Chicago in 1951. A similar request the following year was granted, but in 1957 the Americans expressed concerns about him, indicating that they were unwilling to share information with the Atomic Energy Research Establishment at Harwell while he remained as a consultant.

Post-war

Physicists were in demand after the war, and Peierls received offers from several universities. He seriously considered an offer of a position at Cambridge from William Lawrence Bragg, but decided to return to Birmingham. He worked on nuclear forces, scattering, quantum field theories, collective motion in nuclei, transport theory, and statistical mechanics. Peierls had largely left solid state physics behind when, in 1953, he began collecting his lecture notes on the subject into a book. Reconsidering the way that the atoms in metal crystals are arranged, he noted an instability. This became known as the Peierls transition.

Peierls built up the physics department at Birmingham by attracting high quality researchers. These included Gerald E. Brown, Max Krook, Tony Skyrme, Dick Dalitz, Freeman Dyson, Luigi Arialdo Radicati di Brozolo, Stuart Butler, Walter Marshal, Stanley Mandelstam and Elliott H. Lieb. An undergraduate school of mathematical physics was created. Peierls delivered the lectures on quantum mechanics, a subject that had not been taught at Birmingham before the war.

In 1946 Peierls became a consultant to the Atomic Energy Research Establishment at Harwell. After Fuchs was dismissed from his position there as head of the Theoretical Physics Division in 1950, Maurice Pryce acted in the position in a part-time capacity, but when he went to America for a year on sabbatical, Peierls took his place. The position was finally filled permanently by Brian Flowers. Peierls resigned from Harwell in 1957 due to what he saw as a lack of openness in security vetting at the request of the Americans, which he felt indicated a lack of trust in him on the part of senior staff; but he was invited to rejoin in 1960, and did so in 1963, remaining as a consultant for another 30 years.

Peierls became the Wykeham Professor of Physics at the University of Oxford in 1963. He remained there until he retired in 1974. He wrote several books including Quantum Theory of Solids (1955), The Laws of Nature (1955), Surprises in Theoretical Physics (1979), More Surprises in Theoretical Physics (1991) and an autobiography, Bird of Passage (1985). Concerned with the nuclear weapons he had helped to unleash, he worked on the Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists, was President of the Atomic Scientists' Association in the UK, and was involved in the Pugwash movement, and FREEZE, now known as Saferworld.

Genia died on 26 October 1986. Peierls remained active, although his eyesight deteriorated. In 1994, he suffered a combination of health problems, including heart, kidney and lung problems, and relocated himself to Oakenholt, a nursing home near Farmoor, Oxfordshire. He liked to read scientific papers in enlarged script on a computer screen. During 1995, his health continued to decline, and he required regular kidney dialysis sessions at Churchill Hospital, where he died on 19 September 1995.

Honours
Peierls was knighted in the 1968 Birthday Honours. He was awarded the Rutherford Memorial Medal in 1952, the Royal Medal in 1959, the Lorentz Medal in 1962, the Max Planck Medal in 1963, the Guthrie Medal and Prize in 1968, the Matteucci Medal in 1982, and the Enrico Fermi Award from the United States Government for exceptional contribution to the science of atomic energy in 1980.

In 1986, he was awarded the Copley Medal, and delivered the Rutherford Memorial Lecture, and in 1991 he was awarded the Dirac Medal and Prize. On 2 October 2004, the building housing the sub-department of Theoretical Physics at the University of Oxford was formally named the Sir Rudolf Peierls Centre for Theoretical Physics.

title: Rudolf Peierls


text:
Winchester '73

Winchester '73 is a 1950 American Western film noir directed by Anthony Mann and starring James Stewart, Shelley Winters, Dan Duryea and Stephen McNally. Written by Borden Chase and Robert L. Richards, the film is set in 1876 in a variety of famed Western locations and follows the journey of a prized rifle from one ill-fated owner to another, as well as a cowboy's search for a murderous fugitive. It is the first Western film collaboration between Mann and Stewart, the first of eight films that they made together, and was filmed in black and white. It is also the first film from which an actor received a percentage of the receipts, a practice known as "points", as compensation.

Among the film's cast of supporting actors, Rock Hudson portrays a Native American, and Tony Curtis plays a besieged cavalry trooper, both in minor roles at the beginning of their careers.

The film received a Writers Guild of America Award nomination for Best Written American Western. In 2015, the United States Library of Congress selected the film for preservation in the National Film Registry, finding it "culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant".

Plot
Lin McAdam and Frankie Wilson are searching for Dutch Henry Brown, with whom Lin has a personal score to settle. They find him in a saloon in Dodge City, Kansas, but cannot fight due to the presence of Sheriff Wyatt Earp. Lin enters the town's Centennial shooting contest for a prized Winchester 1873 rifle. Lin wins and goes to his room at the boarding house to pack. There, Dutch ambushes him, steals the rifle and rides away with two cohorts.

Arriving at Riker's Bar, they find Native American trader Joe Lamont, who sees the prized Winchester and becomes determined to own it. He raises the prices of his guns and ammunition supply so high that Dutch and his men cannot afford to buy any. Dutch's only option is to trade the rifle for Lamont's three hundred dollars in gold, plus their pick of weapons. Dutch makes the trade and tries to get the rifle back by gambling the three hundred in a poker game against Lamont, but loses.

Lamont takes his guns to meet Native American buyers, but their leader Young Bull prefers the prized Winchester. When Lamont refuses to sell it, he is robbed and scalped.

Meanwhile, former saloon girl Lola is in a wagon with her fiancé Steve Miller traveling toward a new home. Pursued by Young Bull and his warriors, they realize that they will not be able to outrun them. Panicking, Steve jumps on his horse and rides off to find help. Not far ahead, Steve sees a small encampment of soldiers. He races back for Lola, and together they make it into the soldiers' camp. That night, Lin and Wilson, chased by the same Native Americans, also ride into the encampment.

The soldiers are new to the territory. Lin gives their sergeant tactical advice for fighting Native Americans, and they prepare for an attack expected early the next morning. After a fierce battle in which Young Bull is killed, the Native Americans leave, and Lin and High-Spade depart to continue searching for Dutch. Unknowingly, they ride past the coveted Winchester where Young Bull had dropped it when he fell. It is found by a trooper, and the Sergeant gives it to Steve.

Steve and Lola reach the Jameson house, which is set to become theirs. He wants her to stay with the Jamesons while he goes to meet outlaw Waco Johnny Dean, but Waco and his men arrive unexpectedly, chased by a posse that surrounds the house. When Waco sees the Winchester, he too covets it. He provokes Steve into a gunfight and kills him. Waco and Lola escape the posse and ride to Dutch's hideout. Dutch claims that the rifle is his and forces Waco to return it.

The gang goes to Tascosa, Texas, to commit a robbery. They are joined by Lin and Wilson. Waco attempts to shoot Lin and is killed, while around them, the robbery goes awry and Lola is wounded. Wilson reveals to Lola that Dutch is Lin's brother, and that Dutch had robbed a bank and a stagecoach and returned to the family home, hoping to hide out. When their father refused to help him, Dutch shot him in the back, and Lin has sworn revenge.

Lin confronts Dutch on a rocky hill and calls him by his real name, Matthew. They shoot it out on the hill, and Lin kills him, reclaiming the Winchester.

Production
The film was originally intended to have been directed by Fritz Lang, but Universal did not want Lang to produce the film through his own company, Diana Productions. Lang's idea was for the rifle to be Stewart's character's only source of strength and his only excuse for living, making the quest for his rifle a matter of life and death.

With Lang out of the picture, Universal produced the film with up-and-coming Anthony Mann, Stewart's choice (he had admired The Furies), directing. Mann had Borden Chase rewrite the script to instead make the rifle a bone of contention, showing it passing contentiously through the hands of a variety of people.

Mann said, "I didn't like the property; I didn't like Winchester at all. This was Lang's version. I was working at Metro and everybody was pressuring me to make the film and I said, 'T'd like to make the film, if you let me rewrite it completely. I want a new writer, new everything; I don't want the property the way it is.' Finally, after a lot of haranguing, they agreed that I could do that and I brought in Borden Chase and we started from scratch on the script and it developed day by day."

Stewart had wished to make Harvey for Universal-International, but the studio could not afford his $200,000 salary ($ in today's dollars), so studio head William Goetz offered to allow Stewart to make both Harvey and Winchester '73 for a percentage of the profits, spread over some time and at a lower capital gain tax rate than a single payment to Stewart would be. Stewart's agent Lew Wasserman was able to get his client 50 percent of the profits, eventually amounting to $600,000 from the film's unexpected success. Stewart's deal also gave him control of the director and co-stars. It is acknowledged as the first confirmed time in the sound era that a film actor received some of the movie's receipts as compensation, a practice now called "points".

Casting
Stewart was already cast in the part of Lin McAdam and spent a lot of time practicing with the rifle so that he would look like an authentic Westerner. As Mann later related, "[Stewart] was magnificent walking down a street with a Winchester rifle cradled in his arm. And he was great too actually firing the gun. He studied hard at it. His knuckles were raw with practicing... It was those sorts of things that helped make the film look so authentic, gave it its sense of reality." An expert marksman from the Winchester company, Herb Parsons, did the trick shooting required for the film and assisted Stewart with his training.

Shelley Winters was cast as a dance-hall girl. Winters did not understand the film, nor think much of her part in it, saying, "Here you've got all these men... running around to get their hands on this goddamn rifle instead of going after a beautiful blonde like me. What does that tell you about the values of that picture? If I hadn't been in it, would anybody have noticed?"

The part of Wyatt Earp was given to Will Geer, who was not alone by feeling that he was miscast for the role. Millard Mitchell was cast as High-Spade Frankie Wilson. That same year, Mitchell appeared in The Gunfighter starring Gregory Peck. He would appear in another Stewart-Mann Western The Naked Spur (1953) as a grizzled old prospector.

Jay C. Flippen appears as cavalry sergeant Wilkes. He would also appear in the second Stewart-Mann Western Bend of the River (1952) with Rock Hudson, who appears in Winchester '73 as a Native American.

The Stewart and Mann collaboration established a new persona for Stewart, more violent and disillusioned than ever before, but still likable.

Locations
Winchester '73 was filmed at:
 * Mescal, Arizona, U.S.
 * Old Tucson, 201 S. Kinney Road, Tucson, Arizona, U.S.
 * Backlot, Universal Studios, 100 Universal City Plaza, Universal City, California, U.S.

Reception
As part of the publicity campaign for the release of the film, Universal Pictures sponsored a contest, by placing magazine ads, to find some of the rare remaining "One of One Thousand" Model 1873 Winchester rifles. This resulted in many previously unknown original rifles being brought into the spotlight, and drew public interest to the field of antique gun collecting. The winner of the contest received a new Winchester Model 1894 rifle, for the Model 1873 was out of production at that time.

The film was a financial success, turning a significant profit. It has since gained a reputation as a classic of the Western genre, and durably helped to redefine the public perception of James Stewart.

Contemporary critics are enthusiastic. Writing for the Telegraph, Martin Chilton gave the movie 5 stars out of 5, and described the film as "the first in a series of Western masterpieces". In Empire, William Thomas calls the film "the marvellously-scripted story of a man and a gun". He also awarded 5 stars out of 5. The film holds a 100% rating on Rotten Tomatoes, based on 27 reviews, with an average of 8.5/10.

Honors
The film received a Writers Guild of America Award nomination for Best Written American Western. In 2015, the United States Library of Congress selected the film for preservation in the National Film Registry, finding it "culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant".

Remake
Winchester '73 was remade as a made-for-TV film in 1967 featuring Tom Tryon, John Saxon, Dan Duryea, John Drew Barrymore, Joan Blondell, John Dehner and Paul Fix. The remake was directed by Herschel Daugherty, with cinematography by Bud Thackery.

title: Winchester '73


text:
Talk:European Free Trade Association

Category
Okay categorization issue. It seems to me that placing EFTA under the categories of all its member states goes against the usual way of categorizing international organizations in Wikipedia. European Union for example isn't categorized under all 25 of its member-state categories, and NATO isn't categorized likewise under all its member-state categories. And so forth.

Since EFTA is directly EU-related on the other hand I'm gonna change the categories of Category:Iceland Category:Norway Category:Switzerland Category:Liechtenstein to that of Category:European Union

Aris Katsaris 13:54, 28 Sep 2004 (UTC)
 * Well that is just wrong, EFTA is not directly EU-related at all. The EEA is where these organizations cooperate but onw EFTA member is outside EEA. --Bjarki 11:57, 29 October 2005 (UTC)

Reasons for being outside of the EU
I would love to see some attempt at explaining why these four nations have excluded themselves from the EU. I saw (for example) some explanation in an early-2004 The Economist survey of Switzerland, focusing on domestic party politics. (Please excuse this novice comment; I'll understand if you treat it as such.)

 * Well, Norway has not joined the EU because the majority of the people do not want it, notwithstanding the view of the main parties. Iceland's economy is hardly compatible with EU-membership. Switzerland is a country where the autonomy of the cantons is stronger than the EU member countries. And Liechtenstein is closely intervowen with Switzerland, plus it is a micro-state on hand with Andorra, Monaco and San Marino.

FTA agreements
It would be interesting to see a list of the free trade agreements EFTA has made with non-EU countries. A Norwegian economist claimed some years ago that staying in EFTA and the EEA benefitted Norway more economically than joining the EU. This because the EEA in most businesses gives the same economical benefits as being a EU member, and in addition EFTA got several free trade agreements with non-EU. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 84.27.95.199 (talk) 12:24, 15 October 2007 (UTC)

Does EFTA have a CET?
Is EFTA a Customs Union? Alinor 10:28, 2 December 2007 (UTC)

EFTA FTA's map / Western Sahara issue
The map is wrong, the Western Sahara territory is excluded from the FTA with Morocco. Please change it or tell me how. Regards.--HCPUNXKID (talk) 18:46, 13 May 2010 (UTC)
 * Your assertion itself is wrong. It may be that EFTA may be effectively interpreted to exclude W. Sahara - the sourced article from a highly partisan source includes only political statement, there is no clear sourcing as to Administrative or Treaty Law. Nor is it clear that the Norwegian ministerial statement is binding or followed by other EFTA main signatories. Asserting blandly that it is NOT covered is incorrect as a matter of fact. (collounsbury (talk) 23:17, 16 September 2010 (UTC))
 * As the EFTA states do not recognize Morocco sovereignty over Western Sahara we would need a source in order to claim that it is included - not the vice versa. Alinor (talk) 14:30, 21 January 2011 (UTC)

Costs and fees
European_Economic_Area says Norway and other EFTA members pay fees to the EU for the right to freely trade with the EU but how much are the fees and how are they calculated ? Rod57 (talk) 02:19, 2 December 2010 (UTC)
 * They are calculated in similar way to the EU membership fees for its member states. That's way EEA (and even Switzerland) are called "virtual EU members" - they share many of the obligations and benefits. They are only nominally outside - but in this way they have less influence on EU decisions - some of which are binding on them automatically. Alinor (talk) 14:33, 21 January 2011 (UTC)

Languages
It looks to me as if someone has just mentioned the official languages of the member states. But the institution's website is only in English, which suggests to me that English is the only official (perhaps only de facto official) language of the organisation. — Preceding unsigned comment added by Timtranslates (talk • contribs) 14:36, 9 March 2011 (UTC)

Update: The style manual says the "official working language" is (British English). See p22: http://www.efta.int/~/media/Files/Publications/EFTA-LanguageManual.ashx — Preceding unsigned comment added by Timtranslates (talk • contribs) 14:43, 9 March 2011 (UTC)

Political history
The first paragraph under the political history header is hard to understand. The first few sentences are fragmentary and later sentences refer to events that predate earlier sentences, leading to confusion of time and causation. I don't know enough about the topic to fix the paragraph, so I'm bringing it up here. --Khajidha (talk) 16:31, 13 March 2012 (UTC)

Leaving EFTA
The wording of the section on Membership History implies that several EFTA member states left EFTA because they joined the European Community (or the EU). Is there really cause-and-effect there? In other words, is it compulsory to leave EFTA on joining the EC/EU, or is it just impractical to be a member of both? If it's not compulsory, perhaps the wording could be changed to something like "Country X joined the EU in Year Y, and left EFTA in the same year". Thanks in advance for any answers. Valentino76 (talk) 00:12, 4 May 2012 (UTC)

GDP
The 'Per capita' nominal value HAS to be wrong.

It says: - 	Total 	$1138.8 billion

- 	Per capita 	$58,714

Total/(Per capita) = 19,395,714

There's no that many people in those countries. Either value is wrong. The PPP value, on the other hand, seems more consistent.

Assuming the amount of people used for the PPP calculation (13,908,717, which is also different from the one in this page), the nominal value would be $81,876; using the value in "Population", it would be $85,048. Feel free to fix this, I'm not familiarized with wiki editing (also, sorry for the few edits, I will think of the preview next time).

Spelling of names on documents
I removed this, since it is clearly an editor's own idea [although it seems to make sense!], see 'wp:Wikipedia is not a guide'. "It might be recommended, especially if traveling to countries which are English-speaking or use a non-European language, such as the United States, to use the exact spelling used in the machine-readable zone for the airline ticket or ESTA, and refer to this zone if being asked questions."

Wikipedia is not the place to make such proposals. --John Maynard Friedman (talk) 00:45, 9 February 2016 (UTC)

Faroes
I think it's a null point to claim that because the Faroes are not a state in their own right they are not able to become a member of EFTA. The Faroes are a constituent part of the Kingdom of Denmark—which is a state. Just like the Kingdom of Denmark has joined the EU, only in respect on Denmark (also not a state), presumably it could join EFTA, only in respect of the Faroes (and there is a citation supporting this). I suspect the convention is stating that non-state entities cannot be independently party to the agreement because they are not responsible for there own international representation. Rob984 (talk) 09:59, 12 February 2016 (UTC)

Danlaycock, I don't know how you can't see the clear synthesis in the wording you reverted to:

 * It is legally possible that the "Kingdom of Denmark in respect of the Faroes" could join the EFTA, though the Danish Government has stated that the Faroes' could not become an independent member of the EEA because Denmark is already a party to the EEA Agreement.

Is this incorrectly inferring because the Faroes' could not become an independent member of the EEA, it means they cannot join EFTA? Or just arbitrarily linking together two statements to make a point?

 * ...according to Article 56 of the EFTA Convention, only states may become members of the EFTA, and the Faroes' is a constituent country of the Danish Realm, not a state.

Again, linking two statements to infer something not supported by the sources. The Faroes' are part of a state just like Denmark is.

Rob984 (talk) 10:17, 12 February 2016 (UTC)

 * Sorry for just getting around to responding to this, as I've been quite busy.
 * I'm not sure what you mean by your "null point" comment. That this is obviously true so doesn't need to be said?  I disagree, as I doubt few of our readers are very familiar with the Faroes' constitutional status.  I agree that the KoD could join on it's behalf (which is why I wrote the following sentence explaining just that), but without some context explaining why that legal maneuver is required, readers are left with an extended discussion on the legal technicalities of how the Faroes could circumvent their constitutional status and the EFTA constitution to join, without any explanation for why it's necessary in the first place. Additionally, the situation is more complicated than you present.  The Faroes can and has joined some international organizations independently of the KoD (ie FIFA).  The important fact is that the EFTA constitution forbids non-states such as the Faroes from joining.
 * With regards to the sentences you object to above, for the former it certainly was not the intention to imply that, nor was it arbitrary. It is saying that independent Faroes EFTA membership via the KoD would not be a viable mechanism for independent Faroes EEA membership, which if you read the source is what is argued by the MFA of the Faroes.  I'm really not sure how you are seeing the implication that you are, but if you'd like to rephrase to avoid it then I have no objection to that.
 * On the second sentence, you're really splitting hairs. The MFA source says "it follows from the EEA agreement that membership is only available to States which are either members of EFTA or the EU. Under its constitutional status the Faroes cannot become an independent Contracting Party to the EEA Agreement due to the fact that the Faroes are not a state."  That is explicitly saying that the Faroes constitutional status prevents it from satisfying the EEA membership criteria, one of which is becoming an EFTA member state.  Regardless, when claiming to remove this due to "original synthesis" you replaced it with
 * " As the Faroes' are a constituent country of the Danish Realm, it is proposed that the "Kingdom of Denmark in respect of the Faroes" could join the EFTA."
 * Here you imply that the reason the KoD would join EFTA on behalf of the Faroes is because the Faroes is a constituent country, though nothing along these lines is ever suggested in the source. So your wording actually requires much greater original research and synthesis than mine.  TDL (talk) 06:32, 22 February 2016 (UTC)

 * It is supported in this paragraph, is it not?

 * Pursuant to section 1(4) of the Foreign Policy Powers Act, the Faroes cannot participate  in  a  cooperation/organisation  of   which  the  Kingdom  of   Denmark  already  is  a  Member,  nor  become  a  contracting  party  to  agreements negotiated within such organisations. The Kingdom of  Denmark is one subject under international law, and the Faroes and Denmark cannot be parties to  the  same  agreement.  Thus,  the  Constitutional  Act  of   the  Kingdom  of  Denmark  does  not  e.g.  allow  Denmark  to  be  represented  as  both  the  “EU Member State Denmark” and “the Kingdom of  Denmark in respect of  the Faroes” in the same agreement. Hence, the Faroese foreign policy powers are first and foremost determined by the Constitutional Act of the Kingdom of Denmark, and not by international law.

 * The source does not directly link EEA membership to viability of EFTA membership. Like I have said, EFTA is a common market in its own right. I don't understand why we cannot cover these in two separate sentences (being two separate, be related, issues) like the source does?
 * Anyway, I think it could do with being more precise overall.
 * Rob984 (talk) 11:50, 22 February 2016 (UTC)
 * The source you cite explains why the Kingdom on behalf of the Faroes could not become an EEA member. It doesn't explain why the Faroes' constitutional status as a constituent country requires that the Kingdom become a member of the EFTA on behalf of the Faroes, which is what you implied in the sentence I quoted above.
 * Are you talking about splitting the first sentence you quoted above? The linkage there is between EFTA membership and viability of EEA membership, not the other way around.  It seems sensible to present it this way, as EFTA membership is a prerequisite for EEA membership, but I don't have a problem splitting it if you prefer.  TDL (talk) 04:29, 23 February 2016 (UTC)

The United Kingdom a future member?
I would think it would be likely the UK would re-join EFTA if it left the EU. Like Switzerland it would probably have some kind bilaterally agreement with the EU; albeit without all the provisions of EEA membership. Further research needed of course. Rob984 (talk) 00:34, 25 February 2016 (UTC)
 * Per WP:CRYSTAL, let's cross that bridge when/if we come to it. (It would be an odd outcome though! to end up paying almost as much as we do now but without participating in the budget setting, have to comply with European Union Directives having had no hand or part in specifying them, be part of the Schengen Agreement, continue to accept free movement, lose access to the common market for services [esp financial] –  and the rest). --John Maynard Friedman (talk) 00:26, 26 February 2016 (UTC)
 * You're forgetting that EEA/EU single market participation is not required for EFTA. EFTA essentially just allows for EU single market access (such as by having the EFTA Court and the EFTA Surveillance Authority), which is why they considered related. So the UK could join EFTA simply to have free trade with the other member states of EFTA, and be part of a five-state trade bloc in international negotiations on trade agreements. That is essentially all EFTA was before 1994, including when the UK was a member I am only suggesting it could be mentioned in the European Free Trade Association, if anyone finds reliable sources discussing the matter. Rob984 (talk) 13:00, 26 February 2016 (UTC)
 * I wrote something on this here based on this UK Parliamentary Research Paper. Given that it's been official discussed as a possible path, I'd agree that a couple sentences would be appropriate in the Future section.  TDL (talk) 13:37, 26 February 2016 (UTC)

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Critcisms?
So no criticisms how interesting... — Preceding unsigned comment added by 108.171.128.174 (talk) 10:34, 15 June 2017 (UTC)

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Sentence deleted from lede
I deleted The establishment of EFTA was initiated by the United Kingdom, which became its largest member by far, and the organisation was often seen as a British-led competing trade bloc to the Franco–German-led EEC. [the citation needed tags are mine], because it is not supported by any citations and does not summarise any content in the body. Feel free to reinstate when these concerns have been fixed. --John Maynard Friedman (talk) 16:29, 4 October 2017 (UTC)

Avoid removing Catalonia
I added Catalonia in the list of possible future members of EFTA, as is currently is widely spoken and written in Catalan newspapers.

http://www.naciodigital.cat/noticia/55468/efta/assegura/catalunya/independent/viable

http://electomania.es/catalunya-se-plantearia-integrarse-en-la-efta/

https://www.curiositats.cat/que-es-la-efta/

https://www.meneame.net/m/actualidad/catalunya-plantearia-integrarse-efta

It is a fact that the possibility is open, so Catalonia should be added in an an eventual future or possible future candidate to become a member of EFTA. If you want to delete it, please contribute to this talk. — Preceding unsigned comment added by Kosimo (talk • contribs) 07:43, 6 October 2017 (UTC)
 * This is wildly contrary to WP:CRYSTAL. In the real world, it is still fantasy. I shall delete but you can replace if a reliable source describes it as credible. --John Maynard Friedman (talk) 16:04, 22 December 2017 (UTC)
 * I see it has already been done. The reason to do so remains. --John Maynard Friedman (talk) 16:06, 22 December 2017 (UTC)

Remove Svalbard and Jan Mayen from member map?
I can not do this muself, as I am not sire of the technicalities, but Svalbard and Jan Mayen does not have much to do with EFTA and probably should be removed from the membership map. 155.4.193.84 (talk) 01:46, 22 December 2017 (UTC)
 * I didn't know Svalbard and Jan Mayen had much happening anyway. But surely they are Norwegian territories and therefore technically within EFTA. — Cheers, Steelpillow (Talk) 09:44, 22 December 2017 (UTC)
 * I checked some agreements, and from what I can tell you are right. They're just excempt from pretty much everything EFTA does (e.g. the EEA), but still a member as Norway.95.195.211.56 (talk) 21:33, 22 December 2017 (UTC)

A Commons file used on this page has been nominated for speedy deletion
The following Wikimedia Commons file used on this page has been nominated for speedy deletion: You can see the reason for deletion at the file description page linked above. —Community Tech bot (talk) 05:21, 11 September 2018 (UTC)
 * Eftalogo1960.jpg

Switzerland–European Union relations
An IP editor wishes to change the existing text to say that Switzerland has a multilateral agreement with each of the EU member states individually, rather than (as well as?) bilateral ones with the EU as a whole. Apart from a hand-waving comment that asserts that the evidence is already in the article (location not specified), no citation is given for this claim. The article Switzerland–European Union relations says
 * "In 1994, Switzerland and the EU started negotiations about a special relationship outside the EEA. Switzerland wanted to safeguard the economic integration with the EU that the EEA treaty would have permitted, while purging the relationship of the points of contention that had led to the people rejecting the referendum. Swiss politicians stressed the bilateral nature of these negotiations, where negotiations were conducted between two equal partners and not between 16, 26, 28 or 29, as is the case for EU treaty negotiations."

and in the Switzerland–European Union relations section of the article, we have "Bilateral I agreements (signed 1999, in effect 1 June 2002)" and "Bilateral II agreements (signed 2004, in effect gradually between 2005 and 2009)". Bilateral, not multilateral.

The IP editor may well be correct but we need explicit citations to support such a substantial change. I will be very happy to drop my objection when this is done. 𝕁𝕄𝔽 (talk) 17:02, 23 September 2023 (UTC)

 * I have never claimed Switzerland concluded an agreement "with each of the EU member states individually". There is one agreement the contracting parties to which are the EU, each of its member states,and Switzerland. -- — Preceding unsigned comment added by 2001:9e8:56b1:8600:1982:f244:6c04:a288 (talk) 19:01, 24 September 2023 (UTC)
 * Ah, yes, I see what you mean and yes, you do have a point. However, I don't think it is a multilateral agreement in the conventional sense, such as that made between the members of EFTA at its foundation. In this case, no new agreement is created between, say, Finland and Portugal. And the agreement was not voided due to Brexit. Conversely, I accept, it is not a simple bilateral agreement in the conventional sense either. Are all EU agreements expressed like this (with a long recital of the list of members), such as the one with Turkey for example? I have to admit that I'm struggling to find the words to describe this arrangement that stops short of a long-winded legalistic tract that would be inappropriate for a generalist readership. Have you any better suggestions? --𝕁𝕄𝔽 (talk) 23:34, 24 September 2023 (UTC)
 * More fundamentally, it is your personal interpretation of 22002A0430(01) to declare it multilateral and that is contrary to Wikipedia policy WP:synthesis. If the Swiss government was at pains to emphasise that it was a bilateral one, then we must accept that unless you can produce a wp: reliable source that supports your opinion. If not, it cannot be allowed to stand. --𝕁𝕄𝔽 (talk) 13:12, 25 September 2023 (UTC)

If an agreement is all about policy areas the EU has exclusive competence to legislate for that agreement is usually bilateral (between the EU and a third country). However, if an agreement includes policy areas the EU and its member states share competence to legislate for that agreement is always multilateral (between the EU, its member states, and a third country). Some of the agreements regulating the relations between Switzerland and the EU, too, happen to be bilateral. Others are multilateral. It always depends on what the agreement is about. The agreement on free movement of persons is a multilateral one. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 2001:9E8:56B7:BF00:1982:F244:6C04:A288 (talk) 13:36, 25 September 2023 (UTC)

It is not my "personal interpretation" of anything. It's just any dictionary's definition of those words. An agreement involving two parties is bilateral whereas an agreement involving three or more parties is multilateral. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 2001:9E8:56B7:BF00:1982:F244:6C04:A288 (talk) 13:45, 25 September 2023 (UTC)
 * Yes, the "free movement" case is indeed one where the agreement was multilateral, for the reason of competence as you say. But that doesn't justify changing the whole paragraph to say "multilateral" when most of the agreements are bilateral. Conversely, of course, it would be wrong to continue to say "bilateral" when this important exception exists. So Switzerland has a set of multilateral agreements with the EU and its member states instead. and Switzerland has a set of bilateral agreements with the EU and its member states instead are both false because each overstates the case. Would you care to propose a new sentence (or two) that gives due weight to each context? --𝕁𝕄𝔽 (talk) 14:21, 25 September 2023 (UTC)
 * On reflection, I don't think that this is true: "free movement" is one of the Four Freedoms and is an EU competency, not a national one. --𝕁𝕄𝔽 (talk) 14:57, 25 September 2023 (UTC)

title: Talk:European Free Trade Association


text:
Middle-earth Enterprises

Middle-earth Enterprises, formerly known as Tolkien Enterprises, is a subdivision of the Embracer Freemode division of Embracer Group and formerly a trade name for a division of The Saul Zaentz Company. The subdivision owns the worldwide exclusive rights to certain elements of J. R. R. Tolkien's two most famous literary works: The Hobbit and The Lord of the Rings. These elements include the names of characters contained within as well as the names of places, objects and events within them, and certain short phrases and sayings from the works.

In August 2022, Embracer Group announced that it had entered into an agreement to purchase Middle-earth Enterprises from The Saul Zaentz Company.

Background and history
J. R. R. Tolkien, the author of The Hobbit and The Lord of the Rings, sold the film, stage and merchandising rights of those works to United Artists in 1969. They in turn sold them to The Saul Zaentz Company in 1976, which in turn formed Tolkien Enterprises, now named Middle-earth Enterprises, in 1977. United Artists retained distribution rights.

In 1977, Rankin/Bass licensed the rights to produce an animated version of The Hobbit, which was broadcast on NBC. In 1978, Tolkien Enterprises and the distributor United Artists funded and released an animated version of The Lord of the Rings directed by Ralph Bakshi, which covered approximately the first half of the Lord of the Rings.

In 1999, the company severed their licensing agreement with Iron Crown Enterprises (ICE) for role-playing games set in Middle-earth after ICE ceased developing new products for this line. This contributed to ICE filing for bankruptcy in 2001. Tolkien Enterprises then made a new licensing agreement with Decipher Inc. for their The Lord of the Rings Roleplaying Game, which published content from 2002 to 2006.

Initially, Miramax was backing the production of Peter Jackson's The Lord of the Rings films in 1997, but was restricted by then-owner Disney, who demanded that they turn the story into one film instead of two films, thus Jackson brought the project to New Line Cinema, who acquired the rights to develop The Lord of the Rings and The Hobbit from Miramax for about $12 million. (Miramax retained a 5% stake in the gross.) Principal photography for Jackson's The Lord of the Rings film trilogy was conducted concurrently in New Zealand from 11 October 1999 through to 22 December 2000. Produced under license from Tolkien Enterprises and released by New Line in 2001, 2002, and 2003, the films met critical and commercial success. However, in August 2004, Tolkien Enterprises sued New Line for $20 million in unpaid royalties based on the difference between gross and net profits. An out-of-court settlement was reached in August 2005, though details were not released.

Video game rights to Tolkien's literary works were first licensed to Vivendi, which produced The Fellowship of the Ring in 2002 and The Hobbit in 2003. At around the same time licensing agreements for products relating to the films produced by Peter Jackson were obtained by Electronic Arts (EA), leading to the release of a series of games, starting with The Two Towers in 2002. In 2005, EA acquired the rights to produce games based on the literary works as well, producing further titles up to the release of The Lord of the Rings: Conquest in 2009, when the licensing agreement expired. Video game rights then passed to Warner Brothers.

In 2010, the name was changed to Middle-earth Enterprises.

In 2011, Cubicle 7 produced The One Ring Roleplaying Game, a licensed role-playing game set in Middle-earth, in collaboration with Sophisticated Games. While the game featured its own unique rules, Cubicle 7 announced on March 14, 2016, that it would create an adaptation using tabletop gaming rules compatible with Dungeons & Dragons. In 2020, Cubicle 7 lost the rights, which were then relicensed to Free League Publishing, which published the second edition of The One Ring in 2021 and announced their D&D-compatible version coming in late 2022.

In August 2022, it was announced that Middle-earth Enterprises was being purchased by Embracer Group, the parent company of THQ Nordic.

Legal disputes
In March 2012, it was reported that The Hobbit, a pub in Southampton, England, had been served with papers by Middle-earth Enterprises outlining breach of copyright over its name. The Hobbit pub continues to trade under that name as of October 2020. The Hungry Hobbit café in Birmingham, near where J. R. R. Tolkien grew up, was also threatened with legal action in 2011.

In November 2012, the Tolkien Estate, trustee and publishers sued Middle-earth Enterprises, Warner Bros., and New Line Cinema for infringing Tolkien's copyrights by producing casino and video games using his characters. The original license to Tolkien's works was limited to the right to sell "tangible" products such as "figurines, tableware, stationery items, clothing, and the like", but did not cover "electronic or digital rights, rights in media yet to be devised or other intangibles such as rights in services". Tolkien's estate claimed that the defendants' actions had caused "irreparable harm to Tolkien's legacy". The lawsuit spent five years in discovery and was settled "amicably" out of court in July 2017, before a trial was held.

Licenses
, the company's current licensees are as follows.
 * Adaptations:
 * New Line Cinema/Warner Bros. – Film rights.
 * Kevin Wallace Ltd for a stage production of The Lord of the Rings.
 * Video games:
 * 2000-2004: Sierra Entertainment - for an adaption of both of the books The Hobbit and The Lord of the Rings.
 * 2004-2009: Electronic Arts – for games based on both books in addition to the official The Lord of the Rings film trilogy license from New Line Cinema.
 * Post 2009: Warner Bros. Games – for games based on both books in addition to the official Peter Jackson's film series.
 * Daybreak Game Company – for an online role-playing game, The Lord of the Rings Online, originally developed by Turbine for Warner Bros. Interactive Entertainment
 * 2019: Daedalic Entertainment/Nacon – for the video game The Lord of the Rings: Gollum (2023)
 * 2022: North Beach Games – for the video game The Lord of the Rings: Return to Moria (2023)
 * 2022: Electronic Arts – for the mobile game The Lord of the Rings: Heroes of Middle-earth.
 * Other games:
 * Games Workshop PLC for a range of miniatures games (Middle-earth Strategy Battle Game) and Battle Games in Middle-earth magazine.
 * Game Systems International Ltd. (Games Systems Inc.) for Middle-Earth Play-By-Mail released by Game Systems Inc. and the One Ring module of Legends (PBM) released by Harlequin Games.
 * Card games:
 * Wizards of the Coast's Magic: The Gathering's The Lord of the Rings: Tales of Middle-earth (2023-)
 * Fantasy Flight Games' The Lord of the Rings: The Card Game (2011-2022)
 * Decipher's The Lord of the Rings Trading Card Game (2001-2007)
 * Iron Crown Enterprises' Middle-earth Collectible Card Game (1982-2000)
 * Roleplaying games:
 * Free League Publishing The One Ring and The Lord of the Rings Roleplaying (since 2020),
 * Cubicle 7's The One Ring Roleplaying Game and Adventures in Middle-earth (2011-2020)
 * Decipher's The Lord of the Rings Roleplaying Game (2001-2006)
 * Iron Crown Enterprises' Middle-earth Role Playing (1982-2000)
 * Mithril Miniatures for ranges of 32 mm and 54 mm scale metal miniatures.
 * US Games Systems Inc. – a Lord of the Rings based tarot card deck and game.
 * Collectibles:
 * Danbury Mint for a variety of related merchandise such as film cells, watches and goblets.
 * Lladró Comercial, S.A.
 * Royal Selangor International for a range of pewter goblets, tankards and chess pieces.

title: Middle-earth Enterprises


text:
Broadway Shopping Centre

Broadway Shopping Centre is a shopping centre in Sydney, located in the Broadway locality. It features a 500-seat Food Court and Hoyts 12-screen cinema complex along with major retailers Kmart, Coles, Target, Aldi, H&M, JB Hi-Fi, Harvey Norman, Harris Farm Markets, Rebel Sport, and over 100 specialty shops.

History
The Broadway shopping centre is located in one of the two former Grace Bros buildings on Broadway which opened in 1923, the other building now housing university student accommodation. Walker Corporation undertook the restoration of the buildings to include university student accommodation and a shopping centre in 1997. The shopping centre opened in 1998 and was owned and managed by Walker Corporation until its sale to Mirvac in December 2006. In 2007, an additional floor was added to the original centre

In 2015, major upgrades to the centre commenced, costing $55 million. The upgrades, completed in August 2016, added a revamped food court, and new fashion stores.

Incidents
On 12 February 2008, just after 1:30 pm a fire was reported due to an electrical substation fire in the lower levels of the shopping centre. No one was injured, however emergency services rescued shoppers trapped in lifts, which had no power due to the fire.

On 17 June 2012, 69 year-old centre security guard Hans Schulz (a German native) was kicked to death after disturbing two intruders - a 32-year-old man from Randwick and a woman aged 27 from Maroubra - who had broken into a Wendy's Ice Cream Kiosk on the ground floor of the building. The pair were charged with manslaughter.

On 29 April 2016, hundreds of shoppers and workers had to be evacuated, after a fire broke out on level three. =

title: Broadway Shopping Centre